1BOLJGMT FROM 
 
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 Price 25 Cents. 
 
A GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Irish Language 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY 
 
 P. W. JOYCE, LL. D., T. 0. D„ M. K. I. A. 
 
 of >atiosal Education, Ireland. 
 
 NE? YOKE: 
 PRINTED BY LYNCH. COLE & 1IEEIIAN, 
 
 AT THE OFFICE OF THE "IRISH-AMERICAN," 
 
 No. 13 WiRRES STREET. 
 
 1879. 
 
X 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Though this text-book is small, it comprises, I believe, everything 
 necessary — so far as grammar is concerned— for a student of modern 
 Irish. I have not treated at all of the ancient forms of the language; 
 and I have excluded everything in the shape of dissertation: the 
 grammar of the modern Irish language, and no more, Is here set 
 forth, in words as few and simple as possible. I have not suggested 
 any changes either in spelling or in grammatical forms, or attempted 
 innovation of any kind: this is a grammar of the language as it ac- 
 tually exists in the works of our best writers. All the illustrative ex- 
 amples are quotations from standard Irish writings; but though I re- 
 tain the relecences, I have not given them in the grammar, as they 
 would encumber the book, and impede, rather than facilitate the 
 learner. I may mention here, however, that the works from which 
 the examples are chiefly taken, are, those of Keating, the publications 
 of the Ossianic Society, "The Three Sorrowful Stories of Erin" (viz., 
 " The Fate of the Children of Usna," "The Fate of the Children of 
 Lir," and "The Fate of the Children of Turenn "), and occasionally 
 "The Annals of the Four Masters." The language of the various 
 works published by the Arclneol<>gical and Celtic Societies is general- 
 ly too antiquated to be quoted in a grammar of modern Irish. I have 
 all through given word-for-word translations of the exam pies : free 
 translations would have been more pleasant to read, but would have 
 added considerably, to the learner's difficulty. In the last Part— 
 "Idioms"— I have given a popular rather than a scientific explana- 
 tion of the principal idioms of the language. Nothing like this is to 
 be found in any other Irish Grammar ; and I believe that the learner 
 who masters it wdl be saved much labor and perplexity. There 
 are several other Irish Grammars, but none low enough in price to 
 be within reach of the many. Whoever wishes to study the Irioh lan- 
 guage in its ancient as well as in its modern forms, must procure 
 O' Donovan's Grammar ; without this great work no one can attain a 
 thorough knowledge of the language. I may also mention " The Col- 
 lege Irish Grammar," by the Rev. Ulick J. Canon Bourke, in which 
 th«re is a great amount of miscellaneous information on the language, 
 proverbs, and popular literature of Ireland. The labors of the Society 
 for the Preservation of the Irish Language have lately given a great 
 impetus to Celtic studies. The Society has produced three admirable 
 little elementary books (the First, Second and Third Irish Books),— all 
 drawn up by the members themselves on the plan of the elementary 
 works of Smith, Arnold, Ann, &c. But the want of a very cheap and 
 simple text-book on Irish Grammar has been much felt; and this 
 Grammar has been written to supply the want. I have written it 
 with the cognisance of the Council of the Society, of which I am my- 
 self a member. It was at first intended that the name of the Society 
 should appear on the title-pag9 along with my own name, and a reso- 
 lution to that effect was passed by the Council. But I found some 
 difficulty as to the exact words, and I have accordingly contented 
 myself with mentioning the matter here. I acknowledge with thanks 
 tnat I have received valuable assistance from several gentlemen of the 
 Society, who read every word of my proofs, suggesting various cor- 
 rections, alterations, and improvements. One member in particular, 
 Mr John Fleming, of Rathgormack, in the county Waterford, read all 
 my manuscript in the fust instance, and all the proof-sheets after- 
 wards Mr. Fleming's assistance was invaluable to me, for he posses- 
 ses an intimate knowledge of modern Irish Grammar, language, and 
 literature, and, what is still better, much sound sense and clear, criti- 
 cal judgment. 
 Dublin, November, 1878. 
 
 M544715 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER I— Sounds 9 
 
 I. Letters 11 
 
 II Diphthongs 12 
 
 in. Triphthongs 13 
 
 rv. Various Sounds 13 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Letter Changes 14 
 
 I. Aspiration 14 
 
 ii. Rules for Aspiration 15 
 
 in. Eclipsis .- 16 
 
 iv. Rules lor Eclipsis 17 
 
 v. CaoI le c<vol <V5U]* leacAn le le<vc<vn 18 
 
 vi. Syncope 19 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— The Article , . 21 
 
 I. Change of form in the Article 21 
 
 n. Changes produced by the Article . . . 22 
 
 Singular 22 
 
 Plural 22 
 
 CHAPTER II.— The Noun 23 
 
 I. Gender 23 
 
 Masculine 23 
 
 Feminine 23 
 
 n. Declensions .' 24 
 
 Cases 24 
 
 First Declension 25 
 
 Second Declension 26 
 
 Third Declension 28 
 
 Fourth Declension 29 
 
 Fifth Declension 30 
 
 Irregular Declension 30 
 
 Declension of the Article with the Noun 32 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 CHAPTEK ni— The Adjective . PA 32 
 
 I. Declension of Adjectives 32 
 
 First Declension 33 
 
 Second Declension 33 
 
 Third Declension 33 
 
 Fourth Declension 34 
 
 n. Declension of the Article and Adjective with the Noun 34 
 
 111. Comparison of Adjectives 35 
 
 Irregular Comparison 36 
 
 rv. Numeral Adjectives 36 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— The Pronoun 38 
 
 I. Personal Pronouns — 38 
 
 Declension of Personal Pronouns 38 
 
 Personal Pronouns compounded with Prepositions 39 
 
 rr. Possessive Pi onouns 42 
 
 Possessive Pronouns compounded with Prepositions 42 
 
 ni. Eelative Pronouns 43 
 
 iv. Demonstrative Pronouns 43 
 
 v. Interrogative Pronouns 44 
 
 vi. Indefinite Pronouns 44 
 
 CHAPTER V.-The Verb 44 
 
 1. Persons: Synthetic and Analytic forms 44 
 
 11. Tenses 46 
 
 in. Moods and Voices 46 
 
 iv. Conjugation of the regular verb bu<v|l 47 
 
 rv. Eelative form of the Verb 49 
 
 v. Formation and uses of the moods and tenses of Regular 
 
 Verbs 49 
 
 vi. Verbs in U13, il, ]V, W, IT 53 
 
 Paradigm of the regular Verb njeall 55 
 
 Paradigm of the regular Verb &fxfc>iti5 56 
 
 vn. Irregular Verbs: 57 
 
 1. C<v|rr), lam 57 
 
 2. jr, it is 60 
 
 3. Dt)einitT), I give 61 
 
 4. Deiriirt), I bear 62 
 
 5. Cl)jrr), I see 63 
 
 6. Cluit)iTt), I bear 64 
 
 7. De<vnAirt), I do 64 
 
 8. 5nfn>, or i)frt), I do 65 
 
 9. Oe,THTT;, I say 66 
 
 10. ^AS^irr), or 5e-|bin), I find 67 
 
 11. Jqti}, I eat 68 
 
Viii CONTEXTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 13. 12131"). l reach 68 
 
 13. Ce]6]n), I go 69 
 
 14. Ci3in), I come 70 
 
 Other Defective Verbs 70 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, In- 
 terjections 71 
 
 i Adverbs 71 
 
 n. Prepositions 72 
 
 in. Cod j unctions 74 
 
 rv. Interjections 75 
 
 CHAPTER VII— Prefixes and Affixes 75 
 
 I. Prefixes 75 
 
 n. Affixes or terminations 77 
 
 PART III. 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 CHAPTER I— Nouns 79 
 
 CHAPTER II.— The Article and Noun ... 81 
 
 CHAPTER III.— The Adjective and Noun 82 
 
 Agreement and collocation of the Adjective and 
 
 Noun , 82 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— Numeral Adjectives 85 
 
 CHAPTER V— The Pronoun 86 
 
 I. Personal Pronouns 86 
 
 ii. Possessive Pronouns 86 
 
 ttt. Relative Pronouns 87 
 
 rv. Demonstrative Pronouns 88 
 
 v. Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 88 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— The Verb 88 
 
 CHAPTER VIL— Prepositions 91 
 
 PAPvT IV. 
 
 IDIOMS. 
 
 Explanation and illustration of forty-three Idioms of the 
 
 Irish Languge 93 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Additional examples of declensions of nouns 110 
 
SCHOOL 
 IRISH GRAMMAR 
 
 PART I, 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 SOUNDS. 
 
 I. LETTERS. 
 
 1. The Irish alphabet consists of eighteen letters, of which 
 thirteen are consonants and five are vowels. 
 
 2. The five vowels are <\, e, -|, o, u, of which <v, o, u are broad, 
 and e, -j are slender. 
 
 3. Each consonant (with the exceptions mentioned below) has 
 a broad and a slender sound. When a consonant comes imme- 
 diately after or before a broad vowel, it has its broad sound: 
 when it comes after or before a slender vowel, it has its slender 
 sound. But this does not apply to b, p, 1), "), P, each of which 
 has one sound only, whether joined with a broad vowel or a 
 slender vowel. 
 
 4. Vowels are either long or short. A long vowel is usually 
 marked by an accent; as b&n, white: a short vowel has no mark; 
 as Tt)<vc, a son. 
 
 5. The Iiish vowels, like the English, have an obscure sound in 
 unaccented syllables, of which it is not necessary to take further 
 notice here. 
 
10 OETHOGEAPHT. [PAUT I. 
 
 6. The following are the usual sounds of the Irish letters, so 
 lar as they can be represented by English letters: — 
 
 7. Those marked with asterisks are only imperfectly represent- 
 ed in sound by the corresponding English letters: those not so 
 marked are represented nerlectly or nearly so. 
 
 8. The sounds of the marked letters must be learned by car; it 
 is hardly possible to give in writing such a description of them as 
 would enable a learner to utter them. 
 
 9. C is equal to k, yet when it comes before the diphthong <\o, 
 or the thriphthong ao], beginners find it very hard to sound it: 
 c<xol (narrow) is neither kad nor quail, but something between; 
 c<voin (gentle) is neither keen nor queen, but something between 
 
 10. So also with 5, which (broad and slender) is equal to g in 
 got and gel: yet 5<vol is hard for a beginner to utter, being neither 
 gail nor gwiil, but something between. 
 
 11. The Irish broad b and c bear the same relation to each 
 other as the English d and t; that is, the first in each case is flat 
 and soft, and the second sharp and hard. English d and / are 
 sounded by placing the tip of the tongue against the roof of 
 the mouth ; Irish b and c by placing the top of the tongue against 
 the upper front teeth. Irish b and c may be described in another 
 way: the two sounds of th in those and thumb are both continuous, 
 the first flat, the second sharp. Now the two explosive sounds 
 corresponding to these two continuous sounds (i.e., with the 
 tongue in the same position), are exactly the Irish b and c. 
 
 12. Broad I and n are sounded by placing the top of the tongue 
 (not against the roof of the mouth as in case of English I aud n, 
 
 but) against the upper front teeth. Irish b and c are to English 
 
 d and t as Irish I or X) to English I or n. 
 
 13. Slender p. is the most difficult of all the Irish consonantal 
 sounds ; and learners, unless they have acquired it in youth, often 
 fail to articulate it correctly, though the teacher may sound it 
 over and over again for their imitation. 
 
 14. As h represents a mere breathing or aspiration, and not an 
 articulate tound, and as it never begins a word, some writers ex- 
 clude it from the letters, thus making seventeen instead of eigh- 
 teen, as given here. 
 
OH AT. I.] 
 
 SOUNDS. 
 
 TABLE OF SOUNDS. 
 
 11 
 
 
 - 
 
 Letters. 
 
 Vowel 
 
 Consonant 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 long or 
 
 broad or 
 
 Irish 
 
 Corresponding 
 
 
 
 
 
 short. 
 
 slender. 
 
 sounds. 
 
 English sounds. 
 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 <v 
 
 a 
 
 long 
 
 _ 
 
 l'<VT) 
 
 lawn, ball 
 
 
 11 
 
 ») 
 
 
 short 
 
 — 
 
 TT)<LC 
 
 hat or what 
 
 
 t> 
 
 b 
 
 b 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ball 
 
 ban 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 c<vb 
 
 cob 
 
 
 It 
 
 )> 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 cron 
 
 king 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 d 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 ball 
 
 those 
 
 * 
 
 11 
 
 >? 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 bl<vt) 
 
 coral al 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 long 
 
 — 
 
 Tt)e 
 
 dote 
 
 
 „ 
 
 55 
 
 
 short 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 met 
 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 FIDO 
 
 /m 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 5071c 
 
 got 
 
 
 i) 
 
 55 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 5 e ir 
 
 get, .ai inlet 
 
 
 1) 
 
 b 
 
 h 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 <V h-<M)ATT) 
 
 Aamraer 
 
 
 ] 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 long 
 
 — 
 
 TT)lT) 
 
 seen 
 
 
 )i 
 
 55 
 
 
 short 
 
 — 
 
 mro 
 
 pin 
 
 * 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 Ion 
 
 lone 
 
 
 t? 
 
 55 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 file 
 
 vermidon 
 
 
 20 
 
 ") 
 
 m 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 mil 
 
 mill 
 
 * 
 
 N 
 
 t) 
 
 n 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 T)6p 
 
 »one 
 
 
 >i 
 
 55 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 r>e<\b 
 
 new 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lon^ 
 
 — 
 
 rt)6ji 
 
 more 
 
 
 '1 
 
 55 
 
 
 short 
 
 — 
 
 bor 
 
 love, run 
 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 poc 
 
 ^?ore 
 
 
 1? 
 
 TV 
 
 r 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 71 6b 
 
 road 
 
 * 
 
 51 
 
 55 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 cuiri 
 
 clarion 
 
 
 s 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 rona 
 
 son 
 
 
 51 
 
 ii 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 rfn 
 
 s#een 
 
 * 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 t 
 
 — 
 
 broad 
 
 con) 
 
 thumb 
 
 * 
 
 5« 
 
 55 
 
 
 — 
 
 slender 
 
 ceine 
 
 courteous 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 long 
 
 — 
 
 TT)U7l 
 
 moor, rui\e 
 
 
 »5 
 
 51 
 
 
 short 
 
 ' 
 
 Tl)UC 
 
 put, bull 
 
 15. The following are the native names of the Irish letters, but 
 they need not be used by the learner. All or most of them are 
 the names of trees: — &ilm, n; beic, b ; coll, c; b<M7i, d ; e<\b&, 
 e; ?e<Ki\n,f; 3071c, g; ttac, h; 105a i; lair, I; rnuin m; nuin, 
 n; 0171 or oi)n, 0; peic-bo5, p; fiuff, r; r^l 1 ) s,- ccine, t; 
 up. m. . 
 
12 OHTHOGEAPHY. [PAST I. 
 
 H. DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 1. There are thirteen diphthongs in the Irish language — viz.. 
 <ve, <\o, eu, i<v, ua, <v|, e<v, ei, eo, 10, iu, 01. ay, of which the 
 first five are always long, and the remaining eight are sometimes 
 long and sometimes short. 
 
 2. The following are the sounds of the five long diphthongs:— 
 
 3. -ae, sounds like ay in slay ; as ~\\<xe, the moon, pronounced 
 ray. 
 
 4. <vo, in the southern half of Ir land, sounds nearly like way, 
 and in the west and north-west something like we. Tlius rnv\0fi, 
 a steward, is pronounced like mwair in the south, and like mweer 
 in the west and north-west. 
 
 5. eu like at in lair ; as in feiift, grass, pronounced fair,. 
 
 6. i<v like ee in beer; as in c-|<vn, dark- colored, pronounced 
 keer. 
 
 7. u<\. nearly like oein doer ; as in Lxiat), Monday, pronounced 
 lo-an. 
 
 8. The following are the sounds of the eight diphthongs that 
 are sometimes long and sometimes short. When these diphthongs 
 are long there is an accent over one of the vowels: when short 
 there is.no accent: — 
 
 9. &1 long has an accent over the <v, and sounds something like 
 the awi in drawing ; as in d\]r), tribute, pronounced caw-in. 
 
 <vi short is sounded something like the a in valiant or the o in 
 cllier; as in rn<v|C, good, whose sound is very nearly represented 
 by moh. 
 
 In Ulster, <vi short is pronounced like short e'mbell; as in 
 <vi]'ioc, restitution, which is pronounced eshoc in the north, and 
 ashoc in the south and west. 
 
 10. e<t long has an accent over the e, and sounds like ea in 
 bear ; thus me<vn, a linger, is pronounced mare. 
 
 eo. short sounds like ea in heart (but shorter) ; as in ■pe-Af, 
 knowledge, pronounced /ass. 
 
 11. e-| long has an accent over the e, and sounds like ei in rein; 
 as peirn, a course, pronounced raim. 
 
 ei short, like ein sell; as in ceif, a basket, sounded like kesh. 
 
 12. eo long has an accent over the o, and is sounded nearly 
 like long English o with a slight sound of y before it ; as in cedl, 
 music, which will be correctly pronounced if a A: sound is put be- 
 fore the word yole 
 
 eo short nearly liken in shut, with y before it ; as in beoc., 
 drink. 
 
 Note— Thij diphthong is short in only a very few words. 
 
 13. jo long has an accent over the 1, and sounds very like ea in 
 hear ; as in ^jon, wine, pronounced feen or fee-on. 
 
CHAP. I.] SOUNDS. 13 
 
 ^o short, nearly like short i : as in ttjioMt, myrrb, which has 
 nearly the same sound as the first syllable of mirror. 
 
 14. iu long has an accent over the u, and has the same sound 
 as the diphthongal English u in tune ; as in f]U, wortny, which is 
 sounded exactly like/ew. 
 
 1U short is sounded like the u input, with a y before it; as in 
 pl^itc, wet. 
 
 15. 6] long has an accent over the o, and is sounded like the 
 owi in owing ; as in pod, a while, pronounced foil. 
 
 01 short like the o in love, with a very short i at the end; as in 
 coil, the will. 
 
 16. U] long, with an accent over the ti, is sounded like ooi in 
 cooing ; as yxx]\, the eye, pronounced soo-il. 
 
 uf long, with an accent over the 1, has nearly the same sound 
 as we; as iu bujbe, yellow, which is pronounced bwee. 
 
 \X] short is like the ui in quill; as in -puireo^, a lark, 
 pronounced fwishoge. 
 
 m. TRIPHTHONGS. 
 
 1. There are commonly reckoned five trirhthongs, which are 
 alvays l->ng:— wo|, eoi, i<v], 1U1, u<M- 
 
 2. <\oi is sounded very like we, as in rn<vo-|t), wealth, pro- 
 nounced mwetn. 
 
 3. ec| is sounded l.ke the yoi in the combination y6-ing ; as in 
 peo]l, i:esh, which will be correctly pronounced if the sound of 
 / is put belore the combination yu-il. 
 
 4. ]<s.\ is sounded like eei in teeing ; as ll<vi5, a physician. 
 
 5. i n | like the ewi in mewing; as C]U10, gentfe. 
 
 6. U<vi like ooi in cooing; as bu<vd> strike, which is sounded 
 boo-il. 
 
 7. The preceding attempts to represent the sounds of the diph- 
 thongs and trinlu hongs are, in many cases mere approximations. 
 The student must hear them pronounced ; and in no other way is 
 it possible to learn to sound tnein correctly. 
 
 IV. VARIOUS SOUNDS. 
 
 1. 21 and o before rn, nr), U, or 113, in monosyllables, and often 
 before nc and nc, are sounded in Minister like the ou \nfo»l ; as 
 c<v.rt), crooked, and coll, hazel, pronounced cowm and c >wl; and 
 TjleATjnc^r), a small glen, pronounced glounthaun ; and o before 
 b and 5 has often the same sound; as yo^i<x]rt), learning, pro- 
 nounced fowhm. 
 
 2. A 6 and 015 are often sounded like long English i in fine ; as 
 Ti<v6<vnc, Bight, pr. nounced ry-nrk ; l<\6<vfi, a fork, pronounctd 
 lyre ; Tt)<x6m, a breach, pronounced mine. 
 
14 OETnOGRAPHY. [PAKT I. 
 
 3 The termination <v8 is pronounced in Connaught nearly the 
 same as oo : thus buod-cvb, striking, is pronounced 'booloo in Con- 
 naught, but boolrt in Minister. 
 
 4. In the combination bl, the 6 is silent, and the whole i* 
 sounded like I or 11 ; as cobl<vb, sleep, pronounced culla. 
 
 5. In the combination In, the n is silent, and the whole ia 
 sounded like I or 11; as coln-A, of a body, pronounced culla. 
 
 6. In the combination bn, the b is silent, and whole is sounded 
 the same as t) or nn; as ce-a.bna, the same, pronounced kuina. 
 
 7. Final e is never entirely silent in Irish as it is in English; 
 thus rnfne, smoothness, is pronounced meena. In some situations 
 it is very nearly silent in the modern language; as in cjioibe, a 
 heart, pronounced cree. 
 
 8. There are some Irish consonants which, when they come 
 together in a word, do not coalesce in sound, so that when they 
 a;-e uttered a very short obscure vowel sound is heard between 
 them. 
 
 This generally occurs in the case of two liquids, or a liquid and 
 a mute. Thus lon.5, a track, is pronounced so as to seem, to an 
 ear accustomed to English, a word of two syllables; not lurg, but 
 lurrug. Oe<vlb, a shape, is sounded, not dalv, but ddlav; re<vjib, 
 bitter, is sounded sharrav ; bopb, proud, is pronounced burrub; 
 C0I5, a sword, cullug. and so on. In Irish prosody, however, 
 such words as these count as only one syllable. 
 
 In the English language no such difficulty exists in regard to 
 most of these letters; they coalesce perfectly. in sound, so that 
 each of the above words would be a pure monosyllable. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 
 I. ASPIKATION. 
 
 1. The term "aspiration " is .used to express a certain change 
 of sound suffered by some of the Irish consonants under certain 
 grammatical conditions. 
 
 2. It is impossible to give a definition of aspiration that will 
 correct[y describe all the case-», inasmuch as the changes of soun I 
 vary in kind with the several consonants In most cases the 
 change caused by aspiration is one from an explosive to a conti- 
 nuous sound. 
 
 3. Thefe are nine consonants which can be aspirated, namely, 
 b, c, b, p, 5, rn, p, r, c ; these are called mutable or a-pirable 
 consonants; the others are called immutable. The aspira ion U 
 denoted either by placing a point over the consonant, as c ; or by 
 placing h after it, as ch. 
 
CHAP. II.] LKTTKE OHANGES. 18 
 
 4. The following are the sounds of the aspirated consonants so 
 far as tliey can be represented by English letters: — 
 
 5. 1)1) or b" is sounded sometimes like v and sometimes like w, 
 and it often has a sound something between both: as <v be-At), his 
 wife, pronounced a van; 5<vb<vl, a foiv, pronounced gowal. 
 
 6. CI) broad, has a guttural sound which is not represented in 
 English ; but it is beard in the pronunciation of the word lough, 
 (Irish, loc,) a lake. 
 
 C\) slender (i.e., joined with a slender vowel) has a less gut- 
 tural sound thane broad; as rnici<vll, folly, in which the c 
 sound is only a little more guttural than h in mee-heel. 
 
 7. Oh and 5 have the same sound. When slender, they are 
 sounded like initial y in English ; as -a o e<v1 % his love, pronounced 
 '/ ynn. Ol) and 5 broad have a guttural sound which cannot be 
 represented by English letters, though it is something like initial 
 y or initial w ; it stands to the guttural sound of broad c in the 
 relation of flat to hard. Both these aspirated letters are silent at 
 the end of a word; as pi<v6, a deer, pronounced fee a. 
 
 But in south Munster the final 5 is fully sounded, like g in fig; 
 as Coric<vi5 (dative of Co|ic<vc, Cork), pronounced curkig in 
 Munster, but curkee elsewhere. 
 
 8. fl) is always silent; thus <v. >"|Of, his knowledge, is pro- 
 nounced a iss ; <vn pe<vb03, the plover, pronounced an addogue. 
 
 9. 9-01) is very nearly the same as b, viz., like v or w; as <\ 
 TT)f<vr, his dish, pronounced a vee-as. 
 
 10. Ph has the sound of /, as <v pi<vn, his pain, pronounced a 
 fee-an. 
 
 11. SI) and t are the same as h ; as <v f&l, his heel, pronounced 
 a haul; <x cob<vri, his well, pronounced a hubber. 
 
 II. RULES FOR ASPIRATION.* 
 
 1. The possessive pronouns rno, my; bo, thy; and <v. his, as, 
 pirate the first consonant of the next word: as mo bo, my cow ; 
 bo cc<\.nr), thy head ; <v 50 nx, his garden. 
 
 2. The article aspirates in the singular feminine, nominative 
 and accusative ;t as <\.n be<\n, the woman. (See also page 23, 
 paragraph 6, and page 24.) 
 
 * These rules cannot be fully understood without a knowledge of 
 Etymology. It must be borne in mind that they apply only to the 
 aspirable or mutable consonants. 
 
 t Irish nouns have no inflection for the accusative (or objective) 
 case; hut it is often convenient to speak of nouns in the accusative, 
 by which is meant the case where the noun is the object of a transi- 
 tive verb, or sometimes of a preposition. 
 
16 OBTHOGKAPHT. [PAET I. 
 
 S The article aspirates in the genitive singular masculine; as 
 •cut) 5111JIC, of the garden. 
 
 Notb. — This rule and the preceding do not apply to the letter r. 
 (See, also, page 23, paragraph 6; and page 34.) 
 
 4. Tn compound words, the initial consonant of the second 
 word of the compound is aspirated (with a few exceptions): thus 
 from ce<vnn, a head, and 071&C, a garment, is funned ce<xno- 
 bp-<\c, head-garment, or canopy. (See also page 30, paragraph 2). 
 
 5. The interjections <v and 0, as signs of the vocative case, as- 
 pirate ; as <v -pfjv, O man. 
 
 6. An adjective agreeing with a noun has its initial consonant 
 aspirated when the noun is nominative singular feminine, or geni- 
 tive singular masculine, or vocative singular ot both genders ; and, 
 according to O'Donovan, in the nominative plural masculine, 
 when the noun ends in a consonant; as bd ban, a white cow ; c<vic 
 b'aiT). of a white cat; <v pjfi i?)6|ri, O great man; <\ be<\.n feirn, 
 O mild woman; c<vp<v]ll bv\n<v, white horses. (b and c are 
 sometimes excepted : see page 36.) 
 
 7. The initial consonant ot a verb is aspirated (1) in the infini- 
 tive mood by the particles bo and <v ; as bo be<\n<v6, or <v i5e<tn- 
 <vb\ to do: (2), in the simple past tense, active voice ; as bo 
 fe<vr- re, he stood : (3) by the particles tvf, not, and in'&, if: as of 
 lieib rt, she will not be; roA. fe<\r<\m) re, if he stands; 
 (4), by the relative <v, who, (expressed or understood) ; as -cvo ce 
 a. bu<v|le-ar, the person who strikes. (See also pages 57 and 
 59.) 
 
 8. The simple prepositions, with some exceptions, aspirate the 
 initial consonants of nouns : as <\ip b&rifi, on top; c-o inull-cvc, 
 to a summit; p<vo| 5e<vn, under affection. 
 
 ni ECLIPSIS. 
 
 1. A consonant is said to be eclipsed, or to suffer eclipsis, when 
 its sound is suppressed, and the sound ot another consonant, 
 which is prefixed to it, substituted: thus in T)-bC\n, b is eclipsed 
 by 1;, and the whole word is pronounced naum, whereas bivn is 
 pronounced dawn. It is only at the beginning of words conson- 
 ants are eclipsed. 
 
 2. The following eight consonants can be eclipsed: — b, c, b, -p, 
 3, p, r, c; the others cannot. Between the eclipsing and the 
 eclipsed letter there is usually placed a hyphen, as rn-b(v|ib : but 
 often they are put together without any separating mark, as 
 booric. Sometimes eclipsis is denoted by the doubling ot the 
 eclipsed letter; thus, <v cccvrib is the same as -a. 6-c<v]ib, their bull 
 
 3. Each consonant has an eclipsing letter of its own. 
 
CHAP. II.] LETTER CHANGES. 17 
 
 4. t) is eclipsed by r\) ; as a xxy-b^]xb, their bard, pronounced a 
 maw id. 
 
 5. C is eclipsed by 5: as a 3- coll, their hazel, pronounced a 
 gowl or a gull. 
 
 6. O by t) ; as a rrbor, their bush, pronounced a nass. 
 
 7. "F by b (which itself sounrls like v or to) ; as a b-peATiApp, 
 their land, pronounced a varran. 
 
 8. 5 is eclipsed by p. But this is not a true eclipsis, for the 
 resulting sound is not that of p, but the sound ot English ng ; 
 thus <v r)5ioll<\., their servant, is pronounced ang-illa. 
 
 9. P is eclipsed by b; as <v b-pi<xn, pronounced a bee-an. 
 
 10. S is eclipsed by c, as <xn c-ru]l, the eje, pronounced an 
 too-il. 
 
 11. C is eclipsed by b; as a b-c aI, their adze, pronounced a 
 daivl. 
 
 RTJLE3 FOB ECLIPSIS* 
 
 1. The possessive pronouns plural — ah, our; ban, your; a, 
 their; eclipse the initial consonant of the next word; as Aft 
 b-rijeAnpa, our Lord; bun. 5 cp<vr)0, your tree; a b-pApic, 
 their tield.t 
 
 2. The article eclipses the initial consonant of nouns in the 
 genitive plural ; a-t ce-xc r)\ n)--bAub, the house of the bards; 
 3011c n<v 5-CApa.U, the field of the horses. 
 
 3. When a simple preposition is followed by the article and a 
 noun in the singular number, the initial consonant of the noun is 
 generally eclipsed; as -cup. at) rp-bonb, on the table; 6'rj 
 b-pcipise, from the sea. (See page 34: see also Syntax.) 
 
 4. The initial con-onant of a verb is eclipsed after the interro- 
 gative particles a, At), ca, t)ac; also alter 50, that; tthit)a, unless; 
 Iau, alter; b'A, if; and after the relative a preceded by a preposi- 
 tion; as a TT)-bemeAnp r e? Dots be bear? at) Tp-biiAileApn 
 cuV Dost thou strike? ca b-puil rj* Where is she? T)<^c 
 b-cui^earjO ca? Dost thou not understand? 50 rn-beAnOAi^e 
 Ota buir, may God bless thee; Tnupa. b-cuicpin., unless thou 
 shalt fall; bA Ti-beAppAinn, if I would say, An cfjt App <* 
 b-CAp^c TTAb, the country into which they came. 
 
 * Thp«e rules apply of course only to those consonants that can be 
 eclipsed. The rules for eclipsis, like those for aspiration, suppose a 
 knowledge of Etymology. 
 
 t Rules 1, 2, 3, 4 do not apply to p. See for this letter Rule 5. 
 

 
 
 — ; " r 
 
 ■ri* 
 
 
 ir 
 
 
 
 
 w ■: .. -a. 
 
 
 
 -- _:". £ •"-: z j 
 
 ' 
 
 |a 
 
 i -: 
 
 ^ ' ... " ... - ~* ' 
 
mi.r. LETTSE CHANGES. 13 
 
 fr >-n c • ;Tii in Enz- 
 
 l called in 
 risfa Ica- 
 
 takes place chief mat- 
 
 ing t 
 
 oall. a »[>.: 
 ost fixed to (mail, and 
 
 j ■ .' ■ rel m 
 
 r lolh>w-r 5 a bier vel in ita place; 
 
 • when ceann. a bead, a Lead. 
 
 H. Inlikerntrj- -oad " takes place chiefly in two 
 
 ray «, which aye ! I wo preced 
 
 .-a will ig rales 
 
 •d remarks — 
 
 8. When the f- p«6u i 
 
 illing word is l Ipea©. I •ball 
 
 9. Wbc 
 Itirjg word is not bu& a 6. 
 
 -o nyo'-. \ U 
 
 bt n>. 
 
 111. When ceann. hea 
 
 ■and is n<'t ce & - ,ital 
 
 Jtter. ("Ibis is a /al*r a 
 
 rd ii nut o - 
 
 Theo « i« a<: - . to infbr the 
 
 nil word . - 
 
 : to capall, a 
 the whole word is not cap a. 
 
 STSOOPE. 
 
 n from 
 djo? a word, M very common in Ir. 
 
 '. Whtm i - •' ■• *. .,•• n b e t w a e u ■ liquid '. ij u. or f, 
 1 & mote r between t 
 s -. ' er \t y gram mat . inflection or other' 
 
 - generally consists in I 
 ;1; be*. 
 
 .aol le caol, hu:.\ and is often al» ;>anie<J I 
 
 ' I consonantal flanges 
 
•20 ORTHOGRAPHY. [PART I. 
 
 4. The following examples exhibit the chief types of syncope: — 
 
 5. la.T)<vrf)A, a married couple; plural l&r)<xrbn<v, contracted 
 
 from 1&T)<VTT)<VT)<V. 
 
 6. l-AiNvifi., a flame; plural \<xfji<xc<\, contracted from 
 1<vr<\fi<\c<v. 
 
 7. "Pocod, a word; focloifi, a dictionary, contracted from 
 ■poc-aloiti. 
 
 8. Saibiyx, rich; comparative r<v|brie, contracted from r<v|biTie. 
 
 9. C<vc<viti, a city; genitive c<\.cp,<\c, contracted from 
 c<vc<xtx<xc. 
 
 10. TlAiceATt)Ail, princely; comparative |d<v|ce<vTnloi, con- 
 tracted from fl<\iceaTt)&l<v. 
 
 11. Col^no, the body; genitive colna, (sometimes coll<x), con- 
 tracted from col<\T)0<v. 
 
 12. C<v]\<v, genitive c<v|t<vb; the plural is formed by adding e 
 to this, which syncopates the second <v: this would make c-Ajxbe, 
 which again, in accordance with the rule c&ol le c<vol, &c, is 
 made c<v|fibe. 
 
 13. U<vr<vl, noble, becomes uaifle in the comparative, by a 
 process exactly similar to the last. 
 
 14. "Follur, evident, becomes popllre in the comparative in a 
 similar way. 
 
