filfcNRLF 
 
 $B 305 T50 
 
-V)UC^-V^H-- )>^- ny^:^-^ 
 
State Control 
 
 of 
 
 Courses of Study 
 
 With Appendices on Religious 
 
 Instruction and the Grading 
 
 of School Systems 
 
 by 
 
 Fred J. Brownscombe 
 
 Superintendent of City Schools, Montpelier, Vt. 
 
 Author of ** The Play Hour," " Language 
 
 Lessons for Grades i and 2," etc. 
 
 Silver, Burdett and Company 
 New York Boston Chicago 
 
By 
 
 Copyright, igo8, 
 
 BY 
 
 Silver, Burdett and Company 
 EDUCAT50N OEPT. 
 
i'lC- 
 
 STATE CONTROL 
 
 OF 
 
 COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 543138 
 
This little worky a result of some studies 
 carried on for another purpose ^ is printed in 
 the hope that it may be of some service to 
 students of education and others ^ by placing 
 at their disposal a quantity of information 
 accessible now only in the pages of many 
 special reports^ pamphlets^ and books in 
 several languages. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Introduction xi 
 
 Classification : 
 
 Class I. State control of courses of study 
 for elementary, secondary, and normal 
 schools : 
 
 (a) Including state supervision of private 
 schools: France; Germany; Sweden; 
 Switzerland; Austria; Greece; Russia 3 
 
 (d) Not including private schools : Canada ; 
 Japan; Portugal; Servia; Italy; Mex- 
 ico; Guatemala; Brazil; Argentine 
 Republic 12 
 
 (c) Dependencies — Educational systems 
 prescribed by the home governments: 
 India; Porto Rico; Philippines . • 20 
 
 Class II. State prescription for secondary 
 schools and a minimum for elementary 
 schools : 
 Belgium ; Norway ; The Netherlands . 27 
 
 Class III. Prescribed courses for elemen- 
 tary schools alone : 
 England; Scotland; Ireland; Wales; 
 
viii Contents 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Australia; Tasmania; New Zealand; 
 Cape Colony ; Natal ; Jamaica ; British 
 Guiana ; British Honduras ; Nicaragua ; 
 Costa Rica ; Honduras ; Uruguay . 3 1 
 
 Class IV. No state prescription of courses 
 of study : 
 Denmarjk; Finland; Newfoundland; Mo- 
 hammedan countries ; Egypt ; China . 41 
 
 Class V. The United States of America : 49 
 (a) Physiology and hygiene with special 
 reference to alcohol and narcotics pre- 
 scribed in all the states . . 'Si 
 (^) No other state prescription : New 
 York ; Ohio ; Florida ; Iowa ; Nebraska ; 
 Arkansas ; Delaware ; Alabama ; New 
 Jersey ; Rhode Island . . . -52 
 
 (c) Prescribed courses for communities 
 below a fixed population: Oregon; 
 Washington . . . . '55 
 
 (d) Instruction limited to certain branches : 
 Virginia; North Carolina; Kentucky; 
 Vermont; California . . . • 5^ 
 
 (^) Courses prescribed or state authorities 
 have power to prescribe : Indiana ; Ari- 
 zona; Idaho; Maryland; Michigan; 
 Minnesota; Nevada; Montana; South 
 Carolina; North Dakota; Tennessee; 
 West Virginia ; Wisconsin ; Missouri ; 
 Louisiana; Maine; Massachusetts . 59 
 
Contents ix 
 
 PAGB 
 
 (y) Minimum prescribed : Colorado ; Illi- 
 nois ; Mississippi ; Connecticut ; New 
 Mexico ; Kansas ; Oklahoma ; Penn- 
 sylvania; Georgia; South Dakota; 
 Texas ; Utah ; Wyoming ; New Hamp- 
 shire 72 
 
 Conclusion : 
 
 Recent Legislation .... 83 
 
 Appendix : 
 
 Religious Instruction .... 87 
 
 Grading of School Systems . . 97 
 
 Books Consulted 123 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Fabian Ware begins his interesting 
 and instructive book, " Educational Foun- 
 dations of Trade and Industry/' with 
 the statement that " Whatever may be con- 
 sidered the most remarkable achievement 
 of the nineteenth century, there can be 
 little doubt that the national education 
 systems which it has founded will be held 
 responsible by future generations for 
 much of the prosperity which they may 
 enjoy, and many of the woes which they 
 will suffer/' 
 
