IN MEMORIAM 
 BERNARD MOSES 
 
 
 
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 NEW ANALYTIC ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
NEW ANALYTIC 
 
 \ . ^'x-f 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 
 
 HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 FOE COLLEGES, ACADEMIES AND FAMILIES. 
 
 WITH QUESTIONS. 
 
 BY CALVIN CUTTER, M.D. 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVING}*. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 
 
 1873. 
 
BIOLOGY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 G 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, bj 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER, M.D., 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 
 
 BERNARD IW0SE8 
 
 IIPPIHOOTT'8 PRVP6 
 
 PHII.ADKI.PHI4 
 
TO MY AFFECTIONATE WIFE, 
 EUNICE P. CUTTER, 
 
 WHO UNTIRINGLY AIDED ME IN THE PREPARATION OF MY FORMER 
 WORK IN 1849, AND IN ITS REVISION IN 1852, 
 
 . AND TO OUR TWO SONS, 
 
 JOHN CLARENCE CUTTER AND WALTER POWERS CUTTER, 
 
 TRUSTING THAT THEY WILL SEE THAT ALL TIMELY REVISION ANJi 
 EMENDATION ARE MADE IN FUTURE, TO MEET THE DE- 
 MANDS OF INCREASING INTELLIGENCE, 
 
 THIS TREATISE IS DEDICATED BY 
 
 HUSBAND, FATHER AND AUTHOR. 
 
 885996 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE solicitation of my publishers, and the request of many 
 teachers, have induced me to review and remodel my school- 
 book on Outline Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, adapt- 
 ing it to the advanced position of teachers, schools and the 
 community. My former work was published in 1849, and 
 thoroughly revised in 1852. Several hundred thousand 
 copies of the revised edition have been published. It haa 
 been translated and published in five different languages, 
 by the missionaries in Asia and Europe. 
 
 In general arrangement, the present Treatise is modeled 
 after the former. The aim has been to improve the analysis ; 
 to bring the Chemistry and Histology to the present ad- 
 vanced state of these sciences; to make the Anatomy and 
 Physiology concise and definite, the Hygiene plain and 
 practical ; to introduce some Comparative Anatomy ; and to 
 furnish illustrating cuts, both apposite and artistic. 
 
 I am under great obligation to Joseph Leidy, M. D., of 
 Philadelphia, who kindly permitted the use of his original 
 illustrating cuts from his very valuable work upon Human 
 Anatomy; also to the works of Marshall and Owen, and 
 other scientific men, whose writings have been quoted and 
 opinions adopted. 
 
 As my physical frame is much enfeebled from wounds re- 
 ceived while surgeon in the volunteer army, I am under 
 1* 5 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 special obligations to Miss Ada L. Howard, Principal of 
 Ivy Hall, Bridgeton, N. J., not only for the ready pen, but 
 for much detailed investigation, for simplifying the abstruse 
 and erudite statements of our strictly scientific works, and 
 for bringing into close contact, relationship and harmony 
 in a word, unifying what, without skillful combination, 
 would be isolated and fragmentary. 
 
 To the educational men and women, to all desiring know- 
 ledge of themselves, physically, intellectually and morally, 
 this small volume is respectfully submitted. 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER. 
 
 WAEBBN, MASS., July, 1870. 
 
TO TEACHERS. 
 
 ALLOW me to suggest that the method of study and in- 
 struction of this work should be Analytical, with Synthetical 
 Reviews ; that the Headings of the several chapters may be 
 used as TOPICS ; that each subject should be thoroughly con 
 sidered, viewed in its relations to other subjects, and, if pos- 
 sible, investigated beyond the limits of this elementary work ; 
 that the Chemistry and Histology should receive due atten- 
 tion, as the underlying basis of the Anatomy, Physiology 
 and Hygiene ; that, as far as possible, the subject should be 
 made an object study the Chemistry, by simple experiments, 
 the Anatomy, by examinations of parts of domestic animals ; 
 also, that Outline Anatomical Diagrams or Charts are as 
 desirable as a map in History or Geography ; that, in case 
 of limited time or other necessity, the Comparative Anatomy, 
 Histology and Chemistry, one or all, may be omitted (though 
 with great loss to the pupil), and the remaining sections will 
 be wall adapted to each other. 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 8ECT CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. PAQE9 
 
 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared 11-13 
 
 2. Definitions .. 13, 14 
 
 CHAPTER II. GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 
 
 3. Colls ~ 14-17 
 
 4. Tissues 17-25 
 
 5. Membranes 25-30 
 
 CHAPTER, III. GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 6. Solids and Fluids 30-34 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 MO TORY APPARATUS. 
 CHAPTER IV. THE BONES. 
 
 7. Anatomy of the Bones 36-47 
 
 8. Histology " " 47-54 
 
 9. Chemistry " " 54,55 
 
 10. Physiology " " 55-60 
 
 11. Hygiene " " 60-66 
 
 12. Comparative Osteology 67-72 
 
 CHAPTER V. THE MUSCLES. 
 
 13. Anatomy of the Muscles 73-79 
 
 14. Histology " " 79-81 
 
 15. Chemistry " " 81,82 
 
 1C. Physiology " " 83-89 
 
 17. Hygiene " " 89-98 
 
 18. Comparative Myology 98-102 
 
 DIVISION III. 
 
 NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 19. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs 103-109 
 
 20. Histology " " " 110-116 
 
 21. Chemistry " " " 116-120 
 
 22. Physiology " " " 120-122 
 
 23. Hygiene " " " 122-131 
 
 24. Comparative Splanchnology 131-13" 
 
 A * 9 
 
10 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 SP , :CT> CHAPTER VII. ABSORPTION. PAUE8 
 
 25. Anatomy of the Absorbents 138-141 
 
 26. Histology " 141-143 
 
 27. Chemistry <; " 143,144 
 
 28. Physiology " " 144-146 
 
 29. Hygiene " " 146,147 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. THE CIRCULATION. 
 
 30. The Blood 148, 149 
 
 31. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs 150-156 
 
 32. Histology " " " 156-160 
 
 33. Chemistry " " " 160-162 
 
 34. Physiology " " 162-168 
 
 35. Hygiene " " " 168-17'2 
 
 36. Comparative Angiology , 172-175 
 
 CHAPTER IX. ASSIMILATION. 
 
 37. Assimilation, General and Special 176-181 
 
 CHAPTER X. THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 38. Anatomy of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs 182-185 
 
 39. Histology " " " " 186-188 
 
 40. Chemistry " " " " 188-190 
 
 41. Physiology " " " " 190-196 
 
 42. Hygiene " " " 197-205 
 
 43. Comparative Pueumouology 205-209 
 
 DIVISION IV. 
 
 SENSORIAL APPARATUS. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 44. Anatomy of the Nervous System.... 210-225 
 
 45. Histology " " " 225-228 
 
 46. Physiology " " " 229-240 
 
 47. Hygiene " " " 240-2o2 
 
 48. Comparative Neurology 252-259 
 
 CHAPTER XII. THE ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 49. Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense 260-281 
 
 60. Physiology " " " " 281-288 
 
 61. Hygiene " " " " 289-298 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 CARE or THE SICK 299-GOH 
 
 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES 303-306 
 
 GLOSSARY 307-317 
 
 INDEX 319-322 
 
 For Treatment of Wounds, see \ 363 For. Recovery of Drowned Persons, Bee fl 430. 
 For Treatment of Burns, see f 610. For Treatment of Frost-Bite, see fl 612. 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 1. THE THREE KINGDOMS OF NATURE COMPARED. Essential dis- 
 tinctions between the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms. 
 Nature of the Life-force. Vitalized and Non- Vitalized Bodies com- 
 pared. Plants and Animals compared. 
 
 1. " LAPIDES CRESCUNT ; VEGETABILIA CRESCUNT ET 
 VIVUNT; ANIMALIA CRESCUNT, VIVUNT ET SENTIUNT,"" 
 was the Linnsean distinction between the three great king- 
 doms of Nature. Though imperfect, it is still suggestive of 
 the boundaries of each division. The Mineral kingdom in- 
 cludes all things naturally destitute of life; the Vegetable 
 kingdom, all organizations having a certain type of life, but 
 no power to feel or to will ; the Animal kingdom, those pos- 
 sessing a higher type of life and the powers of sensation and 
 voluntary motion. 
 
 2. INORGANIC, or MINERAL bodies are made up of atoms 
 combined and arranged according to certain mechanical and 
 chemical laws. ORGANIC, or VEGETABLE and ANIMAL 
 bodies are combinations of like atoms, according to the same 
 laws controlled by Vitality or the Life-force. Plants have a 
 
 * " Stones grow ; Plants grow and live ; Animals grow, live and feel." 
 
 11 
 
12 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 
 
 vegetable vitality animal?- an ar^m<il vitality. Of the real 
 character of this life-force- vc know nothing, Nature works 
 in her inner laboratory with "^To adc^t^ance" upon her 
 door. We are at liberty to examine her products, but the 
 mighty principle upon which they are wrought she holds fast 
 as a secret unrevealable to us with our present limitations. 
 
 3. Among the Distinctions between ORGANIZED, or VITAL- 
 IZED, and UNORGANIZED, or NON-VITALIZED bodies, are the 
 following : An Organized body consists of an assemblage of 
 parts called organs, having a mutual relation to, and de- 
 pendence upon, each other ; these taken together constitute 
 an individual, a being; therefore the parts when separated 
 are incomplete, as is seen in a divided plant. Not so with 
 the Unorganized body : each fragment of a rock possesses all 
 the essential characteristics of the original mass. Organized 
 bodies, being subject to constant waste from vitalized activi- 
 ties, demand nourishment; Unorganized bodies, being per- 
 manent in their nature, require no food. Organized bodies 
 grow by means of particles of matter conveyed to their in- 
 terior and there assimilated ; Unorganized bodies increase in 
 size by simple layers upon the exterior : the former have a 
 limit in size; the latter have no natural limit. Organized 
 bodies have their period of duration : decay and death await 
 every living animal and vegetable ; but, from the nature of 
 the Inorganic world, we speak of the mountains as everlasting. 
 Organized bodies have their particles arranged in lines gene- 
 rally more or less curved, with varying angles, as in animals 
 and plants; Unorganized bodies have their lines straight, 
 with angles mathematically exact, as in the crystal of com- 
 mon salt. Organized bodies reproduce themselves, each 
 species after its own kind ; Unorganized bodies have no such 
 power of reproduction. 
 
 4. The Distinctions between ANIMALS and PLANTS are im- 
 portant. Animals take in oxygen and give out carbonic 
 acid gas; Plants take in carbonic acid gas and give out 
 oxygen. Animals subsist upon the products of the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms ; Plants, upon those of the mineral 
 
GENERAL, REMARKS. 13 
 
 kingdom. Animals, possess the power of sensation and volun- 
 tary motion ; Plants, neither. 
 
 5. These distinctions are obvious and definite in the higher 
 grades ; but in the descending scale we recognize a gradual 
 approach of plants and animals to each other, and likewise 
 to the mineral kingdom ; so that, in the lower forms of life, 
 all perceptible traces of organization disappear, and, like 
 converging radii, the three kingdoms of Nature blend in one 
 common centre. 
 
 \ 2. DEFINITION OF TERMS. 
 
 6. An organized body consists of parts called Or'gans. 
 A collection of organs so arranged that their combined 
 actions shall produce a given result is called an Apparatus. 
 The definite, peculiar use of an organ or apparatus is called 
 its Function : Example. The digestive apparatus consists of 
 the organs teeth, stomach, liver, etc. whose combined func- 
 tions result in the digestion of food. 
 
 The description of the form and position of these organs 
 is called ANAT'OMY;* the description of their functions, 
 PHYSIOL'OGY ; f the examination of the conditions most 
 favorable to their health, HY'GIENE. J 
 
 7. The organs are composed of a variety of structures, 
 called Tissues, which are themselves composed of Cells. The 
 description of the form, color, constituents and origin of 
 these tissues and cells, or their minute anatomy, is called 
 HISTOL'OGY; the science which treats of their ultimate ele- 
 ments is called CHEM'ISTRY. || 
 
 * Gr., ana, through, and tome, a cutting, 
 f Gr., phusis, nature, and logos, a discourse. 
 J Gr., hugieinon, health, 
 g Gr., histos, a web, and logos, a discourse, 
 || Ar., kimia, hidden art. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 
 
 8 3. CELLS. Unity of Plan exhibited in Plants and Animals. Simplt 
 Cells. Adaptation to Different Offices. Modes of Multiplication. 
 
 S. WHEREVER we find the work of the INFINITE, there 
 we find Unity of Plan. Whatever the extent of the applica- 
 tions of this plan, whatever its modifications, there is still 
 more or less apparent the distinct central idea. Amid the 
 seemingly great diversity of substances in plants and ani- 
 mals, there appears a beautiful and remarkable exhibit of 
 this Unity. 
 
 9. PROTOPLASM* is the formal basis of all living bodies. 
 Animal Protoplasm, or Blastema,^ as it is often called, is an 
 albuminous fluid, generally regarded as identical with the 
 liquor sanguinis, or fluid portion of the blood, in which the 
 red corpuscles are suspended. Floating in this protoplasm 
 are numerous minute spheroidal cells, and an infinitude of 
 smaller bodies having the appearance of dots called granules. 
 From this organizable fluid every part of living beings is 
 formed ; here is Unity of Substance. 
 
 10. The simple Nucleated cell is the earliest organic form 
 of every living thing, and increase of size is but an increase 
 of the number of cells. There are sundry very low animals, 
 each of which is structurally a nucleated cell, a colorless 
 blood-corpuscle leading an independent life; a step higher 
 come those which are little more than aggregations of similar 
 cells ; and at length, as the vital functions become more and 
 more differentiated, appear those with cells variously modi- 
 fied, forming increasingly well-defined and complicated organs, 
 till they seem to reach perfection in man. 
 
 * Gr., protos, first, and plasma, formed. f Gr., blastos, a germ. 
 
 14 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 15 
 
 11. In the plant-world we find the same plan pursued; 
 under the microscope, the vegetable and the animal cell 
 appear essentially the same, but they are by no means iden- 
 tical. In examining the nucleoli of animal cells, little cir- 
 cular bodies dart across the field of view. These seem to 
 possess the power of voluntary movement ; and, had we the 
 requisite refinement of sight, we should doubtless be able to 
 classify even these minute bodies as accurately as we now do 
 the fully-developed animal. In the vegetable cell these are 
 never seen. 
 
 FIG. l. 
 
 i 2 
 
 FIG. 1 (Lddy\ AN IDEAL CELL. 1, Cell with its wall, protoplasm, nucleus and its 
 nucleolua. 2, The same divided into two. 3, The same divided into four cells. 4, The 
 game divided into many cells. The dark portion, the protoplasm ; the white spot, the 
 nucleus ; the inner small circle, the nucleolus. Magnified. 
 
 12. It appears, then, that the lowest and the highest 
 organism the fungus and man have, in their earliest 
 development, a unity of form of which the type is the 
 simple cell. 
 
 13. A SIMPLE CELL consists of a delicate sac containing 
 protoplasm, in which is another very minute sac, called the 
 nu'cleus, which contains yet another sac the nucleolus, or 
 little nucleus. Very minute particles, or granules, are also 
 seen. A good example of a simple animal cell, on a large 
 scale, is an egg : the lining of the shell is the cell-wall or sac ; 
 the white is the contained protoplasm; the yolk is the nu- 
 cleus; and its germ-spot is the nucleolus. 
 
 14. Cells in the course of their development are subject to 
 numberless modifications the animal cell, to subserve various 
 purposes in the animal economy ; the vegetable cell, in the 
 vegetable economy. As if under the immediate control of 
 intelligence, they select each its own appropriate substance, 
 
16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 rejecting all else. One set of cells has for its office the pro- 
 duction of motion ; another set is for the purpose of secre- 
 tion ; another, for assimilation ; another, for absorption ; still 
 another, for reproduction; and so on, through all the dis- 
 similar offices of the animal economy. 
 
 15. Cells vary in size and shape ; the normal form is prob- 
 ably spheroidal, as in cells of fat ; but they often become 
 many-sided, sometimes flattened, as in the cuticle, and some- 
 times elongated into a simple filament, as in fibrous tissue or 
 muscular fibre. 
 
 FIG. 2. FIG. 3. 
 
 FIG. 2 (Leidy). PROCESS op MULTIPLICATION, or CARTILAGE CELLS.!, Simple cartilage 
 cell from the embryo. 2, Increase of cartilage cells by division of the primary cell. 
 3, 4, Groups of cartilage cells, from an adult articular cartilage. Magnified. 
 
 FIG. 3 (Leidy). PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF AN ORGANIC CELL FROM A GRANULE. 
 1, A granule. 2, A vesicle developed upon the granule ; the two constituting the nu- 
 cleus and contained nucleolus. 3, The same, increased in size. 4, 5, Granules developed in 
 the contained liquid of the nucleus. 6, The cell-wall developed on the nucleus. 7, 8, 9, 
 Successive increase of the cell, and development of granular contents. Magnified. 
 
 16. Cells multiply in three ways : 1st, A cell may elongate, 
 contracting in the middle like an hour-glass or dumb-bell, by 
 the infolding of the cell-wall, till a complete division is made 
 and two cells are formed, each with its own share of the 
 original nucleus ; the new cells divide in a similar manner, 
 and like divisions are repeated indefinitely ; 2d, Another 
 form of multiplication is by the division of the nucleus 
 within the cell; each part appropriates a portion of the fluid, 
 and at length vesicles are formed, the old cell-wall breaks, 
 and the vesicles develop into perfect cells; and 3d, Cells are 
 sometimes developed de novo from the protoplasm, which 
 contains nuclei and granules. 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY 17 
 
 17. Cells have their period of growth, of perfection and 
 of decay. While the vital force directs and controls the 
 chemical and mechanical agencies, they tend to preserve and 
 build up the system ; but when the vital powers yield, they 
 tend to its decay, and, " as if they were the grave-diggers of 
 Nature, fulfill the old motto ' Earth to earth and dust to 
 dust/" 
 
 I 4. PRIMARY TISSUES. Fibrous Tissue. Areolar. Cartilaginous. 
 Adipose. Sclerous. Muscular. Tubular. Nervous. 
 
 18. By the various aggregations and transformations of 
 cells the different tissues of the body are formed, and their 
 individual characters depend upon the peculiar selecting 
 power of these cells. 
 
 19. The PRIMARY TISSUES are reducible to the following : 
 the Fi'brous, the Areolar and the Cartilaginous, which, col- 
 lectively, form the Connect'ive tissues ; and the Ad'ipose y the 
 Sclerous, the Mus'cular, the Tu'bular and the Ner'vous tissues. 
 
 20. The object of the CONNECTIVE tissues seems to be, 
 mainly, that of binding together organs and their parts. It 
 has few nerves and blood-vessels, and is, therefore, except 
 when inflamed, nearly insensible, and attended with little 
 hemorrhage under surgical operation. 
 
 21. The FIBROUS form of connective tissue is composed 
 of minute filaments arranged in parallel and somewhat wavy 
 bundles, marked with faint cross-waves. It is strong, un- 
 yielding and glistening. The fibrous tissue has two distinct 
 forms the White Fibrous and the Yellow Fibrous. 
 
 22. The WHITE FIBROUS tissue is formed of white, glisten- 
 ing, inelastic bands, having longitudinal creasings, but not 
 admitting of separation into filaments of determinate size. 
 This tissue, by long boiling, is entirely resolved into Gel'atin. 
 The white fibrous tissue is found under three forms : Mem'- 
 brane, Lig'ament and Ten' don. 
 
 23. The YELLOW FIBROUS tissue is composed of yellow 
 elastic bands separable into their component filaments. It is 
 called the Elas'tic tissue, elasticity being its chief charac- 
 
 2* 
 
18 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 teristic. It does not gelatinize by boiling. It is found in the 
 middle coat of the arteries, in the vocal cords, between the 
 vertebrae, and in many other places where elasticity is needed. 
 The proportion between the white and the yellow fibrous 
 tissues, when found together, varies the greater the elasticity 
 required, the greater the proportion of yellow elastic fibres. 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 FiQ. 4 (Leidy), FIBROUS TISSUE. 1, Portion of tendon, exhibiting its composition of 
 prismatic bundles of fibrous tissue, the filaments all parallel to one another. 2, A few 
 bundles drawn from the others, exhibiting their union by delicate crossing filaments 
 of connective tissue. 3, One of the varieties of fibrous tissue. 4, A single bundle, more 
 highly magnified, with a portion (5) of the filaments fretted out. 
 
 FIG. 5 (Ltidy). ELASTIC TISSUE. Highly magnified. 
 
 Observation. In rheumatism the connective white fibrous 
 tissue is the part chiefly affected; hence, the large joints and 
 the loins, where this tissue is most abundant, suffer most. 
 Where there is predisposition to rheumatism, the tendency to 
 it may be lessened and attacks relieved by increasing the 
 amount of clothing over the part affected. 
 
 24. The AREOLAR form of connective tissue consists of 
 bands of the fibrous, both of the white and yellow, which 
 interweave in every direction, leaving open spaces between, 
 called cells ; hence this tissue is sometimes named Cellular. 
 These spaces communicate through the body, and contain a 
 fluid resembling the serum of the blood. Although the con- 
 nective areolar tissue enters into the composition of all organs, 
 it never loses its individuality. In the nerves and muscles it 
 shares neither the sensibility of the one nor the contractility 
 of the other. 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 19 
 
 Observation. The swelling of the feet so often seen in 
 feeble persons shows the peculiarity of this tissue, which 
 allows the fluid to pass from part to part and accumulate in 
 the lowest portion of the body, while a recumbent position 
 restores the original shape. Great excess of the fluid pro- 
 duces general dropsy. The free communication between all 
 parts of this tissue is still more remarkable in regard to air. 
 Sometimes, when an accidental opening has been made from 
 the air-cells of the lungs into the adjacent tissue, the air in 
 respiration penetrates every part of the surrounding tissue, 
 and even of the entire body, till inflation endangers life from 
 suffocation. Butchers often avail themselves of this fact, 
 inflating their meat to give it a fat appearance. 
 
 FIG. 6. FIG. 7. 
 
 
 r 
 
 FIG. Q(Leidy). PORTION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE, from the axilla, exhibiting its composi- 
 tion of bundles and filaments of fibrous tissue crossing in every direction. The rounded 
 bodies represent a single row and a portion of small groups of fat cells. Magnified. 
 
 FIG. 7 (Leidy). 1, PORTION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE, from that which envelops the flexor 
 tendons of the fingers as they pass beneath the annular ligament, treated with acetic 
 acid. The pale, dotted portion is intended to represent the fibrous element fading away ; 
 the blacker, tortuous lines and nets represent the mixture of elastic tissue. 2, 3, Simple 
 tortuous fibres and a net of elastic tissue. Magnified. 
 
 25. CARTILAGINOUS tissue consists of a solid mat' rice, ap- 
 parently homogeneous in structure, resembling ground glass. 
 In this are imbedded nucleated cells, sometimes arranged 
 simply, but usually in groups. It has no perceptible nerves 
 nor blood-vessels. Cartilage is elastic and flexible, but in- 
 extensible qualities admirably essential to its use in the 
 
20 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 formation of the joints and in giving to other organs form 
 and strength, without too much rigidity. This tissue consti- 
 tutes the articular cartilages, the cartilage of the ribs, of the 
 larynx (except the epiglottis), of the trachea and its divisions, 
 and of the nose. The bones usually originate in cartilage, 
 which disappears as bony matter is deposited ; such cartilage 
 is called temporary, while that which continues till later years 
 is called permanent. 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 PIG. 8 (Leidy). CARTILAGE section through the thickness of the oval cartilage of the 
 nose.. 1, Toward the exterior. 2, Toward the interior surface ; highly magnified. It 
 exhibits groups of cartilage cells imbedded in a homogeneous matrice. 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 
 FIG. 9 (Leidy). SECTION OF FIBRO-CARTILAGE FROM THE AURICLE OF THE EAR. The 
 cells are seen imbedded in a fibrous matrice. 1, Exterior surface, where the cells are 
 parallel to it. 2, Toward the middle. Highly magnified. 
 
 26. When the matrice assumes a fibrous condition, Fibro- 
 cartilages are formed, as in the inter vertebral disks, the inter- 
 articular cartilages, the epiglottis, the cartilages of the ear 
 and Eustachian tube, and those of the eyelids. Between pure 
 fibrous tissue and pure cartilage there are various degrees of 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 
 
 21 
 
 intermixture. Fibre-cartilage unites the elasticity of carti- 
 lage with the toughness of fibrous tissue, and is therefore well 
 adapted to the firmest union of bones accompanied with 
 moderate flexibility. 
 
 27. ADIPOSE tissue has the peculiarity of not being essen- 
 tial to the constitution of any organ. It is composed of deli- 
 cate aggregated cells, of nearly spheroidal form, containing a 
 substance called fat. It is found in the interspaces of areolar 
 tissue beneath the skin and around the heart and kidneys ; 
 while none is ever found within the skull, the lungs and the 
 eyelids, where its presence would interfere with their several 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 FIG. 11. 
 
 FIG. 10 (Leidy). GROSSING BANDS of fibrous connective tissue. 
 
 FIG. 11 (Leidy). ADIPOSE TISSUE, WITH CONNECTIVE TISSUE, from the superficial fascia 
 of the abdomen ; highly magnified. The groups of fat vesicles .are observed contained 
 in the meshes of connective tissue. 
 
 functions. Fat accumulates more readily than other matter, 
 and is the earliest removed in disease. It is a storehouse of 
 nutriment, always ready for use, and a non-conductor of heat ; 
 it also gives roundness and beauty to the form. 
 
 28. SCLEROUS tissue is found in the bones and teeth. Its 
 composition and arrangement vary at different periods of life. 
 
22 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 29. MUSCULAR tissue is composed of fibres, which are 
 themselves composed of minute fibres, called fi'brillce, or fila- 
 ments. The fibres of this tissue are of two kinds non- 
 striated and striated. The former are soft, pale, smooth, either 
 roundish or flattened, and indistinctly granulated, having no 
 markings, or striae; the latter are soft, yellowish, prismatic, 
 and composed of quadrangular particles so arranged as to 
 give transverse strise. This tissue has for its peculiar charac- 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 Fio. 12 (Leidy). FIBRILS FROM A MUSCULAR FIBRE op THE AXOLOTL, A BATRACHIAH 
 REPTILE ; highly magnified, a, Bundle of fibrils. 6, An isolated fibre. 
 
 Fio. 13 (Leidy). Two PORTIONS OF A MUSCULAR FASCICULUS, from the trapezius 
 muscle; highly magnified. 1, Two portions of a muscular fasciculus, composed of 
 prismatic striated fibres terminating below, in rounded extremities, among the fibrous 
 tissue of the commencing tendon. 2, Cut extremities of the fibres, showing their 
 prismatic form. 3, Delicate she"ath, composed of obliquely-crossing filaments of fibrous 
 tissue. 4, The fibres of the commencing tendons. Partly a diagram. 
 
 teristic, contractility, and is the instrument upon which the 
 sensible motions of the body depend. It is a good conductor 
 of electricity, and very sensitive to that agent. It has within 
 itself constant electrical currents, called, collectively, the mus- 
 cular current. 
 
 30. TUBULAR tissue consists of a network of minute tubes, 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 
 
 23 
 
 called cap'illary* vessels. These vessels connect the terminal 
 extremities of the arteries with the commencement of the 
 veins, but are otherwise closed, and never communicate ex- 
 cept by imbibition with the structures through which they 
 pass. Their walls are composed of exceedingly thin, trans- 
 parent, structureless membrane containing scattered nuclei. 
 They vary in size, being largest in the bones, and smallest in 
 the brain and in the lungs. This tissue is found in all 
 parts of the body, excepting the substance of the teeth, the 
 cartilage of the joints, the transparent part of the eye, the 
 epithelial tissue, the hair and the nails. 
 
 FiO. 14 (After Wagner. 1 ) A PIECE OF THE WEB OP A FROG'S FOOT, slightly enlarged, 
 bowing the fine capillary network connecting the terminations of the arteries with the 
 commencement of the veins. 
 
 Fio. 15 (AUen Thomson). MINUTE PIECE OF THE MARGIN OF THE FROG'S WEB, show- 
 Ing the ultimate capillaries, connecting the end of a small artery with the beginning 
 of a minute rein. The oval blood-corpuscles are seen in these vessels, and the arrows 
 entering and passing out of the artery and vein indicate the course of the blood-current ; 
 magnified about thirty diameters. 
 
 31. The NERVOUS tissue is distinguished from all other 
 tissues by its sensibility. Like the muscular tissue, it has 
 constant electrical currents. It forms the essential substance 
 of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. This tissue contains 
 
 * Lat., capillus, a hair. 
 
24 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, 
 
 three distinct microscopical elements Nerve- Cells, or Gang- 
 lionic Corpuscles; Gray or Gelatinous fibres; and White or 
 Tubular fibres. 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 Fio. 16 (Kolliker and Hannover). 1, Nucleated cells from a sympathetic ganglion. 
 2, Branched or stellate cells from the gray substance of the spinal cord. 3, Branched 
 cells from the medulla oblongata. 4, Simple and branched cells from the convolutions 
 of the brain. 5, A large cell from the gray substance of the brain ; magnified one hun- 
 dred diameters. 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 Fia. 17. DIAORAM OF HUMAN BRAIN, IN VKRTICAL SECTION, showing the situation of 
 the different ganglia and the course of the fibres. 1, Olfactory ganglion. 2, Hemisphere. 
 3, Corpus striatum. 4, Optic thalamus. 5, Tubercula quadrigemina. 6, Cerebellum. 
 7, Ganglion of tuber anmilare. 8, Ganglion of medulla oblongata. 
 
 32. The GANGLIONIC CORPUSCLES are cell-bodies contain- 
 ing pulpy matter, with one or more nuclei surrounding 
 colored granules. These cells vary in shape, being roundish, 
 pear-shaped, or branched in a caudate or stellate manner, these 
 onsets being continuous with the cell-wall and its contents, and 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 25 
 
 often entering another cell and connecting the two. These 
 nerve-cells are found in the brain, spinal cord and ganglia, 
 and at the extremities of the nerves of sight and hearing. 
 
 33. The GRAY or GELATINOUS fibres are soft and granular, 
 with no distinct medullary sheath. They contain many dark 
 nuclei, and are most abundant in the sympathetic ganglia 
 and its branches. 
 
 34. The WHITE or TUBULAR fibres are microscopic tubes. 
 The walls are structureless membrane enclosing a layer of 
 medullated matter resembling fluid fat, which acts as a sheath ; 
 within this is a firmer part, or core, called the band-axis, or 
 axis cylinder ; this is albuminous. 
 
 35. The gray substance is most abundant in the outer part 
 of the brain, and the white in the inner ; but the two intermix 
 more or less in every part of the nervous system. 
 
 ' 5. MEMBRANES. Basement Membrane. Epithelium. Serous Mem- 
 brane. Synovial Membrane. 
 
 36. BASEMENT MEMBRANE is an exceedingly thin, deli- 
 cate, structureless layer of protoplasm or blastema, resem- 
 bling, under the microscope, a film of transparent gelatine. 
 Upon it, in various parts of the body, are imbedded minute 
 epithelial* cells. The membrane formed by these cells is 
 called epithe'lium. The relation of this structureless mem- 
 brane to the epithelium gives it the name of Basement Mem- 
 brane. 
 
 Fro. 18. 
 
 FIG. 18 (Leidy). DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE COMMON ANA- 
 TOMICAL ELEMENTS OF SEROUS AND Mucous MEMBRANES; THE GLANDS, THE LUNGS AND 
 THE SKIN. 1, Epithelium, secreting cells or epidermis, composed of nucleated cells, and 
 occupying the free surface of the structure mentioned. 2, Basement layer, represented 
 much thicker than natural, in comparison with the other layers. 3, Fibrous layer, in 
 which the arteries and veins (4) terminate in a capillary network. Magnified. 
 
 * Gr., epi, upon, and tithemi, I cover or place. 
 .? B 
 
26 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 37. From difference in form and other peculiarities, the 
 EPITHELIUM is divided into several varieties as the Squa- 
 mous Epithelium, consisting of several layers of thin scales, 
 which are flattened cells having a nucleus and a few scat- 
 tered granules, as in the mucous membrane of the mouth ; 
 the Pavement Epithelium, consisting of from one to four 
 layers of nucleated cells, six-sided and regularly arranged 
 like the blocks of a pavement (whence the name), as in tne 
 serous membranes ; the Columnar Epithelium, consisting o^ a 
 
 FIG. 19. FIG. 20. 
 
 FIG. 19 (Leidy). SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM, consisting of nucleated cells transformed into 
 broad scales, from the mucous membrane of the mouth ; highly magnified. 
 
 FIG. 20 (Leidy). PAVEMENT EPITHELIUM, from a serous membrane, highly magnified, 
 end seen to consist of flat, six-sided nucleated cells. 
 
 single layer of six-sided columnar cells, with a conical pro- 
 longation terminating ' in a progeny of developing cells, as 
 in the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines; 
 the Ciliated Epithelium, having cells possessing at their 
 free extremity fine filamentary processes of the cell-wall, 
 resembling the eye-lashes (whence the name). During life 
 these cilia are endowed with a power of moving rapidly 
 backward and forward in a wave-like manner, reminding 
 one of the movement of a field of grain swept by a gentle 
 breeze. Currents are thus produced in liquids, conveying 
 them from one part to another. This kind of epithelium is 
 found on the mucous membrane of the upper part of the 
 nose and pharynx, the Eustachian tube and all the respira- 
 tory organs. 
 
 38. Beneath the basement membrane, and in contact with 
 it, is a very dense and vascular layer of areolar and elastic 
 tissue. This triple arrangement of epithelium, basement 
 membrane and fibro-areolar tissue, constitutes the serous, the 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 
 
 27 
 
 synovial and the mucous membranes, the skin, the ducts of 
 all glands, and the inner coat of the blood-vessels and the 
 lymphatics. 
 
 39. The SEROUS MEMBRANE is that portion which lines 
 the walls of certain closed cavities or sacs. It is smooth, 
 shining and moistened by a fluid called seVwm, which the 
 membrane secretes ; as the pleu'ra, peritone'um, pericar' dium, 
 arach'noid, etc. 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 Fio. 21 (Letdy). DIAGRAM OF A VERTICAL SECTION OP THE Mucous MEMBRANE op THK 
 SMALL INTESTINES ; highly magnified. 1, Fibrous layer, in which the blood-vessels are 
 distributed. 2, Basement membrane. 3, Young nucleated cells. 4, Layer of columnar 
 cells. 5, 6, Cells in the act of being shed or thrown off. 7, Free ends of the columnar 
 cells, exhibiting their six-sided form. 8, A single columnar cell, exhibiting its actual 
 form at all parts. 
 
 FIG. 22. DIAGRAM OP A VERTICAL SECTION op THE BRONCHIAL Mucous MEMBRANE. 
 1, Columnar ciliated epithelial cells. 2, Cilia. 3, Nuclei. 4, Young cells. 5, Basement 
 membrane. 6, Fibrous layer. 
 
 40. The SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE resembles the serous very 
 closely as regards structure and the closed sacs. It also 
 secretes a fluid, called syno'via, which is more viscid than that 
 of the serous membrane. It has fringe-like processes hanging 
 loosely in the joints, having large epithelial cells, which prob- 
 ably secrete the synovial fluid. This membrane covers the 
 cartilages, and lines the ligaments which enter into the com- 
 position of the joints. 
 
 Observation. When the synovial membrane is ruptured, 
 the synovia escapes into the surrounding areolar tissue, and 
 what is popularly known as the " weeping sinew" is formed. 
 
28 
 
 Similar tumors in the joints of lower animals are called 
 " windgalls." 
 
 41. There are two Mucous MEMBRANES the Gastro-Pul> 
 monary and the Urinary. These do not form closed sacs, like 
 the serous and synovial membranes, but both open to the 
 surface. The mucous membranes secrete a viscid fluid, called 
 mu'cus, and in their glandular recesses are formed various 
 secretions, as sali'va, bile, tears, etc. These membranes vary 
 in different parts both in thickness and appearance. In the 
 nasal and air passages, the membrane is smooth, rugose or 
 ridgy in the stomach, papillous in the tongue and villous in 
 the intestines. 
 
 FIG. 23. FIG. 24. 
 
 FIG. 23 (Leidy). DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE RELATION OF A SEROUS MEMBRANE (the 
 pleura) TO THE ORGAN IT INVESTS AND THE CAVITY IT LINES. 1, Lung. 2, Root of the 
 lung, which is the only attached portion of the organ, all others being free. 3, Side of 
 the thorax. 4, Diaphragm. 5, Parietal pleura. 6, Pulmonary or reflected pleura. 
 7, Cavity of the pleura. Magnified. 
 
 FIG. 24 (Leidy). Mucous MEMBRANE FROM THE JEJUNUM.!, Villi resembling val- 
 rulse conniventes in miniature. 2, Tubular glands : their orifices. 3, Opening on the 
 free surface of the mucous membrane. 4, Fibrous tissue. Magnified. 
 
 42. The GASTRO-PULMONARY Mucous membrane com- 
 mences at the mouth, enters the nostrils, passes between the 
 eyelids, dips into the deep parts of the ear, lines the trachea 
 and the air-tubes of the lungs, and the alimentary canal from 
 one extremity to the other. 
 
 43. The URINARY Mucous membrane lines the ducts con- 
 necting the kidneys and the bladder, of which it forms the 
 interior coat ; also the passages to the skin. 
 
GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 29 
 
 44. The skin is continuous with the mucous membranes, 
 and will be described hereafter. 
 
 Observation. Like tissues readily assume similar con- 
 ditions ; hence diseases of the skin or of the serous or mucous 
 membranes are often transferred from one to the other. In 
 diseases of the skin as measles, scarlet fever, etc. if the 
 surface becomes damp or chilled, there is danger of their 
 being transferred to the mucous membrane of the air-passages, 
 stomach or intestines. In chronic diseases of the mucous 
 membrane as coughs, catarrh, diarrhoea or dysentery the 
 skin is usually cold, dry and inactive. By improving its 
 condition much relief will be afforded. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 O, Solids and Fluids. Proximate Constituents. Inorganic. Organic. 
 Nitrogenous. Non-Nitrogenous. Ultimate Chemical Elements. 
 
 45. THE human body is composed of solids and fluids, re- 
 ducible, by chemical analysis, to the same constituents and 
 elements. In different periods of life the proportion of fluids 
 and solids varies ; the former being more abundant in youth 
 than in old age. This is one reason why the limbs in child- 
 hood are soft and smooth, but in later years hard and wrinkled. 
 
 46. If the tissues of the body are subjected to chemical 
 analysis, they yield about ninety substances, called Proximate 
 Constituents, these being the first chemical compounds into 
 which the tissues resolve themselves. In living beings 
 vitality is, as it were, " the architect who plans the building 
 and sees that the requisite materials are procured by the 
 chemical processes and worked up according to his will." 
 Hereupon arise many new substances which cannot be arti- 
 ficially imitated 7 these are called Organic proximate con- 
 stituents. Those substances found in the inorganic kingdom 
 also, and capable of artificial imitation, are called Inorganic 
 proximate constituents. 
 
 47. Of the INORGANIC PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS, water 
 is the most abundant: it exists in all the tissues; next to 
 this, in relative quantities, are Phosphates of Lime, of Mag- 
 ne'sia, of Soda and of Potas'sa ; Carbonates of Lime, of Soda 
 and of Potassa ; Chloride of Sodium (common Salt) and of 
 Potassium ; and Fluoride of Cal'cium. Some compounds 
 contain Iron, Sil'ica, Manganese', and perhaps some acci- 
 dental substances, as Lead, Copper and Alu'minum. Am- 
 
 30 
 
GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 31 
 
 mo'nia, in combination, is found in the urine. Ox'ygen, 
 Ni'trogen and Carbon'ic Acid gas exist in a free state. 
 
 48. The ORGANIC PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS are of two 
 classes. One class contains the chemical element Azote',* or 
 nitrogen; hence its compounds are called az'otized or nitrog'- 
 enous; the other has no azote, and its compounds are named 
 non-azotized or non-nitrogenous. 
 
 49. The NITROGENOUS class contains Albu'rnen and its 
 allied substances, called albuminoids. Some of the most im- 
 portant are Albu'minose, Fi'brin, Mus'culin, Glob'ulin, Hcem'a- 
 tin, Ca'sein, Cartila'gin, Sal'ivin, Pep'sin, Pancrea'tin, Mu'dn, 
 Neu'rin, Ker'atin, E las' tin, Meldnin and Biliverd'in; also 
 some acids, as the Cer'ebrie, Chol'ic and U'ric. 
 
 50. ALBUMEN and the albuminoids, together with fatty 
 matter (non-nitrogenous), are the great nutritive substances 
 of the animal economy. Albumen f is well known in the 
 white of an egg ; whence its name. It is found in the sub- 
 stance of the brain and nerves ; in the fluid part of the blood ; 
 in the moisture that pervades the muscles and other tissues ; 
 in the lymph and chyle; and in the mucous, serous and 
 synovial secretions. It coagulates by the action of heat and 
 alcohol, and is dissolved by weak acids and alkalies. 
 
 51. ALBUMINOSE is found in the chyle and blood in a 
 liquid condition, and is a result of the digestion of albu- 
 minous, fibrinous, musculinous and caseous matter of food ; 
 unlike albumen, it is not coagulated by heat. 
 
 52. FIBRIN is a soft, white, stringy substance, obtained 
 from freshly-drawn blood by whipping it with fine sticks or 
 wires. It coagulates spontaneously, assuming the form of 
 minute threads, or fibrils ;{ whence its name. Fibrin is also 
 found in the chyle, lymph and serous secretions. It is pre- 
 cipitated and hardened by alcohol, and redissolved by weak 
 acid. 
 
 53. MUSCULIN is a peculiar form of fibrin that exists in 
 
 * Gr., a, not, and zoe, life. f Lat., albus, white. 
 
 J Lat., fibra, a thread. 
 
32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the muscles, or flesh. Its characteristic property is con- 
 tractility. Boiling hardens it, while weak acids render it 
 more soluble. 
 
 54. GLOBULIN and H^MATIN form the contents of the red 
 globules of the blood. Hsematin contains about seven per 
 cent, of iron ; but the color of the blood is now supposed not to 
 depend on the iron, but a peculiar substance named cru'orin. 
 
 55. CASEIN resembles albumen in its general properties, 
 but, unlike albumen, when in solution it is not coagulated 
 by heat, but by acids. It exists in solution in milk with 
 lac'tin (milk sugar) and salts. It forms the curd in soured 
 milk, the casein being coagulated by the* lactic acid formed 
 from decomposed lactin. 
 
 56. CARTILAGIN is the principal constituent of the con- 
 nective tissues, as the so-called bone cartilage, true cartilage, 
 ligaments, tendons, fibrous membranes, dermis and the areo- 
 lar tissue. The basis of bone cartilage is os'teine, with which 
 are blended salts of lime. The basis of true cartilage is 
 called chon'drigen. Unlike albumen, cartilagin is insoluble 
 in water and does not coagulate by heat, but is liquified by 
 boiling and changed into gel'atin, or glue. 
 
 57. SALIVIN is found in the saliva. It has the peculiar 
 property of changing starch into a kind of gum called dex'- 
 trine, the dextrine into ghtfcose, or grape sugar, and this into 
 lactic acid. 
 
 58. PEPSIN is a remarkable and potent substance secreted 
 by the glands of the mucous membrane of the stomach. This 
 secretion is a peculiar principle of the gastric juice, and, 
 when slightly acidulated, has the property of quickly dis- 
 solving coagulated albumen, blood, meats, fish, cheese and 
 many other substances. 
 
 59. PANCREATIN is the active principle of the secretion of 
 the pancreas. It has three distinct actions 1st, on starch ; 
 2d, on fat; and 3d, on albuminous matter. 
 
 60. MUCIN is a substance found in the different varieties 
 of mucus, imparting to them their viscid character. It is 
 usually mixed with other fluids. 
 
GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 33 
 
 61. NEURIN is also an albuminoid substance connected 
 with the brain and nerves, upon which the peculiar charac- 
 teristics of the nervous system are supposed to depend. 
 
 62. KERATIN is the peculiar albuminoid principle giving 
 the horn-like character to the hair, nails and cuticle. 
 
 63. ELASTIN is the substance peculiar to the elastic tissue. 
 It is insoluble in all common fluids. 
 
 64. MELANIN is a blackish-brown coloring matter found 
 in the choroid coat and the iris of the eye, in the hair and in 
 the epidermis. It is most abundant in the black and brown 
 races, but it also exists in the yellow and white races. 
 
 65. BILIVERDIN is the coloring matter of the bile. It is 
 yellow in transmitted light, and greenish in reflected light. 
 On exposure to the air in its natural fluid condition, it ab- 
 sorbs oxygen and assumes a bright grass-green color. 
 
 66. Beside the before-mentioned constituents, none of which 
 are acid but mucin, there are several acids, among which 
 may be named the Cerebric acid found in the gray substance 
 of the brain ; Cholic acid in the bile ; and Uric acid in the 
 urine. 
 
 67. The groups of NON-NITROGENIZED or non-azotized sub- 
 stances are the fats, sugars and starch. The fats are most 
 abundant. These are insoluble in water, but are dissolved 
 by heat, alcohol and ether. They are found in the brain, 
 muscles, blood and chyle. 
 
 68. The FATS of the human body are composed mostly of 
 o'lein (liquid fat), and ste'arin and mar'garin (solid fats), mar- 
 garin being most abundant, and stearin least. The fats are 
 derived from the fatty components of food, and also from 
 transformed saccharine compounds. When boiled with an 
 alkali, as in the manufacture of soap, they decompose into 
 fatty acids, margaric, stearic and oleic acids, and a sweet, 
 viscid substance called glyc'erine. 
 
 69. SUGARS are of different kinds, as Glu'cose (grape sugar), 
 in the blood and chyle; Liver sugar, in the liver; Lac tin 
 (milk sugar), in milk ; In'osit (muscle sugar), in muscles. 
 LACTIN, in contact with azotized matter, or & ferment, easily 
 
 B* 
 
34 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 decomposes, forming lactic acid. All these saccharine and 
 acid substances are soluble in both water and alcohol. 
 STARCH granules are found in the brain, and are named 
 Corpora Amyla'cea. These exhibit the chemical reactions 
 of vegetable starch, and are colorless and transparent, re- 
 sembling in appearance the granules of Indian corn. 
 
 70. The ULTIMATE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS enter into the 
 composition of the body in about the following percentage 
 proportions : 
 
 GASES. Oxygen 72. 
 
 Hydrogen 9.1 
 
 Nitrogen 2.5 
 
 Chlorine 085 
 
 Fluorine 08 
 
 SOLIDS. Carbon 13.5 
 
 Phosphorus 1.15 
 
 Calcium 1.3 
 
 Sulphur 1476 
 
 Sodium - 1 
 
 Potassium 026 
 
 Iron 01 
 
 Magnesium 0012 
 
 Silicon .0002 
 
 100.0000 
 
 71. The greater part of the oxygen and hydrogen exist in 
 a state of water, but the dried residue still contains some 
 gaseous as well as solid elements. 
 
 72. Carbon is the most abundant element. In the in- 
 evitable decomposition of the body, while its hydrogen and 
 nitrogen, with part of its carbon and oxygen, are restored to 
 the inorganic world in the shape of water, carbonic acid and 
 ammonia, the rest of its carbon and oxygen, its chlorine and 
 fluorine, its phosphorus and sulphur, and its metallic bases, 
 calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and iron, with a trace 
 of silicon and manganese, revert to the condition of inorganic 
 salts and earths viz., carbonates, sulphates and phosphates, 
 chlorides and fluorides of the above-named saline and earthy 
 bases. 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 35 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 
DIVISION II. 
 
 MOTOKY APPAEATUS. 
 
 73. IN all the movements connected with the merriments 
 of childhood, with the ceaseless industry of the toiling mil- 
 lions, with the hymning of the praises of the great I AM, 
 in a word, in every movement of the body, certain organs are 
 brought into action, which, taken collectively, constitute the 
 MOTORY APPARATUS. The organs of this apparatus are the 
 Bones and Joints, the Muscles and Motor Nerves. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE BONES. 
 
 
 
 \ 7. ANATOMY OF THE BONES. The Skeleton and its Uses. Number 
 and Classification of the Bones. Bones of the Head. Of the Trunk. 
 Of the Upper Extremities. Of the Lower Extremities. The Joints. 
 Definition and Classification. Immovable Joints. Mixed. Movable. 
 Peculiar Forms of Movable. 
 
 % 74. THE INTERNAL FRAMEWORK of the human body con- 
 sists of Bones, which, united by strong ligaments,* constitute 
 the Skeleton. 
 
 75. These bones number two hundred and eight, besides 
 the teeth. For convenience they are classed as the bones of 
 the Head, the Trunk and the Extremities. 
 
 76. The BONES OF THE HEAD are divided into those of 
 the Skull, the Face and the Ear. 
 
 77. The SKULL is composed of eight bones the Fro offal, 
 occupying the portion called the forehead ; the two Tem'j>orcd.. 
 
 * Lat., ligo, I bind. 
 
THE BONES. 37 
 
 covering the part commonly known as the temples ; the two 
 Pari'etal, forming the essential part of the projection on the 
 upper and lateral parts of the head and uniting in the median 
 line upon the top of the skull ; the Occip'ital, at the posterior 
 part of the skull, resting upon the atlas vertebra and having 
 a large orifice for the passage of the spinal marrow ; the 
 Sphenoid, situated across the base of the skull, extending 
 from side to side, having many depressions and processes, 
 articulating with all the bones of the cranium and five of 
 those in the face, and serving as a point of attachment for 
 twelve pairs of muscles ; and the Eth'moid bone, between the 
 sockets of the eyes and behind the base of the nose. 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 Fid. 26. BONES OF THE HEAD. 1, Frontal bone. 2, Parietal bone. 3, Temporal bone. 
 4, Occipital bone. 5, Nasal bone. 6, Malar bone. 7, Upper jaw. 8, Os unguis. 
 9, Lower jaw. 
 
 78. The skull-bones are formed of two plates united by 
 porous bone-substance. The external plate is fibrous and 
 tough ; the internal, dense and hard, hence called the vitreous 
 or glassy, plate. These bones are united by sut'ures; the ex- 
 ternal plate having notched edges fitted together as in the 
 dovetailing of carpentry ; the internal, plane edges in simple 
 4 
 
.38 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 apposition. From infancy to the twelfth year the sutures 
 are imperfect; from that time to forty, distinctly marked; 
 and in old age, nearly obliterated. 
 
 Observation. We find no less diversity in the form and 
 texture of the skull than in the expression of the face. The 
 head of the New Hollander is small, that of the African is 
 compressed, while that of the Caucasian is distinguished for 
 its beautiful oval form. In texture the Greek skull is close 
 and fine, while the Swiss is softer and more open. 
 
 79. The FACE has fourteen bones the two No! sal, forming 
 the bridge or base of the nose ; the two Ma'lar (cheek-bones) ; 
 the two Lach'rymal; the two Superior Max'illary, articulating 
 with two bones of the skull and all the bones of the face ex- 
 cepting the lower jaw; the two Palate bones, forming the 
 orbits of the eyes, the outside of the nose, and the most of the 
 roof of the mouth known as the hard palate ; the two Tur'~ 
 binated, in the nostrils ; the Inferior Maxillary, or mandible, 
 the only movable bone of the face, articulating with the tem- 
 poral bones ; and the Vo'mer, which separates the nostrils 
 from each other. 
 
 80. The EAR has three small bones, which aid in hearing. 
 
 81. The BONES OF THE TRUNK number fifty-four twenty- 
 four Ribs; twenty-four bones in the Spinal Column; four in 
 the Pel' vis; the Sternum (breast-bone) ; and the Os Hyoi'des 
 (at the base of the tongue). These bones, with the soft parts 
 attached, are so arranged as to form two cavities, called the 
 Tho'rax (chest) and the Ab'domen. 
 
 82. The THORAX is formed by the sternum in front, the 
 ribs at the sides and the twelve dorsal vertebrae at the back. 
 The natural form of the chest is conical, with the apex above ; 
 but fashion, in a multitude of instances, has inverted the 
 order. The thorax contains the heart, the lungs and the 
 large blood-vessels. 
 
 83. The STERNUM is situated in the middle line of the 
 front of the chest, and is held in place chiefly by- the ribs. 
 Each side is marked by seven pits for receiving the cartilages 
 of the corresponding true ribs. In childhood the sternum 
 
THE BONES. 39 
 
 consists of several cartilaginous pieces, which ossify and 
 unite in later years. 
 
 84. The RIBS are connected with the spinal column, twelve 
 on each side. The first seven, called True ribs, are connected 
 \\ ith the sternum by means of cartilage ; of the remaining 
 five, called False ribs, three are connected by cartilage with 
 each other, while the two lower are free at their anterior ex- 
 tremity, hence called floating ribs. In length, the ribs in- 
 crease from the first to the eighth, then again diminish to 
 the twelfth ; in breadth, they gradually diminish from the 
 first to the last ; in direction, the first rib is horizontal, all 
 the others are oblique and downward. 
 
 FIG. 27. 
 
 lro. 27. THE FRONT VIEW OF THE THORAX.!, 2, 3, The sternum. 4, 5, The spinal 
 column. 6, 7, 8, 9, The first ribs. 10, The seventh rib. 11, Cartilage of the third riV. 
 12, The floating rib. 
 
 85. The SPINAL COLUMN is composed of twenty-four bones, 
 called Verifebrce. Each vertebra consists of a main part, 
 called the body, and seven projections, called processes; four 
 of these, employed in binding the bones together, are called 
 articulatory ; two of the remaining, transverse; and the other, 
 
40 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 spinous. The last three give attachment to the muscles of 
 the back. The projections are so arranged that immediately 
 behind the bodies of the vertebrae a canal is formed for the 
 Medul'la Spina'lis (spinal cord), sometimes called the pith of 
 the back-bone. . 
 
 86. The VERTEBRAE are arranged in three classes, accord- 
 ing to their situation ; the seven of the neck are called Cer'vi- 
 cal; the twelve of the back, Dor' sal; and the five of the loins, 
 Tjum'bar vertebrse. 
 
 FIG. 28. 
 
 FIG. 29. 
 
 V 6 
 
 FIG. 28. THE SPINAL COLUMN, Lateral view. 1, 2, 3, The vertebrae. 4, Sacrum. 
 5, Coccyx. 
 Fia. 29. THE CHEST AND PELVIS, Front view. 
 
 87. The CERVICAL VERTEBRA are smaller than those of 
 other regions; they are concave above and convex below; 
 hence, when articulated, they lock one into the other. The 
 processes are short, bifid and horizontal, permitting a par- 
 tial rotary movement. The upper vertebra articulating 
 with the occipital bone is called the At' las; the second, the 
 Ax'is. 
 
 88. The DORSAL VERTEBRAE furnish support for the ribs, 
 
THE BONES, 41 
 
 which are so connected with the transverse processes as to 
 impede rotation. The spinous processes are very long and 
 extend obliquely downward. The bodies are larger than 
 those of the cervical vertebrae, and increase in size according 
 to the weight to be sustained. 
 
 89. The LUMBAR VERTEBRA have broad bases, with 
 large, strong and horizontal processes. These vertebrae show 
 those transitional changes which are calculated, by an easy 
 gradation, to unite separate vertebrae into solid bone. 
 
 FIG. 30. FIG. 31. 
 
 FIG. 30. A VERTEBRA OF THE NECK. 1, The body of the vertebra. 2, The spinal canal. 
 4, The spinous process, cleft at its extremity. 5, The transverse process. 7, The inferior 
 articulating process. 8, The superior articulating process. 
 
 Fio. 31. A CERVICAL VERTEBRA. 1, The cartilaginous substance that connects the 
 bodies of the vertebrae. 2, The body of the vertebra. 3, The spinous process. 4, 4, The 
 transverse processes. 5, 5, The articulating processes. 6, 6, A portion of the bony bridge 
 or arch that assists in forming the spinal canal (7). 
 
 90. Covering the front of the bodies of the vertebrae is the 
 Anterior Vertebral lAgament, consisting of a broad range of 
 fibres closely blended and of variable length. This ligament, 
 besides joining the vertebrae firmly together, gives attach- 
 ment to the pharynx, the oesophagus, the thoracic duct, the 
 aorta and other large blood-vessels. On the posterior part 
 of the bodies of the vertebrae, within the spinal canal, is 
 the Posterior Vertebral Ligament, remarkably smooth and 
 shining. Both the anterior and posterior ligaments adhere 
 very closely to the intervertebral substance and to the bodies 
 of the vertebrae. 
 
 91. Between the arches of the vertebrae behind, are the 
 
 4* 
 
42 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Yellow Ligaments (Ligamenta Subflava), filling up the intervals 
 and completing the spinal canal from the axis to the sacrum ; 
 they are two in number on each side, making twenty-three 
 pairs. They are attached to the anterior surface of the lower 
 part of the arches above and the posterior surface of the 
 upper part of those below, between the spinous and the trans- 
 verse processes, and are separated by a vertical fissure. Their 
 greatest length is in the neck, but their greatest thickness is 
 in the lumbar series. They combine great strength with re- 
 markable elasticity, thus differing, in an essential particular, 
 from ordinary ligaments. 
 
 FIG. 32. 
 
 FIG. 32. FRONT VIEW OF THE PELVIS.!, 1, The innominata. 2, The sacrum. 3, The 
 coccyx. 4, 4, Socket, e, The junction ofthe sacrum and lower lumbar vertebra. 
 
 92. Between every pair of true vertebrse are discoidal 
 plates of white fibrous tissue, called Intervertebral Ligaments. 
 These ligaments are inelastic in structure, but very elastic by 
 arrangement, for the decussation of the concentric lamina 
 enables them to yield to pressure and to resume their original 
 position when the pressure is removed ; and this elasticity is 
 greatly increased in the whole disk by the presence of a cen- 
 tral pulp that occupies the hollow circle within the liga- 
 mentous structure. 
 
 93. The PELVIS is composed of the two Innomina'ta (name- 
 less bones), the Sa'crum and the Coccyx. 
 
THE BONES. 43 
 
 94. The INNOMINATUM is the hip-bone; in it is a deep 
 socket for the head of the thigh-bone. In the centre of this 
 cavity is a depression to which the round ligament of the 
 thigh-bone is fixed. 
 
 95. The SACRUM (so called because offered by the ancients 
 in sacrifice) is a wedge-shaped bone, between the innominata. 
 In early life it is composed of five vertebrae, which become 
 united in later years. It is the basis of the vertebral column. 
 The texture of the sacrum is very light and spongy. 
 
 96. The COCCYX,* at the lower extremity of the spinal 
 column, varies at different ages : in infancy it is cartilaginous ; 
 in adult age, formed of four pieces of bone or vertebrae ; in 
 after life it becomes a continuous, blended structure. 
 
 97. The UPPER EXTREMITIES contain sixty-four bones: 
 the Scap'ula (shoulder-blade) ; the Clavicle (collar-bone) ; 
 the Hu'merus (arm-bone) ; the Ra'dius and Ulna (fore-arm) ; 
 the Car'pus (wrist) ; the Meta-car'pus (palm of the hand) ; 
 and the Phalan'ges (fingers and thumb.) 
 
 98. The SCAPULA, a flat, thin, triagular bone, is situated 
 upon the upper and back part of the chest. It lies upon 
 muscles by which it is held in place and moved in different 
 directions. 
 
 99. The CLAVICLE, f shaped like the italic /, is attached 
 at one extremity to the sternum, and at the other to the 
 scapula. 
 
 100. The HUMERUS is a long, cylindrical bone, joined at 
 the elbow with the ulna of the fore-arm ; and at the scapular 
 extremity lodged in the glenoid cavity. 
 
 101. The ULNA| is the small bone of the fore-arm, and 
 occupies the inner side. It articulates with the humerus at 
 the elbow, forming a perfect hinge-joint. 
 
 102. The RADIUS is placed on the outside (the thumb 
 side) of the fore-arm, and nearly parallel to the ulna. It is 
 larger than the ulna, and articulates with it, both at the 
 
 * From cuckoo, on account of resemblance to the cuckoo's bill. 
 
 f Lat., clav'is, a key. $ It., an ell, a measure. % Lat., a spoke. 
 
44 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 elbow and at the wrist. The radius also articulates with the 
 first row of bones at the wrist forming the wrist-joint. 
 
 103. The CARPUS has eight bones, arranged in two rows, 
 and so firmly bound together, as to permit little movement. 
 One row articulates with the fore-arm, the other with the 
 metacarpus. 
 
 FIG. 33. FIG. 34. 
 
 FlQ. 33. THE HUMERUS. 1, The shaft. 2, The large, round head that is placed in the 
 glenoid cavity. 3,4, Processes for attachment of muscles. 5, A process, called the ex- 
 ternal elbow. 6, A process, called the internal elbow. 7, The articulating surface upon 
 which the ulna rolls. 
 
 FIG. 34. THE FORE-ARM. 1, The ulna. 2, The radius. 3, The upper articulation of the 
 radius and ulna. 4, The articulating cavity, in which the lower extremity of the 
 humerus is placed. 5, The upper extremity of the ulna, called the olecranon process. 
 which forms the point of the elbow. 6, Spaces between the radius and ulna, filled by the 
 intervening ligament. 7, The styloid process of the "ulna. 8, The surface of the radius 
 and ulna, where they articulate with the bones of the wrist. 9, The styloid process of 
 the radius. 
 
 104. The METACARPUS* has five bones; upon four of 
 * Gr., meta, after or beyond, and karpos, wrist. 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 45 
 
 which, are placed the first range of finger-bones, and upon 
 the other, the first thumb-bone. The metacarpal bone of the 
 thumb is the shortest, and it is also disconnected with and 
 divergent from the others. 
 
 105. The PHALANGES* of the fingers have three bones, 
 while the thumb has but two. The fingers are named in 
 succession, the thumb, the index, the middle, the ring, and 
 the little finger. 
 
 FIG. 35. FIG. 36. 
 
 If 10. oij. THE WRIST. U, The ulna. R, The radius. S, The scaphoid. L, The semi- 
 lunar. C, The cuneiform. P, The pisiform. The last four form the first row of carpal 
 bones. T, T, The trapezium and trapezoid. M, Magnum. U, Unciform. The last four 
 form the second row of carpal bones. 1, 1, 1, 1, Metacarpal bones. 
 
 Fio. 36. THE HAND. 10, 10, 10, The metacarpal bones of the hand. 11, 11, First row 
 of finger-bones. 12, 12, Second row of finger-bones. 13, 13, Third row of finger-bones. 
 14, 15, The bones of the thumb. 
 
 106. The LOWER EXTREMITIES contain sixty bones : the 
 Fe'mur (thigh-bones) ; the Patel'la (knee-pan) ; the Tib'ia 
 (shin-bone) ; the Fib'ula (small bone of the leg) ; the Tarsus 
 (instep) ; the Metatar'sus (middle of the foot) ; and the Pha- 
 lan'ges (toes). 
 
 107. The FEMUR f is the strongest and longest bone of the 
 skeleton. It supports the weight of the head, trunk and 
 upper extremities. 
 
 * Gr., row. 
 
 f LaU, thigh. 
 
46 
 
 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 108. The PATELLA* is a small chestnut-shaped bone, 
 placed on the anterior part of the lower extremity of the 
 femur, and connected with the tibia by a strong ligament. 
 
 109. The TiBiAf is situated at the fore and inner part of 
 the leg. It is triangular in shape. 
 
 FIG. 37. FIG. 38 
 
 Fia. 37. THE FEMUR. 1, The shaft. 2, A projection (trochanter minor), to which are 
 attached strong muscles. 4, The trochanter major, to which are attached the large 
 muscles of the hip. 3, The head of the femur. 5, The external projection or condyle 
 of the femur. 6, The internal projection or condyle. 7, The surface of the lower ex- 
 tremity of the femur, that articulates with the tibia, and upon which the patella slides. 
 
 FIG. 38. THE BONES OF THE LEG.!, The tibia. 5, The fibula. 8, The space between 
 the two, filled with the interosseous ligament. 6, The articulation of the tibia and fibula 
 at their upper extremity. 2, The malleolar process, or external ankle. 3, The inter-mal- 
 leolar process, or internal ankle. 4, The surface of the lower extremity of the tibia, that 
 unites with a tarsal bone to form the ankle-joint. 7, The upper extremity of the tibia, 
 npon which the lower extremity of the femur rests. 
 
 * Lat., little dish. 
 
 f Lat., & flute. 
 
THE BONES. 47 
 
 110. The FIBULA* is smaller than the tibia and of similar 
 shape. It is firmly bound to the tibia at each extremity. 
 
 111. The TARSUS is formed of seven irregular bones, firmly 
 bound together by a few large and strong ligaments, and by 
 a great number of short fibres that extend between the con- 
 tiguous bones, both on the back and sole of the foot. 
 
 112. The METATARSUS consists of five bones, they bear a 
 close resemblance to the metacarpus of the hand. The tarsal 
 and metatarsal bones are so united as to give the foot the 
 form of a double arch. 
 
 113. The PHALANGES of the toes have fourteen bones, each 
 of the small toes having three, and the great toe, two rows. 
 
 FIG. 39. 
 
 FIG. 39. THE UPPER SURFACE OP THE BONES OF THE FOOT. 1, The surface of the astra- 
 gulus, or ankle-bone, where it unites with the tibia. 2, The body of the astragulus. 
 3, Calcis, or heel-bone. 4, The scaphoid. 5, 6, 7, The cuneiform. 8, The cuboid. 9, 9, 9, 
 The metatarsal bones. 10, 11, The phalanges of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The phalanges 
 of the other toes. 
 
 114. The JOINTS are formed by the ends of bones, usually 
 enlarged and variously united according to the purposes to 
 be subserved. Generally, one surface is somewhat convex 
 and the other correspondingly concave, the two parts being 
 beautifully fitted to each other; associated with these, are 
 the Cartilages, Ligaments, and the Synovial Membrane. 
 With slight modifications, the classification of joints now 
 adopted was proposed by Galen nearly two thousand years 
 ago ; all the articulations being distributed into three groups 
 the Immovable (Synarthrosis) ; the Mixed (Amphiarthrosis) ; 
 and the Movable (Diarthrosis). 
 
 * Lat., a clasp. 
 
48 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 115. The IMMOVABLE JOINTS include the several kinds of 
 suture. A suture is called Serrated when the zigzag edges 
 are united as in the external plate of the skull ; iSqua'mose, 
 when the edges are beveled so that one overlaps the other as 
 in the union of the temporal and parietal bones; Lim'bous 
 when the borders of the adjacent bones are elevated, as in 
 the union of the parietal and occipital bones. Sometimes a 
 false suture occurs called Harmonia, where the opposed edges 
 are smooth and even, as in the internal plate of the skull, 
 the upper jaw-bones, the palate, and other bones. The fitting 
 of the teeth into their sockets, as a nail is driven into a board, 
 is called Gomphosis:* these are improperly classed with the 
 joints. 
 
 116. The MIXED JOINTS are those in which the opposed 
 surfaces of the bones are joined directly together by some 
 intermediate soft substance, which is fibrous externally, and 
 more or less cartilaginous toward its central part ; as between 
 the bodies of the vertebrae, and the two upper parts of the 
 sternum. 
 
 117. The MOVABLE JOINTS are the most perfect articula- 
 tions, being freely movable, for which purpose, they are covered 
 with cartilage where the surfaces are in contact, and provided 
 with synovial membrane, and connecting ligaments. They 
 are of three kinds the Planiform, the Hinge, and the Sail 
 and Socket joints. The Planiform is found where the sur- 
 faces of the bones are more or less plane, and the movements 
 gliding, as in the articulations of the tarsus and metatarsus, 
 the carpus and metacarpus ; in those of the collar-bone ; of 
 the lower jaw; of the articular processes of the cervical and 
 dorsal vertebrae; of the ribs with the vertebrae, and their 
 costal cartilages with the sternum ; and of the tibia with the 
 fibula: The Hinge joint (Ginglyform), where there is motion 
 in two directions only, backward and forward, as at the knee 
 and the elbow ; the ankle and the wrist ; and the joints of the 
 phalanges of the fingers, and the toes. In this joint, the end 
 
 * Gr., gomphos, a nail. 
 
THE BONES. 49 
 
 of one bone is so modeled as to present a median groove, and 
 two lateral projections; while the end of the other has a 
 median projection, and two lateral grooves: The Ball and 
 Socket joint (Enarthrosis), also called Rotary, where there is 
 free movement in all directions ; it consists of a cup-like 
 cavity in one bone, and a rounded extremity to fit it, in the 
 other bone, as seen in the hip and shoulder joints; the 
 socket at the hip is called the Acetab'ulum;* at the shoulder, 
 the Glenoid cavity. 
 
 118. There are certain forms of movable joints which re- 
 quire special description. The articulation between the upper 
 ends of the radius and ulna, may be called a ring or collar 
 joint; for the convex head of the radius plays into a very 
 shallow cavity of the ulna, and is bound to it by a ring of 
 ligament passing around the head of the radius. At the 
 wrist, by a similar arrangement, the head of the ulna plays 
 into the radius. The joint permitting the rotary motion of 
 the head, is somewhat similar ; a tooth-like projection of the 
 axis playing into the anterior part of the ring of the atlas is 
 held in position by transverse ligaments crossing behind it. 
 The articulation allowing the nodding motion of the head, 
 really consists of two separate joints, one on each side of the 
 median plane ; these joints are between the lower skull-bone 
 and the atlas. 
 
 8. HISTOLOGY OF THE BONES. Formation of Temporary Cartilage. 
 Intra- Cartilaginous Mode of one- Formation. Intr a- Membranous 
 Mode. Periosteum. Endosteum. Cartilages of the Joints. Synovial 
 Membrane. Ligaments. 
 
 119. The primitive basis, or plasma of the bone, is a sub- 
 transparent, glairy matter containing numberless minute 
 corpuscles. It gradually acquires firmness, and nucleated 
 cells appear, indicating the change into cartilage. As these 
 cells increase in number and size, they become aggregated in 
 rows, or columns, with intercellular tracts where ossification 
 
 * Lat., acetum, vinegar, from resemblance to the vinegar-cup of the 
 ancients. 
 
 C 
 
50 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 is about to begin. In the cartilaginous basis of long bones, 
 these rows are vertical to the ends; in that of flat bones, to 
 the margin. 
 
 120. The first appearance of bone is that of minute granules 
 in the intercellular tracts. Afterward, the cartilage corpuscles 
 become filled with these granules in all parts excepting their 
 nuclei, which remain isolated in the bony substance. From 
 these proceed minute canals, which become enlarged, forming 
 the cavities called Lacu'nce. These everywhere connect with 
 each other by minute tubes, called Canalic'uli. One layer 
 
 FIG. 40. FIG. 41. 
 
 FIG. 40 (Ltidy). AN OSSEOUS LACUNA, exhibiting its numert is diverging canaliculi ; 
 highly magnified. 
 FIG. 41 (Lessing). HAVEKSIAN CANAL, lacunas and connecting canaliculi. 
 
 of cells after another is thus converted into bony plates, till 
 the whole column is filled excepting a fine central tube called 
 the Canal of Havers. This microscopic, osseous cylinder is 
 called an ossicle, and is a true miniature of any one of the 
 long bones. The compact portion of all bones is made up of 
 these ossicles, which, under the microscope, resemble bundles 
 of pipe-stems, placed side by side ; the interspaces being filled 
 with -lamellated bone-substance. This mode of bone-forma- 
 tion, is called Intra-cartilaginous. 
 
 121. There is another mode of bone-development widely 
 distributed through the body, called Intra-membranous ; as 
 seen in the flat bones. The membrane in which this ossifica- 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 51 
 
 tion takes place seems to consist of soft, amorphous matter, 
 containing granular corpuscles. From certain points, called 
 centres of ossification, the growing bone shoots into the soft 
 substance in the form of transparent fibres which gradually 
 become charged with earthy salts. The number of these 
 centres varies in different bones the parietal having one; 
 the frontal, two ; the occipital, four ; and others, still more. 
 It is supposed that the corpuscles become the lacunae of the 
 bone. By the fibres radiating from the centres of ossifica- 
 tion, little grooves are formed which become the canals of 
 Havers. The lacunae connect with each other and with the 
 Haversian canals ; thus establishing a free communication 
 between all parts of the bone. 
 
 Fir.. 42. 
 
 
 Fws. 42 (Leidy). TRANSVERSE SECTION OF BONE FROM THE SHAFT OF THE FEMTTK; 
 highly magnified. The large circular orifices are transverse sections of the Havers 
 canals, surrounded by concentric layers of osseous substance. Between the latter are 
 ueen the lenticular cxcavatiuun or lacuna? intercommunicating by means of canaliculi. 
 
52 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 122. The long bones are hollow cylinders compact upon 
 the exterior, and cancellated, or spongy within. This open 
 texture increases toward the ends, which it entirely fills ex- 
 cepting the very thin, hard wall. The cylindrical cavity is 
 filled with a yellowish fat called Medul'la, consisting of soft, 
 delicate adipose cells. 
 
 FIG. 43. 
 
 FIG. 44. 
 
 FIG. 43 (Leidy). LONGITUDINAL SECTION OP THE PROXIMAL EXTREMITY OF THE FEMUR, 
 exhibiting the arrangement of the spongy substance. 1, 2, Positions in which tho com- 
 pact substance apjpears to resolve itself into a series of arches. 
 
 FIG. 44. A VERTICAL SECTION OP THE KNEE-JOINT. 1, The femur. 3, The patolla. 
 6, The tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the patella. 6, Cartilage of the tibia. 12, The cartilage 
 of the femur. * * * *, The synovial membrane. 
 
 123. With the exception of the cartilage-tipped extremities, 
 the bones are invested with a dense, white-fibrous membrane, 
 called Peri'osteum;* and even at the joints it may be traced 
 over the capsular ligaments, thus realizing the opinion of the 
 ancients that the periosteum formed a complete sac for the 
 whole skeleton. Nor is this true of the external only ; for, 
 continuous with the periosteum, and lining the medullary 
 cavity and various openings of the bone, there is a web-like 
 
 Lat., peri, around, and os, a bone. 
 
THE BONES. 53 
 
 and very vascular membrane of extreme tenuity, called En- 
 dos'teum, * or Internal Periosteum. 
 
 124. In order to facilitate the movements of bones upon 
 each other, they are covered at the joints, with a thinnish 
 layer of CARTILAGE or gristle a tough, elastic, pearly-white 
 substance, very smooth on the free surface (25). Upon con- 
 vex surfaces, it is thickest in the centre, while upon concave 
 surfaces, it is thickest toward the circumference. This car- 
 tilage is sometimes interposed as a ring, forming a movable 
 socket, which, like the friction- wheels of machinery, aids the 
 motion of the joint. This arrangement is seen in the lower 
 jaw, the cartilage being attached to the synovial membrane, 
 but perfectly movable and following the movements of the 
 jaw, thus preventing dislocation. 
 
 125. The SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE (40) secretes a viscid 
 fluid, called Syn'ovia, which lubricates the movable joints. 
 This membrane is of three kinds; the Articular Capsules, 
 the Bursce Mucosce, and the Sub-cutaneous Synovial Capsules. 
 The Articular Capsule forms a complete sac, which covers the 
 articular surface of one bone, and is thence reflected to the 
 other, adhering closely to the borders of each of the car- 
 tilaginous surfaces. The Bursce Mucosce, are pouches of syno- 
 vial membrane interposed between bones and the tendons 
 that play upon them like cords upon pulleys ; they also occur 
 where tendons or muscles move upon ligaments, fibro-car- 
 tilages, or upon each other. Tendons moving through grooves 
 of bone are enclosed in a synovial tube which is reflected 
 upon itself so as to line the groove within which the motion 
 takes place. The Sub-cutaneous Capsule, or membrane, is 
 found wherever the skin is frequently moved over a resisting 
 part, as between the skin and patella at the knee. Wherever 
 a number of tendons move upon one another, this membrane 
 is folded around and among them ; it appears to have the 
 same function as the bursse mucosae. 
 
 126. Outside the synovial membrane, and more or less 
 
 * Gr., within, and os, bone. 
 5* 
 
54 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 connected with it, are the special ties of the joints, called 
 LIGAMENTS. These ligaments are composed of white-fibrous 
 tissue and are named Cap'sular, Band-like, and Funic'ular. 
 The Capsular Ligaments are cylindrical sacs, extending com- 
 pletely around the joints, and blending with the periosteum,. 
 This form is found with the ball-and-socket joint. The hip 
 and the shoulder joints furnish perfect examples of the liga- 
 mentous capsule. The Band-like Ligaments are broad bands 
 of parallel fibres, found with the hinge-joint ; and sometimes, 
 where great strength is needed, as accessory to the capsular 
 ligament. The Funicular Ligaments are cords round or flat, 
 which extend from one bone to another, sometimes within 
 and sometimes without the joint. An example is seen in the 
 two ligaments crossing each other within the knee-joint, also 
 in the single ligament within and connecting the ball-and- 
 socket joint of the hip. 
 
 FIG. 45. FIG. 46. 
 
 - PIG. 45 (Leidy). THE RIGHT KNEE-JOINT, laid open from the front. 1, Articular sur- 
 face of the femur. 2, 3, Crucial ligaments. 4, Insertion of one of these ligaments into 
 the tibia. 6, 7, Internal and external semi-lunar fibro-cartilages. 8, Ligament of the 
 patella turned down, so as to exhibit the synovial bursa (9) beneath. 10, Superior tibio- 
 fibular articulation. 11, Interosseous membrane. 
 
 FIG. 46 (Leidy), FRONT VIEW OF THE RIGHT KNEE-JOINT. 1, Tendon of the quadri- 
 ceps extensor muscle. 2, Patella. 3, Ligament of the patella, or tendinous insertion of 
 the muscle just mentioned. 4, 4, Capsular ligament. 5, 6, Internal and external lateral 
 ligaments. 7, Superior tibio-fibular articulation. 
 
THE BONES. 55 
 
 \ 9, CHEMISTRY OF THE BONES. Chemical Composition of the Bones. 
 Experiments showing Earthy and Animal Matter. 
 
 127. Bones are composed of both animal and mineral mat- 
 ter ; the animal matter being in excess in early life, and the 
 mineral, in old age. The average proportion is about thirty- 
 three per cent, animal matter (cartilage and blood-vessels) ; 
 and sixty-seven per cent, mineral, of which fifty-one parts are 
 bone-earth (phosphate of lime) ; eleven parts chalk (carbonate 
 of lime) ; the remaining parts are fluor spar (fluoride of cal- 
 cium) ; phosphate of magnesia; and common salt (chloride of 
 sodium). 
 
 Observation. To show the earthy without the animal mat- 
 ter, burn a bone in a clear fire, and it becomes white and 
 brittle, the animal part having been consumed. To show 
 the animal without the earthy matter, immerse a slender 
 bone, for a few days, in weak acid (one part muriatic acid 
 and six parts water) and it becomes flexible, the earthy mat- 
 ter having been removed. 
 
 \ IO. PHYSIOLOGY OP THE BONES. General Uses of the Bones. 
 Adaptation of their Structure to their Uses. Skill as shown in the 
 Skull. In the Spinal Column. In the Ribs. In the Pelvis. In the 
 Upper Extremities. In the Lower Extremities. In the Long Bones. 
 The uses of the Joints. Classification of the Joints. Of Movable Joints. 
 Function of the Synovia. Of the Cartilages. Of the Ligaments. Of 
 the Periosteum. Perfection of this part of the Animal Fabric. 
 
 128. THE BONES serve as the framework of the system ; 
 as bases for the attachment of muscles; as levers for the 
 organs of locomotion ; as pulleys for the passage of tendons ; 
 and as protection for the delicate internal organs. In their 
 adaptation to their several offices, they exhibit a perfection 
 of mechanism worthy the infinite mind of the DIVINE 
 ARCHITECT. 
 
 129. In the minutest structure of the bones as revealed by 
 the microscope, we find the delicate tissues so disposed as to 
 give the greatest amount of strength and lightness, and a 
 certain degree of elasticity qualities essential to the per- 
 
56 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 formance of their several offices. In their more general 
 structure, we see regard to the same qualities, the exterior 
 being dense and compact, the interior, spongy, or cancellated. 
 Take any bone, or series of bones, and note their peculiar 
 configurations and the purposes to be subserved, and there 
 appears the same marked evidence of special care and skill- 
 ful mechanism. 
 
 130. In the arrangement of the SKULL for the protection 
 of the brain, the oval form (the form best adapted to resist 
 pressure equally applied on all sides) ; the thickened base 
 where the most important part of the brain lies ; the strong 
 and narrow prominences, both in front and back, where most 
 exposed to violence ; the tough and hard plates to resist the 
 penetration of sharp substances ; the intervening spongy layer 
 to diminish vibrations ; the separate bones, and the serrated 
 unions of the external plates, also to lessen shocks ; the simple 
 contact of plane edges in the internal vitreous plate, where 
 zigzag edges would be easily broken ; the projections, de- 
 pressions, and apertures for the safe passage of nerves and 
 blood-vessels all combine to accomplish the one object, 
 protection. 
 
 131. To construct the SPINAL COLUMN was no easy me- 
 chanical problem. These offices were to be taken into the 
 account : 1. It must support the head ; 2, furnish an axis of 
 support for the other parts of the body ; 3, allow a bending 
 and somewhat rotary movement; 4, furnish a basis for the 
 attachment of muscles ; 5, provide passages and protection 
 for the spinal cord and nerves ; 6, the whole must be arranged 
 with reference to the importance and delicacy of the brain. 
 
 132. To furnish proper support, it must possess firmness 
 and strength ; these are secured by the broad bases of the 
 vertebrae, which increase in size according to the increase of 
 weight to be supported, by the powerful ligaments extend- 
 ing the length of the column, and by the interlocking of the 
 projections of the vertebrae : To secure the necessary rotary 
 movement, there are short horizontal processes in the cervical 
 and lumbar regions, while those of the dorsal vertebrae, where 
 
THE BONES. 57 
 
 movement is not required, are long and extend downward ; 
 flexibility and firmness are two qualities difficult to unite, 
 but here the union is effected by making the vertebrae of 
 short bones and increasing their number, and by the me- 
 chanical arrangement of the fibres of the disks between the 
 vertebrae: To furnish an attachment for muscles, are the 
 dense processes, which vary in size, form, and direction, ac- 
 cording to the requirements of the muscles to be attached : 
 To provide for the spinal cord, each vertebra has a perfora- 
 tion, and these openings, coming directly over each other, 
 form a bony canal, while at the sides of this canal, are 
 apertures for the passage of nerves ; the spinal cord is still 
 farther protected by the elastic ligaments between the arches 
 of the vertebrae, allowing no openings in the bending of the 
 body; and by the number of the vertebrae, for were there 
 only three or four bones, the cord would be injured at every 
 angle : The number of vertebrae, the cartilage cushions, and 
 the four curves of the column, all tend to secure the brain 
 from shocks it would otherwise receive, from walking, leap- 
 ing, and running. 
 
 133. The KIBS serve to protect the delicate organs of the 
 chest. These slender bones should be elastic and movable : 
 The first quality is secured by the cartilaginous union to the 
 sternum ; the second, by their cartilages, their articulations 
 with the spine, and their oblique position. 
 
 134. The PELVIS not only furnishes support for the upper 
 part of the body, and the articulations of the lower extremi- 
 ties, but also serves as a base for the attachment of the power- 
 ful erector muscles of the spine, the muscles for moving the 
 lower limbs, and the muscles which shut in the abdominal 
 and pelvic cavities. 
 