 15. 2U5at)0, a river: the plural is formed by adding e ; this 
 causes syncope of the second <\ and the omission of one T), "which 
 would make the plural <\bne; and this again becomes <x-|bne, by 
 the rule c<xol le caol, &c. 
 
 lfi. J_«d)«.iii, speak (imperative mood); l<vbp.Aprn, I speak, con- 
 tracted from lotb<vjioiiTt). 
 
CHAP, l] the abtiols. 21 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 1. There are nine parts of speech in Irish, which are the same ag 
 those in English. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE ARTICLE. 
 
 I. CHANGE OF FORM IN THE ARTICLE. 
 
 1. The Irish language has one article, -at), which has the same 
 meaning as the English definite article the. 
 
 2. The article changes its form according to number, gender, 
 and case. 
 
 3. In the singular number the article has the form <\.t) in all the 
 cases except the genitive feminine, iu which it becomes n<v; as 
 CAirle&T) n<v cirice, the castle of the hen. 
 
 In the plural number the article is always n<v. 
 
 4. In the spoken language the T) of at) is often omitted before a 
 consonant; as ce<\x)X) <x c<xinb, the head of the bull. And this is 
 sometimes found in books also, both printed and MS., but it is not 
 recommended. 
 
 5. When -an follows a preposition ending in a vowel, the <v. is 
 often omitted in writing, but the omission is usually marked by 
 an apostrophe; thus, 6 <vn cfri, from the land, is written 6'n cfri ; 
 and t:& at) T)5T*eiT), under the sun, is written f a't) T)5fieii). 
 
 Very often in MSS., and sometimes in printed books, the 
 apostrophe in such cases is omitted, and the r) of the article 
 joined with the preposition; as or) cfri, pM T)5|ieiT). 
 
 6. In the plural the article (n<x) is often joined to the preposi- 
 tion; as 6ot)a, for 6o j)<\. 
 
 7. The letter r is inserted between certain prepositions and the 
 article <vt); and this occasionally leads to combinations that might 
 puzzle a learner. Thus, at)T) at) le<xb<VTV. in the book, is written 
 <VT)T)r -at) le^bATi, and if at) leAbAti, which is still further 
 shortened to t"at) le<xb<\Ti: also (omitting the n) <xnnr^ le-a.b<\|t, 
 and even t-a le<vb<vp, 
 
22 ETYM010GY. [PABT IL 
 
 n. CHANGES PEODTJCED BY THE ABTICTi^. 
 
 1. The article produces certain changes in the initial letters of 
 nouns to which it is prefixed. 
 
 2. These changes are very important, and the learner will ob- 
 tain a cle irer view ot them by separating the singular from the 
 plural. (Fur more on this subject see page 34.) 
 
 SINGTJLAE. 
 
 1. If the noun begins with an aspirahle consonant (except p, c, 
 b), the article aspirates in the nominative ieminiue, and in the 
 genitive ma-culine; as ap bo, the cow; cuan -ap p|p rh6|p, the 
 harbor of the great man. 
 
 2. If the noun begins with p, followed by a vowel or by I, p, or 
 p, the f is eclipsed by c in those cases where, according to the 
 last rule, a mutable consonant would be aspirated; as an c-ral 
 (tern.), the heel; ar) c-fpon, (tern.), the nose; luac <vp c-f]i]<v]p 
 (masc), the price of the bi idle. 
 
 3. If the noun begins with a vowel, the article prefixes c to the 
 nominative masculine, and 1) to the genitive feminine; as <vn 
 c--acaip, the father; leabap. pa b-^l^fie, the book of the dun 
 (cow). 
 
 4. If the noun begins with an eclipsable consonant (except b or 
 c), the article qenerully eclipses, it it be preceded by a simple pre- 
 position; as <viri an 5-cpapn, on the tree; dp b pocal pbep, 
 "from the word ' iber;' " leir <vp b-pe<vp, with the man. 
 
 5. But after the prepositions bo and be, the article aspirates 
 oftener than it eclipses; as ceicrie ceirpe bo'p criior, four de- 
 grees of the zone (Keating); bo leanaban <v 5-cora bo'n cap,- 
 p<xf5, their feet clung to the rock (story of the Onildren ot Lir). 
 
 6. No change is produced by the article in the singular number, 
 it the noun begins with I, p, p, b, c, or with p before a mute. 
 
 PLTJEAL. 
 
 1 If the noun begins with an eclipsable consonant, the article 
 eclipses in the genitive; as mpr pa b pjobbab [the] island of the 
 woods; cailfp bear cpuibce pot n)-bd [the] pretty girl of [t^e] 
 milking of the cows (i.e., the pret.y milking girl). 
 
 2. If the noun begins with a vowel, the article prefixes p to the 
 genitive, and 1) to the other cases; as cfp pa p-65, the land of the 
 young (people); 6 pa r>-aicib pip, from those places. 
 
 These are the only changes produced by the article in the 
 plural. 
 
CHAP. n.j THE HOUX. 23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 I. GENDER. 
 
 1. There are only two genders in the Irish language, the mas- 
 culine and feminine: all Irish nouns, therefore, are either mascu- 
 line or feminine gender. 
 
 2. In ancient Irish there was a Deuter gender, but no trace of it 
 remains in the modern language. 
 
 3. To know and remember the gender of all ordinary Irish nouns 
 is one of the great difficulties in learning the language, as it is in 
 learning French and many other languages. Without this knowl- 
 edge, which can only be mastered by practice, no one can speak 
 or write Irish, correctly. 
 
 4. There are a few general rules which will very much help the 
 learuerto distinguish the gender of nouns: they are only general 
 rules, however, subject to many exceptions; and where they do 
 not apply, the student must depend on practice and memory. 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 
 1. The following nouns are generally masculine: — 
 
 (1.) Names of males; as cople<vc, a cock; 1-a.oc, a hero; ■pe-ATi, 
 a man. 
 
 (2.) Nouns of more than one syllable, ending in a consonant, or 
 two consonants, preceded by a broad vowel; as boicce<\ll, 
 churlishness: except (n), derivatives in <\cc; (6), diminutives in 
 05. 
 
 (3.) Nouns ending in 61 fi, <x]jie, <xc &]6e (or o-|Se, or ui8e), 
 wfien they denole personal agents, as they generally do; as 
 rpe<vl<xb6iri, a mower; re<vl5<\-)p.e, a hunter; ceice<\fii)AC. a 
 soldier — one of a body of kerns; -r5e&l<vi6e, or r5eului6e, a 
 story-teller. 
 
 (i.) Diminutives in fco and abstracts in <vr; as collect), a 
 whelp; c&in-be-af, friendship. 
 
 (5) Diminutives in f n are of the same gender as the nouns from 
 which they are derived. 
 
 FEMININE. 
 
 2. The following nouns are generally feminine:— 
 
 (1.) Names of females; names of countries, rivers, and diseases; 
 as ce<vnc, a hen; 'Gi|xe, Ireland; t)e<vp.U<\, the Barrow; pl'<v|5, 
 a plague. 
 
 (2. j Diminutives in 03, and derivatives in -ace; as puireo^, a 
 lark; curt) p. -a.ee, fragrance: and abstract nouns formed from the 
 j.e.jitive feminine of adjectives; as bailie, blindness. 
 
24 ETYMOLOQT. [PABT H. 
 
 (3.) Nouns ending in a consonant, or two consonants, preceded 
 by a slender vowel (except those in 6\]i); as fujl, tue e y e > 
 ^05lu|rn, learning. 
 
 II. DECLENSIONS. 
 
 (' 
 
 OASES. 
 
 * 
 
 1. Irish nouns have four cases, that is, four different inflections, 
 to express relation: — Nominative, genitive, dative, and vocative. 
 
 2. The nominative case is the same as the nominative case in 
 English. 
 
 8. The genitive is the same as what is called the possessive case 
 in English. 
 
 4. The dative is the case where a noun is governed by a pre- 
 position. 
 
 5. The vocative case is the same as what is called the nomina- 
 tive of address in English. 
 
 6. Irish nouns have different forms for these four cases, and for 
 no others. Ihus, the four cases of bfi<ib&n, a salmon, are, for the 
 plural number, as follows: — Nom. bp.<\b&in, as Cfif bn.abiv.fn, 
 three salmons; gen. bjx<vb&n, as loc n<v m-bn-cvb&n, the lake of 
 the salmons; dat. bn.<\.b&n<vib, as bo na bn<vb(\n<\ib, to the 
 salmons; voc. bn.Ab*vn<v, as <v bn<vbC\n<v c<\. b-pu^l r]b' <v5 oul? 
 " O ye salmons, whither are ye going?" 
 
 7. These four case are not always different in form; thus, the 
 four cases of the same noun in the singular number are : — Nom. 
 bn<vb<vn ; gen. bfi-cvb&in; dat. bu.<\bv\n; voc. bn.<vb&in; in which 
 it will be seen that the dative is the same as the nominative, and 
 the vocative the same as the genitive. 
 
 8. Those cases which are alike in form are distinguished by the 
 sense; just as the nominative and objective cases are distinguish- 
 ed in English. 
 
 9. Some writers on Irish grammar have put in two more cases, 
 in imitation ot Latin declension; the accusative (or, as it is called 
 in English, the objective) and the ablative. But in Irish there are 
 no separate iuilections for them, the accusative being always the 
 same in form as the nominative, and the ablative the same as the 
 dative; so that it would be only a useless puzzle to the learner to 
 include them in a statement ot Irish dec'ension. In certaiu ex- 
 planations, however, and in the statement of certain rules, it is 
 sometimes convenieut to speaK of the accusative case. 
 
 10. Different nouns have different indections for the same case; 
 thus the dative singular of cor, a toot, and bof, a bush, are dif- 
 ferent, namely, cofr and bor. But though this variation extends 
 
CHAP, n.] THE NOTTS. 25 
 
 to most of the cases, the genitive singular is tal.en as the standard, 
 in comparing the declension of one noun with the declension of 
 another. 
 
 11. There are five chief ways of forming the genitive singular 
 of Irish nouDs; and in one or another of these ways, far the greatest 
 number of nouns in the language form their genitive. There are 
 usually reckoned, therefore, five declensions of Irish nouiiis. 
 
 12. Besides these there are genitive inflections, but as no one 
 of them comprises any considerable number of nouns, it is not 
 considered necessary to lay down more than five declensions. The 
 number of declensions is, however, very much a matter of con- 
 venience ; and, accordingly, in some Irish grammars, there are 
 more than five, and in some less. 
 
 FIEST DECLENSION. 
 
 1. The first declension comprises masculine nouns which have 
 their characteristic vowel, that is, the last vowel of the nomina- 
 tive singular, broad. 
 
 2. The genitive singular is formed by attenuating the broad 
 rowel. 
 
 3. In the singular, the dative is like the nominative, and the 
 vocative is like the genitive; in the plural, the nominative is 
 generally like the genitive singular, and the genitive like the 
 nominative singular. Example, bw.ll, a member, or limb. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Norn.* ball. 
 
 Nona, b<ull. 
 
 Gen. baill. 
 
 Gen. ball. 
 
 Dat. ball. 
 
 Dat. b<xll<v|b 
 
 Voc. ■&. b<v]U. 
 
 Voc. <v ball<v 
 
 4. The number of nouns that belong to this declension is very 
 large ; but though they all form their Genitive singular in tl e 
 same way (except those in -ac, in which there is a slight addi- 
 tional change, for which see next paragraph), there are a few 
 which vary in the formation of other cases. 
 
 5. Nouns in <vc, in addition to the attenuation, change c into 
 3 in tne genitive singular; and generally form the nominative 
 plural by adding e to the genitive singular; and from this again 
 is formed the dative plural in -|b, in accordance with the rule in 
 Par. 9, page 26. Example, m<\fica.c, a horseman. 
 
 * It would be well for the lparner, when declining nouns, to call this 
 ' 'Nominative and Accusative" all through the declensions. 
 
26 ETYMOLOGY. [PABT H. 
 
 Singular. PluraL 
 
 Fein. tt)ATic-ac. Nom. ttj&jic^se. 
 
 Gen. Tt)«.iic<vi3. Gen. tnaTic-a.c. 
 
 Dat. TT)<\.nc<\.c. Dat. n}a.ricA.i5ib\ 
 
 Voc. -a. rr>aTic<vi3. Voc. -a. tt)A|icaCA. 
 
 6. A few nouns make their nominative plural by an increase in 
 a. ; as pe<xr»n, a pen; plur. pe<vnn<v: and some of these are syn- 
 copated, as ub\\U, an apple; plur. ublA. 
 
 7. In a few nouns of this declension the nominative plural is 
 formed by adding c<v or c<\. to the nominative singular; as reol, 
 a sail; nom. plur. reolc<\ ; dat. plur. reolc<v]b; U)Ufi, a wall; 
 nom. plur. mupxo.; dat. plur. miijxc-aib. 
 
 8. In many words of one syllable belonging: to this declension, 
 the attenuation in the genitive singular cau-es considerable change 
 in the vowel or diphthongal part of the word; thus, coftp, a 
 body; gen. cttiftp; 1<VT5, a fish ; gen. eir5; t)e<vn.c, strength; 
 gen. -neipx or t)]]\c; ^eaji, a man ; gen. pin; cruxnn, a tree; 
 gen. cnoiT)t)'» be<vl, a mouth; gen. be]l or beojl. 
 
 Tlie three following rules (9, 10, and 11) apply to all the de- 
 clensions : 
 
 9. The dative plural ends in ib. 
 
 This ib correspond with the Latin dative and ablative ter- 
 mination ibus or bus. It is now hardly ever pronounced,* but it 
 is nearly always retained in writing; just as in English, gh, which 
 was formerly sounded as a guttural in such words as plough, 
 daughter, is retained in writing, though it is no longer pro- 
 nounced. 
 
 10. The dative plural is formed from the nominative plural 
 whenever this latter differs from the genitive singular : other- 
 wise from the nominative singular. 
 
 11. The vocative is always preceded by the particle -a or 0, 
 which aspirates the initial; as -a. fr-|pv, O man; -a. n)X)<\, O women ; 
 Cfse-ap-noi, O Lord. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 1. The second declension comprises most of the feminine nouns 
 in the language. 
 
 2. The genitive singular is formed by adding e to the nomina- 
 tive. If the characteristic vowel is broad, it must be attenuated 
 ir accordance with the rule caol le ca.ol, &c. 
 
 3. The dative singular is formed from the genitive singular by 
 dropping the final e. 
 
 * This syllable is always sounded in the West and North of Ireland 
 which is undoubtedly the rule, the other being the exception. 
 
CHAP. H.J THE NOUN. 27 
 
 S. When the characteristic vowel is broad, the no ni native 
 plural is formed from the nominative singular by adding •*; when 
 the characteristic vowel is slender, by adding e. 
 
 5. The genitive plural is generally like the nominative singular. 
 
 6. The vocative is usually the same as the nominative, and is 
 accordingly omitted from the paradigm. 
 
 First example : reAinp.65, a shamrock. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. re<vTT)no5. Norn. re<vrn|t05<v. 
 
 Gen. re<vrr)p,6i5e. Gen. re<vmri65 
 
 Dat. fe<Mr)fi6i5. Dat. T e<VTt )T v 05- A lt>« 
 
 Second example; pe^fc, a worm, a beast. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. peifc. Nom. y>e]yce. 
 
 Gen. ipe-\xce Gen. peirc. 
 
 Dat. pe^rc. Dat. pe]rqb. 
 
 7. Nouns in <vc when they belong to this declension, change 
 the c to 5 in the genitive singular; thus, cl*vifire<vc, a harp, is 
 declined as follows : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. cl*v|nT e<v c. Nom. cU\]rireAC<v. 
 
 Gen. cl&iriri5e. Gen. cl&ittreoic. 
 
 Dat. cl<v|ftri5. Dat. cl&iTxre<vc-a.ib\ 
 
 8. There are many nouns belonging to this declension which 
 depart from the general rule laid down in Par. 4, in forming their 
 nominative plural. 
 
 9. Some, probably over fifty, form the nominative plural by 
 adding anna; and these form the genitive plural by dropping the 
 final <v of this termination ; thus, cu^r, a cause ; nom. plural, 
 cuire<v.nrj<x; gen. plural, cuire-ann dat. plural, cuiye<xt)t)<\-\\j. 
 
 10. Some form their nominative plural by adding aca: thus, 
 ob<viTi, a work, and ofi&ib, a prayer, make opbfie^CA. and 
 Ofi*vibe<vc<x in the nominative plural. 
 
 11. When the characteristic vowel is slender, it is often drop- 
 ed in the genitive plural; as pu-cvin), a sound; gen. plural, pu<vrr). 
 
 12. When the nominative plural takes ce, the genitive plural is 
 formed by adding <vb; as coill, a wood; nom. plur. coiUce : and 
 genitive plural, as seen in Qile&n r)<v 5-copllce<v6, the island of the 
 woods (Keating). 
 
 13. There are other variations of the nominative and genitive 
 plural, but they do not comprise any considerable number of 
 nouns, and they must be learned by practice. 
 
ETTMOLOOT. [PA£T II 
 
 I. Nouns belonging to the third declension are some of them 
 _;.-.■;'. -:.- ---'. i.~ - '----.-.--. 
 
 _ 7 _ a rigular is formed by adding a h Hm nomina 
 
 tm - ngnlar. 
 
 3. The vocative is like the nominative. 
 
 4. The nominative plural is generally formed by adding a. or e. 
 : The genitive plural is generally like the nominative s i ngular . 
 
 I-..:., -t ; : ■■ - " 
 
 5 .".:_" .:.'. - - '■■-■ 
 
 \f. Nom. c".^\-4. 
 -a. a. clea~. 
 
 Dat. cleo.-. Dat. cle>xr*ib\ 
 
 6. If the liiaracteristic vowel is slender, it must be made broad 
 in the genii - rgular, in accordance with the rule caol le 
 eaoi. & "".'U the wilL gen. col a. 
 
 J Sometimes c or c is introduced before the •«. of the genitive 
 -ich commonly causes other changes by sync-op^ 
 bocM rp; gen. ::r -T- '.../. — r trouble; g 
 
 cu : lca. 
 
 - 77 s ii the rrbal or ial nouns in <lc\ e - 
 
 and 05-0.8, the geai rives of which ha : the same form as their 
 lea sonaderc rbs; and tr '.U common- 
 
 ;'- reckoned as belonging to this declension, though the gen 
 j _ >: .rmed in some by adding e. not*; if Tnol<\£\ 
 
 _- _ -. r^.cw: - ' v* -' :::. - gerr. re: ca.c - : 
 
 making slender : - _- e. 
 
 9. Xouns in -ace generally, and those in e<ur or nor, often, be- 
 '. :.; - this - - -" ~; .-. :r '.-:.- _ c'.— - 
 De«,cca be " - row; gen. ckm\- for*- But the gre tea 
 number of those in ear or \of belong to the first declension ^ thus 
 the last noun, boil"'—, is ::en mads boiler in the geni: 
 and bp.or>nc . - r. makes bn.onr c - * 
 
 10. There are forty or fifty nouns (many of them ending in 
 which form their genitive singular in «c, and which are reckoned 
 as belonging : : is declension, though some writers arrange 
 them under ~ A im s 
 cat--.,-..-: Ce^-A-'-.. Tara; goo. Cc - n, hatred; 
 
 II. TLo^e in in. generally form their c as above; bnt 
 ata". a fatLcr: - - mother; and b...rA -. abrol 
 form their genitive by dro pia^ the final |: — gen. Ar^n. tr^\r^n. 
 
 - ■ . 
 
 rmatkNi of the womb r'.uraL 
 
OHAP. n.] THE NOUN. 29 
 
 13. Those in 6]}x generally make the nominative plural by add- 
 ing ]6e: as rf?e<vl<\bdifx, a mower; uom. plur. rpe<vl<xbdifxibe. 
 
 14. And these form the genitive plural variously; generally r)<\ 
 rpe<vl<\.b6irq6, but sometimes r)A rpeAl<vbd|fi, or T)<v rpe<\l<v- 
 bdfvac. 
 
 _ 15. Others form the nominative plural either like the genitive 
 singular or by adding T)n<\. to it; as niur. a stream; gen. rrioc<\.; 
 nom. plur. rnoc<«, or rnoc<\T)n<v ; brut^m, a back; gen. bjioma; 
 nom, plur. brioma, or bnon>\nnA.. 
 
 16. Those that add ona, form the genitive plural by omitting 
 the<v; asrriiic; gen. plur. rjiucAnn. 
 
 17. Many nouns of this declension that end in T) or I, form their 
 plural by adding ce or cot; as md|n, a bog; gen. sing. mdi)a.; 
 nom. plur. md] nee. 
 
 IS. And these generally form their genitive plural by adding 
 <v6, to the nominative plural; as mo^n; gen. plur. rndince<vb. 
 
 19. Those that form their genitive singular in <xc (10) form the 
 plural by adding <x to this <xc; as l<vr<vifi, a flame; gen. sing. 
 l<vrri<\.c; nom. plur. U\rrt<\c<v. 
 
 FOUETH DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Nouns of the fourth declension end in vowels or in ft), and 
 are some of them masculine and some feminine. 
 
 2. There is no inflection in the singular, all the cases being 
 alike. 
 
 3. The nomina ive plural is generally formed by adding -|be or 
 <xb<v (with occasionally an obvious vowel change). Example, 
 &1 1*1)6) a sloe. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. &iru)e. Nom. '<x]-\it)-\6e. 
 
 Gen. &ifu)e. Gen. &iTineAb. 
 
 Dat. <viru)e. Dal. ^ru^bib. 
 
 4. Some form the plural by adding re or ce : as ceiT)T)e, a fire ; 
 nom. plur. ce^nce ; bAO], a clown; nom. plur. b<vo]ce; and 
 <vici)e, a commandment, has nom. plur. <\-jce<\i)Cv\.. 
 
 5. These generally form the genitive plural, by adding 6 or <v6 
 (not to the nominative singular, as in the model, but) to the 
 nominative plural; as nom. plur. boto^ce, clowns; gen. plur. 
 baoiceAb. 
 
 6. Nouns ending in <\-\6e, ii]be, and <virie, generally be- 
 long to this declension; as -rcKvbuibe, a slave ; pjob<\ifie, a 
 piper. 
 
80 ETYMOLOGY. [PAST H. 
 
 FIFTH DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Nouns of the fifth declension are mostly feminine. 
 
 2. They generally end in a vowel; and they form their genitive 
 by adding o or r)r), and occasionally b or c. 
 
 3. The dative singular is formed from the genitive by attenua- 
 tion. 
 
 4. The nominative plural is formed from the genitive singular 
 by adding <v. 
 
 6. The genitive plural is like the genitive singular. 
 
 Example, tiriT<S a door-jamb. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. urir<v. Notn. up. r-A.no. 
 
 Gen. unra.r). Gen. urir<xT). 
 
 Dat. uriroin. Dat. ftp.r<xnaib\ 
 
 6. To this declension belong the proper names '6|rie, Ireland; 
 gen. 'eirie<vTir), dat. 'Smino; ?Uba, Scotland; gen. &lb<vn, dat. 
 <\lb<vin; 2Uuma., Munster; gen. SUurhoi), dat. SOurbAin; and 
 several others of less note. 
 
 7. C<x?i<v. a friend, is an example of the genitive in b: nom. 
 eoriA; genitive cariab; dat. CAriAib ; nom. plur. coiribe. 
 
 8. There is a good deal ot variety in the formation of the ca^es 
 of nouns belonging to this declension, which can only be learned 
 by practice. 
 
 UtREGrLAB DECXEXSIOX 
 
 1. Some nouns are in-egular ; that is, they are not inflected in 
 accordance with any of the regular declensions. 
 
 2. The most important ot the irregular nouns are*: — beat), a 
 woman; bo, a cow; briii, a womb ; caorta, a sheep; ceo, a fog; 
 ct)6, a hut; cu, abound; Oia. God; U\. a day; mi a month; o 
 or iu\, a grandson. They are declined as follows — (Uie vocative 
 is not given where it is like the nominative) : — 
 
 Oe<vr), a woman, Jem. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. bean. Nom. rnno. 
 
 Gen. TnrU\. Gen. b<vn. 
 
 Dat. rorxvoi. Dat. mnoib. 
 
 Do, a COW, fern. 
 
 Nom. bo. Nom. b&. 
 
 Geu. bo. Gen. bo. 
 
 Dat. buin. Dat. biu\ib. 
 
 * For additional examples oi declensions of nouns, both regular and 
 irregular, see Appendix at the end of the book. 
 
OUAP. II.] THE XOYTS. 81 
 
 t>jiu, a womb, fern. 
 
 Nom. briu. Nom. briOTyna.. 
 
 Gen. briuinne, or brionn. Gen. brionn. 
 Dat. bjioinn. Dat. bn.onn<v]b. 
 
 Caori-a., a sheep, fern 
 
 Nom. c-aon.<v. Nom. ca.01n.13. 
 
 Gen. c<vojt<xc. Gen. c<voji<vc. 
 
 Dat. caortA. Dat. c-a.oric-a.ib. 
 
 Yoc. <v c-aorioi. Voc. <v c-aon.c<t. 
 
 Ceo, a fog, masc. 
 
 Nona, ceo Nom. c|a.6 
 
 Gen. c|a.c or ceoi3 . Gen. ceo. 
 
 Dat. ceo Dat. ce6c<vjb. 
 
 Cno or cnu, a nut, masc. 
 
 .Nom. ct)6. Nom. cn*v. cn-&i. 
 
 Gen. cno, cnui. Gen. cn66. 
 
 Dat. cno, cnu. Dat. cn&lb. 
 
 Cu, a hound, masc. or fern. 
 
 Nom. cu. Nom. c:>in, cuit), con*, 
 
 or coince. 
 Gen. cor). Gen. con. 
 
 Dat. coin. Dat. cona.ib. 
 
 Oi<x, God, masc. 
 
 Nom. Di<v. Nom. Dee, Oeice. 
 
 Gen. De. Gen. Di<v, Oeiee<v.t>. 
 
 Dat. Di<v. Dat. Oeib\ Oeicib. 
 
 Voc. -a. Oh)e or <v Dhi<v. Voc. -a. Ohjee or <v Otyeice. 
 
 L&, a c?ay, masc. 
 
 Nom. la. Nom. l<nere. 
 
 Gen. l-ae. Gen. l<vece<x.S. 
 
 Dat. l&, Id. Dat. l^eqb. 
 
 20 f, a month, fern. 
 
 Nom. mf. Nom. rnfor-a.. 
 
 Gen. rnfr, rnfor*. Gen. rnfor;. 
 
 Dat. rnf, rnff. Dat. rnfor<iib. 
 
 or ttA, a grandson, masc. 
 
 Nom. 6, ua. Nom. uf. 
 
 Gen. i, uf. Gen. u<v. 
 
 Dat. o, u<v. Dat. ib, uib. 
 
 Voc. -a. uf. Voc. -a. uf. 
 
S3 ETYMOLOGY. [PART II. 
 
 DECLENSION OP THE AKTIOLE "WITH THE NOTTN. 
 
 1. The initial changes produced by the article in the nonns to 
 which it is prefixed have been set iorth at page 22; these 
 changes must he carefully observed in declining nouns with the 
 article. 
 
 2. Twelve typical examples are here given, corresponding with 
 the several cases mentioned in paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, 
 page 22; and these examples include almost every possible 
 variety. There is a good deal of difference of usage in the dative 
 singular of nouns beginning with r. 
 
 3. The declension of the singular number only is given; tlie 
 changes in the plural are sO very simple (see page 22,) that they 
 can present no difficulty. 
 
 4. C0I5, a sword, masc. Norn. at) C0I5; gen. at) cuds; dat. 
 len* at) 3-C0I5 (Par. 4, p. 22), or bo'r) 60I5 (Par. 5, p. 22). 
 
 5. C<\illeAC, a hag, fern. Nom. at) c<v]lle<vc; gen. t)a c&]\- 
 ll5e; dat. 6'r) 5-CA1II15, or bo'n ca.1ll.15. 
 
 6. Sao3<vI, the world, masc. Nom. at) t"A05aI; gen. AT) 
 c-T"A05<vil ; dat. 6'r) taosaI, or bo'n c-r*05<xl (Par. 5, p. 22). 
 
 7. S<vboib, the Sabbath, fern. Nom. at) c-?Ab6ib; gen. T)A 
 S<\.boibe; dat. 6't) S<vb6i&, or bo'n c-S<vboib (Pars. 2 and 5, p. 22). 
 
 8. SI ac, a rod, fem. Nora, at) c--rl<xc; gen. t)a rl<vice; dat. 
 leir -at) t/Iaic, or bo'n c-rl<vic. 
 
 9. Sn.61, satin, masc. Nom. -at) rn.61; gen. at) c-rjxdil ; dat. 
 d'n ru.61, or bo'n c-T-fidl. 
 
 10. &r aI, an ass, masc. Nom. -at) c-a]*aI ; gen. at) at*aiI ; 
 dat. 6'r) at"aI. 
 
 11. ]r)ir, an island, fem. Nom. -at) }X)]x; gen. T)A t)-iT)fe; dat. 
 bo'n inir. 
 
 12. Le ac, a stone, fem. Nom. at) le<vc; gen. t)a leice ; dat. 
 bo'T) leic (Par. 6, page 22). 
 
 13. Dfle, a deluge, fem. Nom. at) bfle ; gen. t)a bfle-AT)!); 
 dat. bo't) bjlit)T). 
 
 14. S5e1.il, a story, masc. Nom. at) T^ettl; gen. at) X^e]\ ; 
 dat 6'r) rseul. 
 
 15. SpeAl, a scythe, fem. Nom. at) rpeAl ; gen. T)a rpeile ; 
 dat. leir at) rpeil. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 I. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. In Irish the adjective changes its form according to the gen- 
 der, case, and number of the noun. 
 
CHAP. III.] THE ADJECTIVE. 33 
 
 2. Adjectives are declined in much the same manner as nouns ; 
 but they never take the inflection -|b' in the dative plural (though 
 anciently they had this intlection like nouns) ; the dative plural 
 ot an adjective is like the nominative plural. 
 
 There are usually reckoned four declensions ot adjectives. 
 
 4. The inflections of these four declensions follow those of the 
 noun so closely, that when the noun is mastered the adjective 
 presents no difficulty. 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Adjectives of the first declension are those that end in a con- 
 sonant preceded by a broad vowel, as bar), white; pliuc, wet. 
 
 2. In the masculine gender (i.e., when the adjective belongs to 
 a masculine noun), they are declined the same as nouns of the 
 first declension of the type of b<vll, except that the nominative 
 plural always ends in <v. 
 
 8. In the feminine gender adjectives are declined the same as 
 nouns of the second declension of the type of ye<^tx)\\6^. 
 
 4. Both genders are alike in the plural. Example ban, 
 white. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Masc. Fem. Mas:, and Fern. 
 
 Nom. bar), bar). Nom. ban<x. 
 
 Gen. bain, ba^ne. Gen. bat). 
 
 Dat. bar), bain. Dat. ban*.. 
 
 Voc. ba^n. ban. Voc. ban*. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Acjectives ot the second declension are those that end in a 
 consonant preceded by a slender vowel. 
 
 2. Iu the singular, all the cases ot both masculine and feminine 
 are alike, except the genitive feminine, which takes e. 
 
 3. In the plural, both genders are alike, and all the cases ex- 
 cept the genitive are formed by adding e ; the genitive is like the 
 nominative singular. Example, rnjn, smooth, fine. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Masc. Fem. Masc. and Fem. 
 Nom. mfn. mfn. Nom. mine. 
 
 Gen. mil), rnfne. Gen. n)fn. 
 
 Dat. mfn. rr)jr). Dat. rnfne. 
 
 Voc. mfr). mfn. Voc. rnfne. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Adjectives of the third declension are those that end in 
 oiTf)<v|l, which has the same signification as the English postfix 
 like:— be<vn, a woman ; b<M)<\ri)-&il, womanlike, modest. 
 
84 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. r PAET n. 
 
 2. The two genders are always alike. 
 
 3. The four cases singular are alike except the genitive, which 
 is formed by adding a, with a syncope. 
 
 4. In the plural, the genitive is the same as the nominative 
 singular; and the other cases are the same as the genitive singular. 
 Example, Tt)<xireATT)Ail, graceful. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Tn<vire<vif)<\il. Nom. tt)<vire<ui)l<v. 
 
 Gen. n)A^re<vri)l<v. Gen. Tf)AireATt)Ail, 
 
 Dat. Tt)<vire<\.Tt)<iil. Dat. Tt)<vire<vTt)l<v. 
 
 FOURTH DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Adjectives of the fourth declension are those that end in 
 vowels; as TT)6p.b<x, majestic. 
 
 2. They have no inflections, being alike in all cases, numbers, 
 genders. 
 
 II. DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE AND ARTICLE WITH THE NOUN. 
 
 1. The rules for the aspiration of the initial consonants of ad- 
 jectives agreeing with nouns are given at page 22; and the-e 
 rules must be very carefully observed in declining nouns with 
 adjectives. 
 
 _ 2. It may be added here that b and c sometimes resist aspira- 
 tion, especially if they follow a noun ending in t). There is much 
 variety of usage as to aspiration of adjectives in the dative 
 flingular. 
 
 3. When a noun is declined with both an adjective and the ar- 
 ticle, the initial of the adjective is generally eclipsed in the geni- 
 tive plural (or takes n if it be a vowel). 
 
 4. Four typical examples are here given of the declension of the 
 adjective with the noun (for the influence of the article, see paga 
 
 &i) c<xp<vll ban, the white horse, masc. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. At) CApodl ban. T)a c<xp<xill Bar)A. 
 
 Gen. at) c<xp<xill b*vin. tja 5-CApall Tn-b«u). 
 
 Dat. o'l) 3-c<\p<vll bat), or <5't)a c<\p<dUib b&na. 
 
 Th-ban. 
 
 Voc. a c<vp<\ill bain. a capaIIa bana. 
 
 &T) p uired5 be*3, the little lark, fern. 
 
 Nom. at) fmireos beAj. t)a ^a]ye6^<\ beA^A. 
 
 Gen. n<v r«ireoi5e bi.^e. t)a b-THtire65 n)-be<vs. 
 
 Dat. 6'T) b-puireois ^5. 6't)<v. Tmire65<v)b be<v5<u 
 
 Voc. a T>ixire65 be<xg. a puired^ci beA5A. 
 
CHAP, in.] THE ADJECTIVE. 35 
 
 &r) CT)oc Arib, the high hill, masc. 
 
 Nom. at) cr)oc ATxb. Nom. t)a ctjuic &TibA. 
 
 Gen. at) CT)ttfc *vijib. Gen. t)a 5-cr,<oc T)-ATib. 
 