 It is a fact that nearly all our national 
 education systems took their rise in the 
 nineteenth century and largely in the 
 latter half of that century, and while it 
 is no doubt true that we look to an earlier 
 date for the organization of some, it is 
 
xii Introduction 
 
 equally true that their completed organiza- 
 tion lies in the century mentioned. But 
 the justice with which posterity may, if 
 posterity should, place the burden of its 
 weal or its woe upon these education 
 systems is open to question. Is it not 
 placing the cart before the horse ; that is, 
 is not education an effect rather than a 
 cause ? Or, looked at from the sociolog- 
 ical point of view, is not an educational 
 system merely one expression of the 
 genius of a people, as characteristic as 
 any other social activity ? If the idea in 
 the minds of the founders of the Prus- 
 sian system was the generally accepted 
 theory of "the harmonious development 
 of the whole man,'* is it not true that 
 the Prussian system has developed along 
 strictly national lines practically regard- 
 less of theory.? It seems to me that it 
 would be an easy matter to prove that 
 the actuary principle of all state systems 
 
Introduction xiii 
 
 is the theory last stated by President 
 Butler in "The Meaning of Education*' 
 as "the fitting of the individual to his 
 environment/' But if this be the prin- 
 ciple consciously or unconsciously under- 
 lying all state systems, it becomes merely 
 an ex post facto theory, or rather ceases 
 to be a theory at all and becomes a simple 
 statement of fact. Viewed from this stand- 
 point, systems which seem at first glance 
 to us to be quite absurd will seem to have 
 a sufficient reason to be entirely sane. So 
 also are explained the failures which 
 befall the imposition of a highly organized 
 educational system of a superior people 
 upon an inferior race, or the difficulties 
 in the way of transferring the system of 
 one country to another, from which, by 
 the way, might be drawn a practical 
 lesson for those educators whose eyes 
 are always turned towards Europe for 
 inspiration. 
 
XIV Introduction 
 
 However, it is not the purpose of this 
 work to deal with educational theory or 
 educational history, both of which are 
 amplified in many books, wise and other- 
 wise, but to present the conditions of state 
 control of courses of study as they exist 
 at the present day. Classification is some- 
 what difficult, state control ranging as it 
 does from the extremely detailed French 
 system to the very loose organization of 
 some of the American states. Viewed in 
 the light of the "environment** principle, 
 this wide variation is comparatively easy 
 to understand and forms in itself an inter- 
 esting study. 
 
 The material for the following classi- 
 fication is to be found in the school laws 
 of the various countries mentioned, in 
 official reports, and in various books and 
 papers, a list of which is appended. 
 
CLASS I 
 
 STATE CONTROL OF COURSES OF 
 
 STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY, 
 
 SECONDARY, AND NORMAL 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
CLASS I 
 
 STATE CONTROL OF COURSES OF STUDY FOR 
 ELEMENTARY, SECONDARY, AND NORMAL 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 (a) Including state supervision of private 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 France — In France centralization has 
 reached its highest point ; so far has it gone 
 that the inevitable reaction is now appear- 
 ing. An observer of French character- 
 istics has said that a Frenchman can do 
 nothing without a program, and this na- 
 tional trait is exhibited fully in educational 
 matters. A French minister, it is said, 
 once took out his watch with the remark 
 that he could tell exactly what any pupil 
 in the French schools was doing at that 
 particular minute. Of course this is an 
 exaggeration, but the story shows very 
 clearly the prevailing tendency. The 
 
4 State Control of 
 
 cotiises of study for each of the above 
 classes of schools are fixed by the educa- 
 tional authorities whose regulations state 
 the ground to be covered in each subject, 
 together with the order and method of 
 teaching and, also, the daily program. 
 Everything to the smallest detail is pre- 
 scribed by the government, and any pos- 
 sible loophole is closed by a rigid examina- 
 tion system, such, for instance, as the bac- 
 calaureat or leaving examination for the 
 secondary schools. Naturally there is a 
 "remarkable uniformity in the organiza- 
 tion and proficiency of the same class of 
 schools/' Hughes says that " Individual- 
 ity of school and pupil cannot be tolerated. 
 They must all conform to the model." The 
 higher primary schools have some degree 
 of liberty, being held to a general observ- 
 ance only of several alternative programs 
 issued by the Educational Department, but 
 even these are controlled through state 
 
Courses of Study 5 
 
 aid. It is in this class of schools that the 
 reaction against centralization shows itself. 
 The private schools may select their books 
 and methods, but are under strict govern- 
 ment supervision. I may add that there is 
 practically no connection between elemen- 
 tary and secondary education, one aim of 
 state control apparently being to check the 
 tendency toward social equality which 
 would lead (in France) to the overcrowd- 
 ing of the professions conferring social 
 distinction. For France is a land of classes, 
 and its democracy is one of legal not social 
 equality. 
 