 135. The form and proportion of the UPPER EXTREMITIES 
 relate to the hand, which belongs exclusively to man, and gives 
 the power of execution to the human mind : Thus, the arm is 
 longer than the fore-arm, and this, longer than the hand, 
 securing greater mobility, flexibility, and power of adaptation 
 as we approach this delicate organ of prehension. It is the 
 
 C* 
 
58 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 relative position of the four fingers to the thumb, however, 
 which principally stamps the character of the hand, as this 
 construction permits its adaptation to every shape, and gives 
 that complete dominion which it possesses over the various 
 forms of matter. 
 
 136. The LOWER EXTREMITIES have a strong analogy to 
 the upper, the differences being only such as are necessary to 
 constitute them organs of locomotion rather than of prehen- 
 sion; hence, their solidity, at the expense of their mobility. 
 The tarsal and metatarsal bones form a strong arch toward 
 the inner and lower surface of the foot, protecting the vessels, 
 nerves, and tendons, passing from the leg to the foot, and the 
 opposite. 
 
 FIG. 47. 
 
 FIG. 47. A SIDE VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE FOOT, SHOWING ITS ARCHED FORM. The 
 arch rests upon the hed behind, and the 'ball of the toes in front. 1, The lower part of 
 the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the tarsus. 6, The metatarsal bone. 7, 8, The bones of the 
 great toe. 
 
 137. The shafts of long bones are made hollow, giving not 
 only lightness but strength, according to the well-known prin- 
 ciple in mechanics, that, with a given amount of material, a 
 hollow cylinder will sustain more weight than a solid one, 
 both being of the same height : (The same principle is illus- 
 trated in the culms of grasses.) We find the walls most 
 compact, and the cavity broadest at the middle of the cylin- 
 der, the part subjected to the greatest strain ; we find the ex- 
 tremities enlarged, to give a broader surface for the attach- 
 ment of muscles, and often to change the direction in the 
 
THE BONES. 59 
 
 action of muscular power; also more spongy in texture, to 
 increase the size without corresponding increase of weight. 
 
 138. THE JOINTS. The uses of the joints are to enable the 
 body to sustain greater weight (as several short pillars will 
 support more weight than a single pillar of the same height 
 and thickness) ; to dimmish the force of blows or shocks ; to 
 afford freedom of movement; to provide fulcrums for the 
 various levers ; to modify the direction in the action of mus- 
 cular power, and to determine the plane of action. 
 
 139. For simple union without movement, we find the 
 Immovable joint; for great strength and little movement, 
 the Mixed joint; and for full freedom of movement, the 
 Movable joint. Of the movable joints for motion in one 
 plane and two directions, we find the Hinge-joint; for the 
 gliding movement, the Planiform joint ; and for free rotary 
 motion, the Ball-and-Socket joint. At the hip, the socket is 
 very deep, giving strength; at the shoulder, it is shallow, 
 giving unrestricted motion; everywhere the configuration 
 and the use correspond. 
 
 140. The use of the SYNOVIA is to enable the surfaces of the 
 bones to move more easily upon each other, preventing fric- 
 tion and consequent wear. No machine of human invention 
 manufactures for itself the necessary lubricating fluid, but, 
 in the animal mechanism, it is supplied in proper quantities, 
 applied in the proper places, and at the proper time. 
 
 141. CARTILAGE tips -the articular extremities of bones, 
 facilitating the sliding motion, and deadening shocks ; and in 
 various parts of the body it serves as an elastic cushion, 
 yielding on compression and regaining its form when the 
 pressure is removed. 
 
 142. The function of the LIGAMENTS is to bind together 
 the bones of the system. By them the lower jaw is bound to 
 the temporal bones, and the head to the neck ; they extend 
 the length of the spinal column, between the vertebrae, and 
 from one spinous process to another ; they bind the ribs to 
 the vertebrae, and the sternum ; the sternum to the clavicle ; 
 the clavicle to the first rib and the scapula ; the scapula to 
 
60 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the humerus; the bones of the fore-arm at the elbow-joint 
 and also at the wrist ; the bones of the wrist to each other, 
 and to those of the hand ; and these to each other, and to 
 those of the fingers and thumb : In the same manner they 
 bind the bones of the pelvis together ; and these to the femur, 
 or thigh-bone ; and this to the two bones of the leg and the 
 patella, or knee-pan ; and so on to the ankle, foot and toes, as 
 in the upper extremities. The bones of the wrist and those 
 of the foot are as firmly fastened as if bound by clasps of 
 steel. 
 
 143. The PERIOSTEUM serves to transmit blood-vessels into 
 the bone, thus furnishing nutriment; it gives insertion to 
 muscles, tendons and ligaments ; obviates the effects of fric- 
 tion ; strengthens the whole skeleton as an investing mem- 
 brane, and possesses some agency in the process of ossifi- 
 cation. 
 
 144. We have noticed but a few of the many wonderful 
 examples of skill, wisdom and benevolence exhibited in the 
 internal framework of the animal fabric. Each bone, how- 
 ever small, illustrates some profound principle of science; 
 each is perfect in its adaptation to a specific use. The whole 
 structure is a faultless piece of mechanism, in which every 
 known principle of architecture and dynamics has been 
 brought into service. 
 
 s 
 
 \ 11. HYGIENE OF THE BONES. Effect of Exercise upon the Bones of 
 Children. Effect of Compression. Of Stooping. Treatment of Frac- 
 tures. Of Sprains. Of Felons. 
 
 145. The health of the bones is promoted by regular exercise. 
 The kind and amount of labor, should be adapted to the age, 
 health, and development of the bones ; neither the cartilaginous 
 bones of the child, nor the brittle bones of the aged man, are 
 adapted to long-continued and severe exercise. While pro- 
 tracted exercise in childhood is injurious, moderate and regu- 
 lar labor favors a healthy development and consolidation of 
 the bones. In middle age, the proportions of animal and 
 earthy matter are usually such as to give the proper degree 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 61 
 
 of flexibility, firmness and strength, with little liability to 
 injury. 
 
 146. The lower extremities of the very young, are not adapted 
 to sustaining much weight; hence, to induce a child to walk, 
 or to stand by chairs, while the bones of the lower limbs are 
 imperfectly developed, is ill-advised and productive of serious 
 injury. The "bandy" or "bow" legs are thus produced. 
 The benches or chairs for children in a school-room, should 
 permit the feet to rest upon the floor, otherwise the weight of 
 the limbs below the knee, may cause the flexible bone of the 
 thigh to become curved ; the chairs should also have suitable 
 backs, and the child be allowed fre.quent change of position. 
 
 FIG. 48. 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 FIG. 48. NATURAL POSITION when the feet aro supported. 
 FIG. 49. UNNATURAL POSITION when a seat is too high. 
 
 147. Compression of the chest should be avoided. In youth, 
 the ribs are very flexible, and a small amount of pressure 
 will increase their curvature, particularly at the lower part 
 of the waist. By tight or " snug" clothing the ribs are drawn 
 down, and the space between them lessened, so that in some 
 
62 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 instances, the anterior extremities of the lower ribs are brought 
 quite together ; hence, the apparel should be loose and sup- 
 ported by the shoulders, both for children and adults. 
 
 148. An erect position both in sitting and standing should be 
 carefully maintained. The spinal column naturally curves 
 from front to back, but not from side to side. The admirable 
 arrangement of the bones and cartilages permits a great variety 
 of motions and positions, the elasticity of the cartilages always 
 tending to restore the spine to its natural position ; but if a 
 stooping, or a lateral curved posture be continued for a long 
 time, the compressed edges of the cartilages lose their power 
 of reaction, and finally, one side becomes thinned, while the 
 other is thickened. These wedge-shaped cartilages produce 
 permanent curvature of the spine, which is often attended 
 with disease of the spinal cord. 
 
 FIG. 50. 
 
 FIG. 51. 
 
 Fio. 50. A CHEST well proportioned. 
 FIG. 51. A CHEST fashionably deformed. 
 
 149. The student, seamstress, and artisan, frequently ac- 
 quire a stooping position, by inclining forward to bring their 
 books or work nearer the eyes. The desk of the pupil is 
 
THE BONES. 63 
 
 often higher than the elbow as it hangs from the shoulder at 
 rest, consequently, in drawing, writing, and often in studying, 
 one shoulder is elevated and the other depressed, distorting 
 the spine. In the daily employments of life, children" should 
 early be taught to use the left hand and shoulder more freely. 
 Distortions of the chest necessarily accompany deformity of 
 the spine, and disease of the heart and lungs follows, compared 
 to which, the loss of symmetry is a minor consideration. 
 
 FIG. 52. 
 
 FIG. 52. A DEFORMED THORAX AND SPINAL COLUMN. 
 
 150. Eminent physicians, both in this country and Europe, 
 state that, among the fashionably educated, not one female in 
 ten escapes deformities of the shoulders and spinal column. 
 The student, to prevent as well as to cure slight curvatures 
 of the spine, should walk with a book, or a heavier weight 
 upon the head. Porters and laborers of some countries, bear 
 very great burdens upon their heads, and walk at a rapid 
 pace with comparative ease. Itinerant toymen carry securely 
 
64 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 their trays of fragile merchandise, because the head and 
 spinal column are erect. 
 
 FIG. 53. 
 
 FIG. 63. CORRECT POSITION IN SITTING.!, 1, The spinal column straight ; the shoul- 
 ders of equal height. 
 
 151. Fractured or diseased bones and ligaments should re- 
 ceive special attention. In fractured bones, a surgeon's care is 
 not only needed to adjust the parts, but for several weeks, to 
 watch the reunion, that the limb may not be crooked or 
 shortened. In sprains, the ligaments are not usually lacerated, 
 but strained and twisted, causing much pain, and afterward 
 inflammation and weakness of the joints. To effect a cure, 
 there should be absolute rest for days, and perhaps weeks. 
 More persons are crippled from ill-cared-for sprains, than 
 fractured bones. Persons enfeebled by disease, particularly 
 scrofula, cannot be too assiduous, in adopting an early and 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 65 
 
 proper treatment of injured joints, to prevent the affection, 
 called " white swelling." 
 
 Observation. The disease called "Felon" is an inflamma- 
 tion that commences in or beneath the periosteum. It is 
 attended with severe, throbbing pain, and the unyielding 
 structure of the parts prevents much swelling. The only 
 successful treatment of this painful affection, is an early, free 
 opening through the periosteum to the surface of the bone. 
 The earlier the incision is made, the less the risk and the 
 suffering. 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 FIG. 54. INCORRECT POSITION us SITTING. 1, 1, Three curves of the spine; the shonl* 
 .lors of unequal height. 
 
 6* 
 
66 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
THE BONES. 67 
 
 \ 12. COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY. Classification of Animals according 
 to their Plan of Structure. Classification of Vertebrates. Compare 
 Spinal Columns of Vertebrates. Bones of the Head. Of the Thorax. 
 Of the Extremities. 
 
 152. The tissues, cells, and chemical composition of all 
 animals are essentially the same, but their different appoint- 
 ments in the plan of creation require special conformations. 
 Animals have therefore been arranged, according to their 
 plan of structure, into four sub-kingdoms : 1. VERTEBRATA, 
 including man and other animals having an internal skeleton 
 with a back-bone as itsbasis, the bones being composed chiefly 
 of phosphate of lime : 2. ARTICULATA, comprising animals 
 having an external skeleton made up of similar segments, or 
 rings, consisting mostly of the carbonate of lime ; as insects, 
 lobsters and worms : 3. MOLLUSCA, including soft-bodied ani- 
 mals covered with a hard shell consisting of one or two pieces, 
 also composed of carbonate of lime ; as cuttlefish, oysters, 
 clams, and snails : 4. R ADI ATA, having no proper skeleton or 
 shell-covering, but parts more or less symmetrically arranged 
 about a vertical axis ; as star-fishes, sea-anemones and coral 
 animals. 
 
 153. The Vertebrata are classified as Mammals (including 
 man, monkeys, bats, quadrupeds, etc.), Birds, Reptiles and 
 Fishes. 
 
 154. The VERTEBRAL COLUMN of all Mammals is similar 
 to that of man. The cervical vertebrae, with two exceptions, 
 number seven : the dorsal, average thirteen ; the lumbar, 
 from three to seven; the sacral, usually four; the caudal, 
 from four (the number of the coccyx in man) to forty-six. 
 The length of any part of the column seems to depend not so 
 much upon the number of the vertebrae as upon their length ; 
 thus we find seven cervical vertebrae in the long-necked giraffe 
 and in the short-necked mole. In Birds, the flexibility of the 
 neck enables any part of the body to be reached by the beak. 
 This is owing to the ball-and-socket articulations, and to the 
 great number of cervical vertebrae, which in the swan are 
 twenty-four; in the ostrich, eighteen; and in the domestic 
 
68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 cock, thirteen. The dorsal vertebras vary from seven to 
 eleven, and are generally consolidated into one ; but in birds 
 that do not fly, they remain distinct and movable. The 
 lumbar and sacral vertebrae are united into one. The last 
 caudal vertebra has a large, strong process for the support 
 of the large feathers. In Reptiles, the vertebrae vary in num- 
 ber from some twenty-four, as in the frog, to four hundred, as 
 in some snakes, as the Python. Perhaps about one hundred 
 is the average number. In Fishes there are but two kinds of 
 vertebra, the dorsal and the caudal, and these vary in num- 
 ber from twenty to two hundred. The vertebral bodies pre- 
 sent a conical, cup-like depression on each side, which contains 
 a gelatinous fluid having the same use as the elastic inter- 
 vertebral substances in mammals. 
 
 FIG. 56. 
 
 is 
 
 FIG. 56. SKELETON OP A BIRD. 1, The head. 2, Cervical vertebrae. 3, Dorsal and lum- 
 bar vertebrae. 4, Scapula. 5, Clavicle. 6, Coracoid bone. 7, Sternum. 8, Humerus. 
 9, Radius. 10, Ulna. 11, Carpus. 12, Metacarpus. 13, 13, Phalanges (fingers). 14, 
 Femur. 15, Tibia. 16, Fibula. 17, Tarsus. 18, Metatarsus. 19, Phalanges (toes). 
 
THE BONES. 69 
 
 155. The BONES OF THE HEAD of all the Mammals re- 
 semble, in many points, those of man. In some quadrupeds, 
 as the horse and the cow, the frontal bone is in two parts ; id 
 others, the two parietal bones are united : Between the two 
 upper maxillary bones, are two small bones called inter- 
 maxillary; the lower jaw consists of two pieces. In Birds, 
 the bones of the head, in number and position, resemble 
 mammals, but they are early united, leaving no trace of the 
 sutures. The superior mandible, or upper jaw, of the bird is 
 so articulated with the cranium as to admit of motion inde- 
 pendent of the lower jaw (which never occurs in mammals), 
 and the inferior mandible, instead of 'being articulated directly 
 with the cranium, is connected through the intermedium of 
 a distinct bone called the Os Quadratum. In Reptiles the 
 head-bones are irregular in form, and greatly vary in num- 
 ber. In Fishes the bones of the head are numerous and 
 irregular, and their study is a matter of much interest in 
 acquiring a full knowledge of Natural History. 
 
 156. The obvious use of the CLAVICLE is to maintain the 
 shoulders apart; hence in quadrupeds, where its presence 
 would be a defect, it is wanting, as in the horse and cow. 
 The clavicles of Birds are peculiar ; they unite at their ante- 
 rior extremity, forming a forked bone called furcula, or wish- 
 bone. In birds of powerful flight, as the eagle, the clavicles 
 are very strong ; in others, as the domestic turkey, they are 
 weak. Connecting the scapula to the sternum is the cor'acoid 
 bone, which is placed side by side with the furcula, and is 
 the main source of support to the wings in flight. In some 
 Reptiles, as the tortoise, both the clavicle and the coracoid 
 bone are found, while in others, as serpents, both are want- 
 ing. In Fishes the true clavicle is wanting, but in some 
 species there is a modified form of the coracoid bone, free at 
 its lower extremities, which may, perhaps, be considered as 
 homologous with the coracoid bone or clavicle of the higher 
 animals. 
 
 157. The SCAPULA is present in all Mammals and Birds, 
 and most Reptiles and Fishes. 
 
70 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 57. 
 
 FIG. 57. SKELETON OF A TORTOISE.!, Cervical, 2, Dorsal, 3, Lumbar vertebrae. 4, 
 Scapula. 5, Clavicle. 6, Coracoid bone. 13, Htimerus. 14, Ulna. 15, Radius. 16, 
 Carpus. 17, Phalanges (fingers). 7, Femur. 8, Tibia. 9, Fibula. 10, Tarsus. 11, Meta- 
 tarsus. 12, Phalanges (toes). 
 
 158. The STERNUM of birds is the largest bone in their 
 bodies. It has upon its anterior surface a ridge resembling 
 the keel of a ship, for the support of the pectoral muscles 
 used in flying. The size is proportioned to the powers of 
 flight; hence in the little humming-bird, which is on the 
 wing most of the day, it reaches the maximum of develop- 
 ment. Of the Reptiles, serpents have no sternum ; but in 
 turtles, it has an extraordinary development, and extends 
 from the base of the neck to the commencement of the tail, 
 forming the ventral part, of the shell-covering. In some 
 Fishes, the sternum is represented by a chain of bones. 
 
THE BONES. 71 
 
 159. The RIBS are much alike in all Mammals. In Birds, 
 the cartilage that unites the rib to the sternum is osseous, 
 giving solidity to the chest. In some Reptiles, as lizards, 
 crocodiles, and other reptiles formed in the same way, the 
 ribs are more numerous than in mammals and birds, and 
 protect the abdomen as well as the chest. In the turtle, the 
 ribs are expanded, forming the dorsal part of its shell, or the 
 roof of its portable dwelling-house. In serpents, the lower 
 or anterior extremities of the ribs have no cartilage : they 
 aid in progressive movement, or crawling, as, under the skin, 
 their ends can be placed on the ground like feet. In some 
 Fishes, the ribs are wanting ; in others, they are very com- 
 plete and surround the trunk ; in still others, they are con- 
 nected with a chain of bones representing the sternum. 
 
 FIG. 58. 
 
 FIG. 58. THE SKELETON OF A HADDOCK. 
 
 160. The HUMERUS is usually a long, hollow bone, with a 
 rounded head at the upper extremity, but in animals that 
 swim or burrow, it is short and flattened at the ends for the 
 attachment of muscles, thus enabling the fore-limbs to be 
 used with much force. In Birds, the humerus is larger than 
 the femur, contrary to the relative proportion in man. 
 
 161. The RADIUS and ULNA are present in most Mammals, 
 but they are incapable of moving upon each other. In Birds, 
 they are longer in proportion than in Mammals, especially in 
 birds of flight. 
 
72 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 162. The CARPUS of Mammals is made up of two rows, but 
 the number of bones varies from five to eleven. In Birds, it 
 is represented by two short bones. The METACARPUS usually 
 consists of five elongated bones, but, in the horse, only one 
 bone with two rudimentary ones are found. Most mammals 
 have five fingers, of which the thumb is generally rudi- 
 mentary. In some Birds, the thumb is entirely wanting, also 
 the little finger. The middle finger is longest, consisting of 
 two and even three bones. 
 
 163. The POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES of quadrupeds are 
 usually less modified than the anterior. In Birds, the 
 Femur is short ; the Tibia is the chief or longest bone of the 
 hind limb ; the Fibula is a small bone united at various dis- 
 tances down the tibia in different birds. A single bone re- 
 presents the Tarsus and Metatarsus ; this supports or carries 
 the toes, which in birds never exceed four in number. In 
 some Reptiles, as the tortoise, lizard and others, the anterior 
 and posterior limbs are composed of bones which, in number, 
 form, position and functions, much resemble the correspond- 
 ing ones in mammals and birds: in the serpent tribe, the 
 limbs are wanting. In Fishes the extremities are rudi- 
 mentary, being represented by fins. 
 
 Suggestion. The osteology of the three lower sub-kingdoms 
 o'f animals is replete with interest and instruction, but the 
 necessarily limited space of this elementary school-book en- 
 tirely precludes their consideration : allow us to advise all 
 who can command the leisure, to extend this study to the 
 beautiful and wonderful works of creation as seen in these 
 parts of the garden of the Lord. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 \ 13. ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. Law of Muscular Contraction. 
 Consequent Forms of Muscles. Modes of Attachment of Muscles. 
 Number and General Arrangement. Muscles of the Head and Neck. 
 Of the Upper Extremities. Of the Trunk. Of the Lower Extremities. 
 
 164. THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTY of muscles is con- 
 tractility, and the law is, that they shall contract toward the 
 centre. To accomplish this, there must be diversity of form, 
 adapting them to different positions ; hence, muscular fibres 
 are longitudinal, terminating at each extremity in a tendon, 
 forming a spindle-shaped or fusiform muscle; disposed like 
 the rays of a fan, converging to a tendinous point, a radiate 
 muscle; converging to one side of a tendon running the whole 
 length of a muscle, as one side of the plume of a feather to 
 its shaft, a penniform muscle; converging to both sides of the 
 tendon like an entire feather, a bi-penniform muscle; or run- 
 ning in a circular direction, an orbicular, or sphincter muscle. 
 
 FIG. 59. 
 
 12 34 
 
 FIG. 59. 1, A REPRESENTATION OF THE DIRECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE FIBRES 
 in a fusiform or spindle-shaped muscle. 2, In a radiated muscle. 3, In a penniform 
 muscle. 4, In a bi-penniforin muscle, t, t, The tendons of a muscle. 
 
 7 D 73 
 
74 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 165. Muscles are usually attached by both their extremities 
 to the bones, either directly, or indirectly by means of the 
 inelastic but flexible tendons, which may be cord-like (either 
 round or flattened) or flat and broad, supporting the organs 
 which they surround, and named Aponeuroses, or Fascice. 
 Sometimes the muscle is attached to bone by one extremity 
 only, the other being fixed to the skin or other soft part, as 
 certain of the muscles of the face: sometimes there is no 
 connection with bone, as in the orbicular muscle of the 
 mouth. When a muscle is attached to bone by one extremity 
 only, that attachment is called its origin, the other being 
 termed its insertion; when attached at both ends to the bones, 
 the attachment nearer the centre of the body, and which is 
 usually the more fixed point, is called the origin, while that 
 more distant and movable is named the insertion. Muscles 
 may have one, two, three, or many points of origin, and some 
 muscles have more than one point of insertion. 
 
 FIG. 60. 
 
 Fio. 60. A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NECK. The separate muscles, as they are 
 arranged in layers, with their investing fascise, are well represented. 12, The trachea. 
 13, The oesophagus. 14, Carotid artery and jugular vein. 28, One of the bones of the 
 spinal column. (The figures in the white spaces represent fascia ; other figures, muscles ; 
 as the system is symmetrical, figures are placed only on one side.) 
 
 166. The NUMBER of muscles in the human body is more 
 
THE MUSCLES. 75 
 
 than five hundred, In general, they form about the skeleton 
 two layers, distinguished as superficial, and deep-seated muscles ; 
 yet in some parts there are three, four, five, and even six 
 layers. 
 
 167. With the exception of twelve single muscles, they are 
 arranged in pairs. Each muscle has its antagonist; when 
 one contracts, the other relaxes. The muscles passing over 
 the back of a joint are usually called JExtensors, because they 
 serve to extend the part beyond the joint; while those lying 
 in front of the joint are, for the opposite reason, called 
 Flexors. 
 
 Examples. 1st, Clasp the arm midway between the shoul- 
 der and elbow, with the thumb and fingers of the opposite 
 hand ; when the arm is bent, the inside muscle is hard and 
 prominent, and the tendon near the elbow, rigid, while that 
 upon the opposite side is relaxed : straighten the arm, and 
 the outside muscle swells and becomes firm, while the inside 
 muscle and its tendon are relaxed. 
 
 2d, Clasp the fore-arm about three inches below the elbow, 
 then open and shut the fingers rapidly, and the alternate 
 contraction and relaxation of the muscles on the opposite 
 sides of the arm are felt, the movements corresponding to 
 those of the fingers: when the fingers bend, the inside 
 muscles contract, and the outside ones relax ; when the 
 fingers open, the inside muscles relax, and the outside con- 
 tract. This action of antagonist muscles may be felt in all 
 the different movements of the limbs. 
 
 MUSCLES OP THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 168. The OCCIPITO-FRONTALIS elevates the eyebrows. 
 The ORBICULARIS PALPEBRARUM closes the eyelids, and, 
 
 by pressing back the ball of the eye, it also compresses the 
 lachrymal gland and causes a flow of tears. 
 
 The ORBICULARIS ORIS closes the mouth, and enables the 
 lips to embrace any substance placed between them. It re- 
 ceives into its periphery the fibres of the surrounding muscles, 
 which meet here as in a common centre. It enters largely 
 
76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 61 
 
THE MUSCLES. 77 
 
 into the diversified expressions of the countenance, and in no 
 one respect exhibits more varied adaptations than in the 
 performance on wind instruments. 
 
 The MASSETER and TEMPORAL give motion to the lower 
 jaw. 
 
 The STERNO-CLEIDO-MASTOID, when both sides contract, 
 draws the head forward or elevates the sternum. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE TRUNK. 
 
 169. The PECTORALIS MAJOR draws the arm by the side, 
 and across the chest, and also draws the scapula forward. 
 
 The SERRATUS MAGNUS elevates the ribs in inspiration. 
 
 The OBLIQUUS EXTERNUS and RECTUS ABDOMINALIS 
 exert an equable pressure upon the organs contained in the 
 abdominal cavity ; when acting together they bend the body 
 forward or elevate the hips ; they also depress the ribs in 
 respiration. When the muscles of but one side act, the body 
 is twisted to that side. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE TRUNK. 
 
 170. The TRAPEZIUS, RHOMBOIDEUS MAJOR and MINOR 
 draw the scapula back toward the spine: the two latter 
 draw the scapula upward toward the head, and slightly 
 backward: the former draws the head back and elevates 
 the chin. 
 
 The LATISSIMUS DORSI draws the arm by the side and 
 backward. 
 
 The SERRATUS POSTICUS INFERIOR depresses the ribs in 
 expiration. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 
 
 171. The DELTOID raises the arm from the side of the 
 body to a horizontal position. 
 
 The BICEPS flexes the fore-arm on the arm, as in preparing 
 for striking a blow. 
 
 The TRICEPS extends the fore-arm on the arm ; it lies on 
 the back of the humerus and is used in striking a blow. 
 
78 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 62. 
 
 FIG. 62. THE DORSAL MUSCLES. The first, second, and part of the third layer of muscles 
 -of the back. The first layer is shown on the right, and the second on the left side. 
 1, The trapezius muscle. 4, The latissimus dorsi muscle. 5, The deltoid muscle. 7, 8, The 
 glutens medius muscle. 9, The glutens maximus muscle. 11, 12, The rhomboideus 
 major and minor muscles. 16, The serratus posticus inferior muscle. 22, The serratus 
 magnus muscle. 
 
 The FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS passes under the annular 
 ligament and bends the hand on the wrist. 
 
 The FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS bends the hand in the 
 direction of the ulna. 
 
 The FLEXOR DIGITORUM bends the fingers. 
 
 The EXTENSOR DIGITORUM extends the fingers. 
 
 The EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS extends the wrist on the 
 fore-arm. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 79 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 
 
 172. The GLUTEI give power of retaining the erect posi- 
 tion. 
 
 The SARTORIUS bends the lower extremities into the posi- 
 tion assumed by the tailor at his work. 
 
 The RECTUS FEMORIS, VASTUS EXTERNUS, and VASTUS 
 INTERNUS extend the leg on the thigh. 
 
 The TRICEPS ABDUCTOR FEMORIS bends the thigh on the 
 pelvis, rotates it outwardly and acts powerfully in bending 
 the limbs inward. 
 
 The BICEPS FEMORIS forms the outer hamstring, assists in 
 turning the leg outward, and also flexes it upon the thigh. 
 
 The EXTENSOR DIGITORIUM splits into four tendons which 
 pass under the annular ligament, and extend the four lesser 
 toes and flex the foot. 
 
 The PERONEUS LONGUS extends the foot and inclines the 
 sole obliquely outward. 
 
 The GASTROCHNEMIUS EXTERNUS raises the body in 
 walking, and extends the foot on the leg. 
 
 The TENDO-ACHILLES (heel-cord) is formed by the con- 
 joined tendons of the gastrochnemius externus and internus 
 (and plantaris). It lies directly beneath the fascia and in- 
 teguments. 
 
 \ 14. HISTOLOGY OP THE MUSCLES. Analysis of a Muscle. Sheaths 
 of Muscles. Voluntary or Striated, and Involuntary or Non-Striated 
 Muscle. Exciting Agents of Muscular Contractility. Tendons, Blood- 
 Vessels and Nerves. 
 
 173. A MUSCLE is separable into bundles of fibres called 
 Fasciculi; each bundle or fasciculus, into smaller fibres 
 (smaller fasciculi) ; each of the smaller fibres, into a multi- 
 tude of filaments, or fibrillce (fibrils) ; and each filament, or 
 fibrilla, into cells arranged in a linear series. Hence, a single 
 muscle is composed of some millions of these fibrillse com- 
 bined together, having the same point of attachment or 
 origin^ and concentrating in a tendon which is fixed to a 
 movable part, or the point of insertion. 
 
80 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 174. Each muscle is invested by a membranous covering 
 of areolar tissue, named the Perimys'ium; from this, thin par- 
 titions pass inward between the large and small fasciculi, so 
 that, were it possible to remove the muscular substance, there 
 would remain a delicate areolar network of the exact shape 
 of the muscle and its parts. Each elementary fibre or fascic- 
 ulus is enclosed in a very thin, transparent, structureless 
 sheath, called Myolem'ma; this sheath is entirely distinct from 
 that of the areolar tissue ; it isolates each ultimate fasciculus 
 and probably gives off a sheath to each fibril. 
 
 d 
 
 FIG. 63 (Lady). DEVELOPMENT OF STRIATED MUSCULAR FIBRE, FROM CELLS. a, Simple 
 cell. 6, A pair of cells fused together, c, Three cells fused, and their contents as- 
 suming the striated character, d, A muscular fibre, exhibiting its original composi- 
 tion of cells. 
 
 175. Muscles are of two classes Striated and Non-Striated; 
 the former are also called Voluntary, being, in their normal 
 action, under the control of the will ; the latter, Involuntary, 
 acting independently of the will, as the heart, the stomach 
 and the intestines. The Myolemma, or sheath, so distinct in 
 the striated or voluntary muscle, cannot be shown to exist in 
 the involuntary or non-striated muscle. The heart seems to 
 be a connecting link between the two classes, as it is involun- 
 tary in action, yet composed of striated muscle ; the sheath, 
 however, is wanting. 
 
 176. The " Vis Musculosa," or contractility of the muscle, 
 is excited on the application of certain stimuli ; these may 
 be Meehanical, as the touch of a sharp instrument ; Chemical, 
 as acids and alkalies; Electrical, as in shocks; and Vital, 
 originating in, or acting through, the nervous system : it is 
 by means of the latter that muscular fibre is most frequently 
 called into action. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 81 
 
 177. TENDONS are composed of the inelastic, white-fibrous 
 tissue, and possess great strength. The muscular fibres do 
 not cease immediately, but intertwine with those of the ten- 
 dons, and these with those of the bone. The tendinous and 
 muscular fibres are generally parallel ; thus being straight 
 in the sartorius, and oblique in the penniform muscles. In 
 passing over bones or other hard parts, they are protected by 
 synovial bursse. In common with the muscle to which it be- 
 longs, each tendon has an envelope of very condensed areolar 
 tissue continuous with that of the muscle : this sheath gene- 
 rally forms a semi-cylindrical canal, completed on the oppo- 
 site side by the bone, so that the tendon itself slides into a 
 canal partly bony and partly fibrous. This canal is lined 
 with the synovial membrane. 
 
 178. The BLOOD-VESSELS do not enter the proper mus- 
 cular substance, but everywhere abound in the areolar tissue 
 by which the fibres are enveloped; hence the nutriment 
 necessary for the growth and repair of muscular tissue must 
 be absorbed through the Myolemma. 
 
 179. The NERVES seem to occupy the same position as the 
 blood-vessels, in relation to the primitive fibres, and therefore 
 must also exert their influence through the Myolemma. The 
 nerves of the voluntary muscles are abundant, and chiefly of 
 the motor class, or those which preside over motion, having 
 nothing to do with sensation, and hence acting from the 
 brain and spinal cord to the muscles; while the nerves of 
 the involuntary muscles are few, and of the sensory class, 
 or those w r hich preside over sensation, having nothing to do 
 with motion, hence conveying impressions to the brain and 
 spinal cord. 
 
 15. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE MUSCLES. Chemical Composition of 
 Muscle. Chemical Changes attending Muscular Action. The Mus- 
 cular Current. 
 
 180. The chemical composition of muscular tissue cannot 
 be precisely known, because of the difficulty of isolating the 
 fibres from the areolar tissue, blood-vessels and nerves blended 
 
 D* 
 
82 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 with them. We give the analysis of Berzelius, by which it 
 appears that less than twenty-three per cent, of ordinary 
 meat is solid matter : 
 
 Proper muscular substance 15.80 
 
 Gelatin (firm areolar tissue) 1.90 
 
 Albumen and hsernatin 2.20 
 
 Phosphate of lime with albumen 08 
 
 Alcoholic extracts with salts (lactates) 1.80 
 
 Watery extracts with salts 1.05 
 
 Water and loss 77.17 
 
 100.00 
 Inosit, or Muscle Sugar, exists in the juice of flesh. 
 
 181. The proper muscular substance differs from simple 
 fibrous tissue in not being resolved into gelatin by boiling. 
 It contains a peculiar principle called os'mazome; this is 
 colored, soluble in alcohol, and gives to broth its charac- 
 teristic taste and smell. 
 
 182. Muscular action is accompanied by chemical changes 
 due to the oxidation of muscular tissue. Quiescent muscle is 
 neutral (neither acid nor alkaline) in chemical character; but 
 muscle after repeated contractions is acid. Heat is evolved, 
 both by chemical action and increased capillary activity, in 
 proportion to the amount of exercise performed. The elec- 
 trical current known as the " muscular current" is probably 
 a result of chemical action. In the entire muscle, its path 
 lies along the outside toward the tendons. The direction of 
 the total current of the body is from the head downward. 
 
 Observation. In friction, or rubbing the body with the 
 hand, the direction of the current should be followed, other- 
 wise irritation is produced rather than the soothing influence 
 desired. This direction is of special importance to nurses 
 and watchers in caring for the sick, particularly nervous 
 patients; the effect of friction is sometimes improved by 
 moistening the inside of the hand. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 83 
 
 g 16. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. Relative Uses of the Bones and 
 Muscles. Important Functions of the Muscles. Relation of the Will 
 and the Muscular Sense to Muscular Action. The Muscular Sense as 
 a Source of Enjoyment. Importance of Involuntary Movements. Of 
 such Movements being sometimes Voluntary. Uses of Tendons. The 
 Mechanical Powers as exhibited in Muscular Action. Levers. 
 Pulley. Oblique Action of the Muscles. Deep-Seated Muscles. 
 Minute Muscles. . 
 
 183. To give a clear idea of the relative uses of the 
 Muscles and Bones, we quote the comparison of another: 
 " The Bones are to the body, what the masts and spars are 
 to the ship ; they give support and the power of resistance : 
 the Muscles are to the bones, what ropes are to the masts 
 and spars." 
 
 184. The USES OF THE MUSCLES are manifold they give 
 the beautiful form and symmetry of the exterior of the body ; 
 enclose the cavities, and form a firm, defensive, but yielding 
 wall in the trunk ; invest and move the bones of the limbs ; 
 and give to some of the joints their principal protection. By 
 means of the contractile property, and various mechanical 
 contrivances of muscular fibres, the heart pulsates ; the blood 
 circulates ; respiration is carried on ; the conduits of the 
 glands urge on their fluids ; and mechanical aid is afforded 
 in the various processes of preparing nutriment for the sys- 
 tem. We are indebted to the same for our power of locomo- 
 tion ; for our ability to engage in the manifold employments 
 of life ; to enjoy its pastimes ; and to hold communication 
 with our fellow-men by speech, gesture, and the varied ex- 
 pressions of the human countenance. 
 
 185. The VOLUNTARY MUSCLES in their normal condition, 
 both in their contraction and relaxation, are subject to the 
 control of the Will and the guidance of the Muscular Sense; 
 the will determines an act, and the muscular sense enables us 
 to judge of the effort necessary to its performance. And here 
 we would notice that the motion of a limb implies an active 
 state, or a change in both classes of muscles (flexors and ex- 
 tensors), the one to contract, the other to relax; and the will 
 
84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 influences both classes : the relaxing muscle does not give up 
 all effort, but is subject to as fine a sense of adjustment in its 
 yielding as in its contraction. 
 
 186. By the aid of the Muscular Sense, sometimes with 
 conscious volition, and sometimes without it, we regulate the 
 force employed in all the movements of the body, as lifting 
 weights ; balancing the body in standing or locomotion ; 
 moving the arms in prehensile or manipulating acts; and 
 exercising the vocal organs. The feats of the rope-dancer 
 and trained gymnast are largely due to the cultivation of this 
 sense. The exercise of the muscular sense is a source of posi- 
 tive enjoyment. The person who walks with an elastic step, 
 holding the body easily in equilibrium, experiences a sensible 
 pleasure unknown to him who moves with shuffling gait and 
 apparent distrust of the integrity of his muscles: so in 
 dancing, gymnastic and skating exercises, if attention is 
 given to elegance of attitude and harmony of motion, there is 
 experienced a pleasure quite distinct from that gained by 
 the quickened activities, and which is attributable to the 
 muscular sense. 
 
 187. The INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES perform their func- 
 tions wholly independent of the will, and are essential to 
 the action of the heart, the digestive organs, the respira- 
 tory apparatus, and various ducts, blood-vessels and lymph- 
 atics. The Divine Builder has wisely ordered that these 
 vital operations should not be subject to the control of the 
 individual. 
 
 188. Again, there are certain operations generally entrusted 
 to the involuntary muscles that may be temporarily controlled 
 when occasion requires, as in respiration : were these move- 
 ments never under the control of the will, we should be un- 
 able to use to any advantage the vocal apparatus, either in 
 speech or singing, and were we compelled to breathe at per- 
 fectly regular intervals, it would be exceedingly difficult to 
 attend to the daily duties of life. 
 
 Observation. In rare instances the action of the heart may 
 be suspended for a short time at will. The possibility of such 
 
THE MUSCLES. 85 
 
 control would be fairly inferred from the presence of striated 
 muscular fibre, as before described. 
 
 189. TENDONS serve to convey the contractile power of 
 muscles to the bones ; they are, in themselves, passive organs 
 possessing no contractility. In them the evidence of care 
 and skillful arrangement is beautifully exhibited. Wherever 
 muscular action is wanted, and the presence of muscle would 
 be inconvenient or mar the harmony of proportion, or where 
 great strength is needed, there we find the small, dense, con- 
 ducting tendons : An example is seen in the human hand ; 
 Suppose the large muscles of the fore-arm to extend to the 
 hand, it would not only be destitute of beauty, but unfitted 
 for many of the purposes of life. But the gradual blending 
 toward the wrist of the muscles with the tendons ; the band 
 clasping them firmly at the wrist ; the slits in the short ten- 
 dons of the second joint to allow the long tendons to pass 
 through to the bones of the fingers, afford the best conceivable 
 arrangement for compactness, delicacy, beauty and utility. 
 
 FIG. 64. 
 
 FIG. 64 (Leidy). METACARPAL AND PHALANGEAL BONES OF THB FINGERS, WITH THEIR 
 TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS.!, Metacarpal bone. 2, Tendon of the superficial flexor. 
 3, Tendon of the deep flexor, passing through a perforation (*) of the superficial flexor. 
 
 190. In the action of the muscles upon the bones, we have 
 examples of the three kinds of Levers treated of in mechanics. 
 A lever is a rod of wood, metal, or other substance, movable 
 in one plane about a supported point in the rod, called a 
 fulcrum. The resistance to be overcome, is called the weight ; 
 and the force used in overcoming the resistance, is called the 
 power. The three kinds of lever are distinguished from each 
 other, by the relative position of the power, weight and 
 fulcrum. 
 
 191. In the first kind, the fulcrum is between the power 
 s 
 
86 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and the weight ; as in scales, scissors, etc. ; in the second, the 
 weight is between the power and the fulcrum ; as is seen in 
 moving the common wheelbarrow, or a door; in the third, 
 the power is between the weight and the fulcrum ; as in using 
 the fire-tongs. In the body, the bones are the levers ; the 
 parts attached, the weights ; and the muscles, the powers. 
 The fulcra are the joints, or extremity of the limbs in contact 
 with the ground, or other resisting substance. 
 
 192. The first kind of lever is illustrated in the adjustment 
 and movement of the skull upon the first vertebra (91) ; the 
 hinge-joint is the fulcrum ; the excess in gravity of the parts 
 of the head in front of the joint over the parts behind it, is 
 the weight ; and the muscles extending from the spine to the 
 cranium are the power. Of the same kind of leverage, are 
 the movements of the vertebrse on each other from above 
 downward ; of the lowest lumbar vertebra on the sacrum ; of 
 the pelvis on the thigh-bone; of the thigh on the leg; of 
 the leg on the ankle ; and also the extension of most of the 
 joints of the upper extremities as the elbow and the joints 
 of the fingers. 
 
 193. The second kind of lever is illustrated in the foot. 
 When resting on the ground, with the heel raised, the ful- 
 crum is at the ball of the great toe ; the weight is the body 
 transmitted through the large bone of the leg ; and the power 
 is in the muscles of the calf of the leg (Gastrocnemii) acting 
 through the tendon of Achilles (Fig. 61). The depression 
 of the lower jaw, when the mouth is opened very wide, is 
 also an example of the second class. Where great weight is 
 to be raised slowly through a short space, we find the second 
 class of levers. 
 
 194. The third kind of lever is most used in animal me- 
 chanics ; as in raising the lower jaw ; in raising the shoulder 
 and collar-bone, and in the flexion of all the joints of the 
 limbs. A familiar example is the elbow. The fulcrum is 
 at the joint ; the weight is the fore-arm and hand ; and the 
 power is in the biceps and brachial muscles. This kind of 
 lever works at what is called a mechanical disadvantage, as 
 
THE MUSCLES. 87 
 
 the distance of the power from the fulcrum is always less 
 than that of the weight; and the shorter the power-arm 
 (or distance of the power from the fulcrum) in proportion 
 to the weight-arm (or distance of the weight from the ful- 
 crum), the greater must the power be to overcome a given 
 resistance ; but what is lost in power, is gained in velocity. 
 In mechanics, one of two things is aimed at either to raise 
 a great weight slowly and through a short space, or to move 
 a light weight quickly through a long space ; the latter is 
 most frequently needed for the purposes of life, hence, we 
 find it accomplished by the use of levers of the third class. 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 2 
 
 FIG. 65. DIAGRAM OF THE THIRD KIND OF LEVER.!, The bone of the arm above the 
 elbow. 2, One of the bones below the elbow. 3, The muscle that bends the elbow. 
 This muscle is united, by a tendon, to the bone below the elbow (4) ; at the other ex- 
 tremity, to the bone above the elbow (5). 6, The muscle that extends the elbow. 7, Its 
 attachment to the point of the elbow. 8, A weight in the hand to be raised. The 
 central part of the muscle 3 contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. 
 The bones below the elbow are brought to the lines shown by 9, 10, 11. The weight is 
 raised in the direction of the curved line. When the muscle 6 contracts, the muscle 3 
 relaxes and the fore-arm is extended. 
 
 195. There is a loss of power, and hence mechanical dis- 
 advantage, in the oblique action of the muscles, since a force 
 acting perpendicularly on the arm of a lever, operates most 
 advantageously. It is important to notice, however, that the 
 tendons of insertion, and sometimes also those of origin, are 
 attached to the special eminences of bones called processes, 
 
88 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 in which case the muscles gain an advantage, for their force 
 ultimately operates in a line more or less perpendicular to 
 the osseous surface, instead of in a line nearly parallel with 
 it, as would happen if there were no elevations. The ex- 
 tensors act more obliquely than the flexors, and therefore 
 require an additional amount of fibres, hence, they are larger 
 than the flexors, in the ratio of eleven to five. 
 
 196. The principle of the pulley is also used in the arrange- 
 ment of the muscles, though less frequently than the lever. 
 The annular ligaments, which confine the tendons at the 
 wrist, and at the ankle (61), act as pulleys. A marked 
 example is seen in one of the muscles that pull down the 
 lower jaw, called the digastric muscle; this has one extremity 
 attached to the inside of the lower part of the chin-bone, and 
 the other to the back of the ear ; it is tendindus in its middle 
 portion, which passes through an opening in a short muscle 
 connecting the hyoid bone, just above the larynx, to a small 
 process under the ear ; hence, when the digastric muscle con- 
 tracts, the jaw is depressed. Another beautiful example is 
 furnished by the trochlear muscle of the eye (Fig. 181). 
 
 FIG. 66. 
 
 FIG. 66. PULLET ARRANGEMENT OF A 
 MUSCLE. 1, Digastric muscle attached 
 to the mastoid process of the temporal 
 bone behind the ear. 2, Its attach- 
 ment to the lower jaw. 3, Hyoid bone. 
 4, The pulley arrangement of the di- 
 gastric and stylo-hyoid muscles. 
 
 197. We have noticed only the larger of the exterior layer 
 of muscles. The limits of this work will not allow a full view 
 of the exquisite beauty beneath ; the layers are of various 
 sizes and forms, and crossing each other in every direction, 
 yet the millions of fibres and multiplied millions of cells per- 
 
THE MUSCLES. 89 
 
 form their assigned work in perfect harmony, not one inter- 
 fering with the action of another. In the abdominal muscles, 
 one layer of muscles is oblique from left to right toward the 
 median line; another crosses this diagonally from right to 
 left; another crosses these transversely; and still another 
 perpendicular layer overlies all the others. 
 
 198. Infinite mechanical skill is still more wonderfully 
 shown in the nice adjustment and accurate movements of the 
 minute muscles, as those of the tongue, and the yet finer 
 muscles of the eye and the drum of the ear, too small to be 
 seen by the naked eye. 
 
 199. Everywhere the muscular force is one and the same, 
 but its applications are innumerable; the instruments are 
 constructed upon the same plan, but infinitely varied in form, 
 size and arrangement, yet made with the greatest simplicity 
 for effecting each its particular purpose. 
 
 "In human works, though labored on with pain, 
 A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain ; 
 In God's, one single can its ends produce, 
 Yet serves to second, too, some other use" 
 
 $ 17. HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. Requirements necessary to main" 
 tain a Healthy Condition of Muscle. Importance of Freedom from Com- 
 pression. Of Exercise. Conditions to be observed in Muscular Exercise. 
 Exercise sometimes Injurious. Effect of Mental Stimulus. Regard 
 necessary to the Age and Health. Position of the Body. Proper Mus- 
 cular Tension. Education of the Muscles. 
 
 200. Since so much of our happiness and usefulness in life 
 depends upon healthy muscle, it is of great importance that 
 we seek to understand the laws upon which their normal 
 action depends. The first and great essential is, that the 
 muscles should be abundantly supplied with pure blood. A pure 
 state of the blood requires that the digestive apparatus should 
 be in a healthy condition ; that the vital organs should have 
 ample volume ; that the lungs should be plentifully supplied 
 with pure air ; that the skin should be kept warm by proper 
 
 8* 
 
90 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 clothing, and clean by bathing, and that it should be acted 
 upon by air and sunlight. It is also of primary importance 
 that there be free circulation of the blood, which may be 
 secured by freedom from compression, and by regular and 
 judicious exercise. 
 
 201. Freedom from compression is requisite to free circula- 
 tion, for, even a slight pressure upon the delicate, yielding 
 blood-vessels checks the flow, thus preventing the necessary 
 deposit of materials required by the waste of the system, and 
 also the removal of the injurious products of the decomposing 
 tissues. Again, pressure stimulates the lymphatics to undue 
 action, thus attenuating the muscles. 
 
 A fractured limb is enfeebled, not only by inaction, but by 
 the necessary pressure of the dressing ; it recovers its size, tone 
 and strength only by judicious and persistent exercise after 
 the bandages are removed. 
 
 The pressure of tight dresses, under the name of a " neat 
 fit," not only produces deformity in the general figure, but 
 prevents the expansion of the lungs, and stagnates the blood, 
 thus poisoning the whole system. 
 
 The young lady who is " horrified" at the act which takes 
 life in a moment, adopts a plan no less suicidal. She is 
 equally certain to take away her God-given life. And if the 
 guilt of self-murder admits of degrees, shall he who applies 
 the knife to his throat, or the rope to his neck, be guilty of a 
 greater condemnation, than she who extends the act through 
 months, or, if nature endures, through years, meanwhile 
 poisoning the soul as well as the body ? 
 
 202. Free circulation, and, consequently, muscular power, is 
 increased by proper exercise, and decreased by inactivity. It is 
 a general law of the system, that the action and power of an 
 organ are, within a certain limit, commensurate with the de- 
 mand made upon them a law which holds good in the mus- 
 cular apparatus. When the muscles are exercised, the flow 
 of blood in the arteries and veins is increased, hence, the 
 muscular fibre increases in size, and acts with greater force ; 
 while, on the contrary, the muscle that is little used receives 
 
THE MUSCLES. 91 
 
 little nutriment from the sluggish blood, and decreases in size 
 and power. 
 
 Illustration. The muscles of the blacksmith increase in 
 size and become firm and hard ; those of the student, if not 
 used in gymnastics or otherwise, decrease in size and become 
 soft and less firm. 
 
 203. Relaxation must follow contraction, or rest must follow 
 exercise. Exercise too long continued produces exhaustion, 
 and in the exercise of exhausted muscle, the loss of material 
 exceeds the deposit; also long-continued tension enfeebles, 
 and at length destroys the contractile property. 
 
 Illustration. The effect of over-work may be seen in the 
 attenuated frames of over-tasked domestic animals, as the 
 horse, or in the diminished weight of the farmer after the 
 hurry of harvest-time. The effect of continued tension is 
 seen in the restlessness of children at school, after sitting for 
 a time in one position. The necessity of frequent recesses is 
 founded upon the organic law, that relaxation of muscle 
 must follow contraction. The younger and feebler the pupils, 
 the greater is this necessity. 
 
 204. Change of employment often affords the required rest, 
 as it brings into action a new set of muscles ; hence, the per- 
 son of sedentary occupation is rested by general muscular 
 exercise, while the person of active occupation is rested by 
 that of a sedentary character. 
 
 Illustration. The needlewoman exhausts the muscles of 
 the back and arm ; a brisk walk or some active household 
 employment affords rest. 
 
 205. The muscles should be gradually called into action ; for 
 while in action, they require more blood and nervous fluid 
 than when at rest, and these fluids are gradually increased. 
 In an alarm of fire, never start " on the run," but " make 
 haste slowly" in the first instance, and then gradually in- 
 crease your speed. 
 
 Observation. If a man has a certain amount of work to 
 perform in nine hours, his muscles having been in a state of 
 rest, he will do it with less fatigue by performing half the 
 
92 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 work in the first five hours, and the remainder in four hours. 
 The same principle applies in the use of beasts of burden, or 
 in driving the carriage-horse. 
 
 206. The muscles should be rested gradually after vigorous 
 exercise. If a person has made great muscular exertion, in- 
 stead of sitting down immediately to rest, he should continue 
 to exercise moderately for a short time, and avoid sudden 
 cooling in a current of air; additional clothing is often 
 needed. The soreness of muscles which have been severely 
 exercised, is often prevented by bathing and thorough rub- 
 bing, followed by moderate exercise. 
 
 207. Exercise should be regular and frequent. The system 
 needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it needs new 
 supplies of food. To devote a few days to the proper action 
 of the muscles, and then spend a day inactively, is as incor- 
 rect as to take a proper amount of food for a time, and then 
 to withdraw the supply for a season. The industrious artisan 
 and the studious minister suffer as surely from undue physical 
 inactivity, as the indolent man. The evil consequences of 
 neglect of regular exercise steal slowly but surely upon an 
 individual ; sooner or later they are manifested in muscular 
 weakness, dyspepsia and nervous irritability. 
 
 208. Every part of the muscular system should have its ap- 
 propriate share of exercise. Farming and domestic employ- 
 ments are superior as vocations, in respect to giving all the 
 muscles their due proportion of action. Where the daily 
 occupation exercises but a part of the muscles, it should be 
 followed by some employment or recreation which will bring 
 the others into use. Among the healthful pastimes, are those 
 of quoits and ball-playing. Students, both boys and girls, 
 often become chronic invalids from the want of this general 
 exercise. Every institution, having no arrangement for sys- 
 tematic physical exercise, should be considered as wanting 
 in one great means not only of physical, but of intellectual 
 and moral development. If possible, there should be a gym- 
 nasium with its varied appurtenances ; if not, there should, 
 at least, be a room where light gymnastics may be practiced 
 
THE MUSCLES. 93 
 
 daily, ana this should not prevent further exercise in the 
 open air. Experience has proved that far more intellectual 
 vigor is gained when this practice is observed. 
 
 209. The amount of exercise should be adapted to the age 
 and strength of the individual. In youth, a portion of the 
 vital, or nervous energy of the system, is expended upon the 
 growth of the organs of the body, consequently, severe labor 
 or exercise is injurious. 
 
 Observation. In the campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte, 
 his army was frequently recruited by mere boys. He com- 
 plained to the French government, because he was not sup- 
 plied with mature men, as the youths could not endure the 
 exertions of forced marches. 
 
 210. The proper time for exercise should be observed. As a 
 general rule, the morning is a better time for exercise than 
 the evening ; the powers of the system are greatest at that 
 time. Severe exercise should be avoided immediately before 
 or after a meal ; the vigor of the system is then required for 
 the digestive functions. The same rule should be observed 
 regarding mental toil, as the powers of the system are then 
 concentrated upon the brain. 
 
 Observation. When an organ is in functional action, it 
 attracts fluids (sanguineous and nervous) from other organs 
 of the system. The vital energies are sufficient for this one 
 work ; but if two important organs are called into intense 
 activity, injury arises to both and also to the general system. 
 Nature can sustain in vigorous activity but one function 
 at a time. 
 
 211. The mind exerts a great influence upon the tone and 
 contractile energy of the muscles. Muscular exercise will be 
 attended with much less fatigue, when the muscles act under a 
 healthy mental stimulus. This we see illustrated in the ordi- 
 nary vocations of life ; if the mind has some incentive, the 
 tiresomeness of labor or exercise is greatly diminished : 
 
 " He chooses best whose labor entertains 
 His vacant fancy most ; the toil you hate 
 Fatigues you soon, and scarce improves your limbs." 
 
94 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 The effect of the mind upon the muscles is seen in the spirit- 
 less aspect of many of our boarding-school processions, when 
 a walk is taken merely for exercise, with no other object in 
 view. But, present to the mind a botanical or geological ex- 
 cursion, and the saunter will be exchanged for the elastic 
 step, the inanimate appearance for the bright eye and glow- 
 ing cheek. The difference is, simply, that in the former case, 
 the muscles are compelled to work without the nervous im- 
 pulse, which, in the latter case, is in full and harmonious 
 operation. It must not be supposed that a walk simply for 
 exercise is not beneficial ; if possible it should be taken in 
 combination with harmonious mental exhilaration; if not, 
 let the position be erect and the pace so brisk, as to produce 
 rapid respiration and circulation of the blood, and in a dress 
 that shall not interfere with free motions of the arms and 
 free expansion of the chest. 
 
 212. The amount of exercise should be adapted to the health 
 of the individual. This direction is of essential importance, 
 for what gives vigor to one, may bring weakness to another. 
 A walk which would invigorate one in health, will quite ex- 
 haust a feebler person ; hence, the measure of strength must 
 be the measure of exercise ; but a careful distinction should 
 be made between simply healthful fatigue, soon removed by 
 subsequent rest, and the positive exhaustion which really en- 
 feebles. 
 
 213. In diseases producing great muscular exhaustion, par- 
 ticular care and discretion are necessary regarding exercise. In 
 scarlet fever, typhoid diseases, etc., the muscular debility is 
 very great ; and any muscular exertion that exhausts, such 
 as moving the patient home when he has sickened abroad, 
 or undue exercise during convalescence, is almost sure to re- 
 sult injuriously, if not fatally. Exercise should be moderate, 
 made pleasant, and followed with proper intervals of rest, 
 and never at the discretion of one who is ignorant of the pecu- 
 liar state of the system. 
 
 214. In chronic diseases of the digestive organs, lungs and 
 nervous system, well-directed and persistent exercise of the muscles 
 
THE MUSCLES. 95 
 
 is essential to recovery. In these ailments, the exertion of all 
 the muscles repeated frequently, is attended with the most 
 compensatory results. Moderation is necessary at first, but 
 the exercise should be increased in intensity and duration. 
 The aversion of the patient to exercise is often very great ; 
 but it should, nevertheless, be persistently taken in the same 
 spirit in which he would pei form any other part of the life- 
 work entrusted to him. Making it a business to perform the 
 labor necessary to recovery, and entering into it with the 
 heart and the will, gives the healthy tone and stimulus so im- 
 portant in securing the most beneficial results. 
 
 Observation. A patient who had suffered long from a 
 combination of chronic ills which baffled the skill of several 
 physicians, in extreme weakness, adopted a systematic plan 
 of exercise, commencing with but two or three steps at a 
 time, and adding a step or two each day, till in six months' 
 time she walked regularly three miles a day. 
 
 215. The muscles require an erect position of the body both 
 in standing and in sitting. A person can stand longer, 
 walk farther, and perform more labor in an erect position 
 than when stooping, since fewer muscles are then in a state 
 of tension, and, consequently, less draught is made on the 
 nervous system. While stooping, the muscles of the posterior 
 part of the spinal column are kept in a state of tension, to 
 prevent the body from falling forward ; while in the erect 
 position, the body and head are balanced upon the bones and 
 cartilages of the spinal column. In stooping, the lower limbs 
 are also curved at the knee, causing a constant tension of 
 their muscles ; again, the slight oscillation is wanting, which 
 in the erect position gives alternate contraction and relaxa- 
 tion of the muscles of the back. 
 
 216. It is important that the muscles of the child should 
 receive due attention, that the shoulders may be thrown 
 back, and the chest become broad and full. Even when an 
 adult has contracted the habit of stooping, and has become 
 round-shouldered, it can be measurably, and generally wholly 
 corrected, by moderate and repeated efforts to bring the shoul- 
 
96 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ders into proper position. This deformity should receive 
 attention in our schools. It may be remedied as well by 
 persistent effort on the part of a kind instructor, as under 
 the stern military drill-sergeant, who never fails to secure 
 the erect attitude in his raw recruits. In furnishing school- 
 rooms with desks, care should be taken that they be of suffi- 
 cient height to allow the proper attitude when pupils are 
 using their books or the pen. This is not only essential to 
 health, but to beauty and symmetry of form. 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 FIG. 68. 
 
 FIG. 67 REPRESENTS THE ERECT POSITION OF THE BODY. 1, A perpendicular line froa 
 the centre of the feet to the upper point of the spinal column, where the liead rests. 
 2, 2, 2, Spinal column with its three natural curves. The head and body are so balanced 
 that the muscles are not kept in a state of tension. 
 
 FIG. 68 REPRESENTS THE STOOPING POSITION OP THE BODY. 1, A perpendicular line. 
 2, Unnatural curved spinal column, and its relative position to the perpendicular line (1). 
 The curved position of the body and lower limbs keeps the muscles in tension, which 
 exhausts their contractile energy. . 
 
THE MUSCLES. 
 
 97 
 
 Observation. A simple test of the erect position is to stand 
 with the back against the wall of a room, with the heels, 
 elbows and back of the head touching the wall. The effort 
 required to do this will show the amount of the departure 
 from the true attitude. 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 Fra. 69 REFAESENTS AN IMPROPER, tut not an unusual, position when writing. 
 FIG. 70 REPRESENTS A PROPER position when writing. 
 
 217. A slight relaxation of the muscles tends to prevent their 
 exhaustion. In walking, dancing, and most of the mechanical 
 employments, the fatigue will be less, and the movements 
 more graceful, if the muscles are slightly relaxed ; the same 
 condition diminishes the jar of cars or coaches. In jumping 
 or falling from a carriage or any height, the shock will be in 
 a measure obviated *f the presence of mind is sufficient to 
 relax the muscles, bend the limbs at the ankle, knee and 
 hips; throw the head and body slightly forward, and fall 
 upon the toes, instead of the heel. 
 
 Observation. With the lower limbs firm and the 
 9 E 
 
rigid, jump a few inches perpendicularly to the floor, and 
 fall upon the heels; again, slightly bend the limbs, jump a 
 few inches and fall upon the toes, and the difference in the 
 force of the shock will be readily noticed. 
 
 218. The muscles require to be educated or trained. Fre- 
 quent and systematic use of the muscles at proper intervals 
 is necessary to effective action. This education must be con- 
 tinued till not only each muscle, but every fibre of the muscle, 
 is fully under the control of the will. In this way, persons 
 become skillful in every employment. The power of giving 
 different intonations in reading, speaking, and singing ; the 
 rapid movements in penmanship, and in mechanical and 
 agricultural employments, depend, in a great measure, upon 
 the education of the muscles. An individual with trained 
 
 
 
 muscles will perform a given amount of labor with less 
 fatigue and waste to the system than one whose muscles are 
 untrained. 
 
 Observation. It is exceedingly important that correct 
 movements be insisted upon at the commencement of any 
 muscular training, as it is very difficult to change a move- 
 ment which has been long practiced. If a child holds his 
 pen improperly during his early lessons, he will probably 
 never become ah easy and elegant writer. 
 
 18. COMPARATIVE MYOLOQY. Compare Muscles of other Mammals 
 with those of Man. Muscles of Birds Of Reptiles Of Fishes. 
 
 219. The muscles of all Mammals in their general plan, 
 resemble those of Man ; the modifications in number, form, 
 position and relative size, being only such as adapt them to 
 the habits and necessities of the particular species. The 
 color of the muscle is deepest in the Carnivora (flesh-eaters), 
 and palest in the Rodentia (gnawers). 
 
 220. The muscular system of Birds is remarkable for the 
 distinctness and density of their fasciculi, for the deep-red 
 color of those employed in vigorous action, and their marked 
 separation from the tendons, which are of a pearly-white 
 
THE MUSCLES. 
 
 99 
 
 color and have a peculiar tendency to ossification. This high 
 development results from the rapid circulation of warm, 
 rich, highly oxygenated blood through the extent of the 
 respiratory system. The energy of the muscular contraction 
 in this class is in the ratio of the activity of the vital func- 
 tions. As in Mammalia, so in birds, the muscles are varied 
 to meet the habits, wants and condition of the several species 
 
 and orders. 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 221. The muscles of the air-breathing Reptiles are always 
 pale in color, and the fibres are tenacious of their contractility; 
 
100 
 
 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the energy of their contraction in some instances and on 
 some occasions is great, but it cannot be continuously exer- 
 cised, such power being soon exhausted. The form, size and 
 relative number of the muscles are as various as in mammals 
 and birds. 
 
 In reptiles the muscular system of the trunk reaches its 
 maximum development in serpents, and its minimum de- 
 
THE MUSCLES. 
 
 101 
 
 velopment in the tortoise. The mandibular. Development ; is 
 generally large, while that of the limbs is/cpniparartiyely small 
 or entirely wanting. > > , ,.' j '.. 
 
 FIG. 73. 
 
 FIG. 73. MUSCLES OP THB TORTOISE. 1, Digaetricus. 2, 3, Deltoides. 4, Serratus Mag- 
 nus. 5, 6, Triceps Brachii. 7, Biceps Brachii. 8, Ulnaris Internus. 9, Flexores Digi- 
 torum. 10, Sartorius. 11, 12, Gastrocknemius. 13, Triceps Adductor. 
 
 222. In Fishes there is a modification of the active motor 
 organs, and a marked deviation from the fundamental ver- 
 tebral type. The chief masses of the muscular system are 
 disposed on each side of the trunk in a series of vertical 
 plates, or flakes, corresponding in number to the vertebrae. 
 Each lateral flake (myocomma) is attached by its inner bor- 
 der to the osseous and fibrous parts of the corresponding seg- 
 ment of the skeleton within ; by its outer border, to the skin ; 
 and by its fore and hind surfaces, to the septum between it 
 
 9* 
 
102 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ami. -the contiguous -myocommas, or flakes. The gelatinous 
 tissue of these ,veu-ui -is -dissolved by boiling, and the muscular 
 segments/ &' elates, arertfien easily separated, as we find in 
 carving fish JOT .&a- table. Each flake is arranged in a zig- 
 zag manner. The muscular tissue of fishes is usually color- 
 less, sometimes it is opaline or yellowish, but it is white when 
 boiled. 
 
 FIG. 74. 
 
 Fio. 74. MUSCLES OP THE FISH. a, ft, c, The zigzag arrangement of the luyocomraa. 
 
] ! VISION III. 
 
 THE NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
 
 223. IN the mastication and deglutition of food; in its 
 conversion into fluids ; in its circulation in all parts of the 
 system ; in its assimilation into the various tissues and organs 
 of the body ; in its dis-assimilation, and in the excretion of 
 useless matter ; in a word, in the building up and repairing 
 of the system, from the earliest period of embryo life to the 
 last moment of earthly existence, certain organs are used, 
 which together may be termed the NUTRITIVE APPARATUS: 
 including the Digestive, the Absorptive, the Circulatory, the 
 Assimilatory and the Respiratory organs. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 \ 19. ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Anatomy of the Mouth. 
 The Teeth. The Salivary Glands. The Pharynx. The (Esophagus. 
 The Stomach. The Intestines. The Liver. The Pancreas. The 
 Spleen. 
 
 224. The DIGESTIVE ORGANS include the Mouth, Teeth, 
 Salivary Glands, Palate, Pharynx, (Esophagus, Stomach, Intes- 
 tines, Liver, Pancreas and Spleen. 
 
 225. The MOUTH is the space bounded by the lips in front ; 
 the soft palate behind, which separates it from the pharynx ; 
 the hard palate above, enclosed by the teeth and alveolar 
 arch ; and the floor below, upon which rests the tongue (the 
 floor being included within the lower teeth and alveolar 
 arch). 
 
 102 
 
104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 75. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 105 
 
 226. The TEETH are attached to the upper and the lower 
 jaw-bone by means of bony sockets called alve'olar processes. 
 The attachment is strengthened by the fibrous, fleshy struc- 
 ture of the gums. Each tooth has two parts the crown and 
 the root: the crown is that part which protrudes from the 
 jaw-bone and gum, and is covered by the enamel ; the root, 
 or fang, is that part contained in the socket of the jaw ; and 
 the slightly constricted portion clasped by the gums is the 
 neck. 
 
 FIG. 76. 
 
 u 
 
 y my <s 
 
 * t 
 
 ' 
 
 FIG. 76 REPRESENTS THE ADULT TEETH. 1, 2, The cutting teeth (incisors). 3, Eye-tooth 
 (cuspid). 4, 5, Small grinders (bi-cuspids). 6, 7, 8, Grinders (molars). 9, 9, Neck of the 
 tooth. 
 
 Observation. These bony processes are absorbed after the 
 extraction of a permanent tooth, leaving the jaw-bone covered 
 only by the lining membrane of the gum. This gives the 
 narrow jaw and retreating lips of old age. A piece of the 
 alveolar process sometimes clings to a tooth when extracted j 
 and the dentist has the credit of " breaking the jaw." 
 
 227. The first set of teeth, appearing in infancy, is called 
 temporary, or the milk-teeth. They are twenty in number; 
 ten in each jaw. Between six and fourteen years of age, they 
 are replaced by the second set, called permanent teeth, num- 
 bering thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. 
 
 E* 
 
106 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 The four front teeth in each jaw are called Incisors (cutting 
 teeth). They are convex in front, concave behind, gently 
 rounded at the sides, and have a broad, chisel-shaped body, 
 based on a rounded neck, terminating above in a sharp and 
 slightly serrated cutting edge. The next tooth on each side, 
 the Cuspid (eye-tooth in the upper jaw, and stomach-tooth in 
 the lower) is round, strong, with a very long, tapering root, and 
 the body terminating in a point having on each side a partial 
 serrature: the next two, Bi-cuspids (small grinders) have a 
 rounded body terminating on its grinding edge in two points, 
 one before, the other behind, with a rough groove between 
 them : the next two, Molars (grinders), situated behind all 
 the other teeth, have a crown, square or cuboid in form, with 
 four points on the triturating surface separated by channeled 
 depressions ; the last molar is the dens sapientice, or " wisdom 
 tooth," smaller than its fellows, late in its development, and 
 early in its decay. 
 
 FIG. 77. 
 
 FIG. 78. 
 
 FIG. 77. THE MOUTH AND NECK LAID OPEN. 1, The teeth. 3, 4, upper and lower jaws. 
 5, The tongue. 7, Parotid gland. 8, Sublingual gland. 9, Trachea (wind-pipe). 10, 11, 
 (Esophagus (gullet). 12, Spinal column. 13, Spinal cord. 
 
 FIG. 78. A SIDE VIKW OF FACE. 1, 2, Trachea. 3, (Esophagus. 7, Submaxillary. 
 8, Parotid gland. 9, Duct from the parotid gland. 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, Muscles. 
 
 The incisors, cuspids and bi-cuspids have each but one 
 root; the molars of the upper jaw have three roots; those 
 of the lower jaw, two roots. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 107 
 
 228. The SALIVARY GLANDS consist of three pairs the 
 Parotid* the Submax' illary and the Sublingual. 
 
 The PAROTID GLAND, the largest, is situated in front of 
 the external ear, and behind the angle of the jaw. A duct 
 (Steno's) from this gland opens into the mouth opposite the 
 second molar tooth of the upper jaw. The SUBMAXILLARY 
 GLAND is situated within the lower jaw, anterior to its angle. 
 Its excretory duct (Wharton's) opens into the mouth by the 
 side of the frce'num ling'uce (bridle of the tongue). The SUB- 
 LINGUAL f GLAND is elongated and flattened, and situated 
 beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth, on 
 each side of the frsenum linguae, by the side of which are 
 seven or eight small ducts opening into the mouth. 
 
 Observation. The "mumps" is a disease of the parotid 
 gland, and the swelling under the tongue, called the " frog," 
 a disease of the sublingual gland. 
 
 229. The PHARYNX, or throat, is the funnel-like cavity 
 about four inches in length, extending from the base of the 
 skull to the top of the fifth cervical vertebra, where it be- 
 comes continuous with the oesophagus. The pharynx has 
 four passages ; one leading upward and forward to the nose ; 
 the second, forward to the mouth ; the third, downward to 
 the trachea and the lungs ; and the fourth, downward and 
 backward to the stomach. 
 
 230. The (ESOPHAGUS is a large membranous tube, ex- 
 tending from the pharynx to the stomach. It lies behind 
 the trachea, the heart and the lungs, and passes through the 
 diaphragm. 
 
 231. The STOMACH is a somewhat pear-shaped dilatation 
 of the alimentary canal. When moderately filled, it mea- 
 sures twelve inches in length, by four inches in diameter. It 
 has two openings, one connected with the oesophagus', called 
 the car'diac orifice ; the other connected with the upper por- 
 tion of the small intestine, called the pylor'ic orifice. 
 
 * Gr., para, near, and ous, ear. 
 
 t Lat., sub, under, and lingua, the tongue. 
 
108 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 232. The INTESTINES are divided into the Small and the 
 Large intestines. The small intestine is about twenty-five 
 feet in length, and divided into three parts the Duode'num, 
 the Jeju'num and the Il'eum. 
 
 FIG. 79. 
 
 FIG. 79 (Leidy). THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 1, Stomach. 2, Duodenum. 3, Small 
 intestine. 4, Termination of the ileum. 5, Ccecum. 6, Vermiform appendix. 7, Ascend- 
 ing colon. 8, Transverse colon. 9, Descending colon. 10, Sigmoid flexure of the colon. 
 11, Rectum. 12, Spleen. 
 
 DUODENUM signifies twelve, and this part is so called be- 
 cause its length is about twelve fingers' breadth, or ten 
 inches; JEJUNUM signifies fasting, the food passing quickly 
 through this portion, leaving it empty ; ILEUM, tivisted, is so 
 named from its numerous coils or convolutions. 
 
 233. The large intestine, about five feet in length, is also 
 divided into three parts the Ccecum, the Colon and the 
 Rectum: The CCECUM is so called from its forming a blind 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 109 
 
 pouch perforated at one end only ; the COLON, because the 
 excrements are arrested, for a considerable time, in its folds ; 
 and the RECTUM, from its straight course. 
 
 Attached to the extremity of the coecum is the appendix 
 vermiformis, a worm-shaped tube, about four inches long, and 
 the size of a goose-quill. Its function is unknown. The 
 COLON is divided into three parts the ascending, the trans- 
 verse and the descending ; the lower portion of the descending 
 colon makes a double curvature, called the sigmoid flexure. 
 The RECTUM extends from the sigmoid flexure to the terminus 
 of the intestinal canal, a distance of six or eight inches. 
 
 234. The LIVER is the largest glandular organ in the body, 
 weighing about four pounds. It is situated in the right side 
 below the diaphragm. It is convex above and slightly con- 
 cave below; its convex surface being fitted accurately into 
 the concavity of the diaphragm, and its concave surface in 
 contact with the stomach, duodenum, colon and right kidney. 
 The liver is surrounded by a peritoneal covering, which forms 
 for it a suspensory, or broad ligament, and two lateral and 
 triangular ligaments. It has two principal lobes, the right 
 lobe being four or five times larger than the left. Oh the 
 under side of the liver is the gall-bladder, or reservoir for 
 the bile, which opens by the common biliary duct into the 
 duodenum. 
 
 235. The PANCREAS* is a long, flattened organ, weighing 
 three or four ounces, about six inches in length, and placed 
 transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen, behind 
 the stomach. A duct from this organ opens into the duo- 
 denum. 
 
 236. The SPLEEN (so called because the ancients supposed 
 it to be the seat of melancholy) is an oblong, flattened organ 
 situated on the left side in contact with the diaphragm, 
 stomach and pancreas. It is of a dark-bluish color, has no _ 
 outlet, and its use is not well determined. 
 
 * Gr., pan, all, and kreas, flesh. 
 10 
 
110 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 I 2O. HISTOLOGY OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Lining Membrane 
 of the Alimentary Canal Of the Mouth. Histological Composition of 
 the Teeth Of the Tongue Of the Palates Pharynx. The Three 
 Coats of the (Esophagus, the Stomach and the Intestines Their Rela- 
 tion to each other Adaptation to their several Offices. 
 
 237. The alimentary canal is lined through its entire 
 length by the mucous membrane, which, with its little re- 
 cesses forming tubes or sacs called glands, is composed of 
 three layers the epithelium, or surface layer, the basement 
 membrane, and the areolar-vascular layer, or corium. The 
 epithelium varies in different parts, both in the number of 
 layers and in the form of its cells. 
 
 238. The cavity of the MOUTH, excepting the teeth, is 
 everywhere covered with a highly vascular mucous mem- 
 brane, having a squamous epithelium, beneath which are 
 concealed conical papillae, excepting upon the gums and 
 upper surface of the tongue, where they become conspicuous 
 as organs of taste. 
 
 The TONGUE is a muscular organ, composed of two sym- 
 metrical halves, separated by a median fibrous membrane. 
 Its muscles are named extrinsic and intrinsic; the former, 
 four in number on each side, pass into the tongue at its base 
 and under surface, attaching it to the neighboring parts. 
 The intrinsic are named the superior longitudinal, the inferior 
 longitudinal, and the transverse ; the first extending just be- 
 neath the mucous membrane, from the apex, through the 
 entire length, to the hyoid bone, having some of its fibres 
 oblique, and some branching ; while the inferior longitudinal 
 extends from the apex to the base of the tongue. The trans- 
 verse muscles which give the principal body to the tongue, 
 are connected with the median septum and pass outward, 
 intersecting at the margins and base with the other muscles. 
 (From this variety of arrangement, the tongue is capable of 
 moving in all directions.) 
 
 The PALATE, or roof of the mouth, comprises two parts, 
 the hard and the soft palate. The Hard palate is deeply 
 vaulted and lined with a smooth mucous membrane, except- 
 
THE DIGESTIVE OBGANS. Ill 
 
 ing at the fore part, which is roughened by transverse ridges. 
 The Soft palate is composed of a doubling of the mucous 
 membrane, enclosing a muscular layer, together with several 
 small glands. It projects as a freely movable partition, 
 obliquely downward and backward from the hard palate 
 between the mouth and posterior nasal orifices. 
 
 239. The TEETH are appendages developed in the mucous 
 membrane of the mouth, and not parts of the skeleton, as is 
 sometimes supposed. The tooth consists of a hard portion 
 hollowed out and filled with a soft substance, called pulp. 
 This pulp is formed of areolar tissue supplied with vessels and 
 nerves, which enter the tooth at a minute opening at the point 
 of the fang. It is the remains of vascular and nervous papillae 
 upon which the tooth was originally formed The hard sub- 
 stance is composed of ivory, or dentine, enamel and cement. 
 The Dentine forming the greater part of the tooth consists 
 of microscopic tubes called dental tubuli. These tubuli are 
 filled with minute processes of the pulp, affording nutrition 
 and perhaps giving sensibility to the dentine. 
 
 FIG. 30. 
 
 i!'iG. 80 (Ltidy). VERTICAL SKCTION OF A MOLAR TOOTH, moderately magnified. 1, 
 Knamel, the lines of which indicate the arrangement of its columns. 2, Dentine, the 
 lines indicating the course of its tubules. 3, Thin lamina of the dentine forming the 
 wall of the pulp cavity, the dots indicating the orifices of the dental tubuli. 4, 
 Cement. 
 
112 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 The crown of the tooth is covered with Enamel, the hardest 
 of all known animal textures, containing more earthy matter 
 than the dentine, chiefly phosphate of lime. The enamel is 
 composed entirely of hexagonal, prismatic fibres or rods 
 arranged closely together upon the dentine. On the crown 
 these fibres are vertical; on the sides, they become first 
 oblique, then horizontal. 
 
 The Cement is a thin layer of true bone covering the fang, 
 thinnest next to the enamel, and thickest along the grooves 
 and near the point. Its outer surface is firmly attached to 
 a fibro-vascular and sensitive membrane analogous to the 
 periosteum, which seems to fasten the teeth in the socket of 
 the jaw, being itself united to the periostea! membrane which 
 lines its sockets. 
 
 240. The PHARYNX is a musculo-membranous bag, attached 
 above to the base of the skull. Its walls consist chiefly of 
 three pairs of constrictor muscles, supported by areolar tissue, 
 and lined by mucous membrane which is continuous with 
 that of the nasal cavities, Eustachian tubes, mouth, larynx 
 and 03sophagus, with all of which the pharynx communi- 
 cates. The portion devoted to the passage of air has its epi- 
 thelium columnar and ciliated, while that devoted exclusively 
 to the passage of food and drinks has a squamous non-ciliated 
 epithelium. Many mucous glands are found in the mucous 
 membrane of the pharynx. 
 
 241. The walls of the (ESOPHAGUS are composed of three 
 coats muscular, areolar and mucous. The Muscular coat has 
 an external layer of longitudinal fibres and an internal layer 
 of circular fibres. The fibres are mostly non-striated, ex- 
 cepting in the upper part. The Areolar coat is soft and dis- 
 tensible, supporting the mucous membrane, which lies in 
 folds, so that no opening exists when the oesophagus is not in 
 action. Many mucous glands are found, especially at the ends. 
 
 242. The STOMACH is the dilated portion of the alimentary 
 canal, into which the oesophagus opens from above by the 
 cardiac orifice, and the small intestines from below by the 
 pyloric orifice. It is a membranous bag, consisting of mucous 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 113 
 
 membrane within, serous membrane without, with a muscular 
 and areolar layer between. The muscular coat has three 
 layers of fibres longitudinal, circular and oblique. The 
 longitudinal are continuous with the longitudinal fibres of 
 the oesophagus, and extend divergingly over the body of 
 the stomach, collecting into parallel bundles again at the 
 intestinal opening, thus continuing into the intestines. The 
 circular fibres correspond in arrangement with those of the 
 esophagus, passing in this way around the stomach, till con- 
 densed into a sphincter muscle at the pyloric orifice, which it 
 partly closes. The oblique muscles are continuous with the 
 circular fibres of the oesophagus, from which they spread 
 obliquely for a short distance upon the anterior and posterior 
 sides of the stomach. 
 
 FIG. 81. 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 
 FIG. 81 (Leidy). SMALL PORTION OF THE Mucous MEMBRANE op THE STOMACH, WITH 
 THE IMBEDDED GASTRIC GLANDS." 1, The glands. 2, Orifices of the glands. 3, Epithelium 
 of the mucous membrane; moderately magnified. 
 
 FIG. 82 (Leidy). MAMMILLA OK TUB Mucous MEMBRANE OF THE STOMACH, moderately 
 magnified, exhibiting the orifices of the gastric glands. 
 
 The areolar coat is united to the muscular by loose areolar 
 tissue, but the union is very firm between it and the mucous 
 membrane which it supports. The mucous coat has numerous 
 blood-vessels and lymphatics, also upright tubular glands, 
 secreting the gastric juice. 
 10* 
 
114 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 243. The INTESTINES have their coats and muscular fibres 
 arranged like those of the stomach. The areolar coat, with 
 its closely-adherent mucous membrane, projects into the in- 
 terior of the small intestines, forming valves called val'vulce 
 conniven'tes. These vary in size, some being two inches long, 
 and one-third of an inch wide in the middle, tapering at both 
 ends; others are smaller, alternating with the layer. The 
 intestinal mucous membrane is covered internally with thread- 
 like processes of the membrane, which become erect when 
 immersed in water, presenting a velvety appearance, hence 
 called villi. 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 FIG. 83 (Leidy). PORTION OK THK M toots MKMURANE FROM THE ILECM, moderately 
 magnified, exhibiting the villi on its free suiTmv, and between them the orifices of the 
 tubular glands. 1, Portion of an agminated, ur clustered gland. 2, A solitary gland. 
 3, Fibrous tissue. 
 
 244. The LIVER has two coats the external serous coat, 
 formed from the doubling of the peritoneum upon it, and the 
 internal areolar coat. Its proper substance is composed of a 
 multitude of compressed polyhedral masses, not larger than a 
 small pin's head, and named hepatic lobules. Each lobule has 
 one part called the base, which rests upon a hepatic vein (333), 
 thence called the sub-lobular vein. The impress of the poly- 
 gonal base may be seen within when the vein is opened. 
 Running longitudinally down the middle of the lobule is a 
 vein formed by six or eight veinlets coming from various 
 parts of the circumference. This mid-vein, called intra-lobu- 
 lar, unites with the sub-lobular vein at the base of the lobule. 
 The lobules are arranged closely side by side, their bases aid- 
 ing in the formation of the membranous canals, called the 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 115 
 
 portal canal, in which the hepatic vein lies closely adherent 
 to the canal-walls. This arrangement resembles that of sessile 
 leaves upon the stem. The veinlets of the intra-lobular vein 
 originate in a network of veins, upon the lobule-walls, which 
 are continuous with the final branches of a small trunk pass- 
 ing between the lobules, from the portal vein (333) within 
 the portal canal. The hepatic system, therefore, is continuous 
 with the portal. Each portal vein is always accompanied by 
 a hepatic duct and artery, and the three are enveloped in one 
 sheath of areolar tissue, which gives off partitions to separate 
 the vessels from each other. Outside and beyond these canals, 
 this tissue invests the free portion of each lobule, filling the 
 inter-spaces. If the other portions could be removed, leaving 
 the areolar tissue intact, we should have a perfect areolar 
 skeleton of the liver. 
 