 Dat. 6't) 5-t)oc «iTib. Dat. o't)a cr)ocAib' AjvbA. 
 
 VoC. <V CT)U1C Ainb. Voo. A CT)OCA ATlbA. 
 
 &T) bo bub, the black cow, Jem. 
 
 Nom. at) bd bub. Nom. t)a bA bubA. , 
 
 Gen. t)a bo buibe. Gen. t)a TTj-bo T)-bub. 
 
 Dat. bo'T) TT)-bu]r) bu|b. Dat. bo t)a buAib bubA. 
 
 Voc. a bd bub. Voc. a bA bubA. 
 
 m. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. Irish adjectives have three degrees of comparison, the same 
 as English adjectives. 
 
 2. The positive is the simple form of the adjective ; as &jib, 
 high; flAiceATT)Ail, princely. 
 
 8. The comparative and the superlative have the same form, 
 which is that of the genitive singular feminine; as AiTibe, 
 plAiceATt)U\; and they are distinguished hy prefixed particles, or 
 by the context. 
 
 4. The comparative has generally the particle T)fof (or nforA, 
 or T)11*a) prefixed, and it is usually followed by t)A, than (spelled 
 also it)A and iot)a) ; as ca at) ceAc fo nfor ft-ip-be t)^ at ) ce ac fir), 
 this house is higher than that house; At A at) Iaoc ub nfoT* 
 T^lAiceATT)lA v>\ at) fif5 peir), " yonder champion is more prince- 
 ly than the king hiinselr." 
 
 5. The superlative is often preceded by if or -at, with the ar- 
 ticle expressed before the noun; as at) -peATi if plAiceATT)lA tat) 
 rfri, the most princely man in the country. 
 
 6. In the comparative, nfof is omitted when the assertion or 
 question is made by the verb it* in any of its forms, expressed or 
 understood; as bA buibe a 5JiitA5 T)A -at) suaI, "her hair was 
 blacker than the coal ; ' if 5lle rneACCA T)*v bAiT)t)e, snow is 
 winter than milk; ADfe&Tip. bo beATibftACAiTi. T)A cufA ? is thy 
 brother better than thou ? 
 
 7. When the characteristic particles are not expressed, the con- 
 struction generally determines whether t'>e adjective is compara- 
 tive or superlative; as at) eAlAbAT) ir UAirle T)A filibeACc, the 
 art which is nobler than poetry ; at) eAlAbAT) if tiAirle aitv bic, 
 " the art which is the noblest in the world." 
 
 8. An adjective in the comparative or superlative is not inflect- 
 ed, all the cases being alike in form. 
 
33 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [past n. 
 
 IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
 
 1. TLe following adjectives are irregularly compared. There 
 are a few others, but their departure from rule is so slight as not 
 to require notice : — 
 
 2. l_i<x is a comparative as it stands, signifying more (in num- 
 ber); but it has no positive, unless iomb<v, or rndriAr) (many), or 
 some such word, be considered as such. 
 
 Positive. 
 be<v5, little. 
 ^Ab<x, long. 
 ^uriur, or UTiuf, easy. 
 
 T ] i U°° d - 
 
 be<*3, S 
 Tronic, often, 
 rndji, great, 
 olc, bad. 
 ceic, hot. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 nfor lu5<x. 
 
 t)for r<vibe, r)for h<v 
 
 nfor fur<x, nfor ur-a.. 
 
 njor ^e^riri. 
 
 t)for rr)ior)c<v. 
 T)1or rno. 
 r)for me<vr<v. 
 nfof ceo. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 1T peAriri. 
 ir tt)6. 
 
 ir rne<vrA. 
 ir ceo. 
 
 11. There are certain particles which, when prefixed to adjec- 
 tives, intensify tluir signification; and in accordance with the 
 rule in Par. 4, page 22, they aspirate the initials ot the adjectives. 
 
 12. The principal ot these are <xn, pfori, rid, rati, uri: as rt)<vic, 
 good; <M)-rr)Aic, very good; 5rU\r)n<v, ugly; Ffori-5T^0 nA , ex- 
 cessively ugly; n)6]i, large ; tid-rhdri, very large; lAibifi, strong; 
 •r&ri-l&ibiri, very strong, &c. 
 
 IV. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. The following is a list of the most important ot the numerals, 
 both cardinal and ordinal. 
 
 For the influence of some of them in aspirating and eclipsing* 
 and for other syntactical influences on the noun, see Syntax. 
 
 Cardinal. 
 
 
 Ordinal. 
 
 1. 
 
 <\.0T). 
 
 1st. 
 
 ceAb. 
 
 2. 
 
 b6, b&. 
 
 2d. 
 
 barm. 
 
 3. 
 
 crif, cedriA. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 crie<v|*. 
 
 4. 
 
 ce<xc<xiri, ceicjie. 
 
 4th. 
 
 ce<vcri<vrn<vb\ 
 
 5. 
 
 CU15. 
 
 5th. 
 
 cui5e<\b. 
 
 6. 
 
 re. 
 
 6th. 
 
 reire<vb. 
 
 7. 
 
 ■ye&cc. 
 
 7th. 
 
 re<vccrhAb. 
 
 8. 
 
 occ. 
 
 8th. 
 
 occrhab. 
 
 9. 
 
 T)A01. 
 
 9th. 
 
 T)<vorh<vb. 
 
 10 
 
 beic. 
 
 10*. 
 
 be<xcrb<v6. 
 
 11 
 
 ■Aon beoi5. 
 
 11th. 
 
 -aor)rh<vb be A3, 
 
 12 
 
 bo be A5, b& beA.3. 
 
 12 th. 
 
 bAfiA be A3. 
 
 13 
 
 crif be A3. 
 
 And so on, up to and 
 
 including 19. 
 
 13th. 
 
 cfiear beA5. 
 
OHAP. III.] 
 
 THE AJ)JEOTITE. 
 
 37 
 
 20. 
 21 
 
 •I 
 
 80. 
 
 Cardinal, 
 rice. 
 <von •a.'r f\ce, -AOI) 
 
 <MTt ficib, 
 And so on, up to 29. 
 
 cftioc-o.b, ctijoc<\, 
 be]c -a'r wee. 
 
 20th. 
 21st. 
 
 30th. 
 33d. 
 
 Ordinal. 
 F1ce<v6. 
 <\onn)A6 
 
 fnqb. 
 
 <viTt 
 
 !efxf <qji C|iioc<vib, 
 cfxf be<x5 -a'r 
 nee. 
 
 i b& fi c l8> ce<vc- 
 40. > ti<xc<\., ceACfi*- 
 
 ( cab. 
 50. c<vo5<v, c<xo5<vb. 
 
 C re<vccTi)03-<v, re-a.ee- 
 70. < TT)05<vb, be]C <x.'r 
 ( crif Fiqb. 
 
 {OCCT1)03<\., occ- 
 ■ri)05<vb, ceicfie 
 Fiqb. 
 
 f r)oc<x, noc<vb, be-|c 
 90. 1 <x'f ceicjte 
 
 I riq&- 
 
 100. ce<\b. 100th. 
 
 1,000. tnfle. 1,000th. 
 
 2,000. 6'<x. thfle. 2 000th. 
 
 1,000,000. n)illiui). 1,000,0000th. 
 
 criioc<vb<x8, 
 be<xcrn<xb <v|fi 
 fric]b. 
 crie-Af -aift criio- 
 c<v|b, rrie<vr 
 be<v5 <v|ti fnqb. 
 
 40th. ce<vcfi<sic<x.b<\.b. 
 
 50th. 
 60th. 
 
 70th. • 
 
 80 th 
 90th. 
 
 c<vo3<vb<v8. 
 re<xr5<vb<v8, crif 
 P1cibe<xb. 
 
 re<vccrno5<vb<vb, 
 be<vcrn<vb <v]ri 
 I c]%t ^cib. 
 f occTno3<vb<xb, 
 
 ceicfie ■picib- 
 [ e<v6. 
 
 fr;oc-cvb<\b, be<vd' 
 rn<v.6 <virt ce^c- 
 Tie ?iqb. 
 ce<vb<xb. 
 Tt)i'le<v8. 
 b& Tf)fle<vb. 
 TT)iUiur)<x8. 
 
 2 Do and ce<vc<v|fi are used only in the absence ot nouns, i.e., 
 merely as the names ot the numbers; but 8C\ and ce^cjie are al- 
 ways used when the nouns are expressed ; as b<\. clu<vir , two 
 ears; ce-\tjie -piri, four men. 
 
 8. "P|6e is declined: — Nom. fice; gen. -pice<vb; dat. fiqb; 
 nom. plur. f ic-|b. 
 
 4. Ce<xb has gen. ce]b; nom. plural, ce\\bA, or ce<vbcot. 
 
 5. The following nouns, which are all, except be-|fic, formed 
 from the numerals, are applied to persons only : — 
 
 bt<\r, bfr, two persons. 
 be-||ic, a couple, 
 cniufi, three persons. 
 ce<vc|i<vTi, four 
 cui3e<xtv, five 
 reire<v|t, six 
 
 
 re<vec-A.T%, 
 
 Tt)6r feire<xn, 
 occ-<vn, « eight 
 
 r)or)b<\fi, T)Aonb<\fi, nine 
 be^cne<vb<\]x, ten 
 
 seven persons. 
 
88 ETYMOLOGY. [PART II 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 1. There are in Irish six kinds of pronouns:— Personal, Posses- 
 sive, Relative, Demonstrative, Interrogative, and Indefinite. 
 
 I. PEKSONAL pronouns. 
 
 1. There are four personal pronouns— rne, I; cu, thou; 
 fe, he; rf, she; with their plurals, rinn, we; rib' ye or you; and 
 -p-cvb, they. These are the simple forms of the personal pronouns. 
 
 2. Each of these takes an emphatic increase or postfixed syllable, 
 equivalent to the English word self; and the whole word thus 
 formed is called the emphatic form. The emphatic syllables vary 
 their vowel part in accordance with the rule c<vol le c<vol, &c. 
 
 3. The following are the emphatic forms: — 20) re, or rrjen, my- 
 self; cur<x, thyself; rere<\n, himself; tire, herself; -f*iT)T>e, our- 
 selves; Tdire, yourselves; rubral), themselves. 
 
 4. The word ye]i), self, is often added to the personal pronouns, 
 not as a particle but as a separate word ; and it is still more em- 
 phatic than the particles mentioned in last paragraph ; — rne peio, 
 I myself; rf ^em, she hersell. 
 
 5. The personal pronouns are all declined ; and they may carry 
 the emphatic increase through all the cases. 
 
 6. The personal prorouns (except rne), unlike nouns, have a 
 distinct form for the accusative (or ohjeotive) case. It is, of course, 
 only the pronoun cu that is used in the vocative. 
 
 DECLENSION OP PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 The declension of the emphatic form of rne is given as an ex- 
 ample: observe, in this, the vowel changes in obedience to c<vol 
 le c<xol, &c. 
 
 2tte, /. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. rne, I. Nora, finn, we. 
 
 Gen. tt)o, mine. Gen. fcri, our. 
 
 Dat. born, b<vrt), to me. Dat. bumn, to us. 
 
 Ace. rne, me. Ace. mn or rmn, us. 
 
 20 ire, myself (emphatic form). 
 
 Nom. rnire, rneri, myself. Nom. finne, ourselves. 
 
 Gen. rno-r<v, my own. Gen. fcrt-ne, our own. 
 
 Dat. bomrw, b<\Thr<x., to Dat. bumne, to ourselves. 
 
 myself. 
 
 Ace. rnire, rqeri, myself. Ace. irjtje, finne, ourselves. 
 
CHAP. IT.] 
 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 89 
 
 Ctt, thou. 
 
 Singular. 
 Nom. cu, 
 Gen. 60. 
 Dat. bttic 
 Ace. cu. 
 Voc. cu. 
 
 Nom. re. 
 Gen. <v. 
 Gat. bo. 
 Ace. e. 
 
 Nona. rf. 
 Gen. <x. 
 Dat. bp 
 Ace. f. 
 
 Plural. 
 Nom. riB. 
 Gen. Bun, b<xn. 
 Dat. o<voiti, bib. 
 Ace. 1b, rjb. 
 Voc. rjb, 1b. 
 
 Se, he. 
 
 Nom. ri<*.b- 
 Gen. <v. 
 Dat. bo|b. 
 Ace. i<xb. 
 
 Sf, she. 
 
 Nora, ria-b. 
 Gen. a. 
 Dat. bdib. 
 Ace. i<vb. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS COMPOUNDED WITH PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. In Irisli, the personal and the possessive pronouns unite with 
 prepositions, each compound forming a single word. 
 
 2. In each case the preposition and tne pronoun are amalgamat- 
 ed, and the latter changes its form, so as to be considerably, and, 
 in some cases, completely disguised. 
 
 3. These " prepositional pronouns," as they are sometimes 
 called, are of constant occurrence in the language— scarce a sen- 
 tence in which they are not met with: they are therefore of great 
 importance, and the learner should get them all off by heart. 
 
 4. The following prepositions unite with personal pronouns: — 
 A5; oiin or -Art; <vno or y, <vr; cum; be; bo; eibiri or ibm; ■?& 
 or paoi; le; or ua; T 10 ^; re<vc; C4.fi; cyie; u<vn; urr> or p^). 
 
 5. The following are the combinations of these prepositions 
 with the personal pronouns. 
 
 6. The emphatic particles may be used with these combinations 
 also, as well as with the uncoinpouncled pronouns, of which one 
 example is given: — 
 
 &5, at or with. 
 
 Singular. 
 <x5<vrf), with, or at me. 
 ■C15-&C, -A5<xO, with thee. 
 <M5e, with him. 
 <v|ce or <qq, with her. 
 
 Plural. 
 <\.5<vinr). with us. 
 •015-0.1 b, with you. 
 <vc<v or <\.cu, with them. 
 
40 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET II. 
 
 The same with the emphatic increase. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 <\.5<xtt)r<v, with myself. <\5<\.iTyne, with ourselves. 
 
 A5Acr<v, with thyself. -&5<vibre, with yourselves. 
 
 Ai5ere<vr), with himself. <vc<vr<vn, with themselves. 
 -aicire, with herself. 
 
 ?lin or -cvn, upon. 
 
 onrn, on me. onn-cvin, on us. 
 
 one, on thee. onn<vib, on you. 
 
 <xin, on him. on.n<v, onc-A, on them. 
 
 ui nne, on her. 
 
 &nn or 1, in. 
 
 lonnam, in me. lonnainn, ior)<xir)n, in us. 
 
 lonnac, ionr)<vb, in thee. lonnaib, in you. 
 
 ■Ann, in him. -|onnc<v, in them, 
 innce, innq, in her. 
 
 &r, out of. 
 
 <vr<xtt), out of me. -ft.r-a.inn, out of us. 
 
 <xr<xc, oir-ab, out of thee. <xr<\.ib, out of you. 
 
 <\r, out of him. <vrc<v, <vfcu, out of them. 
 <v|rce, <virq, out of her. 
 
 Curn, towards, unto. 
 
 cu5-4.1i), unto me. c 1154.1 nn, unto us. 
 
 cti5<\c, uDto thee. cu*j4]b, unto you. 
 
 cuise, unto him. cuc<v, unto them. 
 cuici, unto her. 
 
 De, from or uff. 
 
 bfoit), off or of me. bfnrt, off us. 
 
 b'6c, off thee. bfb, off you. 
 
 be, off him. bfob, off them. 
 bi, off her. 
 
 Do, to. 
 
 b4tn, born, bdrn, to me. buinn, to us. 
 
 buic, to thee b<voib, bfb, to you. 
 
 bo, to him. bdjb, to them, 
 bi, :o her. 
 
 6ibin, between. 
 
 e<vbu<xTT), between me. e<vbn<vi pi), between us. 
 
 e4bn.4C, between thee. e<\bri<vib, between yom 
 
 ewn. e, between him. e<xconn<x, between them, 
 eibin j, between her. 
 
CHAP. IV.] THE PRONOUN. 41 
 
 T'<\ or F0101, under. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 putt), under me. f *Mnn, under us. 
 
 ^uc, under thee. -puib, under you. 
 
 f <voi, under him. f uc<x, under them. 
 F tV|ce, under her. 
 
 V|om, with me. llt)r), with us. 
 
 le<xc, with thee. lib, with you. 
 
 leif, with him. leo, with them. 
 \&yte, lei, with her. 
 
 Le is often written fie in books, and its pronominal combina- 
 tions in this form are often met with. They are as follows: — 
 
 |i1om, with me. T 1 !" 1 ), with us. 
 
 •fiinc, with thee. flit), with you. 
 
 Tqr, with him. |V|U, with them. 
 iq<v, with her. 
 
 or u<v from. 
 
 .ti<\iTt), from me. uaiut), from us. 
 
 u<vic, from thee. u<vib, from you. 
 
 U<x6, from him. u<\ca, from them. 
 u<v|ce, u^ice, from her. 
 
 T?oirh, before. 
 
 txorhATT), before me. fv6rn<vinr), before us. 
 
 Tiott)<\c, before thee. fion)^, before you. 
 
 TtoiTf)e, before him. |idmp<x, before them, 
 jxoimpe, jtoimpi, before her. 
 
 Se<xc, beside. 
 Teac<\.m, beside me. fe<\.c<v|rin, beside us. 
 
 ■re<xc<*c, beside thee. re<vc<xib, beside you. 
 
 Te<vc e, beside him. fe<vc<x, beside them. 
 
 re<xc f, beside her. 
 
 C<xfx, beyond, over. 
 
 cojim, c<xjvTn, over me. cotitiAinn, c<\.Tt|i<v|iyr), over 
 
 us. 
 cofic, cajic, over thee. cotifiaib, c<x|iTi-A.ib, over you. 
 
 c<xiTnr, over him. ii\^ix c ^i c<vfir-A, over them, 
 
 co^-ft rce, c<v||xri, over her. 
 
 Cfie, through. 
 Cfxforn, through me. ^fifon, through us. 
 
 ctxIoc, through thee. Cjifb, through you. 
 
 Cfifb, through him. cjijoca, through them. 
 
 cn-fce, c-fvjq, through her. 
 
43 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET II. 
 
 "Hat/, above. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 tt<vT<nt), above me. u<vr<v|T)T), above us. 
 
 u<vr<vc, above thee. u-a.T/<v|b, above you. 
 
 u<vra, above him. uatca, above them. 
 u<vi,rce, uoqrq, above her. 
 
 Utt) or prt), about. 
 
 ttTt)ATt), about me. ttnj-svim), about us. 
 
 UTtj-AC, about thee. utt)<viB, about you. 
 
 uirtje, about him. tiTi)p<v, about them, 
 ttimpe, ttin)pi, about her.' 
 
 H. POSSESSIVE PEONOTJNS. 
 
 1. The possessive pronouns, which are merely the genitives of 
 tl.e personal pronouns, are as follows: — tt)o, my; bo, thy; <v, his 
 or her; up, our; b<vTi or blip, your; <v, their. The three posses- 
 sives, <v, his, <x, her, and <v, their, are distinguished by the initial 
 letter changes of the next word. (See pages 14, 16, 17 ; see 
 also Syntax.) 
 
 2. The o of p)0 and bo is omitted before a vowel or before t> ; 
 as tp'acaip, my father; Tn'pe-cvpApp, my land. And bo is often 
 changed, before a vowel, to c, c, and h; as c'<vcA/|p, c'<v.cotp>, or 
 r)-<\.c<^p, thy father. 
 
 8. The possessive pronouns also take the emphatic increase, 
 with this peculiarity, however, that the emphatic particle always 
 follows the noun that comes after the possessive, or if the noun 
 be qualified by one or more adjectives, the emphatic particle 
 comes last of all ; and, in accordance with the rule caoI le c<vol, 
 its vowel is generally broad or slender according as the last vowel 
 ofthewordit follows is broad or slender; as rno ceAC-r<v, my 
 house, or my own house ; rno ce<xc ipop bttibe-n, my great yel- 
 low house. And these again may be followed by peip, (Par. 4, 
 page 38), rendering the expression still more emphatic; as rtjo 
 ce<vc-r<v pep}, my own house. 
 
 POSSESSIVE PEONOTJNS COMPOUNDED WITH PBEPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. The possessive pronouns are amalgamated with prepositions, 
 much in the same way as the personal pronouns; as be^p be<M)- 
 ttacc ort) cpoibe, bear a blessing /row my heart. 
 
 2. The following are the most important of these combina- 
 tions : — 
 
 &T)r), in. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 att), •att) 1 , in my. inup, 'pup, in our. 
 <vb, <vb', in thy. — 
 
 lopnu, 1i)A, 't)<v, in his or her, 1ot)a, p)A, 't)<v, in their. 
 
CHAP. T.] THE PRONOUN. 13 
 
 Do. to. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 born, borr)', to ray. btxji, b'&fi, to our. 
 bob, bob', to thy. — 
 
 bo., b'<v, to his or her. bo., b'<v, to their. 
 
 le, with. 
 
 lern, leu)', with my. left, le'fi, with our. 
 
 leb, leb', with thy. — 
 
 lei)<x, le i)-<v, with hit or her. let)*, le n-<v, with their. 
 
 O or u<x, from. 
 
 orn, on)', from my. o^T 1 ) o'|i, from our. 
 
 6b, 6b\ from thy. — 
 
 6no>, 6 T)-<v, from his or her. 6t)<x, o T)<v, from their. 
 
 3. Those that are identical in form and different in meaning 
 are distinguished by the initial letter changes they produce in the 
 next word; as ono. qj, from his house; 6x)<\ C15, from her house; 
 onoi b-ci5, from their house. 
 
 4. These combinations can also take the emphatic increase, like 
 those of the personal pronouns, with the peculiarity, however, 
 noticed in Far. 3, above; as on) 615 H)6n. *vfib-r<x, from my great 
 high house. 
 
 m. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. There are three relative pronouns in Trish:- -<t, who, which, 
 that; T)oc, who, which, that; n<vc, which not; as oil) ee <x 
 bu<v|le<\r, the person who strikes; <M) I10.15 t)oc <v beifi 30 
 b-^u^l cu rl&O, the physician that says that you are well; -0.1) 
 re i)oc b-f u^l l^vjbffij nj f uloqji bo beic 5I1C, " the person who 
 is not strong, it is necessary for him to be wise." 
 
 2. D& sometimes takes the place of the relative <v; and in 
 some grammars it is counted as a distinct relative pronouu; as 
 c«v|b i)a 5<v.olc<v -jr te&v-V- ^surn bo. b-puil <v b-c<vl<vri) 
 '6iTie<vi)n, " i have the best friends that are (to be found) in the 
 land of Erin." And sometimes bo s'ands for the relative ■&.. 
 
 3. The relative <c has sometimes the sense ot "all which" or 
 "all that;" as bei|i beovi)i)o.cc curl) -a. Tno.iTieo.i)n be fioljiAic 
 Jfi <v'r 6ibip, " bear a blessing to all that live of the seed of Ir 
 andEber;" <x b-puil ro*n co.l<\.Ti) b\v|cii)e 2t)h'o>ii)e, "all that 
 are in the land of the tribe of Maine." 
 
 4. The relative pronouns are not declined. 
 
 IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. The demonstrative pronouns are ro, this, these; fit), that, 
 those; rtto or uo, yonder; as -an f eo.fi ro, this man; i)<v it)i)*\ 
 Tin, those women; ruo \ rfcr, " yonder she (moves) below," 
 
41 • ETYMOLOGY. TPART IL 
 
 V. INTERROGATIVE PRONOONS. 
 
 1. There are usually reckoned three interrogative pronouns: - 
 c]<y or ce, who? c^v, what? where? cab or cfieub, what? ai 
 q<i C|iuc<vi5 cu? who created thee ? c<\.b beifi cu ? what say est 
 thou? c<v b-puil at) f e<xn f|n? where is that man? cneub -|r 
 ei5iT)? what is necessary? 
 
 VI. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. The following are the principal indefinite pronouns: — 
 
 <vot), one. ce<xcc<vn, either. 
 
 ei,5in, some, certain. uile, all. 
 
 e-|le, oi le, other. <x cede, each other. 
 
 cfc.6, all. <xn ce, <vn cf, the person who. 
 
 5<vc, each, every. q<v b'e, qbe, 51 be, whoever. 
 
 5<vc uile, every. 
 
 2. The indefinite pronouns are not declined; except c&c, which 
 has a genitive form, c&ic; and 5<vc, which is sometimes made 
 5<xc<v in the genitive. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 1. Irish verbs are inflected for number, person, mood, tense, and 
 voice. 
 
 2. The conjugation is arranged, not according ' to the initial 
 changes, but according to terminations. 
 
 3. As to the initial changes: — See pages 15 and 55 for the par- 
 ticles that aspirate, and page 17 tor the particles tnat eclipse, the 
 initials of verbs. 
 
 I. PERSONS: SYNTHETIC AND ANALYTIC FORMS. 
 
 1. The verb has three persons singular and three persons 
 plural; and it has inflections for the whole six in the indicative 
 and conditional moods of the active voice, except in one tense of 
 tlie indicative. 
 
 2. The eix forms of the present tense, indicative mood, active 
 voice, of the verb C05, take, are as follows: — 
 
 Singular. . Plural. 
 
 1. c6,5<\.irn, I take. 1. co^Arn-cvoib, we take. 
 
 2. C05<\ui, thou takest. 2. C05-A01, ye take. 
 
 3. cd5<xib re, he takes. 3. co5<vib, they take. 
 
 3. This is what is called the synthetic form of the verb. The 
 synthetic form is that in which the persons are expressed by in- 
 actions or terminations, 
 
CHAP. T.] THE VERB. 45 
 
 4. These six forms express the sense perfectly, without the ac- 
 companiment of the pronouns (except in the case of the third per- 
 son singular): that is C05AIP, as it stands, without using along 
 •with it the pronoun cu, thou, expresses perfectly "thou takest;" 
 and so of the others. 
 
 5. But there is another way of expressing the persons, singular 
 and plural, namely, by using one form of the verb for the whole 
 six, and putting in the pronouns to distinguish the persons and 
 numbers. This is what is called the analytic form of the verb. 
 
 6. In this analytic mode ot expressing the persons and num- 
 bers, the form of the verb that is used is the same as the form for 
 the third person singular; and the persons, singular and phiral, are 
 expressed as follows : — 
 
 1. co5<viS me, I take. 1. C050118 rin, we take. 
 
 2. C05<v|6 cu, thou takest. 2. £05*18 rib, ye take. 
 
 3. C05A16 re, he takes. 3. co5<\i6 TM<\b, they take. 
 
 7. The third singular of the verb is not a synthetic form 
 like the other rive, that is, it does not include the pronoun as they 
 do. In the third person singular, therefore, the pronoun must be 
 always expressed in order to distinguish the number and person; 
 unless there is a noun, or that the nominative is in some other 
 way obvious from the construction. 
 
 8. But generally speaking it is not allowable to express any 
 other pronoun along with the corresponding synthetic lorm of the 
 verb:— For example, it would be wrong to say be<vr)Aim me or 
 be<vr)<vrr)\voib finn, both expressions being tautological. 
 
 9. This rule, in the case ot the third person plural, however, is 
 sometimes not observed; for such expressions as mol<vib rf-Ab 
 and mol^-Aib ri<vb — they praise, they will praise — are often met 
 with, though rnol<v|b or mol^Aib alone would answer. And a 
 like construction (in the third plural) is otten used when the 
 nominative is a plural noun, both in the present and in the past 
 tense; as cpiv\ll<vib rnic 2D]le<\b, "the sons of Mile go; m-cvp 
 bo corjc<vb<\.ri r)<v briaoice, " when the druids saw." 
 
 10. The emphatic particles may be posttixed to all the persons 
 of verbs, in the same manner as to pronouns and nouns (p. 38) ; as 
 rnol oqm-re, I praise; m0l-a.1n.-re, thou praisest. And in all 
 such cases, the word ]te\i) (p. 38) may be used to make the expie-*- 
 sion still more emphatic; as bo cuipfprjp-re ^ejP mo le<vnb' 
 4. cobl<vb, "1 myself would put my child to sleep." 
 
 11. The general tendency of modern languages is to drop syn- 
 thetic forms, and to become more analytic. The English language, 
 for example, has lost nearly all its inflections, and supplied their 
 place by prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, and auxiliary verbs. 
 Following this tendency, the synthetic tonus of the Irish verb are 
 falling into disuse m the spuken language; and it has been already 
 
46 ETYMOLOGY. [PART IL 
 
 remarked (page 26) that the noun-inflection ib' is no longer used 
 in speaking.* But all these forms are quite common in even the 
 most modern Irish books; and the learner must, therefore, make 
 himself quite familiar with them. 
 
 n. tenses. * 
 
 1. In English a regular verb has only two different forms to 
 express tense : — I love, I loved ; all the other tenses are expressed 
 by means of auxiliaries. 
 
 2. In Irish, a regular verb has five different forms in the indica- 
 tive mood for tense. Reckoning those tenses only which are ex- 
 pressed by inflection, an Irish regular verb has therefore five 
 tenses in the indicative mood. 
 
 3. The five tenses, with the synthetic f^rins for the first person 
 singular of the regular verb 501 fi, call, are: — 
 
 (1.) The present; 5oirf)rn, I call. 
 
 (2.) The consuetudinal or habitual present; 50ifie<vnr) rne, I 
 am in the habit of calling. 
 
 (3.) The past, or simple past, or perfect (for it is known by all 
 these three names) ; bo 5oi;ve<xf, I called. 
 
 (4.) The consuetudinal or habitual past ; bo soifiinr), I used to 
 call, or I used to be calling. 
 
 (5.) The future; 50|ripe<vb, I shall or will call. 
 
 III. MOODS AND VOICES. 
 
 1. The Irish regular verb has four moods: — The Imperative, the 
 Indicative, the Conditional, and the Infinitive. These are the 
 only moods for which the regular verb has distinct inflections. 
 
 2. There are, indeed, other moods, which are expressed, not by 
 inflection, but by means of certain conjunctions and particles set 
 before the verb ; and these additional moods are given in con- 
 jugation in some Irish grammars; hut as their forms do not differ 
 from the forms of the five given above, they are not included 
 here. 
 
 3. It is only the indicative mood of the verb that has tense in- 
 flection ; in each of the other moods there is only one tense. 
 
 4. There are two voices, the active and the passive. It is only 
 in the active voice that there are personal inflections; in the 
 passive voice, the three persons singular and the three persons 
 plural have all six the same form, rendering it necessary, of 
 course, that the pronoun be always expressed when there is no 
 noun. 
 
 * This is true only in certain parts of Ireland; in Connaught it is 
 very generally pronounced. 
 
CHAP. T.] THE VEBB. 47 
 
 IV. CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR VEBB. 
 
 t)u<v]l, strike. 
 
 A CTI V E V ICE. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 1. bu<vilimjr, let us strike. 
 
 2. bttA-|l, strike thou. 2. biKxiljb, strike ye. 
 
 3. bu<vile<xb re, let him 3. bu<vilibfr, let them strike. 
 
 strike. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. buoqlitt), I strike. 1. bu<viliti)fb, we strike. 
 
 2. bu-cqliTi, thou strikest. 2. bu<vilrj, ye strike. 
 
 3. bu<xilib° re, be strikes. 3. bu<vil]b, they strike. 
 
 Consuetudinal or Habitual Present. 
 
 Du<xile<vT)T) Tt)e, I usually strike. 
 
 {The same form for all persons and numbers.) 
 Past. 
 
 1. bu<v|leAf) I struck. 1. buok.ile<vrr)A|i, we struck. 
 
 2. bu<xilif, thou struckest. 2. bua]le<vb<xti, ye struck. 
 
 3. bu<\/|l re, he struck. 3. buAile<\b<vfi, they struck 
 
 Consuetudinal Past. 
 
 1. bu<v.ilim), I used to 1. bu-Ail^fr, we used to strike. 
 
 strike. 
 
 2. bu<*.-|lc;e*v, tbou usedst 2. bu^lcf, ye used to strike. 
 
 to strike. 
 
 3. bu<Mle<\b re, he used 3. bu<v|libfr, they used to 
 
 to strike. strike. 
 
 Future 
 
 1. bu<vil^e<\b, I will strike. 1. ba<v]lpiTt)fb, we will strike. 
 
 2. bu<vil^iTi, thou wilt 2. buA^lpib, ye will strike. 
 
 strike. 
 
 3. bu<vV l Flb re, he will 3. bttailpib, they will strike. 
 
 strike. 
 {For the relative form of this tense, see page 49). 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 
 1. bu<vilpii)i), I would 1. btt<xilf*iri)fr, we would strike. 
 
 strike. 
 
 2. bu<v-|lpea, thou wouldst 2. bu^lf ]b, ye would strike. 
 
 strike. 
 8. bu<vilpe<vb, r§, he would 3. bit<v^lpibff, they would 
 strike. strike. 
 
48 etymology. [pabt u. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Do buAl<v6, to strike. 
 t Participle. 
 
 ! &5 bu<xl<v6, striking. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 (Ihesameas the Indicative Present.) 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. bu<vilce«iti tne, I am 1. bu<vilce<xrv nnn or f r)T>» we 
 
 struck. are struck. 
 
 2. bu<xilce<vfi cvi, thou 2. bu*v|lce<vjt fib or -jb, ye are 
 
 struck. struck. 
 
 3. bu<xilce<\.fi e, be is 3. bttoqlce<v.|i ]<\b, they are 
 
 struck. struck. 
 
 Consuetudinal Present. 
 
 (Same as the Indicative Present.) 
 
 Past. 
 
 1. bu<vile<x6 tt)e, I was 1. bu<iile<xb tint) or inn, we 
 
 struck. were struck. 
 
 2. bu<v|le<vS cu, tbou wast 2. bu<\.ile<vb r]b or ib, ye were 
 
 struck. struck. 
 
 3. bvuv|le<vb e, he was 3. bu<xile<v5 ]<vb, they were 
 
 struck. struck. 
 
 Consuetudinal Past. 
 
 1. buoqlnf rt)e, I used to 1. bu<\ilcf rit)r> or inn, we used 
 
 struck. to be struck. 
 
 2. bu<vilcf cu, thou usedst 2. bu<v|lc| r^b or ib, ye-used to 
 
 to be struck. be struck. 
 
 3. bu<v|lcf e, he used to 3. ba<xilcf }<vb, they used to be 
 
 be struck. struck. 
 
 Future. 
 
 1. bu<v|lf*e<vri n>e, I shall 1. buailpean not) -or -\i)T), we 
 
 or will be struck. shall or will be, struck. 
 