 Germany — In elementary, secondary, 
 and normal schools the courses of study 
 and number of hours for each subject are 
 prescribed. There is a common standard 
 of promotion and graduation, and the gov- 
 ernment exercises a supervision over mi- 
 nute details, — a surveillance common to 
 all German life. The progress of the 
 
6 State Control of 
 
 schools of each class differs only in details 
 of management, as each program is only 
 an elaboration of the general course pre- 
 scribed by educational laws or codes. The 
 individual German teacher, however, has 
 more freedom in the selection of material 
 and methods of presentation than the 
 French teacher. Private schools are 
 under stricter supervision and must main- 
 tain the government standard. 
 
 As in France, there is little connection, 
 if any, between the elementary and the 
 secondary school. There is practical una- 
 nimity of agreement as to the excellence 
 of the German schools in general, but this 
 does not mean, as some have taken it, that 
 German methods of organization could be 
 applied to our American schools. Russell 
 says in " The Higher Schools of Germany" 
 that they satisfy German needs, but "just 
 in proportion as German schools are Ger- 
 man they are un-American and incapa- 
 
Courses of Study 7 
 
 ble of satisfying American needs/* And 
 their excellence is due to excellent teaching 
 and compulsory attendance rather than to 
 so much state interference. An observer 
 says, "The superiority of the Prussian 
 system of elementary education may be 
 summed up in one sentence — Prussia 
 sends all her children between fixed 
 ages to school and protects them while 
 there from the imposition of bad work." 
 Organization in Germany has extended 
 perhaps to the point of destroying inde- 
 pendence. Hughes says of the elemen- 
 tary schools, " The children are rarely 
 trained to resourcefulness and indepen- 
 dence, and the result is that when they 
 leave school they are helpless, and rapidly 
 deteriorate into the indifference of the 
 uneducated class." The superiority of Ger- 
 man over French education lies in the 
 fact that German educational authorities 
 have tried to find out what is the best 
 
8 State Control of 
 
 kind of education that can be given, while 
 the French have tried to determine what is 
 the greatest amount that can be allowed. 
 The intent of German state control is ap- 
 parently not to regard education as an end 
 in itself, but of value to purposes of gov- 
 ernment, the aim being to make citizens 
 submissive, self-supporting, and patriotic. 
 
 Sweden — With a careful prescription 
 of courses and hours to each subject, there 
 is yet more freedom than in the first two 
 countries described, as we would naturally 
 expect from the character of the people. 
 Private schools are inspected and may re- 
 ceive government aid if they meet the 
 requirements of the public schools. It is 
 interesting to note that the private schools 
 are encouraged to experiment in methods, 
 the idea being to use the successful ones 
 in the public schools. It seems a rather 
 shrewd plan on the part of the government 
 to obtain the advantages of educational 
 
Courses of Study 9 
 
 experiment without any expenditure on 
 its part. 
 
 The self-reliance and love of self- 
 government of the people finds an out- 
 let in the people's colleges, which admit 
 any one over eighteen years of age who 
 has passed through the primary course, 
 and which refuse to tolerate any govern- 
 ment intervention. 
 
 Switzerland — While Federal legislation 
 provides for compulsory education, the 
 various cantons are otherwise independent 
 educationally. Each has a thorough or- 
 ganization with fixed conditions as to 
 courses of study and subjects, but it does 
 not interfere with methods of teaching 
 and daily programs. 
 
 Austria — Courses of study, hours, and 
 time-tables are prescribed for the graded, 
 partly graded, and fully graded schools of 
 the elementary system. The secondary 
 schools are very similar to those of the 
 
lo State Control of 
 
 German states. The teachers of both 
 have great freedom in methods of teach- 
 ing. Private schools are encouraged, and 
 if they meet the government requirements, 
 they may receive subsidies and be incor- 
 porated in the state system. 
 
 Greece — For the demotic, or primary, 
 and the Hellenic, or higher elementary 
 schools, the subjects and hours are pre- 
 scribed. For the gymnasia, or secondary 
 schools, a general program with details for 
 the teaching of each subject is submitted. 
 Private schools must meet the state re- 
 quirements, and have teachers with regular 
 state licenses. 
 