 FIG. 84. 
 
 FIG. 84 (Lady). INFERIOR SURFACE OF THE LIVER. 1, Right lobe. 2, Left lobe. 3, 
 Posterior margin. 4, Anterior margin. 5, Quadrate lobe. 6, Caudate lobe. 7, Isthmus, 
 or caudate process, connecting the latter with the right lobe. 8, 9, Longitudinal fissure. 
 10, Transverse fissure. 11, Portal vein. 12, Hepatic artery. 13, Common biliary duct, 
 formed by the union of the hepatic and cystic ducts. 14, Gall-bladder. 15, Inferior cava 
 16, Hepatic veins. 17, Round ligament. 18, Anterior part of the suspensory ligament. 
 
 245. The SPLEEN has two coats the outer, serous coat, 
 being a reflection of the peritoneum ; the inner, fibro-elastic 
 
116 
 
 coat, is composed of white fibrous tissue mingled with elastic 
 tissue ; when torn, the lacerated surfaces present a deep red- 
 dish-brown, pulpy appearance, resembling coagulated blood. 
 The particular arrangement and relationship of its constituents 
 have not been satisfactorily determined. 
 
 246. The PERITONEUM is a serous membrane which invests 
 all the abdominal viscera, and is then reflected upon the walls 
 of the abdomen. The large doubling of the peritoneum re- 
 flected from the front of the vertebral column over the small 
 intestine is called the mesentery. 
 
 \ 21. CHEMISTRY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Secretions effecting 
 Chemical Changes during Digestion. Chemical Character of these Se- 
 cretions Of Saliva Of the Gastric Juice Of Bile. Of the Pancreatic 
 Juice Of the Intestinal Juice. Relation of Adds and Alkalies in tht 
 Digestive Fluids. 
 
 247. The chemical processes concerned in digestion con- 
 sist of peculiar reactions between the food and the various 
 secretions of the alimentary canal. These fluids are mucus 
 and saliva, secretions of the mucous membrane and glands of 
 the mouth ; gastric juice, a secretion of the stomach ; bile, a 
 secretion of the liver; pancreatic juice, a secretion of the pan- 
 creas ; mucus and intestinal juices, secretions of the mucous 
 membrane and glands of the intestines. Each of these fluids 
 effects a special change in the constituents of food, till they 
 are finally converted from an insoluble to a soluble condition, 
 in which they may be absorbed. 
 
 248. Mucus is a colorless and very viscid fluid found upon 
 the mucous membrane, and secreted from the plasma of the 
 blood by the epithelial cells of that membrane. It is some- 
 times alkaline, sometimes acid, but perhaps in its normal 
 state, neutral. It is composed chiefly of water, holding from 
 four to six per cent, of solids. Its characteristic constituent 
 is Mucin (60), also a small amount of extractions, and salts 
 like those of the blood. It has limited solvent powers, its 
 chief office seeming to be to moisten the food, and thus pre- 
 pare it for the action of other digestive fluids. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 117 
 
 249. SALIVA is a transparent, watery fluid, with a specific 
 gravity varying from 1002 to 1008. Its chemical composi- 
 tion, as given by Dr. Wright (who has made the salivary 
 secretion a special study), is as follows : 
 
 Water 988.10 
 
 Salivin 1.80 
 
 Mucus (and epithelium) 2.60 
 
 Fatty matter 50 
 
 Albumen (with soda) 1.70 
 
 Sulpho-cyanide of potassium .90 
 
 Alkaline and earthy salts 3.20 
 
 1.20 
 
 1000.00 
 
 When first secreted or during secretion, saliva is alkaline ; 
 in fasting, the moisture of the mouth is nearly neutral, or 
 even acid ; but it consists at that time almost entirely of 
 mucus. Of salts, the tri-basic phosphate of soda probably 
 gives the alkalinity to the secretion. Saliva contains a pecu- 
 liar and remarkable salt, sulpho-cyanide of potassium. Be- 
 sides, there are found chlorides of sodium and potassium, 
 sulphate of soda, phosphates of lime and magnesia, and oxide 
 of iron. The " tartar" of the teeth is formed by these earthy 
 salts mixed with mucus, and minute portions of other animal 
 matter. The chemical action of saliva is -first, that of a 
 solvent ; it dissolves saline substances, organic acids, alcohols 
 and ethers, gum, sugar and the soluble albuminoid and gela- 
 tinoid bodies. Second, the saliva converts starch granules 
 into dextrine, then into soluble dextrose, glucose, or grape 
 sugar. A mixture of all the fluids of the mouth appears to 
 form the most active combination for this purpose. 
 
 250. The GASTRIC JUICE is a colorless, or pale-yellow, trans- 
 parent, slightly viscid and strongly acid fluid. Its specific 
 gravity is 1025. Its composition as given by Schmidt is 
 
 Water 994.4 
 
 Pepsin, with other organic matter -. 3.2 
 
 Salts 2.2 
 
 Free hydrochloric acid .2 
 
 1000.0 
 
118 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 The small quantity of solid matter (about five per cent.) is 
 remarkable, considering its extremely active powers. Pepsin 
 is its characteristic constituent (58). The saline matter of the 
 gastric juice consists chiefly of alkaline and earthy chlorides 
 and phosphates. A small amount of lactic acid is found, but 
 whether as a product of secretion or decomposition, is not 
 certain. The free hydrochloric acid affords singular example 
 of the liberation of a mineral acid from its strongly-combined 
 base by an organic process in the animal economy ; the source 
 of this acid is probably common salt. Though the most 
 powerful solvent known, the gastric juice seems to have no 
 effect upon living animal substances ; hence the membranes 
 of the stomach remain intact as long as their vital power con- 
 tinues. A recent view, founded upon many experiments, attri- 
 butes the non-solution to the protecting influence of the blood 
 in the capillaries, which is supposed to maintain the alka- 
 linity of the tissues a chemical condition incompatible with 
 peptic digestion. Gastric juice changes cane-sugar into glu- 
 cose albuminous substances, as albumen, fibrin, casein, etc., 
 into substances called peptones. Gelatinous substances are 
 changed chemically by the gastric juice, and lose their 
 property of gelatinizing when cold ; but this change is not 
 necessary to their solution, which takes place so readily that 
 these substances may be taken as food, when albuminous 
 substances would remain in the stomach undissolved. 
 
 251. BILE is a somewhat viscid, glutinous and bitter fluid, 
 of a dark golden-brown color. Its specific gravity is about 
 1026. Its acid (cholic and tauro-cholic) forms four to seven 
 per cent, of the secretion, and is always united with soda ; 
 the coloring matter forms about five per cent. ; ordinary fats, 
 about one per cent. ; salts, one per cent. ; there are also traces 
 of choles' ferine. Bile is but slightly alkaline, and is some- 
 times neutral. It is an important agent in digestion, but its' 
 action does not depend upon an albuminoid like saliva, pepsin 
 or pancreatin. It acts feebly in changing starch into sugar, 
 and changes cane-sugar slowly, but grape-sugar rapidly, into 
 lactic acid. It dissolves neither albuminoid substances nor 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 119 
 
 fat, but probably emulsifies the latter. Bile is said to arrest 
 the actions of saliva and the gastric juice ; it probably com- 
 pletes some particular part of the digestive process, but its 
 specific action is not well understood. 
 
 252. The PANCREATIC JUICE is somewhat viscid, trans- 
 parent, colorless and inodorous. Its solid constituents vary 
 from 1.5 to 10 per cent. Its salts are chiefly chloride of 
 sodium, and phosphates of lime and magnesia. It is more 
 strongly alkaline than saliva ; as digestion goes on, it becomes 
 more alkaline and less viscid. Its most peculiar constituent 
 is pancreatin, an albuminoid substance whose special, com- 
 position is not yet determined. This juice is sometimes called 
 abdominal saliva ; as it has, like saliva, the power of convert- 
 ing starch into dextrine and grape-sugar. It has of itself 
 little power over albuminoid and gelatinous substances, but 
 is co-operative with the gastric juice. Its chief office seems 
 to be to emulsify fatty matters, in which it probably acts 
 with the bile. 
 
 253. The composition of INTESTINAL JUICES is not well 
 known. They probably differ from common mucus, and 
 have special properties. They are colorless, viscid, and con- 
 tain from 2 to 3.5 per cent, of solid matter. They appear to 
 be alkaline in the ileum, or lower part of the small intestines, 
 acid in the coecum, or beginning of the large intestines, and 
 alkaline through the remainder. They convert starch into 
 sugar, which in the small intestines passes into lactic and 
 butyric acids ; and act still more powerfully upon albuminoid 
 substances, and also emulsify fat. 
 
 254. The changes which take place in the three staminal 
 principles of food saccharine, albuminoid and oleaginous sub- 
 stances from their entrance into the mouth till ready for 
 absorption, sum up as follows : The conversion of starch com- 
 mences with the saliva ; that of albuminoids and cane-sugar 
 with the gastric juice ; the emulsifying of fats with the bile 
 and pancreatic juice. These processes go on independently 
 of each other ; the salivary action being unaffected by the 
 gastric function, but both aided somewhat by the pancreatic 
 
120 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 juice; the intestinal juice coming in as a general auxiliary 
 agent, to complete and harmonize the several operations com- 
 menced at different points in the alimentary canal. 
 
 255. It will be noticed in the digestive fluids that there are 
 successive alternations of alkali and acid : the saliva being 
 alkaline; the gastric juice, acid; the pancreatic juice, bile 
 and juice of the ileum, or third part of the small intestine, 
 more or less alkaline; that of the coacum of the large in- 
 testine, acid; that of the remaining portion, alkaline; 
 alternations giving neutralizations of great importance in the 
 chemistry of digestion. 
 
 22. PHYSIOLOGY OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. The Assimilation 
 of Food. Process by which Food is transformed into Chyle. Destina- 
 tion of the Chyle. 
 
 256. Food is necessary to the preservation and growth of 
 the body, but it must first be animalized, or assimilated; that 
 is, converted into matter having the same characteristics as 
 those animal substances into which it is at length to be in- 
 corporated. "We may include under the term Primary As- 
 similation, those animalizing changes necessary to the con- 
 version of food into chyle and blood: under Secondary Assimi- 
 lation, those necessary to the conversion of blood into integral 
 parts of solid tissue. The first series of changes is included in 
 the process named Digestion, by which food is transformed 
 from its crude state into chyle. 
 
 257. The alimentary canal in which these digestive changes 
 take place, is like a long manufacturing establishment, with 
 many apartments ; the first room being the mouth, or mas- 
 ticating room, where some of the workmen cut the food; 
 some grind it; some moisten it and supply the needed 
 chemicals for making one of the animalizing changes. Masti- 
 cation being completed, at the word of command, the obedient 
 muscles, with greatest promptness and efficiency, convey the 
 food onward to that wonderful laboratory the stomach. 
 The muscles of the soft palate raise the curtain from the base 
 of the tongue, and incline it backward, closing the opening 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 121 
 
 into the nostrils ; those of the small open lid of the trachea, 
 the epiglottis, close the lid tightly that the food may pass 
 safely over, while the muscles of the tongue, cheeks and floor 
 of the mouth, force the food back into the pharynx and the 
 oesophagus, the circular muscles of which, by alternate re- 
 laxation and contraction, urge it into the stomach. Here the 
 food is subjected to a remarkable chemical agent, the Gastric 
 Juice, which changes it from a crude state into a soft, homo- 
 geneous pulp, called Chyme. 
 
 258. Recent investigations show that this juice is less of a 
 "universal solvent" than was formerly supposed that its 
 chemical power is limited to azotized substances; changing 
 albuminoids into albuminose, and gelatinoids into gelatinose, 
 the conditions best adapted to assimilation. The change in 
 starch which continues in the stomach, is effected by the 
 presence of the saliva, which commenced its work in the 
 mouth. Oleaginous matters are only reduced to a fine state 
 of division and held in suspension by the pulpy chyme. 
 
 During these processes, the mass is undergoing a churning 
 or rotary motion, by the joint manipulations of the longi- 
 tudinal, circular and oblique muscles, thus bringing part after 
 part into the immediate presence of the Gastric Juice. While 
 digestion is thus going on, the openings of the stomach are 
 well guarded. A return of any part of the mass into the 
 oesophagus is prevented by the sphincter muscles near the 
 cardiac orifice ; and the passage to the intestines is closed by 
 the sphincter muscles of the pyloric orifice, and a valve called 
 the pylorus, or " gate-keeper," which, true to its name, stands 
 a faithful sentinel till proper chyme presents itself, showing 
 evidence of having completed the prescribed curriculum. 
 This sentinel-commission seems to last only during the pro- 
 cess of digestion, as afterward many substances previously 
 detained are allowed free egress. 
 
 259. After passing the pyloric orifice, the chyme is treated 
 by other chemical agents the bile, the pancreatic and intes- 
 tinal juices, continuing the chemical processes commenced in 
 other parts of the alimentary canal. The fats are reduced to 
 
 11 P 
 
122 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 an exceedingly fine state of emulsion, but there is no proof 
 of chemical change. The whole pulp is subjected to the con- 
 stant wave-like, or peristaltic muscular action of the intes- 
 tines, which forces their contents to their respective destina- 
 tions. The nutritive portion is called chyle, and is taken up 
 by the absorbent vessels and conveyed to the blood ; while 
 the innutritious portion is excreted from the system. 
 
 260. The absorbing surface of the intestines is enormously 
 increased by the projecting forms and great abundance of the 
 vitti: they hang out into the nutritious, semi-fluid mass con- 
 tained in the cavity of the intestines, as the roots of a tree 
 penetrate the soil, imbibing the liquid portions of food with 
 wonderful rapidity. 
 
 23. HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Suggestions relative to 
 the Preservation of the Teeth To their Removal. Conditions affecting 
 thk Quantity of Food demanded by the System. The Quality of Food. 
 Directions relating to the Manner of taking Food. Conditions of the 
 System requisite for the proper Digestion of Food. 
 
 261. For the Preservation of the Teeth, the first requisite is 
 to keep them clean. After meals they should be cleansed, to 
 prevent the collection of tartar, and to remove any remain- 
 ing particles of food. Such as are inaccessible to the brush, 
 may be removed by tooth-picks made or wood, ivory or the 
 common goose-quill. Metal injures the enamel. Night and 
 morning, the mouth should be cleansed with pure, tepid 
 water, after which the teeth should be thoroughly brushed on 
 both surfaces. Occasionally, refined soap may be moderately 
 used, if followed by thorough rinsing of the mouth. 
 
 Sudden changes of temperature crack the enamel, hence 
 extremes of heat and cold in food and drinks should be 
 avoided. Acid and corrosive substances should also be 
 avoided, as acidulated drinks and mineral waters, that "set 
 the teeth on edge." All tooth-powders containing such 
 articles should be banished from the toilet. 
 
 Tobacco contains a "grit" which injures the enamel. It 
 also discolors the teeth, debilitates the vessels of the gums, 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 123 
 
 taints the breath and renders the appearance of the mouth 
 forbidding. 
 
 The teeth should be frequently examined, that if enamel 
 is removed and decay commenced, they may be filled with 
 gold-foil. All amalgams, pastes and cheap patent articles 
 should be rejected, both for the sake of the teeth and the 
 general health. 
 
 262. The Removal of the Teeth. The temporary teeth 
 should be removed at once, when loose ; or before, if the per- 
 manent teeth appear. This is essential to the regularity and 
 beauty of the second set. 
 
 Irregular or crowded permanent teeth, generally, require the 
 removal of one or more. By pressure upon each other, the 
 enamel is injured and the appearance rendered unsightly. 
 With a little care the spaces left after extraction will soon be 
 filled with the remaining teeth. 
 
 Toothache does not always indicate the necessity of ex- 
 traction, as the nerve, or investing membrane, may be dis- 
 eased, and the tooth sound. Relief will then be afforded by 
 proper medication. 
 
 Observation. When the removal of a tooth is necessary, 
 apply to some skillful operator: something more is needed 
 than strong muscles and a pair of forceps. Skill is as requi- 
 site in the proper extraction of a tooth, as in the amputation 
 of a limb. 
 
 263. The health ',f the Digestive Organs, in general, re- 
 quires the observance of certain conditions relative to their 
 natural stimulus Food. These will be considered under the 
 following heads : 1. The .Quantity of Food. 2. The Quality 
 of Food. 3. The Manner of taking Food. 4. The Proper 
 Conditions of the System for receiving Food. 
 
 264. The QUANTITY OF FOOD necessary to the system 
 varies, being affected by age, occupation, temperament, 
 habits, temperature, amount of clothing, health and mental 
 state. 
 
 265. The supply must equal the waste of the system. In every 
 department of nature, waste attends action. The greater the 
 
124 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 amount of exercise, the more rapidly will the particles bo 
 worn out and removed, and their places need supplying with 
 new atoms. 
 
 During the period of growth, the supply must exceed the waste, 
 for the building of new tissues. This accounts for the keen 
 appetite and vigorous digestion in childhood. The same is 
 true when persons have become emaciated from famine or 
 
 266. When exercise is lessened, the quantity of food should be 
 proportionally diminished, otherwise the tone of the digestive 
 organs will be impaired, and the health of the system en- 
 feebled. This is especially applicable to students, who have 
 been accustomed to laborious employments. Self-denial 
 should be practiced for a few days, when the real wants of 
 the system will generally be manifested by a corresponding 
 sensation of hunger. It is a common remark that in semi- 
 naries and colleges, students jrom the country suffer more 
 from indigestion and impaired health, than those from the 
 cities, 
 
 267. More food is required in winter than in summer; hence, 
 by diminishing the amount of food as the warm season ap- 
 proaches, the tone of the stomach and vigor of the system 
 will be better maintained, thus lessening the liability to 
 "summer complaint" In this respect, the lower animals 
 seem to learn from instinct, what man is slow to learn from 
 reason. 
 
 268. The amount of food should be adapted to the present 
 condition of the digestive organs. Imperfectly digested food 
 irritates the mucous membrane of^the intestines and debili- 
 tates the system instead of invigorating it. In sickness, the 
 attending physician is the person to decide respecting the 
 proper amount. In health, the natural appetite is generally 
 a safe guide, as to plain, nutritious food; but condiments, 
 spices, etc., excite a morbid appetite, whose cravings it is un- 
 safe to gratify. General languor of the body after meals, 
 shows that undue demands are made for an increased supply 
 of fluids to enable the overloaded stomach to free itself of its 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 125 
 
 burden. This, with the extra labor of the secreting glands, 
 will soon be followed by debility and consequent inaction. 
 
 269. The QUALITY OF FOOD should be both nutritive and 
 digestible. Substances are nutritious in proportion to their 
 capacity to yield the constituents of chyle. Substances are 
 digestible in proportion to the facility with which they are 
 acted upon by the digestive fluids. Articles highly nutri- 
 tive in themselves, but difficult of digestion, often yield less 
 nourishment than those poorer in nutritive quality, but easy 
 of digestion. If we confine our diet to easily digested articles, 
 the digestive organs will be weakened from want of proper 
 exercise ; if to highly concentrated diet, they will be injured 
 by over-work ; hence, the necessity of choosing, in this respect, 
 the " happy medium." 
 
 270. Proper aliment must contain the three staminal prin- 
 ciples of food. These are albuminous, oleaginous and saccha- 
 rine substances ; the first contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen 
 and nitrogen ; the last two are destitute of nitrogen. Various 
 experiments have shown that if we feed upon any one of 
 these groups, to the exclusion of the other two, or upon any 
 two to the exclusion of the third, the health will be impaired. 
 Milk contains all the food principles ; the albuminous, being 
 furnished by its caseine; the oily, by the butter; and the 
 saccharine, by the sugar of milk. Beef is rich in fat and 
 albumen, and also contains inosit, or muscle sugar. Most of 
 the cereals contain gluten (an albuminoid), starch, sugar and 
 oil. Wheat, however, has the first three constituents without 
 the oil. It is most nutritious in the form of " Graham flour ;" 
 by rejecting the bran, most of the gluten is lost. Eggs are 
 very rich in albumen, and the yolk also contains oil. Beans, 
 peas, etc. afford starch and much legumine (an albuminoid). 
 Potatoes abound in starch. Sago, tapioca, rice, arrow-root, 
 etc., are constituted almost wholly of starch. These articles 
 or their substitutes, properly combined, will yield the neces- 
 sary elements to the system. 
 
 271. Food should be properly cooked. However nutritious 
 an article of food may be, if not well cooked, it is not only 
 
 11* 
 
126 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 unsavory to the palate, but hurtful to the digestive organs. 
 The simplest methods of preparation by cooking are the best. 
 Meat should be broiled, roasted, or made into soup. Fried 
 meats are apt to be indigestible and also less nutritious. 
 The fat used in frying is infiltrated by the heat and usually 
 penetrates the whole mass. It is mistaken economy to fry 
 meats for the laboring class; better throw the fresh steak 
 upon coals, and add simply salt and pepper, than to deluge 
 it in boiling fat. Much of the nutriment of beef when salted, 
 is extracted by the brine ; and during the process of boiling, 
 still another portion remains in the boiling water, thus leaving 
 but little more than hardened muscular fibre to grace the 
 platter. (The liquor of boiled beef may be converted into 
 soup.) The breakfast "hash" is too frequently unfit to be 
 eaten by the student or sedentary person, from want of being 
 well cooked. 
 
 The cooking of vegetables should be thorough and com- 
 plete. The proper combination and cooking of a few articles 
 of food (as flour, milk, eggs and butter), require skill, which 
 in reality, assumes the importance of no inferior art. 
 
 272. The Quality of Food should be adapted to the season and 
 climate. Highly stimulating food may be used almost with 
 impunity during the cold season of a cold climate ; but in the 
 w*rm season and in a warm climate it is very injurious. 
 Animal food being more stimulating than vegetable, is there- 
 fore well adapted to winter, and vegetable to spring and 
 Bummer. Where the digestive organs are weakened or dis- 
 eased, it is very important that a nutritious vegetable diet be 
 adopted as the warm season approaches. 
 
 273. Vegetable diet is most suitable for children. The organs 
 of a child are more sensitive and excitable than those of an 
 adult; hence, stimulants of every kind should be strictly 
 avoided, and the food mainly of a vegetable character. In 
 this "fast age," this is a suggestion of vast importance. 
 Parents mourn over many evil effects of unrestrained passion 
 and moral deterioration in the rising generation, while in 
 truth, these are too often but the legitimate harvest of the 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 127 
 
 they have themselves sown in the form of stimulating 
 food and drinks. The old spelling-book assertion, that 
 "Bread and milk is the best food for children" is as true 
 now, as it was in the days of our fathers. 
 
 274. Some temperaments require more stimulating food 
 than others. As a general rule, persons of obtuse sensations, 
 and slow movements, are benefited by animal or stimulating 
 food ; while individuals of highly sensitive constitutions, and 
 quick, hurried movements, require a nutritious and unstimu- 
 lating vegetable diet. 
 
 275. THE MANNER OF TAKING FOOD exercises a control- 
 ling influence upon the health of the digestive organs. 
 
 276. Food should be properly masticated. This is essential 
 to secure the fine division necessary to the proper action of 
 the gastric juice and other fluids, and especially to mix the 
 food with the requisite amount of saliva. Rapid eating 
 should be avoided, not only as a violation of good table man- 
 ners, but as a violation of the laws of our physical nature, 
 whose penalty, in the form of dyspepsia with its numerous 
 train of evils, will sooner or later be visited upon the trans- 
 gressor. 
 
 277. Drink should not be taken with the food. Nature sup- 
 plies the appropriate moisture, and if tea, coffee, or any other 
 fluid be used as a substitute, indigestion will follow, from the 
 absence of the necessary amount of saliva. Again, drinks 
 taken into the stomach must be absorbed before the digestion 
 of other articles is commenced. Thirst between the meals 
 does not always arise from a demand of the system for fluids, 
 but may be induced by fever or local disease of the parts 
 connected with the throat. This may often be relieved by 
 chewing a cracker, or some other dry substance, thus exciting 
 the salivary glands. This is a safe resort when thirst accom- 
 panies a heated condition of the system, arising from over- 
 exercise ; while the practice of taking cold fluids is dangerous 
 and should never be indulged. 
 
 278. Regard should be paid to the temperature of food and 
 drink. Hot food or drink, for a short time unduly stimu- 
 
128 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 lates the vessels of the mucous membrane of the gums, mouth 
 and stomach ; then reaction follows, bringing loss of tone and 
 debility of these parts. This practice is a fruitful cause of 
 spongy gums, decayed teeth, sore mouth and indigestion. 
 On the other hand, if food or drink be taken too cold, an 
 undue amount of heat is abstracted from the stomach, this 
 arrests the digestive process, and thus deranges the system. 
 
 279. Food should be taken at regular and suitable periods. 
 The interval between the meals should be regulated by the 
 character of the food, and the age, health, exercise and habits 
 of the individual. In the young, the active, and the vigorous, 
 food is more rapidly digested than in the aged, the indolent 
 and the feeble; consequently, it should be taken more fre- 
 quently by the former class than by the latter. The average 
 time required to digest an ordinary meal is from two to four 
 hours. The stomach should always have from one to three 
 hours of rest, before the next meal. Eating between meals, 
 is a habit ruinous to the digestive organs, inasmuch as the 
 chemical processes are by this means disturbed, and the 
 stomach given no time for rest. 
 
 280. THE CONDITIONS OF THE SYSTEM FOR RECEIVING 
 FOOD, are of practical importance for the healthy action of 
 the digestive process. 
 
 281. Food should not be taken immediately before or after 
 severe exercise of body or mind. The functional exercise of 
 any organ abstracts fluids, sanguineous and nervous, from 
 other parts of the body, thus weakening those parts for the 
 time. Severe exercise of muscle, concentrates the forces in 
 the muscle ; severe exercise of the brain, concentrates the 
 forces in the brain ; the same is true of the vocal and other 
 organs. After severe exercise, from thirty to forty minutes 
 should be allowed before eating, for restoring equilibrium to 
 the system. The student, farmer or mechanic, who hurries 
 from his toil to his dinner to "save time," will, in the end, 
 lose more time than he saves. After eating, the digestive 
 >rgans need, for a time, the chief use of the vital forces, and 
 f they are habitually expended elsewhere, as in study or 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 129 
 
 labor, digestion will be arrested, the chyle cheated of its 
 proper elements, and headache, dullness and general derange- 
 ment will follow. A moderate exercise of the muscles, a 
 social chat and a hearty laugh, aid digestion, and tend " to 
 shake the cobwebs from the brain." These directions are 
 particularly applicable to the ambitious student who feels 
 that he must "save time" and "must have the lesson." Let 
 him try the experiment, and he will soon find that in the 
 after-dinner hour, his lesson is better learned when he spends 
 half the hour in recreation, and the other half in close appli- 
 cation. Many students are obliged to give up their course 
 of study, from simple neglect of these rules. 
 
 Observation. The same principle will apply to lower ani- 
 mals. They will perform more labor by having a suitable 
 period of repose after being fed. Two d^gs were fed upon 
 the same kind of food, one was kept quiet, the other sent in 
 pursuit of game. In an hour both were killed. In the 
 stomach of the quiet dog, digestion was nearly complete ; in 
 that of the other, the food was scarcely altered. 
 
 282. Persons should abstain from eating at least three hours 
 before retiring for sleep. It is no unusual occurrence for those 
 persons who have eaten heartily immediately before retiring 
 to have unpleasant dreams, or to be aroused from their un- 
 quiet slumber by colic pains. In such instances, the brain 
 becomes partially dormant, not imparting to the digestive 
 organs the requisite amount of nervous influence ; this being 
 deficient, the unchanged food remains in the stomach, causing 
 irritation of this organ. A healthy farmer who was in the 
 habit of eating a quarter of a mince pie just before retiring, 
 became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, and among the 
 images of his fancy, he saw that of his deceased father. 
 Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physician, who, after a 
 patient hearing, advised the patient to eat half a mince pie, 
 assuring 'him that then he would see his grandfather. 
 
 283. The mental state exerts an influence upon the digestive 
 process. This is clearly exhibited when an individual re- 
 ceives sad intelligence. Let him be sitting at a plentiful 
 
 F* 
 
130 , ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 board with a keen appetite, and the unexpected news destroys 
 it, because the excited brain withholds the stimulus ; hence 
 all unpleasant themes, labored discussions, or matters of busi- 
 ness, should be banished from the table. Light conversa- 
 tion, enlivening wit and cheerful humor wonderfully promote 
 digestion. 
 
 Indigestion arising from nervous prostration should be treated 
 with great care. The food should be simple, nutritious, 
 properly cooked, moderate in quantity and taken at regular 
 periods. Large quantities of stimulating food, frequently 
 taken, serve to increase the nervous prostration. Exercise 
 in the open air, and a cheerful state of mind, are very bene- 
 ficial in restoring the natural, healthy action of the brain, 
 and thus aiding the digestive powers. 
 
 284. After long abstinence, unstimulating food should be 
 taken, and in small quantities. As in case of sickness, when 
 the appetite begins to return, the nurse must use much dis- 
 cretion, and the patient, often, self-denial. The popular adage, 
 " that food never does harm, when there is a desire for it," is 
 untrue. Too frequently, when a patient satisfies his cravings, 
 it is to induce relapse into the former disease, and at the risk 
 of life. The digestive organs are weak, and must be gradually 
 brought into action. It is often better to give the food in a 
 solid, rather than liquid form, so that the salivary and mucous 
 glands may be stimulated to action. 
 
 285. The condition of the skin exercises an important in- 
 fluence upon digestion. Let free perspiration be checked, 
 either from uncleanliness, chills or any other cause, and the 
 functional action of the stomach is diminished. This is one 
 of the fruitful causes of "liver and stomach complaints" 
 among the filthy and half-clad inhabitants of our cities and 
 villages. Attention to bathing and clothing would prevent 
 many "season complaints," especially among children. 
 
 286. Pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and vigorous 
 digestion. The digestive organs must have a plentiful supply 
 of pure blood, and to have pure blood we should breathe 
 pure air. Poor ventilation is a frequent cause of indigestion. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 131 
 
 Persons who sleep in ill-ventilated rooms have little or no 
 appetite in the morning. A manufacturer stated before a 
 committee of the British Parliament, that he had removed an 
 arrangement for ventilating his mill, as he noticed that his 
 men ate much more after his mill was ventilated than before, 
 and he could not afford to have them breathe the pure air. 
 Compression of the vital organs prevents the introduction of 
 a sufficient supply of pure air, and is one of the causes of 
 dyspepsia now so prevalent among ladies. 
 
 General Observations. All aliment is separated into nutri- 
 ment and residuum. The latter should be regularly expelled 
 from the system, otherwise headache, dizziness and general 
 uneasiness will ensue, and if allowed to continue, the founda- 
 tion will be laid for a long period of suffering and disease. 
 For the preservation of health, there should be in most per- 
 sons a daily evacuation of residual matter. Evening is the 
 best time, especially is this true when persons are afflicted 
 with piles. Constipation may, in many cases, be relieved 
 by friction over the abdominal organs, and by making 
 an effort to evacuate the residuum at some stated period 
 each day. 
 
 RECAPITULATION. Digestion is most perfect when the 
 action of the cutaneous vessels is energetic ; the brain 
 moderately stimulated ; the blood well purified ; the mus- 
 cular system duly exercised ; the food -properly cooked and 
 masticated, taken at regular periods, and adapted in quality 
 and quantity to the present condition of the individual. 
 
 | 24. COMPARATIVE SPLANCHNOLOGY. Nutritive Apparatus of Verte- 
 brates. Compare the Mouths and Teeth of Vertebrates. The Digestirt 
 Fluids. The Stomach and Intestines. 
 
 287. In the NUTRITIVE APPARATUS of all vertebrates, 
 as in the Motory, a general plan of parts obtains, subject to 
 the variations required to preserve the harmony of relation 
 between the organization and the use to which it is to be 
 applied. 
 
132 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 288. In no part do we find a greater variety or a nicer 
 accommodation to particular wants than in the MOUTHS 
 and TEETH of different animals. In Mammals, the project- 
 ing jaws, the wide mouth, the strong, pointed, sharp, ena- 
 meled edges of the teeth enable carnivorous, or flesh-eating 
 animals, to seize and hold their prey, and the hinge-like 
 movement of the jaw, to divide it like a pair of scissors; as seen 
 in the cat and the lion. The full lips, the rough tongue, the 
 Ul r rowed, cartilaginous palate, the broad, rough surface of 
 the teeth, the central plates of enamel and the lateral move- 
 ment of the jaw, qualify the herbivorous, or grain-eating ani- 
 mals, for grazing, and grinding their food, as the grain is 
 crushed between the upper and nether mill-stone; as the 
 sheep and the horse. The elongated, tapering muzzle, the 
 
 FIG. 85. 
 
 Fin. So. 
 
 
 FlG. 85 REPRESENTS THE TEETH OF CARNIVORA, OR FLESH-EATING ANIMALS. 
 FlG. 86 REPRESENTS THE TEETH OF INSECTIVORA, OR INSECT-EATING ANIMALS. 
 
 cone-pointed, enameled molars locking into the enameled de- 
 pressions of the opposite jaw, enable the insectivorous animals 
 to burrow in the earth, for the insects and worms upon which 
 they feed, and also to crush them ; as in the mole and hedge- 
 hog. The two chisel-shaped incisors, enameled only in front, 
 allowing more rapid wear of the posterior than the anterior 
 part, keeping them always sharp; the bag of pulp at the 
 base of these teeth, providing for growth equal to the wear at 
 the top; the backward and forward movement of the jaws; 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 133 
 
 and the great size and strength of the lower jaw, adapt the 
 rodentia, or gnawers, to their mode of life ; as in the rat and 
 the squirrel. 
 
 FIG. 87. 
 
 FIG. 87. LOWER JAW OF A SQUIRREL. 1, The enamel of the gnawing tooth. 2, Tlif 
 ivory. 3, The lateral furrows of the molar teeth. 
 
 289. In Birds the mouth receives a new character, both in 
 substance and in form. Instead of fleshy lips and teeth of 
 enameled bone, we have the hard and horny investment of 
 the jaws, known as the bill, destitute of true teeth. This 
 organ varies in size and form, according to the food of the 
 species, which may be grains, insects, fishes or flesh. 
 
 290. Reptiles swallow their food without mastication, hence, 
 their jaws and throats are made capable of great dilatation, 
 and their teeth, used only for seizing and retaining their prey, 
 all resemble each other. 
 
 291. The jaws of most Fishes are armed with teeth, and in 
 many cases these are placed in all parts of the mouth, and 
 even in the gullet. 
 
 292. In most animals, the digestive fluids are supplied by 
 mucous follicles and glands, similar to the salivary glands in 
 man. The simpler the function of the mouth, the smaller 
 and simpler the arrangement for the supply of these fluids, 
 as is seen in birds, also in reptiles, and some fishes that swal- 
 low their food without mastication, and have no organ of 
 secretion but the liver. 
 
 293. The ST< >MACH and INTESTINES of vertebrates vary in 
 size, form and relative length. They are simpler, smaller 
 and shorter in carnivorous than in herbivorous or granivorous 
 
 12 
 
134 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 animals ; while the ox has intestines about twenty times the 
 length of his body, those of the lion are but three or four 
 times its own length. 
 
 FIG. 88. Fio. 89. 
 
 FIG. 88. STOMACH OF THE SHEEP.!, The oesophagus. 2, The rumen. 3, The reticulum. 
 4, The omasum. 5, The abomasum, or rennet. 6, The intestine. 
 
 FIG. 89. STOMACH OF AN Ox. 1, The oosophagus. 2, The rumen (paunch). 3, The 
 reticulum (honeycomb). 4, The omasum (many-plies). 5, The abomasum (rennet). 6, 
 The intestine. 
 
 294. Kuminants, as the sheep and ox, have a stomach with 
 four cavities. The first stomach, called the Ru'men, or 
 "Paunch;" the second, the Retic'ulum, or "Honeycomb ;" the 
 third, the Oma'sum, or "Many-Plies;" the fourth, the Ab f oma- 
 sum, or "Rennet :" the latter, taken from the young calf, is 
 used in cheese-making. 
 
 The food when first swallowed is received into the Rumen, 
 where it accumulates while the animal is feeding. Here it is 
 moistened by the fluids secreted by the walls of this cavity. 
 It then passes into the Reticulum, where it receives addi- 
 tional secretions, and is made into little pellets, or " cuds," 
 which, when the animal is at rest, are returned to the mouth, 
 to be re-chewed and mixed with the saliva. This pulp passes 
 directly into the third cavity, to be prepared for the fourth, 
 where true digestion takes place. It is then received by the 
 intestinal canal. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 135 
 
 FIG. 90. FIG. 91. 
 
 FIG. 90. THE ALIMENTARY CAXAL OP MAN. 1, (Esophagus. 2, The stomach. 3, Car- 
 diac orifice. 11, Pylorus. 5, Biliary duct. 4, 4, 4, 4, Small intestiues. 6, Pancreatic 
 duct. 7, Ascending colon. 8, Transverse colon. 9, Descending colon. 10, Rectum. 
 
 FIG. 91. THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A FOWL. 1, The oasophagus. 2, Ingluvies (crop). 
 3, Proveuticulus (secreting stomach). 4, Triturating stomach (g zard). 6, Intestine 
 6, Two ceeca. 
 
136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 
 
 FIG. 92. FIG. 93. 
 
 FIG. 92. THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OP THE FLYING LIZARD.!, The oesophagus. 2, Th 
 stomach. 3, 3, Small intestine. 4, Large intestine. 
 
 FIG. 93. THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF THE SWORD-FISH. 1, Liver. 2, 3, Caucus, or 
 pouches, connecting with small intestine. 4, 5, Small intestine, coiled. 6, Large intes- 
 tine. 7, Biliary duct. 
 
 295. In Birds there are usually three cavities, or stomachs ; 
 the first is a dilatation of the oesophagus, called the Crop, or 
 "Inglu'vies" where the food is macerated and softened; the 
 second is the true stomach, named 4 Pro ventric'ulus" where the 
 mucous membrane is provided with mucous follicles, secreting 
 an acid which acts still farther upon the food ; and the third 
 is the Gizzard, or Triturating cavity. The latter, in graniv- 
 orous birds, has immense strength, being composed of mus- 
 cular fibres running in different directions, and lined with a 
 horny membrane. Gravel and angular stones are instinctively 
 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 137 
 
 swallowed to assist in the grinding process. In flesh-eating 
 birds the gizzard is thin and membranous. 
 
 296. In Reptiles the alimentary canal differs much from 
 that of mammals or birds. As a general rule, it is shorter 
 in proportion to the trunk than in warm-blooded vertebrates. 
 The transition from the oesophagus to the stomach is by a 
 pouch-like enlargement ; the small intestines usually have a 
 few coils; the large intestines in most reptiles are short, 
 simple and straight, without csecal appendage at its begin- 
 ning. The liver is relatively large. 
 
 297. In Fishes, the alimentary canal is more diversified in 
 length, size and form than in reptiles ; the oesophagus is a 
 short and funnel-shaped canal ; the stomach is shaped either 
 like a syphon or a pouch (caeca). In some species of fish, 
 the small intestines extend in a line from the stomach to 
 their termination ; in others, there are found from two to 
 eight coils. The large intestines are short and straight. 
 The liver is usually large, with numerous appendages. In 
 the cod it is soft and saturated with oil, which is expressed 
 for medicinal purposes. 
 
 . FIG. 94. 
 
 Fro. 91. THE ALIMENTARY CAKAI OF THE HKRRINO.-!. (Esophagus. 2, Stomach. 
 3, S, 8, 3, Small intestino. 4, Caeca. 5, Air-bladder. 7, Pneumatic duct. 
 12* 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ABSORPTION. 
 
 298. WE have observed the changes in food till its forma- 
 tion into chyle changes which have taken place in the ali- 
 mentary canal, and which are included under the general 
 term, Digestion. The chyle, however, is virtually external to 
 the animal body. The process by which it is conveyed 
 within is called Absorption; and the vessels conveying it are 
 named Absorbents. 
 
 The term absorption, used in its largest sense, however, 
 includes more than the mere taking up of nutrient material 
 from the alimentary canal. It embraces that general pro- 
 cess by which all external soluble substances, whether solid, 
 liquid or gaseous, beneficial or poisonous, nutrient, stimulant 
 or respiratory, are introduced into the tissues of the body. 
 It also comprehends, in part at least, the process by which 
 portions of the living tissues are themselves removed, or ab- 
 sorbed within the body. The former may be called General 
 Absorption, and the latter, Intrinsic, or Interstitial Absorption. 
 
 \ 25. ANATOMY OF THE ABSORBENTS. The Process of Absorption 
 Specific and General. The Absorbent Vessels. Lymph. Distribution 
 of the Lymphatics. The Thoracic Duct. The Lymphatic Duct. Posi- 
 tion of Lymphatic Glands. Absorbent Veins. 
 
 299. The absorbents consist of certain blood-vessels, espe- 
 cially the venous capillaries, and the absorbents proper, viz., 
 Lymphatic* Vessels and Glands. 
 
 The fluid conveyed by the lymphatic absorbents is a trans- 
 parent, transuded portion of the blood, called Lymph. The 
 lymphatic vessels of the small intestines are named Lae f teals $ 
 
 * Lat., lympha, water. f Lat., lac, milk. 
 
 138 
 
ABSORPTION. 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 
 139 
 
 15 
 
 Fio. 95. A REPRESENTATION op THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS AND GLANDS.!, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6, 
 The lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The com- 
 mencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The lymphatics of the kidney. 10, Of the stomach. 
 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, Of the lungs. 13, 14, 15, The lymphatics and glands of the arm. 
 16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19, 20, Large veins. 21, The thoracic duct. 
 
140 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 from their milky appearance during active digestion, when 
 they are filled with chyle. In the interval of digestion, they 
 convey lymph like the other lymphatics. 
 
 300. The LYMPHATIC GLANDS through which the vessels 
 pass are somewhat hard, pinkish bodies, varying in size from 
 that of a hemp-seed to that of a large pea. 
 
 301. The LYMPHATIC VESSELS are distributed through 
 most of the system. Few are found in the muscles, and none 
 in the brain or spinal cord, though they doubtless exist there. 
 They abound in the secreting membranes, especially in the 
 skin and the mucous membrane. 
 
 The finer lymphatics unite into trunks, which either accom- 
 pany the blood-vessels and form the deep lymphatics, or run 
 on the surface of organs or in the sub-areolar tissue, forming 
 superficial lymphatics. From all parts of the body, these 
 trunks run toward the root of the neck and unite in two 
 main trunks which end in the venous system, viz., the Tho- 
 racic and Lymphatic Ducts. 
 
 The lymphatics of the lower limbs of the abdomen, of the 
 left side of the head and neck, and of the left upper limb, 
 form the Thoracic Duct ; those of the right side of the head 
 and neck, and right upper limb, form the Lymphatic Duct. 
 
 302. The THORACIC DUCT commences with a dilatation, 
 named the " Receptaculum Chyli," or receptacle of the chyle. 
 This vessel is formed by the convergence of lymphatics from 
 the lower extremities, the intestines, stomach, spleen, pan- 
 creas, kidneys and the greater part of the liver. The " recep- 
 taculum chyli" is usually placed upon the second lumbar 
 vertebra, a little to the right of the aorta (329). It soon 
 passes behind the arch of that vessel, crossing over the oeso- 
 phagus, and ascends on the left side to the root of the neck, 
 where it curves downward and outward behind the great 
 blood-vessels, and finally opens into the angle at the junction 
 of two large veins (330). 
 
 303. The LYMPHATIC DUCT is about an inch long, and 
 has a similar termination on the right side of the body. 
 
 304. Ths lymphatic glands are found in the axilla of the 
 
ABSORPTION. 
 
 141 
 
 FIG. 96. 
 
 Fio. 96 (Leidy). VIEW OF THE GREAT LYM- 
 PHATIC TRUNKS. 1, 2, Thoracic duct. 4, The 
 right lymphatic duct. 5, Lymphatics of the 
 thigh. 6, Iliac lymphatics. 7, Lumber lym- 
 phatics. 8, Intercostal lymphatics, a, Supe- 
 rior cava.. b, Loft innominate vein. c. Right 
 innominate vein, d, Aorta, e, Inferior cava. 
 
 arm (arm-pit) and in the 
 groins ; chains of glands are 
 found on each side of the 
 neck ; a few in the arm ; also 
 many about the bronchi, or 
 air-tubes; and in the pelvis 
 or abdomen ; those of the 
 lacteals being abundant in 
 the Mes'entery* 
 
 305. The veins of the in- 
 testines acting as absorbents 
 unite with those coming from 
 the stomach, the spleen and 
 the pancreas, thus forming 
 the Portal vein, which enters 
 the liver through a fissure in 
 the concave surface. 
 
 \ 26. HISTOLOGY OF THE AB- 
 SORBENTS. Histology of the 
 Lymphatic Vessel* Glands. 
 Origin of the Lymphatics. 
 
 306. Most of the LYM- 
 PHATIC VESSELS are long, 
 thread-like, transparent tubes, 
 with coats so exceedingly deli- 
 cate that their structure is a 
 matter of inference from that 
 of the Thoracic Duct, which 
 has three coats, like the veins. 
 The external coat is the 
 thickest, and consists of white 
 fibrous tissue, with longitudi- 
 nal webs of elastic tissue ; the 
 middle coat consists of un- 
 striated muscular, elastic and 
 connective tissues ; the inter- 
 
 Gr., raesos, middle, and enteron, the intestine. 
 
142 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 nal coat, of a lining epithelium, an elastic basement mem- 
 brane, supported by longitudinal laminse of elastic tissue. 
 The larger lymphatic tubes are liberally supplied with valves 
 formed by the infolding of the inner coat. These valves are 
 arranged in pairs, and are much more numerous in the 
 smaller than in the larger vessels. In the thoracic duct, they 
 are sometimes more than an inch apart. A very strong pair 
 is placed at the opening of the thoracic duct into the large 
 
 veins. 
 
 FIG. 97. FIG. 98. 
 
 FIG. 99. 
 
 Fio. 97. A SINGLE LYMPHATIC VESSEL, much magnified. 
 
 FIG. 98. THE VALVES of a lymphatic trunk. 
 
 FIG. 99. 1, A LYMPHATIC GLAND, with several vessels passing through it. 
 
 307. The LYMPHATIC GLANDS are not well understood. 
 They seem to be composed of a large number of vesicles, or 
 pouches, which communicate with each other and also with 
 the lymphatic tubes. The tubes, or vessels, entering the 
 gland, are called afferent vessels, and those emerging from it, 
 efferent vessels. Each vesicle of the gland seems to connect 
 with an afferent and an efferent vessel. 
 
 308. The lymphatics are of such tenuity and transparency, 
 it is with the greatest difficulty that they can be discovered, 
 
ABSORPTION. 143 
 
 hence, their origin is imperfectly known. They appear to 
 originate in a capillary network among the sanguiferous 
 capillaries, but not to communicate with them. The lacteals 
 originate in the villi of the intestines, and unite more and 
 more till their entrance into the receptaculum chyli. 
 
 309. The LYMPH consists of a fluid part containing nuclei, 
 minute granules, and sometimes a few oily globules. 
 
 $ 37. CHEMISTRY OF THE ABSORBENTS. Chemical Changes in the 
 Absorbent System In the Portal Circulation. 
 
 . 310. We know little of the chemical changes which take 
 place in the absorbent system ; but the chyle drawn from the 
 large absorbent trunks near their entrance into the " recepta- 
 culum chyli" is very different from that just absorbed by the 
 lacteals. During its passage through these vessels and their 
 glands it undergoes important alterations, assimilating it to 
 the blood. 
 
 311. The following table, by Carpenter, gives the relative 
 proportions of the three chief ingredients of the chyle in 
 different parts of the absorbent system. 
 
 In the afferent lacteals, from the intestines to the mesen- 
 teric glands : 
 
 Fat in maximum quantity (numerous fat or oil-globules). 
 Albumen in medium quantity. 
 Chyle-corpuscles, few or none. 
 Fibrin almost entirely wanting. 
 
 In the efferent lacteals, from the mesenteric gland to the 
 Thoracic Duct : 
 
 Fat in medium quantity. 
 
 Albumen in maximum quantity. 
 
 Chyle-corpuscles very numerous, but imperfectly developed. 
 
 Fibrin in medium quantity. 
 
 In the Thoracic Duct : 
 
 Fat in minimum quantity (few or no oil-globules). 
 Albumen in medium quantity. 
 
 Chyle-corpuscles numerous, and more distinctly cellular. 
 Fibrin in maximum quantity. 
 
144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 312. In the portal circulation, soon after the absorbed sub- 
 stances are introduced into the blood, and come in contact 
 with its organic ingredients, they become converted into 
 other substances ; the albuminose is in part changed into 
 blood-albumen, a substance very different from albuminose 
 or the original albumen. There is also probably some fibrin, 
 while the sugar rapidly decomposes, losing its characteristic 
 properties. The contents of the portal vein undergo changes 
 iu the liver before being taken up by the hepatic vein, but 
 these are not well understood; arriving at the entrance of 
 the general circulation, these newly-absorbed ingredients 
 have already become measurably assimilated to those pre- 
 viously existing in the blood. 
 
 28. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ABSORBENTS. Office of the Lymphatics. 
 Absorbent Power of Different Tissues. Absorption in cases of Disease. 
 Imbibition of Animal Membranes. 
 
 313. It was formerly supposed that the office of the LYM- 
 PHATICS was excretive that of conveying from the system 
 portions of waste matter no longer of use ; but as these ves- 
 sels are found to commence most frequently in tissues where 
 nutritive changes are few as there is a conformity in the 
 nature of the fluids, chyle and lymph, the chief difference 
 being due to the presence of fat, and a large proportion of 
 albumen in the chyle as the two fluids are conveyed into 
 the general current of circulation, just before the blood is 
 again transmitted into the system at large the almost in- 
 evitable inference is, that lymph, like chyle, is a nutritious 
 fluid. There is much evidence that the lymph is obtained 
 from the blood, and it is not improbable that the lymphatics 
 take up those crude materials which were absorbed directly 
 by the veins and subject them to an assimilating agency, 
 resembling that acting upon the nutritive substances in the 
 lacteals. 
 
 314. The office of the lymphatics may also include an- 
 other, assimilation. Disintegration of the tissues is every- 
 where taking place. Every respiration, every heart-beat, every 
 
ABSORPTION. 145 
 
 muscular movement, every thought, is produced at the ex- 
 pense of the life of some of the tissues ; but, says Carpenter, 
 " The death of the tissues by no means involves their imme- 
 diate and complete destruction; and there seems no more 
 reason why an animal should not derive support from its 
 own dead past, than the dead body of another individual. 
 Whilst, therefore, the matter that has undergone too com- 
 plete a disintegration to be again employed as nutrient mate- 
 rial is carried off by the excretory process, that portion which 
 is capable of being again assimilated may be taken up by 
 the lymphatic system." This whole lymphatic system may 
 be looked upon as one great assimilating or blood-making 
 gland. 
 
 315. Different membranes have different absorbent powers, 
 and the power of the same membrane varies with change of 
 condition. The most active is the mucous membrane ; thus, 
 in the alimentary canal, it takes up a large portion of the 
 food ; in the lungs it absorbs gases in a state of solution. In 
 this way are introduced into the system miasmatic and con- 
 tagious exhalations. Fine, solid particles are sometimes ab- 
 sorbed, as arsenic. Instances of poisoning are not uncommon 
 among manufacturers of artificial flowers and green paper- 
 hangings, arsenite of copper or " Scheele's green" being em- 
 ployed in the coloring. 
 
 316. Though much impeded by the cuticle, absorption 
 takes place to a considerable extent through the skin, and 
 the use of medicinal baths is based on this fact ; shipwrecked 
 sailors, destitute of fresh water, find that thirst is relieved by 
 immersing the body in salt water. Life is sometimes sup- 
 ported for a time by immersing the patient in baths of milk 
 or broth. 
 
 317. In serous and synovial membranes, the fluids poured 
 out into the joint in rheumatism and other inflammations are 
 absorbed. Absorption is shown in areolar tissue, as in taking 
 up dropsical fluids ; also by sub-cutaneous injections of a solu- 
 tion of morphia, to relieve suffering from neuralgic pain, from 
 severe operations, obstinate cough and other irritations. 
 
 13 G 
 
146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Observations. 1st, In cases of disease, where no food is 
 taken into the stomach, life is maintained by the absorption 
 of fat. In consumption, even the muscles and more solid 
 parts of the body are absorbed. 2d, Animals living in a 
 half-torpid state during winter, derive their nourishment 
 from the same source. 
 
 318. There are no visible openings in the membranes for 
 the passage of these absorbable substances, but their entrance 
 seems to be effected by a peculiar action of animal mem- 
 branes which enables certain fluids to pass directly through 
 them by a kind of imbibition, a process called endosmo'sis.* 
 
 \ 39. HYGIENE OF THE ABSORBENTS. Conditions of Air affecting 
 Absorption. Effect of Nutritious Food. Effect of the Removal of the 
 Outide. 
 
 319. The air should be as free as possible from impure vapors 
 and gases; hence the importance of thorough ventilation, 
 especially in the sleeping-room, since exhalations from the 
 system are greater at night than by day. 
 
 Observation. In infectious diseases, the impure air should 
 be constantly carried from the room, and the nurse should be 
 careful to avoid the infected air, approaching the patient on 
 the side in which the currents of air are admitted. 
 
 320. Moisture increases the activity of the absorbents ; hence, 
 persons living in marshy districts contract miasmatic and 
 contagious diseases more readily than those living in a drier 
 atmosphere. In such localities the house should be plenti- 
 fully supplied with fresh air, and kept dry by the use of fires. 
 Especially is this necessary morning and evening, in spring 
 and autumn, and often in summer. 
 
 Observation. For the above reason, the air of the sick- 
 room should be kept dry, otherwise the poisonous exhalations 
 are absorbed by the lungs and skin, both of the patient and 
 of the nurse. 
 
 321. Nutritious food lessens the activity of the absorbents; 
 
 * Gr., endon, within, and osmos, impulse. 
 
ABSORPTION. 147 
 
 hence, in cases of infectious diseases, due attention should be 
 given to the food of the attendants and of the family. Some 
 persons use alcoholic stimulants or tobacco, "to prevent 
 taking disease," but these increase the activity of the ab- 
 sorbents, and the liability to contract disease. A moderate 
 amount of nutritious food will be more efficacious. 
 
 322. In handling poisons, care should be taken that the cuticle 
 be unbroken, as absorption is very rapid when the skin is 
 removed. In contagious diseases, if the skin is broken, it 
 should be covered with adhesive plaster while at work over 
 the patient. In handling dead bodies, it is well to lubricate 
 the hands with olive-oil or lard. The absorption of poisonous 
 matter through a slight "scratch" or puncture of the cuticle, 
 as the removal of a " hang nail," has cost several valuable 
 lives. 
 
COMMON .CAOOTIO flRTRr~ 
 
 WOULfift VEIN 
 
 INTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN 
 CLAVICLE 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE CIRCULATION. 
 
 2 3O. The, Blood. Composition of the Blood. Relation of the Absorbent 
 System to the Blood. 
 
 323. As the contents of the absorbent vessels enter the 
 blood-vessels, they undergo their last complete change into 
 that remarkable fluid, the blood, which contains all the mate- 
 rials for the support of every part of the animal fabric. 
 
 The blood ^onsjsjsj)^,Ho,uidportion jiamed liquor san- 
 g^wvnM,JJ^^ which holds in sus- 
 
 pension multitudes of mmute^circular bjdiesTcljjIecl blood^ 
 ^coTpusclesTTnes^lir^oftwo kinds, the white, or colorless, 
 anrftne red ; the latter are so minute that no less than one 
 hundred millions are said to exist in a single drop of blood ; 
 the red color is due to their accumulation, as, when in thin 
 layers, they appear yellowish. They contain only a slightly 
 colored fluid, while the white corpuscles have, in addition, a 
 nucleus and indistinct granules. 
 
 324. The blood is constantly undergoing loss, from supply- 
 ing material for the secretions, for nutritive changes in the 
 solid tissues, and also in the blood itself. 
 
 Observation. The French call blood " chair coulant," run- 
 ning fleshy and with reason, since it not only contains the 
 same constituents as flesh, but one-fifth of its weight is solid 
 matter. 
 
 325. In order that this blood with its cargo of supplies 
 should fulfill its mission of nutrition, it must be kept con- 
 stantly moving in a circuit, including every part of the body; 
 this movement is called its 
 
 through the jgear^andjhe Blood-vessels, which ^consist of the 
 \rteme^Uapillaries and Veins. 
 
 13* 149 
 
150 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 31. ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. Construction of the 
 Heart. The Arteries, Veins and Capillaries, and their Relation to each 
 other. The Aorta and its Divisions. Arrangement of the Veins. 
 
 326. The HEART is a hollow muscle enclosed in a sac, 
 named Pericardium* In the male its proportion to the 
 body is about 1 to 169 ; in the female, about 1 to 149. The 
 heart is cone-like in shape, whence its triple division into 
 base, body and apex. Its length is about five inches, and its 
 basal diameter about four inches. It is everywhere free or 
 unattached excepting at the base, which by means of the 
 large blood-vessels is joined to the vertebral column, reach- 
 ing from the region of the fourth dorsal vertebra to the 
 eighth. The apex is directed downward, forward and to the 
 left, pointing to the junction of the fifth rib with its cartilage. 
 The interior of the heart is divided by a longitudinal mus- 
 cular septum, or wall, into two chambers, named the right 
 and the left chamber ; each of these is divided by a trans- 
 verse constriction into two apartments, named the Au'ricle^ 
 and the Ven'tricle ; the auricle occupying the basal end of 
 the organ, and the ventricles the body and apex. There are 
 virtually two hearts placed side by side, having no communi- 
 cation with each other and differing in function. The right 
 division is sometimes called the pulmonic heart, and the left 
 the systemic heart. 
 
 327. The ARTERIES are firm, membranous, cylindrical 
 tubes," arising from the ventricles of the heart by two trunks; 
 that from the left ventricle, named the Aorta, is the systemic 
 trunk; and that from the right ventricle, named the Pul- 
 monic artery, is the pulmonic trunk. 
 
 The systemic trunk, or aorta, divides and subdivides into 
 finer and finer arteries, like the branches from the trunk 
 of a tree, excepting that these branches communicate with 
 each other in a finer network, till the ultimate ramifications, 
 too minute to be seen by the naked eye, extend to every 
 
 * Gr., peri, about, and kardia, heart. f Lat., auris, an ear. 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 151 
 
 nook and corner and atom of the body. These final branches 
 are called Capillaries. 
 
 arteries with the beginning jaf Jihe veins, so that it is impos- 
 
 e_ejnng^ t 
 
 the vein begins. 
 
 FIG. 101. FIG. 102. 
 
 FIG. 101. A FRONT VIEW OP THE HEART.!, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The 
 left auricle. 3, The right ventricle. 4, The left ventricle. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Vessels 
 through which the blood passes to and from the heart. 
 
 FIG. 102. A BACK VIEW OF THE HEART.!, The right auricle. 2, The left auricle. 3, 
 The right ventricle. 4, The left ventricle. 5, 6, 7, The vessels that carry the blood to 
 and from the heart. 9, 10, 11, The vessels of the heart. 
 
 328. The VEINS thus commencing with the capillaries 
 unite into larger and larger veins, converging toward the 
 heart, like the branches of a tree toward its trunk, till the 
 final union in two trunks (the ascending and descending 
 Vense Cavse), that connect with the right auricle of the 
 heart. The aorta and cavse constitute the large vessels of 
 the Systemic, or general circulation. The Pulmonic, or 
 lesser circulation from the right ventricle through the lungs 
 to the left auricle, has a similar set of vessels; the trunk 
 leaving the right ventricle is named the Pulmonie artery, and 
 corresponds to the aorta ; those trunks conveying the blood 
 to the left auricle and corresponding to the venae cavae, are 
 named the Pulmonary veins. 
 
152 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 FIG. 103 (Le,idy). THE AORTA.!, Arch of 
 the aorta. 2, Thoracic aorta. 3, Abdominal 
 aorta. 4, Innominate artery. 5, Right com- 
 mon carotid. 6, Right subcJavian. 7, Left 
 common carotid. 8, Left subclavian. 9, Bron- 
 chial arti-ry, a small branch of the aorta. 10, 
 OSsophageal arteries. 11, Intercostal arteries 
 of the right side; 12, of the left side. 15, 
 Coronary artery. 16, Splenic artery. 17, 
 Hepatic artery. 18, Superior mesenteric 
 artery. 19, Supra-renal arteries. 21, Infe- 
 rior mesenteric artery. 22, Lumbar arteries. 
 23, Common iliac arteries. 24, Middle sacral 
 artery, a, Aortic orifice of the diaphragm. 
 b, Articulation of the head of the ribs, c, 
 Anterior scalene muscle. 
 
 329. The AORTA springs 
 from the left ventricle of the 
 heart, is about an inch in 
 diameter, and is the main 
 trunk of the arterial system, 
 supplying pure blood to 
 every part of the body. It 
 is divided into the arch, 
 the thoracic and abdominal 
 aorta. The Arch ascends 
 from the heart, slightly in- 
 clines toward the right side, 
 curves obliquely backward 
 to the left side, and descends 
 to the left side of the third 
 dorsal vertebra, where it be- 
 comes the Thoracic Aorta. 
 The arch gives off main 
 branches as follows: the 
 right and left Coronary ar- 
 teries, whose branches ramify 
 upon the walls of the heart ; 
 the three trunks going to the 
 head -and upper extremities ; 
 viz., the right Carotid and 
 right Subclavian and the In- 
 nominata trunk, which soon 
 divides into the left Carotid 
 and left Subclavian arteries. 
 
 330. The THORACIC AORTA 
 commencing with the termi- 
 nation of the arch, descends 
 at the left of the vertebral 
 column, gradually inclining 
 toward the median line, 
 which it nearly reaches oppo- 
 site the last dorsal vertebra, 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 153 
 
 where it passes through the diaphragm and becomes the 
 abdominal aorta. The thoracic division gives off branches 
 to the lungs, pericardium, oesophagus, lymphatic glands, the 
 intercostal, pectoral and serrated muscles, also those of the 
 back. 
 
 331. The ABDOMINAL AORTA inclines a little to the left, 
 gives off branches to the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, 
 kidneys and to the abdominal muscles. Opposite the fourth 
 lumbar vertebra, it divides into two large trunks, called the 
 common Iliacs. These subdivide into two branches, called 
 the external and internal Iliac arteries. The continuation 
 of the external iliac when it reaches the groin, is named the 
 Femoral artery, which passes down the groove of the thigh 
 between the extensor and adductor muscles ; after passing 
 through the tendon of the great adductor muscle it is called 
 the Popliteal artery, which divides into the anterior and pos- 
 terior tibial arteries, the latter providing the fibular artery 
 and various branches sent to several parts of the foot 
 and toes. 
 
 332. The carotid arteries are divided into two branches, 
 the external and the internal ; the former giving off branches 
 to the face and head, excepting the brain and orbits, which 
 are supplied by the latter. The subclavian arteries furnish 
 branches to the brain, spinal cord and membranes, the ears, 
 pleura, and various muscles of the back and neck. The 
 extension of the subclavian artery is called the brachial in 
 the inner and fore part of the arm ; the two main branches 
 of the brachial extending down the fore-arm are named 
 the radial, at the anterior and outer part of the fore-arm, 
 and the ulna, situated at the anterior and inner part of the 
 fore-arm. The radial artery toward the wrist runs near the 
 surface, being covered only by the fascia and skin. We 
 learn the condition of the general circulation by its throb- 
 bings, which we call the pulse. The radial and ulnar 
 arteries divide and subdivide into the vaiious carpal, pal- 
 mar and digital ramifications, supplying the wrist, hand 
 and fingers. 
 
154 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 * FIG. 104. 
 
 FIG. 104 (Leidy). LEFT COMMON CAROTID DIVIDING INTO THE EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL 
 CAROTID ARTERIES. 1, Common carotid artery. 2, Internal carotid. 3, External carotid. 
 4, Superior thyroid. 5, Lingual. 6, Pharyngeal artery. 7, Facial. 8, Inferior palatine 
 and tonsillar arteries. 9, Submaxillary. 10, Submental. 11, Occipital. 12, Posterior 
 auricular. 13, Parotid branches. 14, Internal maxillary. 15, Temporal artery. 16, 
 Subclavian artery. 17, Axillary. 18, Vertebral artery. 19, Thyroid axis. 20, Inferior 
 thyroid giving off the ascending cervical. 21, Transverse cervical. 22, Supra-scapular. 
 23, Internal mammary artery. 
 
 333. The VEINS are arranged in two sets the superficial 
 and the deep-seated ; the former lie immediately under the 
 skin, possessing no corresponding arteries; the deep-seated 
 veins directly attend the arteries, and usually take the 
 same name. The largest arteries have one venous trunk ; 
 the medium-sized have two, called vence comites. The veins 
 unite into eight trunks with their branches; the coronary 
 vein receives the blood from the walls of the heart, and con- 
 veys it to the right auricle ; the Superior Vena Cava derives 
 
THE CIRCTJLATTQX. 
 
 155 
 
 its branches from the head, 
 neck, upper extremities and 
 walls of the thorax. It termi- 
 nates at the upper back part 
 of the right auricle of the 
 heart. 
 
 The Inferior Vena Cava col- 
 lects the blood from the lower 
 extremities, pelvis and abdo- 
 men, and terminates in the 
 right auricle. 
 
 The Portal vein is a short 
 trunk about three inches in 
 length, derived from the con- 
 vergence of the veins of the 
 stomach, spleen, pancreas and 
 intestines ; this passes into the 
 liver, where it divides and 
 subdivides, being distributed 
 throughout the organ. This 
 blood, with that of the hepatic 
 artery, is returned to the gene- 
 ral circulation by the hepatic 
 veins (244). 
 
 The Pulmonary veins art 
 four in number, two for each 
 lung. They commence with 
 the capillaries of the lungs, 
 and converge till a single trunk 
 is formed for each lobe, or 
 three trunks for the right lung 
 and two for the left; but the 
 
 trunk from the middle lobe of 
 
 FIG. 105 (LeMy). VEINS OF THE THORAX 
 
 the right lung joins that from AND AKDOMMI.-I, Inferior cava. 2, right, 
 
 3, Left renal veins. 4, Superior cava. 5, 
 
 the upper lobe of the same 
 
 side* and the four mouths dis- 
 charge into the four angles of 
 
 Right, 6, Left innominate veins. 7, In- 
 ternal veins. 8, External jugular veins. 
 9, Subclavian vein. 10, Azygos vein. 
 
156 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the left auricle. The pulmonary veins perform the function 
 of arteries, as they convey pure blood. 
 
 FIG. 106. 
 
 FIG. 106 (Leidy). THE PORTAL SYSTEM OF VEINS. a, Portal vein. 6, Splenic vein. 
 c, Right gastro-epiploic vein, d, Inferior mesenteric vein, e, Superior mesenteric vein. 
 /, Trunk of the superior mesenteric artery. 1, Liver. 2, Stomach. 3, Spleen. 4, Pan- 
 creas. 5, Duodenum. 6, Ascending colon : the transverse colon is removed. 7, Small 
 intestine. 8, Descending colon. 
 
 32. HISTOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. The Pericardium 
 and Endocardium. The Valves of the Heart. The Muscular Struc- 
 ture of the Heart. The Coats of the ArteriesOf the Veins Of the 
 
 ^ The fibrous layer 
 
 the heart, being connected only at the 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 
 
 157 
 
 base, from which it embraces the several blood-vessels and 
 becomes continuous with their external coats. The serous 
 layer closely invests the heart and also the great blood-ves- 
 sels at its base, from which it is reflected to line the fibrous 
 layer of the pericardium. 
 
 FIG. 108. 
 
 FIG. 107. 
 
 14 
 
 FIG. 107. DIAGRAM OF THE HEART, WITH ITS INVESTMENT. 1, 1, Right and left auricles. 
 2, 2, Right and left ventricles. 3, 4, Pericardium. 5, Pulmonary artery. 6, Aorta. 
 
 FIG. 108. DIAGRAM OF THE HEART AND VALVES.!, Descending vena cava (vein). 2, 
 Ascending vena cava (vein). 3, Right auricle. 4, Opening between the right auricle 
 and the right ventricle. 5, Right ventricle. 6, Tricuspid valves. 7, Pulmonary artery. 
 8, 8, Branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung. 9, Semi- 
 lunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 10, Septum between the two ventricles of the 
 heart. 11, 11, Pulmonary veins. 12, Left auricle. 13, Opening between the left auricle 
 and ventricle. 14, Left ventricle. 15, Mitral valves. 16, 16, Aorta. 17, Semilunar 
 valves of the aorta. 
 
 335. The ENDOCARDIUM, or lining membrane of the heart, 
 is a thin, Jran^l?ejit'jngm^^ thejnner 
 
 coats of the blood-vessels. It consists of an epithelium, an 
 
 exceedingly thin basement membrane and a fibro-elastic layer 
 closely adherent to the general muscular structure beneath. 
 At the opening between the auricles and ventricles, at the 
 commencement of the aorta and of the pulmonary artery, 
 the fibro-elastic tissue forms four rings, sometimes called 
 fibrous zones. It also forms valves by its little folds, en- 
 closing muscular fibres. Those at the openings of the aorta 
 and the pulmonary artery are named, from their shape, Semi- 
 te 
 
158 
 
 ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 lunar valves. They form complete pockets, three in number, 
 
 and have a triangular arrangement about the orifices. Be- 
 
 hind each of these valves is a cavity, or pouch, in the artery. 
 
 336. Between^ thg auricl^ ^.aymi^y^njgii^ffAJK 6 Calves also 
 
 from 
 
 whosejfloating edge small jwh^e Coords (chordae tendinse") pass 
 to some of the columnse carnse, thus preventing the edge 
 from being carried into the auricle. Qn^ ^the j-ijht^side arc 
 
 three valves formed of three folds of membrane, 
 
 FIG. 109. 
 
 FIG. 110. 
 
 FIG. 109. SPIRAL and involuted arrangement of the fibres of the heart. 
 FIG. 110. GYRATION of the fibres of the heart at the apex. 
 
 337. The muscular structure of the heart is based upon the 
 four fibrous zones, which furnish a point of departure for 
 most of the muscular fibres in the ventricles. Those of the 
 auricles and of the ventricles are quite independent of each 
 other. The crossing fibres form networks arranged in three 
 circular laminae, the superficial, middle and internal. The 
 superficial fibres commence at the base, and pursue a spiral 
 course to the apex ; those of the right side, running from 
 right to left ; those of the left side, from left to right. These 
 two spiral sets encircle the apex and cross each other some- 
 what like the lines in the figure 8, thus forming a remark- 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 
 
 able whorl, called the vortex. They do not stop here, but 
 pass inward and turn upward to the auriculo-ventricular 
 fibrous rings from whence they started, forming the deep- 
 seated layer, or the true walls of the ventricles with their 
 fleshy columns ; hence the deep-seated and superficial layers 
 are continuous muscles. Between these two layers is the 
 middle stratum of fibres, more or less circular, forming a 
 truncated cone, with its base corresponding to the auriculo- 
 ventricular orifice. 
 
 338. The muscular fibres of the auricles consist of a super- 
 ficial set investing the anterior portion of both auricles, and a 
 deep-seated layer which in the left auricle constitutes a network 
 of circular and oblique fibres, all traceable to the auriculo- 
 ventricular orifice, around which they form sphincter muscles. 
 The corresponding fibres of the right auricle intersect each 
 other, and are traceable to the corresponding orifice. 
 
 339. 'yhe^ARTERiES have comparative]^ fiftic^f "'ftllfli r nm - 
 posed of three COSL\S continjiong wi^h the endocardium and 
 the fibrous coat of the pericardium. The external coat is 
 chiefly of white fibrous tissue, with the spiral fibres crossing 
 each other from opposite sides of the vessel. This coat is 
 quite thin in the aorta and larger trunks; it forms about 
 half the thickness of the walls in the medium-sized vessels, 
 and disappears entirely in the smaller vessels. The middle 
 coat is thick in the large arteries, and gradually becomes 
 thinner till its disappearance before reaching the capillaries. 
 This coat is, in the large trunks, chiefly composed of elastic 
 tissue with some muscular fibres ; in the smaller vessels, of 
 muscular tissue with few elastic fibres. The inner coat is 
 thinnest and most elastic ; like the endocardium, it has an 
 epithelium, a basement membrane and a layer of connective 
 elastic tissue. The latter is intimately connected with the 
 middle coat. 
 
 340. The VEINS are constructed, in general, like the ar- 
 teries, but their coats are much thinner. Many of the larger 
 veins, particularly in the limbs, have crescent-shaped valves, 
 usually arranged in pairs and opposite each other. These are 
 
160 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 formed by the doublings of the lining membrane, strengthened 
 with intervening fibre-elastic tissue. Behind each valve there 
 is a dilatation of the vein, forming a little pouch. The pul- 
 monary veins have no valves : the same is true of the vense 
 cavse, the portal vein and its branches, the hepaticse, renal 
 and spinal veins, and most of those of the head and neck ; 
 they are more abundant in the lower than in the upper ex- 
 tremities. The walls of both arteries and veins are furnished 
 with nutritive vessels and with nerves. 
 
 FIG. Ill (Leidy). DIAGRAMS EXHIBITING THE ARRANGEMENT op THE VALVES OF VEINS. 
 A, Vein laid open, showing the valves in pairs. B, Longitudinal section of a vein, in- 
 dicating the mode in which the valves, by apposition of their free edges, close its calibre. 
 The dilated condition of the walls behind the valves is also seen. C, Vein distended, 
 showing how the sinuses behind the valves become dilated. 
 
 341. The .CAPILLARIES are exceedingly delicate tubes, 
 which are continuous with the basement membrane of the in- 
 ternal coat of the arteries and veins. The network of the 
 capillaries varies, adapting itself to the particular tissue in 
 which it is found ; thus, in the lungs it takes the form of the 
 air-cells ; in the muscles the meshes are elongated. 
 
 \ 33. CHEMISTRY OF THE BLOOD. Analysis of the Blood. Relative 
 Proportions of Different Chemical Substances in the Corpuscle and the 
 Plasma. 
 
 342. The analysis of blood by different chemists gives very 
 different results, due chiefly to the variable .composition of 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 161 
 
 this fluid under deferent conditions connected with health, 
 age, temperament, etc. The following table from Lehman 
 shows the composition of 1000 parts of blood, calculated from 
 the analysis of venous blood by Lecanu : 
 
 Corpuscle. Plasma. Total. 
 
 Water 344.000 451.45 795.45 
 
 Haeraatin 8.375 
 
 Globulin 141.11 
 
 Fat 1.155 
 
 Extractive matter 1.3 
 
 Salts 4.06 
 
 Fibrin 
 
 Albumen 
 
 500.000 
 
 343. According to this estimate, blood contains about 
 eighty per cent, water and twenty per cent, solid matter. In 
 round numbers, of the 205 solid parts, 156 belong to the red 
 and white corpuscle, and 141 are globulin (modified albu- 
 men), 8 parts hsematin ; the red coloring substance, 1 part 
 fat, H extractive matters, and 4 parts salts, chiefly salts nf 
 potash. The remaining 49 parts of solids belong to the 
 liquor sanguinis, or fluid portion of the blood, and include 
 rather more than 2 parts blood-fibrin ; the rest of these solids 
 are proper to the serum of the blood, and consist of 39 J parts 
 of albumen, 1 fat, 2 extractive matters, and 4 salts, chiefly 
 soda. 
 
 344. Other mineral substances are found in small quan- 
 tities. The distribution of mineral substances in the blood is 
 peculiar. Thus, the red corpuscles contain ten times as much 
 potassium as the liquor sanguinis, but only one-third as much 
 sodium ; the corpuscles contain five times as much phosphoric 
 acid as the liquor sanguinis, but only about half as much 
 chloride. The chloride of sodium (common salt) is, there- 
 fore, chiefly contained in the fluid plasma of the blood, and 
 the phosphoric acid principally, and the potassium almost 
 entirely, in the corpuscles, which also contain a large share 
 of the fatty matters. 
 
 u* 
 
162 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Blood charged with gases, especially oxygen, nitrogen and 
 carbonic acid, has a saline taste, and is an alkaline fluid. 
 When blood is exposed to the air, the fibrin coagulates, 
 carrying down with it mechanically the corpuscle; this 
 leaves an amber-like fluid, called serum, in which the clot 
 floats. 
 
 \ 34. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. Necessity fo*- 
 Circulation For the Double System of Circulation. Plan of Systemic 
 Circulation Of Pulmonic Circulation Their Relation to Each Other. 
 Provisions necessary in a Circulatory Apparatus. The Circulatory Im- 
 pulse. Prevention of a Re-flow. Additional Forces for maintaining 
 the Current in the Arteries In the Veins. Equalization of the Current. 
 Supply of a due Proportion to each Organ. Provision for Contingencies. 
 The Mechanism of the Body Compared with Works of Art. 
 
 345. The tissues are so constructed that their vitality de- 
 pends upon their activity, and their activity upon the amount 
 of oxygen and nutritive material supplied ; the oxygen being 
 essential to the chemical combinations, without which there 
 could be no new deposit of tissue particles, and also to fur- 
 nish a stimulus, especially to the nervo-muscular system ; 
 and the nutritive matter being necessary to supply the waste 
 produced by these chemical and vital activities. Hence, the 
 necessity of a pneumatic apparatus for providing a constant 
 and sufficient supply of oxygen ; and of a hydraulic appa- 
 ratus for conveying the prepared nutriment to every atom 
 of the body, and also to remove the waste, worn-out particles. 
 The former need is met by the exquisite mechanism of the 
 lungs, and the latter by the no less refined mechanism of the 
 heart and blood-vessels. The two apparatuses are brought 
 into use and harmonious co-working, by the double circulation 
 of the blood, hence the necessity of the double heart. 
 
 346. From the left ventricle the blood is forced into the 
 aorta, to be diffused through the arteries to the capillaries 
 in every part of the body ; thence it is returned by the veins, 
 through the venae cavse, to the right auricle, which delivers 
 it to the right ventricle; this completes the Systemic Circu- 
 lation. From the right ventricle it is thrown into the pul- 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 
 
 163 
 
 monary artery, and through its branches to the pulmonary 
 capillaries, thence, returned by the pulmonary veins, which 
 coalesce into four trunks, and finally enter the left auricle, 
 which immediately pours it into the left ventricle. This 
 completes the lesser, or Pulmonie Circulation, and the two 
 constitute one complete circuit of the double circulation. 
 
 FIG. 112. 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 
 FIG. 112. A DIAGRAM. 1, Left ventricle of the heart. 2, 3, Aorta. 5, 5, Arteries that 
 extend to the lower extremities. 6, 6, Arteries of the neck. 7, 7, Arteries of the arms. 
 
 FIG. 113. A DIAGRAM. 1, Right auricle of the heart. 2, 3, Large veins that open into 
 the right auricle. 4, 4, Veins of the lower extremities. 5, 5, Veins of the arms. 6, Veins 
 of the neck. The arrows show the direction that the blood flows. 
 
164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 347. Both circulations are carried on at the same time, 
 that is, the auricles contract and dilate simultaneously ; the 
 same is true of the ventricles, whose action immediately fol- 
 lows that of the auricles. Hence, at the same instant, by 
 the action of the ventricles, pure blood is thrown into the 
 body, and impure blood into the lungs ; and at the same in- 
 stant, the auricles receive impure blood from the body, and 
 pure blood from the lungs. 
 
 FIG. 114. FIG. 115. 
 
 FIG. 114. A DIAGRAM. 1, Left auricle. 2, Right auricle. 3, Left ventricle. 4, Right 
 ventricle. 5, 5, Pulmonary artery. 6, Trachea. 
 
 FIG. 115. A DIAGRAM. 1, Right auricle. 2, Left auricle. 3, Right ventricle. 4, Left 
 ventricle. 5, 5, Right and left pulmonary veins. 6, Trachea. 
 
 348. How to construct and keep in successful operation an 
 apparatus which should secure the free circulation of the 
 blood, was no easy mechanical problem. It was necessary 
 to provide the requisite motor-power at the starting-point; 
 to prevent a backward flow ; to protect the arteries against 
 the force of the heart ; to maintain a ceaseless current ; to 
 equalize the pressure, especially in the capillaries ; to ensure 
 the proper relative quantity of blood to each organ ; and to 
 provide for contingencies arising from accident, or other ab- 
 normal action. 
 
 349. For giving the proper circulatory impulses, we find 
 in each heart, instead of a single cavity, the auricle and 
 ventricle affording a far more powerful impulse. The auricle 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 165 
 
 is gradually filled by steady streams from the veins, hence 
 the contraction and consequent force is moderate ; but as the 
 ventricle receives the whole quantity at once, there is a sud- 
 den energetic contraction or jerk, hence, a powerful thrusting 
 of the blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery. Also the 
 peculiar spiral and circular arrangement of the muscular 
 fibres of the ventricles is most effective in producing the 
 greatest projectile force. Here comes in a beautiful example 
 of the adaptation of each part to its destined use. The walls 
 are much thinner in the auricles than in the ventricles ; and 
 of the two ventricles, they are thinner in the right than in 
 the left, inasmuch as the right sends the blood only to the 
 surrounding lungs, the left, to the remotest part of the body. 
 The power and the required impulse exactly correspond. 
 
 350. Though the arrangement of fibres in the heart is such 
 as to give the blood a decidedly forward impulse, yet the 
 danger of a backward flow is evident. This movement is 
 prevented in the auricles, by the contraction of the muscular 
 fibres about the mouths of the veins ; by the contraction of 
 the vein-walls ; and also in the right auricle, by valves in the 
 mouths of the inferior vena cava and the cardiac sinus, and 
 by the valves in the veins at the base of the neck. The re- 
 flow from the ventricles is prevented by the mitral or bicuspid 
 valves of the systemic heart, and by the tricuspid valves of 
 the pulmonic heart. By the contraction of the muscular 
 columns of the ventricles, the chordae tendince, or little cords 
 of the valves, are stretched, bringing the delicate membranes 
 together and into the ventricle,, thus effecting a closure. The 
 reflux from the aorta and the pulmonary artery is obviated 
 by the semi-lunar valves. The slightest re-flow fills the little 
 pouches behind the valves, thus closing them till the next 
 contraction of the ventricle. The valves of the right side are 
 more delicate than those of the left, their strength and form 
 being, in each case, exactly adapted to their specific work. 
 
 351. The arteries are protected against the sudden action 
 of the heart, by the elastic fibres of their middle coat, which 
 yield easily, thus preventing the liability to rupture. 
 
166 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 352. The maintenance of the circulatory current, though 
 largely due to the original impulse of the heart, or the " vis 
 a tergo" is aided in various ways. The smooth, glassy sur- 
 face of the inner arterial coat lessens the friction ; the recoil 
 of the elastic fibres of the middle coat after distension, and 
 the contraction of the muscular fibres of the same coat, urge 
 the blood forward. These fibres increase in number, accord- 
 ing to the distance from the heart. The respiratory move- 
 ments also aid the arterial flow. 
 