 2. btKvilpeATi cd, thou 2. buA^lpe-cvrv r)b or ib, ye shall 
 
 shalt or wilt be struck. or will be struck. 
 
 3. bu<vilpe<v|i e, he shall 3. bu<vilpe<!i|i i<vb, they shall or 
 
 or will be struck. will be struck. 
 
OHAP. V.] THE VERB. 49 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. buAd^fbe me, I would 1. bttAilpfbe y\t)X) or 1,T)T), we 
 
 be struck. would be struck. 
 
 2. biK^lpfbe cu, thou 2. bu.A|lf ]6e r]b or i.b, ye would 
 
 wouldst be struck. be struck. 
 
 3. buAilpjbe e, be would 8. bu<vflp|6e i,Ab, they would 
 
 be struck. be struck. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Do beic bit <vj Ice, to be struck. 
 
 Participle. 
 t)UAi.lce, struck. 
 
 TV. RELATIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 
 
 1. Besides tbe forms given in the preceding conjugation, the 
 verb has what is called a " relative form," i.e., a form used after 
 a relative pronoun. In two of the tenses of the indicative mood, 
 namely, the present and the future, the relative form has a distinct 
 inflection, viz., at*, e<vr, or ]oy. 
 
 2. For instance, "the person who calls," is translated, not by 
 •at) ce -a 501P16 (3rd singular form), but by -at) ce -a 5oipe<x.r ; and 
 "he who will steal," is not -a?) ce a 50ibpi'6 (3rd singular form), 
 but at) ce -a 50ibt?e-Ar. In other tenses and moods the relative 
 form is the same as that of the third person singular. 
 
 3. This form of the verb is often used even when its nominative 
 is not a relative, but a noun or personal pronoun, to express the 
 " historical present," i.e., the present tense used for the past; as 
 T:i<VT;TiAi5eAr &lri)lTV510 a h-AiT)m 61, " Amergin asks her name 
 of her." (See for a further account of the historical present, p. 50) 
 
 4. And not unfrequently the relative form is used as an or- 
 dinary present; as, Jr TT)6p. -AT) C-10T)5T)A llOTT)fA, T)AC b'OlrJT) 
 
 i-ATXfiAr "Piot)t) Trnre, " It is a great wonder to me that it is not 
 
 for Uisin Finn seeks (iAfip.Ar) me." 
 
 3 
 
 V. FORMATION AND TJSES OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF REGULAR 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 1. The second person singular of the imperative mood, active 
 voice, is the root or simplest form of the verb, from which all 
 the other persons, moods, and tenses are formed directly, by affix- 
 ing the various terminations. 
 
 2. Verbs which end in a consonant preceded by a slender vowel 
 have all their inflections precisely alike those of buAil (with the 
 exception mentioned in Par. 4, page 52); and they all begin with 
 a slender vowel (except sometimes that of the infinitive) in ac- 
 cordance with the rule caoII e caoI, &c. 
 
50 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET U. 
 
 3. Bat when the final consonant is preceded by a broad vowel, 
 the synthetic terminations begin with a broad vowel, in accord- 
 ance with the same rule. A table of the full conjugation of a re- 
 gular verb, ending in a broad vowel, is given at page 55. 
 
 4. The root generally remains unchanged through all the varia- 
 tions of tne verb, except that it occasionally suffers a trifling 
 change in the infinitive. The cases in which the root suffers 
 change in the infinitive are mentioned in Par. 4, page 51. See 
 also Par. 8, page 53. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. The present tense is formed by affixing the six personal ter- 
 minations -|tt) (or <\itn), ifi (or <vin\), &c., to the root. 
 
 2. The historical present i.e., that is the present tense used for 
 the past, or where past time is intended, is very common in Irish ; 
 indeed in many narrative and historical pieces it occurs quite as 
 often as the ordinary past tense in relating past transactions; as, 
 O-ala Jc, iorno|ino, oUn)Ui5ce<vn\ lot)5 le-|r, -'as to Ith, indeed, 
 a ship is prepared by him" (instead of ollri)Ui5e<v6, was pre- 
 pared). 
 
 3. It has been already remarked (Par. 3, page 49), that the rela- 
 tive form of the verb is often used for the historical present; as 
 i)occ<vji eiriernon ba|b, " Eremon reveals to them." 
 
 Consuetudinal Past and Present. 
 
 1. These tenses express customary action ; as lei5e<vtyn tt)6, I 
 am in the habit of reading; le]5e<x6 re, he used to read, or he 
 was in the habit of reading. 
 
 2. In the sentences, " I write always after breakfast," and "he 
 sold bread in his youth," the verbs " write" and "sold" are used 
 in the same manner as the Irish consuetudinal tense; except, in- 
 deed, that the idea is not so distinctly marked by the English 
 phrase as by the Irish. 
 
 3. One of the particles bo or jio is usually prefixed to the con- 
 suetudinal past; and the initial consonant is generally aspirated ; 
 as 6o Soifiibfr, they used to call. 
 
 4. The Irish peasantry seem to feel the want of these two 
 tenses when they are speaking English; and they often, in fact, 
 attempt to import them into the English language, even in dis- 
 tricts where no Irish has been spoken for generations; thus they 
 will say, "I do be reading while you do be writing;" "I used to 
 be walking every day while I lived in the country," &c. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. In the past tense the initial consonant is aspirated in tLe 
 active voice, but not in the passive voice. 
 
 2. With the exception of the aspiration, the third singular past 
 tense is the same as the root. 
 
OH A P. V.J TUB VERB. 51 
 
 3. One of tlie particles bo or po is generally prefixed to the 
 past tense in both voices; as bo f*e<vr<xr, I stood; i\o cobtair, 
 thou sleepedst; bo tnol<v6 i<vb, they were praised ; po bucqleoib 
 e, he was struck. 
 
 4. The particle po, used as a mark of the past tense, is often 
 compounded with other particles, the n. only being retained, but 
 it still causes aspiration in the active voice, as if it were uncom- 
 pounded. 
 
 The principal of these compounds are : — 
 
 (1.) ?lp, whether? from <vp and po ; as <vp. btt<v|l re, did he 
 strike? 
 
 (2.) 5ttp, that, from 30 and po; as cpepbpT) 5ttp bu<vpl re, I 
 bel'.eve thax he struck. 
 
 (3.) 20u.nap, unless, from mun<v and po; as rnup<vp bu.*il t§ 
 unless he struck. 
 
 (4.) N<\.c<\p, or p<\. 1 p, or ri&p, whether not? from p-ac and 
 po; as nap bttApl re, did not he strike? 
 
 (5.) Nfop, not, from pj and po; as pfop biiAp 1 . re, he did not 
 strike.* 
 
 6. The particle po, as a sign of past tense, is also often com- 
 bined with the relative pronoun -a; as <vp pe<\p b'-o>.ji 5e<vll<vr 
 mo le<xb<vp, the man to whom I promised my book. For a further 
 account of this, see Syntax. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 1. All the personal inflections of this tense, in both voices, 
 begin with the letter p, which, in the spoken language, is often 
 sounded like r) ; thus bunp<vb, I shall shut, is colloquially pro- 
 nounced doonhad (instead of doon/ad). 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 
 1, The particle bo, causing aspiration, is often prefixed to verbs 
 in the conditional mood; as bo fpAba.lpa.ipr), I would walk. 
 
 2. But very often also b*v, if, or rpnp<v, unless, is prefixed, and 
 with these particles the initial is eclipsed; as ba b-p<v,5<vipp-re 
 tpo po ( 5<x, "if I would get my choice;" rnun-a. TT)-bept>e<vb re, 
 "unless he would be." 
 
 * See Second Irish Book, by the Society lor the Preservation of the 
 Irish Language. 
 
52 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET II 
 
 3. It is important to note that the personal inflections of this 
 mcod in both voices, as well as those of the future indicative, all 
 begin with -p. 
 
 , Infinitive Mood. 
 
 1. The initial is aspirated in the infinitive, whether the particle 
 bo or <v be expressed or understood. But in some cases the as- 
 piration is prevented by other grammatical influences, as shown 
 in next paragraph. 
 
 2. When the infinitive is preceded by one of the possessive pro- 
 nouns, the initial of the verb falls under the influence of the 
 pronoun.* 
 
 (1.) It is aspirated for <v, his; tt)0, my; bo, thy (but here the 
 influence of the pronoun is not perceived, as there would be aspi- 
 ration without it) ; as bCv 5on<v6, to wound him (literally to his 
 wounding, and so of the others) ; bo rn'son&b, to wound me ; bo 
 b'5on<vb, to wound thee. 
 
 (2.) It is preserved from aspiration by •&, her ; as b& 5or)<v6, to 
 wound her. 
 
 (3.) It is eclipsed by the three plural possessives; as b&n 
 t)-5op<vb, to wound us; bo bufi T)-5on<vb, to wound you; b& 
 T)-5o n&b, to wound the m. 
 
 3. The general way of forming the infinitive is by adding -a.6 or 
 eAb, the first when the last vowel of the root is broad; the second 
 when the vowel is slender. 
 
 4. If the final consonant of the root be preceded by 1 as part of 
 a diphthong or triphthong, the final vowel is made broad in the 
 infinitive (which is usually, but not always, done by dropping the 
 1); as buail, buod<\.b, to strike; 501T), 5on<v6, to wound. But if 
 the final consonant be preceded by 1 alone, the infinitive is formed 
 according to the general rule in the last paragraph; as rnjU, 
 Tnille<\b, to destroy. 
 
 5. The infinitives ot many verbs are formed irregularly, and 
 these must be learned by practice. The following are a few of 
 such verbs. Each group exhibits a particu 1 ar type, in which the 
 manner of forming the infinitive will be obvious on inspection : — 
 
 Root or Imperative. Infinitive. 
 
 e<v3- b'e<\3, to die. 
 
 tn&tn. bo f n*uh, to swim, 
 
 dl. b'ol, to drink. 
 
 * For the influence of the possessive pronouns, see pages 15, 17 , 
 and see also Syntax. 
 
CHAP. T.] THE YEBB. 68 
 
 Root or imperative. Infinitive. 
 
 c<vfiTi<xit)5. bo c<vT*Tt<M03, to draw, 
 
 cttift. bo cuti, to put. 
 
 501 1, bo 50I, to weep. 
 
 imiTt. b'limtic, to play. 
 
 1T)5il. to'l03llc, to graze. 
 
 b|b"|fi. bo 6i'bi|ic, to banish. 
 
 ce^l. bo ceilc, to conceal. 
 
 F&5- b' ■p^k.gBfcil, to leave. 
 
 5<xb. bo 5<vb4v^l, to take. 
 
 C05. bo c05bft.1l, to lift. 
 
 lewt). bo lc<\.n-<vrb<xin, to follow. 
 
 c<vill. * bo c<v|lle<ut)<viT), to lose. 
 
 o]l. b'oile<xTt)<\-|n, to nourish., 
 
 •poill. b'f:oille<vTf)<xin, to suit. 
 
 5lu<xit\ bo 5lu<\r<vcc, to move, 
 
 eirc. b'eireeacc, to listen. 
 
 The Paeticiple. 
 
 1. The active participle is merely the infinitive mood, with 
 some such particle as <*3 prefixed; as <V5 bu<xl<xb, at beating, or 
 a-beating. 
 
 2. The passive participle is generally formed by adding ce or 
 ce when the last vowel of the root is slender, and c<x or c<v, when 
 broad. 
 
 When the root ends in c, 6, I, 11, i), t)T), f, c, or 5 (except verbs 
 in 1115 or 13), the c of the participal termination retains its sound : 
 after any other consonant, and also in verbs in 1x15 or 13, the c 
 is aspirated. In the passive voice, the terminations cap. and cf 
 follow the same law. 
 
 VI. veebs in tti5, &c. 
 
 1. Verbs of two or more syllables, with the root ending in 1113, 
 or 15, and some other dissyllabic verbs ending in il, in, ip., and 
 11*, differ so decidedly from the model verb in the formation of 
 some of their moods and tenses, that some writers,* not without 
 reason, class them as a second conjugation. 
 
 2. The difference lies in the formation of the future and of the 
 conditional in both voices ; the other moods and tenses are formed 
 like those of bu<v|l. 
 
 3. In btiAil, and all other verbs of its kind, the letter f is a 
 characteristic maik of the future and of the conditional mood in 
 both voices, as stated in Par. 3, page 52. 
 
 * As, tor instance, the Rev. Canon Bourke, in his " College Irish 
 Grammar." 
 
54 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [PAKT IL 
 
 4. The verb9 now under consideration have no p in the future 
 and conditional, but they take instead ed, before the final con- 
 sonant of the root. 
 
 5. In addition to this change, verbs in 1115 and 15 change 5 
 into c; though in the spoken language, both of Munster and of 
 Uonnaught, the 5 retains its place. 
 
 6. There is no other inflectional difference between these verbs 
 and bit <v| I, the personal terminations following the final conson- 
 ant of the root being the same in all cases. 
 
 7. In the other tenses of the indicative, verbs in ]\, -\r), iji, and 
 1f are almost always syncopated by the elision of the vowel or 
 diphthong preceding the final root-consonant; as cob a] I, sleep; 
 cobl<v|rn, I sleep, &c. (But this change is not regarded as a gram- 
 matical inflection). 
 
 8. Verbs in U15 almost always form their infinitive by dropping 
 land adding the usual termination <vb; those in 15 alone (not 
 preceded by u), retain the 1 and take u after it in the infinitive ; 
 as con)<vnxui5, mark; infinitive, corb<vficu5<v6; C0Tn<\ipdl5, ad- 
 vise; infinitive, corh<v|riliU5-ab. 
 
 9. Sometimes there are other slight; changes, caused chiefly by 
 the rule caoI le c-aol, &c, which will be obvious on insjiection. 
 
 10. The following are a few examples of the formation of the 
 present and future indicative, and of the conditional mood, in such 
 verbs The first person singular only iseiven in each case, as the 
 other persons have the same terminations as bu<vpl and rne<vll : — 
 
 Root or imper- 
 ative. 
 Dfni5, direct. 
 OrU\bui5, love. 
 L<\.b<x"|Tii speak. 
 C<vn^um3, draw. 
 "For,5<\Tl, open. 
 Cor<Mi), defend. 
 
 jnmr, tell. 
 
 Of b^ ft, banish. 
 
 Pres. indic- 
 ative. 
 
 6frX151TT) 
 
 5TtfcSui5im. 
 
 l<vbn<virt). 
 
 1?or5 l <Mtn. 
 corr)A-|rn. 
 
 bjbjiin). 
 
 Future indic- 
 ative. 
 
 bfneocAb. 
 
 5rU\ibecc<\.b. 
 
 l<xibedfi<vb. 
 
 c<vifieon5<\b. 
 
 -poir5col<xb. 
 
 coireoo&b. 
 
 innedrAb. 
 b|be6[j<\b. 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 
 bffie6c<vinn. 
 5Ti*M tteoc-ajni). 
 
 t<x.lbedn<viiyn. 
 c<v.i7teor)5Ainn. 
 
 poir.^eoUit)!). 
 coirc6n<vinr). 
 mneor-cvinn. 
 b|bed|iA]nn. 
 
 11. In Munster, verbs in il, m, lit, and }r, are conjugated like 
 those in ui5 or 15; and the ed comes after the final consonant: 
 thus bfbiJi, banish is made in the future and conditional, 
 b|b|ied5<vb and bfbried^Ainn, as if the verb were bfb]i]5. 
 
 12. A table of the full conjugation of a verb in u]5 (&pbu]5) 
 is given at page 56. 
 
OHAP. V.] 
 
 THE VEEB. 
 
 55 
 
 © 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 T. 
 CO 
 < 
 
 2h 
 
 S 
 > 
 
 '-3 
 
 cj 
 o 
 
 -3 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 it 
 
 © 
 
 -t-i 
 03 
 
 c3 
 
 .0 
 
 © 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 p- 
 
 I 
 
 © 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 Pi 
 © 
 
 co 
 S3 
 
 g 
 
 © 
 
 a 
 co 
 
 © 
 
 p 
 
 
 o 
 
 © 
 
 El 
 
 p- 
 
 i 
 
 © 
 
 P 
 
 © 
 
 5" 
 
 p- 
 
 i 
 
 © 
 ■£ 
 
 •jO 
 
 o 
 E 
 
 p ^ 
 
 P -k) v© 
 
 O 
 
 © 
 
 P- 
 
 3 
 © 
 
 ST 
 
 -o 
 
 £"u v© 
 
 © 
 p- 
 
 3 
 
 © 
 .p 
 
 © 
 
 p 
 
 u 
 
 5 
 
 _Q 
 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 jO 
 
 
 
 cs •; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;-*-»_ 
 
 >- 
 
 jO 
 
 — »-~,— »^ 
 
 § - 
 
 o 
 
 •5 — 
 
 P 
 
 PO jO 
 
 p° jO 
 
 3 
 
 
 *- 3 «"- 
 
 
 <# <J <: 
 
 I 1 1 
 
 « u <* 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 "5 
 
 $ « <* 
 
 < < 4 
 
 © 
 
 £ 
 
 V © © 
 
 © © © 
 
 pre 
 
 ££ £ 
 
 ^»~A^»-N 
 
 <? <S <J 
 
 « « <J 
 
 © © o 
 
 e-p-= 
 
 
 < < 4 
 
 © © © 
 
 £■£■£ 
 
 o 
 E'-° £- 
 
 p-P-P- 
 
 <■ <? <■ 
 
 © © © 
 
 £ £? £ 
 
 o 
 
 P 'P-jO 
 
 <s < < 
 p- p- w- 
 
 $ <# « 
 
 © © © 
 
 <© 
 
 •jO 
 
 3 < 
 © © 
 
 ££ 
 
 V© 
 
 5"? < 
 
 <s « « 
 
 © © © 
 
 Pp p 
 
 — <M CC — ' C5 CO 
 
 <* P 
 
 © P 
 
 *— >— V© 
 
 <? 4 <t 
 © © © 
 
 £■£■£ 
 
 © 
 p f- 
 
 < U <S 
 
 © © © 
 
 pp-p 
 
 — CSICC -»1W -«W -.(SW — ' CSI CO 
 
 v© 
 
 tj <■ < 
 U-P-P- 
 
 <$ < < 
 
 © © © 
 
 © 
 
 p ?- 
 
 p- y- p- 
 
 4 < 4 
 
 © © © 
 
 « 
 
 > . 
 
 © kH 
 
 - s 
 
 ►-1 
 
 a 
 © 
 
 CO 
 
 p-( 
 
 « "P 
 2 5 
 
 a 
 o 
 O 
 
 c3 
 
 a 
 
 2 « 
 
 o >— 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 •pooj^ aAtipotpnT 
 
 S3 
 
 a 
 2 'd 
 
 '■5 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 i 
 
 = 
 
 ri 
 
56 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [PAST II. 
 
 H 
 W 
 
 HI 
 E-i 
 
 CO 
 
 <S 
 
 03 
 
 "S 
 
 J- 
 
 ■yr> 
 
 3 
 
 X) 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 is 
 o 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 O 
 > 
 
 > 
 5: 
 
 T. 
 
 3h 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 > 
 
 S 
 
 > 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 - 
 
 a 
 cp 
 
 t/3 
 a> 
 
 S-l 
 
 Ph 
 <o 
 
 03 
 
 E 
 02 
 
 P 
 <* 
 O 
 
 •u 
 
 I 
 •K5 
 
 X 
 
 P 
 
 a 
 
 Ph 
 
 at 
 s3 
 
 •- 
 
 a 
 
 S3 
 
 p 
 
 — ;o 
 
 C^3 
 
 X) 
 
 o 
 
 •►O 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 *~ 
 
 *~:o 
 
 
 
 c>X 
 
 
 fP< 
 
 — — ^ 
 
 
 t- f- Z- 
 
 
 .-> 
 
 
 
 v^— 
 
 < 
 
 •u 
 
 
 1 
 
 •u 
 
 40 
 
 *o 
 
 3 
 X) 
 
 «3 
 X 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 «$ 
 
 tf 
 
 ■tf 
 
 o 
 •JO 
 
 3" 
 
 X 
 
 5* 
 
 •c 
 
 •JO 
 
 5" 
 
 X) 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 •6 
 
 X 
 
 p 
 
 s;fix 
 
 ■IC-W-K3 
 
 5"5"5 
 
 XXX 
 
 p p n 
 
 •J? v^ -^ 
 
 •k>W 
 
 5" 5" 
 x x 
 
 .<S -rf -< 
 
 p x 
 P;o «s 
 
 p. « 
 •ss 
 
 *— p p 
 
 i« « 
 
 tajo 
 « < <? 
 o o o 
 
 ■JO- WW 
 
 5" 5" 5" 
 
 XXX 
 
 ^ 5" 5" 
 
 J— 
 
 
 *- 
 
 p 
 
 u 
 
 X 
 
 •lOKOfO 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 X X 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 <$ 
 
 .< 
 
 v<S 
 
 
 i$ ,< 
 
 v« 
 
 ■o -o -o 
 o *o *o 
 a> o o 
 XXX 
 
 pp p 
 
 v^ 
 
 X 
 
 a 
 •jo-jo 
 
 3 5 
 X X 
 
 PC 
 
 -ci» — < co eo 
 
 PX 
 
 ■io-(b 
 
 5" 5 
 x o 
 
 3 3 3 
 XXX 
 
 "^ p -* 
 •J? •?? -J? 
 
 p-U o 
 
 jb-tb»o 
 
 3 3 3 
 XXX 
 
 ^ 5" 5" 
 
 -H co co — < CO CO 
 
 ? 'V r — ' 
 
 'O v O l O 
 o « «> 
 XXX 
 
 ^ ^ v^ •# ■?# v^ -3 — 
 
 — i CO CO 
 
 "S O 
 «-, O 
 <£> — 
 
 «5 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 CD 
 
 H 
 m 
 
 •§ a 
 
 - 13 
 U3 * 
 
 en 
 
 c3 
 
 43 
 
 o fr 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 ■4-3 
 
 a 
 
 D.3 
 
 ec 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 PH 
 
 a 
 
 h" 1 
 
 P-. 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 •poo 
 
 pj aAiiBOi 
 
 pni 
 
 
 X 
 
CHAP. V.] THE VEEB. 
 
 VII. IKBEGULAK VEKBS. 
 
 1. There are fourteen irregular verbs, several of which are de- 
 fective, i.e., want one or more of the moods and tenses. The con- 
 jugation ot some of them, it will he observed, is made up of those 
 of two or more different verbs. 
 
 2. It will also be observed that through all their irregularities, 
 the five synthetic personal terminations remain unchanged; for 
 which reason it is scarcely correct to call these verbs irregular at 
 all. 
 
 3. The irregular verbs are as follows:— (1), c&fm, lam; (2), 
 the assertive verb ir; (3), beijnm, I give; (4), beiTiim, I bear ; 
 (5), cfm, I see (including peiqm); (6), cluiqm, I hear; (7), 
 be<u)<vim, I do; (8), sqm or Tjjm, I do; (9), be^m, I say; (10), 
 ?<v5<iim or 3eibim, 1 find; (11), iqm, I eat; (12), TH51™)> l reach; 
 (13), cqbim, I go; (14), qsim, I come. 
 
 4. the following is the synthetic conjugation of the irregular 
 verbs (except in the case of the second verb -|r, which has no 
 synthetic conjugation). They may be all conjugated analytically, 
 by using the third person singular of each tense with th« three 
 personal pronouns, singular and plural, as shown in case cf the 
 regular verb, c6^]6, at page 45. As an example, the analytic 
 conjugation of the present tense of the first verb, c^m, is given. 
 
 (1.) C^xpt), lam. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 1. bfmfr, let us be, 
 
 2. bf, be thou. 2. bibjb, be ye. 
 
 3. bi6e<vb' re, or bfob re, let 3. btbjr, let them be. 
 
 him be. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. c«iim, <vc-&itt), I am. 1. c<xm<voib, <vc<ur)Aoib, we 
 
 are. 
 
 2. c&ifi, <vc*qp., thou art. 2. r'<\t<xo], <\.r'o>t<\o], ye are. 
 
 3. c& re, -A.C& re, he is. 3. c&]b, -AC&18, they are. 
 
 Present Tense : analytic conjugation. 
 
 1. c& me, <xc*t me, I ara. 1. z'<\ rinn, *c'<\ nr)rj, we are. 
 
 2. c'<\ cu, <vc& cu, thou art. 2. c& rib, <\c& rib, ye are. 
 
 3. c*v re, <vcfc re, he is. 3. c& n<vb, <\cfc-n<v6, they are 
 
68 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET II. 
 
 Consuetudinal Present. 
 
 1. b|6iTi), I am usually. 1. bfrr>fb, bfbmfb, bfonjAOib, 
 
 we are usually. 
 
 2. bffc>iri, thou art usually. 2. bfcf, bfbcf, ye are usually. 
 
 3. bfbe<vnr) re, or bjonn -re, 8. bfb, bfb-&, they are usually. 
 
 he is usually. 
 
 , Interrogative and Negative Present. 
 
 (The negative particle is here used : see Par. 3, page 59.) 
 
 1. T)f b^udim, I am not.* 1. T)f b-pu-jlmfb, we are not. 
 
 2. t)1 b-juiilift, thou art not. 2. nf b-pailcj, ye are not. 
 
 3. v>\ h-puil -pe, he is not. 3. nf h-fii'lib, they are not. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. bf6e<xr, bfor, I was. 1. b|bearr)<vri, bfom<v|i, we 
 
 were. 
 
 2. bfb*r, bfr, thou wert. 2. bi6e<xb<vfv, bfob<xri, ye 
 
 were. 
 
 3. bfb |*e, bf t6, he was. 8. bf6e<xb<v|i, bfobari, they 
 
 were. 
 
 Consuetudinal Past. 
 
 1. bfb*r)n, bft)r), I used to be. 1. bfbmfr, bfmfr, we used to 
 
 be. 
 
 2. bfbcefc, bfceSi, thou usedst 2. bfbcf, bfcf, ye used to be. 
 
 to be. 
 
 3. bf6e<vb r e > bfob re, be 3. b-|6bfr, bfbff, they used to 
 
 used to be. be. 
 
 Interrogative and Negative Past. 
 (The negative particle is here used: see Par. 3, page 59.) 
 
 1. T)i Tt<^b<vr, I was not. 1. nf rt<vb<v.Tr)<vri, we were not. 
 
 2. r)f ii<vboi-|r, thou wert not. 2, nf Ti<\b<\.b<vfi, ye were not. 
 
 3. nf ri^lb r e 5 be was not. 3. nf fi*b<vb<xri, they were not. 
 
 Future 
 
 1. bei6e<vb, I shall be. 1. bebmfb, we shall be. 
 
 2. be'bifi, thou shaltbe. 2. be^bib, ye shall be. 
 
 3. bejb re, he shall be. 3. be*b|b, they shall be. 
 
 Conditional Moor>. 
 
 1. beibir)T), I would be. 1. beibmfr, we would be. 
 
 2. be"bce&, thou wouldstbe. 2. beibcf, ye would be. 
 
 3. be*6e<vb re, he would be. 3. be"bfy*, they would be. 
 
 * These are commonly pronounced in conversation as if tha 
 b-r*M were omitted in each case; and accordingly they are often 
 contracted in books to i)f \-\rr), *)lTiri, i)fl re, &c. 
 
chap. v.] the verb. 69 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Do \5e-\i, to be. 
 
 Pakticiple. 
 &5 be-jc, being. 
 
 1. CC\ is commonly called the substantive verb, and answers 
 to the verb " to be" in English. 
 
 2. It has two forms, which the regular verb has not, namely, 
 a form in the present tense, for interrogation and negation, 
 (b--puiliit)), and a form in the past tense tor the same (fi<xb<vr). 
 These two are classed by O'Donovan as a subjunctive i&9*rd, pre- 
 sent and past tense. 
 
 3. The forms b-puilin) and |Kxb<xf are used only — 
 
 (a.) After negative and interrogative particles; as nf b--pu.il f§ 
 qnr), he is not sick ; nf n<v|b ine <vnr) riT), I was not there: <vi) 
 b-pwil pjon in b<vix lot)5<xib? "Is there wine in your ships ?" 
 &r) n.<vb<vir <V5 -an 5-c<vfifi<v|5? " Wert thou at the rock" (or at 
 Carrick)? f)<\c b-puil but uo>\6 <v5<vim, "Since I cannot 
 escape from him" (lit. " since it is not with me to go from him") ; 
 ■an b puil <x piof <v5<xc }-e]i), <v "Fhmt)? Mf fmil, <vti "Fiont), " ' Is 
 the knowledge of it with thyself, OFinn?' 'It i9 not,' says 
 Finn." 
 
 (But these forms are not used after the interrogative qonnotf, 
 how?) 
 
 (b.) After 50, that; as be^Tr) 50 b-pttil ?6 T^V, I say that 
 he is well. 
 
 (c.) After the relative <v when it follows a preposition, or when 
 it signifies "all that" (Par. 3, page 43); as cfieub e <vn piie<\3- 
 ji<\ r<vb<\iii:<iiii aji Dhi<v, -A.5 <v b-puil pior bo locc? "What 
 answer wilt thou give to God, who has a knowledge of thy sins?" 
 (lit. " with whom is. a knowledge"); <v b--ptt-il 6 ?lc-cli<\c 50 
 i)-0lle&r) TT)6n. <vn t)<vn.p.<v|5, " All that is from Ath-cliath (Dub- 
 lin) to Oilean mor an Bharraigh ;" bo bemrnib -aft Tt)-biilAC<vii 
 t)<vc be<v5 linn <v rn-beufi<vtt) 50 "Fiont) bpb, " We pledge our 
 word, that we do not think it little, all that we shall bring of them 
 to Finn." 
 
 4. This verb, like verbs in general, has a relative form for the 
 present and future; but the relative form of the present is always 
 a consuetudinal tense (whereas in regular verbs it is generally not 
 consuetudinal) ; as tnan. <u) 5-ce<vbn<\. bjor (or bjbe-ar) <vn b'<\y 
 <vr) oipcill bo tfofx <vn. -at) buine; "in like manner death is (in 
 the habit of) lying in wait always tor man." 
 
 5. The analytic form of this verb is now far more common in 
 the spoken language than the synthetic. In asking a question the 
 analytic form is often preferred: but in answering, the synthetic ; 
 as <vn iKvpb* cu <v5 -<vn 5-C<vn^&i5? Do bfor A5 <xn 5-C<vn.n.<vi5. 
 " Wore you at Carrick?" " I was at Carrick." 
 
60 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET II. 
 
 6. The letter <v is often prefixed to the present tense both in 
 speaking and writing: -a.c& instead of c&, &c. ; it is sometimes 
 slightly emphatic, but often merely euphonic, and does not other- 
 wise affect the meaning. 
 
 7. This verb is often used as an auxiliary, like the verb "to be" 
 in English; and it is the only verb in the Irish language tnat can 
 be regarded as an auxiliary. Thus, instead of bu<vilce<vji me, I 
 am struck, we can say t& rne bu<v|lce: for bo bu<v|le<v6 me, I 
 was struck, bo bf rne buc^lce, &c. 
 
 (s.) j r , u is. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 ]f, it is: as, if me, it is I; ]y cii, it is thou. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 D-a. or bub, it was; as b<x me, it was I. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Dub or bur, it will be. 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 t)<vb, it would be. 
 
 1. This is commonly called the assertive verb. 
 
 2. It has no inflection for person, being always used in the third 
 person singular: hence it is often called the impersonal verb. 
 
 3. It has no other moods and tenses besides those given above. 
 
 4. It takes other forms in the modern language, some of them 
 contracted, which are often puzzling to learners. 
 
 5. After *;un, that, it is often made <xb, which is given by 
 O'Donovan as a subjunctive mood; as cixe]b]rt) 5uri <x.b e <\c& 
 ci nt), I believe that it is he (who) is sick: me<iruim fc>& nem 
 r]n, 3uri <vb b& bli<x,^Air) <\5ur ?]ce rul riu,5<vb ?lbri<ih<vm 
 c&T)ic P-Ajtcolon 1 T)-'GiTi1T)0, " I think, according to that, that 
 it is two years and twenty before Abraham was born, that Par- 
 tholon came to Erin." 
 
 6. Very often 5un <\b is shortened by omitting the <v; as cne-|b- 
 im 3Uft 'be, &c. ; and sometimes the b is joined to jurt, as 
 cpe|bim suiib e, &c. 
 
 7. After rn*v, if, the - ! is omitted, as m&Y plori e, if it be true; 
 and in this case the r is often joined to the m&; as m'&r 'pfon e ; 
 m'&r tt)aic le<vc <v be^c bu&u, c<x]t puan <v5ur ce^c, "If you 
 wish to be long-lived, drink cold and hot" (or "drink cold and 
 flee" — a celebrated Irish saying of double meaning). 
 
OHAP. T.] THB VEKB. 61 
 
 8. Sometimes b<x or b<v is shortened to b or b alone, which, 
 again is often joined to the preceding word; as laoc b'up; b^urt) 
 Lift, or l^oc &<\p.b A-|nn) lift, " a hero whose name was Lir ;" of 
 which the lull construction is, laoc bo <x |*o b<x <vinn) l^n-, "a 
 hero to whom was name Lir." 
 
 9. There is another form, p*v, for the past tense, which is cow 
 disused, but which is constantly used by Keating, and by other 
 writers of the 17th and 18th centuries: ?'<%. cfxe<xnpe<\ri, <xn 
 Ce<vc to, " this Ceat was a mighty man'," ir f (U<vnb<j.) p*v be at) 
 bo 2D<vc Coill, b'^rv b'witm) bf Ifor 6<vcufi, " it is she (Banba) 
 who was wife to Mac Coll, whose proper name was Eathur ;" or e 
 <vn Scoicbe&nA<x V'o> ce<vr)5<v coicce<von tat) Sqci<v ad cnvAc bo 
 cni<xll hleprneAb Airbe, "Since it is the Scotic language which 
 was the common tongue in Scythia in the time that Neimheadh 
 emigrated irom it."t 
 
 10. For the distinction between ca and ]r, see Idioma. 
 
 (3.) t>r)eiTV|Tt), I give. 
 ACTIVE VOICE, 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I. c<vbn<vtt)oiOif. 
 
 2. CAbAiti. 2. c<s.brx<vib. 
 
 3. c<xbp.<vb r6. 3. c<s.bp.<vb<ioir. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 First person Singular. 
 Present .- bemiTT), CAbfiAprn, or cu 3<vi?r». 
 