 Russia — Russian schools are under the 
 authority of either the Ministry of Public 
 Instruction or the holy synod, and the sub- 
 jects to be pursued in all classes of schools 
 are prescribed by them. E. Kovalevsky, 
 of the Ministry of Public Instruction, de- 
 scribes the system in 1902 as follows : — 
 
Courses of Study ii 
 
 Elementary Education 
 
 (i) Elementary schools of one class 
 — a four years' course. 
 
 (2) Higher elementary schools — the 
 
 district, town, or ministerial 
 schools, each with a five years' 
 course. 
 
 (3) Evening and Sunday schools for 
 
 adults. 
 Secondary Education 
 (i) Gymnasia and progymnasia — 
 
 prepare for university. 
 (2) Real schools — prepare for higher 
 technical schools. 
 Universities — Ten in number. 
 Military y Naval y and Technical Schools 
 — Kovalevsky claims that secondary schools 
 are open to boys and girls of all social 
 classes, but the newspapers report a late 
 edict forbidding the gymnasia to children 
 of washerwomen and artisans. Prince 
 Krapotkin and others assert that it is the 
 
12 State Control of 
 
 policy of the Russian government to keep 
 the masses in ignorance. The Novoe 
 Vremyuy a reputable Russian newspaper, 
 said in 1898 that Russian society spends 
 five or seven times more than the govern- 
 ment in striving toward education. The 
 proportion of schools to the population is 
 small, and there are certainly many restric- 
 tions regarding higher education — the 
 Jews, for example, being limited to three 
 per cent of the enrollment in any univer- 
 sity. There is compulsory education in 
 only the Baltic and Cossack provinces, 
 and in Finland. It is asserted that the 
 government not merely fails to encourage 
 education, but that it places obstacles in 
 the way of establishing even elementary 
 schools. 
 
 (p) Not including private schools 
 
 Canada — As discussion of the German 
 school system usually centers about Prus- 
 
Courses of Study 13 
 
 sia, so we may take the Ontario school 
 system as a type of the Canadian provinces 
 in general, the others consisting of Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward 
 Island, Manitoba, British Columbia, Que- 
 bec, and the Canadian territories. These 
 differ from Ontario in local details and less 
 complete organization. Descended from 
 the same people, they resemble our states 
 in many respects ; as, for example, in the 
 New World idea of a straight road from 
 the kindergarten to the university. But 
 never having passed through the throes 
 of revolution nor separation from the 
 mother-land, they have no cause for our 
 fear of centralization, and thus it has been 
 an easy matter to establish a central au- 
 thority. All educational questions are de- 
 termined by, and all educational authority 
 emanates from, this central authority, the 
 education department, whose head, the 
 Minister of Education, is a cabinet officer. 
 
14 State Control of 
 
 Before the schools were organized 
 the founder of this system spent some 
 time in investigating education in vari- 
 ous foreign countries, from which the 
 impression left by Prussia was evident in 
 the certification of teachers, the examina- 
 tion system, and many other details. Time 
 has modified much of this, but the Prussian 
 influence is still evident in such terminology 
 as the public school leaving examination, 
 junior leaving examination, etc. So, also, 
 while there is no caste in Canada, some- 
 thing of the Old World idea lingers in the 
 classification of the schools ; for while all 
 the system is equally public, the elemen- 
 tary and the secondary schools are dis- 
 tinguished as public schools and high 
 schools. 
 
 The European influence is shown, too, 
 in the elimination of the unfit by govern- 
 ment examinations at various stages in the 
 course, and the requirement that public 
 
Courses of Study 15 
 
 schools and high schools be not in the 
 same buildings. 
 
 The studies and courses are carefully 
 prescribed for all classes of schools, — 
 elementary, secondary, normal, and the 
 Normal Training College. The require- 
 ments for the fifth form of the public 
 school, found usually only in country and 
 village districts, are largely optional. Out- 
 side of courses, texts, and classes of teach- 
 ers, there is much local freedom in all 
 the Canadian provinces. 
 
 As has been mentioned, the Ontario 
 system is modeled considerably upon that 
 of Prussia, though its universities conform 
 to the British type ; but the educational 
 thought of the United States is exerting an 
 ever growing influence upon its educational 
 fabric. 
 