 353. The capillaries have probably no contractility, and 
 though the heart-impulse may be sufficient to inject the blood 
 into them, it can hardly effect the passage through. Hence 
 other means are employed. We think the following physical 
 principle, as applied by Prof. Draper, will account for the 
 capillary circulation. If two liquids communicating with 
 one another in a tube, have for that tube different chemical 
 affinities, movements will ensue, and that liquid having the 
 strongest affinity will move most rapidly, often driving the 
 other liquid before it. Now, these are the exact conditions 
 in the capillaries of the systemic circulation; the arterial 
 blood, as it contains oxygen, with which it is ready to part 
 and take in exchange carbonic acid which the tissues set 
 free, must have a greater affinity for these tissues than has 
 the venous blood in which these changes have already taken 
 place. Hence, the arterial blood entering at one end of the 
 capillaries must drive before it, and expel at the other end, 
 the blood which has become venous in passing through them. 
 The same principle holds in the pulmonic circulation, but the 
 affinities are opposite. The venous blood has a strong affinity 
 for the oxygen in the air-cells of the lungs, and contains car- 
 bonic acid which it is ready to give up ; hence, the exchange 
 takes place, and the arterialized blood, having no longer an 
 affinity for the air, is driven by the venous blood, and thus 
 the circulation goes on as long as the blood continues to be 
 aerated. 
 
 The portal current is accounted for in the same way. The 
 bile-secreting cells of the liver are made up of materials con- 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 167 
 
 veyed by the portal veins and capillaries, and hence have an 
 affinity for them. The supply having been deposited and 
 the affinity thus destroyed, the fluid will be driven into the 
 hepatic capillaries, thus maintaining the portal current. 
 
 354. TheJlpjE^thr^^ 
 
 bmed_action jrf sey^ra^force;viz..^the^capillary impulse : 
 the suction^poweiM^^ blood 
 
 to the hearkj^ the " vis a fronte ;" the presence of valves, 
 single in the small veins, double in the larger trunks, and 
 sometimes composed of three flaps ; and the thoracic respira- 
 tory movements. 
 
 355. The intermittent pressure caused by the action of the 
 heart is equalized by the frequent branching and the anas- 
 tomosing of the arteries as they approach the organs to which 
 they are distributed, since the more points of entrance, the 
 less will be the pressure ; and by the elastic coat of the ar- 
 teries, whose after-distension gradually converts the separate 
 impulses into a continuous motion, otherwise the capillaries 
 of many delicate structures would doubtless be ruptured. 
 We find the elastic tissue most abundant in the vessels near 
 the heart, just where it is most needed. 
 
 356. The proper relative amount of blood is secured to 
 each organ primarily by the adaptation of its main artery, 
 and it is interesting to notice how the size of the artery every- 
 where corresponds to the need of the organ. Again, the 
 calibre of the arteries is susceptible of variation within cer- 
 tain limits ; hen$e, the supply of blood to any organ may be 
 in some measure regulated by the contractility of its arteries, 
 which is itself controlled by the nervous system. 
 
 357. Contingencies are also provided for, by the frequent 
 anastomoses of the arteries, by their capability of distension, 
 and also by their capability of positive enlargement by the 
 increased nutrition of their walls. Hence, though obstruc- 
 tions should exist in some part, the organ may be measurably 
 supplied with blood. 
 
 358. Though our knowledge is so imperfect, our tracing 
 BO indistinct, our souls must be dead indeed if they do not 
 
168 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 respond to the exclamation of him of old, " 1 am fearfully 
 and wonderfully made" fearfully, for often, as in the heart- 
 valves, there is but a gossamer web, a tendinous cord, be- 
 tween the life here and the life beyond : wonderfully, for in 
 all the round of human arts, we find nothing which can at 
 all compare, in perfect simplicity, in faultless skill, in match- 
 less beauty, in the refinements of philosophy and in the 
 subtleties of chemistry, with this vital workmanship, which 
 can be none other than that of God. Till we reach our 
 utmost range of vision, it is ever the same unfolding of the 
 care, the wisdom, the benevolence of Him to whom nothing 
 is great and nothing small ; and beyond our finiteness, His 
 eye alone surveys the work of busy legions of artificers, ever 
 building up what the wear and tear of life is ever breaking 
 down ; His ear alone listens to the music of the million life- 
 rills, as they murmur on in their ever-ceaseless flow. 
 
 3 35. HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. Conditions favoring 
 Free Circulation. Treatment of Divided Arteries. 
 
 359. A natural and equal temperature should be preserved. 
 The blood-vessels are contracted by cold, hence, a chill in 
 any part of the body drives the blood to other parts. The 
 chilled part is thus weakened, while the over-burdened parts 
 suffer from congestion. If the surface is chilled, the blood 
 is thrown upon the internal vital organs, hence the necessity 
 of warm clothing, and also frequent bathing, which favors 
 the free action of the cutaneous vessels. 
 
 360. The clothing should be loosely worn. Compression of 
 any kind impedes free circulation. Pressure about the vital 
 organs is especially injurious. Ligatures used to retain in 
 place any article of apparel should be elastic. Tight dress- 
 ing of the neck deprives the brain of its due amount of blood, 
 and retards the free return of venous blood from this organ ; 
 an item of particular importance to students, public speakers 
 and persons predisposed to apoplexy or any brain disease. 
 
 361. Exercise promotes the circulation of the blood. By the 
 action of the muscles, the blood is propelled more rapidly 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 
 
 169 
 
 through the blood-vessels, thus promoting a vigorous circula- 
 tion in the extremities and skin. The best stimulants for a 
 pale skin and cold extremities are a union of vigorous mus- 
 cular exercise with agreeable mental action, and systematic 
 bathing attended by thorough friction. 
 
 362. The quality and quantity of the blood modify the action 
 of the heart and blood-vessels. If this fluid is abundant and 
 pure, the circulatory vessels act with more energy than when 
 it is deficient in quantity or defective in quality. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st, If blood in large quantities is drawn 
 from the veins of an athletic man, the heart will beat feebly 
 and the pulse become weak. 2d, A similar effect is pro- 
 duced when the blood becomes vitiated by the inhalation of 
 impure air. 
 
 FIG. lie. 
 
 FIG. 110. THE MANNER OF COMPRESSING DIVIDED ARTERIES. A, Compressing the large 
 rtery of tho arm with the thumb. B, The subclavian artery. C, Compressing the 
 divided extremity of an artery in the wound with a finger. 
 
 363. Hemorrhage from divided arteries should be arrested* 
 
 15 II 
 
170 
 
 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 otherwise the heart soon ceases its action, and the person 
 faints. If a large artery be wounded, every beat of the pulse 
 throws out the blood in jerks. Until surgical help can be 
 summoned, the flow of blood may be stopped either by com- 
 pressing the vessel between the wound and the heart, or by 
 compressing the end of the artery next the heart in the 
 
 wound. 
 
 FIG. 117. FIG. 118. 
 
 FIG. 117. THE METHOD OF APPLYING THE KNOTTED HANDKERCHIEF, to compress r 
 divided artery. A, B, Track of the brachial artery. 
 FIG. 118. A, C, The track of the femoral artery ; the compress applied near the groin. 
 
 After compression as described and illustrated, take a 
 square piece of cloth, or handkerchief, twist it cornerwise, 
 and tie a hard knot in the middle. Place the knot over the 
 artery between the wound and the heart, carry the ends 
 around the limb and tie loosely. Place a stick under the 
 handkerchief near the last tie, and twist till the fingers can 
 be removed from the compression without a return of the 
 bleeding. When an artery in a limb be cut, elevate the 
 limb as far as possible, till the bleeding ceases. 
 
 364. In flesh wounds, when no large vessel is divided, wash 
 the parts with cold water, and when bleeding has ceased, 
 draw the incision together, and retain it with strips of ad- 
 hesive plaster, not more than a quarter of an inch in width. 
 Then apply a loose bandage, and avoid all ointments, " heal- 
 
THE CIKCTJLATION. 
 
 171 
 
 ing salves" and washes. In removing the dressing from the 
 wound, both ends of the plaster should be raised and drawn 
 toward the incision. To lessen the liability of a reopening, 
 a proper position for the union should be regarded. If the 
 wound be between the knee and ankle, and on the anterior 
 part, extend the knee and bend up the ankle ; if on the pos- 
 terior part, reverse the movement, and, in general, suit the 
 position to the case. 
 
 FIG. 119. 
 \ 
 
 IG. 119 REPRESENTS THE MANNER of applying adhesive strips to wounds. 
 
 Observation. The union of the divided parts is effected by 
 the action of the blood-vessels, and not by salves or ointments. 
 The only object of the dressing is to keep the parts together 
 and protect the wound from air and impurities. Nature per- 
 forms her own cure. Such wounds seldom need a second 
 dressing, and should not be opened till the incisions are 
 healed. 
 
 FIG. 120. 
 
 FIG. 120. a, a, REPRESENTATION OP WOUNDS on the back part of the arm and fora-arm, 
 fc, b, Wounds of the anterior part of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elbow and 
 wrist, the incisions at a, a, are opened, while those at 6, 6, are closed. Were the arm ex- 
 tended at the elbow and wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those at 6, &, 
 would be opened. 
 
 Wounds made by blunt instruments do not admit of direct 
 
172 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and immediate union. In these cases, a soothing poultice, 
 as of linseed-meal, may be applied, and the limb should be 
 kept still. A physician should be consulted, as dangerous 
 diseases may be induced by such wounds. Wounds from 
 poisonous bites may be treated at first by suction, either by 
 cupping-glasses or the mouth, thus preventing the absorption 
 of the poisonous matter into the system. When this is 
 effected, cover the wound with a poultice, as one made of 
 ground slippery-elm bark. 
 
 Observation. Although animal poisons, when introduced 
 into the circulatory fluid through the broken surface of the 
 skin, frequently cause death, yet they can be taken into the 
 mouth and stomach with impunity, if the mucous membrane 
 lining those parts is unbroken. 
 
 36. COMPARATIVE ANGIOLOGY. The Composition and Circulation 
 of the Stood of other Mammals, of Birds, of Reptiles and of Fishes, as 
 compared with the same in Man. 
 
 365. In most Mammals, the blood is similar to that of man, 
 but the largest animals, as the elephant, have very small 
 corpuscles. All mammals have four cavities in the heart, 
 as in man. Its form, however, is more rounded and less 
 elongated. The heart in quadrupeds lies on the median line 
 of the body, and not a little to the left of it, as in man. 
 There is a marked peculiarity in the distribution of the 
 
 FIG. 121. 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 
 FIG. 123. 
 
 Fro. 121. DIAGRAM OP THE HEART OP THE MAMMAL. 7, Right auricle. 8, Right ven- 
 tricle. 10, Pulmonic artery. 12, Pulmonic vein. 15, Left auricle. 16, Left ventricle. 
 
 FIG. 122. DIAGRAM OF THE HEART OF THE REPTILE. 1, Pericardium. 2, Single ven- 
 tricle. 3, Left auricle. 4, Right auricle. The arrows show the direction of the blood. 
 
 Fio. 123. DIAGRAM OF THE HEART OF THE FISH. 1, Pericardium. 2, The ventricle 
 that receives the blood from the body. 3, The ventricle that sends blood to the gills. 
 
THE CIRCULATION 
 
 173 
 
 FIG. 124. 
 
 arteries of quadrupeds. In the long necks of grazing 
 animals, there is found a large number of small arterial 
 trunks, which are termed "Wonder Nets." Were these 
 trunks few and large, as in man, the life of the animal 
 would be endangered by the constant dependent position of 
 the head. 
 
 366. The blood of Birds has the highest temperature of 
 the vertebrate ani- 
 mals. It is richer 
 in corpuscles than 
 that of Mammals, 
 and these corpus- 
 cles are elliptical 
 in form, instead of 
 globular. The 
 heart of birds is 
 highly muscular, 
 and of large size in 
 proportion to the 
 bulk of the body. 
 The aorta, at its 
 commencement, di- 
 vides into three 
 large branches, of 
 which the first two 
 convey the blood to 
 the head and neck, 
 wings, and muscles 
 of the chest ; while 
 the third, curving 
 downward around 
 the right bronchus, 
 becomes the de- 
 scending aorta. 
 
 There are " Won- Flo> 124> ABTERIES OP THE TRCNK OF A BIRD (the Grebe). 
 
 . 1, The aorta. 2, The vena cava. 3, A cerebral artery. 
 
 der JN etS in Va- T h e 8ma ii ii nes on eacn S ide represent the arteries and 
 
 riOUS parts Of the veins of the lungs. 
 15* 
 
174 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 body, especially in the arteries supplying the brain, eyes 
 and legs. 
 
 FIG. 125. 
 
 FIG. 126. 
 
 Fio. 125. CIRCULATION OF A REPTILE (a Lizard).!, Heart. 2, Left auricle. 3, Right 
 auricle. 4, Arches of the aorta. 5, Superior vena cava. 6, 10, Abdominal aorta. 7, Inferior 
 vena cava. 8, Pulmonary artery. 9, Portal veins. 12, Lungs. 13, Stomach. 14, Intestines. 
 
 Fio. 126. BLOOD-VESSELS OF A FISH. 1, Auricle. 2, Ventricle. 3, Arterial bulb. 4, 
 Bronchial artery (gill). 5, Branchial vessels. 6, 10, Dorsal artery. 7, Venous sinus. 
 b, Portal vein. 9, Vena cava. 11, Intestines. 12, Kidneys. 
 
THE CIRCULATION. 175 
 
 367. In Reptiles, the blood is much cooler than in mammals 
 and birds, and, having fewer globules, is lighter in color. 
 The heart has only three cavities instead of four, viz., two 
 auricles and one ventricle. The arterial blood coming from 
 the lungs is received into the left auricle, and the venous 
 blood from all parts of the body into the right auricle ; both 
 are poured into the single ventricle, thus mixing the pure 
 and impure blood, which will account for the sluggishness 
 of these animals. A portion of this mixture returns by the 
 aorta into the different organs it is intended to nourish, while 
 another part proceeds to the lungs by vessels springing from 
 the ventricle or the aorta. The arrangement of the blood- 
 vessels of different classes of reptiles greatly varies, as some 
 breathe by gills and others by lungs ; the frog in its early 
 condition is furnished with the former, but in its later growth 
 with the latter. 
 
 368. In Fishes, the blood is cold, usually red, and the cor- 
 puscles small and bi-concave. The heart has but two cavi- 
 ties one auricle and one ventricle, containing only impure 
 blood ; this blood is sent to the gills, which answer the pur- 
 pose of lungs, and, after being there exposed to the oxygen 
 of air contained in the water and purified, it is distributed 
 immediately to the different parts of the body, without the 
 interposition of a heart. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ASSIMILA TION. 
 
 I 37. Assimilation, General and Special. Formation of Different Por- 
 tions of the Blood. Changes included under Secondary Assimilation. 
 Secretion, or Special Assimilation. Excretion, characteristic of all Se- 
 cretory and Excretory Glands. The Kidneys. 
 
 369. IN the human body, as elsewhere, the essential con- 
 dition of physical life is death. While the vital force holds 
 the mastery over the chemical forces, the more frequent the 
 death-knell of the particles, the more abounding is the life. 
 They perform their mission, yield up their vitality and pass 
 away, while their places are supplied with new material. 
 This new material is obtained from the food after its proper 
 assimilation. As before stated, the processes by which food 
 is converted into chyle, and then into blood, may be included 
 under Primary Assimilation; while the changes which con- 
 vert portions of the blood into solid tissue may be termed 
 Secondary Assimilation ; both" of these we will include under 
 the head of General Assimilation, and the processes of secre- 
 tion under Special Assimilation. 
 
 370. The formation of chyle has already been fully noticed, 
 and also its general relations to the blood. The white cor- 
 puscles of the blood are supposed to be replenished from the 
 corpuscles of the lymph and chyle, which enter the blood 
 and are identical with its white corpuscles in size, form, struc- 
 ture and general composition. Some suppose the red cor- 
 puscles are developed from the white. 
 
 The albuminous portion of the liquor sanguinis, or blood- 
 plasma, is supplied from that of the lymph and chyle, and by 
 the venous absorption of digested food ; but it may also con- 
 tain more highly elaborated albuminoid materials derived 
 from the corpuscles, whose elaborative office is undoubted. 
 
ASSIMILATION. 177 
 
 371. SECONDARY ASSIMILATION, or Nutrition of the Organs 
 and Tissues, consists of the following stages : 
 
 First, A nutritive fluid, or plasma, exudes from the blood, 
 through the coats of the capillaries, filling the finest inter- 
 stices of the tissues between the capillary networks, and 
 bathing all the elementary parts of those tissues. The nature 
 of this plasma is the same in all parts of the system, and it 
 is sometimes thought to be identical with the liquor sanguinis 
 of the blood, but this is doubtful ; it is more probable that 
 the exuded plasma destined for the nutrition of the tissues is 
 of a purer nutrient material. 
 
 The second stage of the nutritive process consists in the 
 exercise of a certain selective act by the elementary parts of 
 tissues and organs, enabling them to appropriate to them- 
 selves such portions of the nutritive fluid as are suitable, 
 either with or without further change, to renew, molecule by 
 molecule, their worn-out substance. " The nucleated cells of 
 the epithelium and epidermis ; the corpuscles of the gray 
 matter of the brain ; the tubular fibres of the white nervous 
 tissue ; the complex fibres of the striated muscles ; the simple 
 fibrous forms of the contractile non-striated muscles; the 
 fibres of the fibrous and areolar tissues ; and lastly, the con- 
 solidated substance, with the remnants of cells imbedded in 
 it, as in cartilage and bone each derives from the exuded 
 plasma of the blood, and assimilates its required constituents." 
 This assimilating power of the tissue-elements is the persistent, 
 primitive, nutritive force inherited from the germ-cell. It is 
 probably possessed by every cell, however modified or remote 
 in its descent from the parent^ cell. This power is greatest at 
 the commencement of the life of any animal, and declines till 
 the power to maintain the body is overcome by the forces 
 which lead to its decay. 
 
 Third, The result of the act of assimilation is to leave a 
 residual fluid in the interspaces of the tissue-elements outside 
 the capillary vessels. The nature of this fluid must differ in 
 the different tissues, inasmuch as different tissues make dif- 
 ferent appropriations. This fluid is not worthless, but only 
 
 H* 
 
178 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 defective, and portions of it are probably taken up by the 
 lymphatics, re- assimilated and returned to the blood through 
 the absorbent system. 
 
 Fourth, The final residue of the exuded plasma, that which 
 is not taken up by the tissues nor lymphatics, is probably 
 taken up by the venous capillaries. 
 
 Fifth, With the final residuum are mingled the effete par- 
 ticles of waste from the tissues, which also enter the venous 
 blood, through the walls of the venous half of the capillaries 
 and of the minute veins. These processes, though separately 
 described, are, of course, in the living body, all going on at 
 the same time, and continuously, and, in a healthy condition, 
 with a perfect balance of action. 
 
 372. Nutrition not only supplies the waste, but in new 
 growth, new cell-elements, or germinal centres, are constantly 
 reproduced and developed. This process occurs after the 
 body has attained maturity, in the epidermis, nails, hair, the 
 epithelial tissues, and probably the gray nervous substance, 
 and perhaps in some of the other tissues. 
 
 373. SPECIAL ASSIMILATION, or Secretion, is the separa- 
 tion from the blood of materials in a more or less fluid con- 
 dition, through a gland or membrane. After assimilation, or 
 secretion, the products are discharged from the ducts of the 
 glands, or the surfaces of the membranes, and are used for 
 certain purposes in the living economy. 
 
 374. The secreting glands are the liver, the pancreas, the 
 salivary and the lachrymal glands ; the true mucous glands 
 of the nose, mouth, fauces, pharynx, oesophagus and duod- 
 enum ; the simple tubular glands of the stomach and intes- 
 tines ; the sebaceous and the mammary glands. The secreting 
 membranes are the mucous, serous and synovial membranes. 
 The serous and synovial fluids are little more than transuded 
 materials of the blood-plasma, unaltered in chemical charac- 
 ter, but modified in their relative proportions. By other 
 secreting processes, substances are formed which do not exist 
 in the blood, but resemble its constituents, being albuminoid 
 in character ; as pepsin, pancreatin and salivin, etc. Others 
 
ASSIMILATION. 179 
 
 differ from the blood in chemical constitution, and are very 
 complex in character, as certain acids of the bile, and the fat 
 of the sebaceous secretions. Extreme examples of special 
 secretive power, by which compounds not existing in the 
 blood are formed from it, are afforded by the appearance of 
 sulpho-cyanogen in the saliva, and of hydrochloric acid in 
 the gastric juice ; so also soda is withdrawn from the normal 
 soda salts of the blood, by the agency of the liver, to combine 
 with the fatty acids of the bile. 
 
 375. EXCRETION is effected by glands only, and the educts 
 are eliminated from the blood and thrown out of the system. 
 The excretory glands are the kidneys, the sweat glands of the 
 skin ; to a certain extent, the liver, and, perhaps, the intes- 
 tinal tubuli, especially of the large intestine, also the seba- 
 ceous glands of the skin, and lastly, the lungs, which eliminate 
 carbonic acid from the blood. 
 
 In excretion, the substances eliminated from the blood 
 pre-exist in that fluid as the result of decomposition, and 
 are sometimes completely oxidized, and always to a greater 
 extent than the secretions. The successive stages of oxida- 
 tion remove substances more and more from an organiz- 
 able character and necessitate their removal from the 
 system. 
 
 376. In all cases of Secretion and Excretion there is in- 
 variably found, even in the ultimate ramifications of the 
 gland-ducts, a basement membrane covered by a layer of 
 epithelial cells. All glands are very vascular, and receive 
 large quantities of blood. In many secretory processes the 
 epithelial cells are ruptured, and their contents, and some- 
 times the cells themselves, escape as an essential part of the 
 secretion itself; as in the saliva, pancreatic fluid, gastric 
 juice, the sebaceous and mucous secretions, and perhaps the 
 bile; but the lachrymal and excretory processes simply 
 withdraw their substances from the blood, and convey the.n 
 from the body without themselves undergoing dissolution or 
 decay. 
 
 377. The numerous glands and membranes have been 
 
180 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 noticed in other relations, with the exception of the kidneys 
 and the glands of the skin. 
 
 378. The KIDNEYS lie one on each side of the spinal 
 column, in a line with the lowest dorsal and the two or three 
 
 FIG. 128. 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 FIG. 127 (Leidy). LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A KIDNEY.!, Cortical substance. 2, 
 Renal pyramid. 3, Renal papillae. 4, Pelvis. 5, Ureter. 6, Renal artery. 7, Renal 
 Tein. 8, Branches of the latter vessels in the sinus of the kidney. 
 
 FIG. 128 (Leidy). DIAGRAM OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEYS. 1, Two nriniferous 
 tubules of the cortical substance lined with a pavement epithelium. 2, Dilatation of a 
 tubule at its extremity. 3, Branch of the renal artery ending in vessels which enter 
 the dilatations as seen at 4, 5. 6, Knot of blood-vessels freed from its investment. 
 7, Veins emerging from the vascular knots. 8, Plexus formed by the latter veins 
 among the uriniferous tubules, from which plexus originate the branches of the renal 
 vein. 
 
 upper lumbar vertebrae; the right kidney is a little lower 
 than the left. Their shape is that of a bean, and their color 
 a brownish red. They are made up of two very different 
 substances, one covering the whole organ, called the Cortical 
 
ASSIMILATION. 181 
 
 substance ; the other is called the Medullary substance, and 
 consists of a series of pyramids, with their bases toward the 
 surface of the organ, and their summits, or renal papillae, 
 toward the fissure. The substance of the kidney is mainly 
 composed of secretory tubes, named Uri'niferous tubules, and 
 blood-vessels, with little connective tissue. These tubules are 
 convoluted in 'the cortical substance, and straight in the 
 medullary, where the terminal orifices are seen by hundreds 
 *at the summit of each renal papilla. The tubes are lined 
 with an epithelium which secretes the urine. This secretion 
 is conveyed to the bladder by a cylindrical tube about 
 eighteen inches in length, called the Ureter. 
 
 Observation. The retention of the secretion of the kidneys 
 should never be allowed by the young or the old, the healthy 
 or the diseased, as suppression of the secretion of these glands 
 immediately affects the whole system, especially the nervous 
 centres. Both the quantity and color of this secretion indi- 
 cate the condition or health of the body. 
 
 379. The glands of the skin will be described in Clu p- 
 ter XII. 
 
 10 
 
182 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 FIG. 129. A FRONT VIEW OF THE ORGANS OF THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN.!, 1, 1, 1, The 
 muscles of the chest. 2, 2, 2, 2, The ribs. 3, 3, 3, The upper, middle and lower lobes of 
 the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. 5, The right ventricle of the heart. 6, 
 The left ventricle. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The left auricle. 9, The pul- 
 monary artery. 10, The aorta. 11, The vena cava descendens. 12, The trachea. 13, 
 The oesophagus. 14, 14, 14, 14, The pleura. 15, 15, 15, The diaphragm. 16, 16, The right 
 and left lobes of the liver. 17, The gall-cyst. 18, The stomach. 26, The spleen. 19,19, 
 The duodenum. 20, The ascending colon. 21, The transverse colon. 25, The descend- 
 ing colon. 22, 22, 22, 22, The small intestine. 23, 23, The abdominal walls turned down. 
 24, The thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein (27). 
 
CHAPTEK X. 
 
 THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 $ 38. ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. The 
 
 Organs of the Voice and of Respiration The Larynx Trachea 
 Bronch i Lungs. 
 
 380. THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS consist of 
 the Larynx, the Trachea, the Bronchi and the Lungs, the 
 whole being acted upon by a complicated series of muscles. 
 
 381. The LARYNX, the organ of the voice, is a short, 
 quadrangular, cartilaginous cavity, extending from the root 
 of the tongue and the hyoid bone, to the trachea, with which 
 it becomes continuous below. It is separated from the spinal 
 column by the pharynx, into which it opens above by a 
 triangular and oblique aperture. 
 
 The Larynx is composed of five principal parts the Thy'- 
 roid, the Cri'coid, the two Aryte'noid cartilages, and the 
 Epiglottis. The Thyroid* is the largest cartilage. It con- 
 sists of two lateral, quadrangular, wing-like plates, which 
 meet in front and form the prominence called pomum Adami 
 (Adam's apple). This cartilage is connected with the hyoid 
 bone above, and with the cricoid cartilage below. 
 
 The Cricoid'f cartilage is about one-fourth of an inch wide 
 in front, and one inch behind. This cartilage connects above 
 with the thyroid cartilage by an articulation permitting the 
 latter to move downward and forward, and also in the re- 
 verse direction; below, it communicates with the first ring 
 of the trachea. 
 
 The Arytenoid J cartilages are two in number, small, tri- 
 
 * Gr., thureos, a shield. f Gr., krikos, a ring. 
 
 J Gr., arutaina, a pitcher, 
 
 183 
 
184 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 angular and curved. They are placed upon the summit and 
 back part of the cricoid cartilage, forming articulations. 
 
 The Epiglottis is oval-shaped, having its convex surface 
 toward the mouth. It stands in a vertical position above 
 the aperture of the larynx, which is closed by it in the act 
 of swallowing. 
 
 FIG. 130. 
 
 FIG. 131. 
 
 FIG. 130. A SIDE VIEW OP THE CARTILAGES OF THE LARYNX. *, The front side of the 
 thyroid cartilage. 1, The os hyoides (bone at the base of the tongue). 2, The ligament 
 that connects the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage. 3, 4, 5, The thyroid cartilage. 6, 
 The cricoid cartilage. 7, The trachea. 
 
 FIG. 131. A BACK VIEW OF THE CARTILAGES AND LIGAMENTS OF THE LARYNX.!, The 
 posterior face of the epiglottis. 3, 3, The os hyoides. 4, 4, The lateral ligaments which 
 connect the os hyoides and thyroid cartilage. 5, 5, The posterior face of the thyroid 
 cartilage. 6, 6, The arytenoid cartilages. 7, The criooid cartilage. 8, 8, The junction 
 of the cricoid and the arytenoid cartilages. 12, The first ring of the trachea. 
 
 382. The TRACHEA is a vertical tube about an inch in 
 diameter and four inches in length. It is continuous with 
 the larynx and extends to the third dorsal vertebra, where it 
 divides into two branches, called Bronchi. The trachea is 
 separated from the spinal column by th'e oasophagus. 
 
 383. The BRONCHI* carry air to their respective lungs, 
 and again divide, sending a branch to each lobe. These 
 
 Gr., brogchia, the windpipe or throat. 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL, ORGANS. 
 
 185 
 
 divisions, called bronchise, are repeated, until each ultimate 
 ramification terminates in a dilatation, called an air-cell. 
 
 384. The LUNGS, consisting of two divisions, are situated 
 in the cavity of the chest, enclosing between them the heart 
 and the great blood-vessels. They accurately fill the cavity, 
 adapting themselves to the varying size attending respira- 
 tion. They have the form of a double, but very irregular 
 cone, with the apices above, and the basal ends below. The 
 outer surfaces are convex, fitting the form of the chest ; the 
 inner surfaces are concave, conforming to the shape of the 
 heart ; the basal portion is also concave, owing to the upward 
 pressure of the diaphragm. They are everywhere unattached, 
 excepting at the root, where they are firmly secured by the 
 pulmonary ligaments, the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary 
 veins and nerves, and the bronchial tubes. The lungs are 
 closely invested with a serous membrane, named pleura. The 
 right lung is shorter than the left, but wider, and of somewhat 
 greater bulk. It is divided into three lobes ; the middle lobe 
 being the smallest, and the lowest one the longest. The left 
 lung has two lobes, of which the lower is the larger. 
 
 FIG. 133. 
 
 FIG. 132. 
 
 Fra. 132. THE LUNGS. 3, 3, 3, The lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left 
 lung. 5, 6, 7, The heart. 9, 10, 11, The large blood-vessels. 12, The trachea, 15,15,15, 
 The diaphragm. 
 
 Fia. 133. THE BRONCHIA.!, Outline of right lung. 2, Outline of left lung. 3, 4, 
 Larynx and trachea. 5, 6, 7, 8, Bronchial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. 
 16* 
 
186 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 $ 39. HISTOLOGY OP THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 Minute Structure of the Larynx. The Trachea The Bronchi The 
 Lungs and Pleura. 
 
 385. With the exception of the epiglottis, the so-called 
 cartilages of the LARYNX are true cartilage, and in advanced 
 life are strongly disposed to ossify. They are invested with 
 a perichori drium* The articulations of the cricoid cartilage 
 are lined with synovial membrane and covered with capsular 
 ligaments. The epiglottis is of a soft, elastic nature, fibro- 
 cartilaginous in structure, and invested with mucous mem- 
 brane. 
 
 FIG. 133. 
 
 FIG. 134. A VIEW OP THE LARYNX, SHOWING THE VOCAL LIGAMENTS.!, The anterior 
 edge of the larynx. 4, The posterior face of the thyroid cartilage. 5, 6, The arytenoid 
 cartilages. 6, 6, The vocal ligaments. 7, Their origin within the angle of the thyroid 
 cartilage. 8, Their termination at the base of the arytenoid cartilages. 8, 10, The glottis. 
 
 FIG. 135. AN IDEAL SECTION OP THE LARYNX. 1, The trachea. 2, 2, The lower vocal 
 cords. 3, 3, The upper vocal cords. 4, 4, Rima glottidis, or glottis. 6, 5, Cavities be- 
 tween upper and lower vocal cords. 
 
 386. In the cavity of the larynx, the mucous membrane is 
 reflected at each side, outward and upward, forming a pair 
 of pouches, called the ventricles of the larynx. Just below 
 these ventricles, are the true vocal cords, extending from a 
 small process on the fore part of each Arytenoid cartilage to 
 the recessed part of the Thyroid cartilage, ^hey are com- 
 
 * Gr., peri, around, and chondros, a cartilage. 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 187 
 
 posed of yellow elastic tissue, covered by mucous membrane, 
 and form two ridges, having very fine, smooth edges turned 
 toward each other, and placed accurately on the same level. 
 
 387. The TRACHEA is made up of cartilage, fibrous tissue, 
 muscle and mucous membrane. The cartilaginous part con- 
 sists of flattened rings, or rather segments of circles, as they 
 are wanting in that part of the tube next to the spine. The 
 last ring is so modified as to accommodate it to the two first 
 rings of the bronchi. The fibrous part is of yellow elastic 
 tissue. It commences at the cricoid cartilage, and not only 
 covers the rings in front, but forms for each a distinct sheath, 
 thicker in front, and gradually losing itself with the termina- 
 tion of the rings. The posterior third of the trachea has a 
 basis of strong, elastic fibrous tissue, arranged in longitudinal 
 bands. The muscular portion has a simple layer of fibres 
 running transversely, being attached to the ends of the car- 
 tilaginous rings and to the connecting tissue. The trachea is 
 lined with mucous membrane. 
 
 388. The BRONCHI are constructed like the trachea, ex- 
 cepting in the ultimate bronchial ramifications, where the car- 
 tilages are composed of several pieces distributed around the 
 tube, and the muscular fibres form a continuous layer. The 
 cartilaginous element finally disappears, when the tubes con- 
 sist only of fibro-elastic membrane with muscular fibres and 
 a lining mucous membrane. 
 
 389. The LUNGS are made up of numerous small, poly- 
 hedral, primary lobules, or clusters of air-cells, which unite 
 into larger secondary lobules. The latter give rise to the 
 polyhedral markings seen upon the external surface of the 
 lungs. The lobules seem to have no communication with 
 each other, each primary lobule being in itself a miniature 
 lung, performing independent functions. It has been cal- 
 culated that no less than eighteen thousand of these air-cells 
 group around each terminal tube, giving a sum-total of not 
 less than six hundred millions. 
 
 The air-cells are connected together by fibro-elastic tissue, 
 which renders them highly elastic. The cells are surrounded 
 
188 
 
 ANATOMY., PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 136. 
 
 by fine networks of capillary vessels, the terminations of the 
 branches of the pulmonary artery which accompany the 
 branches of the bronchi. The tra- 
 chea, bronchial tubes and air-cells 
 are lined with a mucous membrane 
 having a ciliated epithelium. 
 
 390. The PLEURA is a serous 
 membrane which lines the thorax 
 and then is reflected from the root 
 of each lung over its surface. A 
 fold of this membrane extends from 
 
 FIG. 136 (Leidy). DIAGRAM OF the ot downward to the diaphragm, 
 TWO PRIMARY LOBULES OF TUB and is called the pulmonary liga- 
 
 ules connected by nbro-elastic Cated by the SCrOUS Secretion, thus 
 tissue. 3, Inter-cellular air-pas- p rev enting friction during the FC- 
 sages. 4, Air-cells. 5, Branches r . 
 
 of the pulmonary artery and spiratory movements (43). By the 
 vein - approximation of the two pleurse in 
 
 the median line, they form the medias'tinum, or partition of 
 the thorax, which contains the heart enclosed within its 
 pericardium. 
 
 4O. CHEMISTRY OF THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 391. Respiration consists of two conjoint processes : that 
 of supplying to the body the requisite amount of vitalizing 
 oxygen, by inspiration ; and that of removing from the body 
 the deleterious carbonic acid, by expiration. The source of 
 the oxygen is the air ; the sources of carbonic acid are the 
 blood and the tissues. 
 
 392. Some carbonic acid is generated in the blood, both 
 from the respiratory or heat-giving elements of food, which 
 chiefly enter the blood and are there oxidized, and from the 
 changes of growth and decay to which the corpuscles of 
 the blood are themselves subject. It is also probable that 
 some intermediate or partly oxidized products of the de- 
 composition of solid tissues undergo further oxidation in the 
 blood. 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 189 
 
 393. We find the main source of carbonic acid, however, 
 in the tissues. It appears both as a product of their natural 
 decay, and of muscular and nervous activity. The sum of 
 all the chemical changes of the body is oxidation, and the 
 chief product of this oxidation is carbonic acid. 
 
 394. The proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid "in 
 venous and arterial blood are 
 
 Oxygen. Carbonic Acid. 
 
 100 vols. venous blood 5 vols. 25 vols. 
 
 100 vols. arterial blood 10 vols. 20 vols. 
 
 It has also been found that the proportions of oxygen and 
 carbonic acid in venous blood returning from muscles at rest 
 are oxygen, 7.5 vols. ; carbonic acid, 31 : from muscles in 
 action: oxygen, 1.265 vols.; carbonic acid, 34.4. 
 
 395. The exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid in the 
 capillaries is effected partly by physical and partly by 
 chemical processes. The physical process is in accordance 
 with the law of the " diffusion of gases." Two gases of dif- 
 ferent densities, and having no chemical affinity for each 
 other, will intermix when brought into contact, and also 
 when separated by a porous septum, provided they have no 
 chemical affinity for that septum. These are the exact con- 
 ditions in the capillaries ; the oxygen and carbonic acid are 
 the two gases, the capillary walls the porous septum. In 
 addition to this physical process, there is a chemical process ; 
 the venous blood has a strong affinity for oxygen, hence 
 readily unites with it in the pulmonic capillaries. When the 
 arterial blood reaches the systemic capillaries, it yields its 
 oxygen to the elements of the decomposing tissues which sur- 
 round them. The carbon and hydrogen in their nascent 
 state, or at the moment of liberation, seize the oxygen with 
 great avidity, and give in exchange carbonic acid and water. 
 
 396. The air of expiration differs from that of inspiration, 
 not only in its increase of carbonic acid, but in that of moisture 
 and of temperature. As a rule, the expired air is saturated 
 with moisture. The drier the external air, the greater the 
 pulmonary exhalation, for in breathing air already saturated, 
 
190 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 only so much more can be added as the higher temperature 
 of the body will enable it to dissolve. The pulmonary ex- 
 halation has, besides water and carbonic acid, traces of 
 ammonia, chlorides, urates, and even some albuminous sub- 
 stances ; it readily undergoes decomposition. 
 
 397. The heat of the body is the result of the various 
 chemical actions. The temperature of the tissues generally 
 ranges from 98 to 100 ; that of blood, from 100 to 102. 
 The blood varies in temperature in different parts, being 
 warmest in the hepatic veins. 
 
 {* 41. PHYSIOLOGY OP THE KESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 Objects of Respiration. Two Modes of Respiration. Renovation of the 
 Air in the Lungs. Amount of Air concerned in each Respiration. 
 Conditions affecting the Number of Respirations. Modifications of Re- 
 spiratory Movements. Double Function of the Larynx. Resemblance 
 between the Action of the Vocal Cords and Reed Instruments. Con- 
 ditions affecting the Tone and Strength of the Voice. 
 
 398. The FUNCTION OF KESPIRATION has for its imme- 
 diate object, the purification of the blood, and for its ultimate 
 uses, the production of heat, motion and nervous energy. The 
 blood which becomes impure in the systemic capillaries, is 
 carried to the pulmonary capillaries, which everywhere sur- 
 round the air-cells. Through the thin walls, the poisonous 
 carbonic acid passes from the capillaries into the air-cells, 
 and is expelled from the body ; at the same time, the oxygen 
 of the external air passes from the air-cells into the capil- 
 laries, and the blood is changed from a dark maroon, to a 
 bright red color. 
 
 The chemical changes in -every part of the body caused by 
 the union of this oxygen with carbon, hydrogen and other 
 elements of the blood and tissues, maintain the temperature 
 of the body, and are the source of its nervous power and 
 electricity. 
 
 399. Kespiration consists of two acts taking air into the 
 lungs, or inspiration, and expelling air from the lungs, or 
 expiration. An act of inspiration is effected by the enlarge- 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 191 
 
 ment of the chest, which is done by elevating the ribs and 
 sternum, and depressing the convex surface of the diaphragm. 
 To elevate the ribs, two sets of muscles are used ; those which 
 are attached to the upper rib and sternum, contract and ele- 
 vate the anterior extremities of the ribs; this enlarges the 
 cavity between the spinal column and the sternum. The 
 central portion of the ribs are raised by the intercostal 
 muscles. The second rib is elevated by the contraction of 
 the muscles between it and the first ; the third rib is raised, 
 by the combined action of the muscles between the first and 
 second, and between the second and third. 
 
 FIG. 137. 
 
 FIG. 137. A FRONT VIEW OP THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN IN RESPIRATION.!, 1, Th 
 position of the walls of the chest in inspiration. 2, 2, 2, The position of the diaphragm 
 in inspiration. 3, 3, The position of the walls of the chest in expiration. 4, 4, 4, The 
 position of the diaphragm in expiration. 5, 5, The position of the walls of the abdomen 
 in inspiration. 6, 6, The position of the abdominal walls in expiration. 
 
 The motion of each succeeding rib is increased in the same 
 way, so that the movement of the twelfth rib is very free, as it is 
 elevated by the contraction of eleven sets of intercostal muscles. 
 Simultaneously with the elevation of the ribs, the central por- 
 
192 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIfiNE. 
 
 tion of the diaphragm is depressed by the contraction of its 
 muscular margin and the relaxation of the muscular walls of 
 the abdomen. By these combined movements the chest is en- 
 larged in every direction. This enlargement of the thorax 
 tends to produce a vacuum between the thoracic walls and 
 the lungs, hence, the pressure of the external air fills the air- 
 cells, forcing the elastic lungs to expand and fill the cavity ; 
 as when an elastic membrane is fitted over an open-mouthed 
 vessel connected with an air-pump ; exhaust any portion of 
 the air within, and the pressure of the external air will cause 
 the membrane to assume a convex form, the convexity being 
 within the vessel. 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
 Fw. 138. A SIDE VIEW op THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN IN RESPIRATION. 1, The cavity 
 of the chest. 2, The cavity of the abdomen. 3, The line of direction for the diaphragm 
 when relaxed in expiration. 4, The line of direction for the diaphragm when contracted 
 in inspiration. 5, 6, The position of the front walls of the chest and abdomen in inspira- 
 tion. 7, 8, The position of the front walls of the abdomen and chest in expiration. 
 
 Tho elastic walls of the air-cells yield in every direction, 
 so also do the surrounding areolar tissue and the pleura; 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 193 
 
 the air-tubes yield both in a circular and a longitudinal 
 direction. 
 
 400. In expiration, the movements are of a more passive 
 character, depending mainly on the relaxation of the inspira- 
 tory muscles and the elastic resilience of the tissues concerned. 
 When the muscles relax, the sternum and ribs descend ; the 
 diaphragm vaults upward ; the elastic walls of the air-cells 
 diminish their size ; the longitudinal and circular fibres of 
 the bronchi and bronchiae shorten and narrow their tubes ; 
 and the entire elastic lungs rebound like an extended spring 
 let loose, while the interlobular and sub-pleural tissues aid 
 powerfully in compressing them on all sides. 
 
 Ordinary expiration is undoubtedly aided by the action 
 of proper expiratory muscles, especially the internal inter- 
 costals and the infracostal.?, small muscular bundles having 
 the same direction as the former, but reaching over two or 
 three spaces, instead of a single space between two ribs ; also 
 by a portion of a thin layer within the sternum and the car- 
 tilages of the true ribs. 
 
 The auxiliary expiratory muscles are the serratus magnus, 
 the serrated muscles passing from certain dorsal and lumbar 
 vertebrae upward to the last four ribs, and those which ascend 
 from the pelvis and lumbar vertebrae to the lower ribs, cer- 
 tain portions of the long muscles of the back, and, lastly, the 
 abdominal muscles. In difficult respiration almost every 
 muscle in the body is made in some way subservient to the 
 distension of the chest. 
 
 401. When respiration is performed chiefly by the dia- 
 phragm, it is called abdominal respiration; when chiefly by 
 the action of the ribs, pectoral respiration. The former is 
 the characteristic mode in men and children ; the latter, in 
 women. 
 
 402. The ordinary respiratory movements alone would not 
 renovate the air in the smaller air-tubes and air-cells. Ad- 
 ditional aid is rendered in two ways : 1st, By the diffusion of 
 yases, causing the carbonic acid and the oxygen to mix 
 equally in all parts of the lungs ; and 2d, By the epithelial 
 
 17 I 
 
194 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 air-current. In the lining mucous membrane of the trachea 
 and the bronchial tubes, the cilia of the epithelium are always 
 directed from below upward, and, like all ciliary motion, it 
 has the effect of. producing a current in the fluids of the mu- 
 
 cous membrane (41). 
 
 * J FIG. 139. AT *!.' 4.U 
 
 JNow, the air m the 
 tubes must move, to a 
 certain extent, with 
 this current, hence, a 
 double stream of air 
 is established in each 
 bronchial tube ; one 
 
 FIG. 139. DIAGRAM OF A SMALL BKONCHUL TUBE, 
 
 showing outward find inward current, produced by within Outward, along 
 ciliary motion. the waUg of the tube 
 
 the other passing from without inward, along the central 
 part. Thus a kind of aerial circulation is maintained, which, 
 together with the mutual diffusion of the gases and the ordi- 
 nary respiratory movements, ensures a complete renovation 
 of the air in all portions of the pulmonary cavity. 
 
 403. The amount of air taken in and given out in a re- 
 spiratory movement must vary with different individuals 
 and different conditions of the system. The volume of air 
 ordinarily received by the lungs in a single inspiration is 
 about one pint ; the volume expelled, a little less than a pint. 
 In the mutual action that takes place between the air and the 
 blood, every twenty-four hours, the air loses about thirty- 
 seven ounces of oxygen, and the body fourteen ounces of 
 carbon. 
 
 404. Respiration is more frequent in women and children 
 than in men. Persons of small stature breathe more fre- 
 quently but less deeply than taller people. In health, the 
 smallest number of respirations in a minute, by an adult, is 
 not less than fourteen, and they rarely exceed twenty-five ; 
 eighteen may be considered the average number. The num- 
 ber of respirations is increased by exercise, food, stimulants 
 and moderate cold ; while it is diminished by inactivity, 
 
THE RESPIKATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 195 
 
 moderate heat, starvation and general weakening influences, 
 especially mental depression. 
 
 405. The actions of sighing, yawning, sobbing, laughing, 
 coughing and sneezing are simple modifications of the ordi- 
 nary movements of respiration, excited either by mental 
 emotions, or by a stimulus arising in the respiratory organs 
 themselves. Sighing and yawning often occur as simple re- 
 sults of deficient aeration ; sometimes the former results from 
 depression of the feelings ; the latter from mere imitatiqp . 
 Laughter and weeping seem to be always either expressions 
 of the emotions, or simple results of sensations. Coughing 
 and sneezing are occasioned by irritation in the air-passages, 
 and the sudden expiratory movement has a tendency to re- 
 move all intruding substances. 
 
 406. The LARYNX performs a double function, one part 
 being concerned with respiration ; the other with the voice. 
 
 In inspiration, the vocal cords separate, allowing the air 
 to pass in freely ; in expiration they relax. The former 
 movement is active ; the latter, passive. Both co-operate 
 with the other respiratory movements. The extreme sensi- 
 bility of the vocal cords and the posterior part of the epi- 
 glottis, causes them to throw off any foreign substances hap- 
 pening to come in contact with them, by a sudden, expulsive 
 cough. 
 
 The larynx, however, is the special organ of the voice; 
 sounds being produced by the vibratory action of the vocal 
 cords. During ordinary, tranquil breathing, the cords are 
 widely separated, the glottis being of triangular shape, but 
 when a vocal sound is to be produced, the arytenoid cartilages 
 are said to become erect, and almost to touch each other; the 
 cords are made suddenly tense, closing the posterior portion 
 of the glottis, while the anterior two-thirds opens a very fine 
 fissure ; and the air, driven by an unusually forcible expira- 
 tion through the narrow opening in passing between the 
 vibrating vocal cords, is itself thrown into vibrations whicli 
 produce the sound required. 
 
 407. The vibrations of the vocal cords take place according 
 
190 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 to the laws which regulate the action of the stretched mem- 
 branous tongues, or reeds, in reed instruments. If one ex- 
 tremity of a short tube be covered by two portions of elastic 
 membrane, leaving a small chink between them, a form of 
 double membranous tongue is obtained, which resembles the 
 vocal cords in man. ' The narrower the chink, the more 
 easily are sounds produced. The size, however, in no way 
 affects the pitch, which is somewhat determined by the 
 lepgth, tension and thickness of the tongues, but chiefly by 
 the tension. 
 
 408. The tones of different individuals are doubtless modi- 
 fied by the shape and size of the vocal apparatus. Thus, a 
 large larynx usually gives a deep-toned voice ; a smaller one 
 gives a comparatively high pitch. The difference in the tone 
 of the male and female voice is due largely to the great dif- 
 ference in the walls of the larynx. In the female, the cavity 
 is smaller, the angle in front less acute, and the cartilage 
 softer. 
 
 Vocal sounds are further modified by the elevation and 
 depression of the larynx, for when the voice is raised from a 
 low to a high pitch, the whole larynx is elevated toward the 
 base of the skull, drawing with it the trachea; the vocal 
 tube is thus slightly lengthened ; the diameter of the trachea 
 lessened and variations are produced in the tension of its 
 walls, enabling it to accommodate itself to the different vocal 
 tones. 
 
 The general strength of the voice depends upon the capacity 
 of the chest ; the development of the muscles used in vocaliza- 
 tion ; the extent to which the vocal cords can vibrate ; and 
 the power of communicating resonance possessed by the air- 
 passages and neighboring cavities. 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 197 
 
 42, HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. Im- 
 portance of Proper Respiration. Effect of Carbonic Acid Gas upon 
 Respiration and Combustion. Sources of this Gas. Location of Dwell' 
 ings. Danger of Impure Air within the House. Importance of Ventila- 
 tion in Public Buildings In Sleeping Rooms In Sick Rooms. Means 
 of Securing Warm and Pure Air in Winter. Importance of Moisture 
 in the Air. Effect of Compressing the Respiratory Organs. Means of 
 Enlarging the Chest. Influence of the Nervous System upon Respira- 
 tion. 
 
 409. In the circulating system, we have seen the minutest 
 rare manifested in supplying each organ, tissue and cell with 
 blood ; if the blood be pure, this is the best conceivable 
 arrangement for securing health and vitality ; if impure, the 
 means is equally effective for poisoning every part of the 
 system. 
 
 410. That pure blood can be obtained only by a healthy 
 action of the respiratory organs, and this action only by a 
 constant and sufficient supply of pure air, is evident from 
 what has already been said. Limit !his supply, and a double 
 evil ensues ; the stimulus furnished to the tissues, especially 
 the nervous and muscular, is withdrawn, and the carbonic 
 acid is retained in the blood ; hence, the brain works slug- 
 gishly ; the muscles become inactive ; the heart acts im- 
 perfectly ; the secretions are deteriorated ; the food is not 
 properly assimilated ; and the whole body becomes weak. 
 
 411. Pure air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen in about 
 the proportion of 21 to 79. The air is most frequently ren- 
 dered unfit for vital purposes by the presence of carbonic 
 acid gas, and volatile particles of corrupted animal matter. 
 Carbonic acid gas will not support combustion, as may be 
 seen by introducing into it a burning taper, which is as 
 readily extinguished as if dipped in water; neither will it 
 support life ; if a small animal be placed in a jar of the gas, 
 life soon becomes extinct. 
 
 412. The sources of this deleterious gas are mainly de- 
 caying animal and vegetable matter ; combustion ; and the 
 respiration of animals. 
 
 17* 
 
198 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Plants in their healthy state take up carbonic acid gas, 
 and give out oxygen, thus maintaining, under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances, a pure and respirable atmosphere. 
 
 In wells, mines and caves, where the circulation is ob- 
 structed, this gas often accumulates in quantities sufficient to 
 cause death to those who enter. Hence, before entering 
 them, the air should be tested by a lighted taper. If it will 
 not burn, respiration cannot be maintained. 
 
 413. The location of dwelling-houses should be chosen ivith 
 reference to free circulation of air, and the avoidance of marshes, 
 stagnant pools, slaughter-houses, and other sources of vegetable 
 and animal decay. Careful attention should also be given 
 to the drainage of a house, and to the cellar. These under- 
 ground store-rooms should always be well ventilaied, and all 
 vegetables removed from them in early spring. A little 
 neglect in these and like respects has not unfrequently pros- 
 trated a whole family with typhoid disease. 
 
 414. The chief danger, however, is within, the house proper, 
 and from the breaths of" its inmates. Unless ventilation re- 
 ceives proper attention, the carbonic acid gas from the lungs, 
 and the effete particles of animal matter thrown off from the 
 system, will soon render the air poisonous. 
 
 415. School-rooms, churches, concert-halls and all rooms de- 
 signed for public purposes should be amply ventilated. The 
 child at school becomes listless and uninterested : why? Be- 
 cause he is stupefied by foul air. When a pupil continues to 
 breathe such air, month after month, his brain is injured, 
 and often consumption or other fatal disease destroys his 
 young life, and then we wonder at the " mysterious provi- 
 dence" that takes from us the gifted and beautiful. 
 
 The good man at church feels that he ought to be interested 
 in the services, and yet, powerless to fix his attention, he sits 
 nodding: why? Because he is stupefied by foul air. The aii 
 breathed over and over again last Sabbath, and shut in during 
 the week, is all the poor man can obtain. How can acceptable 
 worship be offered by those who are, at the very moment, vio 
 lating the plainest laws of the Being worshiped ? 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 199 
 
 416. The lamps of the concert-hall burn dimly long before 
 the closing hour: why? Because they are bedimmed by the 
 foul air ; and just in proportion to the decrease of light is 
 the increase of dullness in the audience. Let in the pure air, 
 and how soon will the light perceptibly brighten, and the 
 audience become animated. The air of a well-filled school- 
 room, church or hall, will be rendered unfit for respiration 
 in a few minutes. 
 
 417. The influence of habit, in accustoming us to foul air 
 is strikingly expressed by Birnan, in the " Art of Warming 
 and Ventilating Rooms" : " Not the least remarkable example 
 of the power of habit is its reconciling us to practices which, 
 but for its influence, would be considered noxious and dis- 
 gusting. We instinctively shun approach to the dirty, the 
 squalid and the diseased, and use no garment that may have 
 been worn by another. We open sewers for matters that 
 offend the sight or the smell and contaminate the air. We 
 carefully remove impurities from what we eat and drink, 
 filter turbid water, and fastidiously avoid drinking from a 
 cup that may have been pressed to the lips of a friend. On 
 the other hand, we resort to places of assembly, and draw 
 into our mouths air loaded with effluvia from the lungs, skin 
 and clothing of every individual in the promiscuous crowd 
 exhalations offensive, to a certain extent, from the most 
 healthy individuals ; but when arising from a living mass of 
 skin and lungs in all stages of evaporation, disease and 
 putridity, prevented by the walls and ceiling from escaping, 
 they are, when thus concentrated, in the highest degree dele- 
 terious and loathsome." 
 
 418. The sleeping room should be thoroughly ventilated. 
 Proper ventilation would often prevent morning headaches, 
 want of appetite and general languor, so common among the 
 feeble. The impure air of sleeping rooms probably causes 
 more deaths than intemperance. Those who live in open 
 houses little superior to the sheds that shelter the farmer's 
 flocks, are usually the most healthy and robust. Headaches, 
 liver complaints, coughs, and a multitude of nervous affec- 
 
200 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 tions, are almost unknown to them ; not so with those who 
 spend their days and nights in rooms with double or calked 
 windows, breathing over and over again the confined air ; 
 disease and suffering are their constant companions. 
 
 Observation. 1st, By many, a sleeping apartment twelve 
 feet square and seven feet high, is considered spacious for 
 two persons, and "good accommodation" for four. This 
 room contains one thousand and eight cubic feet of air; 
 allowing ten cubic feet to each person per minute, two occu- 
 pants would vitiate the air in fifty minutes, and four in 
 twenty-five minutes. 
 
 2d, Among children, convulsions, or fits, often occur when 
 they are sleeping, and not unfrequently in consequence of im- 
 pure air. In such cases, by carrying the sufferer into the 
 open air, relief is afforded. Children should not sleep in low 
 beds, while adult persons occupy a higher bed in the same 
 unventilated room, as carbonic acid is most abundant near 
 the floor, nor is it advisable that the young sleep with the 
 sick or aged. 
 
 419. The ventilation of the sick room should receive special 
 attention. It is no unusual practice, when the patient is suf- 
 fering from acute disease,Jbr the attendants to prevent the 
 ingress of pure air, simply from the apprehension that the 
 sick person will take cold ; and caution is indeed necessary ; 
 the patient should not feel the current. No room is suitable 
 for sickness that is not so arranged that pure air may be 
 constantly admitted without inconvenience or injury to the 
 patient ; and here we would say that cool air should not be 
 mistaken for pure air. A very little sound judgment in this 
 matter would doubtless save much suffering, and lengthen 
 life in a multitude of cases. 
 
 The custom of having several persons sit in the sick room 
 vitiates the air and delays the recovery of the patient. 
 
 420. The great means of ventilation, in summer, are open 
 windows and doors. Motion is at that season the great de- 
 sideratum. On a hot summer's day we go into a cool room 
 that has been shut up, and at first it is grateful ; but in a 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 201 
 
 short time, the cool, stagnant air becomes oppressive, and we 
 select the open window with its cireulation of air, even if it is 
 a little warmer. Windows should be made to lower from 
 the top. 
 
 421. In winter, ventilation may be obtained by properly con- 
 structed flues. As cold weather approaches, we must close 
 the windows, excepting when in bed ; but good flues secure a 
 good circulation of air. Leeds, in his "Lectures on Ventila- 
 tion," in speaking of the value of an open fireplace for 
 ventilation, says, " Thousands of lives are thus saved, and 
 many more would be, if all fireplaces were kept open. If 
 you are so fortunate as to have a fireplace in your room, 
 paint it when not in use ; put a bouquet of fresh flowers in it 
 every morning, if you please, or do anything to make it 
 attractive, but never close it; better use the fire-boards for 
 kindling-wood. It would be scarcely less absurd to take a 
 piece of elegantly-tinted court-plaster and stop up the nose, 
 trusting to the accidental opening and shutting of the mouth 
 for fresh air, because you thought it spoiled the looks of your 
 face to have two such great, ugly holes in it, than to stop 
 your fireplace with elegantly-tinted paper because it looks 
 better." 
 
 422. For heating a small room, where the occupants may 
 change position at pleasure, an open fire is the healthiest 
 known means, for the air cannot become stagnant, as the fire 
 is continually drawing a considerable amount from the room 
 to support combustion, the place of which is supplied by 
 other air. Just here comes in the greatest inconvenience of 
 the open fire ; if the cold air comes in at the cracks of a door 
 or window on the opposite side of the room, it will flow across 
 to the fire, chilling the feet and backs of those sitting in its 
 track. 
 
 423. A stove is a very economical mode of heating ordi- 
 nary sitting rooms, offices, etc. ; but there should be an air- 
 chamber, or box, on or near the top of the stove, and com- 
 municating with this should be a pipe for introducing fresh 
 air from the external atmosphere. If this supply of fresh air 
 
 I* 
 
202 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 is abundant, with a constant evaporation of moisture, and an 
 opening into a heated flue near the ceiling, to be opened 
 when the room is overheated or the lights are burning in the 
 evening, and kept closed at other times, with another open- 
 ing into a heated flue on a level with the floor, which should 
 be always open to carry off the cold, heavy, foul air from the 
 floor; if a stove be thus arranged, for many small, isolated 
 rooms, it is one of the most economical, comfortable and 
 wholesome means of heating at our command. 
 
 424. For the general warming of a house, heating the air 
 by steam is one of the most healthy arrangements, and a 
 very good mode is thus given by Leeds : " Where a steam 
 furnace is used, two-thirds of the heating surface should be 
 below the floor, and fresh air be brought into it, and thence 
 conducted to the rooms through large pipes. The warmed air 
 should be let into the room at the floor, and an opening into 
 an exhaust-flue, two-thirds the size of the inlet, should be 
 provided at the floor for the escape of the foul air. The 
 remaining one-third of the heating surface should be exposed 
 in the halls and some in other parts of the house, to heat by 
 direct radiation, but under no circumstance should a room or 
 office be occupied which is heated exclusively by direct radiation 
 from exposed steam-pipes. It is one of the worst, most un- 
 healthy, killing systems in existence." " Probably one of the 
 very best arrangements is to have a good steam furnace, with 
 a large fresh-air box, letting in an abundance of air mode- 
 rately warmed, and overflowing the house with this, also to 
 have some direct radiation in the halls, and a bright, cheer- 
 ful, open fire in the family sitting room." Two things are 
 indispensable in every furnace a large fresh-air box com- 
 municating with the external atmosphere, and a large evapo- 
 rating vessel. Few persons realize the necessity of supplying 
 a proper amount of moisture in our stove and furnace- heated 
 rooms. If it is not furnished by other means, the heated 
 air will have it from the natural moisture of the skin and 
 lungs, thus producing a dry, parched, feverish condition of 
 the system. 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 203 
 
 425. The conditions of proper respiration require not only 
 that the air be pure, but sufficient in quantity. Hence the 
 chest and lungs must not be reduced in size. In children who 
 have never worn close garments, the circumference of the 
 chest is generally about equal to that of the body at the hips; 
 and similar proportions would exist through life if there 
 were no improper pressure of the clothing. Such is the case 
 with the Indian woman, whose blanket allows the free ex- 
 pansion of the chest. The symmetrical statues of ancient 
 sculpture bear little resemblance to the "beau ideal" of 
 American notions of elegant form. The chest is often con- 
 tracted in infancy, because of the mother's ignorance of the 
 pliant character of the ribs and cartilages ; thus she sows the 
 seeds of disease and shortens the life of her offspring. In 
 later years the same result is produced by a steady and 
 moderate pressure. It is in this way that the "genteel," 
 tapering waist is produced. The style of dress adopted at the 
 present day is a prolific cause of deformity, for deformity it 
 certainly is, since the design of the human chest is not 
 simply to form a connection between the upper and lower 
 parts of the body, like some insects. 
 
 426. The Chinese, by compressing the feet of female chil- 
 dren, prevent their growth, so that the foot of a Chinese belle 
 is not larger than the foot of an American girl of five years ; 
 the American women compress their chests, so that the chest 
 of an American belle is not larger than the chest of a Chinese 
 girl of five years. In these respects, which country exhibits 
 the greater intelligence? 
 
 427. Individuals may have small chests from birth, this being, 
 to the particular individual, natural. That like produces 
 like is a general law. If the mother has a small, tapering 
 v/aist, either hereditary or acquired, the form may be im- 
 pressed on her offspring, thus illustrating the truthfulness of 
 Scripture, which declares that the sins of the parent shall 
 be visited upon the children unto the third and fourth 
 
 .generations. 
 
 428. The question is often asked, Can the size of the chest 
 
204 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and the volume of the lungs be increased when they have 
 been once compressed ? Yes. The means to be used are, a 
 full inflation of the lungs at each act of respiration, and a 
 judicious exercise of them by walking in the open air, read- 
 ing aloud, singing, sitting erect, and practicing appropriate 
 gymnastic exercises. Unless these exercises are systematic 
 sind persistent, they will not afford the beneficial results de- 
 sired. 
 
 FIG. 140. FIG. HI. 
 
 Fia. UO. A CORRECT OUTLINE OF THE VENUS DE MEDICI, the beau ideal of female 
 symmetry. 
 
 Fio. 141. AN OUTLINE OF A WELL-CORSETED MODERN BEAUTY. 
 
 One has an artificial, insect waist; the other, a natural waist. One has sloping shoul- 
 ders, while the shoulders of the other are comparatively elevated, square and angular. 
 The proportion of the corseted female below the waist is also a departure from the sym- 
 metry of nature. 
 
 Observation. Persons of sedentary habits should often, 
 during the day, take full, deep breaths, filling the smallest 
 air-cells with air ; the shoulders should be thrown back, and 
 the head held erect. 
 
 429. Respiration is much influenced by the condition of the 
 nervous system. Abstract thought, anxiety and the depress- 
 ing passions diminish the contractile energy of the diaphragm 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 205 
 
 and the muscles that elevate the ribs, thus preventing the 
 full inflation of the lungs. Cheerfulness, joy and all the ex- 
 hilarating emotions favor free respiration, and consequently 
 promote health. 
 
 430. To resuscitate persons asphyxiated from drowning, 
 strangulation, electricity or breathing poisonous gases, the chest 
 should be suddenly and forcibly pressed downward and back- 
 ward, then the pressure suddenly discontinued. This should 
 be continually repeated till a pair of bellows or some other 
 means of artificial respiration can be obtained. When bel- 
 lows are used, introduce the nozzle well upon the base of the 
 tongue, and closely surround the mouth and nose with a 
 towel, press upon the part of the neck called Adam's apple 
 while introducing the air, then press upon the chest to expel 
 it, thus imitating breathing. If other means of artificial 
 respiration cannot be immediately obtained, let the lungs of 
 the sufferer be inflated by air from the lungs of other per- 
 sons present. That this air may be as pure as possible, 
 the lungs should be quickly filled, and the air instantly 
 expelled into the lungs of the asphyxiated person. The 
 patient should be placed in pure air, and a physician pro- 
 cured immediately. In case of drowning, wrap the body in 
 warm flannel and place near the fire; use no friction till 
 breathing is restored. 
 
 Observation. Inhaling the gas from burning charcoal 
 placed in an open pan to warm a room, or gas from a fur- 
 nace or coal stove, when the draught is imperfect, is dele- 
 terious, often producing death. Care should be taken, when 
 gas is used for lighting, that it is completely turned off before 
 retiring to sleep. 
 
 43, COMPARATIVE PNEUMONOLOGY. Respiratory Apparatus of 
 Mammalia Of Birds Of Reptiles Of Fishes. 
 
 431. The RESPIRATORY APPARATUS in all the Mammalia 
 is similar to that of man, both in structure and function. 
 There are similar arrangements and movements of the ribs, 
 sternum, intercostal muscles and diaphragm. The lungs fill 
 
 18 
 
206 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AXD HYGIENE. 
 
 the cavity of the thorax, and have the same general com- 
 position of lobes, lobules and air-cells. 
 
 432. In Birds the lungs are confined to the back part of 
 the thoracic abdominal cavity, being firmly attached to the 
 ribs in their interspaces. They are not separated into lobes, 
 as in the mammalia, but are lengthened, oblong and flattened 
 in shape, and connected with large membranous cells scat- 
 tered through every part of the body. They have the larynx, 
 trachea, bronchia, pulmonary arteries, veins and capillaries, 
 although much modified. 
 
 433. The ultimate pulmonary capillaries do not form a 
 network lining definitely-bounded air-cells, as in mammals, 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 207 
 
 but each capillary crosses an open air-space of its own. They 
 interlace in every direction, forming a mass of capillaries, 
 permeated everywhere by air (B, fig. 144). 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 
 FIG. 143. 
 
 FJG. 143 (Owen). THE RIGHT LUNG OP A GOOSE.!, A bronchus which divides into 
 two tubes that open into the abdominal air-receptacles at 2, 2. 
 
 FIG. 144 (Owen). IDEAL SECTION OF A BIRD, magnified two hundred and sixty times. 
 1, A primary bronchus dividing into secondary bronchi that end in caeca, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2. 
 These secondary bronchi give off smaller penniforin branches that ramify among the 
 lobules. B, A plexus of capillary vessels. 
 
 434. A marked modification of the respiration of birds is 
 the connection of the pores of the bones and feathers with 
 the bronchial tubes and air-spaces of the lungs, so that there 
 is an interchange of air between the lungs, the bones and the 
 investing plumage. The walls of the bones of birds are more 
 cancellated than those of the mammalia. Birds consume 
 more air in a given time, proportionally, than any other 
 class of animals, and they soonest become asphyxiated when 
 deprived of it. 
 
208 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 435. In Reptiles, respiration is more simple than in mam- 
 mals or birds. The lungs are less lobular and more bag- 
 like, extending into the abdominal cavity. Upon the Avails 
 of these sac-like lungs the pulmonary vessels ramify. In the 
 turtle, the tortoise and the frog, the thorax is not so formed 
 as to act like a suction-pump, and accordingly these animals 
 swallow the air by a sort of deglutition. 
 
 FIG. 145. 
 
 Fia. 146. 
 
 Fia. 145 (Owen). TONGUE, LARYNX AND LUNGS OP A FROG. 1, 2, Lungs. 3,4, Larynx. 
 Fio. 146 (Owen). HEART AND LUNGS OF A FROG. 1, Heart. 2, Arch of the aortu. 
 3, 3, Pulmonary artery. 4, 4, Pulmonary veins. 5, 5, Aorta. 6, Vena cava. 
 
 436. In Fishes, the respiration is still more modified and more 
 complicated than in reptiles. Instead of lobular or bag-like 
 lungs, there are found only a series of slit-like openings, or 
 arches on each side near the head, called the branchiae, or gills. 
 
 437. The bony and cartilaginous frames of these arches, 
 on the convex side, support processes. On these are many 
 plates, or leaflets, covered by a delicate tessellated membrane, 
 or epithelium, on which the microscopic capillary blood-ves- 
 sels ramify. By this arrangement of extensive epithelial 
 surface, the blood-particles are more minutely separated and 
 acted upon by the air in the water. In breathing, the mouth 
 
THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 209 
 
 and gills of a, fish open alternately ; the water entering the 
 mouth escapes by the openings of the gills. 
 
 FIG. 148. 
 
 Fio. 147 (Oiven). SECTION OP A BRANCHIAL ARCH, with a pair of processes supporting 
 leaflets or plates, from a cod, magnified two hundred and sixty diameters. 1, A section 
 of a branchial arch. 2, A pair of processes. 3, Branchial leaflets, or plates. The num- 
 ber of leaflets in one process of the cod is about one thousand; in the salmon, fourteen 
 hundred; in the sturgeon, sixteen hundred. 
 
 FIG. 148 (Owen). CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD THROUGH THE BRANCHIAL LEAFLETS 
 (a diagram). 1, A section of a branchial arch. 2, A section of a branchial artery. 3, Au 
 artery sent along the outer margin of the processes, giving off capillary vessels to the 
 leaflets. 4,-A vein that receives the blood from the capillaries on the inner margin of 
 t IKS process after the respiratory change has been effected and returns it to the branchial 
 v.-in (5). 
 
 438. A remarkable feature in the organization of some 
 fish is the swimming, or air-bladder, placed in the abdomen 
 under the dorsal spine, communicating often with the cesoph- 
 sigus or stomach by a canal, permitting the escape of air 
 from its interior. By a movement of the ribs, the air- 
 receptacle is acted on, so that by diminishing the quantity 
 of air, the specific gravity of the fish alters according to cir- 
 cumstances. Fish that swim near the bottom have no air- 
 bladder ; as the eel, sole and turbot. 
 18* 
 
DIVISION IV. 
 
 SENSORIAL APPARATUS. 
 
 IN the two preceding Divisions, the tissues and organs 
 directly involved in the movements of the body, and those 
 most intimately connected with the preparation and assimila- 
 tion of nutrient material, have been briefly described. In 
 the present Division, we consider the organs through which 
 is manifested the subtle power that controls these motions 
 and processes, establishes telegraphic communication between 
 the several parts of the body, and brings it into important 
 relations with the external world. These, taken collectively, 
 we name the Sensorial Apparatus. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 44. ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Two Forms of Nervovt 
 Tissue. Classification of the Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures. Spinal 
 Cord. Medulla Oblongata. Peduncles of the Cerebellum Of the Cere- 
 brum. Corpora Striata. Optici Thalami. Corpora Quadrigemina. 
 Corpus Cfdlosum. Ventricles. Hemispheres of the Cerebrum. Con- 
 volutions of the Cerebrum and Cerebellum. Classification of Cerebro- 
 Spinal Nerves Of Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves. Sympathetic Sys- 
 tem. Distribution of Sympathetic Nerves. 
 
 439.^NERV ous ^TISSUE ^ pr^sfints^tw^o jfo^ngj ^h P rg ***** , 
 one T ^en-like^and^gray^in_color^ the other T fibrous, pfif] ^it^ 
 The former Js arranged In masses called Centres or Ganglia, 
 being the originating, active centres of nerve-force ; the latter, 
 hiCl! reads, which are simple conciuctors of nerve-force, arid 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 FIC. i :u. 
 
 211 
 
 FIG. 149. A REPRESENTATION OP THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES.- 
 I, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, Spinal cord. 4, The sciatic nerve. 
 
 A. DISTRIBUTION OF THE OLFACTORY NKRVE. 1, 2, Nerve of smell. 
 
 B. DPTIC NERVE. 15, The nerve of vision. 
 
 C. THE GUSTATORY NERVE.!, 2, 3, 4, Branches of the nervo of taste. 
 
 D. AUDITORY NERVE. 13, Nerve of hearing. 
 
212 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 are named Nerves when they connect the ganglia with the 
 various parts of the body ; and Commissures when they con- 
 nect the ganglia with each other. 
 
 440. For convenience in sturdy, the numerous Ganglia, 
 Nerves and Commissures may be arranged in two great and 
 closely-connected systems the Cerebro- Spinal and the Sym- 
 pathetic: the Cerebro-Spinal system including the series of 
 ganglia within the skull amd spinal column, their nerves, 
 commissures and the lesser ganglia in the nerve-tracts: the 
 Sympathetic system including the long chain of ganglia lying 
 in front of the spinal column, their nerves, commissures and 
 additional ganglia found chiefly in the abdominal cavity. 
 
 441. The CEREBRO-SPINAL Axis commences with that por- 
 tion of nervous matter which lies within the spinal column, 
 extending from the second lumbar vertebra to the base of the 
 skull, arid known as the Spinal Cord. It contains within 
 itself the filaments of all the nerves of the external parts of 
 the trunk and limbs. It is soft, and white externally, but 
 grayish within, forming the longest ganglion in the system. 
 The cord is nearly cylindrical and double, the two halves 
 
 connected by a nar- 
 
 Fio. 150. 
 
 row commissure or 
 bridge of the same 
 substance as the 
 cord, having within, 
 through the entire 
 length, a minute 
 central canal. On 
 each half are two 
 slight, longitudinal 
 lines, serving to dis- 
 
 Fio. 150. TRANSVERSE SECTJON OF SPINAL CORD.-!, 2, ti igh \f mio Ante- 
 
 Spinal nerves of right and left sides, showing their two te 
 
 roots. 4, Origin of anterior root. 3, Origin of posterior nor, Lateral and PoS- 
 
 r,,ot. 5, Ganglion of posterior root. terwr Columns. As it 
 
 enters the cavity of the skull, the cord becomes enlarged and 
 receives the name of Medul'la Oblongata. This enlargement 
 is due to the presence of an important ganglion imbedded 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 213 
 
 PIG. 151. 
 
 within, named the Ganglion of the Medulla Oblongata, and 
 also to the accession of the fibres of most of the cranial 
 nerves. In each of the lateral halves of the medulla ob- 
 longata may be seen four principal bundles of nerve-fibres, 
 ranging backward from the middle line in front as follows : 
 1st, Anterior Pyramids ; 2d, the Oli- 
 vary Bodies; 3d, the Restiform Bodies; 
 and 4th, the Posterior Pyramids. These 
 bodies are continuous with their cor- 
 responding portions of the columns 
 of the spinal cord. Many of the 
 fibres of the anterior pyramids cross 
 each other, bringing each side of the 
 column into communication with the 
 opposite side of the brain ; this cross- 
 ing forms the Decussation of the An- 
 terior Pyramids. Some of the fibres 
 of the posterior pyramids also cross 
 a little above. By the divergence 
 of the restiform and posterior pyra- 
 midal bodies, a somewhat broad cav- 
 ity is left, which may be considered 
 a widening of the central canal, and 
 which receives the name of the Fourth Ventricle. 
 
 442. Overshadowing this ventricle is a mass of nerve-sub- 
 stance, called the (^rebeflun^ or ft'fffr /jrnfa, which in nlnn 
 double, ^msisting nf t^rn kfifnjspfrerqg. Iganh hemisphere 
 
 Fia. 151 (DaUon). MEDULLA 
 OBLONGATA OF HUMAN BRAIN, 
 anterior view. 1, 1, Anterior 
 pyramids. 2, 2, Olivary bodies. 
 3, 3, Restiform bodies. 4, D<>- 
 cussation > of the anterior col- 
 umns. The medulla oblongata 
 is seen terminated above by tho 
 transverse fibres of the Pons 
 Varolii. 
 
 from its inner surface, sen.ds out a multitude of fibres, which 
 pass downward and forward toward the centre, unite into 
 flattened bundles, emerge from the hemisphere, sweep across 
 the base of the brain, pass up to the other hemisphere and 
 spread out over its internal surface ; thus originating in one 
 hemisphere, and terminating in the other. The two sets of 
 fibres cross in front of the Metlulla Oblongata, in the middle 
 line of the base of the cerebellum, forming the bridge of the 
 Cerebellum, or the Pons Varo'lii. 
 At the pons, the medulla oblongata sends off from the 
 
214 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 restiforra bodies, bundles of fibres called the Inferior Peduncles 
 of the Cerebellum. Passing under and among the fibres of the 
 pons, and imbedding the Ganglion of the Tuber Annula re, are 
 two bundles one of fibres from the anterior pyramids and 
 the front of the olivary bodies, the other from the posterior 
 pyramids and the back of the olivary bodies; as they appear 
 
 FIG. 152. 
 
 FIG. 152 (Lfidy). STRIATED BODIES, THALAMI, QUADRIQEMINAL BODY AND CEREBELLUM. 
 1, Quadrigeminal body. 3, Superior peduncle of the cerebellum. 4, Superior portion 
 of the middle peduncle. 5, Superior portion of the crus, or leg, of the cerebrum. 6, Pos- 
 terior tubercle of the thalamus. 7, Anterior tubercle. 8, Fundamental portion of the 
 cerebellum. 15, Thalamus. 16, Hemispheres of the cerebellum. 17, Dentatcd body. 
 18, Semicircular line. 19, Vein of the striated body. 20, Anterior crura of the fornix. 
 21, Striated body. 22, Fifth ventricle betwefh the layers of the pellucid septum. 
 
 in front, they diverge, forming stalk-like bundles known as 
 the Peduncles of the Cerebrum, as they seem to support the two 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 215 
 
 hemispheres of. the cerebrum, or brain proper, as the flower- 
 stalk bears its flower. The anterior bundles pass upward to 
 two large ganglia (one on each side the median line), called 
 the Cor'pora Stria' ta, or Striated Bodies ; the posterior bundles 
 also pass upward to two ganglia situated a little in front of 
 the striated bodies, and named the Op'tici Thai' ami. In these 
 ganglia the fibres seem to terminate, while a new set con- 
 nects the ganglia with the main surface of the cerebral 
 hemispheres. 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 
 FIG. 153 (Leidij). SECTION OF THE BRAIN AI,ONG THE QRKAT LONGITUDINAL FISSURE. 
 1, Medulla oblongata. 2, Pous. 3, Cms of the cerebrum. 4, Arborescent appearance in 
 section of the fundamental portion of the cerebellum. 5, Left hemisphere of the cere- 
 bellum. 6, Inner surface of the left hemisphere of the cerebrum. 7, Corpus callosum. 
 8, Pellucid septum. 9, Fornix. 10, Anterior cms of the fornix. 19, Foramen of com- 
 munication between the third and lateral ventricles. 20, Optic nerve. 24, Oculo-motor 
 nerve. 26, Fourth ventricle. 28, Quadrigeminal body. 29, Entrance from the third to 
 to the fourth ventricle. 30, 31, 32, Anterior, middle and posterior lobes of the cerebrum. 
 
 It will be noticed that these ganglia have an unbroken 
 connection with the spinal cord through the peduncles of the 
 cerebrum and the fibres of the medulla oblongata. 
 
 Extending backward from the optic thalamus, is a body 
 divided on its upper surface into four eminences, hence called 
 
216 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the Corpora Quadrigemina or the Quadrigeminal body. It con- 
 sists of four small ganglia, sometimes named Optic Ganglia 
 (as they send nerves to the eye), which are attached to the 
 peduncles of the optic thalamus, to the cerebellum and cere- 
 brum and to the medulla oblongata. 
 
 443. All the above-mentioned ganglia are variously con- 
 nected with each other, with the peduncles of the cerebrum 
 and cerebellum, and, through the medulla oblongata, with 
 the spinal cord. 
 
 444. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are closely united 
 in their central part by a transverse commissure, called the 
 Corpus Callosum, formed by a dense band of transverse fibres 
 radiating at each extremity to the inner surface of its cor- 
 responding hemispheres. The corpus callosum is arched in 
 shape, and about four inches in length. It forms the roof of 
 a large central cavity between the two ganglia, corpora 
 striata, the cavity being divided by a thin, double membrane 
 (the pellucid septum) into two communicating apartments 
 called the Lateral Ventricles. Each of these has for its roof 
 the corpus callosum ; for its floor, the Fornix a membrane 
 continuous with the corpus callosum behind ; for its inner 
 wall, the pellucid septum ; and for its outer wall, the corpus 
 striatum. The floor of the lateral ventricles forms the roof 
 of the Third Ventricle, which is a narrow cavity between the 
 optic thalami, communicating with the fourth ventricle lying 
 below and back of it, by a narrow passage-way. Hence it 
 appears that the lateral ventricles, in the centre of the cere- 
 brum, communicate with each other and with the third ven- 
 tricle, the third with the fourth, and the fourth with the 
 central canal of* the spinal cord, making one unbroken com- 
 munication through the whole extent. 
 
 445. Within the hemispheres are numerous other small 
 ganglia, membranes and galleries, whose description our 
 present limits will not allow. 
 
 446. The hemispheres of the cerebrum enclose all the other 
 parts, in front, above and behind, like a great overshadowing 
 dome. Their outer surface is of gray matter, hence they are 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 217 
 
 essentially two connected ganglia, and the largest in the 
 system. Each hemisphere is marked off by fissures into three 
 lobes, the frontal, middle and posterior lobe or ganglion, the 
 frontal being the largest, and there is a little offshoot of the 
 frontal lobe, called the Olfactory. Each of these lobes has 
 its surface moulded into many tortuous and complicated 
 elevations of the cerebral substance, termed Convolutions, 
 which are marked off from each other by secondary winding 
 fissures, named Sulci; thus there is formed "one unbroken 
 but undulating sheet" over the whole surface of the brain. 
 
 FIG. 154. 
 
 FIG. 154 REPRESENTS A CONVOLUTED CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE, a, a, The scalp turned 
 down. 6, b, b, The cut edge of the bones of the skull, c, The external strong membrane 
 of the brain (dura mater), suspended by a hook, d, The left hemisphere of the brain. 
 
 447. The general plan of convolutions in the two hemi- 
 spheres is the same, but in detail there is want of exact sym- 
 metry. It is a remarkable fact that the higher the mental 
 development, the more unsymmetrical and complicated are 
 the convolutions, and the deeper the depressions or Sulci. 
 This is not only seen in comparing the lower animals with 
 man, but in comparing different races of men. The brain 
 of the "Hottentot Venus, who was no idiot," has been de- 
 scribed as having the convolutions of the frontal lobe strik- 
 ingly simple and regular, and as presenting an almost perfect 
 
 19 K 
 
218 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 symmetry in the two hemispheres, such as is never found in 
 the Caucasian race, and which much resembles that of the 
 lower animals. 
 
 FIG. 155. 
 
 12, 
 
 FIG. 155 (Leidy). BASE OF THE BRAIN. 1, Anterior lobes of the cerebrum. 2, Middle 
 lobes. 3, Posterior lobes. 4, 5, Anterior and posterior extremities of the great longi- 
 tudinal fissure. 11, Crura of the cerebrum. 12, Pons. 13, Medulla oblongata. 14, Pyra- 
 midal bodies. 14*, Decussation of the pyramids. 15, Olivary body. 16, Restiform body. 
 17. Hemispheres of the cerebellum. 19, Crus of the cerebellum. 20, Pneumogastric 
 lobule of the cerebellum. 21, Fissure which accommodates the olfactory nerve (22). 23, 
 Bulb of the olfactory nerve. 24, Optic commissure. 25, Oculo-motor nerve. 26, Pathetic 
 nerve. 27, Trifacial nerve. 28, Abducent nerve. 29, Facial nerve. 30, Auditory nerve. 
 31, Glosso-pharyngeal nervo. 32, Pneumogastric nerve. 33, Accessory nerve. 34, Hypo- 
 glossal nerve. 
 