 Consuet. Pres : beitie<\.rjt). 
 Past: cii^Af. 
 
 Consuet, Past : beijiityn, cit^Ainn. 
 Future: beAfi^Ab, c<vb<x|ir<vb. 
 
 C mood: NAL \™wm> e*«*w«w 
 
 "With the usual 
 terminations for 
 ' the other persons 
 and numbers. 
 
 Infinitive; bo CAbAific. Participle; <V3 CAbA^ic. 
 
 t For the various forms assumed by this verb, in the ancient lan- 
 guage, see O'Donovan's most instructive article in his " Irish Gram- 
 mar," page 161. 
 
62 ETYMOLOGY. [PART IL 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Imperative; beitice<ifi, c<vb<vTtc<vjt, cu5c<vti, Tt}§, cu, e\ &c. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present: beiTice<xjt, cusc-aji. 
 
 Past : cti5<\6. 
 
 Consuet. Past. beifiqbe, cu5c<xi8e. 
 
 Future: be<x|ip<v|i, c<vb-Afif:<vfx. 
 
 Mood. 0NAL \ Be^iBe, CAb^^Be. 
 
 • 20e, cu, e, &c. 
 
 Infinitive ; bo be^c c*b<vjtc<x, bo be]c ctt5C<v. 
 Participle ; c<vbajic<\., ctt5C<x. 
 
 1. This verb is made up of three different verbs: in some of the 
 tenses any one of the three may be employed; in some, either of 
 two; and in some only one; as shown in the paradigm. 
 
 2. In the present tense, beifiiTt) (but not the other two verbs,) 
 takes the particle bo (which is a mark of the past in regular verbs), 
 and commonly has its initial aspirated. 
 
 (4.) tieuM^), I bear, 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Singular. 
 
 1. . . . 
 
 2. beiTt. 
 
 8. beifieab re\ 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. beiTiut)fr. 
 
 2. beififb. 
 
 3. beifv|bff. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present : 
 Consuet. Present : 
 Past : 
 
 Consuet. Past : 
 Future : 
 Conditional Hood: 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 beirie<vr)r). 
 
 TiU3<xr- 
 
 beip-inr). 
 
 be<\|ipAb. 
 
 be<qip<v|nT). 
 
 With the usual 
 terminations for 
 ' the otber persons 
 and numbers. 
 
 Infinitive ; bo b^e^c. Participle ; *s bjieic. 
 
CHAP. T.] THE VERB. 63 
 
 PA SSI V E V ICE. 
 
 Imperative Mood; bqnce<vTi r\)e, cu, e, &c. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present : bem£e<vfi. ) 
 
 fast: yiw^b. 
 
 Con-met. Past: beipxf. }> We, cu, e, &o. 
 
 Future: beau-foin. I 
 
 Conditional Mood: be<vfip<vibe. J 
 
 Infinitive; 60 bqc beifice. Participle ; bqjxce. 
 
 (5.) Cfm, /see. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE, 
 
 Impekattve Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. . . . 1. treiqrofr, feiqttjfb. 
 
 2. feic. 2. peicfb. 
 
 3. ^eice<xt> r6. 3. -peiqbfr. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. cfSitT), cftt), peiqn). 1. cfbtrjfb, cfn)fb, peiqtijfb. 
 
 2. cibin, cf|t, peiqri. 2. cfbcf, cfcf, jjqccf. 
 8. c^bjb re, c]6 re, peiqb re. 3. cfb^b, cfb, peiqb. 
 
 Consuel. Pres. ; cfbe<vT)n, ^ eice<vt)T), ti)e, cu, e, &o. 
 
 Pas*. 
 
 1. coT)n<vric<vr. 1. conc<nt)<vTi. 
 
 2. conri<vric<v|r. 2. coi)c<v.b<vtt. 
 
 3. coi)t)a^c re. 3. conc<\.b<xn. 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Consuet. Past: cjb|r)i) or c'tfnr). "i With the usual 
 
 Future: cf b^eab or c|pe<vb. j terminations for 
 
 Conditional [ c'jbpirjr), or cJFinr), or ' the other persona 
 
 Mood: \ jieiqnn. J and numbers. 
 
 Infinitive Mood ; b'pqcriT) or b'£eiq*ii)C. 
 Participle ; <V3 pe]crir) or 013 ^eicr^t)c. 
 
64 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [PART II. 
 
 PA SSI V E V I CE. 
 
 Imperative Mood; -\:e-\cte<xji, tne, cu, e, &c. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense . 
 Past : 
 
 Past. Gonsuet. : 
 Future : 
 Conditional f 
 Mood : \ 
 
 cfbceaji or peicce<\ji. 
 
 COT)T)<X]XC<v6. 
 
 cfbcf or yte]ct\. 
 
 cjbr- e<v|t or ^eic-peotfi. 
 
 cjbpjbe or peicpibe. 
 
 • 20e, cu, e, &o. 
 
 J 
 
 Infinitive Mood; bo be]i ye]de. participle ; y:e]cte. 
 
 1. Cj6in) is defective in some of its moods and tenses, which 
 are supplied by other verbs— the imperative and infinitive by 
 peicin) or r. <v|C|Tn, and the past indicative of both voices by an 
 old verb — otherwise disused — conn<\.p:c<v|n). 
 
 2. "Feiqrn or -p<vicirn, although it is brought in among the 
 irregular verbs, to supply the defects of cjb|rt), is itself regular. 
 
 3. Observe that the initial of cjbjm is always aspirated. 
 
 (C.) Cluing, I hear. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. cualoir. 
 
 2. cu<vl<vir. 
 
 8. cu<\l<v|b re. 
 
 1. cu<\.l<vrn<vTi. 
 
 2. cu<vl<x.b<xft. 
 
 3. CVKvlOibAft. 
 
 Infinitive 3Iood, Active; bo clor or bo cloirqt). 
 Participle, Active; ^3 clor or -A3 cloirqn. 
 
 1. In all the other moods and tenses, cluioim is regular, and is 
 conjugated like bu<v|l. 
 
 (7.) be<vn<v|rn, 1 do. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 1. . 
 
 2. be<vi). 
 
 8. be<vn<vb re. 
 
 1. be<vn<vTT), be<\n<vn)<voif, 
 
 be<VT)<Mt)AOlb. 
 
 2. be<vnaib. 
 
 3. be<vT)Aibfr. 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 65 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. ni5T)e<vr, beurirjoir, be<v- 1. jiiJneAnjAn, be&fir)<XTt)<vji 
 
 n<xr. be<xr)-&rn<\n. 
 
 2. T*150ir, Se&fiT)<\ir, be<v- 2. ]ai^T)eoib<\|t, be&ni)<\ban, 
 
 f)<x]y. 6e*T)<vb<vji. 
 
 3. TMS^je Te, be&nr)<xb re, 3. n'5ne<vb<vn, 6e&jxr)Ab<xn, 
 
 6e<M) re. 
 
 Present : 
 Consuet. Pres. 
 Consuet. Past. 
 
 Future : 
 Conditional } 
 Mood : \ 
 
 be<vT)<\b<vfx. 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 be<vr)<virr). 
 
 5nibir)o,beATin<vint), be<xn- 
 
 <vinn. 
 be<\r)p<vb. 
 
 be<\r)p<viT)T). 
 
 "With the usual 
 terminations for 
 the other persons 
 and numbers. 
 
 Infinitive Mood: bo be<M)ATb or bea.r)a8. 
 Participle ; ^5 be<u)&Tb, or 015 be<vn<vb\ 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Imperative Mood; Deanc^T*- rne, cu, e, &c 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present : 
 Past : 
 
 Consuet. Past 
 Future : 
 Conditional ) 
 Mood : \ 
 
 be<xT)c<m.. 
 uisneab, be&fir)<x.b. 
 
 be<ir)p<vTt. 
 
 - 2tte, cu, e, &o. 
 
 be<xt)p<vibe. 
 Infinitive Mood; bo beyc be<vi)c<v. Participle; be<vr)coi. 
 
 1. This verb and the next borrow from each other to form some 
 of the moods and tenses in which they are defective. 
 
 (8.) 5r)ftn or nfrn, I do. 
 A C T I V E VOICE. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Present : 
 Past : 
 Consuet. Past 
 
 3T)JTT) Or 1)ftt). 
 
 5nfbe<vr or r)ibe<vr. 
 3nfbinn or r)\&]W- 
 
 With the usual 
 terminations for 
 the other persons 
 and numbers. 
 
66 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [PAET II. 
 
 Present : 
 Consuet. Past 
 
 PA SSI V E V ICE. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 1. This verb is used in no other moods or tenses ; but so far as it 
 goes it is very common in both forms— with and without the 5 
 (5njn) and i)frn). The other moods and tenses are expressed by 
 means of b6<vn<xiTi). 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. . . . 
 
 2. <vb<v|Tt. 
 
 8. <vbfi<v6 f 6. 
 
 (9.) Demi"), I say. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. -&bn<vn), «bfi<\Tr)<\o-\T, ■abfi<vTi)<voi&. 
 
 2. -abji<v|6. 
 
 3. -A.bTi<vbAOir. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. beiriin). 
 
 2. beiriin- 
 
 3. bein- r£- 
 
 1. beirt1fT)fb. 
 
 2. beiTiqb. 
 
 3. bqfiib. 
 
 Consuet. Present; be]]ie<xr)T) nje, cix re, &o. 
 Past. 
 
 1. bubfi<vr. 
 
 2. bubfi<v|r. 
 
 3. bub<xific re. 
 
 First person singular. 
 
 Consuet. Past: be]Ti-\f)X). 
 Future: be<v|i^Ab, 
 
 1. bubtvonrjAjv. 
 
 2. bubfi<vb<x|i. 
 
 3. bttbn.<xb<vfi. 
 
 With the usual 
 terminations for 
 the other persons 
 and numbers. 
 
 Infinitive Mood; bo fi&b\ Participle ; 015 ftCvb. 
 
OHAP. V.] THE VEBB. 67 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Imperative Mood: <vb<\|xc<xfi nje, cu, e, &o. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present : bemce<vn. 1 
 
 Past : bubnab. 
 
 Consuet. Past : belief, i 2t)e, cu, e, &c. 
 
 Future : be-A.fi p <vji. 
 
 Conditional Muod: be-A.fip<v|be. J 
 
 Infinitive Mood; bo be^c ix&ibce, bo be^c ii^ce. 
 Participle; fi&-|bce, n*v|ce. 
 
 1- The verb <vbu<vin), I say, from which bei^rr; borrows its 
 imperative, is itself a regular verb. 
 
 2. Observe the characteristics of bubft<vr, the past indicative 
 active: — (a) it does not take the participle bo or rio ; (b) the 
 initial is not asjrirated. 
 
 3. The letter <x is often prefixed to this verb for the sake of 
 emphasis; as, <v bei^n), for beifiim, I say ; -a. bub<v|7ic re, for 
 bub<v|px re, he said, 
 
 (10.) 'F<x5<vitt) or 5eibm), I find. 
 A CT I V E V ICE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. . . . 1. -p<\3Tr)A0ir, -p-a-snjAOib. 
 
 2. f<v5. 2. f<v3<xib. 
 
 3. -p^soib je. 3. ^<v5<vibff. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. ^A5oqti) or jeibirn. 1. fA3Tt)<voib, or seibnrfb. 
 
 2. f <v5Ait|- or 5eibi|i. 2. f a^c-AJb or seibcfb. 
 
 3. -pasajbre, or seib re. 3. ^A^b or 5eibib. 
 
 Past. 
 
 1. puAfKvr. 1- p u <vn<^TT)An. 
 
 2. pu<\.n«ir. 2. pu<\p:<\.bAn. 
 
 3. pu^n re. 3. ^u<vji<\b<vri. 
 
 First person singular. 
 
 Consuet. Past : p-a^Aini) or 5eibint). ") With the 
 
 Future: 5e<\b<vb, 5eob<vb. j usual termina- 
 
 Fu.tureneg.& interrog.: 5e<vb<xb or b-juii5e<\b, itions for the 
 
 Conditional Mood : 1 &«*«m S.eob*,^, or other persons 
 
 ) b-f<x3Aint), b--pui5iT)T). J and numbers. 
 
 Infinitive; b' -p^v^Ail. Participle; ^5 p^5<vil. 
 
68 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [PART II. 
 
 PA SSI V E V ICE. 
 
 Imperative mood; }:<x^i<\]i tt)6, cu, e, &o. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present : 
 Past : 
 
 Consuet. Past. 
 Conditional 
 Mood : 
 
 20e, cu., e, &c. 
 
 ■pu<vn<v6 or yr\i\t. 
 ) 3e<ibc<v|be, b-futi3qbe. 
 
 {Defective in Infinitive and Participle.) 
 
 1. The second form ot this verb (5eib]m) has its initial aspirated 
 in the present and future active. 
 
 2. The past tense (pu<vri<vr, &c), may or may not take the par- 
 ticle bo or jio ; but its initial consonant is not aspirated. 
 
 (11.) Jqrf), / eat. 
 A C T I V E V ICE. 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Future Indicative : iorp <vb. ) With the usual terminations for 
 Conditional Mood: iorp<vit)t). \ the other persons and numbers. 
 
 1. The past indicative is either the regular form b'ice<vr, &c, 
 or the irregular bu<xr (with the usual terminations: — bu<v)r, 
 bu<v^b re, &c.) 
 
 2. The infinitive is b'-\ie, 
 
 3. In other respects this verb is regular. 
 
 (12.) 12131")> I reach. 
 
 iMPEKATrvE Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 1- ni5")ff. 
 
 2. rii5. 2. TMsfb. 
 
 8. TM5 e * b ' re. 3 - nisiMr- 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 i. ni5tt)f&. 
 
 1. W3irr)- 
 
 2. M51TI. 
 8. TM5 re 
 
 Past. 
 
 1. n^3*r- 
 
 2. ri^n5<vir. 
 
 8. fv'<xii)i5 re, n^f)^15 re. 
 
 2. m3 c f. 
 
 3. ni5i^- 
 
 1. ri*u)3<ut)<x.Ti. 
 
 2. Ti^.r>5<vb<xTi. 
 
 3. ri*vi)5Abaft. 
 
CHAP. T.] THE TEBB. 69 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Consuei. Past : V-15WV- ) Witn tne u8ual termi- 
 
 Future : |H5pe<\b. > nations for the other per- 
 
 Conditional Mood: TMSFI 1 ) 1 )- ) sons ana numbers. 
 
 Infinitive ; bo ni<vcc<v|n, or bo fiocc^T). 
 
 1. The past, future, and conditional, are sometimes expressed 
 by a different verb, as follows : — but this form (which is tbe same 
 form as the infinitive), is not often met with in the modern lan- 
 guage. 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 Past : rq<vcc<vr ) With the usual termi- 
 
 Future : iqaccp-Ab. V nations for the other per- 
 
 Condilional Mood : rii<xccp<vin-r). J sods and numbers. 
 
 (13.) CeiSirn, I go. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 1. ceibmff. 
 
 2. ce]6. 2. ceibib. 
 
 8. ceibe<vb re. 3. ceibbfr. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. ce]6-\xt). 1. ceibrr)fb. 
 
 2. ceibui. 2. ceibcjb, or ce]t]6. 
 
 3. ce^b re. 3. ceibib. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. cuoibAr. 1. cu<xbtT)<xri. 
 
 2. cimbAif. 2. cit<vbb<xTi. 
 
 3. cu<v|b re. 3. cu<vbb<vp.. 
 
 There is another form of the past tense of this verb used after 
 the particles 50, r i)f, &c, which O'Donovan classes as a subjunctive 
 mood. Tlie negative nf, which aspirates, is here prefixed : after 
 50, the initial would be eclipsed. 
 
 1. nt be<vc<vr. 1. r)f be<xc<vTT)<vTi. 
 
 2. nf be<xc<v|r. 2. n| be<\.c<vbAri. 
 
 3. nt be<xc<v|b re. 8. nf be<xc<vba.|i. 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Consuet. Past: ce]6-\t)t). 
 Future: rnvcpAb, or riac-Ab. 
 
 Conditional ) „ , ;„ + .*-. ^„ « „ A...,,., 
 Mood: \ n v * 11)1} ' orTi«c<vini). 
 
 With the usual termina- 
 tions for the other per- 
 sons and numbeis. 
 
 Infinitive; bo bul. Participle; <X5 bttl. 
 
70 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [pabt n. 
 
 (14.) ci3irt), I come. 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. . . . 1. chimin or q5e<nt). 
 
 2. c<vTx, or C15. 2. q,5i6. 
 
 3. ci5e<v8 re. 3. qsibfr. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. C13111). 1. qsimfb. 
 
 2. qsiri. 2. cisfb, q3cfb. 
 8. qsre. 3. q5]b. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. c&T)3<vr. 
 
 2. c^vt)5<vi r. 
 8. clinic re. 
 
 1. C&T)3<*.Tr)A|l. 
 
 2. c&r)5<vb<vtu 
 
 3. c^vn3<xbA|i. 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Consuet. Past: 
 Future: 
 Conditional Mood : 
 
 Infinitive ; 
 
 H31W- 
 
 qocp-ab. 
 
 i]oc]:<\]r)T). 
 
 bo ce<vcn. 
 
 fWith the usual termi- 
 nations for the other 
 persons and numbers. 
 
 Participle ; <V3 ceacc. 
 
 OTHEE DEFECTIVE VEEBS. 
 
 1. The following defective verbs are often met with in the 
 modern language : 
 
 &1fi, or <vfi, " says." Tt is used only ia the third person, much 
 like the English detective verb quoth; as <vip. re, says he: cfieub 
 bo beu.T)-p<viTt b<vm? <\|t Oi<\.rtrnAib: "' What wilt thou do for 
 me?' says Diarmaid ;" "be<\n eolar buin ttjaji <v. b-fu^l re, <xji 
 n-ab, "'give knowledge to us where he is,' said they (or say 
 they)." In the older writings this verb is often written ol. 
 
 &c b<\c, he (or she) died. 
 
 0<vn, it seems, it seemed, or it might seem (according to the 
 tense or mood of the verb with which it is connected). Dan; 
 liorn, methinks or methought ; b<v|i le<xc, it seems or seemed to 
 thee ; and so on with the rest of these prepositional pronouns 
 singular and plural : Do nic re, baft ^ort), TT)<xfi <vn 5<;oiq he 
 ran, methought (or it seemed to me), like the wind. 
 
 Oli5ce<vn, it is lawful, it is allowed. 
 
 Our, to know ; c-cviqc re buf <vn v-^h n<vb <\nt), he came (in 
 order) to know whether they were there. 
 
 Te&bAU, I know; used only negatively and interrogatively, 
 and in the present tense: i)f fe<vb<vji rne, 1 do not know; n| 
 £e<vb<vTi Te, he does not know; <vi) b-f e<xb|i<vbAjx ? do ye 
 know? 
 
OHAP. VI.] 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 71 
 
 Nf pulSvin, it is necessary (or " must," used impersonally); t)f 
 FuI&itv ^*Tn <v beic <v.)n riub<xl, ''it is necessary for me to be 
 (or I must be) walking (away)." 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 I. ADVEKBS. 
 
 1. There are not many simple adverbs in the Irish language. 
 Far the greatest number of the Irish adverbs are compounded of 
 two or more words. 
 
 2. An adverb may be formed from an adjective by prefixing 
 the particle 50, which in this application has the same effect as 
 the English postfix ly ; as bonb, fierce; 50 bonb, fiercely. Al- 
 most all Irish adjectives admit of being changed in this manner 
 to adverbs. 
 
 3. Besides the adverbs formed in this way, there are many 
 compound adverbs, which are generally made up of a noun and a 
 preposition ; the preposition often causing an eclipsis. 
 
 4. The following is an alphabetical list of the compound ad- 
 verbs in most general use, -with a few of the simple adverbs. 
 Some of the compound adverbs become, in some situations, pre- 
 positions: — 
 
 far off, in space or 
 this side. (See 
 at first, in the be- 
 
 ft b-f<\b 
 time. 
 
 ft bur, on 
 c<xll.) 
 
 ft 6 -cor ac, 
 ginning. 
 
 ft b-cu<vi6, northwards. 
 
 ft 5-ce<vb6j|i, immediately. 
 
 ft 5-cein, far off. 
 
 ft 5-coThnuibe, always. 
 
 ft.5 fin, there. 
 
 ft.5 ro, here. 
 
 &5 tub, yonder. 
 
 ft-|U <vir, back, backward. (See 
 «1T* ei5in) 
 
 ftin ball, on the spot, instantly. 
 
 ftin bjc, at all. 
 
 ft-|n bun, on foundation: cun 
 ■a-|fv bun, to found, to institute. 
 
 &1Ji ce<\T)<v, in like manner; in 
 general. 
 
 ftin coibce, for ever. 
 
 &1Tt 6'51i)i with difficulty; per- 
 force: — <vin <qr no <xm §1511), 
 by consent or by force: nolens 
 volens ; willy nilly. 
 
 SV-lfx 5-cul, backwards, back: 
 cuji <v|n 5-cul — the opposite 
 to cur oifa bun — to put 
 back, to abolish. 
 
 ftin leic, apart, separately. 
 
 ftin rnob, in a manner; so that. 
 
 ft-|n rot), for the sake of. 
 
 ftm u<vin-|b, at times; some- 
 times. 
 
 ftrn<vc, out of, outside. 
 
 &tt)&in, alone, only. 
 
 ftmC\n<vc, to-morrow. 
 
 ftttjtt.15, outside. 
 
 ftrnuil, like, as. 
 
 ftt) &inbe, on high. 
 
 ftne, yesterday. 
 
 ftnfor, lrom below, upwards. 
 
 ftnrj epope<\cc, together. 
 
 ftnn riT), there. 
 
 ftt)i) ro, here. 
 
 ftnn T u ^j yonder. 
 
 ft nbear, southward. 
 
 ftnaice, near. 
 
 ftnodl, on this side; hither. 
 
 ft ^S^T 1 ) near. 
 
 ftt^u, to-day. 
 
72 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 [past n. 
 
 &1KMT*, now. 
 
 &t)onn, to that side; thither. 
 
 2W) coin, when. 
 
 2lnu<x.r, from above, down- 
 wards. 
 
 &fieifi, last night. 
 
 &fi1<vri), ever. 
 
 an-jr, again. 
 
 Slrceoic, iD, into. 
 
 ?lrci5, i Q > inside. 
 
 be<\5 t)<vc, little hut; almost. 
 
 C& l)-cir, cab <vr, co»r)<vr, from 
 what? wheuce? 
 
 C*v lijeib, how many .? how 
 much? 
 
 C&ic, c& rj-&ic, c]<x'<x]c, what 
 place ? 
 
 De b|ii5, because. 
 
 Do f fon, always. 
 
 6a6ot), that is, i. e. ; id est. 
 
 "F&, gives an adverbial meaning 
 to some words : 
 
 Ta ce<xb6]Ti, immediately. 
 
 Vis. beoi5, a ^ - as ** 
 
 f<\ 66, twice. 
 
 "Fa fe<xc, by turns; respectively. 
 
 "F& cfif, thrice. 
 
 5o bri&c, for ever (lit. to [the] 
 judgment). 
 
 5o be]tt)]t), verily; truly; in- 
 deed. 
 
 5o b-cf, unto. 
 
 5o ^6]i, yet; awhile. 
 
 5o b-ioml&n, altogether. 
 
 5o leiti, entirely. 
 
 5o leofi, enough. 
 
 Jornonivo, however, moreover, 
 indeed. 
 
 2D<v|lle fie, together with. 
 
 2D<v|t <\.n 5-ce-Abnoi, likewise ; 
 in like manner. 
 
 2t)<Mi oton le, together with. 
 
 Klo 50, until. 
 
 fo]V "*l e > from that time out. 
 
 Or cpnt), above. 
 
 Sfor, downwards. 
 
 Soift, eastwards. 
 
 Su<vr, upwards. 
 
 Chall, on the other side; be- 
 yond. (See <xbur). 
 
 C<vtt)<xU, awhile. 
 
 Cu^le ejle, besides; moreover. 
 
 ! 
 
 n. PKEPOSITIOMS. 
 
 1. The following is a list of the simple prepositions:— 
 
 & or 1, as 01 Tn-b<v|le, in a town. 
 
 &, out of, or from (unusual) ; as 
 •4. 20u.Tt)<*iT), out of Munster. 
 
 &5 or -&.15, at, with. 
 
 ?ll|i, -AT 1 ) upon. 
 
 Sinn, in. This takes r before 
 the article. (See page 21.) 
 
 &r, out of. 
 
 Ci)um, to or towards, for the 
 purpose of. 
 
 O-&T1, used in swearing, equiva- 
 lent to by : b<vti tt)° b|i1<v- 
 cotii, " by my word." 
 
 Oo, to. 
 
 6<xb&|i, the same as ibiji. 
 
 T^a or ^-cvo^, under. 
 
 5<vi), without. 
 
 5o, towards, along with. It 
 takes r before the article <vt) ; 
 as stir <xt) b-q5, to ^ e 
 house. 
 
 J, the same as<v. 
 
 J <xti, after. It takes r before the 
 article (oit)) and becomes l<v|tf . 
 
 Jbffi, between. 
 
 J m, the same as urn. 
 
 le or Tie, with. It takes r be- 
 fore the article (an), and then 
 becomes le-|r or ji]r. 
 
 2t)a.n., like, as. 
 
 0, Irom. 
 
 Or, over, above. 
 
 12e, fii<v, before. It takes ? be- 
 fore the article (otn). 
 
OHAP. VI.] PBEP08ITI0N8. 73 
 
 SeAC, beyond, besides. Cfie, through. It takes r before 
 
 the article, and then becomes 
 C-&ri, over, across. It takes r cner. 
 
 before the article (at)), and Ctifb, the same as cjie. 
 
 then becomes c<x|xr. Utl) or rnj, about. 
 
 2. Some of the simple prepositions are amalgamated with the 
 personal and possessive pronouns. 
 
 3. Besides the simple prepositions, there are in Irish a number 
 ot compound prepositions. Each of these consists of a simple pre- 
 position followed by a noun; and in many of them the initial of 
 the noun is eclipsed by the influence of the simple preposition. 
 In some cases the preposition has dropped out and only the noun 
 remains. 
 
 4. The following is a list of the most usual compound preposi- 
 tions, with their meanings : — 
 
 21 b-r;Abr)Aire, in presence of. 
 
 21 b-focAift, with, along with. 
 
 21 b-CAO^jj, in regard to, concerning. 
 
 Zi 6-c|mce<\U: see cirnce<vll. 
 
 21 5-ce<\T)n, at the head of, at the end of, with regard to. 
 
 21 5-coinne, against, for (in the phrase to go for): TilHb"* a 
 3-coii)ne -a ce^le, "they run against each other:" bo cuA^b 
 re a. 5-comt)e a <vc<x]x, he went for his father. 
 
 21 5-coif, by the side of, hard by, along. This is often contracted 
 to co-|T : coir V* t>7xJ5be, " beside the (river) Bride." 
 
 21 r)-o.icle, after: "a. h-<vicle r)A. l<voibe rin, "after that lay." 
 
 2Vme<vr3, amongst: rfor <xTne<xf5 T)a 5-coiUceAb, "down 
 amongst the woods." 
 
 & l&c <x-\ n, in presence of. 
 
 &1|t -a,5<Mb, forward, over against, opposite : bill Ayrt AgAib, *° 
 go forward, to progress: A/|fi -a^a^ r)A 5<xoice, opposite (ex- 
 posed to) the wind. 
 
 &1TI be<vl<vib, in front of, opposite: bo luisbfr bo 3nAC, <v 
 r)-iombAib* <xn be<vl-A^b, a. n-ACAn, "they used to lie, cus- 
 tomarily, in beds opposite their father" (Children of Lir). 
 
 &-|n bur), on foundation. 
 
 &]\i ce<xnn, for (in the phrase to go for); as -a bub<v|ric W-Aire 
 le h-&nbAT) bul Ain ceAnn "Fensurr, " Naisi said to Ardan 
 to go for Fergus. 
 
 2V|n -pcAb, through, throughout, during: A-jri -petxti blf-AbnA, 
 "during a year." 
 
 2lin -pub, throughout, amongst: <vifi -pub t)<v b-cor)r), amongst the 
 waves. 
 
 2liri 3-cul, behind. 
 
 2lin rot), for the sake of. 
 
 21 n-b]Aib, after: <v rj-bjA^b a ce^le, after one another, one after 
 another. 
 
 Coir, contracted from a 3-corr- 
 
74 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET a 
 
 OM<v, as to: b&U t3Uvrj<vibe, "as to Blanaid." 
 D'eir, after: b'e^r r)<\. 0\i]X)i)e, "after the Deluge." 
 O^onnr^lSl 6 " or ^Vnnr^ise, towards: 5luaife^r \i6]riye 
 b'ioi)nr*i5 e * l^T)5e, "ne goes forward towards his ship." 
 Docutt), towards. 
 To Tieiii, according to. 
 5o T)ui5e, unto, until. 
 5o b-cf, to, unto, as far as: ri«.b<vil 30 b-cf <M) bo|%ttf, walk to 
 
 the door. 
 Jon)CurA, as to: pmcura V\)}r)r) "as to Finn." 
 F(x cu<xifxirr), towards. 
 
 l<xirt) le or l&irn Tie, near, by, beside: ruib l^n) I^ott), sit near 
 
 me; Uiti) Tie tie<u)n<vib DoiTice, "beside Beanna Boirche." 
 
 Or ciooT), over, above: 5Tioibui5 0]<v. or ciotji) 5<vc uile qb, 
 
 "love God above all tilings"; tio eiril5 or cionn <xt) 5-o.ojc, 
 
 " he rose over the spear." 
 
 ) 5- c 1 or >T), the same as -a. 5- ce<u)i): 1 3-qoi)r)r)A bli<\.br)A, "at the 
 
 end of the year." 
 C-cvti ce<vT)r), besides, for the sake of, beyond, in preference to. 
 C<vTi &ir, backwards; same as <v|ri <MT*- 
 C<s.]\ eir, after; the same as beir: c<v|i err rj<x Sattjtja, " after 
 
 the Sainnain (1st of November)" 
 C-[TT)ce<vll, about, around: ce<xcc, qmce-all Oqar 1 ^*^*, "to 
 
 go around Dermat " 
 Or cori}<vTri, in presence of, before the face of: or cott)<viti "FblOt)) 
 ''in presence of Finn." 
 
 in. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. There are few simple conjunctions in the Irish language. 
 
 2. There are, however, many compound conjunctions, much 
 like the English conjunctional phrases, " for the reason that," "to 
 the end that," &c. 
 
 3. Generally speaking, the meanings of the compound conjunc- 
 tions may be easily gathered from the signification of the words 
 that compose them ; but there are a few whose meanings are not 
 so plain. 
 
 4. The following is a list of the simple conjunctions, with their 
 meanings, together with those of the compound conjunctions 
 whose meanings are not quite obvious: — 
 
 ?Vcc, but, except. &u., the same as the last, 
 
 &cc ce<xr)a, but however. only used with the past 
 
 &5ur, and; often contracted to tense. 
 
 <v'r, <*r> and y. Dfob, although: it is really the 
 
 &1Ti <vt) -a.bb-A.Ti rio, wherefore. third singular imperative of 
 
 &n, an interrogative particle: the verb c&im. 
 
 •at) b-puil rf rl*vt)? Is she Cfb: see 51'b. 
 
 well? Con), as. 
 
CHAPS. VI. VII.] 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 75 
 
 D(\, if : sometimes written b'<\ 
 mo. 
 
 Oo bn.15, because. 
 
 Oo can) 50. in order that. 
 
 for, yet, moreover. 
 
 5]6, or 5i6e<v6, although. 
 
 5o, that. 
 
 5un, that; formed of the pre- 
 ceding and no. (See page 58.) 
 
 jorj'a -|r)5v : see i)&. 
 
 } ot) our 50, in order that, so 
 that. 
 
 20fc, if. 
 
 20 a z'<\ 30, although that. 
 
 20<xn, as; see njunw. 
 
 2thtr)a, if not, unless; often 
 written rt)un, and even (cor- 
 ruptly) man. 
 
 2t)&ire<\6, if so, well then. 
 
 2U<xn TIT), tr><vTv ro, in that 
 manner, in this manner: thus. 
 
 N&, than: see ion&, 
 
 Ntv, nor, not. 
 
 No, or; olten pronounced i)U in 
 Munster. 
 
 0, since, seeing that, because. 
 
 c<xnl<v, since, whereas. 
 
 Oin, because. 
 
 Sul, before. 
 
 Uime j]T), theiefore, wherefore. 
 
 IV. INTEBJECTIONS. 
 
 1. The following is a list of the most common interjections. 
 Besides these there are many interjectional expressions somewhat 
 like the English, "O shame!'' " Alack! and well-a-day!" but it is 
 not necessary to enumerate them : — 
 
 20<vm5, woe! 
 
 &, the sign cf the vocative case, 
 usually translated "O." 
 
 ?^-r cnit<x5, alas ! what a pity ! 
 
 6] re, hush ! list! 
 
 "F<xn<von, ^<\n<voin, alas! 
 
 ■pari-a.01ri.5eun, alas! O sharp 
 sorrow! 
 
 "Feac, see! behold 1 
 
 Oh sad ! 
 2t)orj<vine, Oh shame! 
 yronuan, alas ! woe is me ! 
 2t)ocnu<v5: see <vr cnu<\5. 
 Oc, uc, alas ! 
 
 Ocon, or tteon, alas ! written 
 oc&o or ucan in old writings. 
 
 0U2 
 
 alasl 
 
 CHAPTER VII, 
 
 PREFIXES AND AFFIXES. 
 
 1. There are in Irish, as in other languages, prefixes and affixes, 
 which modify the meanings ot words. 
 
 1. PKEFIXES. 
 
 1. The following is a list of the principal prefixes, with their 
 meanings: it will be observed that many ot them have a double 
 form, which arises from conformity to the rule caol le c<vol, &c. 
 
 2. Most ot the?e are inseparable particles ; but a few are also 
 employed independently as separate words : — 
 
 SVif or eir, back or again, like English re : as 10c, payment ; 
 <M noc, repayment, restitution; eW5 e i rising I eiT e 15 e resurrec- 
 tion. 
 
78 ETYMOLOGY. [pABT H 
 
 2lrh, or <v.irf), a negative particle, like English un ; as fie^S, 
 open, clear ; <iirhrie)S, difficult, rough. 
 