 Japan — Japan has levied upon the civ- 
 ilized world for its educational purposes, 
 and the result is a well-coordinated, cen- 
 
1 6 State Control of 
 
 tralized system, with a certain amount of 
 our American elasticity. In its elementary 
 schools, the first part of the course of study 
 is obligatory, but in the later years there 
 are certain optional as well as some obliga- 
 tory subjects. The course is fixed for all 
 pupils for the first three years of the sec- 
 ondary school, but in the two final years 
 they have a choice of electives, election 
 depending upon their determination to go 
 to college or to follow practical pursuits. 
 
 Portugal — The subjects of the primary 
 curriculum are determined by the govern- 
 ment, but the apportionment of work to 
 classes is left to the district superinten- 
 dents. The teacher must use prescribed 
 texts, but is free to use his own methods of 
 teaching. The secondary schools are of 
 two kinds, — central lycees of seven years, 
 and national lycees of five years. Either 
 prepares for the university, and the courses 
 of study and hours in each are prescribed. 
 
Courses of Study 17 
 
 Servia — The sanguinary record of Ser- 
 via would hardly lead one to suspect it of 
 possessing a highly organized school sys- 
 tem, but, nevertheless, such a system, 
 modeled largely on German lines, does 
 exist. But it is recent, the elementary 
 curriculum having been settled by the Act 
 of 1898. State prescription of courses and 
 hours for secondary schools came some- 
 what earlier. The system is as yet not 
 thoroughly effective, but we may expect it 
 to mean that Servia is preparing for a 
 higher order of things than it has had in 
 the past. 
 
 Italy — Elementary education consists 
 of inferior elementary and superior ele- 
 mentary. Inferior elementary lasts three 
 years, and is terminated by an examina- 
 tion, successful candidates receiving a 
 diploma. Superior elementary education 
 lasts two years more, and ends with an 
 examination admitting to normal or sec- 
 
1 8 State Control of 
 
 ondary schools. Secondary education 
 takes eight years to complete, five for 
 the gymnasia, from which, after passing 
 an examination, the student enters the 
 lycee. Thence, with another examination, 
 he enters the university. 
 
 Private school teachers must hold the 
 same grade of teacher's license as for a 
 corresponding position in the public 
 schools. Excepting for the private schools, 
 the courses of study are minutely pre- 
 scribed for the above classes of schools. 
 
 Mexico — Mexico has a well-planned 
 system of education, the courses of study 
 being determined by the central author- 
 ity for primary, secondary, and normal 
 schools. The government provides and 
 prescribes courses also for higher tech- 
 nical schools, as the National College of 
 Engineering and Mining, the National 
 College of Agriculture and Veterinary 
 Surgery, the Commercial College, and 
 
Courses of Study 19 
 
 others. It is to be noted that in the 
 Spanish-American countries, in general, 
 a considerable part of the population — 
 the native Indian — is left almost un- 
 touched by the schools. 
 
 Guatemala — The system is very similar 
 to Mexico, but not as completely extended. 
 
 Brazil — Brazil has been more fortunate 
 than the average South American country 
 in having possessed a stable government 
 for a considerable period, and thus it has 
 had time to develop a complete centralized 
 educational system. Each of its states 
 has primary, secondary, and normal 
 schools, and the country has a number 
 of colleges and several universities. The 
 primary course covers eight years, at the 
 completion of which a diploma is given 
 entitling the holder to admission to a sec- 
 ondary or normal school. The course for 
 the secondary school covers seven years. 
 The normal schools follow a prescribed 
 
20 State Control of 
 
 course. Brazil is beginning to develop 
 rapidly, and new schools are being organ- 
 ized everywhere. 
 
 Argentine Republic — Many American 
 teachers have contributed to the educa- 
 tional progress of this country. It is wor- 
 thy of notice that the course of study for 
 the public schools was arranged by a 
 committee of teachers and principals. 
 The system is graded into public 
 schools, national colleges, and universities. 
 The university course covers six years. 
 
 (c) Dependencies — Educational systems pre- 
 scribed BY THE HOME GOVERNMENTS 
 
 India — The difficulties in the way of 
 transplanting an educational system, of 
 fitting the collar of a nineteenth century 
 civilization to the neck of a civilization 
 hoary with the centuries, are nowhere 
 better exemplified than in India. Out- 
 side of America, perhaps none but the 
 
Courses of Study 21 
 
 British would dare attempt it, and they 
 have made many failures, — failures piti- 
 lessly illumined by the caustic pen of 
 Rudyard Kipling. But British dogged- 
 ness and patience are being rewarded, as 
 late Indian reports record a rousing of 
 interest and a spreading desire for modern 
 education. One secret of their success 
 lies in the excessive care they take not 
 to interfere with native religions or cus- 
 toms. They are also developing self- 
 government and giving it to the natives 
 as fast as they are ready for it. 
 