 448. The cerebellum, like the cerebrum, has its hemispheres 
 marked off into lobes. The lobes are highly subdivided on 
 their sides and surface into thin plates or laminae, by cres- 
 centic furrows or sulci. The white fibres within the cere- 
 
NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 219 
 
 FIG. 150. 
 
 bellum are so arranged that, when a vertical section is taken, 
 it presents the appearance of the trunk and branches of a tree, 
 and hence it bears the name of Arbor Vitce (fig. 158). 
 
 449. The parts already described, viz., the brain and spinal 
 cord, constitute the Cerebro-Spinal Axis, from which proceed 
 
 THE NERVES OF THE CEREBRO-SPINAL SYSTEM. 
 
 450. Certain of these nerves conduct nerve-force from the 
 ganglia to their own distal ends in the tissues, chiefly mus- 
 cular, where motion is produced ; 
 other nerves carry impressions from 
 their extremities to the centres ; 
 the first are termed Motory from 
 their function, and Efferent from 
 the direction of conduction; the 
 second are termed Sensory and 
 Afferent. The anterior fibrous 
 bundles of the medulla oblongata, 
 passing upward to the corpora 
 
 FIG. 166(JWrfy). SEGMENT OP THE Striata > f rm a Mot r T ct > SO dig - 
 SPINAL CORD. 1, Anterior median tinguished by the endowments of 
 
 rpr,;^r,t.r;;:r: * e t is sue from it; ** 
 
 lateral fissure. 5, Anterior column, posterior bundles passing to the 
 
 6, Lateral column. 7, Posterior col- Thalami Q t j J form Sensory 
 
 umii. 8, Anterior commissure. 9, 
 
 Anterior horns of the gray sub- Tract. 
 
 stance. 10, Posterior horns. 11, 45} The O erebro .g pinal nerves 
 
 Gray commissure. 12, Anterior root . . r 
 
 of a spinal nerre springing by a are also distinguished as Cranial 
 
 number of filaments from the antero- nerv es when they DaSS directlf 
 lateral fissure. 13, Posterior root J r J 
 
 from postero-lateral fissure. 14, from the brain, through openings 
 Ganglion on the posterior root. 15, i n the cranium ; and as Spinal 
 
 Spinal nerve formed by the union , ., , , , 
 
 of the two roots. when they issue from the vertebral 
 
 openings of the spinal column. 
 
 The CRANIAL NERVES are arranged in twelve pairs, 
 named numerically, counting from before backward, or from 
 their function, destination or specific character. They may 
 be arranged in jbree^ groups, according jo their functions f aa 
 Sensory^Moior and Mixed. 
 
220 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Is 
 
 < 
 
 .5 a 
 
 > 
 
 3 *hn 
 
 x js 
 
 ^2.2 8 
 
 
 - 
 
 |25 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 f bfi 
 
 
 .2 r 
 
 l I I 
 
 S ~ a 
 
 H O P4 
 
 = S 
 
 O O5 -C 
 
NEKVOTJS SYSTEM. 
 
 221 
 
 FJG. 157. 
 
 19 
 
222 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 157. DISTRIBUTION OF PNEUMOGASTRIC NERVES. a, Section of the brain and me- 
 dulla oblongata. 6, The lateral columns of the spinal cord, c, c, The respiratory tract 
 of the spinal cord, d, The tongue, e, The larynx. /, The bronchia, g. The oesophagus. 
 h, The stomach, t, The diaphragm. 1, The pneumogastric nerve. 2, The superior laryn- 
 geal nerve. 3, The recurrent laryngeal nerve. (These two ramify on the larynx.) 4, 
 The pulmonary plexus of the tenth nerve. 5, The cardiac plexus of the tenth ner> e. 
 These two plexuses supply the heart and lungs with nervous filaments. 7, The origin 
 of the fourth pair of nerves, that passes to the superior oblique muscle of the eye. 8, The 
 origin of the facial nerve, that is spread out on the side of the face and nose. 9, The 
 origin of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, that passes to the tongue and pharynx. 10, The 
 origin of the spinal accessory nerve. 11, This nerve penetrating the sterno-mastoideus 
 muscle. 12, The origin of the internal respiratory or phrenic nerve, that is seen to ramify 
 on the diaphragm. 13, The origin of the external respiratory nerve that ramifies on the 
 pectoral and scaleni muscles. 
 
 FlG. 158. 
 
 Fia. 158. A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM AND MEDULLA OB- 
 LONGATA, showing the relation of the cranial nerves at their origin. 1, The cerebrum. 
 2, The cerebellum, with its arbor vitae represented. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, The 
 spinal cord. 5, The corpus callosum. 6, The first pair of nerves. 7. The second pair. 
 8, The eye. 9, The third pair of nerves. 10, The fourth pair. 11, The fifth pair. 12, 
 The sixth pair. 13, The seventh pair. 14, The eighth pair. 15, The ninth pair. 16, 
 The tenth pair. 19, The eleventh pair. 18, The twelfth pair. 20, Spinal nerves. 21 
 Tho tentorium. 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 223 
 
 FIG. 159. 
 
 453. The SPINAL NERVES are arranged in thirty-one pairs, 
 and (unlike the cranial nerves, excepting the Trifacial) eacli 
 arises by two roots : an an- 
 
 terior or Motor root spring- 
 ing from the anterior columns 
 of the spinal cord, which are 
 continuous with the Motor 
 tract before mentioned ; and 
 a posterior or Sensitive root 
 from the posterior columns 
 of the spinal cord, and con- 
 tinuous with the Sensory tract. 
 The Sensitive roots are larger 
 than the Motor, and each 
 has an imbedded ganglion, 
 after the formation of which 
 the two roots unite into one 
 trunk, forming the spinal 
 nerve, which passes out of 
 the spinal column through 
 the intervertebral openings. 
 
 454. The Spinal Nerves 
 are divided into 
 
 Cervical ........ 8 pairs. 
 
 Dorsal .......... 12 " 
 
 Lumbar ........ 5 " 
 
 Sacral ........... 6 " 
 
 At some parts of their 
 course certain branches of 
 the nerves reunite, forming 
 networks called plexuses. 
 Thus the four upper cervical 
 nerves anastomose, forming 
 the cervical plexus, at the 
 side of the neck ; the four 
 lower cervical, and the upper 
 dorsal, form the brackial 
 
 FIG. 159. A BACK VIEW OF THE BRAIN AND 
 SPINAL CORD. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cere- 
 bellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the 
 face. 5, The brachial plexus of nerves. 6, 7, 
 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass 
 under the ribs. 11, The lumbar plexus of 
 nerves. 12, The sacral plexus of nerves. 13, 
 14, 15, 16, Nerves of the lower limbs. 
 
224 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 plexus (fig. 159), from which proceed six nerves which ramify 
 upon the muscles and skin of the upper extremities ; the last 
 dorsal and four lumbar nerves form the lumbar plexus, which 
 sends off six nerves to ramify upon the muscles and skin of 
 the lower extremities ; the last lumbar and four upper sacral 
 form the sacral plexus, which distributes nerves to the muscles 
 and skin of the hip and lower extremities. 
 
 FIG. 160. 
 
 FlG. 160 REPRESENTS THE SYMPATHETIC 
 GANGLIA, AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH OTHER 
 NERVES, from the grand engraving of Manee, 
 reduced in size. A, A, A, The semilunar 
 ganglion and solar plexus, situated below 
 the diaphragm and behind the stomach. 
 This ganglion is situated in the region (pit 
 of the stomach) where a blow gives severe 
 suffering. D, D, D, The thoracic (chest) 
 ganglia, ten or eleven in number. E, E, 
 The external and internal branches of the 
 thoracic ganglia. G, H, The right and left 
 coronary plexus, situated upon the heart. 
 I, N, Q, The inferior, middle and superior 
 cervical (neck) ganglia. 1, The renal plexus 
 of nerves that surrounds the kidneys. 2, The 
 lumbar (loin) ganglion. 3. Their internal 
 branches. 4, Their external branches. 5, 
 The aortic plexus of nerves that lies upon 
 the aorta. The other letters and figures re- 
 present nerves that connect important organ? 
 and nerves with the sympathetic ganglia. 
 
 THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 455. The Sympathetic system, like the Cerebro-Spinal, is 
 double, consisting of two chains of ganglia, one on each side 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 
 
 i 
 
 of the spinal column, running through the deep parts of the 
 neck, into the chest and abdomen. These ganglia communi- 
 cate with each other, with the spinal cord and with the inter- 
 nal organs as the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, pancreas, 
 intestines and kidneys. In the neck and chest the ganglia 
 are arranged in pairs ; those of the neck are three in number 
 and the largest of the system ; those of the chest, twelve in 
 number, a ganglion resting upon the head of each rib ; in the 
 abdomen the arrangement is irregular. 
 
 456. A peculiarity of the Sympathetic nerves is, that they 
 follow the distribution of the blood-vessels. Starting from the 
 heart, they envelop the large vessels with a close network, 
 called the Arterial plexus; and in the abdomen, behind the 
 stomach, the large blood-vessels are surrounded by many 
 small ganglia, all united by networks of fibres called the 
 solar plexus, because the other plexuses of the abdomen 
 radiate from it, like the rays diverging from the sun. In all 
 parts of the body, these nerves accompany the arteries which 
 supply the different organs, and form networks around them 
 which take the names of the organs, as the hepatic plexus, 
 splenic plexus, mesenteric plexus, etc. 
 
 g 45. HISTOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Three Microscopic 
 Elements of Nerve- Tissue. Nerve- Cells. Nerve-Fibres. Membranes 
 of Cerebro- Spinal System. 
 
 457. NERVOUS TISSUE is composed of three microscopic 
 elements Nerve- Cells, or Ganglionic Corpuscles, White or 
 Tubular Fibres, and Gray or Gelatinous Fibres. 
 
 458. The NERVE-CELLS are nucleated cells ; that is, vesic- 
 ular matter containing, besides a pulpy substance, an eccen- 
 tric, roundish body, or nucleus, enclosing one or more nucleoli 
 surrounded by colored granules (32). These nerve-cells have 
 various branches or offsets starting from any part of the cell- 
 wall and completely continuous with it and with the con- 
 tents of the cell itself. The branches connect the cells with 
 each other, and also with the nerve-fibres. Their number 
 varies from one to twenty, and the cells are accordingly dis- 
 
 K* 
 
226 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 
 tinguished as unipolar, bipolar and multipolar (fig. 16). A 
 collection of nerve-cells constitutes the essential part of a 
 Ganglion. They are imbedded in a 
 matrix of fine, soft, granular matter, 
 and variously mingled and interwoven 
 with multitudes of fibres. Composed 
 of such masses, do we find the whole 
 convoluted surface of the brain, the 
 thalami optici, the corpora striata, the 
 quadrigeminal body and some other 
 minute bodies; from these, one un- 
 broken, gray tract may be traced 
 
 Fi. 161 (Leidy). PORTION , , T ,. , J , 
 
 OF GRAY SUBSTANCE, FROM through the interior of the peduncles of 
 THE EXTERIOR OF THE CERE- the brain, the interior of the medulla ob- 
 
 BELLUM. 1, TWO lierve-cells , ir>,1 l i // i,i\ 
 
 with bipolar prolongations, longata and of the spinal cord (fig. 164). 
 2, Granular matter. 3, NU- The various ganglia of the sympathetic 
 
 lies. 4, Nc -fibres. 
 
 FlG - ir>2 ' 
 
 459. The WHITE or TUBULAR FIBRES, or the ultimate 
 nerve-filaments, consist of an outer, structureless membrane en- 
 
 closing a layer of trans- 
 parent fluid fat, or me- 
 dullary matter, within 
 which is a firmer part 
 a gray, ribbon-like 
 thread called the cen- 
 tral band-axis, or the 
 
 FIG. 162. NERVE-FILAMENTS, decussing with their axis cylinder This is 
 sheath. . y 
 
 identical in structure 
 
 with the processes of the nerve-cells with which it is con- 
 tinuous, and is very important, as it is sometimes the only 
 part of the nerve-fibre left within the structureless sheath ; 
 thus constituting the so-called pale, non-medullated nerve- 
 fibre. As the medullary matter encloses the band-axis, it is 
 often, though improperly, called the medullary sheath. 
 
 460. The nerve- filaments are distributed to the skin, 
 muscles and glandular organs, in all parts of the body. 
 From these points they approach each other, uniting into 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 227 
 
 little bundles or fibres, and then into larger bundles, till they 
 are of sufficient size to be seen by the naked eye, when they 
 constitute a nerve. The filaments do not blend with each 
 other, but lie in simple juxtaposition, each retaining a com- 
 plete individuality from its origin to its termination. Like 
 the fibres of a muscle, they are bound together and protected 
 by a covering of areolar tissue, called its Neurilem'a, or sheath, 
 which also contains the blood-vessels for the nutrition of the 
 nerve. The filaments become gradually finer toward their 
 outer extremities, till at length the sheath, medullary por- 
 tion and band-axis become undistinguishable. Their mode 
 of termination is uncertain, though the sensory nerves, at 
 least, seem to have free extremities. 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 
 Fin. 163. DIAGRAM OP HUMAN BRAIN, IN VERTICAL SECTION, showing the situation of 
 the different ganglia and the course of the fibres. 1, Olfactory ganglion. 2, Hemisphere. 
 3, Corpus striatum. 4, Optic thalamus. 5, Tubercula quadrigeinina. 6, Cerebellum. 
 7, Ganglion of tuber anmilare. 8, Ganglion of medulla oblongata. 
 
 461. The tubular fibres compose the white parts of the 
 brain and the spinal cord ; the chief substance of the nerves ; 
 and also pass into and mix with the gray substance of the 
 brain, cord and all the ganglia. They vary in size, being 
 finest of all in the superficial layers of the brain, fine in the 
 nerves of special sense and in the ganglia, larger in the fore 
 p*art of the spinal cord, and largest in the motor nerves. 
 
 462. Besides the White tubular fibres, there are found, 
 
228 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 chiefly in the Sympathetic System, GRAY or GELATINOUS 
 FIBRES, which are flattened, more minute than the white fibres, 
 and greatly resembling their band-axis. Some have considered 
 these but a form of connective tissue, but whether they be so 
 considered, or as true nervous elements, they seem to be pro- 
 duced by the coalescence of elongated nucleated cells, the 
 contents of which, as the cells enlarge, become soft and finely 
 granular, while the nuclei appear wider and wider apart. 
 
 463. The MEMBRANES of the Cerebro-Spinal System are 
 four in number the Dura Mater, the Pia Mater, the Aracli- 
 noid Membrane and the Epen'dyma. The Dura Mater is a 
 tough, fibrous membrane lining the bony walls of the skull 
 and spinal column, forming their periosteum. The Pia Mater 
 is another fibrous and very vascular membrane which closely 
 invests the brain and spinal cord, and sends processes into all 
 their fissures. The inner surface of the dura mater, and the 
 outer surface of the pia mater, each become very delicate in 
 structure and are lined with an epithelium : this gossamer mem- 
 brane is named the Arachnoid Membrane. Its two layers unite 
 at many points, thus forming closed sacs, which, like other 
 serous membranes, secrete a fluid called the arachnoid fluid. 
 
 464. The dura mater not only firmly invests the brain and 
 spinal cord, but sends off supporting partitions that which de- 
 scends between the hemispheres of the cerebrum being called 
 the Cerebral Falx ; that between the hemispheres of the cere- 
 bellum, the Cerebellar Falx; and that between the cerebrum 
 and cerebellum, the Tentorium. Through separations in the 
 layers of the dura mater, channels are formed, performing 
 the office of veins : they are named Sinuses of the Dura Mater,. 
 and are lined with a continuation of the ordinary epithelium 
 of blood-vessels. The dura mater also furnishes the areolar 
 sheaths to the several cranial and spinal nerves ; therefore it 
 is continuous from the lining of the cranium to the extremity 
 of the nerves in the different parts of the body. 
 
 465. The. Ependyma is a delicate, transparent, serous mem- 
 brane, lining the ventricles of the brain and the central canul 
 of the spinal cord. 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 
 
 8 46. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Man's Compound 
 Nature. Relation of the Nervous System to this Nature. The Hank 
 of the Nervous System. Relation of the Nervous Centres to the Sensitive 
 and Motor Nerves. Classification of the Centres. System of Dependen- 
 cies. General Function of the Organic Centres. Their Modes of Reflex 
 Action. Peculiarity of Sympathetic Action. Functions of the Reflex or 
 Spinal. Centres. Their Acquired Action, and the Theory Explaining it. 
 Practical Importance of the Automatic Tendency produced by Repeti- 
 tion and Association. Character of the Sensational Centres and their 
 Action. Internal Stimuli to the Activity of these Centres. Functions 
 of the Ideational Centres. Ideas Suggested by the Same Object different 
 in Different Individuals. Various Manifestations of Reflex Action in 
 the Ideational Centres. Emotional Character of these Centres. . Voli- 
 tional Character. Relation of the Emotions to the Will. Influence of the 
 Physical Nature for Good or for Evil. The Language of the Muscles. 
 
 466. At different periods of the world's history, many dif- 
 ferent opinions have prevailed concerning the respective 
 existence of body and soul, and their relations to each other. 
 The pagan Greek included all under the one word <p U%TJ and 
 the Roman under that of anima, which was almost " equally 
 applicable to the vegetative life of a cabbage, the animal life 
 of a sheep, and the spiritual life of an apostle." During the 
 fifth century before the Christian era, Anaxagoras advanced 
 a shadowy idea of man's compound nature, which at the day- 
 dawn of Christianity assumed a clear and definite outline. 
 At length philosopher and Christian advocated the supremacy 
 of the immaterial nature over the material, and eventually 
 regarded their interests as antagonistic. The body was deemed 
 the source of all evil the work of the Prince of Darkness. 
 At the present day, more than at any former period, efforts 
 are being made to rightly balance the two natures, and yet 
 many seem to regard the body as a gloomy prison-house in 
 which God has shut us up, rather than as a beautiful " temple" 
 in which the mind and soul may dwell as priest and priestess, 
 using all its appointments in rendering service to the Lord 
 of the temple. 
 
 467. The NERVOUS SYSTEM is the border-land where the 
 material touches the immaterial. It possesses that highest 
 
 20 
 
230 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 refinement of physical organization through which the mind 
 may manifest itself, and by means of which it may control 
 and bring into service, not only the various organs of the 
 body, but other matter more external and remote. 
 
 468. The organisms heretofore described have no inherent 
 active power, but are entirely dependent upon the nervous 
 system: thus, the bones are dependent for movement upion 
 the contractility of the muscles ; this contractility, upon the 
 stimulus of the nerves; this stimulus, upon the energetic 
 action of the nerve-centres ; and these centres are graded in 
 rank and measurably dependent, the lowest upon the next 
 higher, and so on to the highest, or convoluted centres of the 
 hemispheres. 
 
 469. In their function, the nervous centres are intermediate 
 
 fibres, being aclea^uponat^heir^jijsj;al extremities, convey^ 
 nnpressuSs^ centre; and^ the motor jibres. being 
 
 a^ed^pon^^jn^cjntres, convey nerve-force outward, and 
 produce. mot^n^JKe^' distal e^remUiesT 1 Lei any part' of 
 
 the surface of the body be touched by a hot iron, and mus- 
 cular contraction instantly follows ; but there has been time 
 enough for the sensation of pain to be conveyed to the nervous 
 centre, and for an impulse to be sent from that centre to the 
 muscles : such action is called the Reflex Aetion^f the Nervaun 
 System. By this means a communication is established be- 
 
 ^X^^-N^^** 
 
 tween the different organs. This communication is never 
 direct, but from one organ inward to the nervous centre, 
 then outward to another organ : so are the different functions 
 associated and exercised for the common good of the whole. 
 
 470. In dealing with the functions of the Nervous System 
 we adopt the following classification of the Nervous Centres : 
 viz. 1st, The Primary or Ideational Centres, comprising the 
 gray matter . of the convolutions of the hemispheres (446) ; 
 2d, The Secondary or Sensational Centres, comprising the 
 gray matter between the floors of the lateral ventricles and 
 the decussation of the pyramids (442) ; 3d, The Tertiary 
 Centres, or Centres of Reflex Action, comprising the gray 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 
 
 matter of the spinal cord (441) ; 4th, The Quarternary or 
 Organic Centres, comprising the gray matter of the Sym- 
 pathetic System (455). 
 
 471. The arrangement of this system of centres is like that 
 of a well-ordered body politic. Each distinct department, or 
 nerve-centre, acts independently within certain limits, but 
 beyond these limits it is subordinate to the next higher: 
 thus, the Organic Centres are subordinate to the Keflex or 
 Spinal Centres ; the Reflex, to the Sensorial ; and all, to the 
 Ideational or Supreme Centres. In each centre the indi- 
 vidual cells probably differ in rank, some having a higher 
 dignity, some a lower, but each its special appointment, its 
 assigned duty. Such would be the inference from their 
 varied form, color, size, and mode of branching. There are 
 probably important differences of chemical constitution and 
 action, but of this we have no means of proof. There is, 
 then, reason for supposing that from the lowliest cell in the 
 Organic centres, to that of highest rank in the Ideational, 
 there is a long series of dependencies, and, so nice is the ad- 
 justment, that if one fails to conform to the laws of the 
 organization the others must suffer. Slight disturbances may 
 take place in the lower centres without the knowledge of the 
 Supreme Authority, but any serious matter beyond their con- 
 trol is early reported ; this is the meaning of pain, weariness, 
 etc. If the warning is disregarded at headquarters, there is 
 liability to an open rebellion that will shake the system to 
 its foundations, and not unlikely result in its complete over- 
 throw. " The well-being and power of the higher individuals 
 are entirely dependent upon the well-being and contentment 
 of the humbler workers, which do so great a part of the daily 
 work of life." 
 
 472. The ORGANIC or SYMPATHETIC CENTRES are not 
 well understood, but the distribution of their nerves would 
 indicate that they exercise a controlling influence over the 
 involuntary functions of digestion, absorption, circulation 
 and assimilation. From the fact that these nerves reach 
 their ultimate destination supported on the arterial vessels, 
 
232 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 it is probable that their influence is exerted through a certain 
 control over the muscular coat of the heart and arteries, thus 
 hastening or retarding the course of the blood, and increasing 
 or diminishing its quantity in various organs. Thus the 
 functions of nutrition, secretion, etc., depending so much 
 upon the state of the circulation, are made to sympathize 
 with each other very closely; hence the name, " Sympathetic ;> 
 System (456). 
 
 473. The organic centres being connected with the various 
 organs by sensitive and motor nerves, are capable of an inde- 
 pendent reflex action. They are also connected with the 
 cerebro-spinal system, and are more or less assisted by and 
 subordinate to it. In health the brain takes no cognizance 
 of their action ; when diseased, however, the centres report 
 to the highest authority by means of cramps and other 
 severely acute pains. In its normal action, a centre seems 
 to expend only so much force as is disposed of by the motor 
 nerves ; in diseased action there is a surplus, which is con- 
 veyed to the next higher centre, to be disposed of by its motor 
 nerves ; if there is still a surplus, it passes on as before. 
 
 474. There are three kinds of reflex action taking place 
 either wholly or partially through the Sympathetic System ; 
 viz. 1st, The reflex action from the internal organs to the 
 voluntary muscles and sensitive surfaces : examples are seen 
 in the convulsions of children, caused by the irritation of un- 
 digested food in the intestines ; and in adults, in the attacks 
 of temporary blindness or confused vision so often accompany- 
 ing indigestion. 2d, The reflex action from the sensitive sur- 
 faces to the involuntary muscles and the internal organs; as 
 mental and moral impressions received by the senses disturb 
 the motions of the heart and affect the circulation, digestion 
 and secretion; disagreeable sights or odors produce nausea 
 and other functional derangements. 3d, The reflex action 
 between the internal organs ; as the associated action of the 
 stomach, liver, etc. The variation in the capillary circula- 
 tion of the abdominal viscera, according as they are active 
 or inactive, is probably referable to a similar influence. 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 233 
 
 475. One marked peculiarity of the Sympathetic System is, 
 that its nerves and ganglia act with much less rapidity than 
 those of the Cerebro-Spinal System ; hence, inflammation of 
 the internal organs is not manifest for several hours after the 
 application of the exciting cause ; as the effects of a chill or 
 cold do not usually follow immediately after the exposure. 
 Because of this tardy action, the effect remains long after the 
 cause is removed. A very beautiful example of the slow 
 action of the sympathetic nerves is seen in the movements 
 of the iris of the eye. The ciliary nerves controlling these 
 movements originate in the brain, but pass through, and are 
 affected by, a sympathetic ganglion. In passing from the 
 dazzling sunshine into the house, we are scarcely able to 
 distinguish objects about us, and some minutes are often re- 
 quired to adapt the iris to the less amount of light ; and the 
 same slow movement is evident in passing from a less degree 
 of light to a greater. Were these nerves purely cerebro- 
 spinal, the action would take place instantly. 
 
 476. The TERTIARY, REFLEX or SPINAL CENTRES. The 
 white, tubular substance of the spinal cord connects the 
 muscles and integuments below with the brain above, and 
 thus assists in the production of conscious sensation and 
 voluntary motion. The gray matter forms nerve-centres, 
 which exert a general protective influence over the whole body. 
 They preside over the involuntary movements of the limbs and 
 trunk; if a finger touch a heated surface, it is suddenly with- 
 drawn, and that without effort of the will, and often in oppo- 
 sition to it. The same movement takes place upon tickling 
 the foot of a person asleep. They regulate the action of the 
 sphincter muscles, as in the rectum and bladder. They exer- 
 cise a certain control over the changes of secretion, nutrition, etc., 
 as is manifest in cases of disease. Thus we see that many 
 human activities are performed by the reflex action of the 
 spinal centres, inherent in their natural constitution. 
 
 477. They are, however, capable of an acquired reflex 
 action, which is matured through experience. An act or 
 un association of acts becomes easier to them by repetition. 
 
 20* 
 
234 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 This acquired power of reflex action has been accounted for 
 by a theory * which is at least beautifully illustrative of the 
 facts in the case. Every display of energy in the nerve-cells 
 causes a change or waste of nervous element which is re- 
 paired by nutrition. This theory assumes that the character 
 of the waste determines the character of the deposit; that the 
 particle deposited is necessarily endowed according to the 
 particular kind of activity manifested, and that this endow- 
 ment inclines the particle to the same kind of activity again. 
 By each repetition, the tendency becomes stronger and more 
 definite, till, after a longer or shorter series of repetitions, the 
 action becomes automatic. 
 
 478. When a certain class of movements have, after many 
 voluntary efforts, become associated, they become perceptibly 
 more and more easy. Walking is at first a very conscious 
 and voluntary act; but it may become so far reflex and 
 automatic that one in a profound abstraction may continue 
 to walk without being at all conscious where he is going, and 
 when he wakes from his revery may find himself in some 
 other place than that which he intended to visit. Multi- 
 tudes of our daily acts are the result of this acquired reflex 
 action of the spinal centres. The wisdom of such an arrange- 
 ment is very evident, for but little could be accomplished if 
 acts became no easier by repetition and association. Con- 
 scious efforts of the will soon produce exhaustion, while the 
 automatic acts of which we are speaking occasion compara- 
 tively little weariness. We often say of certain rounds of 
 duties that they do not weary us, for we are accustomed to 
 them. In speaking of this acquired power of which the 
 spinal centres are capable, Dr. Maudsley says, " Like the 
 brain, the spinal cord has its memory. A spinal cord without 
 memory would be an idiotic spinal cord, incapable of culture 
 a degenerate nervous centre in which the organization of 
 special faculties could not take place. It is the lesson of a 
 good education so consciously to exercise it in reference to 
 
 * Dr. Maudsley. 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 235 
 
 its surroundings that it shall act automatically in accordance 
 with the relations of the individual in his particular walk 
 of life." 
 
 479. The SENSATIONAL CENTRES, including the gray mat- 
 ter of the medulla oblongata, and of the base of the brain as 
 far as the lateral ventricles, consist chiefly of the nervous 
 centres of the higher or special senses, as sight, hearing (442), 
 etc. Any one of these senses is quickly destroyed by destroy- 
 ing its ganglion : the loss of the quadrigeminal body destroys 
 the sight as effectually as putting- out the eyes. That these 
 centres have an independent reflex action may be seen by 
 the involuntary closure of the eyelid when a strong light 
 falls upon the eye, or by the involuntary contortions of the 
 face when an article is sour or bitter to the taste. These are 
 examples of natural reflex action, but, like the spinal cord, 
 these centres are capable of an acquired reflex action ; as in 
 the articulation of words upon seeing their signs ; adapting 
 the movements of the body to the rhythm of music, in 
 dancing, marching, etc. Most of the sensations of the special 
 senses become clear and definite only after a long course of 
 training ; for instance, the visual sensation of the adult is a 
 very different matter from that of the child whose eyes have 
 recently opened upon the world. " The sensation of the culti- 
 vated sense thus sums up, as it were, a thousand experiences, 
 as one word often contains the accumulated acquisitions of 
 generations." 
 
 480. In speaking of the acquired reflex action of the spinal 
 centres, we referred to the theory that a relic, or residuum, of 
 every activity remained in the nerve-cell as a special endow- 
 ment ; that perhaps the character of the activity determined 
 the character of the nutritive deposit. This theory is equally 
 applicable to the sensational centres, and equally illustrative 
 of the certain fact that acts of this class are rendered easier 
 by repetition. 
 
 481. The sensational centres are excited to activity not 
 only by impressions from the organs of the special senses, 
 but by sensations from within the body, both from the organic 
 
236 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and ideational centres. Of the former, examples are afforded 
 when the higher nervous centres are weakened by disease, or 
 when the organic stimuli have an unnatural activity, as is 
 the case with the intemperate man. 
 
 482. The IDEATIONAL CENTRES seem to have the power 
 of fashioning into ideas the impressions received by the sensa- 
 tional centres. When the various properties of an object are 
 presented by the different senses, these centres reject the un- 
 essential, and, selecting the essential, mould them into an 
 organic unity, or idea. By means of the sensorial centres 
 and nerves, we may gain perceptions or impressions of the 
 qualities of a rose, but these would be isolated, and we should 
 have no clear and definite idea of the rose, without the mould- 
 ing and vivifying influences of the ideational centres. 
 
 483. Different persons obtain very different ideas of the 
 same object ; the character of the idea being dependent upon 
 the character of the organization both of the sensational and 
 ideational centres, and the character of the organization upon 
 natural endowment, or inherited organization, and also upon 
 the education received. 
 
 484. The ideational centres, like those already described, 
 are capable of an independent, reflex action, which may be 
 manifested in different ways: 1st, This may take place 
 through the motor tract, thus giving rise to what have been 
 named ideomotor movements. This energy may be exerted 
 either upon the voluntary or involuntary muscles, and in the 
 former case either with or without consciousness: the idea 
 that vomiting must take place when a qualmish feeling exists 
 will hasten or even produce vomiting, affording an example 
 of the reflex action of an idea upon the involuntary muscles, 
 conformable to what has been said of the subordination of 
 the organic nervous centres to those of the cerebro-spinal 
 system. Examples of the reflex action of ideas upon our 
 voluntary muscles are seen every hour of our waking life ; 
 these may be unconscious, as is seen in most persons who 
 talk to themselves, or they may be conscious, and yet without 
 the intervention of the will, as when a quick-tempered indi- 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 237 
 
 vidual quickly resents an insult by a blow. 2d, The reflex 
 action of an ideational nerve-cell may not only operate 
 downward upon the muscular system, but downward upon 
 the sensory centres: the idea of a nauseous taste may excite 
 the sensation to such a degree as to produce vomiting. The 
 action of ideas upon our sensory ganglia is indeed a regular 
 part of our mental life, for the co-operation of sensory activity 
 is necessary to clear conception and representation, and by it 
 we may see our own ideas as actual images. Those great 
 writers who delight us with their vivid descriptions of scenery 
 or events possess this power in a high degree. 3d, Another 
 very important reflex action of these centres is that which 
 modifies the secretions and nutrition : a flow of saliva may be 
 produced by the thought of food, or a flow of tears by a sym- 
 pathetic idea. 4th, There may be in these centres a reflex 
 action among the cells themselves. One cell reacts to a 
 stimulus from a neighboring cell, then transfers or reflects 
 this energy to another. This may be the condition of activity 
 among these cells during that process of the mind which we 
 call Reflection. 
 
 485. These ideational centres are also the seat of the Emo- 
 tions. When an idea is attended with some feeling, either 
 pleasant or unpleasant, it is so far Emotional; and when the 
 feeling preponderates, the idea is obscured, and the state of 
 mind is then called an Emotion, or, when rising above the 
 ordinary degree and becoming impatient of restraint, a Pas- 
 sion. The capacity for emotion depends essentially upon the 
 range and vigor of ideas. The man of great strength of 
 mind, as a Milton or Napoleon, is capable of deeper emotion 
 than the man of dwarfed and puny intellect. Indeed, just here 
 lies, in no small degree, the secret of his superior power. 
 The same stimulus may at one time produce simply an idea, 
 and at another time an emotion, according to the condition 
 of the nerve-cells. 
 
 486. Every centre of idea is also a centre of Volitionary re- 
 action. When an idea acts directly downward, we call the 
 effect ideomotor ; but when there is deliberation or reflection 
 
238 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 delaying the action, and it afterward takes place downward, 
 we call the effect volitional. Volition is also exercised in pre- 
 venting as well as in producing an action. 
 
 487. The exercise of the Will is the highest energy of 
 which the supreme centres are capable. Within certain 
 limits, the ideas and emotions are subject to its control. 
 Suppose a being endowed with the intellectual and emotional 
 natures, but not with the will : though possessing the intelli- 
 gence of a man, his capacities for action would be inferior to 
 those of the brutes, for, like them, his actions would be the 
 result of mere sensational impulses, and yet he would be 
 destitute of that natural guide of brutes which we call in- 
 stinct. This represents the wretched condition of a man 
 whose will is by any means so enfeebled that it fails to con- 
 trol the mental and physical powers. 
 
 488. The power of the will depends both upon the inherited 
 organization and also upon the training it has received, for 
 volitions, like sensations and ideas, become more easy and 
 definite by repetition. A naturally weak will may be greatly 
 strengthened by due care and training. According to the 
 theory before mentioned, each volition leaves its relic, trace 
 or residuum which inclines .the portion of nerve-element 
 exercised to a like activity again. If we accustom ourselves 
 to decide promptly, to act energetically and to carry out our 
 purposes in the many smaller and less important affairs of 
 life, we gain a power of will which may be carried into 
 higher departments of action and into circumstances of 
 greater embarrassment and difficulty. 
 
 489. The Will bears very important relations to the Emo- 
 tions. If they are aflowed to react independently, as is their 
 natural tendency, they weaken the will ; if duly controlled 
 and co-ordinated, they strengthen it. The passionate nature 
 of the child may, by proper training, become a potent force 
 for good in after years, "giving a white heat, as it were, 
 to the expression of thought, an intensity to the will." 
 Untrained, it will become a no less potent force for evil, 
 and the individual under the mastery of his passions will 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 239 
 
 be tossed about as helplessly as a boat in the rapids of 
 Niagara. 
 
 490. The free action of the will requires an unimpeded 
 association of ideas, and the ease and completeness of such an 
 association depends upon the condition of nervous element, 
 very slight disorders of which declare themselves in the de- 
 terioration of the will-power. As in the spinal centres dis- 
 turbance of the nerve-element weakens their control over 
 movements, so in the ideational centres disordered nerve- 
 element is quickly manifested in the loss of will-power ; and 
 as in great disorder of the spinal centres all co-ordinating 
 power is lost and convulsions ensue, so in great disorders 
 of the ideational centres all co-ordinating power over the 
 thoughts and feelings is lost, convulsive reactions of the cells 
 take place, and the individual becomes insane. 
 
 491. We have seen that the mind is closely united and yet 
 distinct from the material organ through which it acts de- 
 pendent for its manifestations, but independent in essence. 
 So intimate is the union, that the body exercises a powerful 
 influence in leading us upward into a true and higher life, or 
 downward into a low and sensual existence. What this in- 
 fluence shall be depends somewhat upon inherited organiza- 
 tion, but more upon education. Accepting the theory already 
 advanced as at least illustrative, we see that if the thoughts, 
 feelings and volitions are pure and true and good, their im- 
 pressions or residua remaining in the nerve-cells are of the 
 same character, and tend to give a right direction to the 
 future activities of these cells. If the thoughts, feelings and 
 volitions are evil in nature, the impressions or residua will 
 also be evil, inclining to evil activities in the future. When 
 we resist a temptation to wrong action, then we not only 
 avoid the particular evil, but lay up that which will render 
 the next resistance easier and more natural. If we yield to 
 the temptation, we are not only guilty of the particular 
 wrong, but lay up that which will make resistance more diffi- 
 cult or yielding more easy and natural for the future. When 
 a man sets his heart to do right, all his physical being struggles 
 
240 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 to give him aid ; and when he sets his heart to do wrong, its 
 energies are expended in dragging him downward. 
 
 492. The visible impress which the workings of the mind 
 leave upon the body is worthy our notice. The character of 
 the man is declared by the lines of his muscles, which tell no 
 lies. Especially is this true of the muscles of the face. Let 
 him narrow his soul by penuriousness, become the victim of 
 rasping jealousy, wear the nettles of envy against his heart, 
 or be the slave of defiling lust, and in spite of any natural 
 comeliness or studied concealment, his true character will be 
 proclaimed to all who have learned aught of the language 
 of the muscles. " Be sure your sin will find you out/' says 
 He who has made the fleshly lineaments to reveal the most 
 hidt? 11 vice. The more secret the viciousness, the deeper is 
 the impress. But if the spirit of evil thus leaves the traces 
 of its blackened pen upon the face, the spirit of goodness 
 writes thereon in no less legible characters of light. Purity 
 of heart, nobleness of purpose, restful ness of soul, soften, 
 irradiate, spiritualize the outer man, giving a higher beauty 
 than that of form or complexion, even to him who is 
 wrinkled by years, bowed by infirmity and scarred by the 
 battles of life. 
 
 47. HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Two Classes of Agencies 
 Affecting the Health of the Nervous System. Natural Heritage. Im- 
 portance of the Physical Agency Air Diet Exercise and Sleep. 
 The Effect of Mental Impressions on the Body. Mental Exercise. He- 
 creation and Amusement. Harmonious Development of the Different 
 Mental Powers. 
 
 493. We have seen that different organs of the body are 
 entirely dependent for functional action upon the stimulus 
 afforded by the nervous system ; and since this is the mate- 
 rial organization through which the mind acts, we are led to 
 the inevitable conclusion that the physical condition of this 
 system must affect, more or less, the mental manifestations. 
 It becomes, then, a matter of primary importance that we 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 241 
 
 understand the conditions essential to the health of this sys- 
 tem, especially as suffering from nervous disease exceeds that 
 of other diseases, as the delicacy of the organization exceeds 
 that of other organizations of the body. 
 
 494. In considering the hygiene of the nervous system, it 
 is necessary to have reference both to physical and mental 
 agencies. The highest health and vigor of the nervous sys- 
 tem doubtless require 1st, A sound nervous organization 
 by inheritance. 2d, A nutrition equal to the demands of re- 
 pair and growth. 3d, The harmonious action of the various 
 mental powers. 
 
 495. 1st, A SOUND ORGANIZATION BY INHERITANCE. 
 " Each of us is only the footing-up of a double column of 
 figures that goes back to the first pair," is the striking ex- 
 pression of a great truth. Every-day observation shows that 
 children inherit not only the features, but the physical, 
 mental and moral constitution of their parents. Even those 
 utterly ignorant of the laws of transmission are wont to 
 estimate the child according to its family ; favorably, if of a 
 "good family" or "good blood;" unfavorably, if of a "bad 
 family "or "bad blood." 
 
 Every formation of body, internal and external, all intel- 
 lectual endowments and aptitudes, and all moral qualities, 
 are or may be transmissible from parent to child. If one 
 generation is missed, the qualities may appear in the next 
 generation. It is important to notice that not only the 
 natural constitution of the parents may be inherited, but their 
 acquired habits of life, whether virtuous or vicious, but espe- 
 cially is this true of vice. Even when the identical vice does 
 not appear, there is a morbid organization and a tendency to 
 some vice akin to it. Not only is the evil tendency trans- 
 mitted, but what was the simple practice, the voluntarily 
 adopted and cherished vice of the parent, becomes the pas- 
 sion, the overpowering impulse of the child. 
 
 496. M. Morel sketches the history of four generations 
 as follows: "First Generation. The father was a habitual 
 drunkard, and was killed in a public-house brawl. Second 
 
 21 L 
 
1542 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Generation. The son inherited his father's habits, which 
 gave rise to attacks of mania, terminating in paralysis and 
 death. Third Generation. The grandson was strictly sober, 
 but full of hypochondriacal and imaginary fears of persecu- 
 tions, etc., and had homicidal tendencies. Fourth Genera- 
 tion. The fourth in descent had very limited intelligence, 
 and had an attack of madness when sixteen years old, termi- 
 nating in stupidity nearly amounting to idiocy ; with him the 
 race probably becomes extinct." 
 
 497. Says a learned physician, after long and close ob- 
 servation of the evil effects of tobacco : " If the evil ended 
 with the individual who, by the indulgence of a pernicious 
 custom, injures his own .health and impairs his faculties of 
 mind and body, he might be left to his enjoyment, his fool's 
 paradise, unmolested. This, however, is not the case. In no 
 instance is the sin of the father more strikingly visited upon 
 the children than the sin of tobacco-smoking. The enerva- 
 tion, the hysteria, the insanity, the dwarfish deformities, the 
 consumption, the suffering lives and early deaths of the chil- 
 dren of inveterate smokers bear ample testimony to the 
 feebleness and unsoundness of the constitution transmitted 
 by this pernicious habit." 
 
 498. Should we trace the effects of the whole list of vices, 
 it would be with equally sad results ; even of the great love 
 of money -getting, the celebrated Dr. Maudsley says : " I can- 
 not but think, after what I have seen, that the extreme pas- 
 sion for getting rich, absorbing the whole energies of a life, 
 does predispose to mental degeneration in the offspring, either 
 to moral defect, or to moral and intellectual deficiency, or to 
 outbreaks of insanity." 
 
 499. Any kind of nervous disease in the parents, whether 
 natural or acquired, seems to predispose to innate feeble- 
 ness in the child. From this instability of nervous ele- 
 ment, the slightest irritation often produces convulsions 
 in the young child and loss of equilibrium in the adult. 
 Such a natural constitution may be improved by a judi- 
 cious education and strict obedience to physical and men- 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 243 
 
 tal laws; but the original defect can never be entirely 
 removed. 
 
 500. 2d, A NUTRITION EQUAL TO THE DEMANDS OF 
 REPAIR AND GROWTH. The relation of the nervous centres 
 to the blood is the same in kind as that between other parts 
 of the body and their blood-supply. Great waste is produced 
 by nervous action ; hence, the centres are very largely sup- 
 plied with blood-vessels, especially the Ideational centres. 
 The activity of ideas is largely dependent upon the active 
 flow of blood to the nerve-cells. Activity of thought invites 
 the blood which, in turn, is so necessary to activity. The 
 nerve-centres, then, must be supplied with the proper quality 
 and quantity of blood ; hence, whatever deteriorates the 
 blood impairs the health of the nervous system. It is evi- 
 dent, then, that 
 
 501. The nervous system may be impaired by impure air. 
 Everybody knows that bad air injures the lungs, but few 
 realize that, on the whole, it injures the brain still more. 
 As the nerve-tissue is the most delicate part of the body, 
 it soonest feels the evil effects of imperfectly oxygenated 
 blood. (See RESPIRATION.) 
 
 502. The nervous system may be impaired by improper diet. 
 We are wont to believe that improper diet may affect the 
 digestive organs, but seldom consider the mental and moral 
 effects of such diet. Improper food poisons the blood, and 
 thus the nerve-centres are cheated of their nutriment and 
 also poisoned ; hence, the ideas become confused, the emo- 
 tions morbid and the will weakened. The whole man is 
 crippled, physically, mentally and morally. It is an indis- 
 putable fact that bad bread, for instance, may thus have a 
 very immoral influence. Those much engaged in mental 
 labor suffer most from bad diet. No teacher can teach well, 
 no lawyer can plead well, no physician can practice well, no 
 minister can preach well, who habitually takes improper 
 food. (See DIGESTION.) 
 
 503. If such be the effect of improper food, what shall we 
 say of such poisons as alcohol, opium, haschish, tobacco, etc., _ 
 
244 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 which act so directly and powerfully upon the nervous sys- 
 tem ? The same poison does not equally affect all the nerve- 
 centres ; thus, strychnine acts upon the spinal centres, but 
 not <ihe cerebral ; haschish, upon the sensory centres, giving 
 rise to hallucinations ; alcohol, upon the cerebral centres par- 
 ticu^rly. The alcoholic poison first produces an increased 
 activity of the muscles, then alternate exaltation and de- 
 pression, both physical and mental ; finally, stupor, relaxa- 
 tion of the muscles and deep sleep. These symptoms are 
 transitory ; but let the poisoning process be continued, and 
 true delirium, so well known as " delirium tremens," follows, 
 and at length what is known as " chronic alcoholism ;" and 
 white intoxication lasts a few hours, and delirium tremens a 
 few -days or weeks, chronic alcoholism spreads its baneful in- 
 fluence over years, unless death prevents the full develop- 
 ment of the tragedy. The victim of alcoholic poisoning is 
 equally enfeebled in body and mind. The nervous system 
 becomes exhausted, the moral sentiments perverted, the will- 
 pov^r broken, and he seems powerless to cease from the fatal 
 habit which has produced the change. 
 
 504. With the opium-eater the diseases of the nervous sys- 
 tem declare themselves even more rapidly than with the 
 drunkard. Says JVL Morel : " Given the period at which a 
 person begins to smoke opium, and it is easy to predicate the 
 time of his death ; his days are numbered." 
 
 605. Tobacco is one of the most virulent poisons. It soothes 
 the nerves temporarily, only to leave them more enfeebled 
 and irritable. 
 
 Even excessive use of tea and coffee may prove disastrous 
 to the health of the nervous system. 
 
 506. The nervous system may be impaired by want of physical 
 exercise. Among other agencies that affect the nervous sys- 
 tem, none exert a wider influence than bodily exercise. It 
 seems to be required to complete the change which the blood 
 undergoes while passing through the lungs and skin, without 
 which the waste of nerve-element could not be repaired. In 
 persons who are merely sedentary, having little occasion for 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. . 245 
 
 active thought, this want of exercise is sufficiently mis- 
 chievous ; but when there is great mental activity, the mis- 
 chief is vastly increased. Thousands of ministers, lawyers, 
 those who sit in the bank and counting-room, shorten their 
 days because of this neglect ; especially is this the case in 
 America. The English nobility, notwithstanding their many 
 indulgences, are a long-lived race, and this is doubtless owing 
 to their spending so much time in open-air exercise (208). 
 
 507. The nervous system may become impaired by taking too 
 little sleep. " Sleep knits up the raveled structure " of nervous 
 element; for during sleep, organic assimilation is restoring 
 what has been expended in functional energy. A periodical 
 renewal of nervous energy as often as once a day is an insti- 
 tution of Nature. Among the wise arrangements of the 
 Creator, none harmonizes with the wants of the system more 
 perfectly than the alternation of day and night. The amount 
 of sleep necessary depends upon the age, health, natural 
 temperament and occupation of the individual. The more 
 rapid the exhaustion of nervous energy from any cause, the 
 more sleep will be required. The young and the aged need 
 more sleep than the person of middle life; the sick, more 
 than the well ; those engaged in mental pursuits, more than 
 those wearied by manual labor ; persons of great sensibility, 
 more than the sluggish natures whose normal condition is 
 more nearly allied to sleep ; woman, more than man. We 
 may say in general that the time should not be less than 
 from six to eight hours, and most persons require a longer 
 period. The time, however, must be proportioned to the 
 need. 
 
 Among the more affluent classes, the customs of the times 
 are quite incompatible with those habits of sleep which are 
 essential to mental vigor. Where amusements are pursued 
 till late hours, night after night, the nervous system greatly 
 suffers, and every department of the mind becomes un- 
 healthy. The man who, eager to become rich, takes time 
 from his sleep for business purposes, draws from his brain 
 capital. The mother alas! here we must stop. Mothers 
 
 21* 
 
246 
 
 are the. one class who hardly get any rest till the " blessed 
 Father takes them in his arms and gives his beloved sleep." 
 
 508. 3d, HARMONIOUS ACTION OF THE VARIOUS MEN- 
 TAL POWERS. That the bodily organs may be directly 
 affected by impressions purely mental does not admit of 
 doubt. Of this fact the skillful physician never loses sight ; 
 for a hopeful, healthful influence of the mind may be made 
 a remedial agency quite as powerful as that of drugs and 
 plasters. 
 
 509. Regular and systematic mental exercise is essential to 
 the health of nerve-tissue. Exercise increases the flow of blood 
 to the active part. We have seen this to be the case in the 
 muscle, and that by use it is both enlarged and strengthened. 
 In like manner the nerve-tissue needs exercise ; and as the 
 gymnast becomes expert, not by spasmodic muscular efforts, 
 but by accurate, persistent drill, so must the mental athlete 
 gain his power by the regular performance of such exercise 
 as he is able to bear. The gymnast at first feels pain in his 
 muscles, but he has only to persevere, with proper intervals 
 of rest, and what was at first so difficult becomes easy, while 
 power is gained for severer feats. So the person unaccus- 
 tomed to mental gymnastics feels headache and confusion at 
 first, but frequent repetition will make easy and natural the 
 very thoughts which struggled so painfully into existence, 
 and the nerve-tissue will gain the firmness which increases 
 its capability of action. Under such a course of training, 
 the change in the brain-tissue is often so great as to modify 
 perceptibly the form of the head. 
 
 510. Says Dr. Kay : " I have no hesitation in saying that, 
 of all the means for preserving health, there is nothing more 
 sure, or better suited to a greater variety of persons, than 
 habits of regular and systematic mental occupation of some 
 dignity and worth. In this proposition I would embrace 
 all those kinds of employment which pass under the general 
 name of business, and which, little as we are disposed to 
 recognize the fact, bear the same relation to the health of 
 the mind that food, exercise, etc., do to the health of the 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 247 
 
 body. Work is the condition of our being as active and 
 progressive creatures." 
 
 Employment which is steadily pursued as a part of the 
 established routine of life, and felt to be, in some degree, 
 a matter of necessity, has an effect on the mind far more 
 salutary than that which depends on the impulse of the mo- 
 ment, and is determined by no sense of necessity, no force 
 of habit. 
 
 511. The saddest effects of the absence of stated useful em- 
 ployment are seen among women of easy circumstances. "It 
 is a poor view of woman's duties and capacities that confines 
 her to a little busy idleness, because the chances of fortune 
 have placed her beyond the necessity of earning a living; 
 and they must have but a narrow view of the exigencies of 
 social life who believe that any woman of tolerable health 
 and strength may not find abundant opportunities of that 
 kind of work which affords no other recompense than the 
 consciousness of doing good, and therefore to be done, if done 
 at all, by those who can dispense with every other compen- 
 sation. A life of idleness and luxurious ease can be no more 
 honorable to one sex than to the other, and we know very 
 well that in a man it creates no claims upon the respect and 
 confidence of the community." 
 
 The little accomplishments of needlework, so generally 
 diffused, cannot be dignified with the name of work. Many 
 a mind, liberally endowed, from want of mental exertion 
 becomes dwarfed, or may end in mental depression, particu- 
 larly if ill health or deejf affliction throws its weight into the 
 scale. 
 
 512. The amount of exercise should be adapted to the health 
 and age of the individual. If from any cause the nervous 
 system be weakened, an amount of exercise which would be 
 quite harmless to one in health may prove disastrous. The 
 nerve- tissue of children and youth needs the same care as has 
 been shown requisite for other tissues, and overwork, that in 
 the adult is followed by fatigue, easily removed by rest, in 
 the child may result in irreparable injury. At this period, 
 
248 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the tissue is soft and yielding, and when the blood-vessels 
 become long distended by great activity, they may become 
 permanently enlarged, and permanent congestion produced. 
 
 Parents and teachers should not fail to remember that 
 there are important differences in the quality of different 
 brains. In some children the mental reaction to impressions 
 is sluggish and incomplete; in others, the reaction, though 
 slow, is quite complete ; in others, again, the reaction is 
 rapid and lively, but evanescent, so that, though quick at 
 perception, they retain ideas with difficulty ; while in others 
 there is that just equilibrium between the internal and external 
 in which the reaction is exactly adequate to the impression. 
 These differences should be taken into the account, and the 
 dull intellect roused, while that unduly active should be re- 
 strained. It is too often the case, however, that exactly the 
 opposite course is pursued. The fond parents and ambitious 
 teachers, misled by the early promise of genius, excite the 
 child to new activity by unceasing cultivation and the 
 never-failing stimulus of praise. For a time the progress of 
 the child is all they could desire, but in exact proportion as 
 the picture of the future brightens to their fancy, the proba- 
 bility of its realization lessens. The brain, worn out by pre- 
 mature exertion, loses its tone, leaving the mental powers 
 weakened and depressed for the remainder of life. The ex- 
 pected prodigy is then outstripped by many whose dull out- 
 set promised Mm an easy victory. 
 
 513. We often hear the saying, " The valedictorian is 
 never heard of after Commencement-day ;" and it is too 
 often true when the honors are gained at an early age. The 
 present tendency is to treat the mind like a race-horse, goad- 
 ing it on to make a certain round in a given time, and that 
 before the brain-tissue has gained the consolidation requisite 
 for severe exertion. Mary Lyon, with her characteristic 
 wisdom, refused to admit to the Mount Holyoke course of 
 study girls under sixteen years of age, and from her long list 
 of applicants usually selected those not less than eighteen. 
 
 Let the material organ of the mind be subjected to a 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 249 
 
 systematic, thorough, gymnastic training, taking for it the 
 necessary time, and the firm, educated tissue will be fitted for 
 enduring labor in later years; but let it be weakened in 
 youth, and it must ever work under a burden, if indeed it 
 work at all. 
 
 Moderation in mental exertion is also a necessity with the 
 aged, as they have no vitality for recuperation after severe 
 exhaustion. 
 
 514. Intense activity too long continued impairs the strongest 
 brain. The nerve-cells in a state of rest are neutral in their 
 chemical character, but after severe exercise they become 
 acid. When in this condition it is hazardous to continue the 
 exercise. Sufficient rest should be taken to restore them to 
 their normal condition. Congestion, or an undue accumula- 
 tion of blood, also attends excessive functional action. The 
 effect of severe congestion in the spinal centres is to produce 
 convulsions ; in the sensory centres, roaring in the ears, 
 flashes of light before the eyes and various hallucinations ; 
 in the ideational centres, stagnation of ideas, swimming in 
 the head, and, if long continued, irregular and convulsive 
 action of the cells, causing delirium. The co-ordination of 
 function is destroyed, the will-power abolished. The de- 
 lirious ideas are the expression of a condition of things in 
 the supreme centres analogous to that which in the spinal 
 cord utters itself in convulsions. 
 
 515. The required rest is often afforded by recreation and 
 amusement. "Important as stated employment unquestion- 
 ably is to the mental health, amusement or recreation is 
 scarcely less so. Few persons, whatever their mental charac- 
 ter or temperament, can safely dispense with these altogether. 
 Even the most commanding intellects sometimes seek the 
 recreation which their exhausting labors make necessary in 
 forms of amusement which, to those who feel the necessity 
 less, seem to be frivolous and puerile. Endowed as we are with 
 the faculty of being amused, it seems to be a reflection on the 
 Author of our being to regard amusements as something to 
 be carefully shunned rather than sought and enjoyed. 
 
250 
 
 "To those whose life is one of severe toil and harassing 
 care, amusements constitute almost the only practicable 
 means for repairing the constant waste of the nervous 
 energy. Especially is this want felt by women in the 
 humbler walks of life, whose daily round of care and toil 
 not only draws more largely than that of the stronger sex on 
 the physical and mental energies, but is lightened by none 
 of that relief which is afforded by a greater variety of duties 
 and more frequent periods of rest." 
 
 Observation. The brain, when severely taxed,- is often 
 rested by some kind of mental exercise which, without being 
 fatiguing, requires just enough effort to impart interest. 
 Hence, a change from Mathematics to the Languages, or 
 from these to music, poetry or painting, will give the needed 
 relaxation. 
 
 516. To maintain the highest mental vigor, each faculty 
 of the mind should receive its due share of cultivation. Our 
 various faculties were not bestowed at random, to be used or 
 not as inclination may prompt, but each has its appointed 
 place in the mental economy. Each bears some relation to 
 every other, making one harmonious whole. All cannot and 
 need not receive the same amount of cultivation ; but let any 
 one power be so neglected that it might as well be wanting, 
 or let it be applied to some other than its destined use, and 
 an element of strength is lost, the mind becomes to a greater 
 or less extent weakened and one-sided, and therefore jars in 
 its working. One must form habits of attention, accustom 
 the mind to continuous thought, cultivate the reasoning 
 powers and beget a taste for exact knowledge, if he would be 
 in any measure equal to the intellectual effort essential to 
 true success in every calling of life. He must, however, also 
 call into action the creative power of the mind, the imagina- 
 tion, to give vividness to his conception, to add force to his 
 reasoning and to light up the whole horizon of his thought. 
 Many cry out against this faculty, forgetting that it is God- 
 given, and capable of a culture that shall make it of inesti- 
 mable value. It is the abuse of it, not the use, which we are 
 
NEKVOTJS SYSTEM. 251 
 
 to guard against. Its exercise must not be indulged to an 
 extent incompatible with the claims of the other faculties. 
 It must not be allowed to fashion with unbridled power our 
 principles and motives, our aims and ends. Give it, however, 
 the purest material to work with, and, within proper bounds, 
 no faculty is of more real service or more worthy of our re- 
 gard. Especially is it of value in presenting to the mind an 
 ideal of excellence, a standard of attainment, practicable and 
 desirable, but loftier than anything we have yet reached. 
 
 517. The (Esthetic faculty, the' love of the beautiful, should 
 not be allowed to remain inactive. Its importance is recog- 
 nized only as we understand its value. An object is beautiful 
 to us just in proportion to our power to discover through the 
 material form the thought of which this form is but the ex- 
 pression ; for beauty is but the spirit looking out through 
 the visible, the material. Is not he, then, a happier, a wiser 
 and a better man, who so develops this faculty that he may 
 not only read the thought and sentiment embodied in the 
 works of art, but also the thoughts of the Creator in their 
 varied forms of expression through all the kingdoms of 
 Nature ? 
 
 518. Man has also a moral faculty, the power of discrimi- 
 nating between right and wrong, which is quickly followed 
 by the feeling of obligation to do the right and avoid the 
 wrong. Upon the right use of these faculties depend the 
 happiness and the destiny of man. The power of an ap- 
 proving conscience over the human mind, and consequently 
 over the health of the Nervous System, cannot be over-esti- 
 mated, while on the other hand, the torments of an accusing 
 conscience not only "cut the sinews of the soul's inherent 
 strength," but snap one by one the gossamer filaments of the 
 brittle thread of life. , 
 
 We have given only a glance at a few of the mental facul- 
 ties, but should we take them one by one, through all the 
 departments of mind, and note their uses, we should find 
 none which could be unused or misused without detriment to 
 our health, happiness or usefulness. 
 
252 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 519. Concerning the hygienic influence OP A HARMONIOUS 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MENTAL POWERS, Dr. Ray says : 
 " A partial cultivation of the mental faculties is incompatible 
 not only with the highest order of thought, but with the highest 
 degree of health and efficiency. The result of professional 
 experience fairly warrants the statement that in persons of a 
 high grade of intellectual endowment and cultivation, other 
 things being equal, the force of moral shocks is more easily 
 broken, tedious and harassing exercise of particular powers 
 more safely borne, than in those of an opposite description, and 
 disease, when it comes, is more readily controlled and cured. 
 The kind of management which consists in awakening a new 
 order of emotion, in exciting new trains of thought, in turn- 
 ing attention to some new matter of study or speculation, 
 must be far less efficacious, because less applicable, in one 
 whose mind has always had a limited range than in one of 
 larger resources and capacities. In endeavoring to restore 
 the disordered mind of the clodhopper who has scarcely an 
 idea beyond that of his manual employment, the great diffi- 
 culty is to find some available point from which conservative 
 influences may be projected. He dislikes reading, he never 
 learned amusements, he feels no interest in the affairs of the 
 world ; and unless the circumstances allow of some kind of 
 bodily labor, his mind must remain in a state of solitary 
 isolation, brooding over its morbid fancies, and utterly in- 
 competent to initiate any recuperative movement." 
 
 $ 48. COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. The Comparison of the Nervous 
 System of other Mammals with that of Man Of Birds Of Reptiles 
 Of Fishes. The Arrangement of the Nervous System of Mollusks 
 Of Radiata. 
 
 520. We have seen that in the Motory and Nutritive ap- 
 paratuses, there is an arrangement and condition of tissues, 
 organs and functions, in all classes of vertebrates, homologous 
 to those in man. Analogy would induce the supposition, that 
 in the arrangements and appointments of the nervous system 
 a similar condition would be found. Here are found gang- 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 253 
 
 lia, commissures, and nerves afferent and efferent, but the 
 highest development, the convoluted hemispherical ganglion, 
 seems to be wanting in the lower orders of the mammalia, in 
 birds, reptiles and fishes; with this general -exception, all 
 other homologous parts are more or less developed. 
 
 FIG. 164. 
 
 FIG. 165 
 
 FIG. 164 (Owen). BASE OF BRAIN OF A HORSE.!, Cerebrum. 2, Optic ganglion. 3, 
 Cerebellum. 4, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. 
 
 FIG. 165. BRAIN OF A BIRD. 1, Cerebrum. 2, Optic ganglion. 3, Cerebellum. 4, 
 Medulla Oblbngata. 
 
 521. In the Mammalia, the relative size of the cerebrum 
 and cerebellum, except in the lowest order (monotremata), 
 as the ornithorynchus, is about the same as in man, but in 
 birds the cerebellum is proportionately larger than the cere- 
 brum ; the sulci of the cerebrum and cerebellum of other 
 mammals and birds are less developed than in man, and the 
 same is true of the relative size of the brain, large and small, 
 also certain ganglia are comparatively larger. In the horse, 
 
 22 
 
254 
 
 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND- HYGIENE. 
 
 ox, etc., the olfactory, optic and auditory ganglia are large, 
 and the senses of smell, sight and hearing are acute. This is 
 particularly apparent in birds, as the eagle, vulture and buz- 
 zard. In these, vision is not only far-reaching, but acute, and 
 the same is true, to a certain extent, of smell and hearing. 
 In some animals, as the mole, where vision is feeble, and in 
 others where smell or hearing is obtuse, the ganglionic bulbs 
 are very small and the nerves very delicate. 
 
 522. In Birds the hemispheres are not united by a corpus 
 callosum,. as in mammals; the cerebellum is proportionately 
 larger than the medulla oblongata; and the comparative 
 weight of the brain to the body is less than in mammals. 
 
 FIG. 166. 
 
 FIG. 167. 
 
 FIG. 166. BRAIN OF AN ALLIGATOR.!, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optic 
 ganglia. 4, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. 
 
 Fi3. 167. BRAIN OF A FISH. 1. Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optic ganglia. 4, 
 Cerebellum. 5, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. 
 
 523. The brain of Reptiles constitutes but a very small part 
 of the body. It is smooth, and without convolutions. The 
 hemispheres are hollow, and there is no striated body. The 
 cerebellum sends no prolongations across the medulla ob- 
 longata, so as to form a kind of ring, as in mammals. 
 
 524. The relative size of the cerebrum in man, compared 
 with that of the mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes, varies 
 much. In some few, the relative weight between the brain 
 
. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 255 
 
 and body is about the same as in man, while in others it 
 is less seemingly an homologous appendage, as in the orni- 
 thorynchus. As we descend in the scale of animal life, 
 the cerebellum, the medulla oblongata and the ganglia of 
 some of the special senses, as of smell and vision, are larger 
 relatively than in the corresponding parts in man, since these 
 animals depend upon them for their subsistence and safety. 
 
 525. The spinal cord of all mammals, birds, reptiles and 
 fishes varies most in length, but in structure, investment and 
 function it resembles that of man. The number of pairs of 
 spinal nerves correspond to the number of the vertebrae, but 
 the size of the cord is relatively larger than the cerebrum, 
 also the cerebellum and several of the ganglia. 
 
 526. The brain of the Fish is small ; it does not fill the 
 whole cranial cavity, there being found within it a spongy, 
 fatty mass. The investment and protection of some of the 
 organs of special sense are modified, as seen in the eye of some 
 fishes, the deep-sea shark for instance, where the sclerotic 
 tunic of the eye is bony, in order to protect this organ from 
 the great pressure of the water. Perhaps the most wonderful 
 arrangement is found in the electric fishes, as the common 
 Torpedo, Malapterurus, and the Electric Eel of South 
 America. 
 
 527. " The torpedo is a cartilaginous fish. FIG. ir>8. 
 Its body is smooth, and represents a disc 
 
 nearly circular, the anterior edge of which is 
 formed by two prolongations of the muzzle, 
 which on each side proceed to unite with the 
 pectoral fins, and leave between these organs 
 the head and the branchiae, an oval space, in 
 which is lodged the electric apparatus of the 
 fish. This apparatus is composed of a .num- 
 ber of vertical membranous tubes, closely 
 packed like honeycomb, and subdivided by TORPEDO. 
 
 horizontal partitions filled with mucosites, 
 and animated by several very large branches of the pneumo- 
 gastric nerve, which, in this and other electric fishes, is larger 
 
256 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 169. 
 
 than the spinal cord. In these singular organs is produced 
 the electricity which has now been proved to resemble in 
 every respect common electricity. By experiment it has 
 been ascertained that this property depends on the posterior 
 lobe of the brain, and that by destroying this lobe, or cutting 
 the nerves proceeding from it, the faculty is lost." 
 
 528. "The Gym- 
 notus, or Electric 
 Eel, possesses the 
 power in the highest 
 degree. It is met 
 with in vast numbers 
 in the rivulets and 
 stagnant waters of 
 the immense plains 
 of South America. 
 The electric shocks, 
 which it discharges 
 at will, are sufficient- 
 ly strong to kill men 
 and horses, and be- 
 ing transmissible 
 through water, the 
 gymnotus does not 
 require to touch its 
 prey. At first the 
 electric discharges 
 are feeble, but when 
 roused they become 
 terrible ; but by this* 
 effort it becomes ex- 
 hausted, and requires 
 repose before it can 
 renew the attack : this is the moment its captors avail them- 
 selves of to seize it. The electric organs are arranged along 
 the back and tail." 
 
 In the AKTICULATA, the body is different in its general 
 
 \ 
 
 Fia. 169. ELECTRIC ORGANS OF TORPEDO. 1, Brain. 
 2, Spinal cord. 3, Eye and optic nerve. 4, Spinal 
 nerve. 5, Branchiae. 6, Electrical organ. 7, Pneurno- 
 gaetric nerve. 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 257 
 
 structure and the nervous system is 
 correspondingly modified. The body 
 is composed of several sections artic- 
 ulated with each other in a lineal 
 series. The ganglia of the nerves 
 of special sensation, as of sight and 
 hearing, of motion, of respiration 
 and nutrition, are larger than those 
 of general sensation. 
 
 In the nervous system of the cen- 
 tipede, whose general structure is 
 similar to that of other articulates, 
 the ganglia are arranged in pairs 
 of nearly equal size, except the 
 ganglion that answers to the brain, 
 which is larger, along the ventral 
 surface of the alimentary canal. 
 
 FIG. 171. 
 
 FIG. 170. 
 
 FIG. 170. NERVOUS SYSTEM OP 
 AN INSECT. 1, 1, Central gang- 
 lia. 2, 2, 2, Nerves that connect 
 the ganglia. 
 
 Each pair is connected 
 
 FIG. 171. DIAGRAM OF A CENTIPEDE. 
 
 with the preceding, with the integument or skin and with the 
 muscles of its own segment, by sensitive and motor filaments 
 of nerves. 
 
 529. In MollusJcs are found the ganglia and commissure 
 arrangement, with nerves sensitive and motor, afferent and 
 efferent, and on a plan corresponding to the body. The 
 structure of the organs of sense is less complete than in 
 vertebrate animals. Some mollusks are gifted only with the 
 sense of touch and taste ; a great number have eyes, whose 
 structure varies ; none have yet been found possessing a spe- 
 cial organ for smell. 
 
 530. In the RADIATA, the star-fish manifests one of the 
 
 22* 
 
258 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 simplest forms of the nervous system. It consists of a central 
 mass, with five arms radiating from it. In the centre is the 
 mouth, and beneath it the stomach or gastric cavity, which 
 sends prolongations to each limb. The nervous system con- 
 sists of five similar ganglia situated in the central portion at 
 the base of the arms. These ganglia are connected by com- 
 missures, and each sends off nerve-filaments to the cor- 
 responding limbs. 
 
 FIG. 172. 
 
 FIG. 173. 
 
 FIG. 172. DIAGRAM OF THE TYPE OF A MOLLUSK. 1, (Esophagal ganglia. 2, Cerebral 
 ganglia. 3, Pedal or locomotive ganglia. 4, Respiratory ganglia. 
 Fia. 173. DIAGRAM OF A RADIATA THE STAR-FISH. 
 
 531. We have seen that in all grades of the animal king- 
 dom the cell-structure obtains, but in the lowest forms of 
 animal life nerve does not exist. The stimulus which the 
 little creature receives from without would seem to produce 
 some change in the molecular relations of its almost homo- 
 geneous substance, and these insensible movements col- 
 lectively to amount to the sensible movement which it 
 makes; the molecular process in such case being perhaps 
 not unlike that which ensues and issues in the coagulation 
 of the blood when the fibrin is brought in contact, as some 
 think, with a foreign substance. The perception of the 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 259 
 
 stimulus by the creature is the molecular change which en- 
 sues, the imperceptible motion passing, by reason of the 
 homogeneity of its substance, with the greatest ease, from 
 element to element of the same kind, as it were by an infec- 
 tion, or as happens in the folding of the leaves of the mimosa, 
 or sensitive plant ; and the sum of the molecular motions, as 
 necessarily determined in direction by the form of the ani- 
 mal, results in the visible movement. 
 
 "With the differentiation of tissue and increasing com- 
 plexity of organization which are met with as we ascend in 
 the animal kingdom, the nervous tissue appears, but at first 
 under a very simple form. Its simplest type may be repre- 
 sented as two fibres that are connected by a nerve-cell ; the 
 fibres are apparently simple 'conductors, and might be aptly 
 compared to the conducting wires of a telegraph, while the 
 cell, being the centre in which nerve-force is generated, may 
 be compared to the telegraphic apparatus; in it the effect 
 which the stimulus of the afferent nerve excites is transmitted 
 along the efferent nerve, and therein is displayed the simplest 
 form of that reflex action which plays so large a part in ani- 
 mal life." 
 
 The relations of the animal kingdom afford a striking evi- 
 dence of divine unity, bound together in the closest harmony, 
 and the work of Him who was the Beginning and will bi 
 the End. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 UNDER this head are classed the Tongue, the Nose, the Eye, 
 the Ear and the Tactile portions of the Nervous System. 
 
 \ 49. THE ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. The 
 Organ of Taste Of Smell. The Coats of the Eye. The Humors of 
 the Eye. The Muscles of the Eye. The Protecting Organs. Classi- 
 fication of the Organs of Hearing. The External Ear. The Labyrinth. 
 The Internal Ear. The Organs of Touch. Two Layers of Skin. The 
 Epidermis. The Dermis. The Hairs. The Sebaceous Glands. The 
 Perspiratory Glands. The Nails. 
 
 532. The organ of the SENSE OP TASTE is the mucous 
 membrane which covers the Tongue, especially the back part 
 of this organ, and the palate. Upon the upper surface of the 
 tongue the mucous membrane has various little eminences, 
 called papillce, resembling the villi of the intestines. The 
 
 FIG. 174. 
 
 5 
 
 Fia. 174 (Leidy). DIAGRAM OF THE PAPILLA OF THE TONGUE, moderately magnified. 
 1, Capitate papillae. 2, Conical papillae. 3, Epithelium. 4, The same structure form- 
 ing bunches of hair-like processes. 5, Connective tissue. 
 
 principal of these are of a composite character, and present 
 three varieties the Cireumvallate, the Fungifonn and the 
 Conical. The CIRCUMVALLATE papillae are shaped like the 
 letter V with the point turned downward, and are surrounded 
 260 
 
THE OKGAJSTS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 261 
 
 by an annular wall-like elevation, whence their name. They 
 are about a dozen in number, and are found upon the pos- 
 terior part of the tongue. The FUNGIFORM papillae are broad 
 at the free extremity and narrow at the base, having some- 
 thing of the mushroom shape, whence their name. They are 
 more numerous than the circumvallate, and are scattered 
 over the surface of the tongue, but are especially numerous 
 at and near the tip. The CONICAL papillae are smaller and 
 more numerous than the others, and are found in the inter- 
 vals between them, arranged in rows diverging from the 
 median line of the tongue. All the above-described papillae 
 and the spaces between are covered with simple papillae, 
 conical in form. From those surrounding the conical papillae, 
 the squainose epithelium rises in hair-like appendages, which 
 give a brush-like arrangement, admirably adapted to the im- 
 bibition of liquids to be tasted. These hair-like appendages 
 give the velvety character to the surface of the tongue, and 
 upon them the furred condition of this organ depends. 
 Minute blood-vessels and nerves pass up into these papillae, 
 nhus giving a large extent of sensitive surface. 
 
 FIG. 175. 
 
 Fia. 175 (Daltori). DIAGR^I OP THE TONGUE, with its sensitive nerves and papillae. 
 I, Lingual branch of fifth pair. 2, Glosso-pharyngeal nerve. 
 
 Nervous filaments are received from the fifth, ninth and 
 twelfth pairs of nerves. The branch of the fifth, called the 
 Gust'a-to-ry t is the nerve of taste and ordinary sensibility; 
 
262 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the twelfth, called the Hypo-glossal, of voluntary motion. 
 By means of the ninth, or Glosso-pharyngeal, the tongue is 
 brought into association with the fauces, oesophagus and 
 larynx. It is of obvious importance that these parts should 
 act in concert; and this is effected by the distribution of 
 this nerve. 
 
 FIG. 176. 
 
 FIG. 176. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIFTH PAIR OF NERVES. 1, The orbit for the eye. 
 2, The upper jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The fifth pair of nerves. 6, The 
 first branch of this nerve, that passes to the eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Divisions of this 
 branch. 7, The second branch of the fifth pair of nerves is distributed to the teeth of 
 the upper jaw. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of this branch. 8, The third branch of 
 the fifth pair, that passes to the tongue and teeth of the lower Jaw. 23, The division 
 of this branch that passes to the tongue, called the gustatory. 24, The division that 
 is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw. 
 
 533. The organ of the SENSE OF SMEI/L is a part of the 
 delicate mucous membrane lining the nasal passages. These 
 passages extend from the opening of the nostrils in front, to 
 the pharynx behind ; they are high, vaulted and narrow, 
 and separated from each other by a partition partly bony, 
 and partly cartilaginous. This double cavity is separated 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 263 
 
 from the mouth by a bony floor (the hard palate), which is 
 continued backward to the root of the tongue by a fleshy 
 curtain, called the soft palate. In ordinary positions of the 
 mouth, this palate and the root of the tongue effect a closure 
 between the mouth and the pharynx. Each of the outer 
 walls of the nasal chamber has three bony processes called tur- 
 binated bones, arranged one above another, like shelves. The 
 front of the chamber is bounded by a thin plate of bone, filled 
 with perforations, hence, named the cribiform, or sieve-like 
 
 FIG. 177. 
 
 Fie. 177. A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE MIDDLE PART OP THE NASAL CAVITIES. 7, The 
 middle spongy bones. 8, The superior part of the nasal cavities. 10, The inferior 
 spongy bones. 11, The vomer. 12, The upper jaw. 13, The middle channel of the 
 nose. 14, The lower channel of the nose. 17, The palatine process of the upper jaw- 
 bone. 18, The roof of the mouth covered by mucous membrane. 19, A section of this 
 membrane. 
 
 plate. Upon it, rest the olfactory lobes which send numerous 
 filaments through the perforations to the mucous membrane 
 of the two upper turbinated bones, affording the special sense 
 of smell ; the membrane of the lower bone receives a branch 
 from the fifth nerve, which is endowed with common sensi- 
 bility only ; the odor of cologne, for example, is distinguished 
 by the olfactory nerve, and the pungency, by the branch of 
 the fifth nerve. 
 
264 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 178. 
 
 FIG. 178. A SIDE VIEW OF THE PASSAGE OF THE NOSTRILS, AND THE DISTRIBUTION 01 
 THE OLFACTORY NERVE. 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The fine divisions of this nerve on 
 the membrane of the nose. 6, A branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 
 
 534. The chief organ of the SENSE OF SIGHT is the Eye. 
 The globe of the eye, or eyeball, is composed of three con- 
 centric envelopes viz., the Selerot'ica, with the Cornea in 
 front ; the Cho'roidea, with the Iris in front ; and the Ret'ina, 
 which is internal. These make up most of the solid part of the 
 eyeball, which is a hollow sphere filled with three fluid or semi- 
 fluid substances the Aqueous Humor, the Crystalline Lens and 
 
 the Vitreous Humor. 
 
 FIG. 179. 
 
 FIG. 179. A SECTION OF THE GLOBE OF THE EYE. 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, The cornea. 
 (This connects with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled edge.) 3. The choroid coat. 6, 6, 
 The iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Chambers of the eye that contain the 
 aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 15, The optic 
 nerve. 16, The central artery of the eye. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 265 
 
 The SCLEROTICA, or Sclerotic coat, invests the globe of 
 the eye, excepting the part covered with the cornea in front. 
 It is composed of white fibrous tissue arranged in many 
 layers, which cross each other at right angles, and form a 
 tunic of great strength. It is white, glassy and opaque, and 
 is commonly called " the white of the eye." It has few 
 blood-vessels and seems destitute of nerves. 
 
 The CHOROLDEA, or Second Coat of the eye, has some 
 fibrous tissue like the sclerotica, but is chiefly composed of 
 blood-vessels and pigment-cells. These cells give the coat an 
 intense black color on the inside, but externally it is brown. 
 It lines the sclerotica, and is connected with it by a delicate 
 areolar tissue. It is perforated behind, for the passage of the 
 optic nerve, and terminates in front in the cil'iary ligament 
 (composed chiefly of dense areolar tissue), in the anterior 
 part of which the iris is inserted. This muscle also lies at the 
 juncture of the sclerotica and cornea, being in connection 
 with the first coat and cornea, and the second coat and iris. 
 
 The CILIARY PROCESSES consist of a number of minute, 
 triangular folds, formed apparently by the plaiting of the 
 internal layer of the choroid coat toward its front part. 
 Their bases are toward the pupil, and the free portion rests 
 against the circumference of the crystalline lens. These 
 processes are covered with pigment-cells. 
 
 The IRIS occupies the opening of the choroidea in front, 
 forms a partition between the anterior and the posterior 
 chambers of the eye, and is pierced by a circular opening, 
 which is called the Pupil. It is free, except at its peripheal 
 attachments, and floats freely in the aqueous humor. The 
 posterior surface of the iris, or uvea, is thickly covered with 
 pigment ; but the anterior surface gives the color of the eye, 
 so remarkably and beautifully varied in different individuals, 
 and presenting numerous blended tints of black, brown, blue 
 and gray. The iris is generally regarded as a modification 
 of muscular tissue. It has two layers of fibres one layer of 
 radiating fibres, converging from the circumference to the 
 centre, the other of circular fibres. 
 23 M 
 
266 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 'The RETINA is the inner coat of the eye, formed by the 
 expansion of the optic nerve upon the inner side of the cho- 
 roid coat, but not extending so far forward. It ends at a 
 short distance from the ciliary ligament, in a jagged edge, 
 from which an exceedingly fine membrane extends to the 
 ciliary processes. Its inner surface is bounded by an exceed- 
 ingly delicate membrane, called the "meinbraua liniitans," 
 which separates it from the vitreous humor. 
 
 VIQ. 180. A VIEW OP THE ANTERIOR SEGMENT OF A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE GLOBH 
 t THJB EYE, seen from within. 1, The divided edge of the three coats sclerotica, cho- 
 fuidea and retina. 2, The pupil. 3, The iris : the surface presented to view in this sec- 
 tion being the uvea. 4, The ciliary processes. 5, The scalloped anterior border of the 
 retina. 
 
 535. Of the three humors, or liquid substances of the eye, 
 the AQUEOUS, or watery, is situated in the anterior portion 
 of the organ behind the cornea. It is an albuminous fluid, 
 with an alkaline reaction and liquid like water. The iris is 
 placed vertically in the fluid, the space between it and the 
 cornea being the anterior chamber of the eye, and that be- 
 tween the iris and crystalline lens behind, the posterior cham- 
 ber. The two chambers are lined by a membrane secreting 
 the aqueous humor. 
 
 The CRYSTALLINE humor, or lens, is situated immediately 
 behind the pupil, and is surrounded by the ciliary processes. 
 It is invested by a transparent, elastic membrane, called the 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 267 
 
 capsule of the lens. The humor is more convex on the pos- 
 terior than on the anterior surface. It is imbedded in the 
 anterior part of the vitreous humor, from which it is separated 
 by a thin membrane. The lens consist of thin layers, like 
 the coats of an onion. The external layer is soft, but each 
 successive one increases in firmness. 
 
 Observation. When the crystalline lens or its investing 
 membrane is changed in structure, preventing the rays of light 
 from passing to the retina, the affection is called a cataract. 
 
 FIG. 181. 
 
 FIG. 181 (Leidy). MUSCLES OP THE EYE. 1, The palpebral elevator muscle. 2, The 
 superior oblique. 3, The pulley through which the tendon of insertion plays. 4, Supe- 
 rior straight muscle. 5, Inferior straight muscle. 6, External straight muscle. 7, 8, 
 Its two points of origin. 9, Interval through which pass the oculo-motor and abducent 
 nerves. 10, Inferior oblique muscle. 11, Optic nerve. 12, Cut surface of the malar pro- 
 cess of the superior maxillary bone. 13, The nasal orifice. A, The eyeball. 
 
 536. The VITREOUS HUMOR forms the principal bulk of 
 the globe of the eye. It is an albuminous fluid resembling 
 the aqueous humor, but is more dense, and if once discharged 
 by disease or accident, it is irrecoverably lost; while the 
 aqueous humor may be lost and afterward restored. This 
 humor is enclosed in a delicate membrane, called the hy'a- 
 loid, which sends processes into the interior of the globe of 
 the eye, forming the cells in which the humor is retained. 
 
268 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 537. The MUSCLES of the eye are six in number. They 
 are attached at one extremity to the orbit behind the eye ; at 
 the other extremity they are inserted by broad, thin tendons 
 to the sclerotic coat, near the junction of the cornea. The 
 white, pearly appearance of the eye is caused by these 
 tendons. 
 
 Observation. If the external muscle is too short, the eye 
 is turned out, producing the " wall eye ;" if the internal 
 muscle is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the 
 nose, and is called a " cross eye." 
 
 538. The PROTECTING ORGANS are the Orbits, Eyebrows, 
 Eyelids and Lach'rymal Apparatus. 
 
 The ORBITS are deep, bony sockets in which the globes of 
 the eye are placed. The bottom of each orbit has a large 
 perforation, giving passage to the optic nerve. These cavities 
 are lined with a thick cushion of fat. 
 