 &r>, an intensitive particle: as lttAC5*v|TieAC, joyful; <vi)- 
 lu<vc5fc/|fie<vc, overjoyed. 
 
 ?lp or -ait}, a negative particle, like English un: as critic, time; 
 <vi)cn.&c, untimely; rnl^n, desire; <\]T)nrf<\r), evil desire. 
 
 &c, a reiterative, like English re: as n&<3, a saying; <icrifc6, a 
 repetition. 
 
 &c has sometimes the meaning of English dis in dismantle: as 
 cun)A, atorra; <vccutt)a6, to deform, to destroy; rqo5<\.6, to 
 crown or elect a king; <\."|cn.io5<\b, to dethrone. 
 
 D<vn, feminine (from be<vn, a woman); as e-a.cl-a.6, a messenger; 
 b<vp-e<xcl<\c, or bain-e<xcl<vc, a female messenger. 
 
 t-|c, or b]oc, lasting, constant: as beo, living; bicbeo, everlast- 
 ing. 
 
 Corn, equal; English co or con: as -qrnre<vri ) time; corh- 
 <x-irnfe<xp<xc, cotemporary. 
 
 De<\5, bei5, good: as bl<vr, taste; be<i5bl<x.r, good or pleasant 
 taste. 
 
 Of, Sfo, a negative, like English dis: as ceill-jSe, wise; bf- 
 ceiUibe, foolish: ce<vpp, a head; bjce<xpp<vb, to behead. 
 
 Drioc, bpoic, bad or evil: as obcqri, work; bn-oc-obotifi an 
 evil work. 
 
 Do and ro are opposites, as are also often the letters b and r. 
 Do denotes difficulty, or ill, or the absence of some good or posi- 
 tive quality: as v^icr^u^c or rop<MCfe<v.t)AC, visible; bo- 
 ■p<iicre<\.u<\c, invisible; boUvr, tribulation; Tol&r, comfort; 
 borj-ax, ill luck; ropar, good luck; bo-beupca., hard to be done; 
 ro-beupcci, easy to be done; buba.6, sad; rub<xc, merry. 
 
 t<v, a negative, often causing eclipsis: as b<MP5e<in, strong; 
 e<\b<x]V)^eo.r), weak; cdjp, just; e^c6]-\i, injustice; cporn, 
 heavy; e<vocporp, light. 
 
 e<vr, a negative", as oponx, honor; earopoifi, dishonor; rl&p, 
 healthful; e<xrl&p> sick; ccqn.be<ir, friendship; e<xrc<v|rtbe<xr, 
 enmity. 
 
 fo, under; as btqne, a man; ^obnp^e, an under-man, a com- 
 mon man, a servant. 
 
 V]i]i, against, back contra : as bu-jlle, a stroke; •ppicbu]Ue, a 
 back-stroke; b<xc, a hook ; ppiocb\\c, a back-hook, a harb. 
 
 J I, -|ol, many: as iotp<vb, much; iliomab, sundry, various; 
 b<xr, a color ; lolbACAC, many colored; paobari, an edge; 10L- 
 ■pAob<xip, many-edged weapons. 
 
 Jn, -jop, fit: as beupca, done; ipbeut)C<v, fit to be done; 
 fi<x]bce, said ; pp]VAi bee, fit to be said. 
 
OSAP. VH.J PBEFIXES AND AFFIXES. 7* 
 
 l_fct), fall, used as an intensitive: as Aibbejl, vast; Ifct^bbSjl, 
 awfully vast. 
 
 Le<vc, half: as ti<vip, an hour; leacttaip., halt an hour. This 
 word is also used to denote one of a pair; tnus ru]l, an eje; 
 le-ac-fujl, (literally half an eye), one of two eyes. See "Idiom? 
 No. 13." 
 
 20 f, mfo, a negative : as mear, respect; rnjrt)e<vr, disrespect; 
 c6x\)<\}\\\e , advice ; Tpiocotpain-le, evil advice. 
 
 TJe<vrb, neiTt), a negative: as coppn^ce, comprehensible; 
 pe<vrt)Coprpn5ce, incomprehensible: T)pb, a thing; Tjeprnipb, 
 nothing. 
 
 l?eurb, before, like English pre : as p<\-|bce, said; jteUTn- 
 p<Mbce, aforesaid. 
 
 12o, an intensitive particle : as mop, great; pd-Tbdp, very 
 great. 
 
 S<x ft, an intensitive particle: as m<v|c, good; p&p-rh-Aic, very 
 good. 
 
 So, TO], the opposite to bo, denotes apt, easy, good: as be<vpb- 
 ca, proved; roibe-Apbca, easily proved. 
 
 Up. or xipi, an intensitive particle: as jre<vl, lo; ttip'jre-A.l, very 
 low humble, mean, vile. 
 
 II. AFFIXES OR TERMINATIONS.* 
 
 1. The following is a list of the principal affixes or terminations, 
 with their meanings; but it does not include inflectional termi- 
 nations, which are all given in connection with declensions and 
 conjugations : — 
 
 ZVc, when it is the termination of an adjective, means full of, 
 abounding in, like the English y and ous, with the former of 
 which it seems cognate; as bp<xi5e<\.n, the black-thorn; bp<\i^- 
 e<vr)<vc, abounding in black-thorn; bppAc-&p, a word ; bpp*cp<vc, 
 wordy, talkative. 
 
 ZVc, as the termination of a noun, generally denotes a personal 
 agent : as cuTp<vcb, power ; cutt)<vco<xc, a mighty person ; Con- 
 i)acc<vc, a native of Oonnanght. 
 
 ZVcc, an abstract termination, like the English ness and ty (in 
 probity): as ca.pcap<vc, charitable; c<xnc<vt)<xcc, charity: mop 
 and rn6n.b<v, great; mopbacc, greatness. 
 
 ?^6e, uibe, or -jbe, a personal termination, denoting a doer ; 
 as cop, a foot; copr^e, a walker; qom&n, drive; qom&r)(V|be, 
 a driver. 
 
 &1pe, or p^ie, a personal termination, denoting an agent or 
 doer; as lop5, a track; lop5<v^pe, a tracker; ce<xl5, guile; 
 ce<vl5<iipe, a deceiver. 
 
 &TT)<xp, has the same meaning as the English like and ly : as 
 pl<vic, a prince; plAice^rbap 1 ., princely. 
 
 * For a full account of these terminations see the author's " Origin 
 and History of Irish Names of Places." Second series, Chaps. L 
 and II. 
 
78 ETYMOLOGY. [PAET II. 
 
 ?U), a diminutive termination, but it has now nearly lost its 
 diminutive sense; as loc, a lake; loc&n, a small lake. 
 
 ?lr or e<vr, and sometimes the letter r alone, a termination de- 
 noting abstract quality, like <vcc, as oioibioo, delightful; <\.oib- 
 ne<xr, delightfulness or delight; ce<u)J), a head; ce<xnr;<vr, head 
 ship, authority. 
 
 rjha.fi and bne, have a collective or cumulative sense; as bud-le, 
 aleat; buille<x.b<vfi, foliage; bcqfi, an oak; b<v|n.bn.e, a place of 
 oaks. 
 
 C\)&fi h as a collective sense like the last; as be<\nn, a peak or 
 gable; be<M)ncAfi, abounding in peaks or gables. 
 
 De, an ancient adjectival termination, has much the same 
 meaning as the English/"^ and ly (in manly). In the modern lan- 
 guage it is varied to ttie forms b<v, b<x,and ca; as tnori, great; 
 tt)6h6a, majestic; peati, a man; ^eAfiba., manly; rnjle, a cham- 
 pion; Tnfle<x.6c<i, champion-like, knightly. 
 
 G denotes abstract quality, like <vcc,; as Finn, fair or white; 
 Fjnne, fairness; bo5, sott; bu^e, softness. 
 
 Jr) a diminutive termination. This may be said to be the only 
 diminutive that still retains its full force in the living language; 
 and it is much used in Ireland even where Irish is not spoken, 
 rjdc-cvfi, a road; boc<vi|ifn, (bohereen), a little road; crusk, a 
 pitcher; cruiskee>>, a little pitcher. 
 
 L<vc, n<vc, Ti-A-C) c<vc, Cfi<xc, have all the same meaning as <vc, 
 namely, full of, abounding in: as bfiir, break; bfi)rle<vc, a breach, 
 a complete defeat; rt)\xc, a pig; thucIac, a piggery; lu<vc<vifi, 
 rushes ; lu<xc<xjirj&c, a rushy place; bo5, a bo^ or soft place; 
 bc-5ri<vc, a place full of bogs; co]U, a wood; co]llceAC, a woody 
 place. These seem to be cognate with the terminations in the 
 English words poult-ry, varie-ly, &c. 
 
 2t}<vfi means abounding in, like the English ful and ly ; as bn.15, 
 power; bn.io5TT)ari> powerful. 
 
 $5, a diminutive termination; as cf<vn;, black; cj<\.fio,5, a black 
 little animal (a clock, or chafer); 5<vb<vl, a fork; 5<vb<xld5, a little 
 fork. 
 
 Oin, or bo^fi, or c6]ji, denotes an agent or doer, the same as 
 the English er in reaper ; as buoql, strike; bu<\ilce6|fi, a thresher ; 
 coinne-al, a candle; coinnleoin., a candlestick; rpe<vl, a scytne; 
 rpe<vl<vbdifi, a mower, 
 
 12e has a collective signification, like b<xfi, as beul, the mouth ; 
 belfie, language, speech. 
 
 Se<vc is used as a sort of feminine termination; as 5<xll, an 
 Englishman; 5<v|Ure<)k.c, an Englishwoman; dinre<vc, a female 
 fool (from an old root on, whence the old word 6nrr/|C, a fool, the 
 equivalent of the modern <xn)Ab&r)). 
 
 C<vc and z}i<\c : see l<xc. 
 
CHAP, t] NOUNS. 78 
 
 PART III. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 1. When two nouns come together, signifying different things, 
 the second one is ia the genitive case; as 5UC 5<\b<v|ri, the voice 
 of a houod; 1 b-pl<v.icior 'eirte<vnn, "in the sovereignty ot Erin;'' 
 b&n-ji n*- h-mre, ^ ie t0 P °* tne i s ^ an< ^' 
 
 2. "When the genitive noun is singular masculine, its initial is 
 aspirated it the article is used; as rn<vc <vr) y:]ji, the son ot the 
 man. (See pages 21 and 22 tor this rule and its exceptions.) 
 
 3. When the article is not used with the governed noun in the 
 singular number, the initial of the latter is generally not aspirated 
 (except in the case mentioned in next Rule) ; as Con-All 1 
 5-cnoc<vib tK\ir, "Oonall in the torms of death;" <x T)-bol<\r 
 bjioi&e <v'r peine, " in the sorrow of bondage and of pain." 
 
 4. When the noun in the genitive is a proper name, its initial 
 is generally aspirated, even though the article is not used ; as 
 rlioc-5i)AOi6il, "the race of Gaodbal; cloibe<vn) >it)r)<u)<vun<v|n, 
 " the sword of Manannan." 
 
 Exception:— In this case, b and c often resist aspiration; as 
 6me, mseAt) Oe<xlb<u)ic, "Eire, the daughter of Dealbhaoth." 
 
 5. If the governed nonn be in the genitive plural, its initial is 
 eclipsed with the article; and the initial is generally aspirated, 
 if the article is not used; as Denser) n)«.c r)-Uirne<\.c, "the 
 fortress of [die] sons ot Usna;" bugbear) cu|t<\6, " a company ot 
 kmghts;" t>i<vr bar), "two women" (or rather "a pair of 
 women.'") 
 
 Even in the absence of the article, however, an eclipsis some- 
 times occurs; as, r)<voi T)<vonb<vp. bo bf <x.5 ceo.cc b'i<\p-TiAib 
 cfor<\. -asur c«vr)<v b-pe<vn n-'ein-ionn, " nine times nine persons 
 who were coming to demand the taxes and tributes of the men of 
 Erin." 
 
 Sometimes also, in the absence ot the article, the noun in the 
 genitive plural isneitt er aspirated nor eclipsed. 
 
 * Several of the rules of Syntax have been unavoidably anticipated 
 in Orthography and Etymology, as they are in v very Irish Grammar. 
 These rules will be referred to in their proper places in this Syntax, 
 or repeated when thought necessary. 
 
80 SYNTAX. [PART III. 
 
 6. When two nouns come together signifying the same thing 
 (or in apposition), they generally agree in case; as, Nu<v6<x &pn- 
 51obl&Tn m<vc e<vcc-Ai5 rnic eAbAn-lAiri). " Nuadha SilveHiand, 
 son of Eachtach, son of Eadarlamh;" t)A b-cpf b-FinneAthnA, 
 mac GocA-jb, " of the three Finnavnas, sons of Eochad." 
 
 Eere, in the first example, WtiAba, is nominative, and so is 
 m<vc, which is in apposition to it ; 6<vcc<v|5, is genitive and so is 
 the next word, rnic, wliich is in apposition to it. In the second 
 example, "FinneAibpA is in the genitive (plural), and ttiac also, in 
 apposition to it, is in the genitive (plural). 
 
 For exceptions to this Rule, see "Idioms," No. 33, page 107. 
 See also next rule. 
 
 7. The last rule is not always observed : departures from it are 
 sometimes found, even in good Irish writings; as T;Ainni,be bit] be 
 opbA mart b]6e<v6 Ap. iit)h£up.e, be<vn SheA5Ain at) rMs^A- 
 bdfiA, "yellow gold rings as used-to-be on Mary, wife of John (the 
 son ot) the weaver ;" t<\-\r)-\c nij Chi<vn.n.U]be LitAcrtA b'pprr 
 a cori)6<vlc<v, eabon, C}at) m<xc 9|Iio11a, " the King of Kerry- 
 Luachra came to visit his foster-son, that is, Oian, the son of 
 Oilioll; 1 ' bo cp.1 aU (0pcAp) a 5-coipne 20heATi5Ai5 n>ip.e, An 
 cpeAn, leorhAn, " Oscar went to meet the furious Meargach, the 
 strong lion." 
 
 The first example exhibits a disagreement in case between 
 2t)l)Aifie, and beAT), which are in apposition, the former being 
 dative (after <vn), the latter nominative (its dative would be 
 rnnAOi, page SO). In the second example corhbAlCA is genitive 
 (after the infinitive, Rule 15, page 90), and CpAT), in apposition 
 to if, is nominative (its genitive would be Cepn). In the last 
 example 9X)heAfi5Ai5 is genitive, and leorh&n, in apposition to 
 it, is nominative. This last example, however, seems properly to 
 belong to a class of exceptions to Rule 7, which are explained 
 further on. (" Idioms," No. 33, page 107.) 
 
 8. A noun used acljectively in English is commonly expressed 
 in .Irish by a genitive case; as, English, "a gold ring," Irish, 
 ■pAmne oip., a ring of gold. This form of expression is very 
 common in Irish; as ^eAp bl^e, a lawyer; literally "a man of 
 law." 
 
 9. Collective nouns are singular in form, anda9 such they take 
 the singular lorm of the article (when the article is used); but 
 they are plural in signification, and as such they generally take 
 adjectives and pronouns in the plural number, and also verbs in 
 the plural, when, in accordance with Par. 9, page 45, the plural 
 form of the verb is used; as, noccuib at) fuiipeApt) rjn, "that 
 company disclose;" CAT)5AbAp at) bu^beAT) cupab y\i) bo 
 lACA^n. Tbi^n, A5ur bo beAnnuis T/lAb bo, " that comp my of 
 knights came to the presence of Finn, and they saluted hiin." 
 
 The personal nouns from b] at; to bepcneAbATi, mentioned at 
 
CHAP. II.] NOUNS. 81 
 
 page 37, follow this rule; as, bo b<ib<vji <vt) bi<vr ni) 30 h-itt)fi ear- 
 ned, " that pair were at striie." 
 
 10. Nouns denoting a part commonly take be with the dative 
 of the nouns (or pronouns) ol which they form a part; &s, 5<\b<vti 
 b'&ft T)5<\b<\7i<vib, "a hound of our hounds ;" <vot) c<\07t b|ob, 
 "one berry of them;" 5<\c btr|ne be'n pobul, " each person or 
 the people." 
 
 11. The personal nouns, from bi<vr to beiCT)e<vbafi inclusive, 
 and also cedn.<v, three, generally govern nouns in the genitive 
 plural; as, b-|<vr b<xr), "two (of) women;" <v Cfxiuji rn<vc <*5ur <v 
 b-cn^ 1171 b<\n, "his three sons and f'eir three wives;" tedn,<v 
 b<vn, "three women; -naonbafi c<xoire<xc, "nine chieftains." 
 
 But they sometimes take be with the dative, as in the last rule ; 
 as n-ao^ n<\or)b<xfi bo rb<xon.<xib r)<v b-"F6rhop<vc, " nine times 
 nine of the stewards of the Fomorians:" mo bjp TO-&C, mo bjr 
 b'f:e<\.ft<\]b, "my two sons, my two men." 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE ARTICLE AND NOUN. 
 
 1. The article agrees with its noun in number, gender, and case; 
 as, -an ^e<vfi, the man; T)<\ cj n;ce, of the hen; no. b<x, the cows. 
 
 2. For the influence of the arti^e on the noun, see page 22. 
 
 3. When one noun governs another in the genitive case, the ar- 
 ticle can be used only with the latter. Thus, in English we can say 
 "the age of the world" (using the definite article with each nouu); 
 but in Irish, the corresponding expression is, <vo]r <vn both^n, 
 
 not, " <\T) " <XO]T -AT) bOTT)<V1T). 
 
 Exception: — When a demonstrative pronoun follows the gov- 
 erning noun, or when the two nouns come together as a compound 
 won!, the governing noun may take the article; as, <vt) c-o^be 
 muince, tlie teacher; mft. bo beiri cu <xn oin.e<xb -p]n bu-|n 'r-a-T) 
 16 ro no. n-bedfi, "if thou givest so much to us in this day ot 
 tears." Here the article is used before both Id and bedfi. C<xn- 
 3<vbAji <vMr 1 T)-'6i|tinn <xr) rlpcc ro Shimeon bhtMC, "these 
 descendants of Simon Brec came again into Erin:" here the article 
 is used betore rliocc, the governing noun. 
 
 4. When a possessive pronoun is used with the genitive noun, 
 the article cannot be used with either; thus, "the house of my 
 father" is ce<vc tn' -a.c-a.ji, not " <vt) " ce<xc rn' ac<x|x. 
 
 The peculiarity noticed in the last two rules exists also in Eng- 
 lish when the possessive case is used, i.e., the article can be used 
 only with the possessive noun; a9, the world's age; my father's 
 house. 
 
82 SYNTAX. [PART IU. 
 
 5. When a demonstrative pronoun is used with a noun, the ar- 
 ticle is also used; as, <xt) pe<vp y\r), that man; literally, " the man 
 that-/' t)<v tnnvv ub, yonder women; literally, "the women 
 yonder." 
 
 6. The article is used before the names of some countries and 
 cities, where tlie de6nite article would not be used in English; as 
 VOoeoAT), ?^bb C-acn-<xc Pupra. inn Fpainc, beu5, " Moenan, 
 Abbot of Calier Fursa, in (the) France, died;" Cpu<vca n<x 
 \)-'Q]\ie<\T)T), "the stacks of (the) Erin;" cu<vp*ceoipc n<v h-'&n*) 
 " ttie north of (the) Asia." There is in Irish also a form of phrase 
 corresponding to the English "the mighty Hector;" as, <vt) 
 c-0rc&ji &5, "the noble Oscar." 
 
 7. When an adjective is predicated of a noun by the verb p* (in 
 any of its forms), the article is used with the noun (but in the cor- 
 responding expression in English the definite article would not be 
 used); as, ir Tn<v]c -ai) peotp e, he is a good man: literally "he is 
 the good man." 
 
 8. The Irish article is used before abstract nouns much more 
 commonly than the English definite article; as, <vn c-ocpur, "the 
 hunger;" cpj t)-\6 bo cjm: — <vn pe<vc<\.b, <xt) b&r, <v'r <u) pf<xn, 
 "three things I see- the sin, the death, and the pain." 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 
 
 1. Adjectives denoting fullness or a part of anything may take 
 either the dative after be or the genitive; as (dative after be) : — 
 1bpt b& b<vTi<vile l&r) bo leant), "between two barrels full of 
 ale;" c& me lfcp bo n&1pe, "I am full of shame;" mdri&T) 
 b'ttairlib, " many of nobles;" (genitive): — l*vn <v buipn, "the 
 full of his fist ;" <\p p<*ib mdp&n <vip,5ib <v|,5e, "had he much of 
 money?" cp<vob bp<\oi3m <*3ur <v l'<u) &ipne<xb uippe, "a 
 branch of blackthorn and its full of sloes on it." 
 
 2. The adjective in the comparative degree takes t)'<\ (or -\r)'<\, or 
 ■|on*v,) before the noun which follows it; as, ir b]nne <v cedl t><\ 
 Ion 'rnk rmdl, " sweeter is her voice (music) than the blackbird 
 and than the thrush." 
 
 Exception : — If the adjective in the comparative degree has be 
 (" of it") after it, then n& is not used ; as, no.c bit peippbe bd]b e, 
 " that they would be none the better of it." 
 
 AGREEMENT AND COLLOCATION OF THE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 
 
 First Case — When the adjective is joined immediately with 
 the noun : 
 
 When the adjective is joined immediately with the noun as a 
 
OHAP. III.] THE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 83 
 
 qualifying or limiting terra (as in the English " a high tower,") 
 in this case the following ten rules apply: — 
 
 1. The natural position of the adjective is after its noun; as, 
 c<vbU\c mop, " a great fleet." 
 
 The chief exceptions to this are stated in the next two rules. 
 
 2. Monosyllabic adjectives are often placed before their nouns; 
 as, c<\ol-pe<\p, "slender man; njop p«qpp5e, "great sea;" feub- 
 C4jiji<vi5, " black rock." 
 
 3. Tliis is especially the case with the following adjectives, 
 some of which are hardly ever used after their nouns: be<vj, 
 good; bfioc, evil; pfop., true; T)u<v6, new; re at), old; cu<vc, leit- 
 handed. 
 
 Numeral adjectives form another exception, for which see next 
 chapter. 
 
 4. When a name consists of two words, the adjective comes 
 between them; as, Sl^<vb okSbal-rnop Lu<xcp<v, ".the tremendous- 
 large Slieve Lougher ;" e<uhup} tftfn ^.luinn 2U<vc<\, "the 
 smooth beautitul Eman Macba." 
 
 5. When the adjective follows its noun, it agrees with it in gen- 
 der, Dumber, and case; as, pewp. tn&ic, a good man; f^eni da 
 tx)T)<x rndipe, "the story of the large womau" (gen. sing fern.); 
 ■&T* -at) <viblieir 10 1)5-0.1 rjc<v| 5, "on the wonderlul abyss" (dat. 
 sing. fem.). 
 
 6. When the adjective follows its noun, the initial of the adjec- 
 tive is aspirated under the circumstances already stated in tar. 
 6, page 16; or eclipsed in the circumstance stated in Par. 3, 
 page 34. 
 
 7. When two or more nouns are joined together, and are fol- 
 lowed by an adjective which qualifies or limits them, all and each, 
 the adjective agrees with the last: in other words, it is the last 
 noun omy that influences the adjective, both in grammatical inflec- 
 tion, and in initial change; as, bear) -o5tir pe<vp rn-a-ic, a good 
 woman and man ; pe-op. <v5ur be<vp Th<v|C, a good man and 
 woman. 
 
 8. When the adjective precedes the noun, as in Rule 2 and 3, 
 above, it does not agree with the noun, i.e., it is not influenced by 
 the noun, either as to inflection, or as to initial change; in other 
 words, the simple form of the adjective is used, whatever be the 
 number, gender, or case of the noun; as, rnoft u<virle, "great 
 nobles;" 60 rnop u<virlib, "to [the] great nobles;" bv\r) cno-jc 
 'emeann, " the lair hills of Erin ;" lu<\c bapc-o, " swilt barks ;* 
 FfoT 1 TSeul, "a true story ;" flop. P5eulc<v, " true stories." 
 
 9. When the adjective precedes the noun, the adjective and 
 the noun are sometimes regarded as one compound word; and 
 the initial of the noun is aspirated (in accordance with Par. 4, 
 page 16); also the vowel of the adjective is often modified by the 
 
84 SYNTAX. [PAET III. 
 
 rule c<v.ol le caol, &c.; as, Oeifibrie <xt) Ouib-tHeibe " Deirdre 
 of Dubh-Shliabh;" 615-beAT), " a young woman." 
 
 10. When the adjective precedes the noun, the initial ot the 
 adjective is subject to the same changes as if the adjective and 
 the noun formed one word, i.e., one noun; as 5&in.e n<v t)-6]5- 
 ■pe<x|i, " "the laughter of the young men;" -at) r>arib-oll<nt) rin, 
 "that chief professor;" at) c-re<\. n-be<vn bocc, " tae poor old 
 woman." 
 
 Second Cask — When the adjective is connected with the noun 
 by a verb : 
 
 When the adjective, instead of being joined immediately with 
 the nouD, is predicated of, or ascribed to, the nuun by a verb of any 
 kind (as in the English, "the man is tall," "he considered the 
 man tall," "he made the knife sharp," "the roads were made 
 straight"), in this case the following three rules apply : — 
 
 1. When an adjective is predicated ot a noun by the verb c<\, it 
 follows the noun, the order being:— verb, noun, adjective; as c*v 
 <vn Ia bfie&5. " the day is fine." 
 
 2. When an alj^ctive is predicated of a noun by the verb ir, it 
 precedes the noun, the order being: — verb, adjective, noun; as -|r 
 b[ie&5 <nn l*v e, "it is a fine day.'' 
 
 3. When an adjective is ascribed to a noun by a verb of any 
 kind, the adjective does not agree with the noun, i.e., the adjec* 
 tive is not influenced by it, either initially or inflectionally; in 
 other words, the simple form ot the adjective, without inflection, 
 is used, whatever be the number or gender of the noun; and 
 the initial of the adjective is neithex aspirated nor eclipsed 
 (unless under the influence of some other word); as, -|r <v;b|T)n bo 
 cu<vin -O.CO.Y bo c<vl<xpuiric otc<xr bo rba.5<\. rofnrcocACA 
 c-a.erbd.ilne, "delightful are thy harbors and thy bays, and thy 
 flowery lovely plains:" -e^itT/ cpoicne rieice<\b <\.ri t)a 
 r)-b^cu5oib be*ri5, "and rams' skins dyed red." — (Exodus, 
 xxv. 5). 
 
 The first example (from the story of the Children ot Usna), ex- 
 hibits both an agreement according to Rule 5, page 83, and a dis- 
 agreement according to the present rule. For the three nouns 
 are plural, and the two last adjectives which qualify them directly 
 are in the plural form, while the first adjective, <xib|T)n (modern 
 ■AOibmn), whch is asserted of them by -|r, is in its simple form 
 (the plural would be Aibinne, or -cubne). In the second example 
 cn-oicne is plural, while be<xp5 is singular (plural be<xp5<\.). 
 
 Observe the difference in meaning in the following, according 
 to agreement or disagreement: — Oo ril^ne re t)a brieve 5IAT/A; 
 bo Til^ne T e *)<*■ bti<vic slar: in the first the adjective agrees 
 with the noun, (both being plural), showing that it qualities it 
 directly (Rule 5, page 83), and that the meaning is, "he made the 
 green .mantles;" in the second there is no agreement, (the adjec- 
 
OUAP. IV.] NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 85 
 
 tive being singular and the noun plural), showing that th9 adjec- 
 tive is connected with the noun by the verb (Rale 3, page 84), and 
 that tha meaning is " he made the mantles green." 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. A numeral adjective, whether cardinal or ordinal, when it 
 consists ot one word, goes before its noun; as, cpj r^ri, three men; 
 «wn ban. a. h-<\.ic, "in the second place." 
 
 2. Numeral adjectives, both cardinal and ordinal, from 11 to 
 19 inclusive, take their nouns between the simple numeral and 
 oe-o.5; as, crif c<xp<v|U be<v5, thirteen horses; <vn crtesvr c<vp<\pll 
 be<v5, the thirteenth horse. 
 
 3. ?Voi), one; ba, two; ce<\b, first; and cjiea.r, third, cause 
 aspiration; as, -aon T>eA.ri, one man; b& tbnAOi, two women; -an 
 rpe<k.f fre<\cr, "the third occasion." , 
 
 4. The numerals re<vcc, occ, n<vot, and be]c. cause eclipsis (ex- 
 cept the nnun begins with r, in which case there is no change); a?, 
 re<\cc m-bli<v6uA, "seven years; ' occ rn-ba, " eiglio cows;" 
 n<xoi n-aibne, "nine rivers;" be\c b--piri, "ten men." 
 
 5. TL'3 numera's cn.f, ceicne, CU15, re, the ordinals (except 
 ce-ab and cne<vr: Rule 3 above), and the multiples ot ten, cause 
 no initial change; as, ceicfie 5<\b&iri, "lour hounds. ' 
 
 6. &on, one, and all the multiples often, take their nouns in the 
 singular number; as, -aon l<v, one day ; ce<vb ce-anr), a hundred 
 heads (lit. " a hundred head);'' cp;f c<vo5<xb 1-aoc, "three times 
 fifty heioes ;" rnfle be<vn, "a thousand women." 
 
 7. O&, two, takes both the article and the noun in the singu- 
 lar number; and it the noun be feminine, it will be in the dative 
 form; as bu f:e<i|i, two men; <vr) b*v l<vi,Tn, the two hands. (See 
 next two iules). 
 
 8. If the noun following b'<\. be in the genitive, it will be in the 
 genitive plural ; as, l&T) <x bu l&ri), " the full of his two hands." 
 
 9. Although bi\ takes the article and noun in the singular, yet 
 the adjectives and pronouns referring to the noun will be in the 
 plural, and the noun may also take the plural verb; as, bo 
 jl.u<vire<\bATv <*n ba cn.eir)rbfle<xb tit), "these two strong 
 heroes went;" rio 3<xb -a b*v f ieA.5 CTidpaitirmse cri-anrj-ric-aTrjn.a 
 ■&TX T)<x b-pocriu^ab <v b-puil t)<xcti<xc neirhe, "he took hi-* two 
 wide-socketed, thick-handled spears, they having been bathed in 
 the blood of serpents." Here the two adjectives and the pronoun 
 referring to T^aj, are plural. 
 
86 SYNTAX. [part ni. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. Personal pronouns agree with the nouns they represent, in 
 gender, number, and person; as if rn<vic -an be<vn f, she is a good 
 woman; -|r rn<v|C <vn f e<vti e, he is a good man; ir mdri n<x 
 boioine i<xb, they are great men. 
 
 2. A personal pronoun, or a possessive pronoun, which stands 
 for a sentence or part of a sentence, is third person singular mas- 
 culine; as b'<\ m-beibjr TMP. 'Girie-ann <vn b<vn- n-aS^I^, n<x.c 
 bu ^einu&e 66|b 6, " if the men ot Erin were against you, they 
 would not be the better of it; n (here the pronoun e stands for the 
 sentence). 
 
 3. The accusative forms of the personal pronouns are often used 
 as nominatives: always with if, (see Rule 18, page 90), and 
 with passive verbs (see Rule 20, page 91); and sometimes with 
 other verbs; a?, m&r m<vic t)<v le<x5<v r]b, aji eifjon, '"it ye 
 are the good physicians,' says he." 
 
 II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. A possessive pronoun is never used without a noun. 
 
 In English there are distinct forms of the possessive pronouns 
 which can stand without nouns (mine, thine, hers, &c), but there are 
 no forms corresponding to these in Irish. 
 
 2. The possessive pronouns precede their nouns; as rno ir)'<\i4.]ji, 
 my mother; ■& 5-c<viib<\b, their chariot. 
 
 3. The possessives mo, my; bo, thy; and <v, his, aspirate the 
 initials of their nouns; as mo ce<vnn, my head; bo cor, thy foot; 
 <v Ttjeuri, his finger. 
 
 4. The possessive <v, her, requires the initial of its noun in its 
 primitive state (neither aspirated nor eclipsed), and if the initial 
 be a vowel, it prefixes h; as <v Tn&c<vin., her mother; ■& h-<\.c<!qn., 
 her father. 
 
 5. The possessives &ri, our; boiri, your; and <v, their, eclipse 
 the initial consonants of their nouns (except r, on which they ex- 
 ert no influence), and prefix t) to vowels; as '<\ji b-cfft, our coun- 
 try ; b-cvp. rn-ba, your cows; <v n-<xe<vin, their father. 
 
 6. Possessive pronouns amalgamated with prepositions (see page 
 42,) have the same influence over the initials ot their nouns, as 
 they have in their uncompounded state; as bom cjiO|be, to my 
 heart; 6n<v b-cfp, Irom their country. 
 
 7. The manner of using the emphatic increase after the posses- 
 sive pronouns has been already pointed out in Par. 3, page 42. For 
 an additional Rule of possessives, see Rule 2, above. 
 
OHAP. T.] BELA.TIVE PRONTOTJNS. 87 
 
 in. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. The relative follows its antecedent and precedes its verb ; as, 
 <M) ce <x rub<xlp<vr, the person who shall walk. 
 
 2. The relative aspirates the initial of its verb ; a=, <vr) l<voc -a 
 ti)<xrib <\r> c-<xc<vc, " the hero who slew the giant." To this the 
 next rule is an exception. 
 
 3. When the relative <v signifies "all that," (see Par. ?, page 
 43), it eclipses the initial of its verb; as, a b-pud 6 Shaillpb 
 bitb be<vr, " all that is from Galway southwards;" bo pejp «. 
 n-bubp<vrt)\\ri, " according to what we have said." 
 
 4. When the relative <v is governed by a preposition, expressed 
 or understood, and is followed immediately by a verb to which it 
 is not the nominative, the initial of the verb (except r) is eclipsed ; 
 ;is, <v re x)\6 pi)opp<v b'<\ b-c&inic <x b\\r '' (tiie following) is the 
 circumstance, indeed, from which come Ins death;" <vn bo^c ]t)\ 
 t)-]t]Q]r, "the tent in which they used to eat;" <v bub<vipc 'Fiono 
 50 n-b'on5r)<vb (rfc) 51b be nor <x n-bion30&b OpAnrnAib 1, 
 " Finn said that he would make (peace) in whatever manner Di.-ir- 
 inaid would make it" (here the preposition Ann is understood : 
 51b be T.or " «i)i) " <v n-bior)5nAb Opxrirn<vib f, whatever the 
 manner in which Liarmaid would make it. (See next rule.) 
 