 The English authorities prescribe 
 courses for the primary schools, divided 
 into upper and lower; for the secondary 
 schools, divided into middle and high; 
 and for various colleges and special 
 schools. Besides this, they have some 
 control over a number of state-aided 
 private institutions. In a number of 
 provinces the line between primary and 
 
22 State Control of 
 
 secondary schools is not well marked, 
 the one continuing into the other. Other 
 names for classification are also used ; as, 
 Madras, with upper and lower second- 
 ary ; Bengal, with collegiate and district 
 schools, etc. The standard for secondary 
 schools is fixed by the university matric- 
 ulation. 
 
 Porto Rico — Porto Rican schools are in 
 operation under the school laws enacted 
 by order of General Henry. These are 
 based on the laws of the American states, 
 and involve largely their principle of local 
 self-government. The hours, days, weeks, 
 months, and terms of the school year are 
 prescribed ; also the courses of study and 
 the requirements for teachers. Primary 
 work is in Spanish, with a steadily in- 
 creasing amount in English. The future 
 may see Porto Rico an English-speaking 
 island. 
 
 Philippines — Education in the Philip- 
 
Courses of Study 23 
 
 pines is largely in the hands of American 
 teachers, and is based on the American 
 plan. Organization, however, is not as 
 complete as in Porto Rico. Spanish is 
 the basis of primary work, with the same 
 emphasis on English as in Porto Rico- 
 Primary and normal schools are in opera- 
 tion, together with the beginnings of sec- 
 ondary schools. 
 
CLASS II 
 
 STATE PRESCRIPTION FOR SECOND- 
 ARY SCHOOLS AND A MINIMUM 
 FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
CLASS II 
 
 STATE PRESCRIPTION FOR SECONDARY 
 SCHOOLS AND A MINIMUM FOR ELE- 
 MENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 Belgium — Secondary and normal 
 schools are directly regulated by the cen- 
 tral authorities, and an elementary course 
 is prescribed, but the communes may ex- 
 tend the program within certain limits. 
 
 Norway — Similar to Belgium, but the 
 local school boards determine the elemen- 
 tary schools, appoint teachers, and draw 
 up plans of instruction. 
 
 The Netherlands — In the primary 
 schools there are ten obligatory subjects 
 and nine optional. The communes may 
 omit any obligatory subject, and must have 
 taught any optional subject when patrons 
 27 
 
28 State Control 
 
 require it. Secondary schools are known 
 as higher burgher schools, and follow a 
 prescribed curriculum, but there is consid- 
 erable latitude as to hours and time-tables. 
 Burgher schools are mostly evening 
 schools, and are entirely in the hands of 
 the local authorities. The gymnasia are 
 the secondary schools proper, and these 
 follow a uniform course. No teacher may 
 teach in any school, private or public, 
 without official sanction. 
 
CLASS III 
 
 PRESCRIBED COURSES FOR ELEMEN- 
 TARY SCHOOLS ALONE 
 
CLASS III 
 
 PRESCRIBED COURSES FOR ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOLS ALONE 
 
 England — To an outsider the English 
 educational system or lack of system, with 
 its multiplicity of examinations, seems al- 
 most incomprehensible, and a noted Eng- 
 lish editor has said that the Act of 1903 
 is one of the most complicated pieces 
 of legislation ever placed on the statute 
 books. To understand why this should 
 be so, we must remember that all legisla- 
 tion in England is a mass of compromises, 
 that a caste system prevails, that there is 
 an established church and a large body of 
 dissenters, that local freedom is highly 
 prized, that England is par excellence the 
 land of individualism, and finally that ele- 
 31 
 
32 State Control of 
 
 mentary schools were originally designed 
 for the poorer classes. 
 