 The EYEBROWS, forming the upper part of the boundary 
 of the orbits, are two teguinentary prominences covered with 
 coarse hair. 
 
 The EYELIDS are two movable curtains, having a delicate 
 skin on the outside, muscular fibres beneath, and a narrow 
 cartilage on their edges, which tends to preserve the shape 
 of the lid. Internally, they are lined by a smooth mucous 
 membrane, which is reflected on the front of the eye upon 
 the sclerotica. This membrane is called the Conjuncti'va. 
 
 Observation. When this membrane is inflamed, it some- 
 times deposits a whitish material called lymph, which accounts 
 for the films, opacities and white spots seen upon the eye after 
 the inflammation has subsided. 
 
 On the internal surface of the cartilage there are found 
 several small glands, which have the appearance of parallel 
 strings of pearls. They open by minute apertures upon the 
 edges of the lids. 
 
 The edges of the eyelids are furnished with a triple row of 
 hairs, called eyelashes, which curve upward from the upper 
 lid, and downward from the lower. 
 
 The LACHRYMAL APPARATUS which secretes the tears 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 269 
 
 consists of the Lachrymal Gland with its ducts, Lachrymal 
 Canals and the Nasal Duct. 
 
 The LACHRYMAL GLAND is situated at the outer and upper 
 angle of the orbit, occupying a depression in the orbital plate 
 of the frontal bone. Ten or twelve small ducts pass from this 
 gland and open upon the upper eyelid, where they pour upon 
 the conjunctiva the lachrymal fluid, or tears. 
 
 .- 
 FIG. 182. 
 
 FIG. 182 (Leidy). THE LEFT EYELID AND LACHRYMAL GLAND, TURNED FORWARD AND 
 INWARD, TO snow THEIR INNER SURFACE. 1, Upper and lower part of the orbit. 2, 
 Portion of the palpebral orbicular muscle. 3, Attachment of this muscle to the inner 
 margin of the orbit. 4, Perforation for the passage of the external nasal nerve. 5, Offset 
 described as the tensor muscle of the eyelids. 6, Palpebral glands. 7, Posterior, and 8, 
 anterior portions of the lachrymal glands. 9, 10, Ducts. 11, Orifices opening on the 
 inner surface of the upper eyelid. 12, 13, The lachrymal orifices at the summits of the 
 lachrymal papillae. 
 
 The LACHRYMAL CANALS commence at the free borders 
 of each eyelid, near the internal angle of the eye, by two 
 minute orifices, called " punc'ta lach'rymalia" (tear points). 
 Each of these ducts communicates with the sac at the upper 
 part of the nasal duct. 
 
 The NASAL DUCT is a short canal about three quarters 
 of an inch in length, directed downward and backward to 
 
 23* 
 
270 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the inferior channel of the nose, where it terminates by an 
 expanded orifice. The tears, secreted by the lachrymal 
 gland, are conveyed to the eye by the small ducts before 
 described. They are then taken up by the puncta lachry- 
 mal ia and carried by the lachrymal canals into the lachrymal 
 sac, from which they are passed to the nasal cavities by the 
 
 nasal duct. 
 
 FIG. 183. 
 
 FIG. 183. VIEW OP LACHRYMAL GLAND AND NASAL DUCT. 1, The lachrymal gland. 2, 
 Ducts leading from the lachrymal gland to the upper eyelid. 3, 3, The puncta lachry- 
 nialia. 4, The nasal sac. 5, The termination of the nasal duct. 
 
 539. The SENSE OF HEARING does not strictly belong to 
 one organ, but to several, which are grouped into three divi- 
 sions the External Ear, the Tym'panum* and the Labyrinth 
 or Internal Ear. 
 
 540. The LABYRINTH is so called from its remarkable 
 and varied configuration. It is divided into three portions 
 the Vestibule, the Semicircular Canals and the Coch'lea. f 
 
 541. The VESTIBULE is a small and somewhat triangular 
 cavity about the size of a grain of wheat. It is placed almost 
 vertically in the centre of the labyrinth, and is a kind of 
 entrance-chamber or ante-room to the semicircular canals 
 behind and the cochlea in front. 
 
 * Gr., ttimpanon, a drum. f Gr., kochlos, to twist. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 27 J 
 
 FIG. 184. 
 
 FIG. 184. A VIEW OF THE LABYRINTH LAID OPEN.!, 1, Cochlea. 2, 3, Two canals, 
 that wind two and a half turns around a hollow axis (5). 7, Central portion of the laby- 
 rinth (vestibule). 8, Fenestra rotunda. 9, Fenestra ovalis. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 
 The semicircular canals. Highly magnified. 
 
 542. The SEMICIRCULAR CANALS are three curved pas- 
 sages, describing more than half a circle, and are about the 
 twentieth of an inch in diameter. Two of them open into 
 the vestibule at both extremities, and the third at one ex- 
 tremity. Both the vestibule and the canals contain a trans- 
 parent fluid like lymph, and in this fluid, without touching 
 the walls of the cavity, floats a membranous labyrinth, cor- 
 responding in form to the osseous one, but considerably 
 smaller. It is a sheath or bag enlarged at the vestibule, and 
 sending out prolongations into the semicircular canals on the 
 the one side and the cochlea on the other. It is filled with 
 a lymph-like fluid of greater consistency than that in which 
 it floats. The auditory nerve is distributed in the walls of 
 this membranous labyrinth, and nervous filaments connect it 
 with its osseous counterpart. 
 
 543. In front of the vestibule is the COCHLEA, so called 
 from its resemblance to a snail-shell. It consist? of a bony 
 
272 
 
 canal which winds around a hollow axis nearly three times, 
 gradually decreasing in diameter, and thus forming a spiral 
 cone. The interior of the canal is divided into two passages 
 by a membranous partition, upon which the remaining parts 
 of the auditory nerve ramify. The passages are filled with 
 lymph, and communicate with each other at the apex of the 
 cone and at the apex of the base ; one opens into the vesti- 
 bule, the other into the Tympanum (the Fenes'tra* Rotunda}. 
 
 FIG. 185. 
 
 FIG. 185. A VIEW OP THE AUDITORY NERVE. 1, Spinal cord. 2, Medulla oblongata. 
 3, Lower part of the brain. 4, Auditory nerve. 5, A branch to the semicircular canals. 
 6, A branch to the cochlea. 
 
 In the outer part of the bony wall of the vestibule is the 
 Fenestra Ovalis, an oval-shaped perforation about one-eighth 
 of an inch in length and one-sixteenth in width. This is 
 closed by a thin fibrous membrane, which prevents the escape 
 of the fluid from the vestibule, and through it the sonorous 
 vibrations pass to the vestibule. 
 
 544. The TYMPANUM, or middle ear, is an irregular bony 
 cavity larger than the vestibule and just outside of it. It is 
 separated from the external ear by a thin, semi-transparent 
 membrane of an oval shape. This is very closely fitted into 
 a groove, between the tympanum and the auditory canal. 
 The tympanum is often called the Drum of the ear, and very 
 appropriately, for the membrane of the tympanum is in con- 
 tact with the atmosphere whose sonorous vibrations beat upon 
 
 * Lat., a window. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL, SENSE. 273 
 
 it much like drumsticks upon the head of a drum. There 
 are several openings into the tympanum, of which the largest 
 is called the Eustachian tube, from the name of the first 
 anatomist who described it. It is a trumpet-shaped canal 
 somewhat over an inch and a half long, extending from the 
 fore part of the tympanum obliquely inward, forward and 
 downward to the pharynx. The tube is lined with a ciliated 
 epithelium continuous with that of the pharynx and tympa- 
 num. In the tympanic cavity are three bones, or ossicles, 
 the smallest in the body, weighing- only a few grains. From 
 their resemblance to the articles, they have been named the 
 Mallet, Anvil (attached to this bone is a little tubercle, or 
 orbicular bone, which is sometimes regarded as a separate 
 ossicle) and Stirrup. The Mallet and Anvil articulate by a 
 hinge-joint; the Anvil and Stirrup by a ball-and-socket 
 joint. 
 
 FIG. 186. 
 
 FIG. 186. A VIEW OP ALL THE PARTS OF THE EAR.l, The canal that leads to the in- 
 ternal ear. 2, The membrana tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central 
 part of the labyrinth (vestibule). 8, 9, 10, The semicircular canals. 11, 12, The chan- 
 nels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The opening from the middle ear, or 
 tympanum, to the throat (Eustachian tube). 
 
 M* 
 
274 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 545. The EXTERNAL EAR lies outside the membrane of 
 the tympanum. It is composed of the auditory canal and 
 the part which projects from the head. The canal, or Ex- 
 ternal Mea'tus* Audito'rius, is partly bony and partly car- 
 tilaginous, about one inch in length, and narrower in the 
 middle than at the extremities. Short, firm hairs are 
 stretched across the tube, preventing the ingress of foreign 
 bodies. Beneath the thin cuticle are small follicles which 
 secrete the Ceru'men, or wax. The part of the external ear 
 outside the cavity has numerous prominences and ridges. 
 
 (For Physiology of Hearing, see 565.) 
 
 546. The skin is the principal part of the body concerned 
 in the SENSE OF TOUCH, but the tongue and lips also possess 
 this sense. The skin consists of two layers. The external, 
 or superficial layer, destitute of blood-vessels and nerves, is 
 called the Ep-irderm'is^ (which consists of two layers, different 
 in many respects, one being named the Cuticle, the other the 
 Soft Epidermis) ; and an internal, or deeper layer, abundantly 
 supplied with nerves and highly vascular, called the Dennis, 
 Cutis Vera (or true skin). This layer presents two very dif- 
 ferent surfaces, of which the external is called the Papillary 
 layer, the internal the Co'ri-um. J 
 
 547. The skin covers the whole exterior of the body, and 
 at the margins of the apertures is directly continuous with 
 the mucous membrane, which last is an integument of greater 
 delicacy, but has substantially the same composition viz., 
 a deep fibrous, sanguine, sensitive layer, a basement mem- 
 brane, and an epithelium, or superficial, insensible and blood- 
 less layer. Thus the whole body, externally and internally, 
 has a complete epithelial investment. 
 
 548. The EPIDERMIS holds the same relation to the dermis 
 that the epithelium does to the deeper layer of the mucous 
 membrane. It varies in thickness, from the thin, delicate 
 membrane upon the internal flexions of the joints, to the 
 
 * Lat., meo, to pass, a passage. f Gr., epi, upon, and derma, skin. 
 J Gr., chorion, skin. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 275 
 
 thickened covering of the soles of the feet. This variation 
 is perceptible in infants, before exercise can have had any 
 influence. 
 
 FIG. 187. 
 
 FIG. 187. A VERTICAL SECTION OP THE SKIN. 1, 1, The lines, or ridges of the cuticle, 
 cut perpendicularly. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, The furrows or wrinkles of the same. 3, The epider- 
 mis. 4, 4, 4, Colored layer. 5, 5, Dermis, or cutis vera. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Papillae. 7, 7, Small 
 furrows between the papillae. 8, 8, 8, 8, Deeper furrows between each couple of the 
 papillae. 9, 9, Cells filled with fat. 10, 10, 10, Adipose layer, with numerous fat vesicles. 
 11, 11, 11, Cellular fibres of the adipose tissue. 12, Two hairs. 13, A perspiratory gland, 
 with its spiral duct. 14, Another perspiratory gland, with a duct less spiral. 15, 15, Oil- 
 glands with ducts opening into the sheath of the hair (12). A diagram. 
 
 During life the EPI- 
 DERMIS is constantly 
 undergoing loss, throw- 
 ing off the superficial 
 epidermoid scales, 
 which are constantly 
 renewed by fresh cells, 
 originating on the sur- 
 face of the true skin. 
 These gradually 
 undergo transformation 
 from the spherical to 
 
 FIG. 188. 
 
 FIG. 188 (Leidy). FRAGMENT OP DANDRUFF FROM 
 THE HEVP. 1, Portion of dandruff, consisting of 
 non-nucleated cells. 2, Several fragments,consisting 
 of nucleated cells. 3, Isolated cells, some with and 
 some without nuclei. 4, A cell more highly mag- 
 nified, exhibiting granular contents and a nucleus. 
 
276 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 FIG. 189. 
 
 the flattened shape, as they approach the surface of the 
 cuticle. 
 
 The soft epidermic layer is the seat of the color of the skin. 
 The difference between the blonde and brunette, the European 
 and the African, lies only in the deep, newly-formed layers 
 of the epidermis. In the whitest skin, the cells of the epi- 
 dermis always contain a slight amount of the pigmentary 
 tint, which disappears from the cells as this soft layer is 
 transformed into the cuticle. 
 
 549. The CUTICLE is a translucent, horn-like membrane. 
 Its deeper surface is continuous with the soft epidermic layer 
 
 from which it is constantly re- 
 newed. Its free surface is inces- 
 santly wearing away, or shed in 
 small flakes, constituting scurf or 
 dandruff. 
 
 550. The DERMIS, or TRUE 
 SKIN, is made up of interlacing 
 bundles of white areolar tissue, 
 mixed with yellow elastic fibres. 
 These are so interwoven as to 
 constitute a firm, strong and 
 flexible web. In the superficial 
 part, the web is so close as to re- 
 semble felt cloth. In the deepest 
 layers the network is loose, and encloses the hair-follicles 
 with their sebaceous glands, and small masses of fat. 
 
 In most situations, plain muscular fibres are found mixed 
 with the fibrous and elastic tissues ; these are always present 
 where hairs exist, to which parts they are often attached ; 
 but on the palms and soles, where these are absent, no mus- 
 cular fibres are ever seen. 
 
 551. The outer surface of the dermis, as seen when de- 
 nuded, is provided with little conical-shaped projections, 
 called Papillce (6, fig. 187). These are prolongations of 
 the upper compact tissue of the corium into the newly- 
 formed layer of the epidermis. The papillae are very 
 
 Fia. 189 (Leidy.) SCURF FROM THE 
 LEG. 1, A fragment of scurf, consist- 
 ing of dried, flattened, non-nucleated 
 cells or scales. 2, A few cells with a 
 nucleus. 3. A cell more highly mag- 
 nified, to exhibit its polyhedral form. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 277 
 
 FIG. 190. 
 
 --9 
 
 numerous on the palm of the hand and on the free border 
 of the lips. 
 
 552. The cutis vera is abundantly supplied with blood-ves- 
 sels, lymphatics and nerves. Its general surface is covered with 
 a close capillary network, from 
 which looped vessels project 
 and enter the papillae. The 
 lymphatics also form a close 
 network on the surface. The 
 nerves pass upward from the 
 subcutaneous areolar tissue, 
 and form, as they approach 
 the surface, minute plexuses, 
 from which the nerve-fibres are 
 given off. Some of these fibres 
 are lost in the compact tissue 
 of the dermis ; others end, per- 
 haps, in loops ; and many pass 
 into certain of the papillae, for 
 it is said that some of these do 
 not receive nerve-fibres. In the 
 papillae these fibres end in loops, 
 or, as in the fingers, the sole of 
 the foot, and perhaps on the red 
 margin of the lips and the point 
 of the tongue, they appear to 
 terminate in small oval, con- 
 densed bodies, called tactile cor- 
 puscles, situated in the centre 
 
 Of the papillae. In any Case, it nective and adipose tissue. 6, Tactile 
 
 is supposed that the nerve-fibre 
 turns back to rejoin some nerve- 
 cell in the nervous centres. 
 
 The network of nerves imbedded in the upper porous 
 layer of the true skin is derived from nerves which take 
 their winding course through the fat, distended openings of 
 the corium. 
 
 24 
 
 FIG. 190 (Leidy). VERTICAL SECTION OF 
 
 THE SKIN OF THE FOREFINGER ACROSS 
 
 Two OF THE RIDGES OF THE SURFACE ; 
 highly magnified. 1, Dermis, composed 
 of an intertexture of bundles of fibrous 
 tissue. 2, Epidermis. 3, Its cuticle. 4, 
 Its soft layer. 5, Subcutaneous con- 
 
 papillae. 7, Sweat glands. 8, Duct. 9, 
 Spiral passage from the latter through 
 the epidermis. 10, Termination of the 
 passage on the summit of ridge. 
 
278 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 553. The minute depressions from which the hairs of the 
 skin emerge are called the Hair-follicles, or sacs. They are 
 buried in the corium, or true skin. At the bottom of the 
 follicle is a more or less elevated portion of the dermis, often 
 forming a distinct papilla, which is destitute of cuticle. The 
 
 root of the hair is composed of 
 soft, pale and somewhat com- 
 pressed nucleated cells ; it is 
 adherent to the lining of the fol- 
 licle, or root-sheath. When a 
 hair is plucked out, the sheath 
 adheres to it, but the vascular 
 papilla at the bottom of the fol- 
 licle remains, and a new hair is 
 generated upon it. If the papilla 
 is destroyed, no new hair can be 
 formed. All these papillse, ex- 
 cept those of the finest hairs, 
 probably receive nervous fibrils. 
 The part of the hair projecting 
 above the surface is called the 
 Shaft. The shaft is usually cylin- 
 drical, but sometimes flattened. 
 It consists of an outer part, called 
 the Cortex, composed of a single 
 layer of imbricated scales whose 
 edges are directed toward the 
 point of the hair. Beneath the 
 cortex is the so-called fibrous part 
 of the hair, which constitutes its 
 bulk, and consists of fusiform 
 cells clustered into flattened 
 fibres, running longitudinally and 
 intermixed with pigment granules. Lastly, the very deepest 
 cells, occupying the centre of the shaft and constituting the 
 pith, are not elongated, but polyhedral and loosely connected 
 together, and containing chiefly pigment or fat granules. 
 
 FIG. 191 (L'idy). DIAGRAM OF STRUC- 
 TURE OP THE ROOT OP A HAIR WITHIN 
 ITS FOLLICLK. 1, Hair papilla. 2, 
 Capillary vessel. 3, Nerve-fibres. 4, 
 Fibrous wall of the hair-follicle. 5, 
 Basement membrane. 6, Soft epider- 
 mic lining of the follicle. 7, Its elastic 
 cuticular layer. 8, Cuticle of the hair. 
 9, Cortical substance. 10, Medullary 
 substance. 11, Bulb of the hair, com- 
 posed of soft polyhedral cells. 12, 
 Transition of the latter into the corti- 
 cal eubstance, medullary substance 
 and cuticle of the hair. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 279 
 
 FIG. 192. 
 
 of the unstriated muscular fibres from the true skin 
 pass obliquely down from the surface of the dermis to the 
 under side of the slanting hair-fol- 
 licles. The contraction of these 
 fibres erects the hairs, and by draw- 
 ing the follicles to the surface and 
 pulling in a little point of the skin, 
 produces that roughness of the in- 
 tegument called "goose-skin," or 
 Cutis Anserina. The standing on 
 end of the hair of the head, as the 
 result of extreme fright, may be 
 partly due to the contraction of 
 such fibres, as well as to the action 
 of the occipito-frontalis muscle. 
 
 554. Each hair-follicle receives, 
 in nearly all cases, the ducts of two 
 Sebaceous, or Oil- Glands, which are 
 situated in the dermis. They are 
 found only where hairs exist. Each 
 gland is a flask-shaped body, com- 
 posed of from five to twenty little 
 sacs, clustered around and leading 
 into a common duct. These glands 
 are lined by a fine epithelium, and 
 the unctuous secretion first anoints 
 the hair-bulb, and then oozes out 
 upon the neighboring surface of the 
 cuticle. The sebaceous glands are 
 of considerable size. 
 
 555. Immediately beneath the skin, over the whole surface 
 of the body, there are a multitude of little glandular bodies, 
 called Perspiratory, or Sweat Glands. Each gland consists of 
 a minute, cylindrical spiral duct, which passes inward through 
 the epidermis, and terminates in a globular coil, in the deeper 
 meshes of the cutis vera. The opening of the duct upon the 
 cuticle is called the "pore." This aperture is oblique in 
 
 FIG. 192 (Leidy). PORTION OP A 
 HAIR FROM THE OUTER PART OF 
 THE THIGH, magnified. 1, Shaft 
 of the hair covered with trans- 
 verse markings indicating the 
 projecting edges of the cuticnlar 
 scales. 2, Cortical substance at 
 the end of the hair, broken up into 
 coarse fibres, as the result of fric- 
 tion of the clothing. 
 
280 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 direction, and possesses all the advantage of a valvular open- 
 ing, preventing the ingress of foreign injurious substances to 
 
 FIG. 193. 
 
 Fio. 193. OO-GLANDS AND DUCTS, magnified thirty-eight diameters. 1, A, Oil-glaud 
 from the scalp ; B, Its duct. 2, A, Two glands from the skin of the nose ; B, Common 
 duct. 3, A, Oil-gland from the nose ; B, The duct filled with the peculiar animalcules 
 of the oily substances ; the heads are directed inward. 4, A, Cluster of oil-glands around 
 the shaft of the hair (C) ; B, Ducts. 
 
 the interior of the duct or gland. These glands, coming in 
 contact with the capillary blood-vessels, receive a watery 
 fluid (the perspiration) from the blood, having the following 
 composition : 
 
 Water 995.00 
 
 Animal matters, with lime .10 
 
 Chlorides of sodium and potassium and spirit extract.. 2.40 
 Acetic acid, acetates, lactates and alcoholic extracts... 1.45 
 
 Sulphates and substances soluble in water 1.05 
 
 1000.00 
 
 The formation of this watery fluid is constant, but usu- 
 ally evaporation takes place as fast as it reaches the sur- 
 face. This is called the "insensible transpiration" of the 
 skin. 
 
 556. The NAILS are horny appendages of the skin, and 
 correspond with the hoofs and claws of animals. They are 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 281 
 
 flexible, translucent plates continuous with the epidermis, 
 and rest on the depressed surface of the cutis vera, called the 
 matrix, or bed. By maceration 
 or severe scalding, the nail be- 
 comes detached with the epi- 
 dermis, even in life. 
 
 The horny layer of the nail 
 answers to the cuticle ; it is com- 
 posed of numerous layers of flat- Flo 191 A ~ TION OF THE END OF 
 
 tened, nucleated Cells, Or Scales, THE FINGER AND NAIL. 4, Section of 
 
 while the soft layer corresponds * he !*** * one f . the t fi " gen ** 
 
 forming the cushion at the end of the 
 
 With the deep parts Of the epi- finger. 2, The nail. 1, 1, The cuticle 
 
 dermis, and is made up of deli- t d der and around the root 
 
 ' of the nail, at 3, 3, 3. 
 
 cate polyhedral, nucleated cells. 
 
 The nails increase in length by the constant addition of cells 
 at the root ; they grow in thickness by the formation of cells 
 on the under surface. This double development explains 
 why nails are thickest at their most convex portion. 
 For Physiology of the Skin, see 570. 
 
 \ 5O. PHYSIOLOGY OP THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. Primary 
 Use of the Sense of Taste Of Smell. Some of the Laws of Light. The 
 Adaptation of the Eye to the Laws of Light. Cause of Short-Sighted- 
 ness Of Long-Sightedness Defect remedied. Functions of the Different 
 Coats of the Eye. The Accessory Parts of the Eye. Hearing. Func- 
 tion of the. External Ear Auditory Canal Eustachian Tube Cochlea 
 and Semicircular Canals. Sounds reach the Fluid of the Labyrinth by 
 Two Paths. Special Organ of the Sense of Touch. Functions of the 
 Skin. Use of the Epidermis Of the Cuticle Of Cutaneous Papilla. 
 Vessels of the Coi'ium. Function of the Oil- Glands. Uses of Per- 
 spiration. 
 
 557. The primary use of the SENSE OF TASTE is to guide 
 animals in the selection of food, that noxious articles may 
 not be introduced into the stomach. In man, this sense has 
 been so abused and perverted by the introduction of stimu- 
 lants and condiments, and the endless admixture of different 
 articles of food, that the natural action seems to have been 
 almost entirely superseded by acquired taste. This sense be- 
 
 24* 
 
282 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 comes very acute by cultivation, as may be seen in those 
 persons whose business it is to judge of the quality of certain 
 articles by the taste ; as tasters of wine, tea, etc. The acute- 
 ness of taste, however, varies in different persons according 
 to the sapid bodies themselves. 
 
 558. In man, the SENSE OF SMELL is one of inferior im- 
 portance. It furnishes the mind with but few ideas, and 
 these are mostly subservient to his physical well-being. This 
 sense leads us to avoid disagreeable odors or putrescent food, 
 and when acute, to escape the injurious effects of many vapors 
 which endanger health. 
 
 559. THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE is beautifully adapted 
 to the laws of light, a few of which it is necessary for us to 
 notice. 
 
 When light passes through a medium of unvarying density, 
 the rays are in straight lines, but when it passes from a me- 
 dium of one density into another of different density, they 
 are refracted, or bent from a straight course, unless striking 
 the medium perpendicularly, when they are unchanged. 
 
 When light passes from one medium to another having a 
 convex or concave surface, instead of a flat surface, a great 
 degree of refraction is produced, and the greater the curva- 
 ture, the greater will be the amount of refraction. Fit a con- 
 vex lens in an opening of the shutter of a darkened room ; 
 the rays of light will cross each other in the lens, and an in- 
 verted image of any object outside, as a tree or house, will be 
 reflected upon a screen placed in the room, at a certain dis- 
 tance in front of the lens. The exact point where the image 
 is most distinct, is called the focus of the lens, and the dis- 
 tance from the lens to the image, the focal distance. Now, 
 in the eye, the pigment of the choroid coat gives the darkened 
 room, the retina the screen, the pupil is the opening in the 
 shutter, and the three humors are the curved lenses. The 
 rays of light from any object cross each other, and an inverted 
 image is formed on the retina. 
 
 560. The shape of the cornea and aqueous humors is con- 
 vexo-concave ; the vitreous humor is concavo-convex ; while 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 283 
 
 the crystalline humor, or lens, is convexo-convex. It may 
 at first seem that only one lens is necessary ; but light is com- 
 posed of three primary colors, which are not equally refracted 
 by the same lens, hence, there would be upon the edges of any 
 single lens prismatic colors which would interfere with the 
 distinctness of the image. This is obviated, by the adapta- 
 tion of the curvatures of the lenses to the different colors. 
 
 561. Suppose our object outside the darkened room to be 
 at that distance from the lens which will give a distinct image 
 upon the screen ; now, if the object approach the lens, the 
 image will be indistinct unless a more convex lens be substi- 
 tuted for the first, or the distance between the lens and screen 
 be increased. If the object recede, the image will be indis- 
 'inct unless a less convex lens be substituted for the first, or 
 ihe distance be lessened between the lens and screen. 
 
 By a very nice adjustment, the eye is able to change the con- 
 vexity of its lenses, and also to vary the focal distances, thereby 
 adapting it to a wide range of vision. This is accomplished 
 by the ciliary ligament and the muscular fibres connected 
 with the ciliary processes, which change the curvature of the 
 crystalline lens and the cornea by compression at the cir- 
 cumference, and at the same time throw the lens forward, in- 
 creasing the distance between it and the retina. The iris 
 also aids, in adapting the eye to different distances. It con- 
 tracts when viewing a near object, and dilates when viewing 
 one more remote. 
 
 562. When the cornea or crystalline lens is too convex, or 
 the latter is too far from the retina, short-sightedness is pro- 
 duced, and the defect is measurably remedied by the use of 
 concave glasses; when there is too little convexity, long- 
 sightedness is the result, and convex glasses should be used. 
 In old age, the humors being deficient in quantity, cause 
 the flattening of the convex parts, hence the need of convex 
 glasses. In the selection of glasses, the lens for each eye 
 should be chosen separately, as the foci of the two eyes do 
 not usually exactly correspond, therefore a lens that will suit 
 one eye may strain the other. 
 
284 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 563. The Sclerotic Coat gives form to the eye, and serves for 
 the attachment of the muscles which move the eye in various 
 directions. The movements of the two eyeballs are always 
 simultaneous and harmonious, but frequently not symmetrical. 
 The function of the pigment of the choroid coat is to absorb all 
 the luminous rays not necessary for vision. " If the sclerotic 
 and choroid coats be carefully dissected off from the posterior 
 part of the eye of an ox or any other large quadruped, leaving 
 only the retina, and the eye so prepared be placed in a hole 
 in a window-shutter, in a darkened room, with the cornea on 
 the outside, all the illuminated objects of the external scene 
 will be beautifully depicted, in an inverted position, on the 
 retina. 
 
 " Few spectacles are more calculated to raise our admira- 
 tion than this delicate picture, which Nature has, with such 
 exquisite art and with the finest touches of her pencil, spread 
 over the smooth canvas of the expansion of the optic nerve 
 a picture which, though scarcely occupying a space of half 
 an inch in diameter, contains the delineation of a boundless 
 scene of earth and sky, full of all kinds of objects, some at 
 rest and others in motion, yet all accurately represented as 
 to their forms, colors and position, and followed in all their 
 changes without the least interference, irregularity or con- 
 fusion." 
 
 564. The Accessory Parts of the Eye are of two kinds ; the 
 one designed to protect the globe, or ball, the other to move it 
 and give the required direction to fulfill its office. To enable 
 the eye to move in all directions, without friction, it is placed 
 on a cushion of fat which lines the bony orbit, thus protect- 
 ing the globe on all sides except in front ; here are the Eye- 
 lids, which by their alternate movement of depression and 
 elevation spread over the front of the eyeball a watery 
 secretion, by which its surface is constantly bathed, and its 
 brilliancy and transparency kept unimpaired. 
 
 By the contraction of a small ring-like muscle (the Orbicu- 
 laris), the eyelids quickly draw together, and as they instantly 
 separate, the secretion from the lachrymal gland is diffused 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 285 
 
 over the conjunctiva. During life, this muscle is ever active 
 and watchful for the safety of the eye. When a cinder or 
 dust gets under the eyelids, it irritates the conjunctiva, and 
 the movements of winking are very rapid. A viscid fluid is 
 spread along the margin of the lid, which prevents the tears 
 running over the eyelid. 
 
 The Cilia, or Eyelashes, so interlace that protection is given 
 the eye from light substances floating in the air. The Eye- 
 brows assist in shading the eyes when exposed to strong light, 
 and they lend expression to some emotions of the mind. 
 
 565. HEARING is that function by which we obtain a 
 knowledge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which consti- 
 tute sounds. Independent of the sense of hearing, sound, as 
 sound, has no existence in nature. 
 
 566. The External Ear collects the waves of sound and re- 
 flects them on the membrane of the tympanum ; this mem- 
 brane facilitates their transmission to the chain of bones in 
 the tympanum, to the walls of the cavity and to the air it 
 contains; from the stirrup to the oval window; from this 
 membrane the vibrations are communicated to the fluid of 
 the labyrinth, until finally they are received by the expan- 
 sion of the auditory nerve, by which the sensation is commu- 
 nicated to the brain. 
 
 567. The function of the Auditory Canal is to receive and 
 conduct sonorous vibrations to the membrane of the tympa- 
 num. This membrane is admirably adapted for the recep- 
 tion of atmospheric sound-waves. In hearing, the air in the 
 tympanic cavity plays an important part ; the design of the 
 Eustachian tube is evidently to allow of equal atmospheric 
 pressure upon both sides of the membrana tympani. The 
 complicated communications of the internal ear contain the 
 highly important parts of the organ of hearing. The Vesti- 
 bule is the part essential to the simplest exercise of this sense. 
 The Cochlea and Semicircular canals, or rather their contained 
 membranous canals, receive vibrations through the mixed 
 membranous and bony tympanic apparatus. It is asserted by 
 some physiologists, that sound is communicated through the 
 
286 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 cranial bones ; the transmission, however, through the solid 
 bones of the head, if it exists, is effected with difficulty. 
 
 568. By this sense, therefore, we distinguish the quality, 
 intensity, pitch, duration and direction of sonorous impulses. 
 The delicacy with which these distinctions are appreciated 
 varies in different individuals. The complication and finish 
 of the auditory apparatus, and the perfection and delicacy 
 of its action, are second only to those of vision. 
 
 569. The SENSE OF TOUCH, though common to all parts 
 of the Skin and adjoining mucous membranes, has for its 
 special organ, the hand. It is most admirably adapted to its 
 office, by reason of the number, size, arrangement, structure 
 and abundant nervous supply of its papillae. 
 
 570. The functions of the SKIN are threefold : 1st, As a 
 Protecting membrane ; 2d, As a Medium for the distribution 
 of the tactile nerve-filaments; and 3d, As an Eliminating 
 organ. The extent of the skin, as it invests the entire sur- 
 face of the body, following all its prominences and curves, 
 its arrangement in layers, differing in structure, vitality and 
 function, make it an external envelope of harmonious unity, 
 in appointment and end. 
 
 571. The uses of the Epidermis are various. It serves to 
 cover and protect the delicate sensitive parts behind it; to 
 prevent the too rapid escape of heat; and to restrain the 
 evaporation of the fluids of the skin and its appendages, at 
 the same time that it furnishes a medium through which 
 those secretions can reach the surface of the body. 
 
 572. The Cuticle is constantly destroyed and replaced, as 
 is proved by the disappearance from the skin .of such stains 
 as those produced by nitrate of silver ; or the scales thrown 
 off after some acute diseases, as scarlatina. The restoration 
 of the cuticle is observed after the process of vesication by 
 blisters, and in consequence of burns and scalds. By these 
 means large patches of cuticle are removed ; but they are 
 renewed in short time, under favorable circumstances. The 
 pigmentary substance is also capable of rapid reproduction. 
 
 573. The cutaneous Papillw serve to increase the nutritive 
 
THE OKGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 287 
 
 and formative surface for the generation of the constantly 
 wasting epidermis. 
 
 574. In the Corium, or internal layer of the skin, resides 
 vitality. Here the arteries of the skin penetrate from be- 
 neath and end in a capillary network ; the veins emerging 
 from the skin are more numerous and much larger than the 
 arteries. The skin is abundantly supplied with nerves, but 
 their mode of termination has not been accurately ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 575. The surface of the skin possesses the power of absorb- 
 ing both liquids and vapors. The principal, if not sole, 
 agents of this function on the surface of the body are the 
 cutaneous Lymphatic vessels, which are active in proportion 
 to the tenuity or absence of the cuticle. To a slight extent, 
 the skin is a respiratory membrane in man, giving off car- 
 bonic acid gas, and actually absorbing oxygen. 
 
 576. The sebaceous matter from the Oil-glands anoints the 
 hairs with oil in their progress of growth from the skin, and 
 also imbues the cuticle, by which it is rendered repellent of 
 water. The oiliness of the surface of the skin, occasioned by 
 this material, permits the ready adhesion of dust and dirt, 
 and necessitates the use of soap for the easy removal of its 
 excess. This oily product often becomes inspissated and dis- 
 tends the glands, most frequently in the face, and especially 
 on the nose; and at the mouths of the ducts it becomes 
 mixed with dust. When pressed out it assumes the spiral 
 form of the duct; hence it is commonly taken for a worm. 
 In the healthiest individuals, the sebaceous matter contains a 
 curious parasite, called the " pimple mite." 
 
 577. The uses of the perspiration y or sweat, are twofold : 
 1st, To free the system of a certain quantity of water ; and 
 2d, To eliminate from the body certain special products of 
 chemical changes. 
 
 The quantity of perspiration exhaled by different parts of 
 the body differs widely. Its general quantity is influenced 
 both by intrinsic and extrinsic conditions; thus, it is aug- 
 mented by increased vascularity of the skin, by a higher 
 
288 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 temperature of the body, by a quicker circulation, and there- 
 fore by exercise and effort generally. Perspiration may also 
 be induced by additional covering of the body, and also by 
 peculiar conditions of the nervous system. 
 
 578. Of the external conditions which modify the quantity 
 of perspiration, the condition of the atmosphere is most im- 
 portant. Thus, in warm air the activity of the cutaneous 
 circulation is increased, which increases the perspiration, 
 whilst cold air has the opposite effect; again, dry air in- 
 creases the perspiration, whilst damp air diminishes it. 
 Simple warmth acts by increasing the vascular action 
 through the skin, whilst dryness operates by maintaining a 
 constant evaporation from this membrane; on the other 
 hand, cold diminishes the vascularity of the skin, and damp- 
 ness of the air impedes evaporation. The combination of 
 moisture with heat, however, increases the exhalation by the 
 skin, which then appears in large drops. Large quantities 
 of warm drinks also increase perspiration. 
 
 Observation. The skin is said to regulate the quantity of 
 fluid given off by the kidneys, and the quantity of fluid left 
 in reserve in the blood and soft tissues generally ; but the 
 kidneys should rather be regarded as the true regulators. 
 Observation shows that in cold weather the skin exhales less 
 and the kidneys excrete more fluid ; while in warm weather 
 the skin eliminates more and the kidneys less. 
 
 579. The use of the non-vascular and insensible outgrowth 
 of the epidermis, the hair, is protection ; and the function of 
 the nails is not only protection, but support to the yielding 
 softness of the flesh at the finger-tips. When they reach 
 exactly to the extremities of the fingers, they then fulfill the 
 intention for which they were made, by enabling the fingers 
 to hold both small and hard substances, and to tear and peel 
 off skins of vegetables or animals. They are called into action 
 where nicety of execution is required in art. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 289 
 
 \ 51. HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. Perversion of 
 the Sense of Taste Of Smell. How the Eye should be Used. Cause 
 of Amaurosis. The Effect of Continued Oblique Position of the Eye 
 Viewing Objects at Different Distances. Bathing the Eye Re- 
 moval of Dust. Causes of Defective Hearing. Parts Essential to Hear- 
 ing. Clothing. Kind of Material for Clothing. Class of Persons that 
 need more Clothing. Cleanliness of Clothing. Bathing Modes of 
 Bathing Time for Baths General Rules for Bathing Water a Cura- 
 tive Agent. Air Beneficial to the Skin. Effect of Light on the Skin. 
 Treatment of Burns and Scalds Of Corns Of Frost-Bites. 
 
 580. The Sense of Taste becomes perverted by the im- 
 moderate use of stimulants and condiments and the endless 
 admixture of different articles of food. These indulgences 
 lessen the sensibility of the nerve. In children, this sense is 
 usually acute, and their preference is for food of the mildest 
 character. 
 
 This sense is varied more than any other by the refine- 
 ments of social life ; thus, the Indian's like or dislike regard- 
 ing particular articles of food generally extends to every 
 individual of the tribe, but among civilized men no two per- 
 sons are alike in all their tastes. 
 
 581. The Sense of Smell may become impaired by being 
 frequently and powerfully stimulated by pungent articles, as 
 " smelling salts ;" also catarrh, or any influence that thickens 
 the mucous membrane or renders it dry, diminishes the sensi- 
 bility of the nerve of smell. Hence, the sense becomes very 
 obtuse in persons addicted to the pernicious habit of "snuff- 
 taking." 
 
 582. The Eye is a delicate organ, requiring care to preserve 
 it in health ; like other organs of the body, it should be exer- 
 cised and then rested. The observance of this rule is par- 
 ticularly needful to those whose eyes are predisposed to 
 inflammation. If the eye be used too long at one time, it 
 becomes wearied and the power of vision dimiished. On 
 the contrary, if not called into exercise, its functions are 
 enfeebled. 
 
 583. &udden transitions of light should be avoided. The iris 
 
 25 N 
 
290 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 enlarges or contracts according to the degree of light, but the 
 change is not instantaneous. Hence the imperfect vision in 
 passing from a strong to a dim light ; an overwhelming sensa- 
 tion is experienced when passing from a dimly-lighted apart- 
 ment to one brilliantly illuminated. A common cause of 
 Amaurosis, or paralysis of the retina, is using the eye for a 
 long time in a very intense light. 
 
 584. Long-continued oblique position of the eye should be 
 avoided, or it may produce an unnatural contraction of the 
 muscles called into action, producing squinting or strabis- 
 mus. The vision of a cross eye is always defective, as only 
 one eye is used in viewing the object toward which the atten- 
 tion is directed. The defect is remedied by a surgical opera- 
 tion. Children should not be allowed to imitate the " cross 
 eye," as what is intended to be but temporary, may become 
 permanent. 
 
 585. The eye of the child should be trained to view objects at 
 different distances. The ciliary muscles are as capable of 
 education as any others, and may be made to act very effi- 
 ciently in adapting the lenses to view near or remote objects. 
 Care on the part of the instructor and parent regarding the 
 distance from the eye at which the child should hold his 
 book or work would save many cases of defective vision. 
 
 586. Bathing the eye in tepid or cold water is beneficial; 
 provided the eye be gently wiped and usually toward the 
 inner angle ; also, to remove the secretion from the lachrymal 
 gland that sometimes collects at this angle, as it contains 
 saline matter. 
 
 Observation. Particles of dust or cinders should be removed 
 from the eye by means of soft linen or silk. If the substance 
 is concealed beneath the upper lid, take a smooth rod, like a 
 knitting needle, place it over the upper lid in contact with 
 and just under the edge of the orbit; hold it firmly by means 
 of the lashes, turn the lid gently back over the pencil or 
 needle, and remove the intrusive substance. If unsuccessful, 
 too many attempts should not be made, as inflammation may 
 be induced, but consult a surgeon immediately. 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 291 
 
 587. The Sense of Searing, like the other senses, is capable 
 of great improvement. By cultivation, the blind are able to 
 judge with great accuracy of the distance of bodies in motion, 
 and even of the height of buildings. The Indian will distin- 
 guish sounds inaudible to the untrained ear. 
 
 588. Hearing may be impaired by the destruction of the 
 membrane of the tympanum. The obstruction of the Eusta- 
 chian tube is not unfrequently the cause of defective hearing. 
 By its closure, the vibratory effect of the air within the tym- 
 panum is diminished in the same manner as in the closure 
 of the side of a drum. Enlarged tonsils, inflammation of the 
 fauces and nasal passages, often attend and follow colds and 
 attacks of scarlet fever, etc. For such deafness, remedial 
 means should be directed by a skillful physician. 
 
 Observation. The nostrums for the cure of deafness are 
 usually of an oily character, and may be useful in cases of 
 defective hearing caused by an accumulation of wax in the 
 external canal of the ear ; but a few drops of any animal oil 
 will serve the purpose as efficiently. 
 
 589. In hearing, the integrity of the drum of the ear is not 
 absolutely essential for the due performance of the function. 
 The loss of the small bones does not necessarily cause deafness 
 unless the stirrup is diseased ; but if the auditory nerve or 
 membranous vestibule becomes diseased, there is no remedial 
 agent for the loss of hearing. 
 
 590. The Hygiene of the Skin, the chief organ of the Sense 
 of Touch, holds important relation to the general health of 
 the body. , To maintain its healthy action in every part, 
 attention must be given to Clothing, Bathing, Light and Air. 
 
 591. CLOTHING is chiefly useful in preventing the escape 
 of too much heat from the body, and in protecting the body 
 from exposure to the evil effects of a varying temperature of 
 the atmosphere. In selecting and applying clothing, the fol- 
 lowing should be observed : 
 
 592. The material for clothing should be a bad conductor of 
 heat. As air is a non-conductor, material should be chosen 
 which is capable of retaining much air in its meshes ; and as 
 
292 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 moisture increases the conducting power, the material should 
 not be such as will absorb or retain moisture. Furs retain 
 much air in their meshes and absorb scarcely any moisture, 
 and consequently, are well adapted to those subject to the 
 great exposures of very cold climates. Woolen cloth, next to 
 furs and eider down, retains the most air and absorbs the 
 least moisture, hence it is a good article of apparel for all per- 
 sons, unless too irritable to an over-sensitive skin. In that 
 case, the flannel may be lined with cotton, or silk may be 
 substituted. When of sufficient body or thickness, silk is a 
 good article for inner clothing, excepting when it produces 
 too much disturbance of the electricity of the system. Next 
 to these articles, cotton is well adapted for garments worn 
 next the skin. Linen should never be worn by persons in 
 any way enfeebled, even in warm weather or in hot climates. 
 It is a good conductor of heat and readily absorbs moisture ; 
 hence, with such covering, the body is surrounded by a layer 
 of moisture instead of air. 
 
 593. The clothing should be both porous and loosely fitted. 
 The necessity of porous clothing is seen in the wearing of 
 India-rubber overshoes. In a short time the hose and under- 
 boot become damp from retained perspiration. The residual 
 matter thus left in contact with the skin is reconveyed into 
 the system by absorption, causing headache and other dis- 
 eases. Unimpeded transpiration, and a layer of air secured by 
 loose clothing, enable the skin to imbibe oxygen, which gives 
 it tone and vigor. 
 
 Observation. As the design of additional clothing is to 
 enclose a series of strata of warm air, we should, in going 
 from a warm room into cold air, put on our extra covering 
 some time previous to going out, that the layers of air which 
 we carry with us may be warmed by the heat of the room, 
 and not borrowed from the heat of the body. 
 
 594. The clothing must be suited to the state of the atmosphere 
 and to the condition of the individual. Sudden changes of 
 temperature should be regarded ; but it is usually unsafe to 
 make changes from thick to thin clothing, excepting in the 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 293 
 
 morning, when the vital powers are in full play. The even- 
 ing usually demands an extra garment, as the atmosphere is 
 more cool and damp, and we have less vital energy than in 
 the early part of the day. 
 
 Observation. Many a young lady has laid the foundation 
 of a fatal disease by exchanging the thick dress, warm hose 
 and shoes, for the flimsy fabric, thin hose and shoes which 
 are considered suitable for the ball-room or party. All sud- 
 den changes of this kind are attended with hazard, which is 
 proportionate to the weakness or exhaustion of the system 
 when the change is made. 
 
 595. The child and the aged person require more clothing 
 than the vigorous person of middle age. Judging from ob- 
 servation, we should infer that children needed less clothing 
 than adults. The exposure to which the vain and thoughtless 
 mother subjects her child very frequently lays the foundation 
 for future disease. The system of "hardening" children, of 
 which we sometimes hear, is as inhuman as it is unprofitable. 
 To make the child robust and active, he must have nutritious 
 food at stated hours, free exercise in the open air, and be 
 guarded from the cold by proper apparel. Those who have 
 outlived the energies of adult life also need special care re- 
 garding a proper amount of clothing. 
 
 596. When a vital organ is diseased, more clothing is needed. 
 In consumption, dyspepsia, and even headache, the skin 
 usually is pale and the extremities cold, because less heat is 
 generated. Persons suffering from these complaints need 
 more clothing than those with healthy organs. 
 
 597. Persons of active habits need less clothing than those of 
 sedentary employment. Exercise increases the circulation of 
 the blood, consequently, the vital activities become more 
 energetic, and more heat is produced. We need less clothing 
 when walking than when riding. 
 
 598. The clothing should be kept clean. Some portion of 
 the transpired fluids of the body must necessarily be ab- 
 sorbed by the clothing. Hence, warmth, cleanliness and 
 health require that it should be frequently changed and 
 
 26 
 
294 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 thoroughly washed. Under-garments worn through the day 
 should not be worn through the night, nor the reverse. When 
 taken from the body, such garments should not be hung in 
 the closet or put into the drawer, but exposed to a current of 
 fresh air. 
 
 The covering of beds should be thoroughly aired every 
 morning, and frequently renewed. 
 
 599. Damp clothing is injurious. All articles from the 
 laundry should be well aired before being worn. When the 
 clothing is wet by accident or exposure, it should be changed 
 immediately, unless the person is exercising so vigorously as 
 to prevent the slightest chill. When the exercise ceases, the 
 body should be rubbed with a dry crash towel till a thorough 
 reaction takes place. 
 
 Beds and bedding that have not been used for some weeks 
 become damp, and should be dried before use. A hostess 
 cannot be guilty of a more inhospitable act than that of 
 sending her guest to her fine guest-chamber, to occupy a bed 
 which has been long unused. 
 
 600. BATHING is indispensable to sound health as well as 
 to cleanliness. The skin soon becomes covered with a mix- 
 ture of perspirable matter, oil and dust, which, if allowed to 
 remain, interferes with the action of the skin as an excretory 
 organ. This increases the action of the lungs, kidneys, liver, 
 etc., which take upon themselves the excretory work which 
 the skin fails to perform. By overwork they soon become 
 diseased, and if it is continued, the result will be consumption 
 and other diseases of the vital organs. Again, obstruction 
 of the pores will prevent respiration through the skin, and 
 deprive the blood of one source of its oxygen and one outlet 
 of its carbonic acid. 
 
 601. Bathing gives tone and vigor to the internal organs. 
 When cool water is applied to the body, the skin instantly 
 shrinks and the whole of its tissue contracts. This contrac- 
 tion diminishes the capacity of the blood-vessels, and a por- 
 tion of the blood is thrown upon the internal organs. The 
 nervous system is stimulated and communicates its stimulus 
 
THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 295 
 
 to the whole system. This causes a more energetic action of 
 the heart and blood-vessels, and a consequent rush of blood 
 back to the skin. This is the state termed reaction, the first 
 object and purpose of every form of bathing. By this re- 
 action the internal organs are relieved, respiration is light- 
 ened, the heart is made to beat calm and free, the tone of the 
 muscular system is increased, the appetite is sharpened, the 
 mind more clear and strong, and the whole system seems to 
 possess new power. Regularity in bathing is necessary to 
 produce permanently good effects. 
 
 602. The simplest modes of bathing are by means of the 
 sponge or the shallow baths. The body may be quickly 
 sponged over, wiped dry and followed by friction. The 
 water may be warm or cold. If cold, the bath should be 
 taken in, the early part of the day, and followed by exercise. 
 If exercise cannot be taken, the individual should rest under 
 covering. The warm bath should usually be taken just be- 
 fore retiring. If taken at other hours, it should be followed 
 by rest from half an hour to one hour under proper covering. 
 
 603. The shallow bath, in which the body is partly immersed 
 in water, is very pleasant and safe, provided the bather exer- 
 cises in it by vigorous rubbing and does not remain too long. 
 For a cold bath it is not often safe to exceed five minutes, 
 and with delicate persons the time should rarely exceed two 
 or three minutes. A bath is considered cold when below 
 75 ; temperate, from 75 to 85 ; tepid, 85 to 95. This 
 and every other form of bath should be followed by thorough 
 friction with a coarse towel or flesh-brush. 
 
 604. The frequency of bathing must depend upon the con- 
 dition and occupation of the individual. Daily bathing may 
 be practiced with profit by most persons, but to the studious 
 and sedentary it is in most cases absolutely indispensable. 
 
 605. The hour for ablution is of importance. It should 
 neither immediately precede nor follow a meal. The same is 
 true of severe mental and muscular exercise. The bath is 
 less beneficial in the afternoon than the forenoon. The best 
 time for cold baths is two or three hours after breakfast. 
 
296 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 The system is then at " flood- tide," while from that time till 
 the retiring hour the tide is ebbing ; hence, the worst time for 
 a cold bath is at bed-time. For those who cannot choose 
 their time, the hour of rising will answer very well that is, 
 for many persons, especially if they become accustomed to 
 the use of water by beginning at another and a better hour. 
 If the mind and body are brightened by the early bath, and 
 an exhilaration follows, the bath is beneficial ; if on the con- 
 trary, languor follows, and the skin looks blue or too pale, it 
 is injurious. That the bath is to be followed by exercise 
 must not be forgotten. 
 
 606. In diseases of the skin, and many chronic ailments of 
 the internal organs, bathing is a remedial measure of great 
 power. In disease which has baffled the skill of physicians 
 depending wholly upon internal remedies, the effect of a 
 systematic course of baths is often surprising. Like other 
 curative means, the baths should be directed by those who 
 thoroughly understand the use of water as a remedial agency. 
 Matters of diet, exercise, etc., require adaptation to the treat- 
 ment of the particular case. Those who desire the full benefit 
 of these means must avail themselves of the .appliances of a 
 well-conducted water-cure establishment. 
 
 607. A few simple rules must be observed in bathing. The 
 face and head should be wet in cold water before the bath. 
 Cool baths should not be taken when the person is chilly, 
 perspiring or greatly fatigued. All general baths should be 
 taken briskly, the skin well rubbed and quickly dried, fol- 
 lowed by a healthy glow over the whole body. Exercise 
 should immediately follow all baths. Warm baths at night 
 should be taken just before retiring; at other hours they 
 should be followed immediately by rest, under coverings, 
 after which exercise should be taken. 
 
 Soap is admirably adapted to the removal of dirt from 
 the skin, but if it is too freely used on the general sur- 
 face of the body, it dissolves the oily exudation of the seba- 
 ceous glands, leaving the skin dry or wrinkled. The ex- 
 ternal epithelial cells may be removed too rapidly when 
 
THE OKGANS OF SPECIAL, SENSE. 297 
 
 soap is used in excess, consequently the skin is not properly 
 protected. 
 
 608. Pure AIR is an agent of great importance in the 
 functions of the skin. It imparts to this membrane some 
 oxygen, and receives from it carbonic acid gas. It likewise 
 removes perspiration and portions of the oily secretion. 
 
 609. LIGHT exercises a very salutary influence upon the 
 skin. It is no less essential to the vigor of animal than of 
 vegetable life. Dwelling-houses should be built with refer- 
 ence to the free admission of sunlight and air into all occu- 
 pied rooms. The dark, damp rooms so much used by indi- 
 gent families and domestics in cities and large villages are 
 fruitful causes of vice, poverty and suffering. Ladies often 
 suffer seriously from too much exclusion of sunlight. Ex- 
 cepting in very warm weather, they should practice sitting 
 or exercising in the full sunshine of the out-door world. 
 
 610. BURNS AND SCALDS. When blisters are formed, the 
 epidermis is separated from the other layer of the skin by 
 the effusion of serum ; this fluid should be let free by punc- 
 turing the cuticle, care being taken not to remove the thin 
 raised skin, as it makes the best possible protection to the 
 sensitive, inflamed tissues beneath. When this thin outside 
 layer of skin is removed, immediately cover the denuded 
 parts with wheat flour, or a plaster made of lard and bees'- 
 wax or the white of an egg ; in a word, substitute a cuticle 
 to protect the exposed nerves from the air. When dressings 
 are applied, they should not be removed until they become 
 dryland irritating. 
 
 To prevent vesication, when only a small patch of the 
 skin is scalded or burned, apply steadily cold water until the 
 smarting pain ceases ; then put on a simple dressing, " not to 
 take out the fire or heal it," but to protect the injured 
 membrane. 
 
 611. When the epidermis, in particular spots, is exposed to 
 excessive pressure or friction, it becomes too much thickened, 
 producing Corns. They are not necessarily confined to the 
 feet, but are produced in front of the clavicle of the soldier 
 
 N* 
 
298 
 
 from the pressure of his musket, or on the knee of the cobbler 
 The pain of the callosity is due to their exciting inflamma- 
 tion in the sensitive dermis upon which they press. Remove 
 the pressure, and the affected part is restored to its normal 
 state. 
 
 612. FROST-BITE is usually manifested first upon parts un- 
 protected by covering, as the face or ears, and especially the 
 nose. In such case, the skin first becomes red, from con- 
 gestion of the dilated capillary vessels; next it becomes 
 bluish, from arrest of the circulation; and afterward of a 
 dead white hue. To restore circulation and sensibility, rub 
 the frozen part with snow or apply iced water. Keep the 
 sufferer at first in a cold room, and let the return to a higher 
 temperature be gradual and cautious, or gangrene may super- 
 vene. The Chilblain is not produced by the action of cold, 
 but by the effect of heat on the chilled extremity. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 CARE OF THE SICK. 
 
 $ 1. IN every home, however humble or dignified, woman is 
 usually the NURSE. Nature seems to have endowed her in an 
 especial manner to minister at the couch of disease and suffering. 
 To be a good nurse requires a high type of womanhood ; she 
 should have both mental and physical power, blended with integ- 
 rity and Christian trust. 
 
 If "good nursing is half the cure," how important that the 
 daughter be early taught how to prepare drinks and nourishments ; 
 to administer medicine ; and to perform the varied and important 
 duties of the faithful nurse ! 
 
 The physician well knows that his attentions upon the sick are 
 quite unavailing unless the nurse obeys his directions. For a 
 nurse, or immediate relatives or friends of the sick, to put their 
 judgment in opposition to that of the physician, is not only arro- 
 gant, but endangers the patient. The room for the sick should be 
 selected where sunlight may enter, and as far from external noise 
 as possible. It is poor economy, not to say unkind, to keep a sick 
 man in a small, ill-arranged bed-room, when a more spacious and 
 airy room is kept for only occasional "callers." All superfluous 
 furniture should be removed from the sick room. 
 
 In the first stages of disease, it is always proper treatment to 
 rest both body and mind. It is wrong to tempt the appetite of a 
 sick person ; the disinclination for food is the warning of Nature 
 that the system cannot well digest it. 
 
 The beneficial effects of bathing can hardly be over-estimated, 
 but the mode of the bath should be directed by the medical ad- 
 viser. The best time, however, for bathing is when the patient 
 feels most vigorous and freest from exhaustion. Care is necessary 
 to wipe dry the skin, particularly between the fingers and toes, and 
 
 299 
 
300 APPENDIX. 
 
 also the flexions of the joints. Friction from a brush, moreen 
 mitten or a dry flannel that has been saturated with salted water 
 tends to relieve restlessness in patients. Air-baths have a tran- 
 quillizing influence. 
 
 Quiet should reign m the sick room. No more persons should 
 enter or remain in it than the welfare of the patient demands. It 
 is the duty of the physician to direct when visitors should be ad- 
 mitted or excluded, and the nurse should enforce the directions. 
 The movements of the attendants should be gentle : no bustling to 
 "' clear up the room" at a fixed time ; this should be done quietly 
 and when it will give the least annoyance to the sick. (It may be 
 necessary to use a damp cloth in dusting the furniture, also the 
 carpet, especially if the patient has disease of the lungs. ) Creak- 
 ing hinges should be oiled; shutting doors violently and heavy 
 walking avoided. All unnecessary conversation should be deferred. 
 If a colloquy must be carried on, let the tone be so high that the 
 patient, if interested, can thoroughly comprehend it. 
 
 The making of the bed is often badly conducted. All bunches 
 should be removed, the material of the bed laid even and a thin 
 quilt spread smoothly over a mattress. When convenient, have the 
 head of the bed northerly (182), and so situated, at least, that the 
 sick man may look on something more pleasurable than a table of 
 glasses and phials. A nurse should never manifest impatience in 
 arranging the pillows, but try to adapt them to the comfort of the 
 weary patient. 
 
 All utensils employed in the sick room should be kept clean. 
 Water designed for the patient to drink should not stand long in 
 an open glass or pitcher, but be given fresh from a spring or well. 
 A very sick person is fatigued by being raised to receive drinks, 
 hence, a bent tube or a cup with a spout should be used. 
 
 Both the apparel and the bed-linen should be changed more fre- 
 quently in sickness than in health, and oftener in acute than in 
 chronic diseases. All clothing, whether from the laundry or 
 bureau, should be well dried and warmed by a fire previous to 
 being put on the bed or the patient. 
 
 No agent is of more importance to the sick room than pure air; 
 hence, the nurse, with all convenient speed, should remove every- 
 thing that can emit an unpleasant odor. She should be chary of 
 keeping ripe fruit or bouquets of flowers any length of time in the 
 sick chamber. When a disinfectant is needed, procure at the 
 druggist's, chloride of lime. To change quickly and effectively the 
 
APPENDIX. 301 
 
 air of the sick room, cover the patient's bed with an extra blanket 
 and closely envelop his head and neck, except the mouth and 
 nose ; the door and windows can then be safely opened for a short 
 time without detriment. After the windows are closed, retain the 
 extra coverings on the patient until the room is of proper warmth. 
 Unless duly protected, the patient should never feel currents of air, 
 although fresh air should be constantly admitted into the sick 
 room. 
 
 A well-adjusted thermometer is indispensable, as the feelings of 
 the patient or nurse are not to be relied on as a true index of the 
 temperature of the room. Regulating the warmth of the patient 
 is one of the many duties of the nurse. There is a " sweating tem- 
 perature;" when this is exceeded, perspiration will cease if it has 
 been present; or that it will not take place during a high tem- 
 perature. The patient should no more be allowed to complain of 
 too much heat, without an attempt at its reduction, than he should 
 be permitted to remain chilly when it is possible to remove it. 
 
 The nurse should not confine herself to the sick room longer 
 than six hours at a time. She should exercise daily in the open 
 air, also eat and sleep as regularly as possible. No doubts or fears 
 of the patient's recovery, either by a look or by a word, should be 
 communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick ; this duty 
 devolves upon the physician. 
 
 Medicines assist the natural powers of the system to remove dis- 
 ease. They should be given regularly, judiciously and with a 
 cheerful manner. Life itself is often at the mercy of the nurse, 
 and depends on the faithful discharge of her duty. 
 
 Drinks have a more decided influence upon the system than is 
 generally admitted ; hence, the nurse should never depart from 
 the quality of the drink, nor even exceed the due or prescribed 
 quantity. Giving "herb teas" without the sanction of the phy- 
 sician may cause serious evil. 
 
 The food of the sick should be prepared in the neatest and most 
 careful manner, and the nurse ought to obey implicitly the phy- 
 sician's directions about diet. When a patient is convalescent, the 
 desire for food is generally strong; great care, firmness and pa- 
 tience is required, that the food be prepared suitably and given at 
 the proper time. 
 
 We append a few modes of preparing nourishment for the sick. 
 
 CRUST COFFEE. Take light, sweet bread or crackers, and brown 
 them thoroughly as you would coffee berry ; when wanted for use, 
 26 
 
302 APPENDIX. 
 
 pour over boiling water (the crusts will admit of several replenish- 
 ings of boiling water) ; add sugar and cream to suit the condition 
 of the patient. 
 
 GRUELS. Corn meal requires to be boiled several hours to be 
 suitable nourishment for the sick. The mode of preparing gruel 
 should be suited to the case and directed by the physician. Wheat, 
 or oat-meal, farina and sago, can be prepared in less time, though 
 they must be well cooked. Add salt while cooking. 
 
 Egg Gruel. Take the yolks of two eggs, boiled hard, and with 
 a knife reduce them to a fine powder ; beat this into a flour gruel 
 made of new milk; salt and spices may be added if the condition 
 of the patient admits. 
 
 BEEP TEA. Meat contains principles that may be extracted, 
 some by cold, others by warm, and others, again, by boiling, water ; 
 it should be cut very fine, and submitted for three hours each time, 
 in succession, to half its weight of cold, of warm and of boiling 
 water ; the fluids strained from the first and second macerations 
 are to be mixed with that strained from the boiling process, and 
 the mixture should be brought to a boiling heat to cook it the fat 
 skimmed off ; add a few drops of some acid, with salt, for a flavor. 
 
 g 2. The duty of the WATCHER is scarcely less responsible than 
 that of the nurse ; and, like the nurse, she should ever be cheerful, 
 kind, firm and attentive in the presence of the patient. 
 
 The watcher should be prompt, and reach the house of the sick 
 at an early hour ; before entering the sick room, she should eat a 
 simple, nutritious supper, and also during the night take some 
 plain food. She should be furnished with an extra garment, as a 
 heavy shawl, to wear toward morning, when the system becomes 
 exhausted. 
 
 The directions about the sick, especially the administration of 
 medicine, should be written for the temporary watcher. Whatever 
 may be wanted during the night should be brought into the sick 
 chamber or the adjoining room before the family retires to sleep, 
 that the slumbers of the patient be not disturbed by haste or 
 searching for needed articles. 
 
 Sperm candles are preferable for the sick room. Kerosene, in 
 burning, emits a disagreeable odor, often annoying to the patient. 
 All lights ought to be so arranged as not to be reflected in the part 
 of the room where the sick lie. 
 
 It is not necessary that watchers make themselves acceptable to 
 
APPENDIX. 303 
 
 the patient by exhausting conversation. If two watchers are 
 needed, it is more imperative that they refrain from talking, and 
 particularly whispering. 
 
 Most sick persons have special need of nourishment about four 
 or five o'clock in the morning. 
 
 When taking care of the sick, light-colored clothing should be 
 worn in preference to dark apparel, especially if the disease is 
 of a contagious character. It is always safe for the watcher to 
 change her apparel worn in the sick chamber before entering upon 
 her family duties. Disease is often communicated by the clothing. 
 
 It can hardly be expected that the farmer who has been laboring 
 hard in the field, or the mechanic who has toiled during the day, 
 is qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick person 
 requires. Hence, would it not be more benevolent and economical 
 to employ and pay watchers who are qualified by knowledge and 
 training to perform this duty in a faithful manner, while the 
 kindness and sympathy of friends may be practically manifested 
 by assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful 
 assistants ? 
 
 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
 
 \ 3. POISONING, either from accident or design, is of such fre- 
 quency, that every household should keep some available remedy, 
 and every person should know what to do in such alarming contin- 
 gencies. Nearly every poison has its antidote, which, if used at 
 once, may prevent much suffering and even death. 
 
 When known that poison has been taken into the stomach, the 
 first thing is to evacuate it by the use of the stomach-pump or an 
 emetic, unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. 
 
 As an emetic, ground Mustard mixed in warm water is always 
 safe. Take one tablespoonful to one pint of warm water. Give the 
 patient one-half in the first instance, and the remainder in fifteen 
 minutes, if vomiting has not commenced. In the interval, drink 
 copious draughts of warm water. Irritate the throat with a feather 
 or the finger, to induce vomiting. After vomiting has begun, give 
 mucilaginous drinks; such as flaxseed tea, gum-arabic water, or 
 slippery elm. 
 
 If the patient is drowsy, give a strong infusion of cold coffee, 
 keep him walking, slap smartly on the back, use electricity ; it may 
 be well to dash cold water on the head, to keep the patient awake 
 
304 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 After the poison is evacuated from the stomach, to sustain vita) 
 action, give warm water and wine or brandy. If the limbs are cold, 
 apply warmth and friction. 
 
 In ALL cases of poisoning, call immediately a physician, as the 
 after-treatment is of great importance. 
 
 POISONS. 
 
 Aconite (Monkshood). 
 Belladona (Deadly Night-Shade). 
 Bryony. 
 Camphor. 
 
 Conium ^ ^ 
 
 Cicuta } (Water Hemlock). 
 
 Croton Oil. 
 
 Digitalis (Foxglove). 
 
 Dulcamara (Bitter-Sweet). 
 
 Gamboge. 
 
 Hyoscyamus (Henbane). 
 
 Laudanum. 
 
 Lobelia. 
 
 Morphine. 
 
 Opium. 
 
 Paregoric. 
 
 Sanguinara (Blood-Hoot). 
 
 Savin Oil. 
 
 Spigelia (Carolina Pink). 
 
 Stramonium (Thorn Apple). 
 
 Strychnine (Nux Vomica). 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Arnica. 
 
 Prussic Acid. 
 
 Bitter Almonds (Oil of). 
 
 Laurel Water. 
 
 Ammonia (Hartshorn). 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Soda. 
 
 ANTIDOTES OB REMEDIES FOB POISONS. 
 
 For Vegetable poisons give an emetic 
 of Mustard; drink freely of warm 
 water; irritate the throat with a 
 feather to induce vomiting. Keep 
 the patient awake until a phy- 
 sician arrives. 
 
 Iodine. 
 
 Vinegar and water. 
 
 } Drink, at once, one teaspoonful of 
 Water of Hartshorn (ammonia) in 
 one pint of water. 
 
 Antidote is Vinegar or Lemon Juice; 
 followed with sweet, castor or lin- 
 seed oil. Thick cream is a sub- 
 stitute for oil. No emetic. 
 
 "I Starch or wheat flour beat in water, 
 / Take a Mustard emetic. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 305 
 
 POISONS. 
 
 Saltpetre (Nitrate of Potassa). 
 Chili Saltpetre (Nitrate of Soda), j 
 
 ANTIDOTES OR REMEDIES FOR POISONS. 
 1 Take at once, a Mustard emetic; 
 > drink copious draughts of warm 
 
 water ; followed with oil or cream. 
 
 }Two teaspoonfuls of table salt (chlo- 
 ride of sodium) mixed in one pint 
 of water. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate (bug poison). 
 White Precipitate. 
 Bed Precipitate. 
 Vermilion. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Cobalt (fly powder). 
 
 King's Yellow. 
 
 Ratsbane. 
 
 Scheele's Green. 
 
 Acetate of Lead (Sugar of Lead). 
 
 White Lead. 
 
 Litharge. 
 
 Antimony ("Wine of). 
 Tartar Emetic. 
 
 Pearl-ash. 
 
 Ley (from wood-ashes). 
 
 Salts of Tartar. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). 
 Nitric " (Aquafortis). 
 
 Muriatic " (Marine). 
 Oxalic Acid. 
 
 26* 
 
 Beat the Whites of six Eggs in one 
 quart of cold water; give a cup- 
 ful every two minutes, to induce 
 vomiting. A substitute for white 
 of eggs is soap-suds slightly thick- 
 ened with wheat flour. Emetics 
 should not be given. 
 
 Use a stomach-pump as quickly as 
 possible, or give a Mustard emetic 
 until one is obtained. After free 
 vomiting, give large quantities 
 of Calcined Magnesia. The anti- 
 dote for Arsenic is Hydrated Per- 
 oxide of Iron. 
 
 Use a Mustard emetic ; followed by 
 Epsom or Glauber Salts. The 
 antidote is diluted Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 The antidote is ground Nutgall. A 
 substitute, oak or Peruvian bark ; 
 followed by a teaspoonful of pare- 
 goric. 
 
 } Drink freely of Vinegar and water ; 
 followed with a mucilage, as flax- 
 seed tea. 
 
 Drink largely of water or a muci- 
 lage. It is important that some- 
 thing be given quickly, to neu- 
 tralize the acid. The antidote is 
 Calcined Magnesia. Chalk, lime, 
 strong soap-suds are substitutes 
 for magnesia. 
 
306 APPENDIX. 
 
 POISONS. ANTIDOTES OR REMEDIES FOR POISONS. 
 
 ^ Give two tablespoonfuls of Calcined 
 Matches (Phosphorus). ,, . ,, :. , , ., 
 
 > Maqnesia; followed by mucilag- 
 Kat Exterminator. . y , . ' J 
 
 ) mous drinks. 
 
 Verdigris. "The antidote is Cooking Soda, or 
 
 Blue Vitriol. J White of Eggs. Drink milk freely. 
 
 Sting of Insects. 
 
 Ammonia, or cooking soda moistened 
 with water, applied in the form 
 of a paste. The wound may be 
 sucked, followed by applications 
 of water. 
 
 Charcoal Fumes. 1 Fresh air and Artificial Bespira- 
 
 Gas or Burning Fluid. / tion. 
 
 For the Treatment of Wounds and Arrest of Hemorrhage (363). 
 For the Eecovery of Asphyxiated Persons (430). 
 For Burns and Scalds (610). 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 AB-DO/MEN. [L. abdo, to hide.] That part 
 of the body which lies between the tho- 
 rax and the bottom of the pelvis. 
 
 AB-DOM'IN-IS. Pertaining to the abdomen. 
 
 AB-DCC/TOR. [L. abduco, to lead away.] A 
 mnscle which moves certain parts, by 
 separating them from the axis of the 
 body. 
 
 A-CE-TAB/C-LUM. [L. acetum, vinegar.] The 
 socket for the head of the thigh-bone; 
 an ancient vessel for holding vinegar. 
 
 A-CE/TIC. [L. acetum, vinegar.] Relating 
 to acetic acid. This is always composed 
 of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in the 
 same proportion. 
 
 A-CHII/US. A term applied to the tendon 
 of the two large muscles of the leg. 
 
 A-CROftm-oN. Gr. a/cpos, akros, highest, and 
 w/xos, omos, shoulder.] A process of the 
 scapula that joins to the clavicle. 
 
 AD-DUC'TOR. [L. adduco, to lead to.] A 
 muscle which draws one part of the 
 body toward another. 
 
 AL-BU'MEN. [L. albus, white.] An animal 
 substance of the same nature as the 
 white of an egg. 
 
 A-LU'MIN-UM. [L.] The name given to the 
 metallic base of alumina. 
 
 AL/VE-O-LAR. [L. alveolus, a socket.] Per- 
 taining to the sockets of the teeth. 
 
 AM-HO/NI-A. An alkali. It is composed 
 of three equivalents of hydrogen and one 
 of nitrogen. 
 
 AM-PHI-AR-THRO/SIS. [Gr. aju.0t, amphi, 
 both, and apflpooSta, arthrodia, well arti- 
 culated.] A mixed articulation. 
 
 A-NAS/TO-MOSE. [Gr. ava, ana, through, 
 and orojota, stoma, mouth.] The com- 
 munication of arteries and veins with 
 each other. 
 
 AN-A-TOM/I-CAL. Relating to the parts of 
 the body when dissected or separated. 
 
 A-NAT'O-MY. [Gr. ova, ana, through, and 
 TOJXTJ, tome, a cutting.] The description 
 of the structure of animals. The word 
 anatomy properly signifies dissection. 
 
 AN-GI-OI/O-GT. [Gr. ayyeiov, angeion, a 
 vessel, and Aoyos, logos, discourse.] A 
 description of the vessels of the body; 
 as the veins and arteries. 
 
 AN/QU-LI. [L. anguhis, a corner.] A term 
 applied to certain muscles on account 
 of their form. 
 
 AN-I-MAI/CC-LS. [L. animalcula, a little 
 animal.] Animals that are only per- 
 ceptible by means of a microscope. 
 
 AN/NU-LAR. [L. annulus, a ring.] Having 
 the form of a ring. 
 
 AN-TI'CUS. [L.] A term applied to certain 
 muscles. 
 
 A-ORT/A. [Gr. aopnj, aorte; from aijp, aer, 
 air, and rrjpeo), tereo, to keep.] The great 
 artery that arises from the left ventricle 
 of the heart. 
 
 AP-O-NEU-RO/SIS. [Gr. airo, apo, from, and 
 vevpov, neuron, a nerve.] The mem- 
 branous expansions of muscles and ten- 
 dons. The ancients called every white 
 tendon neuron, a nerve. 
 
 AP-PA-RA/TUS. [L. apparo, to prepare.] An 
 assemblage of organs designed to produce 
 certain results. 
 
 AP-PEND/IX. [L. ad and pendeo, to hang 
 from.] Something appended or added. 
 
 A/QUE-OUS. [L. aqua, water.] Partaking 
 of the nature of water. 
 
 A-RACH/NOID. [Gr. apaxvrj, arachne, a spider, 
 and eios, etdos, form.] Resembling a 
 spider's web. A thin membrane that 
 covers the brain. 
 
 AE/BOR. [L.J A tree. Arbor vitse. The 
 tree of life. A term applied to a part of 
 the cerebellum. 
 
 AB/TE-RT. [Gr. <njp, aer, air, and rqpeco, 
 307 
 
308 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 tereo, to keep; because the ancients 
 thought that the arteries contained only 
 air.] v A tube through which blood flows 
 from the heart. 
 
 A-RYT-E/sroiD. [Gr. apvraiva, arutaina, a 
 ewer, and ei5o?, etdos, form.] The name 
 of a cartilage of the larynx. 
 
 AS-CEND/ENS. [L.J Ascending; rising. 
 
 As-PHYXft-A. [Gr. a, a, not, and <r<fvfi?, 
 sphyxis, pulse.] Originally, want of 
 pulse; now used for suspended respira- 
 tion, or apparent death. 
 
 AS-TRAG'A-LUS. [Gr.] The name of a bone 
 of the foot. One of the tarsal bones. 
 
 AUD-I/TION. [L. audio, to hear.] Hearing. 
 
 ATJD-IT-O'RI-US. [L.] Pertaining to the or- 
 gan of hearing. 
 
 AU/RI-CLE. [L. auricula, the external ear ; 
 from auris, the ear.] A cavity of the 
 heart. 
 
 AX-II/LA. [L.] The armpit. 
 
 AxfrL-LA-RY. Belonging or relating to the 
 armpit. 
 
 A-ZOTB/. [Gr. a, a, not, and fwij, zoe, life.] 
 Nitrogen. One of the constituent ele- 
 ments of the atmosphere. So named be- 
 cause it will not sustain life. 
 
 BEN-ZO/IC. Benzole add. A peculiar vege- 
 table acid obtained from benzoin and 
 
 some other balsams. 
 BICEPS. [L. bis, twice, and caput, a head.] 
 
 A name applied to muscles with two 
 
 heads at one extremity. 
 BI-CUS/PIDS. [L. bis, two, and cuspis, a point.] 
 
 Teeth that have two points upon their 
 
 crown. 
 BILE. [L. bilis.'] A yellow, viscid fluid 
 
 secreted by the liver. 
 BI-PEN/NI-FORM. [L. bis, two, and penna, a 
 
 feather.] Haying fibres on each Bide of 
 
 a common tendon. 
 BRACH/I-AL. [L. brachium.] Belonging to 
 
 the arm. 
 BRE/VIS. [L.] Brevis, short; brevior, 
 
 shorter. 
 BRONCH/I-A, -.a. [L.] A division of the 
 
 trachea that passes to the lungs. 
 BRONCH-I/TIS. [L.] An inflammation of 
 
 the bronchia. 
 BCC-CI-NA^TOR. [L. buccinum, a trumpet.] 
 
 The name of a muscle of the cheek, so 
 
 named because used in blowing wind 
 
 instruments. 
 
 MU-CO/SA [L. bvrsa, a purse, and 
 mucosa, viscous.] Small sacs, containing 
 a viscid fluid, situated about the joints, 
 under tendons. 
 
 . [L.] Blind; the name given to 
 
 the commencement of the colon. 
 CAI/CI-CM. [L.] The metallic basis of lime 
 CALX, CAI/CIS. [L.] The heel-bone. 
 CAP/IL-LA-RY. [L. capillus, a hair.] Re- 
 
 sembling a hair; a small tube. 
 CAP/SULE. [L. capsula, a little chest.] A 
 
 membranous bag, enclosing a part. 
 CA/PUT. [L.] The head. Caput coli, the 
 
 head of the colon. 
 CAR/BON. [L. carbo, a coal.] Pure charcoal 
 
 An elementary combustible substance. 
 CAR-BON/IO. Pertaining to carbon. 
 CAR/M-AC. [Gr. icapSia, kardia, heart.] 
 
 Relating to the heart, or upper orifice 
 
 of the stomach. 
 CAR/NE-A, -.s. [L. caro, carnis, flesh.] 
 
 Fleshy. 
 CA-ROT/JD. [Gr. icapo?, Jcaros, lethargy.] 
 
 The great arteries of the neck that con- 
 
 vey blood to the heart. The ancients 
 
 supposed drowsiness to be seated in 
 
 these arteries. 
 
 CAR/PUS, -i. [L.] The wrist. 
 CAR/TI-LAGE. [L. cartilago.] Gristle. A 
 
 smooth, elastic substance, softer than 
 
 bone. 
 
 CAU-CA/SIAN. One of the races of men. 
 CA/VA. [L.] Hollow. Vena Cava. A name 
 
 given to the two great veins of the body. 
 CEI/LU-LAR. [L. cellula, a little cell.] Com- 
 
 posed of cells. 
 CER-E-BEI/LUM. [L.] The hinder and 
 
 lower part of the brain, or the little 
 
 brain. 
 CER/E-BRO-SPI^NAL. Relating to the brain 
 
 and spine. 
 CEB/E-BRUM. [L.] The front and large 
 
 part of the brain. The term is some- 
 
 times applied to the whole contents of 
 
 the cranium. 
 
 CER/VI-CAL. Relating to the neck. 
 CER/VIX. [L.] The neck. 
 CHEST. [Sax.] The thorax ; the trunk of 
 
 the body from the neck to the abdomen. 
 CHLO/RINE. [Gr. x^pos* chloros, green.] 
 
 Chlorine gas, so named from its color. 
 CHOR/DA, -.. [L.] A cord. An assemblage 
 
 of fibres. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 309 
 
 CHO/ROID. [Gr. xP iOV > chorion.'] A term 
 applied to several parts of the body that 
 resemble the skin. 
 
 CHYLE. [Gr. \v\os, chulos, jnice.] A nutri- 
 tive fluid, of a whitish appearance, which 
 is extracted from food by the action of 
 the digestive organs. 
 
 CHYL-I-FI-CA/TION. [L. chylus, chyle, and 
 facio, to make.] The process by which 
 chyle is formed. 
 
 CHYME. [Gr. x"M<>s, chumos, juice.] A kind 
 of grayish pulp formed from the food In 
 the stomach. 
 
 CHYM-I-F-ICA/TION. [L. chumos, chyme, and 
 facio, to make.] The process by which 
 chyme is formed. 
 
 CII/IA-RT. [L. cilia, eyelashes.] Belonging 
 to the eyelids. 
 
 CIN-E-RI/TIOCS. [L. cinus, ashes.] Having 
 the color of ashes. 
 
 CLAV'I-CLB. [L. clavicula, from clams, a 
 key.] The collar-bone; so called from 
 its resemblance in shape to an ancient 
 key. 
 
 CLEI/DO. A term applied to some muscles 
 that are attached to the clavicle. 
 
 CO-AG^U-LUM. [L.] A coagulated mass; a 
 clot of blood. 
 
 COC/CYX. [Gr.] An assemblage of bones 
 joined to the sacrum. 
 
 COCH/LE-A. [Gr. KoxAw, kochto, to twist ; or 
 L. cochlea, a screw.] A cavity of the ear 
 resembling in form a snail-shell. 
 
 Cofam. [Gr. KcoAov, kolon, I arrest.] A por- 
 tion of the large intestine. 
 
 CO-LUM/NA, -M. [L.] A column or pillar. 
 
 COM/MIS-SURE.' [L. committo, I join to- 
 gether.] A point of union between two 
 parts. 
 
 CoM-Mufais. [L.] A name applied to cer- 
 tain muscles. 
 
 COM-PLEX/US. [L. complecfor, to embrace.] 
 The name of a muscle that embraces 
 many attachments. 
 
 COM-PRESS/OR. [L. con, together, and premo, 
 pr&ssus, to press.] A term applied to some 
 muscles that compress the parts to which 
 they are attached. 
 
 CON/DYLE. [Gr. KovSvAo?, kondulos, a 
 knuckle, a protuberance.] A promi- 
 nence on the end of a bone. 
 
 CON-JUNC-TI^VA. [L. con, together, andjungo, 
 to join.] The membrane that covers the 
 anterior part of tne globe of the eye. 
 
 COP'PER. A metal of a pale red coK r tinged 
 
 with yellow. 
 COR-A/COID. [Gr. /copaf, korax, a crow, and 
 
 So?, etdos, form.] A process of the 
 
 scapula shaped like the beak of a crow. 
 CO'RI-UM. [Gr. xP">", chorion, skin.] The 
 
 true skin. 
 
 CoRitfi-A. [L. cornu, a horn.] The trans- 
 parent membrane in the fore part of the 
 
 eye. 
 COR/PO-RA. [L. corpus, a body.] The name 
 
 given to eminences or projections found 
 
 in the brain and some other parts of the 
 
 body. 
 COS/TA. [L. costa, a coast, siue or rib.] 
 
 A rib. 
 CRIB/RI-FORM. [L. cribrum, a sieve, and 
 
 forma, form.] A plate of the ethmoid 
 
 bone, through which the olfactory nerve 
 
 passes to the nose. 
 CRI/COID. [Gr. Kpticos, krikos, a ring, and 
 
 eiSos, etdos, form.] A name given to a 
 
 cartilage of the larynx, from its form. 
 CRYSTAL-LINE. [L. crystallinus, consisting 
 
 of crystal.] Crystalline lens, one of the 
 
 humors of the eye. It is convex, white, 
 
 firm and transparent. 
 CU'BI-TUS, -i. [L. cubitus, the elbow.] One 
 
 of the bones of the forearm, also called 
 
 the ulna. 
 CU/BOID. [Gr. Kvj3o?, Tcubos, a cube, and 
 
 eiSo?, etdos, form.] Having nearly the 
 
 form of a cube. 
 CU-NE/I-FORM. [L. cuneus, a wedge.] The 
 
 name of bones in the wrist and foot. 
 CUS/PID. [L. cuspis, a point.] Having one 
 
 point. 
 CU-TA^NE-OUS. [L. cutis, skin.] Belonging 
 
 to the skin. 
 CU/TI-CLE. [L. cutis.] The external layer 
 
 of the skin. 
 CO/TIS VE/RA. [L. cutis, skin, and vera, 
 
 true.] The internal layer of the skin; 
 
 the true skin. 
 