 5. If, in the case stated in the last rule, the verb is in the pa^t 
 tense, with the particle po or bo, the initial of the verb is not 
 eclipsed, but aspirated (see Pars. 1 and 4, pages 50 and 51): as, 
 '&ic -&n. iu]C 0<xp<x De<\p5, "the place in which fell Data 
 Dearg," 
 
 6. The relative precedes the verb which governs it in the ac 
 cusative (as in Euglish); as, <vn cfn. <\. 5p4bui5trn, the country 
 which I love. 
 
 7. As, the relative has no inflection for case, the construction 
 must determine whether the relative is the nominative to the verb 
 which tollows it, oris governed by it in tl e acau ative; as, <vt) 
 c<\ri<x <x 5p.<v6iij5pb' rne, the friend whom 1 love; <vt) c<\p<v <v 
 5P<vbui5e<vp rne, the lriend who loves me. 
 
 8. The relative is often omitted both in the nominative and in 
 the accusative; as, 65I40C bo rhuponqri rl fn rnic Pe)l, co^nic 
 uoqb bo bp<xc n<v 'Gifiionp, "a youth of the people of Nin Mac 
 Peil (who) came from him to view Erin." ?ln le<xb<xn. rio rcpicb 
 fC<vrnbpenpir) bo cu<\par5b<vpl 'eipjonp, "the book (which) 
 Cambrensis wrote on the history of Erin." 
 
 9. The relative <v is often disguised by combination with other 
 words and particles, especially with rio, the mark of the past 
 tense; as, <\.n rip. on. c&inic rrje, "the country from which I 
 came " (here 6ji=6 <\ no); pl*M5 len. rn<vpb<\b nof rnfle bjo',>, 
 "a plague, by which were killed nine thou-and of them r (here 
 leru=le <v po) ; at) cfn- b'<\. b-cainjc re, the country to which 
 he came (b*v;=bo <x); l& b<xp cornop<\b <xon<vc le P15 'eipecvnn, 
 
88 SYNTAX. . [PART III. 
 
 " a day on which was convoked an assembly by the king of Erin" 
 (bAn=bo -a. po); T)f bed.5 liomr<\. <xp floinneaf pem map 
 ein-ic, "I do not think it little what I have named as an ectc." 
 ?lp=A po, m which <v means " all that," (see Par. 3, page 43). 
 
 IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. The demonstrative pronouns follow their nouns or pronouns ; 
 as, <vn pe^p np, "that man;" cpa. he tip? " who is that?" 
 
 Exception — When the verb ir in any of its forms is understood ; 
 as, rub b<vp 5-cuib, "yonder (is) your meal;" to <vp I a, ''this 
 is the day." 
 
 2. If the noun be followed by one or more adjectives, the de- 
 monstrative pronoun comes last; as, cia -ap pe<\ri b<*.ll<\c b]pn- 
 bpi AcpAC ub ? " Who is that fre kled, sw r eet-worded man?" 
 
 V. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. A interrogative pronoun comes first in the sentence; as, ca 
 b-puil rno leabap? " where is my book? ' c^a At) laoc uo <\p 
 5u<vl<vmn 5t)oill? "who is that hero at the shoulder of Goll ?" 
 
 This rule holds good even when the interrogative is governed 
 by a preposition, i.e., the preposition follows the interrogative 
 that it governs; as, CAb at cii? " out of what (place art) thou?" 
 50 00 map cA cii ? "how do you do?" (literally "like to what 
 art thou?") crieab p&. <\p eip5e<vb<xp? " what tor did }e rise ?" 
 
 2. When uile precedes its noun, it means "every;" when it 
 follows the noun it means "all;" as, rlAn on ttjle 3<vl<vri, 
 "sound from every sickness;" bo b<\c<vb <vn cine baonA 30 
 fy-AOt) occ<vp, " all the human race was drowned, all to (except) a 
 single eight." 
 
 There are occasional exceptions ; as, bpop5 ApjbejorAC it P<* 
 b-nile fubAilcib, "people ignorant in all virtues" (in this pas- 
 sage, from Keating, uple means "all," though it precedes its 
 noun). 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 THE VERB. 
 
 1. As a general rule the verb precedes its nominative; as, bo 
 5lu<vir Fep^ur, "Fergus went;" bo cl<voibe<vb 2lh\c Sappapb, 
 " Mac Garraidh was defeated." (See next Rule). 
 
 2. When the nominative is a relative or an interrogative pro- 
 noun, it precedes the verb; and sometimes also in poetry, the 
 nominative, even though a noun, precedes the verb; as, Ap ce a 
 Tiubalpar, "the person who will walk;" cpeub AcAAnpro? 
 " what is here?" Oe6p<vp5ce rfopa, 5<vn rspt 5AT) ror mf<\p<\ib, 
 
OHAP. VI.] TIIE VEISB. 89 
 
 •a. b-cin- "f ■* r)-bucc<\.f, " perpetual exile9, without pause or rest, 
 long-lor theii country and their native-home." 
 
 3. When the verb is transitive, i.e., when it governs the accusa- 
 tive (see Rule 9, below), the usual order is verb, nomiuative, 
 object; as, bo <vi5el CorjcobAn tiofi^c, " Conchobhar addressed 
 Burach;" bo tfoi) 5n&ir)ne -an conn, "Grainne filled the goblet." 
 
 4. But wben the accusative is a relative or an interrogative 
 pronoun, the usual order is, pronoun (or accusative), verb, nomi- 
 native; " as, <vn l-cvoc <v conoquc me <vne, " the hero whom, I saw 
 yesterday;" c<vb bein cu? " what sayest thou?" 
 
 5. When the verb z'<\ is used, the usual order is, verb, nomina- 
 tive, predicate; as, c&]b n<v ueulc<v no-lonr)ft<vc, "the stars are 
 very bright." 
 
 6. When the verb ir, expressed or understood, is used, the 
 usual order is, verb, predicate, nominative; as, b<v binne <v 5ldn 
 7)'<\ cedL T)'<\ n-eun, " her voice was sweeter than the music ot the 
 birds:' t)| p<vb<v uaic <vr) &ic, "not (is) far from thee the 
 place." 
 
 Exception — If the article is used before the predicate, or if the 
 predicate is a proper name, the order is, verb, subject, predicate; 
 as, ir ciifA -at) cjn no-<voibinn, "thou art the delightful coun- 
 try;" ir me Cfar), tt)ac C^irjce, "I am Cian, the sen ot Caiute;" 
 ■an cu V]OT)J) ? " art thou Finn ?" 
 
 7. The only cases in which there is agreement between the verb 
 and its nominative, are (1) when the nominative and verb are 
 both third person singular; (2) when a noun or pronoun in third 
 plural has a verb in third plural, in accordance with Par. 9, 
 page 45. 
 
 It may be doubted whether (1) is a genuine case of agreement ; 
 and the general absence of agreement between verb and nomina- 
 tive is further exemplified in the following rule: — 
 
 8. When two or more nouns, whether singular or plural, joined 
 by a conjunction, are nominatives to one verb, the verb has the 
 third person singular form; as, bo 5lu&ir One^r -a^ur na. 
 bn<xoice TidmpA, "Breas and the druids went forward." 
 
 9. A transitive verb governs the noun or pronoun which is the 
 object of the action, in the accusative case; as, buail e, "s'.rike 
 him;" bo cuine<\b<vn Cu<xc<v Oe 0<vn<vnn ceo bnaoibe<\cc<v ] 
 T)-a. b-cirnce<vll t:ein, "the Tuatha de Dananns put a magical 
 mist around themselves." 
 
 10. The initial of a verb in the infinitive mood is aspirated, un- 
 less the aspiration is prevented by some special influence. 
 
 11. The preposition le or ne before the infinitive active often 
 gives it a passive signification; as, (le<xb<qn e^le) -ac& ne 
 b-£<vicr it) 1 n-'eininn, " (other books) which are to be seen in 
 Erin." 
 
00 SYNTAX. [PAET III. 
 
 But in many such constructions the preposition expi esses pur- 
 pose, and the signification is active; as, -&3ur 50 m-bjb oll<*.n) 
 Tie bei)<vrh penile -cqri -a ce^le, "and that they are ready to do 
 treachery on each other." 
 
 12. The infinitive, even without the preposition le, has often a 
 passive signification; as, "Fiac]i<v, rn<xc ?^lene, ei5e<xnn<v 
 VJ^u^bofin, bo TT)<v|ibab, " Fiachra, son of Ailene, lord of Mourne, 
 to be slain " (lit. " Fiachra, &c, to slay"): <v5ur <xt) pe^n n-ac 
 qobn<vb (<xn cfor) j]X) ti<xib, <v fftorj bo bu<vin 6f)<v ce<vnr) be, 
 " and the man who would not pay that tribute from him, his nose 
 to be cut off from his head." 
 
 13. One verb governs another that follows it or depends upon 
 it in the infinitive mood; as ba. m-b<vb n<vc n<vcp<\b cl<vnnA 
 2DoifiT)e b'lATiTKMb' V* 5-c-aou r^n, " if it were so that tlie Olann 
 Morna had not Csme to seek those berries." 
 
 The following very important rule was first enunciated by 
 O'Donovan, and is given here in his own words (" Irish Gram- 
 mar," page 387) : 
 
 14. " When the governed verb is one expressing motion or 
 gesture, which aoes not govern the accusative, the sign bo is 
 never prefixed; as, bub<v|nc re Mom bul 50 Conc<q5, 'he told 
 me to go to Cork.' " 
 
 15. It the noun which is the object of a transitive verb in the 
 infinitive mood follows the verb, it is in the genitive case; as, 
 c^T)5<xb<vTi c<vbl<vc mofi bo be<\.T)<vTt) cojuib, "a great fleet 
 came to make war " (nom. co5<xb. war: gen. cosuib); bo rf>il- 
 le<\b clojnne lift, " to kill the children ot Lir." 
 
 16. A. noun or pronoun, which is the object of a transitive verb 
 in the infinitive mood, often precedes the verb, and in this case it 
 is (not in the genitive, as in the last rule, but) in the accusative; 
 as, <v5ttr ire<\b bo 5010b, b*v cu&jlle bo cuu 1 b-c<v Itt)<vit> 
 <v5ur ce<\ww <\r) r-rn&ice bo ce<xt)5<xl b<x 5<vc cuaille biob, 
 <v5iir uball bo cun <\in tt)u.U<\.c cu<v|lle <vc<v, "and it is what 
 he used to do, two poles to put in the earth, and the end ot a thread 
 to lie to each pole of them, and an apple to put on the top ot a 
 pole of them." 
 
 17. The active participle ot a transitive verb governs the noun 
 which is the object ot the action, in the eeuitive case; as, aj 
 bnuicne<\b <vt) oirt, "smelting the gold" (lit. " smelting of the 
 gold") ; bo b| <vn 5<vob<vl jo A5 munab rcol, " this Gaodhal 
 was teaching schools" (lit. "teaching of schools"); <V5 cockle 
 T)<x c<xlrn<\n, " digging the ground." 
 
 18. The verb }r in any of its forms, expressed or understood, 
 takes the accusative form of a personal pronoun as its nominative ; 
 as, 11* 1 ce&bpAb bnoinse ne re<xr)c\xr, " it is the opinion of 
 some historians;" if mjc ni5 50 pffiinneac ^b, "they are truly 
 
CHAP. VII.] PREPOSITIONS. 91 
 
 eons ot a king;" a^ut 1 FiAFn<M5eAr at) TI15 cia 1)-iAb peit), 
 "and the king asks who they (are). ' 
 
 19. Tlie verb if is very often omitted, especially in negative and 
 interrogative sentences, and in answer to questions; as, beACA at) 
 TCAriAi6e pfnmne, "truth (is) the food of the historian;" ce<vt)r) 
 Dr)|ar%roub<v Ui Ofyuibne ah ce<vnn ttb, "that head (is) the 
 head of Diarmaid O'Duibhne;" cia cut-a? rnin JoIIat), "who 
 (art) thou? I (am) Iollan;" at) ^fonv rit)? "whether (is) that 
 true r nf ")irh " (it is) not I." 
 
 20. A verb in the passive voice takes the accusative form of a 
 personal pronoun as its nominative; as, beAT)CAji e, " it is done ;" 
 bu<v|lce<vTi iAb, "they are struck." 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. A simnle preposition governs the dative (including the abla- 
 tive, for which there is no distinct inflection); as, caithc re 50 
 Conc<xi5, "he came to Cork ," -0.5 coir at) c-rleibe, "a. the foot 
 of the mountain ;" Ain-rbib ctiib bo t)a h-u^bATiAib. t ome of 
 the authors reckon." (See next rule for exception). 
 
 2. The preposition ibifi generally governs the accusai:Y»i n the 
 singular, an 1 the dative in the plural; as, *biTt Coticac A5ur 
 luimneac, "between Cork and Limer:ck ;" ib]ri t)a coi5eAbAib, 
 "between the provinces." 
 
 3. The prepositions at)T), 50, i<xti, tiia, le or Tie, and cati, take 
 X before at), the article, the r being sometimes joined with the 
 prepo?ition and sometimes with the article; as, at)T)T" at) leAbAfi, 
 or at)t) tad leAbATi, "in the book;" leir at) b-peArt, "with 
 the man." (See Par. 7, page 21). 
 
 4. The compound prepositions govern their nouns in the geni- 
 tive; as, bo riu5 at) conna riir a t)-a5<vi6 at) ct)uic, "he 
 brought the tun with him against the hill; a B-pi<xbT)uire b-peATi 
 T)-'einionT), •' in presence of the men of Erin;" bo 5lu«if- 
 eabATl ClAT)T) CuiTXeAT)T) TXOTT)Pv\ b'ioT)T)ruibe AT) caca, "the 
 children ot Tuireann went forwards towards the battle.''' 1 
 
 The following prepositions, earn, towards; b&lA, as to; beif, 
 after; iottjcut-a, as to; n)e<\r5 or Art)eAr5, amongst; rieiTi, ac- 
 cording to ; and citt)C1oII, about, although having the form of 
 simple prepositions, are in reality compound, and take their nouns 
 in the genitive. (See end of Par 3, page 73). 
 
 As a compound preposition consists of a noun governed by a 
 simple preposition, it is in reality the noun-part of the compound 
 preposition that governs the noun in the genitive, in accord- 
 
92 SYNTAX. [PAET III 
 
 ance with Rule 1, page 79: thus, the expression above, <v 
 t)-<v5<v.i6 -cvr; ct)Uic, is literally " in the face of tlie hill," where 
 cnujc is governed in the genitive by <v5<v|6, face; and so of the 
 others. 
 
 5. The simple prepositions, except bo, be, 5<xr), and ib^i, gen- 
 erally cause eclipsis in singular nouns when the article is used; as, 
 6"n 5-cnoc TMn, "from tliat hill;" 015 <vr) TT)-b<vile n<x h-inre, 
 f|<v^, "at the town of the island, in the west." (See page 22). 
 
 6. The simple prepositions generally cause aspiration when the 
 article is not expressed ; as, <\-|fi b-ajiri. <vn Cfioinn, " on the top 
 of the tree;" d rhun.<v|b n<v Ce<vri)p.<vc, ''from the ramparts of 
 Tara." 
 
 Exception 1 : <x or 1, 1*71, and 50 (when it means " with") cause 
 eclipsis without the article; as, <v rn t3<vile-<xc-a-cli&c, " in Baile- 
 atha-cliath (Dublin);" -\<x-\x n-Ojlinr), " alter the Deluge." 
 
 Exception 2 : -0.5, le, and sometimes 50 cause no change in the 
 initial, and 5<xr) may either aspirate or not; as, rl&n le W<\]^, 
 "farewell to (the river) Maigue;" "o'n c-S|ot)Uipn "Hop. 5° 
 F<MT l T"-5 e ) " from the Shannon east to the sea-' 
 
 7. When a simple preposition ending in a vowel comes before 
 the possessive <v (whether it signifies his, her, or their), the letter 
 T) is inserted between the vowels; as, C|ie n-<v b<vr<xib, '■'through 
 his hands;" <vt) l& 50 i)-<v l&r) c-riollre, " the day with its abun- 
 dant light.*' 
 
 Except after bo and be ; as, c<\.15<vifi f eurv b'*v c<xp<\U, " give 
 grass to his horse;" b^]t) 5eu5 b'a. 5-cri<vnn, " taKe a branch 
 from their tree." 
 
 Before any other word beginning with a vowel, the letter h is 
 usually inserted after these prepositions ; as, bo cu<v|b re 50 
 h ?Ub<vio, "he went to Alban (Scotland,)." 
 
PABT rv.] 
 
 IDIOMS. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 IDIOMS. 
 
 An idiom, in the sense in which it is used here, may be defined : — 
 An expression that has acquired by usage a certain meaning, 
 which becomes lost in a word-tor-word translation into another 
 language; so that in order to convey the true meaning in that 
 other language, the form of expression must be changed. 
 
 Thus, "t& <vn leab^ri -0.5 <\t) bum© " is an idiom, tor its sense 
 is lost in the word-for-word translation, li the book is at the 
 man ;" and, in order to convey the true meaning, the English ex- 
 pression must be changed to " the man has the book." 
 
 Idioms constitute one of the chief difficulties in learning any 
 language; and the student is recommended to master this Part, 
 in which the principal idioms of the Irish language are explained 
 and illustrated. 
 
 1. The Infinitive governing Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 The infinitive of a transitive verb governs its object in the geni- 
 tive (Syntax, Rule 15, page 90). When the object, instead ot being 
 a noun, is a personal pronoun, then, according to the analogy of 
 the Rule quoted, it should be in the genitive case. But the genitive 
 of a personal pronoun is a possessive pronoun ; and possessive 
 pronouns precede the words they refer to; so that the pronoun 
 wi.ich represents the object of the action, is a possessive, and pre- 
 cedes the infinitive, influencing its intial as if it were a noun (see 
 Syntax, page 86, Rules 3, 4, 5). This gives rise to idiomatic expres- 
 sions like the following, which are of very frequent occur- 
 rence : — 
 
 To strike 
 
 English. Irish. 
 
 'me, bo rno bu<xl<v6, 
 
 thee, bo bo bu<vl<vb, 
 
 him, bo <v bu<xl<\b, 
 
 •; her, bo <v bu<xl<\b, 
 
 us, bo <\ri rn-bu<vl<vb, 
 
 you, bo bufi rn-bu<\l<\.b, 
 
 them, bo -a m-bu<xlAb, 
 
 Contracted to. 
 born' bu<xl-&b\ 
 bob' bualokb. 
 b& bu<xl<vb. 
 b<x. bu<vl<xb. 
 b*vri TT)-bu<vl<vb. 
 (not contracted). 
 b& rn-bu<il<\b. 
 
 These may be translated literally, " to my striking" "to their 
 striking," &c. 
 
 A like construction prevails in the case of a transitive participle: 
 aj a bu<vl<vb, " striking him;" -a.5 <v bu<vl<vb, '' striking her;" A5 
 fcri rn-bu<vl<vb, "striking us," &c. In this construction the par- 
 
94 IDIOJJB. [PAET IV. 
 
 ticiple may itself be governed in the genitive case by a noun: — 
 clinic Tnf<vn <v Tt)&jibc<v b<vrn ^e]t), "a desire to kill them, has 
 come to me ' (lit. "a desire of the killing of them," or " of their 
 
 killing.") 
 
 2. Compound Prepositions governing Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 A compound preposition governs the genitive (Rule 4, page 91) ; 
 and wht n the governed word is not a noun but a personal pro- 
 noun, this last becomes a possessive, and goes before the noun- 
 part of ihc compound preposition, giving rise to idiomatic phrases, 
 corresponding with those quoted in last Idiom. Example; <v|ri 
 ro^, for the sake of; <vifi <v. for), for his sake; oiiji hurt rot), for 
 your *ake, &c. Do cu<v]b Oi<\.n.rn<vib b& h-e*r, "Diarmaid went 
 alter her;" c&ir)ic tinne<vr onri<v petn, -cvsur <vri <t rl|occ 't)-<v 
 r)-bi<vi6, "sickness came upon themselves, and on their posterity 
 after them.'' 
 
 A similar construction often occurs with the compound adverbs. 
 Example: coiri <v|r, "backwards;" bo cu<vi6 re cari <v <v-r, "he 
 weut backwards;" too cu&ib rj c<\ri <v h <\.ir, " she went back- 
 wards;" bo ctt<\-|b i*i ab c-ari <v t)-<\]y, "they went back- 
 wards,'" &c. 
 
 3. To die. 
 
 " To die," is very often expressed in Irish by a phrase meaning 
 "to find death:" the verb f:<v5, fiad, being used for this purpose, 
 in its various forms; as, <xt) baria bl-|oi3<v-T> b\\ e*r r"n T*u&iri 
 ]rii<vl bar, "the second year after that Irial found death;" <v5ur 
 rn&r -anr) <vc'<\. <\ n-b&n b<vrr) b&r b'j:&5A*l, " and it it be here 
 that it is in fate for me death to find" (i.e., " that it is fated for me 
 to die.") 
 
 There is, however, a single verb b'eus, meaning to die, but it 
 is not used so often as the above. The following example exhibits 
 both forms: — 2V be*ri cn/|b bo t)<\ re<vnu5b<vfKvib 5tiri <xb ■&. 
 T)5leoiT)r) b<x loc<x ^iicuri. NAorh Pvxbn.u'5 b*vr; b|ob 50 
 T)-<xbri<xib briur)5 o'le surKvb -ann ?lribmac<v b'eu5 re, " some 
 of the old authors say that it is in Glendalough St. Patrick found 
 death, although another party say that it is in Armagh he died." 
 
 4. Nominative Absolute. 
 
 What is called the nominative absolute in English is expressed 
 in Irish by the preposition <v|ri (on), or -|<vri (after), placed belore 
 the participle, and the preposition bo (to) before the noun; which 
 will be understood from the following examples: — <vfi rn-beic 
 •&c<v f*Ab<x too Chorirn&c <v5 -a. b-j:eiqorh, " Cprmac having been 
 a long time watching them " (lit. " on being a long time to Cor- 
 mac a-watching of them") : <y5ur <\-|Ti Tn-be*6 oU<xrb bon lums, 
 " and the ship being ready" (lit. " and on being ready to the 
 sbip"); <v5ur.<vif% i)-bul <v lttit)5 b6|b t "and they having gone 
 
PAKT IT.] IDIOMS. 95 
 
 into a ship:" (lit. "and on going into a ship to them 1 ') ; i<vn. 
 in-be^c cpe<vn if *i) eft 1 bop*}, " they having grown strong in tae 
 country" (lit. " after being strong in the country to ihem.' } 
 
 5. To have no help tor a thing. 
 
 The Irish phrase corresponding to this is " to have no strength 
 (ne<vnc) on a thing:" the having being expressed in accordance 
 with Idiom 34. Nf b-£Uil ne<vpc <v,5<un. <v|p <vp T)i6 ftp, " I 
 have no help lor that thing — I cannot help that" (lit. " there is to 
 me no strength on that thing"). ?^5ur bubAipx 5p«vipne p<\c 
 p<vpb peapc <\~\ce peio <vip, "andGrainne said that she had no 
 help lor it" (or " could not help it," " could not have prevented 
 it'). Sometimes lei5e<vr, lemedy or cure, is used in the same 
 way as i)e-o.n.c. 
 
 6. To cause a thing to be done. 
 
 To cause a thing to be done, to have it done, to see that it is 
 done, is often expressed in Irish by bo cup. (or bo c<\.b<qpc) ip'<\ 
 be<vp<v, " to put (or bring, or give,) under notice." ?^5ur po 
 cuip 2U|o6<vc ?■&. t)be<\.n<v uip. lore Cujle bo cup. ^uib, "and 
 Miodliach caused the mould (or soil) of Inis Tuile to be placed 
 under you;" bo pu5 (p.f5) bpeac b&ir -&-|p <x.p m-bpeice<un, 
 <v-5ur CU5 -pA be-a.p<\. <v cp.oc<vb, u (che king), passed sentence of 
 death on the judge, and had him hanged" ("put under notice him 
 to hang," or " his hanging"). 
 
 7. Number of individuals of which a company is composed. 
 
 The number of individuals of which any collection of persons or 
 things is made up, is often inserted, in the nominative form, in a 
 narrative sentence, without any syntatical connection with the 
 rest of the sentence. ?^5ur c<vipic Lip poirpe Appcvrp&p&c, 
 c-ao,5<vc c<*ippce-ac, 6 Shjoc t)ui6b Oe-||S3, "and Lir set out on 
 the morrow, titty chariot-men, trom Shee Bove Lerg" (i.e., with 
 chariots); <v5itr clinic Dobb Oe<vp5, paoi ceab fptceAb, b<\. 
 p-1onprui5e; "and Bove Derg came, twenty-nine hundred men, 
 towards them." 
 
 This is like the English: — "The Duke began his march next 
 morning, 20,000 strong." 
 
 8. Passive Verbs used impersonally. 
 
 A passive verb is often used impersonally; as, 5<vbr<v cU5<v]00 
 <xtt)<vc, <v.,5«r pf l<Mpp<vp pup^u^Ab ope, "come forth to us, and 
 no one will dare to wound thee:" (literally, "and it will not be 
 dared [to put] wounding on thee"). 
 
 Ihis form of expression is ot very frequent occurrence in the 
 older narrative writings:— thus, instead of " they advance; they 
 plunge into the (river) Crond," the writer expresses himself in 
 this way:- -"it is advanced; it is plunged into the Crond." 
 
96 IDIOMS. [PABT IV. 
 
 9. Nominatives before Infinitives and Participles. 
 
 Instead of the usual assertive construction, consisting of a verb 
 with its nominative (noun or pronoun), the following construction 
 is often adopted: — the verb is put in tbe infinitive or participial 
 form, and the subject (whether noan or personal pronoun) is 
 placed before it, the pronoun being placed in the accusative form 
 (but whether the noun is nominative or accusative cannot be de- 
 termined, as there is no distinction of form); as, -|r <xri)l<x.i6 bj 
 Il<vin <*5ur Oeijibrie, A5ur at) cerjncAirf) ec<v|xTi<x, <\5ur ]<xb 
 ■*3 1*1)1 T*c umiie, " it is in this manner Naisi and Deirdre were 
 (seated), and the Cencchaimh (a chess board) between tliem, and 
 they pitying on it ;" if <vri)lAib Go b] CobcAC, -a^ur e -a.^ re-ATi- 
 3<v6, "it is thus Cobhtach was, and he pining away;" cuijiiof 
 rceula 50 OlAcnuib e pem bo beic Ann rin, "he sends word 
 to Blanid, he himself to be there" (i.e., " that he himself was 
 there' 1 ). 
 
 This form of expression is often adopted, even when the verb or 
 participle is (not expressed but) understood; as, bo cuip. (<xn cu) 
 a ce<\.T)n a n-ucc Ohl<vnmub<v <i5iir e ioa cobl-A "(the hound) 
 put her head in the breast of Diarmaid, and he in his sleep.' 1 '' 
 
 IO. One person meeting another. 
 
 " Donall met Fergus" is often expressed in Irish in the following 
 way: — Oo CArAb "FeriTjur <v|u Dott)T)aU; literally, " Fergus was 
 met (or turned) on Donall.'" Do c<\r<vb &oibell tja CfiAi^e 
 le]ce oriuinn, "we met Eevel of Craglea" (lit. "Eevel of Craglt-a 
 was met [or turned] on us 1 '): c]<x CArpAibe OTim acc rcitAib- 
 be<xn, " whom should I meet but the fair woman" (" who should 
 be met on me"). 
 
 The same idea is expressed by the verb catiIa, happened : A5ur 
 cajvIa 05IAC orxp-CA <v|i TT)-bo5AC,, "and they met a youth on 
 the moor" (lit. "and a youth happened on [or to] them"); 
 crqalluib 50 Sl"|Ab SD^f 50 cc&u.Ia DarjbA 50 t)-a btiAOiqU 
 on-TiA Ant), "they travel to Slieve Mish, until they met Bauba 
 with her druids there" ("until Banba with her druids happened 
 on [or to] them there"). 
 
 11. Although: Although not. 
 
 5-|or) 50, or 5ion 511 ft, has two opposite meanings which can 
 only be distinguished by the general sense of the passage: some- 
 times "although" (or "although that"), and sometimes "although 
 not," 
 
 Although : — a "Fhinn, ati Or^Aft, 3101) 51171 po^re mo 3A0I 
 buicre r>A bo OhiAfimuib O'Ohujbne, '" O Finn,' says Oscar, 
 ' although my relationship with thee is nearer than to Diarmaid 
 O'Duiblme.' " 
 
 Although not: — bo befium cornAfftle ihAic bfb, a ChlAfni) 
 U-1f015, 5ion 50 T)-bencAfv lib \, " 1 shall give a good counsel to 
 
PART IV.] IDIOMS. 97 
 
 you, 9 sons of Usna, though it will not be done by you;" 5jon 
 51171 ceixnfib Tt)T)& <vn n|6 r^n, "although that proceeding would 
 not be the business ot a woman." . 
 
 12. To be able. 
 
 To be able to do a thing is expressed in different ways. The 
 most usual is by phrases of the type, ir ?e ]b] fi le, "it is possible 
 with;" as, ir "pejbiri- lion) <v be<x.t)«.6, ''lean doit" (lit. "it is 
 possible with me to do it"). See Idiom 1. 
 
 Another, and more idiomatic way, is by the verb c\5]rt), "I 
 come," in its various moods and tenses; and with this verb "I 
 can do," or " I am able to do," is expressed by "it comes with 
 me to do ;" as, rnuna. b-ci5e<vb p-pr <xn c<\.ille<vc b'<xrn<xr, "un- 
 less be would be able to strike the hag" (lit. " unless it would 
 come with him the hag to strike"); -&cc ppr bo^se pinn in<\ 
 X]t) n)<v]x <vc<xib &p. b-CTtf ^einnibe ce<\r)5<\ilce ip&p. b-£i<*b- 
 nuire, <*5ur t}<vc b-ci5 |%tt) r> "T5<\opleAb bfoli, " and we think 
 more grievous than that, how our three champions are bound in 
 our presence, and that we are not able to tree them;" nf cuifv 
 e<von u<vl<\6 oppAipn p<vc b-ci5 b|t)T) <v ion)C<\p, " he puts not a 
 burden on us that we are not able to bear." 
 
 Sometimes the verb c<\ or 11* is used instead of 05, and also the 
 preposition -A.5 instead of le; as, 6 t)ac Ipm but on 3-conc<v* 
 baipe ro, "since I cannot escape irom this danger" (" since it is 
 not with me to go from this danger": here p|* is understood); 6 
 r)<vc b-f u^l bul u<\]b <X5UU), " since I cannot escape trom him" 
 ("since it is not with me to go from him"): here c<\ and -0.5 are 
 used, as in " possession :" Idiom 34. 
 
 13. One of a pair. 
 
 One of a pair is often expressed by the word le<vc, half; le<vc- 
 cor, "one foot" (lit. "half-foot"'). In this compound the word 
 le<xc is used adjectively, so that le-ac-cor means, not half of & 
 foot, but a half -foot (i.e., a foot which is itself a half, i.e., half of a 
 pair). So also le-ac-fupl, "one eye;" leAC-c<\ob, "one side," 
 &c. ]r <xrnl<xib bo b] <vn P15 fi*) <V5UT leac-l<vTh <vm,5lb <v|fi, 
 "it is thus that king was, and one hand of silver on him." 
 
 14. To be alone. 
 
 The word •&or)<v[i, which the dictionaries now interpret as mean- 
 ing "alone," was oiiginally a concrete numeral noun like cpiufx, 
 cui5e<vjx, &c. (page 37), and meant "one person;" and this 
 meaning it retains to some extent in its present application :--bo 
 fiub<xl rne <v'rn -Aorxvp, "I walked alone" (lit. " I walked in my 
 one person" [see Idiom 42] : or " I walked as one person") ; bo 
 f |ub<vl cu <vb' <vot)<v|x, "thou walkedst alone;" bo fpib<vl rj n-<v 
 
98 IDIOMS. [PABT IT. 
 
 h-<x.on<\.p, " she walked alone," &c. ; *ro <xop<vp. re<vl <v rptb&l 
 bibear, " aloae, of a time, walking I was." 
 
 Another way of saying in Irish, "he is alone" is "he is with 
 himself:""c&. me 1mm fein, "I am alone (''I am with myself '): 
 c'<x ci'i le<\.c pe]n, " tliou art alone;" c& ri<xb leo fe|n, "they 
 are alone;" c<x mo rp'<viepfo 'n-a coblab, <x5Uf TOIfe Mom pejn, 
 '• my mother is asleep, and I am alone." 
 
 15. One thing given for another. 
 
 When you give or take, sell or buy, one thing for another, it is 
 expressed in Irish by saying you give it &c, on that other, the pre- 
 position <vip being used. Oo CU5 re cn.f b<v <vip <vr> 5-capall 
 rip, "be gave three cows for that horse;" <\.fri '6ipe r>f 'neo- 
 r<\inn c-|<v h-f, " for Erin I would not tell who she is" ('ne6r<\.ipr) 
 for ir)neor<*inn, see page 54). 
 
 In this sense, trie preposition <v|p is set before the noun of price ; 
 bo ce<vonui5eAr -a.nbo b<vp rm <vfri re y>(i]t)c, "I bought that 
 wbite cow for six pounds;" nf 1) 10050*, <vp Copmac, 6|p ir 
 m&in <\p lu<vc cu^Af uippe, "'No wonder,' says Oormac, 'for 
 good is the price I gave lor it.' " 
 
 16. Debt. 
 
 Tbefact tbat Dunall owes Fergus money, or thatDonall is under 
 any obligation to pay money to Fergus, is expressed by saying, 
 " Fergus has money on Donall," the preposition <vp> being used 
 before tbe name ot the debtor, and the act of "having" being 
 expresstd by c<v and <v,^ as in Idiom 34. C& crif pu]nc <\5 "Feri- 
 Tjnr <MP OorhpAU, " Donall owes three pounds to Fergus;" r/<\ 
 be<xp e^te <v T)6oc<v|ll <v b-puil oqci copdio<MP, " there is 
 another woman in Yougbal to whom he owes a crown" ("to 
 whom is a crown on him'); if -a.ml<Mb bo bf «.p PI5 ro, <v5Uf 
 c|or c&in mop cpom -a.5 "Fomop<vi5 <vp Cuaca De Oan<vnn pe 
 n-<v lion, "it is how tbis king was, and (that) the Fomorians bad 
 a great heavy tribute and rule over the TuatbaDe Dananns during 
 bis time" (" a great heavy tribute and rule was with the Fomo- 
 rians on the Tuatha De Dananns"). 
 