 In the elementary schools the oblig- 
 atory subjects are reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, needlework for girls, drawing 
 for boys, and one of the optional sub- 
 jects. The optional subjects are singing, 
 recitation, drawing, the mother tongue, 
 geography, elementary science, history, 
 suitable occupations (standards i, 2, and 
 3), needlework and domestic economy 
 (for girls). Specific subjects (taken by in- 
 dividual children in the upper classes) are 
 algebra, Euclid, mensuration, mechanics, 
 chemistry, physics, animal physiology, 
 hygiene, botany, principles of agriculture, 
 horticulture, navigation, Latin, French, 
 Welsh (in Wales), German, bookkeeping, 
 shorthand, domestic economy and domes- 
 tic science (for girls). Cookery, laundry 
 work, and dairy work are also provided 
 for girls; and gardening and manual in- 
 
Courses of Study 33 
 
 struction for boys. Any other subject, if 
 sanctioned by the department, may be 
 taken as a specific subject, if a graduated 
 scheme for teaching it be approved by the 
 inspector. With certain restrictions to the 
 above, the local managers have consider- 
 able option. 
 
 There is no English counterpart to our 
 American high school, and such educa- 
 tion is impossible to the greater portion 
 of the poorer classes, secondary education 
 being now in the hands of private schools, 
 a few nonconformist schools, and the en- 
 dowed schools for boys, — the great public 
 schools, which are not public at all in our 
 sense of the word. The attempts of local 
 boards to extend elementary education 
 upward received a very serious setback 
 in the Cockerton decision of 1901, which 
 affirmed that the local boards have no 
 right to expend the rates for anything 
 other than elementary education. The 
 
34 State Control of 
 
 agencies connected with secondary educa- 
 tion are: — 
 
 (a) The Charity Commissioners, which 
 have some authority over the endowed 
 schools, but no control of courses of study. 
 
 (Jb) The Department of Science and Art, 
 which controls science and art schools 
 and classes, and technical schools. It 
 prescribes studies, but is liberal in sanc- 
 tioning subjects. 
 
 {c) The Education Department has 
 slight statutory connection, but has some 
 control through the elementary schools, 
 university, colleges, and training colleges. 
 
 The courses in normal colleges are 
 partly prescribed, and certificates depend 
 upon the inevitable examination. The 
 multiplicity of examinations depends upon 
 the fact that with little control over the 
 various glasses of schools, the government 
 has had to secure itself by an examination 
 system. So we find examination for the 
 
Courses of Study 35 
 
 army, navy, civil service, Indian service, 
 for teachers' certificates, the universities, 
 and various other things. 
 
 Scotland, Ireland, and Wales — Systems 
 similar to England, with local variations. 
 In Scotland, with a people more homo- 
 geneous, more democratic in some ways, 
 with less of class distinction and less of 
 religious discord in educational matters, 
 there has always been more popular 
 interest in education, and a university 
 career has been open to the humblest 
 boy. Rural and village schools have been 
 largely in the hands of university men, 
 who have taken great pains in preparing 
 their bright boys for the university, a 
 phase of Scottish life interestingly por- 
 trayed in the stories of Ian Maclaren. 
 
 Wales resembles Scotland in its interest 
 in popular education, and the Welsh Inter- 
 mediate Act of 1889 extended elementary 
 education upward to a form of secondary 
 
36 State Control of 
 
 education which is partly prescribed but 
 largely optional with local authorities. 
 
 The Central Welsh Board, organized 
 in 1896, which controls educational ad- 
 ministration to a great extent, represents 
 the county councils, university faculties, 
 and elementary and secondary teachers. 
 It is a progressive, enlightened body, and 
 is moving away from the rigid examination 
 system of England. 
 
 Ireland in the past has been as unhappy 
 in its educational history as in everything 
 else, but at present the national system 
 appears to be working harmoniously. 
 
 Australia. — In the Australian states — 
 Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, 
 South Australia, and Western Australia — 
 courses of study are prescribed for the 
 elementary schools, whose instruction is 
 classified by standards similar to those of 
 England, but with closer organization and 
 a higher centralization. There is consid- 
 
Courses of Study 37 
 
 erable latitude in some, particularly in the 
 newer states. There is practically no 
 state supervision of the secondary schools, 
 whose instruction is determined largely 
 by the examinations for the local univer- 
 sities or for London University. 
 
 Tasmania, New Zealand, Cape Colony, 
 Natal, Jamaica, British Guiana, British 
 Honduras, and other British colonies fol- 
 low also the idea of the mother country, 
 in which they differ from Canada, where, 
 as we have seen, Prussian influence has 
 been paramount. 
 
 Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and 
 Uruguay have state prescription for the 
 elementary schools, there is some state 
 control of secondary schools, but condi- 
 tions as yet are unsettled. 
 