 DE-CUS-SA/TION. [L. decutio, I divide.] A 
 union in the shape of an X or cross. 
 
 DEL/TOID. [Gr. SeA/ro, delta, the Greek let- 
 ter A, and eiSo?, etdos, form ] The name 
 of a muscle that resembles in form the 
 Greek letter A. 
 
 DENT/AL. [L. dens, tooth.] Pertaining to 
 the teeth. 
 
 DE-PRESS/OR. [L.] The name of a muscle 
 
310 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 that draws down the part to which it is 
 attached. 
 
 DERM'OID. [Gr. fiep/oto, derma, the skin, 
 and 8os, etdos, form.] Resembling skin. 
 
 DB-SCEND/ENS. [L. de and scando, to climb.] 
 Descending, falling. 
 
 DtfA-PHRAGM. [Gr. fiia<pavnxa, diaphragma, 
 a partition.] The midriff; a muscle sepa- 
 rating the chest from the abdomen. 
 
 DI-AR-RHOE/A. [Gr. Siappew, diarrheo, to flow 
 through.] A morbidly frequent evacua- 
 tion of the intestines. 
 
 DI-AR-THRO'SIS. [Gr. 810, dia, through, and 
 apOpovv, arthroun, to fasten by a joint.] 
 An articulation which permits the bones 
 to moTO freely on each other in every 
 direction. 
 
 DI-AS/TO-LE. [Gr. fiiaoreAAw, diastello, to 
 put asunder.] The dilatation of the 
 heart and arteries when the blood enters 
 them. 
 
 DI-GES/TION. [L. digestio.] The process of 
 dissolving food in the stomach and pre- 
 paring it for circulation and nourish- 
 ment. 
 
 DIG-I-TO/RUM. [L. digittis, a finger.] A 
 term applied to certain muscles of the 
 extremities. 
 
 DOR/SAL. [L. dorsum, the back.] Pertain- 
 ing to the back. 
 
 DU-O-DE/NUM. [L, duodenus, of twelve 
 fingers' breadth.] The first portion of 
 the small intestine. 
 
 DU/RA MA/TER. [L. durus, hard, and 
 mater, mother.] The outermost mem- 
 brane of the brain. 
 
 DYB/EN-TER-Y. [Gr. Svs, dus, bad, and 
 cvrepia, enteria, intestines.] A discharge 
 of blood and mucus from the intestines 
 attended with tenesmus. 
 
 Drs-PEp/si-A. [Gr. Sus, dus, bad, and netrro), 
 pepto, to digest.] Indigestion, or diffi- 
 culty of digestion. 
 
 EN-AM'EL. [Fr.] The smooth, hard sab- 
 stance which covers the crown or visible 
 part of a tooth. 
 
 EN-DOS-MO'SIS. [Gr. evSov, endon, within, 
 and oxrfxo?, osmos, to push.] The trans- 
 mission of fluids through membranes, 
 inward. 
 
 E-PEN'DY-MA. [Gr.] The membrane which 
 lines the ventricles of the brain. 
 
 EP-I-DERM'IS. [Gr. CTTI, epi, upon, and 
 
 Sepua, derma, the skin.] The superficial 
 layer of the skin. 
 
 EP-I-QLOT^TIS. [Gr. CTTI, epi, upon, and 
 yAwrra, glotta, the tongue.] One of the 
 cartilages of the glottis. 
 
 ETH'MOID. [Gr. Tj0/xos, etiimos, a sieve, and 
 ei8os, etdos, a form.] A bone of the skull. 
 
 EU-STA/CHI-AN TUBE. A channel from the 
 fauces to the middle ear, named from 
 Eustachius, who first described it. 
 
 EX'CRE-MENT. [L. cxcerno, to separate.] 
 Matter excreted and ejected ; alvine dis- 
 charges. 
 
 EX'CRE-TO-RY. A little duct or vessel, des- 
 tined to receive secreted fluids and tc 
 excrete or discharge them ; also a se- 
 cretory vessel. 
 
 EX-HA/LANT. [L. exhalo, to send forth 
 vapor.] Having the quality of exhaling 
 or evaporating. 
 
 EX-TENS/OR. [L.] A name applied to a 
 muscle that serves to extend any part 
 of the body ; opposed to Flexor. 
 
 FA/CIAL. [L. fades, face.] Pertaining to 
 the face. 
 
 FALX. [L. falx, a scythe.] A process of 
 the dura mater shaped like a scythe. 
 
 FAS/CI-A. [L. fascia, a band.] A tendinous 
 expansion or aponeurosis. 
 
 FAS-CIC/U-LUS, -LI. [L. fastis, a bundle.] 
 A little bundle. 
 
 FAUX, -CE8. [L.] The top of the throat. 
 
 FEM/O-RAL. Pertaining to the femur. 
 
 FE/MUR. [L.] The thigh-bone. 
 
 FE-NES/TRA, -UM. [L. fenestra, a window.] 
 A term applied to some openings into 
 the internal ear. 
 
 FI/BRE. [L.fibra.] An organic filament or 
 thread which enters into the composition 
 of every animal and vegetable texture. 
 
 FI/BRIN. A peculiar organic substance 
 found in animals and vegetables ; it is a 
 solid substance, tough, elastic and com- 
 posed of thready fibres. 
 
 FI/BRO-CAR/TI-LAGE. An organic tissue, par- 
 taking of the nature of fibrous tissue and 
 that of cartilage. 
 
 FIB/U-LA. [L., a clasp.] The outer and 
 lessor bone of the leg. 
 
 FII/A-MENT. [L.filamenta, threads.] A fine 
 thread, of which flesh, nerves, skin, etc., 
 are composed. 
 
 FLEX'ION. [L.Jlectio.] The act of bending. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 311 
 
 FOI/LI-CLE. [L. folliculus, a small bag.] 
 
 A gland ; a little bag in animal bodies. 
 FORI/ARM. The part of the upper extremity 
 
 between the elbow and hand. 
 FOS/SA. [L., a ditch.] A cavity in a bone, 
 
 with a large aperture. 
 FRJE/NUM. [L., a bridle.] Frsenum linguse, 
 
 the bridle of the tongue. 
 FUNC/TION. [L. fungor, to perform.] The 
 
 action of an organ or system of organs. 
 FCN/GI-FORM. [L. fungus and forma.'] 
 
 Having terminations like the head of a 
 
 fungus, or a mushroom. 
 
 GAN/GLI-ON, -A. [Gr.] An enlargement in 
 the course of a nerve. 
 
 GASTRIC. [Gr. yacmjp, gaster, the stomach.] 
 Belonging to the stomach. 
 
 GAS-TROC-NE/MI-US. [Gr. yewmjp, gaster, the 
 stomach, and KVTJUJI, kneme, the leg.] 
 The name of large, muscles of the leg. 
 
 GEI/A-TIN. [L. gdo, to congeal.] A con- 
 crete animal substance, transparent and 
 soluble in water. 
 
 GING/LY-FORM. [Gr. yiyyAv/mos, ginglymos, 
 a knife-like joint, and eifios, etdos, a 
 form.] An articulation that only admits 
 of motion in two directions. 
 
 GLE/NOID. [Gr. yArjvij, glene, a cavity.] A 
 term applied to some articulate cavities 
 of bones. 
 
 GLOS/SA. [Gr.] The tongue. Names com- 
 pounded with this word are applied to 
 muscles of the tongue. 
 
 GLOS/SO-PHA-RTN/GI-AL. Relating to the 
 tongue and pharynx. 
 
 GLOT/TIS. [Gr.] The narrow opening at 
 the upper part of the larynx. 
 
 GLU/TE-CS. [Gr.] A name given to muscles 
 of the hip. 
 
 GOM-PHO/sia. [Gr. yo^ovv, gomphoun, a 
 nail.] The immovable articulation of the 
 teeth with the jaw-bone, like a nail in a 
 board. 
 
 HEM'OR-RHAGE. [Gr. aipa, haima, blood, 
 and pnyvvia, regnuo, to burst.] A dis- 
 charge of blood from an artery or brain. 
 
 HIS-TOI/O-GY. [Gr. ioros, histos, tissue, and 
 Aoyo?, logos, discourse.] A description 
 of the minute structure of the body. 
 
 HU/MER-US. [L.] The bone of the arm. 
 
 HY/A-LOID. [Gr.] A transparent mem- 
 brane of the eye. 
 
 HY/DRO-GEN. [Gr. vSwp, fiydor, Mater, and 
 yevvaw, gennao, to generate.] A gaa 
 which constitutes one of the elements 
 of water. 
 
 HY/GI-ENE. [Gr. vyieivov, hugietnon, health.] 
 The part of medicine which treats of the 
 preservation of health. 
 
 HY/OID. [Gr. v and eiSos, etdos, shape.] 
 A bone of the tongue resembling the 
 Greek letter Upsilon in shape. 
 
 HY/PO-GLOS/SAI,. Under the tongue. The 
 name of a nerve of the tongue. 
 
 II/E-UM. [Gr. Ao>, eilo, to wind.] A por- 
 
 tion of the small intestines. 
 II/I-UM. The haunch-bone. 
 IN-CI'SOR. [L. incido, to cut.] A front 
 
 tooth that cuts or divides. 
 IN/DEX. [L. indico, to show.] The fore- 
 
 finger; the pointing finger. 
 IN-NOM-I-NA/TA. [L. in, not, and nomen, 
 
 name.] Parts which have no proper name, 
 IN-OS/CU-LATE. [L. in, and osculatus, from 
 
 osculor, to kiss.] To unite, as two ves- 
 
 sels at their extremities. 
 .IN/TER. [L.] Between. 
 IN-TER-COST/AL. [L. inter, between, and 
 
 costa, a rib.] Between the ribs. 
 IN-TER-NO'DI-I. [L. inter, between, and 
 
 nodus, knot.] A term applied to some 
 
 muscles of the forearm. 
 IN-TER-STI/TIAL. [L. inter, between, and 
 
 sto, to stand.] Pertaining to or contain- 
 
 ing interstices. 
 IN-TES/TINES. [L. intus, within.] The canal 
 
 that extends from the stomach to the 
 
 anus. 
 I/RIS. [L., the rainbow.] The colored circle 
 
 that surrounds the pupil of the eye. 
 I/VO-RY. A hard, solid, fine-grained sub 
 
 stance of a fine white color ; the tusk of 
 
 an elephant. 
 
 [L., empty.] A portion of the 
 small intestine. 
 
 JO/GU-LAR. [L. jugulum, the neck.] Re- 
 lating to the throat. The great veins 
 of the neck. 
 
 LA/BI-UM, LA/BI-I. [L.] The lips. 
 LAB/Y-RINTH. [Gr.J v 'The internal ear, so 
 
 named from its many windings. 
 LACH/RY-MAL. [L. lachryma, a tear.] Per- 
 
 taining to tears. 
 
312 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 LAC^TE-AL. [L. lac, milk.] A small vessel 
 or tube of animal bodies for conveying 
 chyle from the intestine to the thoracic 
 duct. 
 
 LAM'I-NA, -x. [L.] A plate or thin coat 
 lying over another. 
 
 LAR/TNX. [Gr. \apvyf , larunx.] The upper 
 part of the windpipe. 
 
 LAR-TN-GI/TIS. Inflammation of the larynx. 
 
 LA-TIS/SI-MUS, -MI. [L., superlative of latus, 
 broad.] A term applied to some muscles. 
 
 LE-VA/TOR. [L. levo, to raise.] A name ap- 
 plied to a muscle that raises some part. 
 
 LIG/A-MENT. [L. ligo, to bind.] A strong, 
 compact substance serving to bind one 
 bone to another. 
 
 LIN/E-A, -M. [L.] A line. 
 
 LIN/GUA, -JE. [L.] A tongue. 
 
 LIV'ER. The name of one of the abdominal 
 organs, the largest gland in the system. 
 It is situated below the diaphragm, and 
 secretes the bile. 
 
 LOBE. A round projecting part of an organ. 
 
 LON/GUS, LON'GI-OR. [L., long, longer.] A 
 term applied to several muscles. 
 
 LUM/BAR. [L. lumbus, the loins.] Pertain- 
 ing to the loins. 
 
 LYMPH. [L. lympha, water.] A colorless 
 fluid in animal bodies, and contained in 
 vessels called lymphatics. 
 
 LYM-PHAT/IC. A vessel of animal bodies that 
 contains or conveys lymph. 
 
 MAG-NE/SI-CM. The metallic base of mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 MAG/NUS, -NA, -NUM. [L. great.] A term 
 applied to certain muscles. 
 
 MA/JOR. [L., greater.] Greater in extent 
 or quantity. 
 
 MAN'GA-NESE. A metal of a whitish gray 
 color. 
 
 MAR/ROW. [Sax.] A soft, oleaginous sub- 
 stance contained in the cavities of bones. 
 
 MAS-SF/TER. [Gr. ju.ao-o-aoju.at, massanmai, 
 to chew.] The name of a muscle of the 
 face. 
 
 MAS/TI-CATE, MAS-TI-CA'TION. [L. mastico.] 
 To chew ; the act of chewing. 
 
 MAS/TOID. [Gr. jmaoro?, mastos, breast, and 
 eiSo?, etidos, form.] The name of a pro- 
 cess of the temporal bone behind the ear. 
 
 MAB-TOII/E-US. A name applied to muscles 
 that are attached to the mastoid process. 
 
 MAX-U/LA. [L.] The jaw-bone. 
 
 MAX'I-MUS, -UM. [L., superlative of mag- 
 nus, great.] A term applied to several 
 muscles. 
 
 ME-A^TUS. [L. meo, to go.] A passage or 
 channel. 
 
 ME-DI-AS-TI'NUM. A membrane that sepa- 
 rates the chest into two parts. 
 
 ME/DI-UM, -A. [L.] The space or substance 
 through which a body passes to any 
 point. 
 
 MED/UL-LA-RY. [L. medulla, marrow.] Per- 
 taining to marrow. 
 
 ME-DTTI/LA OB-LON-GA^TA. Commencement 
 of the spinal cord. 
 
 ME-DUI/LA SPI-NA/LIS. The spinal cord. 
 
 MEM'BRA-NA. A membrane ; a thin, white, 
 flexible skin formed by fibres interwoven 
 like network. 
 
 MES/EN-TER-Y. [Gr. ju.eo-09, mesos, the middle, 
 and evTepov, enteron, the intestine.] The 
 membrane in the middle of the intes- 
 tines by which they are attached to the 
 spine. 
 
 MET-A-CAR/PUS. [Gr. /xera, meta, after, and 
 Kaprros, karpos, wrist.] The part of the 
 hand between the wrist and fingers. 
 
 MET-A-TAR/SUS. [Gr. ft-era, meta, after, and 
 rapo-05, torsos, the tarsus.] The instep. 
 A term applied to seven bones of the 
 foot. 
 
 MID/RIFF. [Sax. mid, and hrife, the belly.] 
 See DIAPHRAGM. 
 
 MIN^I-MUS. [L.] The smallest. A term 
 applied to several muscles. 
 
 MI/NOR. [L.] Less, smaller. A term ap- 
 plied to several muscles. 
 
 MISTRAL. [L. mitra, a mitre.] The name 
 of the valves on the left side of the heart. 
 
 MO-DI'O-LUS. [L. modus, a measure.] A 
 cone in the cochlea around which the 
 membranes wind. 
 
 MO/LAR. [L. mola, a mill.] The name of 
 some of the large teeth. 
 
 MOI/LIS. [L.] Soft. 
 
 MO'TOR, -ES. [L. moveo, to move.] A mover. 
 A term applied to certain nerves. 
 
 Mo^cous. Pertaining to mucus. 
 
 Mu/cus. A viscid fluid secreted by the 
 mucous membrane, which it serves to 
 moisten and defend. 
 
 MUSCLE. A bundle of fibres enclosed in 
 sheath. 
 
 MY-O/DES. A term applied to certain 
 muscles of the neck. 
 
GLOSS AKY. 
 
 313 
 
 MY-O-LEM'MA. [Gr. jxvs, mus, a muscle, and 
 Ae/j./xa, lemma, to receive.] The invest- 
 ing membrane of a fibre. 
 
 MY-OI/O-GY. [Gr. /itu?, mws, a muscle, and 
 Aoyos, &#, a discourse.] A description 
 of the muscles. 
 
 NA/SAL. Relating to the nose. 
 
 NERVE. An organ of sensation and motion 
 in animals. 
 
 NERV'OUS CEN/TRE. A collection of gray 
 nervous matter, which receives impres- 
 sions and originates the nervous im- 
 pulses. 
 
 NEC-RI-LEM'A. [Gr. vevpov, neuron, a nerve, 
 and Ae/x/ua, lemma, a sheath.] The sheath 
 or covering of a nerve. 
 
 NEU-ROI/O-GY. [Gr. vevpov, neuron, a nerve, 
 and Aoyos, logos, a discourse.] A descrip- 
 tion of the nerves of the body. 
 
 NVTRO-GEN. That element of the air which 
 is called azote. 
 
 NU'CLE-US. [L. nux, a nut.] The central 
 part of any body, or that about which 
 matter is collected. 
 
 ND-TRI/TION. The art or process of pro- 
 moting the growth or repairing the 
 waste of the system. 
 
 OC/CI-PUT. [L. ob, and caput, the head.] 
 
 The hinder part of the head. 
 OC'O-LUS, -i. [L.] The eye. 
 <E-SOPH'A-GCS. [Gr. oua, oid, to carry, and 
 
 </)uyoj, phoffo, to eat.] The name of the 
 
 passage through which the food passes 
 
 from the mouth to the stomach. 
 Q-LEC/RA-NOX. [Gr. u\eve, olene, the cubit, 
 
 and Kpavov, kranon, the head.] The 
 
 elbow ; the head of the ulna. 
 Oft.E-iN. An oily substance which is fluid 
 
 at ordinary temperatures. 
 OL-FACT/O-RY. [L. oleo, to smell, and facto, 
 
 to make.] Pertaining to smelling. 
 O-MEN/TUM. [L.] The caul. 
 0/MO. [Gr. w/xos, omos, the shoulder.] 
 
 The name of muscles attached to the 
 
 shoulder. 
 OPH-THAI/MIC. [Gr. o^daXjmo?, ophlhalmos, 
 
 the eye.] Belonging to the eye. 
 OP-PO/NENS. That which acts in opposition 
 
 to something. The mime of two muscles 
 
 of the hand. 
 OP'TI-CCS, OP'TIC. [Gr. oirropat, opt-tmai, 
 
 to see.] Relating to the eye. 
 
 27 
 
 OR-BIC/C-LAR. [L. orbis, a circle.] Circular. 
 
 OR/CAN. A part of the system destined to 
 exercise some particular function. 
 
 OR/I-GIN. Commencement; source. 
 
 Os. [L.] A bone ; the month of anything. 
 
 OS/MA-ZOME. [Gr. OO-/U.TJ, osme, smell, and 
 ci>jot, zomos, broth.] A principle ob- 
 tained from animal fibre which gives the 
 peculiar taste to broth. 
 
 OS/SE-OUS. Pertaining to bones. 
 
 OS/SI-FY. [L. ossa, bones, and facin, to 
 make.] To convert into bone. 
 
 OS/TE-INB. [Gr. o<rreov, osteon, a bone.] 
 The albuminous ingredient of the bones. 
 
 OS-TE-OI/O-GY. [Gr. oa-reov, tisteoti, a bone, 
 and Aoyos, logos, a discourse.] The part 
 of anatomy which treats of bones. 
 
 O-VA/LE. [L.J The shape of an egg. 
 
 OX-AI/IC. Pertaining to sorrel. Oxalic acid 
 is the acid of sorrel. It is composed of 
 two equivalents of carbon and three of 
 oxygen. 
 
 OX'Y-GEN. A permanently elastic fluid, in- 
 visible and inodorous. One of the com- 
 ponents of atmospheric air. 
 
 PA-LA/TUM. [L.j The palate; the roof of 
 the mouth. 
 
 PAL-PE-BRA'RUM. [L. palpebra, the eyelid.] 
 Of the eyelids. 
 
 PAI/MAR. [L. palma, the palm.] Belong- 
 ing to the hand. 
 
 PAL-MA/RIS. A term applied to some muscles 
 attached to the palm of the hand. 
 
 PAN'CRE-AS. [Gr. vav, pan, all, and xpeac, 
 Areas, flesh.] The name of one of the 
 digestive organs. 
 
 PAN-CRE-A/TIN. The albuminous ingredient 
 of the pancreas. 
 
 PA-PII/LA, -x. [L.] Small conical promi- 
 nences. 
 
 PA-RAI/Y-SIS. Abolition of function, whether 
 of intellect, sensation or motion. 
 
 PA-REN/CHY-MA. [Gr. wapeyxew, parengcheo, 
 to pour through.] The substance con- 
 tained between the blood-vessels of an 
 organ. 
 
 PA-RI/E-TAL. [L. paries, a wall.] A bone 
 of the skull. 
 
 PA-ROT/ID. [Gr. irapa, para, near, and 
 WTO?, o!os, the gen. of ovs, ous, ear, the 
 ear.] The name of the largest salivary 
 gland. 
 
 PA-TEL/LA, -M. [L.] The knee-pan. 
 
314 
 
 GLOSSAEY. 
 
 PA-THET/I-CTJS, -ci. [Gr. iraflos, pathos, 
 passion.] The name of the fourth pair 
 of nerves. 
 
 PEC/TO-RAL. [L.] Pertaining to the chest. 
 PI/DIS. [L., gen. of pes, the foot.] Of the 
 foot. 
 
 PEI/I-TONGS. A term applied to masses 
 of fat. 
 
 PEI/U-CLE. [L., dim. of pellus, the skin.] 
 A thin skin or film. 
 
 PEI/VIS. [L.] The basin formed by the 
 large bones at the lower part of the ab- 
 domen. 
 
 PENfai-FORM. [L. penna, a feather.] Hav- 
 ing the form of a feather or quill. 
 
 PEP'SIN. [Gr. irenrw, pepto, to cook.] An 
 ingredient of the gastric juice, which 
 acts as a ferment in the digestion of the 
 food. 
 
 PER-I-CAR/DI-UM. [Gr. irepi, peri, around, 
 and KdpSia, kardia, the heart.] A mem- 
 brane that encloses the heart. 
 
 PER-I-CHON/DRI-TJM. [Gr. irepi, peri, around, 
 and x"Sps> chondros, cartilage.] A 
 membrane that invests cartilage. 
 
 PER-I-CRA/NI-UM. [Gr. irepi, peri, around, 
 and Kpaviov, Jcranion, the cranium.] A 
 membrane that invests the skull. 
 
 PER-I-MYS/I-UM. [Gr. irepi, peri, around, 
 and /M.US, mus, a muscle.] The investing 
 membrane of a muscle. 
 
 PER-I-STAI/TIC. [Gr. irepioreAAw, peristelW, 
 to involve.] A movement like the crawl- 
 ing of a worm. 
 
 PER-I-TO-NI/UM. [Gr. irepi, peri, around, 
 and reiveiv, teinein, to stretch.] A thin, 
 serous membrane investing the internal 
 surface of the abdomen. 
 
 PER/MA-NEXT. Durable; lasting. 
 
 PER-SPI-RA'TION. [L. per, through, and 
 Sfn.ro, to breathe.] The excretion from 
 the skin. 
 
 PHAI/ANX, -QES. [Gr. <}>a.\ayt, phalanx, an 
 army.] Three rows of small bones form- 
 ing the fingers or toes. 
 
 PHA-LANfai-Al. Belonging to the fingers 
 or toes. 
 
 PHA-RYN'GE-AL. Relating to the pharynx. 
 
 PHAR/YNX. [Gr. <J>apvyf, pharunx.'] The 
 upper part of the oesophagus. 
 
 PHOS/PHOR-US. [Gr. <J>w?, phos, the light, 
 and <J>epw, phero, to bear.] A combustible 
 substance, of a yellowish color, semi- 
 transparent, resembling wax. 
 
 PHRENIC. [Gr. ^prjv, phren, the mind.] 
 Belonging to the diaphragm. 
 
 PHYS-I-OI/O-GY. [Gr. <v<ris, phusis, nature, 
 and Aoyo?, logos, a discourse.] The science 
 of the functions of the organs of animals 
 and plants. 
 
 PtfA MASTER. [L., good mother.] The 
 name of one of the membranes of the 
 brain. 
 
 PIG-MEN'TUM NtfGRUM. [L.] Black paint ; 
 a preparation of colors. 
 
 PmteA. [L., a wing.] A part cf the ex- 
 ternal ear. 
 
 PLA-TYS/MA. [Gr. irXaru?, plains, broad.] 
 A muscle of the neck. 
 
 PLEURA, -M. [Gr. irXevpa, pleura, the side.] 
 A thin membrane that covers the inside 
 of the thorax, and also forms the exterior 
 coat of the lungs. 
 
 PLEU'RAL. Relating to the pleura. 
 
 PLEX'US. [L. plecto, to weave together.] 
 Any union of nerves, vessels or fibres, in 
 the form of network. 
 
 PNEtr-MO-GAs'TRic. [Gr. irvevpup, pneumon, 
 the lungs, and yeumjp, gaster, the stom- 
 ach.] Belonging to both the stomach 
 and lungs. 
 
 PNEU-MO-NOI/O-GY. [Gr. irveu/nwv, pneumon, 
 the lungs, and Aoyo?, logos, a discourse.] 
 A description of the lungs. 
 
 PoiAi-cis. [L.] A term applied to muscles 
 attached to the fingers and toes. 
 
 PONS. [L.] A bridge. Pans varolii, a part 
 of the brain formed by the union of the 
 crura cerebri and cerebelli. 
 
 POP-LIT-E/AL. [L, poples, the ham.] Per- 
 taining to the ham or knoe-joint. A 
 name given to various parts. 
 
 POS'TI-CUS. [L.] Behind; posterior. A 
 term applied to certain muscles. 
 
 POR/TI-O DU'RA. [L., hard portion.] The 
 facial nerve ; eighth pair. 
 
 POR/TI-O MoiAis. [L., soft portion.] The 
 auditory nerve; seventh pair. 
 
 PO-TAS'SI-UM. [L.J The metallic basis of 
 pure potash. 
 
 PRO-BOS^CIS. [Gr. irpo, pro, before, and 
 /SOCTACW, bosko, to feed.] The snout or 
 trunk of an elephant or other animal. 
 
 PROC/ESS. A prominence or projection. 
 
 PRO-NA^TOR. [L. pronus, turned down- 
 ward.] The muscle of the forearm that 
 moves the palm of the hani down 
 ward. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 315 
 
 [Or. irparos, protos, first, 
 and 7rAao>ia, plasma, formed.] The for- 
 mal basis of all living bodies. 
 
 PSO'AS. [Or. tyoai, psoai, the loins.] The 
 name of two muscles of the leg. 
 
 PUL-MON/IO, 1 
 
 PUI/MO-NA-RY, > [L. pulmo, the lungs.] 
 
 PUL-MO-NA'LIS. J 
 Belonging or relating to the lungs. 
 
 PU'PIL. A little aperture in the centre of 
 the iris, through which the rays of light 
 pass to the retina. 
 
 PT-LOR/IC. Pertaining to the pylorus. 
 
 PY-LO'ROS. [Gr. TrvAwpos, puloros, a gate- 
 keeper.] The lower orifice of the stom- 
 ach, with which the duodenum connects. 
 
 RA/DI-TJS. [L., a ray, a spoke of a wheel.] 
 The name of one of the bones of the 
 forearm. 
 
 RA/DI-ATE. Having lines or fibres that 
 diverge from a point. 
 
 RA/MUS. [L.] A branch. A term applied 
 to the projections of bones. 
 
 REC-RE-MEN-TtfTiAi. [L. re, again, and 
 cemo, to secrete.] Consisting of super- 
 fluous matter separated from that which 
 is valuable. 
 
 REC/TTJM. The third and last portion of the 
 intestines. 
 
 REC^TUS, -r. [L.] Straight; erect. A term 
 applied to several muscles. 
 
 REG/I-MKN. [L. rego, to govern.] The sys- 
 tematic regulation of the food and drink. 
 
 RE-siDto-UM. [L.] Waste matter. The 
 faeces. 
 
 RES-PI-RA/TION. [L. re, again, and spiro, 
 to breathe.] The act of breathing. In- 
 spinng air into the lungs and expelling 
 it again. 
 
 RE-SPiteA-TO-Rr. Pertaining to respiration ; 
 serving ftr respiration. 
 
 RET'I-NA. fL. reft, a net.] The essential 
 organ of sight. One of the coats of the 
 eye, formed by the expansion of the 
 optic nerve. 
 
 RO-TUN'DUM, -A. [L.] Round; circular. 
 
 RC'GA, -x. [L.] A wrinkle ; a fold. 
 
 BAC'CU-LUS. [L., dim. of saccus, a bag.] A 
 
 little sac. 
 
 SA'CRAL. Pertaining to the sacrum. 
 SA'CRUM. [L., sacred.] The bone which 
 
 forms the posterior part of the pelvis, 
 
 and is a continuation of the spinal 
 column. 
 
 SA-LI/VA. [L.] The fluid which is secreted 
 by the salivary glands, which moistens 
 the food and mouth. 
 
 SAN^QUIN-E-OUS. [L. sanguis, the blood.] 
 Bloody; abounding with blood; ple- 
 thoric. 
 
 SAR-TO'RI-TTS. [L. sartor, a tailor.] A te/m 
 applied to a muscle of the thigh. 
 
 SCA^A, -J3. [L., a ladder.] Cavities of the 
 cochlea. 
 
 SCA-LE/NUS. [Gr. <ncaAiji>os, skalenos, un- 
 equal.] A term applied to some muscles 
 of the neck. 
 
 SCAPHOID. [Gr. triccufn), skaphe', a little 
 boat.] The name applied to one of the 
 wrist-bones. 
 
 ScAPto-LA. [L.] The shoulder-blade. 
 
 SCAP^U-LAR. Relating to the scapula. 
 
 SCI-AT/IC. [Gr., pertaining to the loins.] 
 The name of the large nerve of the loins 
 and leg. 
 
 SCLE-ROT/IC. [Gr. {neArjpo?, skleros, hard.] 
 A membrane of the eye. 
 
 SE-BA/CEOTJS. [L. sebum, tallow.] Pertain- 
 ing to fat ; unctuous matter. 
 
 SE-CRE'TION. The act of producing from 
 the blood substances different from the 
 blood itself, as bile, saliva; the matter 
 secreted, as mucus, bile, etc. 
 
 SE-CRE^TO-RY. Performing the office of se- 
 cretion. 
 
 SE-CUN/DTTS. Second. A term applied to 
 certain muscles. 
 
 SEM-I-CIR'CU-LAR. Having the form of a 
 half circle. The name of a part of the 
 ear. 
 
 SEM-I-LTJ'NAR VALVES. [L. semi, half, and 
 luna, the moon.] Name of the three 
 festooned valves of the heart, at tha 
 entrance of the great arteries. 
 
 SEM-I-TEN-DI-NC/SUS. [L. semi, half, and 
 tendo, a tendon.] The name of a muscle. 
 
 SEP/TUM. [L.] A membrane that divides 
 two cavities from each other. 
 
 SE/ROUS. Thin; watery. Pertaining to 
 serum. 
 
 SB/RUM. [L.] The thin, transparent part 
 of blood. 
 
 SER-RA/TUS. [L. serro, to saw.] A term 
 applied to some muscles of the trunk. 
 
 SIG^MOID. [Gr.] Resembling the Greek t, 
 Sigma. 
 
316 
 
 GLOSSAKY. 
 
 SI-LI'CI-UM. A term applied to one of the 
 
 earths. 
 SI/NUS. [L., a bay.] A cavity, the interior 
 
 of which is more expanded than the 
 
 entrance. 
 BKEI/E-TON. [Gr. or/ceAAw, skello, to dry.] 
 
 The aggregate of the hard parts of the 
 
 body ; the bones. 
 
 SO/DI-CM. The metallic base of soda. 
 SPHI/NOID. [Gr. <r<f>rjv, sphen, a wedge, and 
 
 eiSos, eidos, likeness.] A bone at the 
 
 base of the skull. 
 
 Si'iiiNc'TER. [Gr. a-<fiyy(a, sphingo, to re- 
 strict.] A muscle that contracts or shuts 
 
 an orifice. 
 
 SPI'NAI CORD. A prolongation of the brain. 
 SPINE. A thorn. The vertebral column; 
 
 back-bone. 
 SPLANCH-NOI/O-GT. [Gr. nr\ayxvov, splanch- 
 
 non, the bowels, and Aoyos, logos, a dis- 
 course.] A description of the internal 
 
 parts of the body. 
 SPLEEN. The milt. It is situated in the 
 
 abdomen and attached to the stomach. 
 8PLI/NI-08. The name of a muscle of the 
 
 neck. 
 
 SQUA/MOSE. [L.] Scaly. 
 STAGES. The name of one of the small 
 
 bones of the ear. 
 STE/AR-IN. [Gr. oreop, stear, suet.] One of 
 
 the prolate principles of animal fat, 
 
 which i voZt'd at ordinary temperatures. 
 STER/NCM. The breast-bone. 
 STOM/ACH The principal organ of the 
 
 digestif apparatus. 
 STRA/TUK. [L. sterno, to spread.] A bed ; 
 
 a layer. 
 STY/LOID. [L. stylus, a pencil.] An epithet 
 
 applied to processes that resemble a 
 
 style, a pen. 
 SUB-CLA^VI-AN. [L. sub, under, and clavis, 
 
 a key.] Situated under the clavicle. 
 SUB-UNEQUAL. [L. sub, under, and lingua, 
 
 the tongue.] Situated under the tongue. 
 SUB-MAX'IL-LA-RY. [L. sub, under, and 
 
 maxilla, the jaw-bone.] Located under 
 
 the jaw. 
 SUI/PHUR. A simple mineral substance, 
 
 of a yellow color, brittle, insoluble in 
 
 water, lut fusible by heat. 
 SU-PI-NA'TOR. [L.] A muscle that turns 
 
 the paJaa of the hand upward. 
 SUBURB. [L. suo, to sew.] The seam or 
 
 joint that ucites the bones of the skull. 
 
 SYN-AR-THRO^SIS. [Gr. ovv, sun, with, and 
 apQpov, arthron, a joint.] An immovable 
 articulation. 
 
 SYN-O/VI-A. [Gr. <rvv, sttn, with, and wov, 
 oon, an egg.] The fluid secreted into the 
 cavities of joints for the purpose of lubri- 
 cating them. 
 
 SYSTEM. An assemblage of organs, com- 
 posed of the same tissues and intended 
 for the same functions. 
 
 SYS-TEM'IC. Belonging to the general sys- 
 tem. 
 
 SYS/TO-LE. [Gr. ffvoreAAw, sustello, to con- 
 tract.] The contraction of the heart and 
 arteries for expelling the blood and 
 carrying on the circulation. 
 
 TAR/SUS. [L.] The posterior part of the 
 
 foot. 
 TEN/DON. [Gr. reivu, teino, to stretch.] A 
 
 hard, insensible cord, or bundle of fibres, 
 
 by which a muscle is attached to a bone. 
 TENS/OR. A muscle that extends a part. 
 TEN-TAC'O-LA, -M. [L. tento, to seize.] A 
 
 filiform process or organ on the bodies 
 
 of various animals. 
 TEN-TOftu-UM. [L. tendo, to stretch.] A 
 
 process of the dura mater which lies be- 
 tween the cerebrum and cerebellum. 
 TI/RES. [L. feres, round.] An epithet given 
 
 to many organs, the fibres of which are 
 
 collected in small bundles. 
 THO/RAX. [Gr.] That part of the skeleton 
 
 that composes the bones of the chest. 
 
 The cavity of the chest. 
 THO-RAC'IC. Relating to the chest. 
 THY/ROID. [Gr. Ovpeos, thureos, a shield.] 
 
 Resembling a shield. A cartilage of the 
 
 larynx. 
 TIB/J-A. [L., a flute.] The large bone of 
 
 the leg. 
 TIS/SUE. The texture or organization of 
 
 parts. 
 TON/SII.. [L.] A glandular body in the 
 
 throat or fauces. 
 TRA^CHE-A. [Gr. rpa^vs, tracfius, rough.] 
 
 The windpipe. 
 TRANS-VERSED TRANS- VER-SA'LIS. Lying in 
 
 a cross direction. 
 TRA-PE^ZI-US. The name of a muscle, so 
 
 called from its form. 
 TRICEPS. [L. tres, three, and caput, head.] 
 
 Three. A name given to muscles that 
 
 have three attachments at one extremity. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 317 
 
 TRI-CUS/PIB. [L. Ires, three, and cuspis, 
 point.] The triangular valves in the 
 right side of the heart. 
 
 TRIT/U-RAT-ING. Grinding to a powder. 
 
 TROCU/LE-A. [Gr. rpoxoAio, trochalia, a 
 pulley.] A pulley-like cartilage, over 
 which the tendon of a muscle of the eye 
 
 TRUNK. The principal part of the body, to 
 which the limbs are articulated. 
 
 TC'BER-CLE. [L. tuber, a bunch.] A pimple, 
 swelling or tumor on animal bodies. 
 
 TTM'PAN-UM. [L.] The middle ear. 
 
 UI/NA. [L.] A bone of the fore-arm. 
 
 UI/NAR, UL-NA^RIS. Relating to the ulna. 
 
 U-RE/TER. [Gr. ovpeiv, ourein, to conduct 
 water.] The excretory duct of the kid- 
 neys. 
 
 U/RIC. [Gr. ovpov, ouron, urine.] An acid 
 contained in urine and in gouty con- 
 cretions. 
 
 U-VE/A. [L. ttva, a grape.] Resembling 
 grapes. A thin membrane of the eye. 
 
 U^vu-LA. A soft body suspended from the 
 palate, near the aperture of the nostrils, 
 over the glottis. 
 
 VAC/CINE VI/BUS. [L. vacca, a cow, virut, 
 poison.] Pertaining to cows; derived 
 from cows. 
 
 VALVE. Any membrane, or doubling of 
 any membrane, which prevents fluids 
 from flowing back in the vessels and 
 canals of the animal body. 
 
 VAS/CU-LAR. [L. vasculum, a vessel.] Per- 
 taining to vessels; abounding in ves- 
 sels. 
 
 27* 
 
 VAS/TUS. [L.] Great, vast. Applied to 
 
 some large muscles. 
 VEINS. Vessels that convey blood to the 
 
 heart. 
 
 VENOUS. Pertaining to veins. 
 VEN/TRI-CLE. [L. venter, the stomach.] A 
 
 small cavity of the animal body. 
 VER-MIC/C-LAR. [L. vermiculus, a little 
 
 worm.] Resembling the motions of a 
 
 worm. 
 VERM-I-FORM^IS. [L. vermis, a worm, and 
 
 forma, form.] Having the form and 
 
 shape of a worm. 
 VERI/E-BRA, -x. [L. verto, to turn.] A joint 
 
 of the spinal column. 
 VERT'E-BRAL. Pertaining to the joints of 
 
 the spinal column. 
 VEJ/I-CLE. [L. vesica, a bladder.] A little 
 
 bladder, or a portion of the cuticle sepa- 
 rated from the cutis vena and filled with 
 
 serum. 
 VES/TI-BUIB. [L.] A porch of a house. 
 
 A cavity belonging to the ear. 
 VII/LI. [L.] Fine, small fibres. 
 Vifous. [L., poison.] Foul matter of an 
 
 ulcer; poison. 
 
 VI/TAL. [L. vita, life.] Pertaining to life. 
 VIT/RE-OUS. [L. vitrum, glass.] Belonging 
 
 to glass. A humor of the eye. 
 VO/LAR. [L. vola, the hollow of the hand 
 
 or foot.] Belonging to the palm of the 
 
 VO/MER. [L., a ploughshare.] One of the 
 bones of the nose. 
 
 ZTG-O-MAT/I-CUS. [Gr. vyo?, zugos, a yoke.] 
 A term applied to some muscles of the 
 face, from their attachment. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A.BSORBENTS, Anatomy of, 138 
 
 Histology of, 141. 
 
 Chemistry of, 143. 
 
 Physiology of, 144. 
 
 Hygiene of, 146. 
 ABSORPTION, 138. 
 ACIDS, Cerebric, 33. 
 
 Cholic, 33. 
 
 Lactic, 32. 
 
 Uric, 33. 
 
 AIR, 197, 297, 303: 
 AIR-CELLS, 187. 
 ALBUMEN, 31. 
 ALBUMINOIDS, 31. 
 ALBUMINOSE, 31. 
 ANGIOLOGY, Comparative, 172. 
 APONEUROSIS, 74. 
 AORTA, Thoracic, 152. 
 
 Abdominal, 153. 
 ARTERIES, 150-159. 
 ARTICULATA, Definition of, 67. 
 ASSIMILATION, 176. 
 AURICLE, of the Heart, 150. 
 ASPHVXIA, from Drowning, 205. 
 
 from Electricity, 205. 
 
 from Hanging, 205. 
 
 from Carbonic Acid Gas, 206. 
 AZOTE, 31. 
 
 BATHING, 290, 294. 
 BEDS, Making of, 302. 
 BILE, 118. 
 
 BlLVERDIN, 33. 
 
 BLOOD, 149, 161. 
 BLOOD-VESSELS, 81, 149. 
 BONES, Anatomy of, 36. 
 
 Histology of, 49. 
 
 Chemistry of, 55. 
 
 Physiology of, 55. 
 
 Hygiene of, 60. 
 
 Fractured, 64. 
 BRAIN, 218. 
 BRONCHI, 184-187. 
 
 BURNS AND SCALDS, 297. 
 BURSTS Mucos.fi, 53. 
 
 CANALICULI, 50. 
 CANAL OF HAVERS, 50. 
 CAPILLARIES, 22, 151, 160. 
 CARBON, 34. 
 CARTILAGE, 53, 59. 
 CARTILAGEN, 32. 
 CELLS, Definition of, 15. 
 CELLULAR TISSUE, 18. 
 CEREBELLUM, 213. 
 CEREBRO-SPINAL Axis, 212. 
 CEREBRUM, 215. 
 CHEST, Compression of, 203. 
 CHILBLAINS, 298. 
 CHLORINE, 34. 
 CHONDRIGEN, 32. 
 CHYLE, 120. 
 CHYME, 121. 
 CIRCULATORY ORGANS, 150. 
 
 Histology of, 156. 
 
 Physiology of, 162. 
 
 Hygiene of, 168. 
 CLOTHING, 291. 
 COCHLEA, 271. 
 
 COMMISSURES of the Brain, 212. 
 CORNS, Treatment of, 298. 
 CORPORA AMYLACEA, 34. 
 CORPUS CALLOSUM, 216. 
 CRUORIN, 32. 
 CRYSTALLINE LENS, 266. 
 CUTIS ANSERINA, 279. 
 CUTICLE, 276. 
 CUTIS VERA, 276. 
 
 DEFINITIONS, GENERAL, 13. 
 
 DERMIS, 276. 
 
 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, Anatomy of, 105* 
 
 Histology of, 110. 
 
 Chemistry of, 116. 
 
 Physiology of, 120. 
 
 Hygiene of, 120. 
 
320 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 DISTINCTIONS between the Mineral, Vege- 
 table and Animal Kingdoms, 11. 
 between Organized and Unorganized 
 
 Bodies, 12. 
 
 between Animals and Plants, 12. 
 DRINKS, 127. 
 DROWNED PERSONS, Treatment of, 205. 
 
 EAR, Bones of, 273. 
 
 External, 274. 
 
 Middle, 272. 
 
 Internal, 270. 
 
 Physiology of, 285 
 ELASTIN, 33. 
 ENDOCARDIUM, 157. 
 EPIDERMIS, 274. 
 EPIGLOTTIS, 184. 
 EPITHELIUM, 25. 
 EUSTACHIAN TUBE, 273. 
 EXCRETION, 179. 
 EYE, 2(54, 282. 
 
 Protecting Organs of, 268. 
 
 FACE, Bones of, 38. 
 FASCIA, 74. 
 FASCICULI, 79. 
 FATS, 33. 
 FENESTRA, 272. 
 FIBRE, 22. 
 FIBRIN, 31. 
 FIBRO-CARTILAOE, 20. 
 FOOD, Quantity of, 123. 
 
 Quality of, 125. 
 
 Manner of taking, 127. 
 
 Conditions when taking, 128. 
 FROST-BITE, Treatment of, 298. 
 
 GANGLIA, 210. 
 GANGLIONIC COBPUSCLE, 24. 
 OASTKIC JUICE, 117. 
 GELATIN, 32. 
 GLANDS, Lachrymal, 269. 
 
 Lymphatic, 140-142. 
 
 Oil, 279, 287. 
 
 Perspiratory, 279, 287. 
 
 Salivary, 107. 
 GLOBULIN, 32, 
 GLUCOSE, 33. 
 GLYCERINE, 33. 
 
 H.SMATIX, 32. 
 
 HAIR-FOLLICLES, 278. 
 HEART, 150. 
 
 Auricles of, 150, 157. 
 
 Ventricles of, 150, 158. 
 
 HEARING, Sense of, 270. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE, Means of Arresting, 19 
 
 HYDROGEN, 34. 
 
 INOSIT, 33. 
 INTESTINES, 108-114. 
 INTESTINAL JUICE, 119. 
 IRIS, 265. 
 
 JOINTS, 47. 
 
 Physiology of, 59. 
 
 KERATIN, 33. 
 KIDNEYS, 180. 
 
 LABYRINTH, 270. 
 LACHRYMAL APPARATUS, 268. 
 LACTEALS, 137. 
 LACTIN, 33. 
 LACUNA, 50, 69. 
 LARYNX, 183-186, 195. 
 LIGAMENT, 41, 54. 
 LIGHT, 297. 
 LIVER, 109-114. 
 LUNGS, 185, 187. 
 LYMPH, 137-143. 
 LYMPHATICS, 140, 144. 
 
 MARGARIN, 33. 
 
 MEATUS AUDITORIUS, 274. 
 
 MEDULLA, 52. 
 
 Oblongata, 212. 
 
 Spinalis, 40. 
 MEMBRANE, Basement, 25. 
 
 Cerebro-Spinal System, 228. 
 
 Gastro-Pulmonary, 28. 
 
 Mucous, 28. 
 
 Serous, 27. 
 
 Synovial, 27, 53. 
 
 Urinary, 28. 
 MESENTERY, 116. 
 MOLLUSCA, Definition of, 67. 
 MOUTH, Structure of, 103, 110. 
 Mucus, 116. 
 MUSCLES, Anatomy of, 73. 
 
 Histology of, 79. 
 
 Chemistry of, 81. 
 
 Physiology of, 83. 
 
 Hygiene of, 89. 
 
 Intercostal, 193. 
 
 Striated, 80. 
 
 Non-Striated, 80. 
 
 Voluntary, 83. 
 MUCIN, 32. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 321 
 
 MUSCULIN, 31. 
 
 MTOCOMMA, 101. 
 
 MYOLEMMA, 80. 
 
 MTOLOGT, Comparative, 98. 
 
 NAILS, 280, 288. 
 NASAL DUCT, 269. 
 NEURIN, 33. 
 NERVE-CELLS, 225. 
 
 " CENTRES, 210, 230. 
 NERVES, 81, 210. 
 
 Cranial, 219. 
 
 Cutaneous, 277. 
 
 Spinal, 223. 
 
 Sympathetic, 224. 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM, Anatomy of, 210. 
 
 Histology of, 225. 
 
 Physiology of, 229. 
 
 Hygiene of, 240. 
 NEUROLOGY, Comparative, 252. 
 
 NlTROGKT, 31. 
 
 NUCLEATED CELL, 14. 
 NURSE, Duty of, 199. 
 NUTRITIVE APPARATUS, 103. 
 
 (ESOPHAGUS, 107, 112. 
 
 OIL-GLANDS, 279. 
 
 OLEIN, 33. 
 
 OPTICI THALAMI, 215. 
 
 ORGANIZED BODIES, 12. 
 
 OSTEOLOGY, Comparative, 67. 
 
 OXYGEN, 34, 199. 
 
 PAPILLAE, 262-276. 
 PALATE, 110. 
 PANCREAS, 109-112. 
 PANCREATIC JUICE, 119. 
 PANCREATIN, 32. 
 PAROTID GLAND, 107. 
 PATELLA, 46. 
 
 PEDUNCLES, of the Brain, 215. 
 PELVIS, 42. 
 PEPSIN, 32. 
 PEPTONES, 32. 
 PERICARDIUM, 150, 156. 
 PERICHONDRIUM, 186. 
 PERIMYSIUM, 80. 
 PERIOSTEUM, 52, 60. 
 PERITONEUM, 116. 
 PERSPIRATION, Uses of, 287. 
 PHARYNX, 107. 
 PLEURA, 185, 188. 
 
 PNEUMONOLOGY, Comparative, 205. 
 POISONS, and their Antidotes, 303. 
 
 PORTAL VEIN, 141 . 
 
 PROTOPLASM, 14. 
 
 PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS, Organic, On. 
 
 Inorganic, 30. 
 PYRAMIDS of the Brain, 213. 
 
 RADIATA, Definition of, 67. 
 RESPIRATORY ORGANS, Anatomy of, 183. 
 
 Histology of, 186. 
 
 Chemistry of, 188. 
 
 Physiology of, 190. 
 
 Hygiene of, 197. 
 RETINA, 266. 
 ROOMS, Ventilation of, 198. 
 
 Wnrming of, 201. 
 
 SACRUM, 43. 
 
 SALIVA, 117. 
 
 SALAVIN, 32. 
 
 SCAPULA, 43. 
 
 SECRETION, 178. 
 
 SEMICIRCULAR CANALS, 271. 
 
 SICK ROOM, 300. 
 
 SKELETON, 36. 
 
 SKIN, 274. 
 
 SLEEP, 245. 
 
 SLEEPING ROOM, 199. 
 
 SOUND, 285. 
 
 SMELL, Sense of, 262. 
 
 SPINAL CORD, 212. 
 
 COLUMN, 89. 
 
 SPLANCHNOLOOT, Comparative, 181. 
 SPLEEN, 109, 115. 
 STARCH, 34. 
 STEARIN, 33. 
 STOMACH, 107, 112. 
 SWEAT GLANDS, 279. 
 SYNOVIA, 59. 
 
 TARSUS, 47. 
 TASTE, Sense of, 280. 
 TEETH, 105, 111, 122. 
 TENDONS, 81, 85. 
 THORACIC DUCT, 140. 
 THORAX, 38. 
 TISSUES, Adipose, 21. 
 
 Areolar, 18. 
 
 Cartilaginous, 19. 
 
 Connective, 17. 
 
 Fibrous, 19. 
 
 Muscular, 22. 
 
 Nervous, 23. 
 
 Sclerous, 21. 
 
 Tubular, 22. 
 
322 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 TONGUE, 110, 261. 
 TOUCH, Sense of, 274. 
 TRACHEA, 184, 187. 
 TYMPANUM, 272. 
 
 ULTIMATE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS, 34. 
 ULNAR, 43. 
 
 URINIFEROUS TUBULES, 181. 
 UVEA, 265. 
 
 VAI VES of the Heart, 158. 
 
 of the Veius, 159. 
 VMNS, 154, 159. 
 
 VEINS, Portal, 155. 
 
 Pulmonary, 155. 
 VENTILATION. 201. 
 VENTRICLES, of the Heart, 160, 
 
 of tho Brain, 216. 
 VERTEBRA, 39. 
 
 VERTEBRATA, Definition of, 67. 
 VESTIBULE, 270. 
 VILLI, 122. 
 VOCAL CORDS, 186. 
 " GROANS, 183. 
 
 WATCHER, Duty of, 302. 
 
 THE END. 
 
KEY TO CUTTEK'S 
 
 NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS, 
 
 OB 
 
 HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMICAL PLATES. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 IN using these charts, we would suggest that the pupil carefully examine 
 the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text in connection with the lesson 
 to be recited. The similarity between these and the charts will enable the 
 pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation from the latter. 
 
 Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical out- 
 line chart, and also give its structure, while other members of the class note 
 all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of that 
 organ, and, if necessary, others may give an extended explanation. The 
 third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends, while 
 other members of the class may supply what has been omitted. After thus 
 presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions may be proposed pro- 
 miscuously from each paragraph, and where examples occur in the text let 
 other analogous ones be given. 
 
 If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied, 
 confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared. 
 When practicable, the three departments should be united; but this can only 
 be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, while the physi- 
 ology can be united with the anatomy in all chapters upon physiology. 
 
 CHART No. 1. 
 OSSEOUS SYSTEM HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. Bones of the Human Body. 1, The frontal bone. 2, The superior max- 
 illary (upper jaw-bone). 3, The inferior maxillary (lower jaw-bone). 4, 
 The cervical vertebrae (bones of the neck). 5, The dorsal vertebrae (bones 
 of the back). 6, The lumbar vertebrae (bones of the loins). 7, The sacrum 
 (the basis of the spinal column). 8, The temporal bone. 9, The scapula 
 (shoulder-blade). 10, 10, 10, The ribs. 11, 11, The innominata (hip-bones). 
 12, The humerus (arm-bone). 13, The radius. 14, The ulna (bones of the 
 fore-arm). 15, The carpus (wrist-bones). 16, 16, The metacarpus (bones of 
 
 i 
 
ii KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS. 
 
 the palm of the hand). 17, 17, The phalanges (finger-bones). 18, The femur 
 (thigh-bone). 19, The patella (knee-pan). 20, The tibia. 21, The fibula 
 (bones of the leg). 22, The tarsus (bones of the instep). 23, 23, The meta- 
 tarsus (bones of the middle of the foot). 24, 24, The phalanges (toe-bones). 
 25, Ligaments of the shoulder. 26, Ligaments of the elbow. 27, Ligaments 
 of the wrist. 28, Ligaments of the hip-joint. 29, Ligaments of the knee. 
 30, Interosseous membrane. 31, Ligaments of the ankle. 32, The clavicle 
 (collar-bone). 33, The sternum (breast-bone). 
 
 B. Bones of the Cow. 1, The frontal bone. 2, The upper jaw (superior 
 maxillary). 3, The lower jaw (inferior maxillary). 4, The cervical vertebne 
 (bones of the neck). 5, The dorsal vertebrae (bones of the back). 6, 7, The 
 lumbar vertebrae. 11, The sacral vertebrae. 8, The caudal vertebras. 9, The 
 scapula. 10, 10, The ribs. 12, The humerus. 13, 14, The radius and ulna. 
 
 15, The carpus. 16, The metacarpus. 17, The phalanges. 18, The femur. 
 20, The tibia. 22, The tarsus. 23, The metatarsus. 24, The phalanges. 
 
 C. Bones of the Bird. 1, The head. 2, The superior mandible (upper 
 jaw). 3, The inferior mandible (lower jaw). 4, The cervical vertebrae. 5, 
 The dorsal vertebrae. 8, The lumbar and sacral vertebras. 9, The scapula. 
 10, The ribs. 11, The sacrum. 12, The humerus. 13, 14, The radius and 
 ulna. 15, The carpus. 16, The metacarpus. 17, 17, Phalanges. 18, The 
 femur. 20, 21, The tibia and fibula. 22, 23, The tarsus and metatarsus. 24, 
 Phalanges. 32, The coracoid bone. 33, The clavicle (furcula). 34, The 
 sternum. 
 
 D. Bones of the Tortoise. 1, The head. 4, The cervical vertebrae. 5, 5, 
 The dorsal vertebrae and marginal plates. 6, 6, The lumbar vertebrae and 
 connecting riba. 7, 11, The sacral bones. 8, The caudal vertebras, 9, The 
 scapula. 12, The humerus. 13, 14, The radius and ulna. 15, The carpus. 
 
 16, 17, Phalanges. 18, The femur. 20, 21, The tibia and fibula. 22, 23, 
 The tarsus and metatarsus. 24, Phalanges. 32, The clavicle. 33, The cor- 
 acoid bone. 
 
 E. Bones of the Fish. 1, The bones of the head. 2, The upper jaw. 3, 
 The lower jaw. 4, 5, 6, The dorsal and caudal vertebrae. 8, The first dorsal 
 fin. 9, The second dorsal fin. 10, One of the ventral fins that corresponds to 
 the legs. 12, A pectoral fin which is analogous to arras. 18, A ventral fin. 
 
 F. Diagram of an Annulosa. 1, The vascular (blood-vessel) system. 2, 
 The digestive system. 3, 3, The ganglia (nervous) system. 4, 4, A series of 
 rings of hardened skin which forms an external skeleton. 
 
 G. Diagram of a Mollusca. 1, The digestive canal. 2, The heart. 3, 4, 
 5, Ganglia (knots of nervous matter). 
 
 H. Diagram of a Radiata. The star-fish. 1, Central aperture. 
 
 CHART No. 2. 
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. Muscles of Human Body. 1, The occipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis 
 palpebrarum. 3, The levator labii superioris. 4, The zygomaticus. 5, The 
 
KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS. Ill 
 
 masseter. 6, The orbicularis oris. 7, The temporal. 8, The levator anguli- 
 oris. 9, The depressor labii inferioris. 10, 10, The deltoid. 11, 11, The 
 pectoralis major. 13, The supinator radii longus. 14, The flexor carpi ulna- 
 ris. 15, The flexor digitorium. 16, The rectus abdominalis. 17, The sarto- 
 rius. 18, The adductor longus. 19, The rectus femoris. 20, The vastus 
 externus. 21, The vastus internus. 22, The tendon patella. 23, The gas- 
 trocnemius. 24, The tibialis anticus. 25, The extensor iongus digitorium. 
 26, The short extensor muscles of the toes. 27, The adductor muscle of the 
 great toe. 28, The serratus magnus anticus. 29, 29, Thepsoas magnus. 30, 
 The inguinal ring. 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, The tendons of the wrist 
 and fingers. 32, The sterno-hyoideus. , 33, The sterno-cleido-mastoideus. 
 34, The biceps. 35, The triceps muscle. 
 
 B. Muscles of the Cow. 1, The oecipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis pal- 
 pebrarum. 3, The masseter. 4, The levator labii superioris nasi. 5, The 
 digastricus. 7, The trapezius. 10, The latissimus dorsi. 11, The pectoralis. 
 16, 17, The external and internal oblique muscle. 18, The opening of the 
 mammary artery and vein (milk-veins). 19, The rectus femoris. 20, 20, 20, 
 The gluteii muscles. 
 
 C. Muscles of the Bird. I, The oecipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis pal- 
 pebrarum. 5, The masseter. 7, The temporal. 10, The deltoid. 11, The 
 pectoralis. 13, The levator caudae. 14, The extensor metacarpi radialis lon- 
 gus. 19, The reotus femoris. 20, The gluteii. 23, The gastrocnemius. 24, 
 The extensor longus digitorium. 33, The sterno-cleido-mastoideus. 34, The 
 biceps muscle. 
 
 D. Muscles of the Tortoise. I, The digastricus. 10, 10, The deltoides. 14, 
 The ulnaris internus. 18, The sartorius. 23, 24, The gastrocnemius. 28, 
 The serratus magnus. 31, 32, The flexores digitorium. 34, The biceps bra- 
 chialis. 35, The triceps brachialis muscle. 
 
 E. Muscles of the Fish. 1, 2, 3, and a, b, c, represent the zigzag arrange- 
 ment of the muscles of the fish (myocomma). 
 
 F. Diagram of an Insect. 1, The head. 2, The first segment of the chest, 
 with the first pair of legs. 3, The second segment, with the second pair of 
 legs and the first pair of wings. 4, The third segment, with the third pair 
 of legs and second pair of wings. 5, The abdomen without legs. 
 
 CHART No. 3. 
 NUTRITIVE SYSTEM-HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. Organs of Man. 1, The parotid gland. 2, The submaxillary gland. 
 3, The sublingual gland. 4, The oesophagus. 5, The larynx and trachea. 
 6, The left lung. 7, The right lung. 8, The heart. 9, The vena cava de- 
 scendens. 10, The aorta. 11, The pulmonary artery. 12, The stomach. 
 13, The left and right lobe of the liver. 15, 15, 15, The large intestine. 16, 
 16, 16, 16, The small intestine. 17, The diaphragm. 
 
 B. Internal Organs of the Sheep. 1, The first stomach (rumen). 2, The 
 second stomach (reticulum). 3, The third stomach (maniplies). 4, The 
 
IV KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL, CHARTS. 
 
 fourth stomach (abomasum or rennet). 5, The duodenum. 6, The spleen. 7, 
 The intestines. 
 
 C. Organs of a winged Reptile. I, The ventricle of the heart. 2, 3, The 
 auricles of the heart. 4, 5, 6, Blood-vessels. 7, The trachea. 8, The lungs. 
 9, 10, 11, The liver and its appendages. 12, The stomach. 13, The duode- 
 num. 14, 15, 16, The intestines. 17, The cloaca. 18, The caeca. 
 
 D. Diagram, of the Organs of a Frog. 1, The heart. 2, 2, Arches of the 
 aorta. 3, 3, Pulmonary artery. 4, 4, The pulmonary veins. 6, The vena 
 cava. 5, The digestive canal. 
 
 CHAET No. 4. 
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. Digestive Organs of Man. 1, The upper jaw. 2, The lower jaw. 3, 
 The tongue. 4, The hard palate (roof of the mouth). 5, The parotid gland. 
 
 6, The sublingual gland. 7, The larynx. 8, 9, The oesophagus. 10, The 
 stomach. 11, 11, The liver. 12, The gall-bladder. 13, Its duct. 14, The 
 duodenum. 15, The pancreas. 16, The spleen (milt). 17, 17, 17., 17, The 
 small intestine. 18, The caecum. 19, The appendix vermiformis. 20, 20, 
 The ascending colon. 21, The transverse colon. 22,22, The descending colon. 
 23, The sigmoid flexure of the colon. 24, The rectum. 
 
 B. Digestive Organs of a Fowl. 9, The oesophagus. 8, The crop (ingluvies). 
 
 7. The second stomach (proventriculus). 10, The gizzard. 11, 11, The liver. 
 12, The gall-bladder. 13, The bile ducts. 14, 14, 14, 14, The duodenum. 15, 
 The pancreas. 16, The caeca (pouches). 17, The large intestine. 24, The 
 ureter and cloaca. 25, The trachea. 
 
 C. Digestive Organs of an Ox. I, The oesophagus. 2, 2, The rumen 
 (paunch). 3, The second stomach (reticulurn). 4, The omasum (maniplies). 
 5, The fourth stomach or abomasum (rennet). 6, The duodenum (intestine). 
 
 D. Digestive Organs of an Insect. 8, The crop. 9, The gullet. 10, The 
 gizzard. 14, 14, The chylific (digestive) stomach. 16, 16, Caeca (bile-tubes), 
 17, The intestine. 18, The renal vessels. 24, The cloaca. 
 
 E. Digestive Organs of the Sword-Fish. 1 1,11, The liver. 13, The bile duct. 
 
 16, 16, The caacas (pouches). 17, 17, 17, The intestine. 24, The cloaca. 
 
 F. Digestive Organs of the Herring. 1, 1, The air-bladder. 2, The air- 
 duct (pneumatic). 9, The oesophagus. 10, The stomach. 16, The cseca. 
 
 17, 17, 17, The intestine. 
 
 CHART No. 5. 
 ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. Absorbent Vessels in Man. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Lymphatic vessels and glands 
 of the lower extremities. 8, Lymphatic vessels of the kidney. 11, 12, The 
 thoracic duct. 10, 10, 10, The intercostal lymphatics. 13, Lymphatics of 
 the neck. 14, 14, Carotid arteries. 15, Axillary glands. 16, 17, 18, Lym- 
 phatics of the arm and hand. 19, Lymphatics of the face. 20, The right in- 
 
KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS. V 
 
 nominata vein. 21, The junction of the thoracic duct with the left subcla- 
 vian vein. 
 
 B. Section of the Layers of the Skin. I, The dermis. 2, The epidermis. 
 3, Its cuticle. 4, Its soft layer. 5, Subcutaneous connective and adipose tis- 
 sue. 6, Tactile papillae. 7, Sweat or perspiratory glands. 8, Its duct. 9, 
 Spiral passage of the duct through the epidermis. 10, 10, The termination 
 of the duct on the surface of the epidermis. 
 
 C. Section of the Papilla and Glands of the Skin. I, 1, 1, 1, Ridges of the 
 cuticle (cut perpendicularly). 2, 2, 2, 2, Furrows or wrinkles of the cuticle. 
 3, The epidermis. 4, Its colored layer. 5, The dermis. 6, 6, 6, The papillae. 
 7, 7, Small furrows between the papillae. 8, 8, 8, 8, Deeper furrows between 
 each couple of the papillae. 9, Cells filled with fat. 10, 10, 10, The adipose 
 layer, with numerous fat vesicles. 11, 11, Cellular fibres of the adipose tissue. 
 12, Two hairs. 13, Sweat or perspiratory gland, with its spiral duct. 14, 
 A perspiratory gland with a duct less spiral. 15, 15, Oil-glands, with ducts 
 opening into the sheath of the hair. 
 
 CHART No. 6. 
 EESPIRA TOR Y SYSTEM HUMAN AND COMPARA TIVE. 
 
 A. Respiratory Organs of Man. I, The larynx. 2, The trachea. 3, The 
 right bronchia. 4, The left bronchia. 5, 6, 7, Lobes of the right lung. 8, 
 
 9, Subdivisions of the bronchi or bronchial tubes. 10, 10, 10, 10, Air cells. 
 11, 11, The diaphragm. 
 
 B. Diagram of the Blood-vessels in Man. 1, The vena cava descendens. 
 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right ventricle of the heart. 4, The 
 left ventricle. 5, 6, The aorta. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 9, Divisions 
 of the pulmonary artery. 
 
 C. Section of a small Mammal. 1, The oesophagus. 2, The trachea. 5, 
 6, The lungs. 7, The heart. 8, The stomach. 9, The liver. 10, 10, In- 
 testines. 11, 11, The diaphragm. 12, 13, The kidney and duct. 14, The 
 brain. 15, 15, 15, The spinal cord. 16, 16, The vertebrae. 17, Caeca. 
 
 D. Diagram of the Lungs of a Bird. 2, A bronchial tube. 3, 4, Divisions 
 of the bronchi that end in sacs. 8, 8, 9, 9, Abdominal air-sacs. 
 
 E. Lung of a Goose. 2, A bronchus. 3, 4, The bronchial tubes laid open. 
 
 10, 10, 10, Apertures of communication with air-cells. 11, 11, Abdominal 
 bronchial orifices. 
 
 G. Respiratory Organs of the Water-scorpion. 1, The head. 2, The base 
 of the first pair of feet. 3, The first ring of the thorax. 4, The base of 
 wings. 5, Base of the second pair of feet. 6, 6, 6, 6, Stigmata (opening at 
 the edge of each joint). 7, 7, 7, 7, Tracheae (air-tubes). 8, 8, Air-sacs. 
 
 F. Diagram of the Bronchial Leaflets of the Cod. 1, A section of a 
 bronchial arch. 3, Bronchial leaflets or plates. 
 
 J. Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood through the Bronchial Leaflets. 
 1, A section of a bronchial arch. 2, A section of a bronchial artery. 3, 3, 
 An arterial branch along the outer margin of the processes, giving off capil- 
 
VI KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS. 
 
 lary vessels to the leaflets. 4, A vein that receives the blood from the capil- 
 laries of the inner margin of the process. 5, Bronchial vein. 
 
 H. A Plexus of Capillary Vessels. 
 
 K. Diagram of the Relative Position of the Blood-vessels to the Air-cells. 
 
 I, A bronchial tube communicating with the air-cells, 2, 2, 2. 3, A branch 
 of the pulmonary artery containing bluish blood. 4, A branch of a pulmo- 
 nary vein containing scarlet or purified blood. 
 
 CHART No. 7. 
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. Circulation in Man. 3, 4, The heart. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, 
 Its branch to the left lung. 7, The vena cava descendens. 8, The vena 
 cava ascendens. 9, The descending aorta. 10, The right femoral artery. 
 
 II, The left femoral vein. 12, The subclavian artery. 13, The subclavian 
 vein. 14, The jugular vein. 15, The axillary vein. 16, The brachial 
 vein and artery. 17, The kidney. 
 
 B. Diagram of the Circulation in Reptiles. 1, Ventricle. 2, Left auricle. 
 3, Right auricle. The arrows show the direction of the blood. 
 
 C. Diagram of the Circulation in the Fish. 1, The pericardium. 2, The 
 ventricle that receives blood from the body. 3, The ventricle that sends 
 blood to the gills. 
 
 D. Diagram of the Heart of Mammals. 1, The vena cava descendens. 2, 
 The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right auricle. 4, The opening between 
 the right auricle and right ventricle. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The tricus- 
 pid valves. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 8, Its branches. 9. The semi-lunar 
 valves of pulmonary artery. 10, The septum between the two ventricles of 
 the heart. 11, 11, The pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. 13, The 
 opening between the left auricle and the left ventricle. 14, The left ventricle. 
 15, The mitral valves. 16, The aorta. 17, The semi-lunar valves of the aorta. 
 
 E. The Heart and Arteries of a Snail. 2, The stomach. 3,3, The intes- 
 tine. 5, The heart, 6, The aorta. 7, The pulmonary artery. 
 
 CHART No. 8. 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. Section of the Human Brain and Spinal Column. 1, The cerebrum. 2, 
 The cerebellum. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, 4, The medulla spinalia 
 (spinal cord) in the canal formed by the vertebrae of the spinal column. 
 
 B. Sack view of the Brain and Nerves in Man. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The 
 cerebellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5. Brachial 
 plexus of nerves. 6, 7, 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass 
 under the ribs. 11, The lumbar plexus of nerves. 12, The sacral plexus 
 of nerves. 13, 14, 15, 16, Nerves of the lower extremities. 
 
 C. The Sympathetic Nerves. 1, The renal plexus of nerves. 2, 3, 4, The 
 lumbar plexus. 6, The semi-lunar ganglion and solar plexus. 7, 7, 7, The 
 
KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS. Vll 
 
 thoracic ganglions. 8, 9, The right and left coronary plexus. 10, 11, 12, 
 The cervical ganglions. 
 
 D. Bane of the Brain of a Horse. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The optic gan- 
 glion. 3, The cerebellum. 4, The medulla oblongata and spinal cord. 
 
 E. Brain of an Alligator. 1, The olfactory ganglion. 2, The cerebrum. 
 3, The optic ganglion. 4, The cerebellum. 5, The medulla oblongata and 
 spinal cord. 
 
 F. Brain of a Bird. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The optic ganglion. 3, The 
 cerebellum. 4, The medulla oblongata. 
 
 G. Brain of a Fish. 1, The olfactory ganglion. 2, The cerebrum. 3, 
 The optic ganglion. 4, The cerebellum. 5, The medulla oblongata and 
 spinal cord. 
 
 H. Nervous System of the Beetle. 1, 1, 2, 2, Nervous ganglions and cords. 
 I. Diagram of the Nervous System of the Centipede. 
 
 J. Diagram of the Star-Fiah. The nervous matter is arranged in a ring 
 about the mouth, which sends off branches in different directions. 
 
 CHART No. 9. 
 SPECIAL SENSE HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 A. The Nervous System of Man. 1, The convolutions of the large brain 
 (cerebrum). 2, The lesser brain (cerebellum). 3, The cervical nerves. 4, 
 The dorsal nerves. 5, The lumbar nerves. 6, The sciatic. 7, The exter- 
 nal popliteal nerve. 8, The tibial nerve. 9, Median and cubital nerves. 
 
 B. Section of the Globe of the Eye. I, The choroid coat of the eye. 2, 
 The sclerotic coat. 3, The retina. 4, The cornea. 5, 5, The iris. 6, The 
 pupil. 8, 9, The chambers of the eye that contain the aqueous humor. 10, 
 The crystalline lens. 11,11, Tue vitreous humor. 12, Optic nerve. 13, The 
 central artery of the eye. 
 
 D. Distribution of the Trifacial (fifth pair) Nerve. I, The trifacial nerve. 
 2, A branch that passes to the eye. 3, A branch distributed to the teeth of 
 the upper jaw. 4, The branch that passes to the tongue (5) and teeth of 
 the lower jaw. 6, This division that passes to the tongue is the nerve of 
 taste (gustatory). 7, The terminal branches of the upper maxillary dis- 
 tributed to the face. 
 
 D. Distribution of the Olfactory Nerve. I, The olfactory nerve. 2, 2, 
 The fine divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the nose. 3, A branch 
 of the fifth pair (trifacial) nerve. 
 
 E. View of the Ear. 1, The auditory canal. 2, The drum of the ear 
 (membrana tympani). The chain of bones in the ear (3, The mall'eus. 4, 
 The incus, and, 5, The stapes.) 6, The cavity of the tympanum. 7, The 
 vestibule. 8, 9, 10, The semi-circular canals. 11, 11, 12, Channels of the 
 cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve (nerve of hearing). 14, The opening from 
 the middle ear to the throat (Eustachian tube). 
 
 F. Compound Eyes of the Bee. Its division into facets (highly magnified). 
 F. Facets still more highly magnified. 
 
 F. Facets with hairs growing between them. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FOR ANALYTICAL STUDY AND RECITATION, 
 
 ALSO FOR UNIFIC AND SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF 
 
 CUTTER'S ANALYTIC ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, 
 
 HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. 
 
 PROFITABLE reading and study require the same analysis and 
 method as clear and efficient teaching. Unification of ideas and 
 principles is also aided by varied and frequent reviews. 
 
 To aid pupil and teacher, the following Questions, Diagrams and 
 Illustrations have been prepared. The Questions in the larger 
 type are to be used in the analytic study and recitation of para- 
 graphs; those in the smaller type, to aid pupil and teacher to 
 secure uniftc investigation and review of parts more or less 
 analogous in structure, function or hygiene; while the diagrams 
 and illustrations are to be used in synthetical examination and 
 review of the sections, chapters and divisions. 
 
 I would also suggest the use of the blackboard in drawing 
 outline figures and diagrams, and in writing the topics to be 
 reviewed. 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER, M.D., 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
DIVISION I. OUTLINE PRINCIPLES. 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared. 
 
 1. State the Linnsean distinctions of the three kingdoms of 
 
 Nature. Name the three kingdoms, and define each. 
 
 2. Of what are Organic and Inorganic bodies combinations? 
 
 What is said respecting Life-force? 
 
 3. Give the distinguishing features of Organized and Unorganized 
 
 matter. 
 
 4. State the distinctions between animals and plants. 
 
 5. What is said of these distinctions in the lower forms of life ? 
 
 I 2. Definition of Terms. 
 
 6. Define Organ, Apparatus and Function. What is Anatomy ? 
 
 Physiology ? Hygiene ? 
 
 7. Of what are organs composed? Define Histology and 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 CHAPTER II. GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 
 33. Cells. 
 
 8. Where do you find Unity of Plan? 
 
 9. Define Protoplasm. What is Animal Protoplasm ? 
 
 10. What is said of nucleated cells? Of the modifications of 
 
 these cells? 
 
 11. Distinguish between animal and vegetable cells. 
 
 12. Of what is the simple cell the type? 
 
 13. Of what does a simple cell consist? Give an illustration. 
 
 14. To what modifications are cells subject? 
 
 15. What is the shape of the cells ? 
 
 16. In what ways do cells multiply ? 
 
 17. What is said of the growth and decay of cells ? 
 
 4. Primary Tissues. 
 
 18. How are the different tissues of the body formed ? Upon what 
 
 do their characters depend? 
 
 19. To what are the Primary Tissues reducible ? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 5 
 
 20. State the object and character of the Connective Tissues. 
 
 21 . Of what is the Fibrous form composed ? State its nature and 
 
 forms. 
 
 22. Give the composition and forms of the White Fibrous tissue. 
 
 What is Gelatin? 
 
 23 Describe the Yellow Fibrous tissue. Why called Elastic? Does 
 it gelatinize? Where found? When found together, what 
 proportion of White to Yellow Fibrous tissue ? Observation. 
 
 24. Of what does the Areolar form consist ? What is said of its 
 
 cellular structure ? What of its individuality ? Observation. 
 
 25. Describe the Cartilaginous tissue. Mention the properties of 
 
 Cartilage. Where is this tissue found? What is the re- 
 lation of cartilage to bone? 
 
 26. Under what condition is Fibro-cartilage formed ? State quality 
 
 and adaptation. 
 
 27. What peculiarity has the Adipose tissue? Of what composed ? 
 
 Where found ? Its use ? 
 
 28. Where is the Sclerous tissue found? What is said of its 
 
 composition ? 
 
 29. Give the composition of Muscular tissue. Name its kinds, and 
 
 describe each. What is its characteristic? What of its 
 electrical nature ? 
 
 30. Describe the Tubular tissue. What is the office of the capil- 
 
 lary vessels? Of what are their walls composed ? Where 
 is this tissue found ? 
 
 31. How is the Nervous tissue distinguished? Where found? In 
 
 what respect like the Muscular tissue? Mention its ele- 
 ments. 
 
 32. Describe the Ganglionic Corpuscles. 
 
 33. What is said of the Gray fibres ? Where found ? 
 
 34. Speak of the White fibres. 
 
 35. Where are the gray and white substances found ? 
 
 $ 5. Membranes. 
 
 36. What is the Basement membrane? What is the Epithelium? 
 
 Why so called? 
 
 37. Name and describe the varieties of the Epithelium. Of what 
 
 power the Cilia? Where is the Ciliated Epithelium found ? 
 
 38. What is beneath the basement membrane? What are consti- 
 
 tuted by the epithelium, basement membrane, and fibro- 
 areolar tissue ? 
 
 39. Where is the Serous membrane found? Its qualities? 
 
 1* 
 
6 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 40. What is said of the Synovial membrane ? Observation. 
 
 41. Describe the Mucous -membranes. 
 
 42. Where is the Gastro-Pulmonary Mucous membrane found? 
 
 43. Where the Urinary? 
 
 44. What is continuous with the Mucous membrane ? Observatioa 
 
 CHAPTER III. GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 
 6. Solids and Fluids. 
 
 45. Of what is the human body composed ? What is said of the 
 
 proportion of solids and fluids ? 
 
 46. What are Proximate Constituents? Define Organic and In- 
 
 organic Proximate Constituents. 
 
 47. Name the Inorganic Proximate Constituents. 
 
 48. Give the classes of Organic Proximate Constituents. 
 
 49. What are contained in the Nitrogenous class? Name the most 
 
 important. 
 
 50. What is the office of Albumen in the animal economy? Give 
 
 the derivation of its name. Whefe found? What pecu- 
 liarity has it? 
 
 51. Describe Albuminose. 
 
 52. What is Fibrin? Where found? What is the influence of 
 
 alcohol upon it? 
 
 53. Describe Musculin. How hardened? 
 
 54. Where is Globulin and Hsematin found ? 
 
 55. Give the properties of Casein. Where does it exist? 
 
 56. Define Cartilagin. What is Osteine? Chondrigen? 
 
 57. Define and give the property of Salivin. 
 
 58. Describe Pepsin, and state its property. 
 
 59. What is Pancreatin ? State its actions. 
 
 60. Describe Mucin. 
 
 61. WhatisNeurin? 
 
 62. Define Keratin. 
 
 63. To what is Elastin peculiar? 
 
 64. Where is Melanin found ? 
 
 65. Of what use Biliverdin? Color? 
 
 66. Name the acids of the nitrogenous class. 
 
 67. Mention the non-nitrogenous groups. 
 
 68. Of what are the fats composed ? From what derived ? What 
 
 is Glycerine ? 
 
 69. Mention the different kinds of sugars. Where are starch 
 
 granules found? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 7 
 
 70. Name the ultimate chemical elements, with their percentage 
 
 proportions. 
 
 71. In what condition are oxygen and hydrogen ? 
 
 72. What is said of carbon? What becomes of the chemical 
 
 elements in decomposition ? 
 
 UNIFIC REVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 9 with 119.] 
 
 What is the relation of Protoplasm to ossification ? 
 [Compare 11-17 with 119, 120, 152, 173, 174, 237, 240, 306, 335,339, 340, 378, 
 
 389, 458, 464, 465, 547 and 553-556.] 
 
 Where do you find nucleated cells? Have they any influence on the plan 
 of structure ? What relation does the cellular tissue bear to the muscu- 
 lar? In the lining of what organs do you find epithelial cells? In the 
 lining membranes of what organs do you find ciliated epithelium ? 
 
 [Compare 20-26 with 123-126, 177, 306, 334-340, 387, 388, 463 and 464.] 
 Name the connective tissues. Mention some distinguishing features of 
 
 each. Where do you find the white fibrous tissues? Where the yellow 
 
 fibrous? Where is cartilage found? 
 
 [Compare 28 with 120-122.] 
 What tissue is found in the bones ? 
 
 [Compare 29 with 173-176, 240-243, 306 and 337-340.] 
 What is the structure of muscular tissue ? Where found ? 
 
 [Compare 30, 341 with 459-462.] 
 In what blood-vessels do you find the tubular tissue ? In what system ? 
 
 [Compare 31-35 with 457-462.] 
 Tell what you can about the nervous tissue. 
 
 [Compare 36-38 with 237, 238, 240-243, 246, 335, 339, 340, 376-379, 388, 
 
 389, 463 and 464.] 
 Name the parts of the body where you find the Basement membrane. 
 
 [Compare 39 with 244, 246, 334, 390 and 463.] 
 Where is the Serous membrane found? 
 
 [Compare 40 with 125 and 177.] 
 What is the office of the Synovial membrane? 
 
 [Compare 41-44 with 237, 238, 240-243, 386-389, 547 and 548.] 
 Name the Mucous membranes. The mucous membrane lines what organs ? 
 Point out the difference between mucous and serous membranes. With 
 what is the mucous membrane continuous ? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 191. 
 
 Fio. 191 (LfAdy). DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE COMMON ANA 
 TOMICAL ELEMENTS OF SEROUS AND Mucous MEMBRANES, THE GLANDS, THE LUNGS AND 
 THE SKIN. 1, Epithelium, secreting cells or epidermis, composed of nucleated cells, and 
 occupying the free surface of the structure mentioned 2, Basement layer, represented 
 much thicker than natural, in comparison with the other Liyors. o, Fibrous layer, in 
 which the arteries and veins (4, 4) terminate in a capillary network. Magnified. 
 
 FlG. 192. 
 
 FIG. 193. 
 
 FIG. 192 (Leidy). CARTILAGE. Section through the thickness of the oval cartilage of 
 the nose. 1, Toward the exterior. 2, Toward the interior surface; highly magnified. 
 It exhibits groups of cartilage cells imbedded in a homogeneous matrice. 
 
 FIG. 193 (Ltidy). PROCESS OF MULTIPLICATION, or CARTILAGE CELLS. 1, Simple cartilage 
 cell from the embryo. 2, Increase of cartilage cells by division of the primary cell. 3, 4, 
 Groups of cartilage cells, from an adult articular cartilage. Magnified. 
 
 FIG. 194. 
 