 17. Asking, entreating, <fcc. 
 
 To ask, request, entreat, or demand of a person, is expressed by 
 " to ask, &c, on that person :" l&pp <xip 01)|<x p<v 3P&r<v r]p, 
 " ask of God those graces." 
 
 l«i. Sensation, suffering, &c. 
 
 That a person is hungry, thirsty, cold, afraid, sick, &c, is ex- 
 pressed m Irish by saying that hunger, thirst, cold, fear, sickness, 
 &c , is on him, the preposition <xip being used : c'<\ p uacc oritp 
 ('cold is on me"), "I am cold;'' i)'<\ bjob e*5l<v ope (" let not 
 tear be on thee"), "be notatraid; 1 ' bo bf c<\.]ic mop<vip SheA5<vp 
 
PAET IV.] IDIOMS. 99 
 
 (" great thirst was on John"), "John was very thirsty;" 1 c&b e 
 y\r) one? (" what is that on thee? ') "what ails you?" 3V cuirle 
 Tip cuoibe, crieub f <vt) 511.ua.1rn T10 otic? "O pulse of my heart, 
 what is that frown on thee V 
 
 19, 
 
 One person entertaining feelings (of love, hatred, &c.) towards 
 
 another. 
 
 That Donall entertains certain feelings towards Fergns is ex- 
 pressed hy saying that Donall has such feelings on Fergus; the 
 preposition <nn- being used before "Fergus,"' and the act of 
 "having" being expressed by c& and -0.5, as in Idiom 34: — nf rno 
 <vr) cion no b*v -A.5 3U>n,5ur opera ina. <vn cion no b& A.5 Tnuio- 
 cin &on5ur<v. an n)<vc -an ne<\cc<vme, 50 naib porirrjab mdn 
 <vn c'<vcam £& P -a cionn rin, "not greater was the affection 
 Aonghus felt for thee than the affection tlie people of Aonghus 
 felt tor the son of the steward, so that thy father felt great jeal- 
 ousy on that account" (lit. "not greater was the affection which 
 
 was with Aonghus on tliee, so that great jealousy 
 
 was on thy father on the head of that:" see Idiom 32). 
 
 Where the agent is not specified, a similar form ot expression is 
 retained: you are loved, is expressed by love is on you; you are 
 esteemed, by estimation is on you, &c. ; C\v meat" <v,5iir cion mou 
 ■ain Orc<vn (•' great esteem and love are on Oscar'), " Oscar 
 is greatly esteemed and loved" 
 
 80. To know : to know a person. 
 
 To know is usually expressed in Irish by the phrase knowledge 
 is with me, I have knowledge; and to know a person by "to 
 have or to give knowledge on a person:" '" <\5ur <VH b-pu.il -a 
 f^or a.^-ab -pem, -a "Fbinn?' 'njb-cuil' -an 'Pionn:" "'do you 
 know it. O Finn?' 'I do not,' says Finn;" (lit. "is its knowledge 
 with you, O Finn?" " It is not,'' savs Finn) : <vn &-1 leae nor 
 b'p&^ail ? "do you wish to know?" ("is it a desire with yoi 
 knowledge to get?"; biob -a f^or A5<vc, -a. leu^coin, " know, O 
 reader" (" be it-* knowledge with thee, O reader' ): (strangers are 
 seen coming towards Finn and his party), no f:lApn<M5 Fionn 
 bo c&c <\.n b-cu^abAn -a'cne onpea, " Finn asked of the others 
 did they know them" (lit. "did they put knowledge on ttiem"); 
 -&5ur eu^Airre -aicne onrn, 'and thou knewest me" (.lit. "and 
 thou didst put knowledge on me'). 
 
 81. To part from: to separate from. 
 
 To separate from a per?on is expressed in Irish by "to separate 
 with a person," the preposition le or ne being used: much in 
 the same manner as we say in English, " I parted with him:" 
 rcap<\ban pen) <V5ur Opapmaib ne n-a ceple, "they them 
 selves and Diarmaid separated from each other;" bo reap, re 
 
100 IDIOMS. [PART IV. 
 
 tilT)T>, -"he separated from as;"' rc<vfi Orc^T* le OiArtmAib, 
 "Oscar separated from Diarmaid;" bo rcAri riir, "he separated 
 from him;" A3 Ciin.?iAC CpU'-bAfiA bo rcAriAr le 5fx<vb rip 
 crioibe, "at tlie Curragh of Kildare I parted from the ' love ol 
 my heart.' " 
 
 22. However great, however good, however brave, &c. 
 
 Oa placed before some abstract nouns gives a meaning which, 
 though it is well understood in practical use, has puzzled gram- 
 marians to analyse and explain, and which will be best understood 
 by a tew examples. From the adjective aIa^t), tine or beautiful, 
 is formed Aplne or ApUe, fineness, beauty ; and b<x. &ilne or b<v 
 &lUe, imans "however fine," "how fine soever." Examples: — 
 Mf "b-puil pionur b*v rheub, tjac b-citillib, "there is no pun- 
 ishment however great that they do not deserve;" at) crte<vj* 
 5eir, 3A0 corhp.A3 Aoinpifi bA cpeiri Ain CAlrbAir) b'ob<vb, 
 " the third injunction, not to refuse single combat to any man on 
 earth, however mighty;" be<\.rr)<vn t)a bi<vb<vl b'<\ cp.e|re l<vrh, 
 "demon or devil, however mighty of hand." 
 
 23. Both one and another : both these and those. 
 
 Both, in such phrases as " both men and women,' 1 is often ex- 
 pressed in Irish by the preposition ibifi, between; as, b-cvin^lb 
 Oia r*vr<\.rr) t>iob Ai)n 3AC rocAfi b'A b CU3 b6]b ibiri ce]ll, 
 ce<xb^Ab<vib, -&3ur con<\c f A03&ICA, " God will exact an ac- 
 count from them in every advantage He has given to them, be- 
 tween understanding, senses, and worldly prosperity:" CU13 mfle 
 ibip. •pe-a.ri.Aib A3ur mnApb, " five thousand, between men and 
 women (i.e., both men and women, or reckoning men and 
 women)." 
 
 24. To overtake. 
 
 To overtake a person is often expressed by "to bear on a per- 
 son," the verb beiri, bear, being used with the preposition Aip.. 
 Examples: — FA3bATn at) cuIac ro <^V- e<v3l<v 50 Tn-be<\p.F<v6 
 «\or>3ur A.n t)hno34. ontiuinn, "^ e * U9 l eave this hill, for fear 
 that Aonghus of the Brugh would overtake us;" le-Arjur A]ri a 
 lop.3 30 p.eirnbf;xeoiC lAb bo'r) 2l)hCuf)Ain, 50 71113 oriJx<v A3 
 Solcoib, " he follows them on their track directly to Minister, so 
 that he overtook them at Solchoid:" 30 t)ac f:iii3j:ibfr at) ^onn 
 Tib ^6 30 rr)-bei|ie<vb °D<vricriA Sibe opria, " tliat they might 
 not leave that territory till the tairy cavalcade should overtake 
 them:" ^<vnp<vbr<v leAC <x|v <vr) Iacaip; ro T)o 50 m-be^n-ip. onm 
 Ajifp. "I will wait for thee at this place till thou overt tke me 
 again:" 3AC aot) Aifi a Tt)-beAn-t:Air)ori, " every one whom I 
 would overtake" (" every one on whom I would bear"). 
 
PART IV.] IDIOMS. 101 
 
 25. To win a game on a person. 
 
 To win a game on a person is expressed by " to put a game on 
 him : " <x5ur bo 605 OlTIO -at) pe-cvTi rin, -&5UT txo cuin- <m) 
 cluicce -ATI Thionn, " and Oisin moved that (ctaess-) man and 
 won a game on Finn:" -&5 U T* T)f nit5<xm<x|i <xn b^rxe <vti -a 
 ceile, "and we did not win the goal on each other" (i.e., 
 " neither of us won the goal on the other." 
 
 26. To think long, short, well of, ill of : to think hot, cold, hateful, 
 
 • &c. 
 
 Such phrases as "it seemed long to him," "he thought it Ion ," 
 are expressed by the verb if and the preposition le : if p<vb<v 
 lion), ("it is long with me"), "it seems long to me," " I think it 
 long." &5ur bo bo -p^ba. le r)<v bn&iCHpb bo bj 1)tv|<vm u<vc<v, 
 "and his brothers thought it long that Brian was a ■/ ay from 
 them" ("it was long with his brothers,'' &c): -|r olc linn ati 
 be<xt) npc, " we think bad of what has happened to tliee" (" it 
 is evil with us:" -&.ti=a txo, and <v means "all tbat:" see page 43): 
 cui5imri T)<xc ior)TT)UVT) leacf-cv me T^T), " I understand that 
 thou dost not love me" ("that not beloved with thee am I my- 
 self). 
 
 Observe the difference in meaning conveyed by the two pre- 
 positions le and bo: if tti&ic e bo'n b-t;e<vp. tit), "it is advan- 
 tageous to that man (whether he thinks it so or not): IT tt)aic & 
 \e-\x at) b--p e<vu- tit), " that man thinks it advantageous" (whether 
 it is really so or not). The following example shows both forms:—: 
 b<v tu<vic lion) riub<v|l, <xcc mon- rb<v|C b*m e, " I wished to 
 walk, but it was not good for me." 
 
 27. To wish for: to like: to be glad of: to prefer. 
 
 After the same manner, a desire, wish, liking for, &c, is ex- 
 pressed by such words as tt)1<vt), desire; -cvic, pleasure; &d, will 
 or pleasure &c. : ir &1I liorr) T1 T* b'p&5<\-|l, "I wish to know" 
 (" it is a desire, with me knowledge to get"): bo cui,fxt;|T) f. eir) 
 fuil -at) c<vic rio <vb h-ttcc <v T)-ioT)<*b bo ful, <vn- pe<\Ti biob: 
 bo b'-&ic lion) tit), <vfi <xt) boiTireoiu-, '"I would put the eye of 
 that cat in thy lap in place of thy eye,' says a man of them. 'I 
 would like that,' says the door-keeper." 
 
 The word Te^vp,n, better, is used in the same way to express 
 preference: ]y f-^f 1 ^ lion) bo be<vn.bTi*\c<\in. p*v cuf<v, " I prefer 
 thy brother to thyself :" "I would rather have thy brother than 
 thyself" (lit. " thy brother is better with me," &c); bo b'fe&n.Ti 
 le t)Tii5ib le<vb<v]x tt)<vic t)& <vin5e<vb, " Bri^id would prefer 
 a good book to money" (lit. "a good book would be better with 
 Brigid," &c ). The following example shows the application of 
 both mi<u) and tcatxti: — Nj he it tt)1<v0 ^ e 1f *W U5b<vfi (t)f 
 mo, ni h-e it tt)1<vt) liom-T^) cu bo bpeu5<\r); • • • • acc vr 
 e bob' -pe^tiTi le-|T TT) (*5 U T M 0TT )"r <v ) ^o cjioibe bo ye<\\ 
 
102 IDIOMS. [PAET IV. 
 
 bttjjab: " it is not what the author wishes (neither is it my wish) 
 to amuse thee (cu bo bpeu,5<\.r)) .... but it is what he 
 would prefer (and I also,) to possess thy heart." 
 
 TPe&pp. followed by le expresses mental preference as shown 
 above: but peSipp. followed by bo is equivalent to the English 
 expression "better for," "better that," &c. ]p pe&pp. bomp<\. 
 -cvooir, <vp. Lu5, pior p<x h-e<!inc<v tib bo c<vb<vipc b<voib. Jr 
 ?e'<\ii]\ ce<vn<v, <vn pibp<vT), " 'it is better for me now,' says Lugb, 
 'a knowledge of that eric (tine) to give you.' 'It is better indeed,' 
 say they." 
 
 28. To think little of— much of— to grudge. 
 
 Similar to the preceding is the use of the words bed.5 and mop. 
 (little and much) in several idiomatic phrases, which occur very 
 frequently, and which will be best understood by the following 
 examples: — Jr rnop \yort) <vp lu<vc hp, "I think that price large" 
 ("that price is large with me"): op^. bft. rp-bepi; m<vc <v5uippe 
 -|on<v fuibe p.omp<v, nfop be<v5 leo bo cuip b*ip m<\.pb<vb, 
 " for it (even) a child of us would be sitting ('in his sitting:' see 
 Idiom 42) before them, they would not deem it (too) little cause 
 to kill us" (lit. "it would not be with them a small [thing] tor a 
 cause to kill us:" for b'<xji Tp<vpb<\.b: see Idiom 1): bap mo 
 bpiAC^p., <xp. N-cqn, T)f be5 lipne pinnae, " 'by my word,' says 
 .Naisi, ' we do not think that small from thee.'" 
 
 The two expressions pr mop le and pf be<\5 le (" it is much with, 
 it is not little with) are used to express the idea of unwillingness, 
 or grudging": -|p rpdfi t|om <\on PIP5JP boc<\b<vp^.c bo, "I think 
 it much — 1 grudge — to give one penny to lira." The very same 
 idea is expressed by pf be<*5 liom <xop pmsio, &c., "I think it 
 not little — I grudge — one penny, I think one penny enough," &c. 
 The two reverse expressions (pf mop le — ip beck.5 le) are used to 
 express willingness— not grudging &c. : r\\ Tpon, liotp p<i cpf b<x 
 po feo c<xb<v-|fic fed, " I do not think it much — lam quite willing — 
 I do not grudge — to give him these three cows;" which might 
 also be expressed by saying, ip t> eA 5 M orr )» & c - — "I think it little 
 — I would give more, I would have more, I would want more; I 
 am willing— I do not grudge" &c. — feo bep^imib &p. m-bp]<x.c<vp, 
 ■Ap. pi<vb, n-cvc be<v5 lipp <v m-beup<vm 50 F-jopp bfob, "'we 
 give our word,' said they, ' we think it not small- we grudge— 
 what (<v = all that, — see page 43) we shall bring of them to F;nn." 
 (See Mr. Standish O'Grady's note, in the " Pursuit of Diarmaid 
 and Grainne," page 140.) 
 
 "When mop and be<v5 are used with the preposition bo, they 
 give the idea of enough or not enough for a person: pfop be<\j 
 bo (rpapbab bap. p-aicpe<vc) tp&p epi^c timbre, "(the killing 
 of your fathers) is not small to him — is enough for him — should 
 suffice for him — as an eric (fine) from you;" pfop be-&5 bwyc <v 
 b<x bo bpeic 6 Trpopp, "it was not little tor you — it was enough 
 ior you— to take away his cows from Finn." 
 
PAET IT.] IDIOMS. 103 
 
 29. Woe to. 
 
 ]r tT)<Mfi3 bon b-^e<vri f]t), "woe to that man" ; <x n)<\-\^y, 
 bo'n bruins soiriear bo'r) olc tn^c, " woe to those who Chll 
 evil good." Expressions of this kind are sometimes elliptical; as, 
 "if TT)Air>5 73<xc T)-be<vr)aT)T)COTr)<viri.le be<v5-rf)n'a, 'iwoe [to him] 
 who doeth not the counsel of a good wife" (lit. " it is woe who 
 doeth not," &c.). 
 
 SO. So . . as : as . . as. 
 
 "When these "correspondent conjunctions" are expressed in 
 Irish, the second one is usually translated either by <V5ur, "and," 
 or by le, "with:" -&5ur <v dub^nc rti<v <vn c<vn bo b^ob, <x rbac 
 corn -ari^^cc^ -*5 u r 5° Monp <xb <v rheuji <\n 10b, "and he said 
 to her when his son should be so grown (corn ■arm<vccoi) as that 
 his finger would fill the ring" (lit. "so grown o7?c?that his finger," 
 &c); bo Uf <v fle-a.5 corn ne<vrn<\ri le rnol rnuillinn, "his spear 
 was as thick as the shaft of a mill'' (lit. " as thick with.'''') 
 
 &5Uf follows <vrnl<xib or <vrhl<v (thus, so, in this manner), much 
 in the same way as it follows corn; and in this use it sometimes 
 answers very nearly to "viz.:" <vr <vrnl<v|b bo pu^ifi N-a^r] 
 <xc<xr Oeinbne, oc<vr <vn CenncoieTT) ec<vrin<v, "it is thus 
 ho found Naisi and Deirdve, and the Cenn-chaemh (a kind of chess- 
 board) between them." (Meaning, "it was thus he found, viz., 
 with the Cenn-chaemh between them. 
 
 SI. Every other day : every second day: every alternate day. 
 
 Phrases like these are often expressed in Irish by the indefinite 
 pronoun 5<xc, followed by the preposition le or ne. 5<vc le 
 Corbn<*.c 01.5 bul curn ce<vmpo]ll, " going to the church every 
 other (or every alternate) Sunday; T)<i rrif ru5^ e T10 bo Chu-a.- 
 t-A^b be D^ri<xT)j) bo bf 1 b-pl-cv-iqor 'Cirie<vnr) 5<\c ne 
 rn-bli<v5<vin, "these three kings of the Tuatha De Danann were 
 in the sovereignty of Erin every other year" (i.e., each for a 
 year). 
 
 33. The Head. 
 
 The word for head is used in Irish, as it is in most languages, in 
 a great variety of idiomatic phrases. Some have been already 
 noticed among the compound prepositions; and these and others 
 will be understood from the following examples: — 
 
 Zi 5-ceanr) bliabn<v, "at the end of a year;" bo bf n<vb ^ 
 5-ce<\T)n n<v ^<vicce, "they were at the end of the field." & 
 bub<vinc N<\.ifl le h-?lrib<vr) bul <v|n ceoinn Ten 5111 r, " Naisi 
 said to Ardan to go lor Fergus" (" to go on the head of Fergus'): 
 ■pillre A-|n <v 5-ce<v.T)n, "turn thou back for them" ("'on their 
 head"). r)<vc Itom bul on 5-conc<vbAinc ro <vm ce<vr>r), " since 
 I am not able to escape from this danger [that lies] before me" 
 
104 IDIOMS. [PART IV. 
 
 (<xtt) ce<vrjr), "in my head" = before me). 12<xcp<vb <vb ce<vt)r), 
 <v T\)]T)x), <v5ur <v 5-ce<vnn t)<v 'Feipne, " I wiil go to thee (or be- 
 fore thee), O Finn, and to the Feni" (" in thy head and in the 
 head of the Feni"). &c&x beifiib bu<v]6 <vc<xr beryr)<vcc<v|r) b& 
 cenn, "and bear ye victory and blessing on its account" (b*v cei)T), 
 "from its head"). C<v]i ce<v.Tyn 3urt f<xoil <xr) co-|ce<x.c r)<vc rt<v|b 
 b<vo5-al -&ri b]i <vri ■peii), " although the rich man thought that 
 there was no danger at all to (i.e., ol) himself" (c<xri ce<xi)T) 3ttn, 
 "over the head that" = although). J r -|or)5n<v bu^cre -an 3ri<xb 
 rir) bo c<vb<vi|ic barhr<v cart ce<vT)t) FhlOO, <vri Di<irtrt)<vib " 'it 
 is a wonder for thee to give that love to me instead of (to) Finn,' 
 says Diarmaid" (c-art ce<vpr) "Fbinn, " over the head of Finn," 
 in preference to Finn, instead of Finn). 
 
 33. A proper noun with the genitive of a noun of office.* 
 
 When a proper noun is followed by a noun in the genitive signi- 
 fying a profession, office, trade, or calling, the resulting phrase iias 
 a curious idiomatic meaning. 
 
 Se<v5<\T) at) f:i5e<vbori<x, which is, word for word, " John ot the 
 weaver," means in reality "John (the son, son-in-law, servant, or 
 some other close connection) ot the weaver;" Se<v5<xn n<v b<vir>- 
 crie-cvb<vi5e, "John (the son, &c.) of the widow." 
 
 If, while the proper name is in the nominative, the second noun 
 is also in the nominative, the meaning is quite different, the second 
 noun being then simply in apposition to the first;" thus "Feri5ur 
 <vr) rh-cvoip. (gen.) is "Fergus (the son, &c.) of the steward." 
 
 Suppose, now, you have to express in Irish such a phrase as 
 "the house of Fergus, the steward," in which the propername 
 must be in the genitive: as the two nouns are in apposition, the 
 seccnd, according to a rule of Syntax (Rule 6, p. 80,) should also 
 be in the genitive: cewc fheri^uir <vn rr)<voifi. But here is an 
 ambiguity; for, according to the present idiom, this expression 
 would also mean, "the house of Fergus (the son, &c.) of the 
 fteward." To avoid this ambiguity, a disagreement in case is 
 allowed in gnch expressions, between the two nouns, when they 
 are in apposition. Thus, "the house of Fergus, the steward" is 
 ce<yc Thep.,5uir rnaori(in which 'Fber^uir is genitive and ro<*.ori 
 nominative); wheieas ce*c T\)eyi^\X]]' <xr> tba.oiri is understood 
 to mean "the house of Fergus (the son, &c.) of the steward." 
 So in Dr. MacHale's translation of Homer, the first two lines are 
 rendered : — 
 
 Driuc &cupl reinn, 615 r)e<vrnb<x, <\,'r bu<vn ■pe<vri3. 
 ?Vcu]l rr)]c Pe^l, at) 5<xir3lbe<xc ceinnce-ac 5<vri5. 
 
 "The wrath of Achilles sing, O heavenly virgin, and his enduring 
 
 * 1 he substance of this explanation and the illustrative examples 
 have been taken from an interesting Essay on the present state of the 
 Irish language in Munster, written and sent to. the Royal Irish Acad- 
 emy by Mr. John Fleming, of Rathgormack. 
 
PART IT.] IDI0M9. 105 
 
 anger, of Achilles, son of Peleus, the fiery fierce hero.''' 1 Here the 
 last noun 5<v|r5i6eoic, with its two adjectives, is in the nozaina- 
 tive, while &cupl, with which it is in apposition, is genitive. 
 
 In the first example, Rule 7, Syntax, bear) Shea^ait) at) 
 ■pi5e<vb6fi<v, accordingly, is not "the wite of John the weaver," 
 hut "the wife of John (son &c.) of the weaver;" the wife of John 
 the weaver, would be expressed by beat) Sheasain pi5e<vb6|ri. 
 
 34. Possession. 
 
 There is no verb in Irish corresponding to the English verb " to 
 have" as expressing possession; and the sentence "the maa has a 
 book," is expressed in Irish by the verb c& and the preposition 
 as, in tnis form, ca le-o.b-a.ri -a.5 at) bvqne, "a book is at (ur with) 
 the man:" ca airijeab -o^urn ("niooey is with me"), "I have 
 money ;"' q<v be a$ b-^uil aip^eab ("whoever with whom is 
 money"), " whoever has money." Nf ^eib^i le bup}e at) \)]6 
 t)ac rn-befbeab -a^e bo caba^c u<v]b, <v5ur t)j b-£iv|l bo- 
 tftapbeace asutnra, "it is impossible for a man to give away 
 what he does not himself possess, and I do not possess immortal- 
 ity" (word-for-word: "it is not possible for a man the thing 
 which would not be with him to give from him, and not is im- 
 mortality with rnysell"). Do <v|5el Concubaji Dopac acar bo 
 f1<vpriai5 be at) riapb" pleb ollarb a^e bo, "Oonchobhar ad- 
 dressed Borach and inquired of him whether he had a feast pre- 
 pared for him" (lit. " whether a feast was ready with him [i.e. 
 Borach] for him [i.e., Oonchobhar."] ). 
 
 The use of pronouns in this idiom sometimes gives rise to fur- 
 ther idiomatic complications. C]a aslope 0.5 a b-fUfl at) 
 pfrtinrje ? " Which of us has the truth?" This, is word tor word, 
 " Which of us with whom is the truth ?" and the interrogative 
 appears without any government or other syntactical connection. 
 Some good authorities believe that the preposition <x-5 in this con- 
 struction governs not oaly the relative a, but also, by a sort of at- 
 traction, the interrogative cia. Ca beat) ede a t)-eocaill a 
 b-puil afCf corioin -aiji, "there is another woman in Youghal 
 who lias a crown on him" (i.e., to whom he owes a crown: Iuiom 
 16) Here, also, there is an apparent redundancy, the act of 
 "having" being expressed doubly, namely, both by the relative -a 
 before b-futil, and by apq; and the relative, according to the 
 same authority, would be governed by the preposition aj of a-jef. 
 The sentence may be expressed without redundancy in this manner: 
 — Ca beat) e]le a i)-eocaill aj a b--pu.il con.6]t) aip, The 
 last example exactly resembles the English "there is a man in 
 Dublin whom I owe a pound to him:" and perhaps it would be 
 better to consider it, like the English sentence, merely as bad 
 grammar, which is to be avoided by using a different form of ex- 
 pression in the manner shown. The apparent redundancy of the 
 first example, which is from a good authority, cannot, however, be 
 got rid of in this way. So also in, qa leu* at) ceac x]V (" who 
 
106 IDIOMS. [PAET IV 
 
 owns that bouse"), the le of le^r would appear to govern the pro- 
 noun with which it is combined, and also the interrogative q<v. 
 
 35. Ownership. 
 
 Ownership is expressed by the verb if and the preposition le, 
 with; if le<xcr<v <xp re<xc, "the house belongs to thee" (lit. "it 
 is with thee the house"); if letn' -a.c-A.ifi t)a bA f\r), "those cows 
 belong to my father" ("it is with my father those cows"); q<\. 
 lepr pa bA TIT), " who owns those cows?" ("who with him [are] 
 those cows?") Oi|v ir le T)e<xcei5ir) bo ChuACA De 0<lt)<\t)t) 
 Pa tpuca, " for the pigs belong to some person of the Tuatha De 
 Danann." (A wizard holds a golden branch in his hand, and 
 King Cormac asks him) -At) le<\c pe]p -at) cpAob f]p ? "Does 
 that branch belong to thyself ?" 
 
 Observe the distinction between this idiom and the last in the 
 following sentence: — Ca Ap^eAb 50 leop -A5<vb, acc nj leAC 
 p eip e, " thou hast plenty of money, but it does not belong to 
 thyself." 
 
 36. Wanting a thing. 
 
 The idea of wanting a thing, including a wish to get it, is usually 
 expressed by the verb ca and the preposition 6, from; cA leAbAp. 
 UApT), "I want a book" (lit., "a book is from me;'' cpeub aca 
 ttAic?" " What dost thou want?*' 
 
 37. Genitive plurals of Personal Pronouns. 
 
 Each of the three prepositional pronouns, A5Ap^p, A^Apb, -aca, 
 has two different meanings, which are always easily distin- 
 guished by the context: — 
 
 1. Possession, as in Idiom 34: Do bf leAbApp -aca, "they had 
 books." 
 
 2. The sense of a genitive plural when following words denoting 
 a part: 5AC peAp. Asump, "each man of us /' fio eip.15 <vn 
 bapA peAp ACOpAp bo beAi)ATp ap cleAf-A, "the second man 
 ff them (ACor<u), "of themselves") arose to perform the feat :" 
 cfA. -A,5iiinne A5 a. b-f itfl ap f.*fp.iT)ne, Aft "Fjopp, "' which of us 
 has the truth,' says $mn" (A5 a B-ptql, " with whom is"—" has:" 
 see Idiom 34). 
 
 38. To give a name. 
 
 To give a name to a thing is often expressed in Irish by to put a 
 name on it : tt)a|v 50 cctt5CAjv bA Bapciiacac Afp Dhecofll 
 A5iir a] p. Dl)AHApp, "as (the name) ' two ladies' was put on 
 Bechoill and Danann: i.e., as they "were called ' two ladies.' " 
 20 Ap 50 b-cu5 cleAp <x]jx Ap 5-cleAr pp}, "as he called that . 
 feat 'a feat:'" (lit. "as that he put [the name] 'feat' on that 
 
 feat"). 
 
 Sometimes, also, to give such and such a name to a thing is ex- 
 pressed by "to say such and such a name with a thing :" Por-ba,- 
 
PAET IV.] IDIOMS. 107 
 
 f aileac TUT* * n&lbce-ap. ltip^)peac apiu, " Ros-da-shaileach, 
 ■which is called Limerick now'' (lit. " Ros-da-shaileach with which 
 is said 'Limerick' now"). 
 
 39. Oe after comparatives. 
 
 The prepositional pronoun be, "of it," is often prefixed to com- 
 paratives, giving rise to some idiomatic phrases. 2V,5Uf 310T) 50 
 b-pupl cuio <v,^uir)t) bo rbaribab Oiapmaba, pf moibe bo, 
 5eubab (?Von5ur) ap -pip^ppe u<\prp, " and although we have no 
 part in killing L>iarraaid, Aongus would not the more receive the 
 truth from us" (here m6|be is be added to rnd, the comparative 
 of mdrt, gieat: for5iop 30 =" although not:" see Idiom 11). Jr 
 ■pur-^lbe b'Fhmpp &n lop5pa leaparhaip, <vp eacpa beic 
 -cvjAlpn, "it is the easier for .b'inn to follow our track that we 
 have the horses" (puraibe = be after pura, comparative of 
 ptipur, easy): i.e., "our having the horses makes it easier for 
 Fiun," &c. 
 
 4IO. "A man of great strength." 
 
 "A man of great strength," is expressed by the Irish -pe<vTi 1T 
 mop peapc, which, translated word for word, is "a man (who) 
 is great strength:" the words mop pearin being in the nomina- 
 tive, and not in the genitive, as might be expected from the Eng- 
 lish u of great strength," This idiom is extremely common in 
 Irish, the verb if in soma of its forms being always used; and, 
 when translating it, remember that the Irish words -though in 
 the nominative case — convey the exact sense of the genitive with 
 "of" in English, and must be rendered accordingly. Klf p.ap5 a. 
 3-c6rbaimnp pir peap. ba rnd dp <x.3ur aiP3eab ina. Op*p- 
 maib, " there was not at the same time with him a man who had 
 more gold and silver than Diarmaid" (lit. "a man [vho] was 
 greater gold and silver," i.e., " a man who was of greater gold 
 and silver.") Do beapcar <vp bepi ba pparhba cpvtc, "I saw a 
 lady (of) bright shape;" Calaii) ba peapp. bpAb -a^ur beoc, "a 
 land (of) the best food and drink; " 0|rlP ba cpeup peapc -a'r 
 luc, " Oisin of mighty strength and vigor." 
 
 Sometimes the preposition 50 (with) is used instead of the verb : 
 as, -peap. 50 mop peapc, " a man with great strength," i.e., "a 
 man of great strength." 
 
 41. A wish. 
 
 " I wish I had such and such a thing," is often expressed in Irish 
 by some such form of phrase as, "Alas, that I have not got it!" 
 the word 5ap being generally used as the negative particle. &f* 
 cp.u<vi5 5<vp peACvx. 'p rhaoip <v5um! "I wish I had the shep- 
 herd's pet !" (Here <xr epulis, "it is pity =" alas!" -a^um is 
 used to denote possession, with its verb understood — Idiom 34: 
 and the word-for-word translation is "it is pity not the pet of 
 the shepherd with me." & 01)ia 5ap me am' -abapMfp, " I wish 
 I were an apple" (" O God, I not an apple" — or "in my apple.") 
 
APPENDIX. 
 Additional Examples of Declensions. 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 Dfte<vc, a trout. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 N. bjie<xc. bnic. 
 
 G. bfiic bp.e<xc. 
 
 D. bfie<xc. bfieacvxib. 
 
 V. <x bfqc. <v bfie<xc<v. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 Cor, afoot. 
 N. cor. cor<x. 
 
 G. co]ye. cor. 
 
 D. co^r. cor<vib. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 Tljje-aboifi, a weaver; misc. 
 E". -pi5e<vboi|i. -pi5e<xb6irii5e 
 G. fi5e<xb6rx<v. Fi^eaboiri. 
 D. -pi5e<vbd|Ti. pi^e-cvbdifiib. 
 
 ?k.c<xi|t, a father ; masc. 
 N. <xc-Ain.. -cvicjxe, ^cjie- 
 
 <VC<V. 
 
 G. <Jic<xfi. <vir|ie<vc. 
 
 D. <xc<vijv. -aiciae-acAib. 
 
 (9.U&c<vtjt, a motlier, and 
 
 byi&c*ufior be<vnbft*vc<xirx. 
 
 a brother, are declined in 
 
 the same way.) 
 
 l3li<\b<xiT), a year ; fern. 
 N. bliAb<vir>. bli<v6<vT)c<v. 
 G. bli<\bn<v. bli<\b<vn. 
 
 D. bli<xbo.-|7). bli<xb<vnc<x]b. 
 
 ?V-|t>tt), a name. 
 
 N. <\iT)rr). <M)rr)<\t)T)<x. 
 
 G. •Ainnxj, <vi)- <jn)n)<vt)r). 
 it)<v. 
 
 D. -A1I)MJ. <VI)Tt)<V1)l)Alb. 
 
 FOURTH DECLENSION. 
 
 Ce^ne, afire. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 N". ceme. ceince. 
 
 G. ce]T)e. ceine<xb. 
 
 D. cejne. ceinqb. 
 
 G|i}ft), a little bird. 
 1ST. einfn. 6ii)foi6e. 
 
 G. emtn. eiDfn. 
 
 D. e\x)\x). einfoib. 
 
 FIFTH DECLENSION. 
 
 l*vn<vri)A, a married couple. 
 
 N. l<\T)ATt)a. 1&T)<VTT)T)<V. 
 
 G 1&T)ATT)<XT). l&r)ATT)AT). 
 
 D. l^T)<xTr)\x-|r). l&n<\.tt)naib 
 
 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
 
 5<x, a spear. 
 
 5<\oice. 
 
 Q-- 5<M> 5 A0 1- 5 Ae i 5 a e£<vb, 
 
 5AOice<vb. 
 D. 5<x, 3<vl 3<^oib, 5e<xc<xib 
 
 5<voir]b. 
 
 Cfid, a hut, a sheepfold. 
 
 N". cjid. ctiAOjce, cjid]- 
 
 ce. 
 G. c^d. c|id. 
 
 D. cfid. CTv<voicib, Cfv6|- 
 
 V. <v 6|to. <x cfiaoire -a 
 
 cti6)ce. 
 
 Sl^&b, a mountain. 
 
 NT. rli<vb. rleibce. 
 
 G. rleibe. rleibce^b. 
 
 D. rli-<vb. rleibqb. 
 
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