 FIG. 194 (Leidy). AN IDEAL CELL.!. Cell with its wall, protoplasm, nucleus ami its 
 nudeolus. 2, The same divided into two. 3, The same divided into four cells. 4, The 
 same divided into many cells. The dark portion, the protoplasm; the white spot, tin 
 nucleus; the inner small circle, the nucleolus. Magnified. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 Essential distinctions between mine- 
 ral, vegetable and animal king- 
 doms, 
 
 Nature of life-force, 
 
 Vitalized and non-vitalized bodies 
 compared, 
 
 Animals and plants compared, 
 
 These distinctions in higher and 
 lower forms. 
 
 Organ, apparatus and functions. 
 
 Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, 
 
 Structure of organs, 
 
 Histology and Chemistry. 
 
 Unity of plan in animals and plants, 
 
 Protoplasm, 
 
 Nucleated cell, 
 
 Simple cell, 
 
 Adaptation to different offices, 
 
 Life and shape of cells, 
 
 Modes of multiplication of cells, 
 
 Growth, perfection and decay, 
 
 Primary tissues, 
 
 Object of the connective tissue. 
 
 Fibrous tissue, 
 
 Areolar, 
 
 Cartilaginous, 
 
 Adipose, 
 
 Sclerous, 
 
 Muscular, 
 
 Tubular, 
 
 Nervous. 
 
 Basement membrane, 
 
 Epithelium, 
 
 Serous membrane, 
 
 Synovial " 
 
 Mucous membranes. 
 
 Solids and fluids. 
 
 Proximate constituents, 
 
 Inorganic 
 
 Organic 
 
 Nitrogenous 
 
 Non-nitrogenous " 
 
 Ultimate chemical elements. 
 
 Three 
 
 
 
 Kingdoms 
 compared. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 General 
 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 Definition 
 
 
 
 of Terms. 
 
 
 
 Ofc 
 
 
 Division L 
 
 
 
 Outline 
 
 
 
 Principle*. 
 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 
 H- 
 
 General 
 Histology. 
 
 
 Primary 
 
 
 
 Tissues. 
 
 
 
 $5. 
 
 
 
 Membranes. 
 
 
 
 6. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 
 Solids and 
 
 General 
 
 
 Fluids. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 
 State the General Remarks, the General Histology and the 
 General Chemistry of the human system. 
 
 A 
 
10 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 DIVISION II. THE MOTORY APPARATUS. 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 73. Why is the Motory Apparatus so called ? Name its organs. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. THE BONES. 
 
 \ 7. Anatomy of the Bones. 
 
 74. Of what does the Internal Framework of the body consist? 
 
 75. State the number and classes of the bones. 
 
 76. Name the divisions of bones of the Head. 
 
 77. How many bones compose the Skull ? Give their names and 
 
 positions. 
 
 78. What is said of the skull-bones? How are they united? 
 
 Observation. 
 
 79. How many bones in the Face? Name and describe them. 
 
 80. The Ear has how many bones ? 
 
 81. State the number and names of the bones of the Trunk. 
 
 82. How is the Thorax formed? What its natural form? What 
 
 organs does it contain ? 
 
 83. What is the situation of the Sternum ? 
 
 84. Describe the Eibs. Distinguish between true and false. Why 
 
 the floating ribs so called? What of their length and 
 breadth ? 
 
 85. Of what is the Spinal Column composed ? What is meant by 
 
 body and process of a vertebra ? State their uses. What 
 is said of the arrangement of these processes ? 
 
 86. State the arrangement of the Vertebrae. 
 
 87. Describe the Cervical vertebras. 
 
 88. What is said of the Dorsal? 
 
 89. How are the Lumbar distinguished ? 
 
 90. What is found upon the Anterior and Posterior parts of the 
 
 body of the vertebrae ? 
 
 91. What are found between the arches of the vertebras? How do 
 
 they differ from other ligaments ? 
 
 92. Speak of the Intervertebral ligaments. 
 
 93. Of what is the Pelvis composed? 
 
 94. Describe the Innominatum. 
 
 95. What is the Sacrum ? 
 
 96. What changes occur in the Coccyx during life? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 
 
 97. Mention the number and names of the bones of the Upper 
 
 Extremities. 
 
 98. Where is the Scapula situated? 
 
 99. To what is the Clavicle attached? 
 
 100. Describe the Humerus. 
 
 101. What is the Ulna? 
 
 102. What is the position of the Radius? With what does it 
 
 articulate ? 
 
 103. Speak of the number and arrangement of the bones of the 
 
 Carpus. 
 
 104. State the arrangement of the Metacarpal bones. 
 
 105. How many bones in the phalanges of the fingers? 
 
 106. How many in the Lower Extremities? What their names? 
 
 107. What is said of the Femur? 
 
 108. Patella? 
 
 109. Tibia? 
 
 110. Fibula? 
 
 111. Tarsus? 
 
 112. Of how many bones does the Metatarsus consist? 
 
 113. How many do the phalanges of the toes contain ? 
 
 114. How are joints formed? Name their groups. 
 
 115. Mention and describe each kind of immovable joints. 
 
 116. What are the mixed joints? Give examples. 
 
 117. What is said of movable joints? How many kinds ? Describe 
 
 each. 
 
 118. Give special description of certain forms of movable joints. 
 
 \ 8. Histology of the Bones. 
 
 119. What is the character of the primitive basis of bone? State 
 
 the changes prev : ous to ossification. 
 
 120. Give the Intra-cartilaginous mode of ossification. 
 
 121. State the Intra-membranous mode. 
 
 122. What are the structure and texture of the long bones ? Where 
 
 is the Medulla found? 
 
 123. Distinguish between the Periosteum and Endosteum. 
 
 124. Of what service is Cartilage? How arranged? 
 
 125. Of what use the Synovial membrane? Name and describe 
 
 its kinds. 
 
 126. What are found in connection with the Synovial membrane? 
 
 Describe the several kinds of ligaments. 
 
12 QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 9, Chemistry of the Bones. 
 
 127. Of what are the bones composed? Mention the mineral con- 
 
 stituents. Observation. 
 
 g 10. Physiology of the Bones. 
 
 128. Name the uses of the Bones. 
 
 129. What qualities found in bone? 
 
 130. What advantages result from the structure and arrangement 
 
 of the skull-bones? 
 
 131. Mention the offices of the spinal column. 
 
 132. How are strength and firmness secured ? How the necessary 
 
 rotary movement? To what are the muscles attached? 
 ** What arrangement for the spinal cord ? What provision 
 is made to prevent injury to the brain ? 
 
 133. What purpose do the Ribs serve? 
 
 134. State the offices of the Pelvis. 
 
 135. What is said of the form and proportion of the Upper Ex- 
 
 tremities as relating to the hand ? 
 
 136. Compare the Lower Extremities with the Upper. 
 
 137. Why are the shafts of the long bones hollow ? 
 
 138. Enumerate the uses of the joints. 
 
 139. State the purposes of the different classes of joints. 
 
 140. Give the use of the Synovia. 
 
 141. What is said of Cartilage? 
 
 142. Speak of the function of the Ligaments. 
 
 143. Of what service the Periosteum ? 
 
 144. What is illustrated by each bone? 
 
 \ 11. Hygiene of the Bones. 
 
 145. What is the influence of exercise on the health of the bones? 
 
 How should it be taken ? 
 
 146. To what are the lower extremities of the very young not 
 
 adapted ? 
 
 147. What should be avoided? Why? 
 
 148. Why should an erect position be maintained ? 
 
 149. How are distortions of the body produced ? 
 
 150. What statement by eminent physicians? How may slight 
 
 curvatures of the spine be prevented or cured? 
 
 151. In the fracture of bones or injury of limbs, what is necessary? 
 
 What is " White Swelling ?" Observation. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 13 
 
 \ 12. Comparative Osteology 
 
 152. Name and describe the sub-kingdoms. 
 
 153. Give the classes of the Vertebrata. 
 
 154. Compare the Vertebral Column of Mammals. What is said 
 
 of it in Birds ? Eeptiles ? Fishes ? 
 
 155. What is said of the bones of the /head in Mammals ? Birds ? 
 
 Eeptiles? Fishes? 
 
 156. Why not a Clavicle in the ox. Describe the clavicle of Birds. 
 
 Eeptiles. Fishes. 
 
 157. What of the Scapula of the lower order of animals ? 
 
 158. Speak of the Sternum of Birds. Eeptiles. Fishes. 
 
 159. Describe the Eibs in the different classes. 
 
 160. What is said of the Humerus? 
 
 161. What of the Eadius and Ulna? 
 
 162. What of the Carpus and Metacarpus ? 
 
 163. Compare Posterior and Anterior Extremities of the several 
 
 classes. What suggestion by the author? 
 
 UNIFIC EEVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 74 with 152.] 
 
 What constitutes the Skeleton? What is said of it in the different sub- 
 kingdoms? 
 
 [Compare 76-80 with 155.] 
 Compare the Bones of the Head in man with those of the lower animals. 
 
 [Compare 81-97 with 154, 158 and 159.] 
 
 What are the bones of the Trunk ? Are they all found in the lower animals? 
 Which is the largest bone in a Bird ? 
 
 [Compare 97-106 with 160-162.] 
 
 Name all the bones of the Upper Extremities in the different classes of the 
 Vertebrata. What peculiarity in the clavicle of Birds ? 
 
 [Compare 106-113 with 163.] 
 Describe each bone of the Lower Extremities. 
 
 [Compaq 119-122 with 8-11 and 152.] 
 
 What is the earliest organic form of living things ? State the process of 
 ossification. 
 
 [Compare 123 with 21-24.] 
 
 What tissue in the Periosteum ? Use of this membrane ? 
 2 
 
14 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 [Compare 126 with 21-23.] 
 What tissue forms the Ligaments? What does Ligament signify? 
 
 [Compare 127 with 47, 52, 56 and 70.] 
 Name both the organic and inorganic matter in bones. 
 
 [Compare 145 with 202, 213, 214, 281, 361 and 506.] 
 
 What is necessary to the health of the bones ? What results follow a want 
 of exercise ? State the influence of exercise upon the health of the dif- 
 ferent organs. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 15 
 
 Fm. 196. 
 
16 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 7. 
 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 Histology of. 
 
 SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. 
 
 The Skeleton and its uses, 
 
 Number and classes, 
 
 Head, Trunk, 
 
 Upper Extremities, 
 
 Lower Extremities, 
 
 Joints, 
 
 Definition and classes of Joints, 
 
 Immovable Joints, 
 
 Mixed, Movable, 
 
 Peculiar forms of Movable. 
 
 Formation of Temporary Cartilage, 
 
 Intra-cartilaginous mode of ossification, 
 
 Intra-membranons mode, 
 
 Structure of the Long Bones, 
 
 Periosteum, Endosteum, 
 
 Cartilages of the Joints, 
 
 Synovial membrane, Ligaments. 
 
 Chemical Composition, \ g 9. 
 
 Experiment showing earthy and animal matter. ) Chemistry of. 
 
 General uses of, 
 
 Adaptation of their structure to their uses, 
 
 Skill as shown in the Skull, 
 
 Spinal Column, 
 
 " Kibs, 
 
 " Pelvis, 
 
 Upper Extremities, 
 
 " Lower Extremities, 
 
 Long Bones, 
 The uses of the Joints, 
 Classification of the Joints, 
 Of Movable Joints, 
 Function of the Synovia, 
 
 10. 
 
 Physiology 
 of 
 
 Ligaments, 
 Periosteum, 
 
 Perfection of this part in the animal fabric. 
 Effect of exercise upon the bones of children, 
 " compression, 
 " stooping, 
 Treatment of Fractures, 
 " Sprains, 
 
 Felons. 
 Classification of Animals, 
 
 Vertebrates, 
 
 Compare Spinal Column of Vertebrates, 
 " Bones of the Head, 
 " Thorax, 
 
 Extremities. 
 
 Give the Human and Comparative Anatomy and Histology of 
 the Bones ; the Chemistry, the Physiology and the Hygiene. 
 
 Hygiene of. 
 
 Comparative 
 Osteology of. 
 
 CHAP. IT. 
 The Bones 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 17 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER V. THE MUSCLES. 
 
 \ 13. Anatomy of the Muscles. 
 
 164. What property do the Muscles possess? By what law 
 
 governed ? Give the different forms. 
 
 165. Describe the Fasciae. Speak of the attachment of the muscles. 
 
 166. Give the number and kinds of the muscles. 
 
 167. How arranged ? Define Extensors and Flexors. Examples. 
 
 168. State the office of the Occipito-Froritalis ; of the Orbicularis 
 
 Palpebrarum ; of the Orbicularis Oris; of the Masseter 
 and Temporal ; of the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid. 
 
 169. Of the Pectoralis Major ; of the Serratus Magnus ; of the Ob- 
 
 liquus Externus and Rectus Abdominalis. 
 
 170. Of the Trapezius, Rhomboideus Major and Minor ; of the 
 
 Latissimus Dorsi; of the Serratus Posticus Inferior. 
 
 171. Of the Deltoid; of the Biceps; of the Triceps ; of the Flexor 
 
 Carpi Radialis ; of the Flexor Carpi Ulnaris; of the Flexor 
 Digitorum ; of the Extensor Digitorum ; of the Extensor 
 Carpi Radialis. 
 
 172. Describe the Glutei, Sartorius, Rectus Femoris, Vastus Ex- 
 
 ternus, Vastus Internus, Triceps Abductor Femoris, Biceps 
 Femoris, Extensor Digitorum, Peroneus Longus, Gas- 
 trochnemius Externus, Tendo-Achilles. 
 
 g 14. Histology of the Muscles. 
 
 173. Into what is a Muscle separable? 
 
 174. By what is each muscle invested? What is Myolemma? 
 
 175. Name and describe the classes of muscles. 
 
 176. How is the contractility of the muscles stimulated? 
 
 177. What are Tendons? In what is each tendon enveloped? 
 
 178. Where do you find the blood-vessels of the muscles? 
 
 179. What position do the Nerves occupy ? What is said of the 
 
 different classes of the nerves ? 
 
 $ 15. Chemistry of the Muscles. 
 
 180. What is said of the chemical composition of the muscles? 
 
 Muscle sugar is where found? 
 
 181. How does proper muscular substance differ from simple 
 
 fibrous tissue ? 
 2* 
 
18 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 182. Name some of the chemical changes attending muscular 
 
 action. What is said of the "muscular current"? Ob- 
 servation. 
 
 $ 16. Physiology of the Muscles. 
 
 183. State the relative uses of bones and muscles. 
 
 184 Name the uses of the muscles. 
 
 185 To what are the Voluntary muscles subject? What is im- 
 
 plied by the motion of a limb ? 
 
 186. Of what aid the muscular sense ? What is said of the exer- 
 
 cise of this muscular sense ? 
 
 187. What are the Involuntary muscles? 
 
 188. What involuntary muscles are somewhat under the control 
 
 of the Will ? Of what advantage this ? Observation. 
 
 189. State the office of the Tendons. Do they possess contractility? 
 
 In what respect do you see in them an exhibition of care 
 and skill ? Illustrate with the hand. 
 
 190. Define a Lever, and name its kinds. 
 
 191. Explain each kind. 
 
 192. Where are the principles of the first kind illustrated ? 
 
 193. Where those of the second ? 
 
 194. Of the third? 
 
 195. What is said of the oblique action of the muscles ? What is 
 
 important to notice in this connection? Compare the 
 Extensors with the Flexors. 
 
 196. Where does the pulley find illustration? 
 
 197. What is said of the direction of the different layers? 
 
 198. In what is mechanical skill shown ? 
 
 199. Speak of muscular force. 
 
 17. Hygiene of the Muscles. 
 
 200. What advantage in possessing healthy muscles ? Name the 
 
 first essential. What is the influence of pure blood on the 
 muscles? 
 
 201. Why should the muscles not be compressed ? What is said 
 
 of the pressure of dressing in case of a fractured limb? 
 What are the results of tight dresses on health ? To what 
 is tight-lacing compared? 
 
 202. How does exercise promote the health and growth of muscles ? 
 
 Illustration. 
 
 203. State the relation of relaxation to contraction. Illustration. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 19 
 
 204. Give a reason for a change of employment. Illustration. 
 
 205. How should the muscles be called into action ? Observation. 
 
 206. How rested ? 
 
 207. How should exercise be taken ? 
 
 208. What kind of exercise ? What pastimes should be chosen ? 
 
 209. To what should the amount of exercise be adapted? Ob- 
 
 servation. 
 
 210. State the proper time for exercise. Observation. 
 
 211. Mention the influence of the mind on the muscles. 
 
 212 What should be taken into. consideration as to the amount 
 of exercise? 
 
 213. In what diseases are great care and discretion necessary as 
 
 regards exercise ? 
 
 214. What is said of the exercise of the muscles in chronic diseases 
 
 of the digestive organs? What is important to secure 
 beneficial results ? Observation. 
 
 215. Why do the muscles require erect positions of the body ? 
 
 216. What attention should be given to children and youth? 
 
 What care in furnishing school-rooms ? Observation. 
 
 217. Why relaxation of muscles necessary in walking, jumping, 
 
 etc. ? Observation. 
 
 218. State and illustrate the influence of education. Observation. 
 
 g 18. Comparative Myology. 
 
 219. What is said of the muscles of Mammals? Of their color? 
 
 220. For what is the muscular system of Birds remarkable ? 
 
 221. Speak of the muscles of Keptiles. 
 
 222. What modification of muscles in Fishes? What color? 
 
 UNIFIC EEVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 164, 165, 166 with 173, 174 and 219-222.] 
 
 What is the structure of the muscles ? State their relation to the bones. 
 Compare the muscles of man with those of other mammals. What is 
 peculiar to muscle ? 
 
 [Compare 176 with 441, 450 and 469.] 
 
 What are the causes of muscular activity ? State the connection between 
 the muscular and nervous system. 
 
 [Compare 177 with 22.] 
 Where do you find the white fibrous and muscular tissue closely related ? 
 
 [Compare 178 with 371.] 
 How are the muscles nourished ? 
 
20 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 [Compare ISO with 50-53.] 
 Of what is the muscular tissue composed? 
 
 [Compare 201 with 360 and 425.] 
 State the evil results of compression of the muscles. 
 
 [Compare 202 with 361 and 506.] 
 
 What is the influence of exercise on circulation and muscular power? 
 What the effect ot a want of it on the Nervous System ? 
 
 [Compare 203 with 209, 210, 281 and 506.] 
 In taking exercise, what caution as to the age, time, amount, etc. ? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 21 
 
 SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. 
 
 Law of muscular contraction, 
 Consequent forms of muscles, 
 Modes of attachment, 
 Number and general arrangement, 
 Of Head and Neck, 
 
 " Anterior part of Trunk, 
 
 " Posterior 
 
 " Upper Extremities, 
 
 " Lower Extremities. 
 Analysis, 
 Sheaths, 
 
 Voluntary and involuntary, 
 Exciting agents of contractility, 
 Tendons, 
 Blood-vessels, 
 Nerves. 
 
 Chemical composition, 
 
 Chemical changes attending muscular action, 
 Muscular current. 
 
 Kelative uses of Bones and Muscles, 
 Important functions, 
 Relation of the Will to muscular action, 
 
 muscular sense " 
 
 The muscular sense a source of enjoyment, 
 Importance of involuntary movements, 
 Importance of such movements being some- 
 times voluntary, 
 
 Tendons, 
 Mechanical 
 
 exhibited in muscular 
 
 powers 
 action, 
 
 Lever, Pulley, 
 Oblique action, etc., 
 Deep-seated, 
 Minute. 
 
 Healthy condition, 
 Freedom from compression, 
 Exercise, 
 
 Conditions to be observed in exercise, 
 Exercise sometimes injurious, 
 Effect of mental stimulus, 
 Regard necessary to age and health, 
 Position of the body, 
 Proper tension, 
 Education. 
 Muscles of other mammals and man, 
 
 Birds, 
 
 Keptiles, 
 
 Fishes. 
 
 Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology, 
 the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Muscles. 
 
 818. 
 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 14. 
 
 Histology of. 
 
 15. 
 Chemistry of. 
 
 16. 
 
 Physiology 
 
 17. 
 
 Hygiene of. 
 
 18. 
 
 Comparative 
 Myology of. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 Tfie Muscles, 
 
22 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 198. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 23 
 
 DIVISION II. MOTORY APPARATUS. 
 
 SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. 
 
 SECT. 7. Anatomy of. 
 " 8. Histology of. 
 " 9. Chemistry of. 
 " 10. Physiology of. 
 " 11. Hygiene of. 
 " 12. Comparative Osteology of. ' 
 
 " 13. Anatomy of. 
 " 14. Histology of. 
 
 " 15. Chemistry of. 
 
 " 16. Physiology of. 
 
 " 17. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 18. Comparative Myology of. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 TkeBmes. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 The Muscles. 
 
 Division II, 
 
 Notary 
 Apparatus. 
 
 Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology, 
 the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Motory Apparatus. 
 
24 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 DIVISION III. THE NUTRITIVE 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 223. In what processes are the organs of the Nutritive Apparatus 
 
 used? Name the organs. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 19, Anatomy of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 224. What are included in the Digestive Organs? 
 
 225. Describe the Mouth. 
 
 226. What is said of the Teeth ? How many parts has each tooth ? 
 
 Observation. 
 
 227. What are the temporary teeth? The permanent ? Name and 
 
 describe the different forms of the teeth. 
 
 228. Of how many pairs do the Salivary Glands consist? Name 
 
 and describe each pair. Observation. 
 
 229. Describe the Pharynx. 
 
 230. What is the (Esophagus ? 
 
 231. What is said of the Stomach? 
 
 232. Mention the divisions of the Intestines. Describe the small 
 
 intestine. 
 
 233. State the length and parts of the large intestine. Describe 
 
 each part. 
 
 234. Describe the Liver. By what surrounded? How many 
 
 lobes ? What is on the under side ? 
 
 235. What is said of the Pancreas? 
 
 236. What is the Spleen ? Why so named? 
 
 g 20. Histoloyy of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 237. By what is the alimentary canal lined? 
 
 238. Describe the covering of the mouth. Describe the tongue. 
 
 Name and describe its muscles. Distinguish between hard 
 and soft palate. 
 
 239. What is the relation of the teeth to the mucous membrane of 
 
 the mouth ? Give their composition. What is the Enamel '/ 
 Describe the Cement. 
 
 240. Describe the walls of the Pharynx. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 25 
 
 241. Name and describe the coats of the (Esophagus. 
 
 242. Describe the Stomach and its coats. 
 
 243. What is said of the coats and muscular fibres of the intes- 
 
 tines? What are the Valvulae Conniventes? Describe 
 the Villi. 
 
 244. How many coats has the Liver? Describe the lobules. 
 
 What is the mid- vein? What relation the hepatic system 
 to the portal ? 
 
 245. Describe the coats of the Spleen. 
 
 246. What is the Peritoneum ? 
 
 $ 21. Chemistry of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 247. What secretions effect chemical changes during digestion ? 
 
 248. What is Mucus ? Its composition ? 
 
 249. Describe Saliva. Its composition. What is said of it when 
 
 first secreted? What salts does it contain? State its 
 chemical effect. 
 
 250. What are the properties of Gastric Juice ? Name its charac- 
 
 teristic constituent. What saline matter? What of its 
 solvent power ? What changes does it effect ? 
 
 251. Describe Bile. Its composition. What changes caused by it. 
 
 252. What is said of the Pancreatic Juice ? What per cent, solid 
 
 matter? Its salts? Its chemical power ? 
 
 253. Speak of the Intestinal Juices. 
 
 254. State the summing up of the changes in three staminal prin- 
 
 ciples of food. 
 
 255. What is the relation of acid and alkali in the digestive fluids ? 
 
 $ 22. Physiology of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 256. What change in food is necessary? What is Primary As- 
 
 similation ? What Secondary ? What is Digestion ? 
 
 257. To what is the alimentary canal likened? What do recent 
 
 investigations show ? 
 
 258. Speak of the changes of food in the stomach. Can the food 
 
 return to the oesophagus? Why not? When does the 
 food leave the stomach ? What is there peculiar about the 
 Pylorus ? 
 
 259. What changes occur in the alimentary canal ? 
 
 260. What is said of the absorbing surface of the intestines ? 
 3 B 
 
26 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 23. Hygiene of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 261. Name the first requisite for the preservation of the Teeth. 
 
 What is the effect of sudden changes of temperature? 
 Should acids be used? What objection to the use of 
 tobacco ? Why should the teeth be frequently examined ? 
 
 262. When should the temporary teeth be removed? What do 
 
 the irregular permanent teeth generally require? Does 
 toothache always indicate a necessity of extraction ? Ob- 
 servation. 
 
 263. What is required for the health of the Digestive Organs ? 
 
 264. What is said of the quantity of food? 
 
 265. What must the supply equal? When must supply exceed 
 
 waste? 
 
 266. When should the quantity of food be diminished ? 
 
 267. Why is more food required in winter than in summer? 
 
 268. To what should the amount be adapted ? 
 
 269. What should be the quality of food ? 
 
 270. What must proper aliment contain ? 
 
 271. How should food be cooked? What are the best methods of 
 
 preparation ? 
 
 272. To what should the quality be adapted? 
 
 273. What is said of vegetable diet? 
 
 274. Who require stimulating food? Who unstimulating? 
 
 275. What is said of the manner of taking food? 
 
 276. Why should food be properly masticated? 
 
 277. Why not take drink with food? 
 
 278. Why should regard be had to the temperature of drink? 
 
 279. How and when should food be taken ? 
 
 281. State the reason for not taking food just before or after exer- 
 
 cise. What is the influence of moderate exercise? Ob- 
 servation. 
 
 282. Why is it not best to eat immediately before retiring to 
 
 sleep ? 
 
 283. What influence does the mind exert upon the digestive 
 
 organs? How should indigestion arising from nervous 
 prostration be treated ? 
 
 284. After long abstinence, what kind of food should be taken ? 
 
 285. What influence does the condition of the skin exert? 
 
 286. Why is pure air necessary? General Observation. Re- 
 
 capitulation. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 27 
 
 $ 24. Comparative Splanchnology. 
 
 287. What is said of the Nutritive Apparatus of Vertebrates? 
 
 288. Compare the mouth and teeth of the Vertebrates. 
 
 289. Of Birds. 290. Of Reptiles. 291. Of Fishes. 
 
 292. How are the digestive fluids supplied? 
 
 293. Speak of the stomach and intestines of Vertebrates. 
 
 294. Give the process of digestion in Ruminants. 
 
 295. Name and describe the stomachs of Birds. 
 
 296. Compare the alimentary canal of Reptiles with that of Mam- 
 
 mals or Birds. 
 
 297. What is said of the alimentary canal in Fishes ? 
 
 UNIFIC REVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 225-227 with 287-291.] 
 Compare the teeth of man with those of the lower animals 
 
 [Compare 228 with 292.] 
 Describe the Salivary Glands in all animals. 
 
 [Compare 229-236 with 293-297.] 
 
 Contrast the Digestive Organs of Man with those of other Mammals, Birds, 
 Reptiles and Fishes. 
 
 [Compare 237, 238 with 36-44, 289-292, 547 and 548.] 
 
 Give a full description of the lining membrane of the mouth and alimentary 
 canal of the different classes of animals. 
 
 [Compare 239 with 288-291.] 
 Speak of the histological composition of the teeth in animals. 
 
 [Compare 240-243 with 293-297.] 
 Give the comparative Histology of the (Esophagus, Stomach and Intestines. 
 
 [Compare 244 with 292, 296 and 297.] 
 What is said of the Liver in the different animals? 
 
 [Compare 247-255 with 45-51, 57-60, 65 and 67-70.] 
 Give an outline of the Chemistry of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 [Compare 256-260 with 294 and 295.] 
 Compare the digestive processes in different classes of animals. 
 
 [Compare 280-286 with 209-214, 410-415 and 500-506.] 
 In what condition should the system be to take food without injury? State 
 the influence of exercise upon digestion. What does the health of the 
 human system require? 
 
28 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 199. FIG. 200. 
 
 li 
 
 FIG. 199. STOMACH OF AN Ox. 1, (Esophagus. 2, Rumen (paunch). 3, Reticulum 
 (honeycomb). 4, Omasum (many-plies). 5, Abomasum (rennet). 6, Intestine. 
 
 FIG. 200. STOMACH OF A SHEEP'.!, (Esophagus. 2, Rumen. 3, Reticulum. 4, Omasum. 
 5, Abomasum, or rennet. 6, Intestine. 
 
 FlG. 201. 
 
 FlG. 202. 
 
 FIG. 202. THE ALIMENTARY CANAL op 
 THE SWORD-FISH. 1, Liver. 2, 3, Caeca, 
 or pouches, connecting with small intes- 
 tine. 4, 5, Small intestine, coiled. 6, 
 Large intestine. 7, Biliary duct. 
 
 FIG. 201. THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OP THE FLYING LIZARD.!, (Esophagus. 2, Stomach. 
 B, 3, Small intestine. 4, Large intestine. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 29 
 
 SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. 
 
 Mouth, 
 
 Teeth, 
 
 Salivary Glands, 
 
 Pharynx, 
 
 (Esophagus, 
 
 Stomach, 
 
 Intestines, 
 
 Liver, 
 
 Pancreas, 
 
 Spleen. 
 
 Lining membrane of Alimentary Canal, 
 
 Mouth, 
 Composition of the Tongue, 
 
 " Teeth, 
 Palates, 
 Pharynx, 
 Coats of the (Esophagus, 
 
 Stomach, 
 
 Intestines, 
 " Liver, 
 
 Spleen, 
 Peritoneum. 
 Secretions, Names, 
 
 Character, 
 Mucus, 
 Saliva, 
 
 Gastric Juice, 
 Bile, 
 
 Pancreatic Juice, 
 Intestinal Juice, 
 Changes in Food, 
 Acids and Alkalies. 
 Assimilation, 
 Chymification, 
 Chylifaction, 
 Destination of Chyle, 
 Preservation of Teeth, 
 .Removal " 
 
 Quantity of Food, 
 Quality " 
 Manner of taking Food, 
 Condition of the System, 
 Nutritive Apparatus of Vertebrates, 
 Mouth and Teeth, 
 Digestive Fluids, 
 Stomach and Intestines. 
 
 fid. 
 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 220. 
 
 Histology of. 
 
 221. 
 
 Chemistry of. 
 
 222. 
 
 Physiology of. 
 
 2 23. 
 
 Hygiene, of. 
 
 224. 
 
 Comparative 
 
 Splanchnology 
 
 of. 
 
 CHAP. VL 
 Digestive 
 Organt. 
 
 State the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physi 
 ology and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the 
 Digestive Organs, figs. 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204. 
 
30 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 FIG. 203. FIG. 204. 
 
 Fio. 203. THR ALIMENTARY CANAL OP MAN. 1, (Esophagus. 2, The stomach. 3, Car. 
 diac orifice. 11, Pylorus. 5, Biliary duct. 4, 4, 4, 4, Small intestines. 6, Pancreatic 
 duct. 7, Ascending colon. 8, Transverse colon. 9, Descending colon. 10, Rectum. 
 
 Fio. 204. THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OP A FOWL. 1, The oesophagus. 2, Ingluvies (crop). 
 3, Proventiculus (secreting stomach). 4, Triturating stomach (gizzard). 5, Intestine 
 6, Two caeca. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 31 
 
 ANAL'YTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. ABSORPTION. 
 
 298. Define Absorption and Absorbents. State the difference be- 
 tween general and intrinsic absorption. 
 
 g 25. Anatomy of the Absorbents. 
 
 299. Of what do the Absorbents consist? What is Lymph? 
 
 Describe the Lacteals. 
 
 300. What is said of the Lymphatic Glands ? 
 
 301. Where are the Lymphatic Vessels found? State the kinds of 
 
 Lymphatics. How are the Thoracic and Lymphatic Ducts 
 formed ? 
 
 302. Give the course of the Thoracic Duct. 
 
 303. Describe the Lymphatic Duct. 
 
 304. Where are the Lymphatic Glands found? 
 
 305. What is the Portal Vein? 
 
 \ 26. Histology of the Absorbents. 
 
 306. Describe the coats of the Lymphatic Vessels. With what are 
 
 the larger Lymphatic Tubes supplied? 
 
 307. What is the supposed composition of the Lymphatic Glands ? 
 
 308. Give the origin of the Lymphatics and Lacteals. 
 
 309. Of what does Lymph consist? 
 
 27. Chemistry of the Absorbents. 
 
 310. What chemical changes occur in the absorbent system ? 
 
 311. Give the proportions of the chief ingredients of Chyle in the 
 
 afferent Lacteals. In the efferent Lacteals. In the Thoracic 
 Duct. 
 
 312. What changes take place in the Portal circulation ? 
 
 g 28. Physiology of the Absorbents. 
 
 313. What is the office of the Lymphatics? 
 
 314. What may the office of the Lymphatics include? What w 
 
 said of disintegration of the tissues? 
 
 315. Speak of the absorbing power of the mucous membrane. 
 
 316. Illustrate the absorbent power of the skin. 
 
32 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 317. When are the fluids of the serous and synovial membranes 
 
 absorbed^ Observations. 
 
 318. Describe Endosmosis. 
 
 9 
 
 29. Hygiene of the Absorbents. 
 
 319. What should be the condition of the air? Observation. 
 
 320. What influence has moisture? Observation. 
 
 321. What is the influence of nutritious food upon absorption ? 
 
 322. What care is necessary in handling poisons ? 
 
 FIG. 205. 
 
 FlG. 205. Small intestine. 2, 2, 2, Lacteals. 3, 3, 3, Thoracic duct. 4, Stomach. 6, 
 Colon. 6, Pancreas. 7,. Liver. 8, 8, Diaphragm. 9, Heart. 10, 10, Lungs. 11, Large 
 rein into which the thoracic duct opens. 12, 12, Spinal column. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 33 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 Process of Absorption, 
 Specific and General. 
 Absorbents, 
 Lymph, 
 
 Lymphatic Glands, 
 Vessels, 
 Thoracic Duct, 
 Lymphatic Glands, position, 
 Absorbent Veins. 
 Lymphatic Vessels, 
 
 " Glands, 
 Origin of Lymphatics, 
 Lymph. 
 Changes in absorbent system, 
 
 " portal circulation. 
 
 Office of the Lymphatics, 
 Power of different tissues, 
 
 " " membranes, 
 
 Absorption in disease, 
 Imbibition of membranes. 
 Condition of the air, 
 Effect of nutritious food, 
 " removal of cuticle. 
 
 25. 
 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 26. 
 Histology of. 
 
 827. 
 Chemistry of. 
 
 % 28. 
 Physiology of. 
 
 29. 
 
 Hygiene, of. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 The Absorbents 
 
 Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology 
 and the Hygiene of the Absorbent System of man. 
 
 B* 
 
34 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 206 
 
 FIG. 206. 1, 1, The absorbents of the lower extremities. 2, The small intestine. 3, 
 The lacteals. 4, 4, The thoracic duct. 5, 5, 5, Absorbent ducts. 6, 6, Absorbents of the 
 arms. 7, Absorbents of the neck. 8, A large vein that opens into the right auricle of 
 the heart. 9, The right auricle. 10, 10, The diaphragm. 
 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 35 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. THE CIRCULATION. 
 30. The Blood. 
 
 323. From what source is the blood derived? Of what does the 
 
 blood consist? 
 
 324. For what purpose is the blood constantly undergoing loss ? 
 
 Observation. 
 
 325. Why must the blood be kept in circulation ? Name the Cir- 
 
 culatory Organs. 
 
 g 31. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs. 
 
 326. Describe the Heart. 
 
 327. What are the Arteries? To what is the Aorta likened? 
 
 What are the Capillaries ? Where found ? 
 
 328. Give the course of the Veins. What constitutes the Systemic 
 
 circulation ? What the Pulmonic ? 
 
 329. From what part of the heart arises the Aorta ? Name its 
 
 divisions. Describe the Arch. 
 
 330. State the course of the Thoracic Aorta. 
 
 331. What is said of the Abdominal Aorta, its divisions and sub- 
 
 divisions ? 
 
 332. Give the divisions of the Carotid arteries. To what parts 
 
 of the body do the subclavian arteries furnish branches? 
 What is said of the extension of the subclavian artery ? 
 
 333. How are the Veins arranged ? Describe the Superior Vena 
 
 Cava. Inferior Vena Cava. Portal vein. Pulmonary 
 veins. 
 
 
 32. Histology of the Circulatory Organs. 
 
 334. Of what is the Pericardium composed ? 
 
 335. What can you say of the Endocardium? Where does the 
 
 fibro-elastic tissue form four rings ? What and where are 
 the Semi-lunar valves ? 
 
 336. Where are the Mitral valves? Where the Tricuspids? 
 
 337. Upon what is the muscular structure of the heart based? 
 
 What is said of the superficial fibres? Where is the 
 middle stratum of fibres found ? 
 
 338. Of what do the muscular fibres of the auricles consist? 
 
36 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 339. Name and describe the coats of the arteries. 
 
 340. How are the veins constructed ? Describe the valves in the 
 
 veins. Where found ? 
 
 341. Give the structure of the Capillaries. 
 
 33. Chemistry of the Blood. 
 
 342. State the analysis of the blood. 
 
 343. What per cent, of solid matter and water in the blood ? 
 
 344. How are the mineral substances distributed in the blood'/ 
 
 What effect has air on blood ? 
 
 I 34, Physiology of the Circulatory Organs. 
 
 345. Why is circulation necessary? Why a double heart? 
 
 346. Give the Systemic circulation ; the Pulmonic. 
 
 347. What is said of the contraction and dilatation of the auricles 
 
 and ventricles ? What is the effect of such action ? 
 
 348. In the construction of the circulatory system, what was 
 
 necessary ? 
 
 349. By what means are proper circulatory impulses given ? 
 
 350. How is a backward flow from the auricles prevented ? From 
 
 the ventricles ? From the arteries ? From the Pulmonary 
 artery ? 
 
 351. How are the arteries protected against sudden action of the 
 
 heart? 
 
 352. How is the current maintained? 
 
 353. Explain the capillary circulation ; also the portal current. 
 
 354. How is a continuation of the flow through the veins effected ? 
 
 355. How is the intermittent pressure caused by the action of the 
 
 heart equalized? 
 
 356. What secures the relative amount of blood to each organ? 
 
 357. What provision is there for contingencies ? 
 
 358. By the study of circulation what effect is produced upon the 
 
 susceptible mind ? 
 
 35. Hygiene of the Circulatory Organs. 
 
 359. What temperature should be preserved ? 
 
 360. Why should the clothing be worn loosely ? 
 
 361. What is the influence of exercise on circulation? 
 
 362. What is said of the quality and quantity of the blood? 
 
 Illustration. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 37 
 
 363. In case of haemorrhage from divided arteries, what should 
 
 be done ? 
 
 364. In flesh wounds, what course is to be taken ? Observation. 
 
 What is the treatment of wounds caused by blunt instru- 
 ments? Of wounds from poisonous bites? 
 
 36. Comparative Angiology. 
 
 365. What is said of the blood and circulatory organs of Mammals? 
 
 366. Of Birds? 367. Of Keptiles ? 368. Of Fishes? 
 
 UNIFIC REVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 323 with 313-318 and 256-260.] 
 Give in full the change in food during primary assimilation. 
 
 [Compare 324 with 369-378.] 
 
 How does the blood contribute to the growth of the different parts of the 
 body? 
 
 [Compare 325 with 326-333.] 
 
 Name and describe the organs by which the blood effects this contribution. 
 
 [Compare 326 with 365, 367 and 368.] 
 
 Compare the heart of man with that of other Mammals, and with those 
 of Birds, Reptiles and Fishes. 
 
 [Compare 327-333 with 365-368.] 
 Describe the blood-vessels in the different classes of animals. 
 
 [Compare 359-362 with 201, 202, 211-214, 264-274, 509 and 591-607.] 
 What conditions favor free circulation ? What can you say of the food in 
 this connection ? How is exercise essential to the health of the nervous 
 tissue? In connection with circulation, what is said of the clothing and 
 bathing ? 
 4 
 
38 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 130. 
 
 TJte Blood. 
 
 31. 
 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 Blood, its circulation. 
 
 " loss of, 
 Circulatory Organs. 
 Heart, 
 Arteries, 
 Capillaries, 
 Veins, 
 Aorta, Arch, 
 
 Thoracic, 
 " Abdominal, 
 
 Arteries, Carotid and Subclavian. 
 Veins, arrangement, 
 Superior Vena Cava, 
 Inferior 
 Portal Vein, 
 Pulmonary Vein. 
 Pericardium, 
 Endocardium, 
 Valves of the heart, 
 Muscular structure of the heart, 
 Arteries, their coats, 
 
 Veins, CHAP . 
 
 Capillaries. ^ arculaiory 
 
 Analysis of the blood, ) % 33. Organs. 
 
 Distribution of mineral substances. 
 Necessity of double circulation, 
 Systemic Circulation, 
 Pulmonic Circulation, 
 Their relation to each other, 
 Necessary provisions, 
 Circulatory impulse, 
 Prevention of the flow, 
 Current maintained, 
 Flow through the capillaries, 
 
 veins, 
 
 Equalization of the current, 
 Due supply to each organ, 
 Provision for contingencies, 
 Mechanism of the body. 
 Conditions favoring free circulation, 
 Treatment of divided arteries. 
 Blood and blood-vessels of Mammals, 
 
 " " Birds, 
 
 " " Reptiles, 
 
 Fishes. 
 
 Give the Anatomy of the several parts of the Circulatory Sys- 
 tem, Human and Comparative, the Histology, the Chemistry, the 
 Physiology and the Hygiene. 
 
 32. 
 
 Histology of. 
 
 33. 
 
 Chemistry of. 
 
 34. 
 
 Physiology of. 
 
 35. 
 
 Hygiene of. 
 
 36. 
 
 Comparative 
 
PAROTID *4PNS3fiS5J!* 
 
 COMMON CAROTID ARTER1T- 
 exremvflL JUGULAR VBN-- 
 
 INTBWAL JUBULAR VEIN- 
 CLAVICLE 
 
 BRMH1KL ( 
 
 FIG. 207. 
 
 3'J 
 
40 QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fm. 208. 
 
 FIG. 209. 
 
 FIG. 208. A DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OP MAMMALS. 1, Right auricle. 2, Right 
 ventricle. 9, Left auricle. 10, Left ventricle. 4, 5, Pulmonary arteries. 7, 8, Pul- 
 monary veins. 11, 12, 13, 13, Aorta and its branches. 6> , Pulmonary capillaries. 14, 
 14, Systemic capillaries. 17, Tricuspid valves. 19, Mitral valves. 18, 20, Semilunar 
 valves of the pulmonary artery and the aorta. 
 
 FIG. 209. A DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF REPTILES. 1, The pericardium. 2, The 
 ventricle. 3, The right auricle. 4, The left auricle. 
 
 FIG. 210. A DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF FISHES.!, The pericardium. 2, The 
 ventricle. 3, The auricle. 4, The vessel that conveys the blood to the branchia (gills). 
 5, The vessel that conveys the blood from the gills to the body of the fish. 6, The vessel 
 that conveys the blood from the body of the fish to the heart. 
 
 In these three diagrams the arrows indicate the direction of the blood. 
 
41 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. ASSIMILATION. 
 g 37. Assimilation, General and Special. 
 
 369. How is life maintained ? Distinguish between General and 
 
 Special Assimilation. 
 
 370. What is said of the corpuscles of the blood ? What of the 
 
 blood-plasma ? 
 
 371. State the first stage in the nutrition of the organs and tissues. 
 
 What is the second? The third? The fourth? The fifth? 
 
 372. How are new cell-elements reproduced? When does this 
 
 process occur ? 
 
 373. What is Special Assimilation ? 
 
 374. Name the secreting glands and membranes. What is said 
 
 of substances not found in the blood? 
 
 375. How is excretion effected? Name the excretory organs. 
 
 How are the substances which are eliminated from the 
 blood in excretion produced? 
 
 376. Speak of the secretory and excretory processes. 
 378. Describe the kidneys. Observation. 
 
 UNIFIC EEVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 369 with 3.] 
 
 In studying assimilation, with what distinctions between organized and 
 unorganized bodies do you become acquainted? 
 
 [Compare 370 with 256-260.] 
 Give the successive stages in Primary Assimilation. 
 
 [Compare 371, 372 with 13-17, 45, 46, 119-121, 173, 178, 180, 181 and 460.] 
 Speak of the structure of cells, and tell how their growth is promoted. 
 
 [Compare 373, 374 with 247-255 and 36-44.] 
 Name the secretory organs, and state the changes caused by their secretions. 
 
 [Compare 375-379 with 13, 14, 247, 251, 253, 391-395 and 554.] 
 Distinguish between Excretion and Secretion. In what processes do the 
 epithelial cells become ruptured? Of what advantage is excretion ? 
 
42 QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. 
 
 Assimilation, General and Special, 
 Blood, its formation, 
 Assimilation, Secondary, First Stage, 
 " " Second " 
 
 
 
 " " Fourth" 
 
 " Fifth " 
 
 Secretion, 
 
 its glands and membranes, 
 Excretion, 
 
 Secretory and excretory process compared, 
 Kidneys. 
 
 37. 
 
 Assimilation, 
 
 General and 
 
 Special. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Assimilation, 
 
 State what you know of Assimilation, general and special, 
 Secretion and Excretion. 
 
 FIG. 211. 
 
 Fm. 211 (Leidy). LoNQlTtTDiNAt, SECTION op A KIDNEY.!, Cortical substance. 2, 
 Renal pyramid. 3, Renal papillae. 4, Pelvis. 5, Ureter. 6, Renal artery. 7, Renal 
 vein. 8, Branches of the latter vessels in the sinus of the kidney. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 43 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 CHAPTER X. THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 g 38. Anatomy of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 
 
 380. Of what do the Respiratory and Vocal organs consist ? 
 
 381. Describe the Larynx. Of what is it composed? What is 
 
 said of the Thyroid cartilage? Of the Cricoid? Of the 
 Arytenoid? Of the Epiglottis? 
 
 382. What is the Trachea? 
 
 383. Give the divisions and subdivisions of the Bronchi. 
 
 384. Of how many divisions do the Lungs consist? Of what form 
 
 are they? What is the Pleura? Compare the Lungs. 
 
 39. Histology of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 
 
 385. What is said of the structure of the Larynx? 
 
 386. Describe the Vocal cords. 
 
 387. Of what is the Trachea made up ? Speak of each part. 
 
 388. Distinguish between the Bronchi and Trachea. 
 
 389. How are the Lungs constructed? In what way are the air- 
 
 cells connected together ? 
 
 390. Describe the Pleura. 
 
 g 40. Chemistry of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 
 
 391. Of what does Respiration consist? 
 
 392. 393. State the sources of carbonic acid. 
 
 394. Give the proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid in the 
 
 arterial and venous blood. 
 
 395. State the physical process by which an exchange of oxygen 
 
 and carbonic acid in the capillaries is effected, also the 
 chemical process. 
 
 396. In what respect does expired air differ from that inspired? 
 
 397. What is the source of animal heat? Of what temperature 
 
 the tissues ? Of what the blood ? 
 
 41. Physiology of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 
 
 398. What are the objects of Respiration? What are the results 
 
 of the chemical changes? 
 
 399. Of what acts does respiration consist? How is inspiration 
 
 effected? Give the motion of the ribs and diaphragm. 
 
44 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 400. What is said of the movements in expiration ? What muscles 
 
 are called into action ? 
 
 401. Define abdominal and pectoral respiration. 
 
 402. How is the air in the air-cells renovated ? 
 
 403. Is the amount of air taken in and given out in respiration 
 
 always the same? 
 
 404. Speak 'of the frequency of respiration. 
 
 405. What are the actions of sighing, yawning, sobbing, laughing, 
 
 coughing and sneezing ? 
 
 406. What is the office of the Larynx in respiration ? Of what is 
 
 the Larynx the special organ ? 
 
 407. What laws govern the vibrations of the vocal cords? 
 
 408. What modify the tones? How further modified? Upon what 
 
 does the general strength of the voice depend? 
 
 \ 42. Hygiene of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 
 
 409. Why is proper respiration important? 
 
 410. Why must there be a constant and sufficient supply of pure air? 
 
 411. What is the influence of carbonic acid? 
 
 412. Mention its sources. 
 
 413. What regard should be had for the surroundings of our 
 
 dwelling-houses ? 
 
 414. Where is the chief danger? 
 
 415. What remarks as to the necessity of ventilation of school- 
 
 rooms? Of churches? 
 
 416. Of concert-halls? 
 
 417. State the influence of habit in accustoming ourselves to 
 
 foul air. 
 
 418. What is said of the ventilation of sleeping-rooms? Ob- 
 
 servations. 
 
 419. What attention should be paid to the sick-room? 
 
 420. Speak of the means of ventilation in summer. 
 
 421. What means in winter? 
 
 422. What is the healthiest known means for ventilating a small 
 
 room? 
 
 423. What is said of the use of stoves ? 
 
 424. Give the quotation on the use of steam for warming rooms. 
 
 425. What besides purity of air is required for proper respiration ? 
 
 What objectionable fashion is noticed ? 
 
 426. Compare the custom of the Chinese women with that of the 
 
 American. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 45 
 
 427. What effect has compression of the mother's chest on her 
 
 offspring ? 
 
 428. How can the chest made small by compression be enlarged? 
 
 Observation. 
 
 429. By what is respiration much influenced ? 
 
 430. State the process of resuscitating persons asphyxiated from 
 
 drowning, strangulation, electricity, or breathing poisonous 
 gases. Observation. 
 
 $ 43. Comparative Pneumonology. 
 
 431. How does the Respiratory apparatus in all the mammalia 
 
 compare with that in man ? 
 
 432. Describe the Lungs of Birds. 
 
 433. What is said of the Ultimate Pulmonary Capillaries? 
 
 434. What marked modification of respiration in Birds? 
 
 435. Speak of respiration in Reptiles. 436. In Fishes. 
 
 437. Describe the Gills. 
 
 438. What remarkable feature in the organization of some fish ? 
 
 UNIFIC REVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 380-385 with 431-438.] 
 Compare each respiratory organ in man with that of the lower classes of 
 
 animals. 
 
 [Compare 385-388 with 21, 22, 23 and 25.] 
 Name the tissues found in the organs of respiration. How disposed? 
 
 [Compare 389 with 26, 36, 37 and 341.] 
 
 What tissue in the Lungs? Describe the variety of Epithelium in the 
 organs of respiration, and name those organs. Describe the capillaries. 
 
 [Compare 390 with 39.] 
 What membrane forms the Pleura ? What is said of it and its secretion ? 
 
 [Compare 391-396 with 45, 46, 50 and 70-72.] 
 Give the chemical changes which occur during respiration. 
 
 [Compare 397, 398 with 182, 186 and 187.] 
 What chemical actions produce heat? State the influence of respiration 
 
 on motion. 
 
 [Compare 425-428 with 206.] 
 
 Of what advantage is exercise of the lungs? What is necessary after 
 exercise ? 
 
 [Compare 429 with 211, 215, 509, 514 and 515. 
 
 What connection is there between respiration and mental energy ? What 
 caution is given ? 
 
46 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 Larynx, 
 
 its parts, 
 Trachea, 
 Bronchi, 
 Lungs. 
 Larynx, 
 Vocal Cords, 
 Trachea, 
 Bronchi, 
 Lungs, 
 Pleura. 
 Respiration, 
 Carbonic Acid, 
 
 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbonic Acid, 
 Expired and inspired air, 
 Animal heat. 
 Object of respiration, 
 Modes 
 
 Renovation of air in air-cells, 
 Amount of air in respiration, 
 Number of respirations, 
 Modifications of respiratory movements, 
 Double function of the Larynx, 
 Special " 
 
 Vibration of the Vocal Cords, 
 Conditions affecting tones, 
 
 " strength of voice. 
 Importance of proper respiration, 
 Pure blood, how obtained, 
 Carbonic Acid, its influence, 
 
 its sources, 
 Dwelling-houses, location, 
 
 impure air in, 
 
 Public Buildings, ventilation, 
 Sleeping-rooms, " 
 
 Sick-rooms, " 
 
 Pure air and warmth, how obtained, 
 Importance of moisture, 
 Compression of respiratory organs, 
 Enlargement of the chest, 
 Influence of nervous system, 
 Resuscitation of asphyxiated persons. 
 Mammalia, Respiratory Organs of, 
 Birds, 
 
 Reptiles, " " 
 
 Fishes, " " 
 
 38. 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 39. 
 
 Histology of. 
 
 HO. 
 
 Chemistry of. 
 
 Hi. 
 
 Physiology of \ 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 The, Respiratory 
 
 and Vocal 
 
 Organs. 
 
 142. 
 
 Hygiene of. 
 
 H3. 
 
 Comparative 
 Pneumonology 
 of. ' 
 
 Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physi- 
 ology and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Organs 
 of Respiration, figs. 212, 213, 214, 215, 216. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 47 
 
 FIG. 213. 
 
 Fia. 212. 
 
 FIG. 212. 3, 3, 3, The lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. 5, 6, 7, 
 The heart. 9, 10, 11, The large blood-vessels. 12, The trachea. 15, 15, 15, The diaphragm. 
 
 FIG. 213. 1, Outline of right lung. 2, Outline of left lung. 3, 4, Larynx and trachea. 
 5, 6, 7, 8, Bronchial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. 
 
 FIG. 214. 
 
 FIG. 214. AN IDEAL VIEW OF THE PULMONIC CIRCULATION. 1, 1, The right lung. 2, 2, 
 The left lung. 3, The trachea, 4, The right bronchial tube. 5, The left bronchial tube. 
 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right ventricle. 9, The tricuspid valves. 
 10, The pulmonic artery. 11, The branch to the right lung. 12, The branch to the left 
 lung. 13, The right pulmonic vein. 14, The left pulmonic vein. 15, The left auricle. 
 16, The left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. 
 
48 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 49 
 
 DIVISION III. THE NUTRITIVE 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. 
 
 SECT. 19. Anatomy of. 
 u 20. Histology of. 
 " 21. Chemistry of. 
 " 22. Physiology of. 
 " 23. Hygiene of. 
 " 24. Comparative Splanchnology of. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 The Digestive 
 Organs. 
 
 " 25. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 26. Histology of. 
 
 " 27. Chemistry of. 
 
 " 28. Physiology of. 
 
 " 29. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 30. The Blood. 
 
 " 31. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 32. Histology of. 
 
 " 33. Chemistry of. 
 
 " 34. Physiology of. 
 
 " 35. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 36. Comparative Angiology of. 
 
 " 37. Assimilation, General and Spe- 
 cial- 
 
 " 38. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 39. Histology of. 
 
 " 40. Chemistry of. 
 
 " 41. Physiology of. 
 
 " 42. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 43. Comparative Pneumonology of. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 The Absorb- 
 ents. 
 
 
 Division III 
 
 
 t- Nutritive 
 
 CUAP. VIII. 
 
 Apparatus. 
 
 The Circula- 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Assimilation. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Respiratory 
 Organs. 
 
 Give succinctly the Anatomy, the Chemistry, the Physiology 
 and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Nutritive 
 Apparatus. 
 
 5 r 
 
50 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 DIVISION IV. SENSORIAL APPAEATUS. 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 i 44. Anatomy of the Nervous System. 
 
 439. What two formal characters does Nervous Tissue present. 
 
 Give the arrangement and names of each. 
 
 440. How are the Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures arranged? 
 
 What is included in each system ? 
 
 441. Describe the Spinal Cord. What is the Medulla Oblongata? 
 
 To what is this enlargement due ? What may be seen in 
 each of the lateral halves of the Medulla Oblongata? 
 What forms the Decussation of the Anterior Pyramids? 
 How is the Fourth Ventricle formed ? 
 
 442. Where is the Cerebellum ? How is the Pons Varolii formed? 
 
 Describe the Inferior Peduncles of the Cerebellum. What 
 are the Peduncles of the Cerebrum, and why so called ? 
 Give the course of these bundles. How are these ganglia 
 connected with the Spinal Cord? Of what does the 
 Quadrigeminal Body consist? 
 
 443. What is said of the connections of all the above-mentioned 
 
 ganglia ? 
 
 444. How are the hemispheres of the Cerebrum united? How 
 
 are the ventricles formed? 
 
 445. Are the above-mentioned all the ganglia, membranes and 
 
 galleries which exist in the brain ? 
 
 446. What is the relation of the Cerebrum to the other parts? 
 
 How many lobes has each hemisphere? How does the 
 surface appear? 
 
 447. How do the convolutions in the two hemispheres compare ? 
 
 What is a remarkable fact respecting these convolu- 
 tions ? 
 
 448. What is said of the Cerebellum ? 
 
 449. What do the brain and spinal cord constitute ? 
 
 450. Into what classes are the nerves divided ? How are the motor 
 
 and sensory tracts formed ? 
 
 451. Distinguish between cranial and spinal nerves. 
 
 452. Give the grouping and arrangement of the cranial nerves. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 51 
 
 453. How many pairs of spinal nerves? How do they differ from 
 
 the cranial as to their origin ? 
 
 454. What are the divisions of the spinal nerves ? What are 
 
 plexuses ? Name them, and give their formation. 
 
 455. Describe the Sympathetic System. 
 
 456. What is a peculiarity of the sympathetic nerves ? 
 
 45. Histology of the Nervow System. 
 
 457. Name the elements of nervous tissue. 
 
 458. Describe the nerve-cells. Where found? 
 
 459. Of what do the White Fibres consist? 
 
 460. Where are the nerve-filaments distributed ? What is said of 
 
 their individuality ? How are they arranged ? What their 
 mode of termination ? 
 
 461. Where are the Tubular Fibres found? What of their size? 
 
 462. What are the Gray Fibres? 
 
 463. Name the membranes of the Cerebro-spinal System. Describe 
 
 the Dura Mater, Pia Mater and Arachnoid Membrane. 
 
 464. Give a further description of the Dura Mater. 
 
 465. What is the Ependyma? 
 
 3 46. Physiology of the Nervous System. 
 
 466. What opinions have men in different ages held respecting 
 
 the relation of soul and body ? 
 
 467. How is the Nervous System related to the compound nature 
 
 of man ? 
 
 468. What influence has this system on the different organs? 
 
 469. Speak of the connection between the Nervous Centres and 
 
 the motor and sensitive fibres. 
 
 470. Classify the Nervous Centres. 
 
 471. Give a full description of the relations existing between the 
 
 different Centres. 
 
 472. What is the function of the Sympathetic Centres? 
 
 473. What is said of their connections? 
 
 474. Name and illustrate the different kinds of reflex action. 
 
 475. Give a marked peculiarity of the Sympathetic System. Illus- 
 
 trate it by the iris of the eye. 
 
 476. What is the office of the white substance of the spinal cord ? 
 
 What that of the gray? 
 
 477. How is reflex action acquired ? State the theory of acquired 
 
 reflex action as respects repetition. 
 
52 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 478. Mention the influence of association. Why is such an 
 
 arrangement wise? 
 
 479. Describe the Sensational Centres. Show that these centres 
 
 have an independent reflex action. Can they acquire re- 
 flex action ? 
 
 480. What theory is applicable to these centres ? 
 
 481. How are these centres excited to action ? 
 
 482. What power have the Ideational Centres ? 
 
 483. Upon what depends the character of ideas ? 
 
 484. What is the first way in which the independent reflex action 
 
 in these centres is manifested ? What the second ? Third ? 
 Fourth ? 
 
 485. Of what are these centres the seat ? 
 
 486. What relation is there between the centre of idea and voli- 
 
 tion? 
 
 487. What is the highest energy of which these centres are 
 
 capable ? 
 
 488. Upon what does the power of the Will depend ? 
 
 489. What relations to the Emotions does the Will sustain ? 
 
 490. What does a free action of the Will require ? 
 
 491. What influence has the body over the thoughts, emotions and 
 
 volitions ? How does the theory already given find appli- 
 cation here ? 
 
 492. Where does the character of a man leave visible tracings? 
 
 \ 47. Hygiene of the Nervous System. 
 
 493. Why is a knowledge of the laws of the hygiene of this sys- 
 
 tem important? 
 
 494. What agencies affect the health of this system ? Name the 
 
 requirements of its health and vigor. 
 
 495. What in addition to the features of parents do children in- 
 
 herit? May acquired habits be transmitted? 
 
 496. What history is given by M. Morel ? 
 
 497. What is said of the evil effects of tobacco ? 
 
 498. What is the effect of all vices in parents ? 
 
 499. What results spring from nervous diseases in parents? How 
 
 can such natural constitutions be improved ? 
 
 500. State the second requirement of health and vigor. 
 
 501. Speak of the evil of breathing impure air. 
 
 502. What are the results of improper diet? 
 
 503. Speak of the effects of alcohol, opium, etc. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 53 
 
 504. How does the use of opium compare with that of intoxicating 
 
 drinks ? 
 
 505. What is said of the use of tobacco, tea and coffee ? 
 
 506. What will a want of physical exercise produce? 
 
 507. Speak of the benefits of sleep, and the amount needed. 
 
 508. Name the third requirement of health. 
 
 509. Why is mental exercise essential ? 
 
 510. Give the remarks of Dr. Bay. What is said of steady em- 
 
 ployment? 
 
 511. Where are seen the saddest effects of an absence of stated 
 
 employment? What remarks as to the little accomplish- 
 ments of needlework? 
 
 512. To what should the amount of exercise be adapted? What 
 
 differences are there in the quality of different brains? 
 
 513. What is the present tendency in education ? 
 
 514. State the effect of intense activity. 
 
 515. Give the influence of recreation and amusement. Observa- 
 
 tion. 
 
 516. What is essential to the highest mental vigor? What is said 
 
 of the use of the imagination ? 
 
 517. What attention is it important to pay to the aesthetic faculty? 
 
 518. What is the moral faculty? Upon what depend the happi- 
 
 ness and destiny of man ? 
 
 519. Give Dr. Kay's remarks concerning the hygienic influence of 
 
 a Harmonious Development of the Mental Powers. 
 
 g 48. Comparative Neurology. 
 
 520. In what respects does the Nervous System of man differ from 
 
 that of the lower orders of animals ? 
 
 521. Compare the brain of other Mammals with that of man. 
 
 522. Compare that of Birds. 
 
 523. Of Eeptiles. 
 
 524. What is said of the relative size of the Cerebrum ? Of the 
 
 Cerebellum, Medulla Oblongata and some of the organs 
 of Special Sense? 
 
 525. Speak of the spinal cord and nerves. 
 
 526. Describe the brain of the Fish. 
 
 527. Describe the Torpedo. 
 
 528. Describe the Electric Eel. What is said of the structure and 
 
 nervous system of the Articulata ? What of them in the 
 Centipede? 
 5* 
 
54 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 529. Speak of the nervous system in Mollusks. 
 
 530. Describe the nervous system in Eadiata. 
 
 531. How is stimulus received in the lowest forms of animals? 
 
 How is it perceived ? As we ascend in the animal king- 
 dom, what tissue appears first? What is the simplest 
 type? Of what do the relations of the animal kingdom 
 afford an evidence ? 
 
 UNIFIC REVIEW. 
 
 [Compare 439-456 with 520-530 and 471, 472.] 
 
 Compare the Nervous System in man with that in the lower orders of 
 animals. 
 
 [Compare 457, 458 with 10, 31, 32 and 36-38.] 
 Give the composition of Nervous Tissue. Describe its first element. 
 
 [Compare 459-462 with 33, 34 and 35.] 
 Describe the "White and Gray Fibres. Where are they found? 
 
 [Compare 463-465 with 21, 22, 36, 37, 38 and 39.] 
 
 What membranes belong to the Cerebro-spinal System ? What names do 
 they assume there ? 
 
 [Compare 469-474, 479 and 482 with 441, 442, 446, 455 and 456.] 
 Name the Nervous Centres. Give their functions. What do they com- 
 prise ? Speak of the Sympathetic System. 
 
 [Compare 500-502 with 264-279 and 409-412.] 
 
 What is essential to the health of the nervous system ? What is said of 
 food and air in this connection ? 
 
 [Compare 506 with 200-215.] 
 
 What can you say of the influence of physical exercise on the health of the 
 nervous system? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 55 
 
 SYNTHETIC BEVIEW. 
 
 Nervous Tissue. Forms, 
 
 " " Arrangement, 
 Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures, 
 Spinal Cord, 
 Medulla Oblongata, 
 Cerebellum, Peduncles, 
 Cerebrum, " 
 
 Corpora Striata, 
 Optici Thalami, 
 Corpora Quadrigesima, 
 Corpus Callosum, 
 Ventricles, 
 
 Cerebrum Hemispheres, 
 Convolutions, 
 Cerebro-Spinal Nerves, 
 Cranial Nerves, 
 Spinal Nerves, 
 Sympathetic System. 
 Nervous Tissue, Composition, 
 Nerve-Cells, 
 Nerve-Fibres, 
 Membranes, 
 
 Man's compound nature. 
 Nervous System. Its relation to this nature, 
 
 " " Its rank, 
 
 Nervous Centres. Function, 
 " Classes, 
 
 " " Arrangement, 
 
 Organic Centres. Function, 
 
 " Connection, 
 
 " " Modes of reflex action, 
 
 " Marked peculiarity, 
 
 Reflex Centres. Function, 
 
 " Acquired action, 
 
 " " Importance of acquired action, 
 
 Sensational Centres. Character and action, 
 
 " How excited to activity, 
 
 Ideational Centres. Function, 
 Different persons have different ideas, 
 Ideational Centres. Independent reflex action, 
 " Emotional character, 
 
 " " "Volitional, 
 
 Relation of the Emotions to the Will, 
 Free action of the Will, . 
 
 Influence of the body for good or evil, 
 Language of the muscles. 
 Agencies affecting the health, 
 Natural heritage, 
 Impure Air, influence of, 
 Improper Diet, 
 Poisons, 
 
 Physical Exercise, want of, 
 Sleep, 
 
 Mental Exercise, 
 Employment, 
 Amount of exercise, 
 Intense Activity, 
 Recreation, 
 
 Each faculty to be educated, 
 The Esthetic faculty, 
 The Moral " 
 Mammals, Nervous System, 
 Birds, 
 Reptiles, 
 
 Fishes, " 
 
 Mollusks, " 
 
 Radiata, 
 Lower forms of Life, " 
 
 c 
 
 44. 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 45. 
 Histology of. 
 
 46. 
 Physiology of. 
 
 47- 
 Hygiene of. 
 
 Comparative 
 Neurology of. 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 Nervous 
 System. 
 
56 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 FIG. 217. FIG. 218. 
 
 FIG. 217. A BACK VIEW OP THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The 
 cerebellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, The brachial plexus of nerves, 
 6, 7, 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass under the ribs. 11, The lumbar plexua 
 of nerves. 12, The sacral plexus of nerves. 13, 14, 15, 16, Nerves of the lower limbs. 
 
 FlO. 218 REPRESENTS THE SYMPATHETIC GANGLIA. AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH OTHER 
 
 NERVES, from the grand engraving of Manec, reduced in size. A, A, A. The semilunar 
 ganglion and solar plexus, situated below the diaphragm and behind the stomach. This 
 ganglion is situated in the region (pit of the stomach) where a blow gives severe suffer- 
 ing. D, D, D, The thoracic (chest) ganglia, ten or eleven in number. E, E, The external 
 and internal branches of the thoracic ganglia. G, H, The right and left coronary plexus, 
 situated upon the heart. I, N, Q, The inferior, middle and superior cervical (neck) ganglia. 
 1, The renal plexus of nerves that surrounds the kidneys. 2, The lumbar (loin) ganglion. 
 3, Their internal branches. 4, Their external branches. 5, The aortic plexus of nerves 
 that lies upon the aorta. The other letters and figures represent nerves that counect 
 important organs and nerves with the sympathetic ganglia. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 57 
 FIG. 219. 
 
 FIG. 219. DIAGRAM OF HUMAN BRAIN, IN VERTICAL SECTION, showing the situation of 
 the different ganglia and the course of the fibres. 1, Olfactory ganglion. 2, Hemisphere. 
 f; Corpus striatura. 4, Optic thalamus. 5, Tubercula qnadrigemina. 6, Cerebellum. 
 7, Ganglion of tuber annulare. 8, Ganglion of medulla oblongata. 
 
 FIG. 221. 
 
 FIG. 220. 
 
 FIG. 222. 
 
 FIG. 220. BRAIN OF A BIRD. 1, Cerebrum. 2, Optic ganglion. 3, Cerebellum, t, Medulla 
 oblongata. 
 
 FIG. 221. BRAIN OF AN ALLIGATOR. 1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optic 
 ganglia. 4, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla oblongata and spinal cord. 
 
 FIG. 222. BRAIN OF A FISH. 1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optic ganglia. 
 4, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla oblongata and spinal cord. 
 
58 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 49. The Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense. 
 
 532. What is the organ of the sense of Taste? Give a description 
 of the Tongue. From what nerves are filaments received? 
 
 ^33. Describe the organ of the sense of Smell. Mention the 
 nerves. 
 
 634. What is the Eye ? Name its parts. Of what service is the 
 Sclerotica? Describe the Choroidea. What is its com- 
 position ? Of what do the ciliary processes consist ? What 
 is said of the Iris ? What is the Retina ? 
 
 535. Describe the Aqueous Humor. Crystalline lens. Observa- 
 
 tion. 
 
 536. What is the Vitreous Humor ? Distinguish between it and 
 
 Aqueous Humor. 
 
 537. Speak of the muscles of the Eye. Observation. 
 
 538. What are the Orbits? Eyebrows? Eyelids? Give the Ob- 
 
 servation. Of what does the Lachrymal Apparatus con- 
 sist? Where is the Lachrymal Gland situated ? Describe 
 the Lachrymal Canals. Nasal Duct. 
 
 539. What is said of the sense of Hearing? 
 
 540. Why the Labyrinth so called ? Give its divisions. 
 
 541. Describe the Vestibule. 
 
 542. Describe the Semicircular Canals. 
 
 543. Speak of the Cochlea. Of the Fenestra Ovalis. 
 
 544. What is the- Tympanum ? Why called the Drum ? Where 
 
 is the Eustachian Tube ? What are found in the tympanic 
 cavity ? 
 
 545. Describe the External Ear. 
 
 546. What is concerned in the Sense of Touch ? Give its layers. 
 
 547. What is said of the Skin and its connection with the mucous 
 
 membrane? 
 
 548. Give the relation of the Epidermis to the Dermis. What 
 
 change does the Epidermis experience? What is the seat 
 of color? 
 
 549. What is-the Cuticle? 
 
 550. What is said of the Dermis? What are found with the 
 
 fibrous and elastic tissues ? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 59 
 
 551. Describe the Papillae. 
 
 552. Speak of the blood-vessels, nerves and lymphatics of the 
 
 Cutis Vera. 
 
 553. Where are the Hair-Follicles ? Describe the different parts 
 
 of a hair. What results from the contraction of the un- 
 striated muscular fibres ? 
 
 554. Describe the Oil-Glands. 
 
 555. Where are the Sweat-Glands? What are " pores" ? What is 
 
 " insensible perspiration " ? 
 
 556. Speak of the Nails. Of what is the horny part composed ? 
 
 How do they grow ? 
 
 50. Physiology of the Organs of Special Sense. 
 
 557. State the primary use of the sense of Taste. What is said 
 
 of this sense in man ? What is the effect of cultivation ? 
 
 558. Is the sense of Smell one of great importance? Why not? 
 
 559. When light passes through different media, to what changes 
 
 are its rays subject? What effect has convex or concave 
 surfaces ? Illustrate and apply the above principles. 
 
 560. Give the shape of those parts of the eye which act as media. 
 
 State the use of so many lenses. 
 
 561. In what case will a more convex and in what a less convex 
 
 lens be required? How is the eye able to change the 
 convexity of its lenses and vary its focal distances? 
 
 562. What is the cause of short-sightedness and long-sightedness? 
 
 What suggestion in the selection of glasses ? 
 
 563. What is the function of the Sclerotic coat? What that of 
 
 the pigment of the Choroid coat? How may the functions 
 of some parts of the eye be beautifully shown ? 
 
 564. Speak of the accessory parts of the eye. What enables the 
 
 eye to move without friction ? How are the eyelids drawn 
 together? Give the functions of the Eyelashes and Eye- 
 brows. 
 
 565. What is Hearing? 
 
 566. What is the function of the External Ear? 
 
 567. What that of the Auditory Canal? State the design of the 
 
 Eustachian Tube. Give the uses of the Vestibule, Cochlea 
 and Semicircular Canals. 
 
 568. What are distinguished by this sense ? How does this appa- 
 
 ratus compare with that of vision ? 
 
 569. Speak of the special organ of the sense of Touch. 
 
60 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 570. State the threefold functions of the skin. 
 
 571. Give the uses of the Epidermis. 
 
 572. What is said of the Cuticle ? 
 
 573. Of what service are the cutaneous Papillae? 
 
 574. Where does vitality reside ? Why there ? 
 
 575. What power does the surface of the skin possess? 
 
 576. What are the uses of the oil derived from the oil-glands ? 
 
 577. State the uses of Perspiration. By what is the quantity in- 
 
 fluenced ? 
 
 578. What is the influence of the condition of the atmosphere ? 
 679. Give the functions of the Hair and Nails. 
 
 $ 51. Hygiene of the Organs of Special Sense. 
 
 580. What perverts the sense of Taste? By what is this sense 
 
 varied ? 
 
 581. By what does the sense of Smell become impaired? 
 
 582. What care is necessary in using the eye ? 
 
 583. What is the effect of sudden transitions of light? 
 
 584. What should be avoided ? 
 
 585. How should the eye of the child be trained ? 
 
 586. What is beneficial ? Observation. 
 
 587. Can the sense of Hearing be improved ? 
 
 588. How may this sense be impaired? Observation. 
 
 589. What parts are absolutely essential, and what not? 
 
 590. To what must attention be given ? 
 
 591. What is said of the use of clothing? 
 
 592. Of what material should it be ? Compare furs, woolen cloth 
 
 silk, cotton and linen. 
 
 593. Why should the clothing be porous and loosely fitted ? 
 
 594. To what must it be suited ? Observation. 
 
 595. Who require the more clothing ? 
 
 596. What is said of clothing when a vital organ is diseased? 
 
 597. What persons need less clothing? 
 
 598. What is said of cleanliness of the clothing? 
 
 599. What of damp clothing ? 
 
 600. What is indispensable to health? 
 
 601. What effect has bathing on the internal organs? 
 
 602. State the simplest mode of bathing. 
 
 603. Speak of the shallow bath. 
 
 604. Upon what must depend the frequency of bathing? 
 505. What should the time be ? 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 61 
 
 606. In what diseases is bathing of great importance? 
 
 607. State the rules to be observed. 
 
 608. State the influence of pure air. 
 
 609. What influence does light exercise ? 
 
 610. What is a blister? What care should be taken? How is 
 
 vesication prevented ? 
 
 611. What are Corns? From what comes the pain? 
 
 612. What is said of Frost-bite? How is Chilblain caused ? 
 
 FIG. 223. 
 
 FIG. 223 (Dalian). DIAGRAM OF THE TONGUE, with its sensitive nerves and papilbo 
 , Lingual branch of fifth pair. 2, Glosso-pharyngeal nerve. 
 
 FlG. 224. 
 
 FIG. 224. A SIDE VIEW OF THE PASSAGE OF THE NOSTRILS, AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF 
 me OLFACTORY NERVE. 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The fine divisions of this nerve on 
 the membrane of the nose. 6, A branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 
 6 
 
62 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Anatomy of. 
 
 50. 
 Physiology of. 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 Organs of Taste, Smell and Sight, 
 
 Sclerotica, Choroidea, 
 
 Ciliary Processes, 
 
 Iris, Retina, 
 
 Aqueous, Crystalline and Vitreous Humors, 
 
 Muscles of the Eye, 
 
 Orbits, Eyebrows, Eyelids, 
 
 Lachrymal Glands and Canals, 
 
 Nasal Duct, 
 
 Organs of Hearing, 
 
 Labyrinth, Vestibule, 
 
 Semicircular Canals, 
 
 Cochlea, Tympanum, 
 
 External Ear, 
 
 Organs of Touch, 
 
 Two layers of skin Epidermis and Dennis, 
 
 Hairs, 
 
 Sebaceous and Respiratory Glands, 
 
 Nails. 
 
 Sense of Taste, Primary use, 
 
 Smell, 
 Laws of Light, 
 
 " Adaptation of the eye, 
 
 Short-sightedness, Cause, 
 Long-sightedness, " 
 Defect remedied, 
 Coats, Function, 
 Accessory parts of the eye, 
 Hearing, 
 
 External Ear, Function, 
 Auditory Canal, " 
 Eustachian Tube, " 
 
 Cochlea and Semicircular Canals, Function, 
 Hearing, " 
 
 Organ of Touch, 
 Skin, Function, 
 
 Epidermis and Cuticle, Function. 
 Cutaneous Papillae, 
 Corium, Vessels, 
 Oil-Glands, Function, 
 Perspiration. Use, 
 
 Quantity, 
 
 " External condition, 
 
 Hair and Nails. 
 Sense of Taste. Perversion, 
 
 Smell, 
 
 Eye, how to be used, 
 Amaurosis, 
 
 Oblique positions, long-continued, 
 Viewing objects at different distances, 
 Bathing the eye, 
 Dust, removal, 
 Defective Hearing, Cause, 
 Hearing, parts essential, 
 Clothing, Material, 
 
 Class of persons needing more clothing, 
 Clothing, Cleanliness, 
 Bathing. Modes, 
 
 Time, 
 
 " General Rales. 
 
 Water a curative agent, 
 Skin. Air beneficial, 
 Effect of light, 
 Burns and Scalds, Treatment, 
 Corns, Frost-lJitc. 
 
 State the Anatomy, the Physiology and the Hygiene of the 
 Organs of Special Sense, the Care of the Sick, of Poisoned Persona 
 and of persons injured in any way. 
 
 51. 
 Hygiene of. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 The Organs of 
 Special Sense. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 63 
 
 FIG. 225. 
 
 FIG. 225. A SECTION OF THE GLOBE OP THB EVE. 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, The cornea. 
 (This connects with the sclerotic coat by a beveled edge.) 3, The choroidcoat. 6, 6, The 
 iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Chambers of the eye that contain the 
 aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 15, The optic nerve. 
 16, The central artery of the eye. 
 
 FIG. 226. 
 
 FIG. 226. A VIEW OP ALL THE PARTS OP THE EAK. 1, The canal that leads to the inter- 
 nal ear. 2, The membrana tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central part 
 of the labyrinth (vestibule). 8, 9, 10, The semicircular canals. 11, 12, The channels of 
 the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The opening from the middle ear, or tympa- 
 num, to the throat (Eustachian tube). 
 
64 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 GHAPTEE XIII. CARE OF THE SICK. 
 
 1. The Nurse. 
 
 [Compare 591-599.] 
 Cleanliness. What regard should be had for cleanliness ? 
 
 [Compare 601-608.] 
 Bathing. Mention what is said respecting bathing. 
 
 [Compare 264-286.] 
 Food and Drink. What is said of the food and drink of the sick ? Name 
 
 the means of nourishment, and tell how they are prepared. 
 Temperature. Speak of the temperature of the sick-room. 
 Light. What suggestions are made as to light? 
 Quiet. How may quiet be had ? Mention other duties of the nurse. 
 
 I 2. The Watcher. 
 Give the duties of the Watcher. 
 
 3. Poisons and their Antidotes. 
 
 When poisons have been taken, what is to be done ? Name the most oono 
 mon poisons, and their antidotes. 
 
 [Compare 363.] 
 How can haamorrhage be arrested ? 
 
 [Compare 364.] 
 Give the manner of dressing wounds. 
 
 [Compare 430.] 
 How may asphyxiated persons be recovered ? 
 
 [Compare 610-612.] 
 Speak of Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bite, and their treatment. 
 
QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 65 
 
 DIVISION IV. SENSORIAL APPARATUS. 
 
 SYNTHETIC KEVIEW. 
 
 SECT. 44. Anatomy of. 
 " 45. Histology of. 
 " 46. Physiology of. 
 " 47. Hygiene of. 
 " 48. Comparative Neurology of. 
 
 49. Anatomy of. 
 
 50. Physiology of. 
 
 51. Hygiene of. 
 
 Care of the Sick. 
 Poisons and their Antidotes. 
 Treatment of Wounds. 
 Arrest of Haemorrhage. 
 Eecovery of Persons apparently 
 
 Drowned. 
 Treatment of Burns. 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 The Nervous 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 The Organs of 
 Special Sense. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 Appendix. 
 
 Division IV 
 The Nervous 
 Apparatus. 
 
 State the Anatomy, the Histology, the Physiology and the 
 Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Nervous Apparatus, 
 and the Care of the Sick, Poisons and their Antidotes, Treatment 
 of Wounds, Haemorrhage, Burns, and persons apparently drowned. 
 
66 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 SUMMARY. SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 SECT. 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature 
 
 Compared. 
 " 2. Definitions. 
 
 " 3. Cells. 
 
 " 4. Tissues. 
 
 " 5. Membranes. 
 
 " 6. Solids and Fluids. 
 
 " 7. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 8. Histology of. 
 
 " 9. Chemistry of. 
 
 " 10. Physiology of. 
 
 " 11. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 12. Comparative Osteology. 
 
 " 13. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 14. Histology of. 
 
 " 15. Chemistry ot 
 
 " 16. Physiology of. 
 
 " 17. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 18. Comparative Myology. 
 
 " 19. Anatomy of. 
 " 20. Histology of. 
 " 21. Chemistry of. 
 " 22. Physiology of. 
 23. Hygiene of. 
 " 24. Comparative Splanchnology. 
 
 " 25. Anatomy of. 
 " 26. Histology of. 
 " 27. Chemistry of. 
 " 28. Physiology of. 
 " 29. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 30. The Blood. 
 
 " 31. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 32. Histology of. 
 
 " 33. Chemistry of. 
 
 " 34. Physiology of. 
 
 " 35. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 36. Comparative Angiology. 
 
 " 37. Assimilation, General and Specific. | 
 
 " 38. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 39. Histology of. 
 
 " 40. Chemistry of. 
 
 " 41. Physiology of. 
 
 " 42. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 43. Comparative Pneumonology. 
 
 " 44. Anatomy of. 
 
 " 45. Histology of. 
 
 " 46. Physiology of. 
 
 " 47. Hygiene of. 
 
 " 48. Comparative Neurology. 
 
 " 49. Anatomy of. 
 " 50. Physiology of. 
 '' 51. Hygiene of. 
 
 Care of the Sick. 
 
 Poisons and Antidotes. 
 
 Treatment of Wounds, Haemor- 
 rhage, of apparently Drowned 
 Persons and of Burns. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Division I, 
 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 General Histology. 
 
 Outline 
 Principles. 
 
 
 i CHAP. III. 
 
 
 
 i" General Chemistry. , 
 
 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 
 
 The Bones. 
 
 
 
 
 Division II, 
 
 
 
 Motory 
 
 
 
 Apparatus. 
 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 
 
 The Muscles. 
 
 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 
 
 The Digestive 
 
 
 
 Organs. 
 
 
 
 IcHAP.Vn. 
 2%e Absorbents. 
 
 
 P 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 Division III, 
 
 H- 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 Z%c Circulation. 
 
 Nutritive 
 Apparatus. 
 
 co 
 
 i CHAP. IX. 
 
 
 
 J Assimilation. 
 
 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 
 
 Ifte Organs of 
 
 
 
 Respiration. 
 
 
 
 }. CHAP. XL 
 
 
 
 The Nervous 
 System. 
 
 Division IV. 
 
 
 
 Nervous 
 
 
 }CHAP. XII. 
 The Organs of 
 Special Sense. 
 
 Apparatus. 
 
 
 CHAP. XIII 
 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 
 State succinctly the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the 
 Physiology and the Hygiene of Mammals. 
 

 
 
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