CLASS IV 
 
 NO STATE PRESCRIPTION OF COURSES 
 OF STUDY 
 
CLASS IV 
 
 NO STATE PRESCRIPTION OF COURSES OF 
 STUDY 
 
 Denmark — Advocates of centralization 
 are wont to point to Germany and Ontario 
 as models, and to argue that an educated 
 people is impossible without a centralized 
 system. Denmark and Finland refute this 
 and require some other cause. The truth 
 seems to be that a backward or unpro- 
 gressive people require state compulsion, 
 but that an intelligent community may be 
 safely left to its own guidance. There is 
 a very small degree of illiteracy in Den- 
 mark, and there is no state prescription 
 nor general state inspection. Local au- 
 thorities have complete control of the 
 elementary schools, and methods and texts 
 41 
 
42 State Control of 
 
 are left to the choice of the teacher. The 
 only state control of secondary schools is 
 through the government examinations. 
 The schools are supported partly by the 
 state and partly by the communities. 
 
 Finland — There is no state provision 
 for elementary schools, though such exist 
 in the various localities. There is par- 
 tial regulation of the secondary schools. 
 Teachers* training schools are independ- 
 ent, and entrance to them is by examina- 
 tions set by each school. 
 
 Newfoundland — Here is no system of 
 school tax, no compulsory school attend- 
 ance law, and no normal school. There 
 is no education department, the Colonial 
 Secretary being in charge of school 
 matters. The government grants sub- 
 sidies to local and denominational schools. 
 
 Mohammedan Countries — Here educa- 
 tion consists almost entirely in reading the 
 
Courses of Study 43 
 
 Koran, with writing and sometimes arith- 
 metic. Higher education deals with gram- 
 mar, syntax, versification, logic, canon law, 
 terminology of tradition, exegesis of the 
 Koran law, jurisprudence, etc., with prac- 
 tically nothing of science, mathematics, 
 geography, history, or other subjects of 
 instruction in Christian countries. 
 
 Egypt — Organization is in its initial 
 stages only, and there are no schools out- 
 side the towns. These are chiefly mosque 
 schools, or kuttahs, where the Koran and 
 a little reading and writing are taught. 
 Higher education is described in the par- 
 agraph relating to Mohammedan edu- 
 cation. 
 
 China — In China there is no system of 
 elementary schools; the state does not 
 provide instruction, it examines only, 
 and then only advanced students. Its 
 peculiar type of education is fairly well 
 spread, and as the road to all preferment 
 
44 State Control of 
 
 lies through the government examinations, 
 China is essentially democratic. 
 
 The different rounds in the ladder of 
 Chinese education are as follows : — 
 
 1. Preliminary studies in the village or 
 
 clan schools, and with tutors. 
 
 2. Haien Shih, or matriculation tests, 
 
 under the eye of the district magis- 
 trate. 
 
 3. Yuan Shih, for matriculates for the 
 
 A.B. degree. 
 
 4. Haiang Shih, or provincial examina- 
 
 tions, at the provincial capitals, open 
 to A.B.^s for A.M. 
 
 5. Hui Shih, or national examinations, 
 
 every three years at Peking, open to 
 A.M.'s for D.Lit. 
 
 6. Tien Shih, or palace examinations, 
 
 every three years at Peking, open to 
 Doctors. 
 
 7. Ch'ae K*ae, or imperial examination, 
 
 in the presence of the Emperor, 
 
Courses of Study 45 
 
 open to those who have at least the 
 second degree. Those who take 
 the highest rank are made district 
 magistrates. 
 
 That all this will soon become a thing 
 of the past is likely, however, as in 1905 
 China, following the example of Japan, 
 began the foundations of a modern educa- 
 tional system based on European and 
 American models. 
 
CLASS V 
 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
CLASS V 
 
 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 The United States of America — On the 
 surface there might appear to be no justi- 
 fication for a separate classification for the 
 United States, as the various states might 
 apparently be classified under the forego- 
 ing subdivisions. Then, too, the diversity 
 of states has given ground to the assump- 
 tion of many Europeans that there is no 
 national system of education in the United 
 States. But if "by a national system is 
 meant one which among other things meets 
 all the varied needs of the nation and is 
 representative of a common national pur- 
 pose,*' then the system of the United States 
 is national to the last degree, for we find 
 from California to Maine, from Montana 
 to Florida, common schools, high schools, 
 49 
 
50 State Control of 
 
 and colleges, practically all alike, with of 
 course varying degrees of excellence. But 
 the causes and growth of unity in America 
 and in the European states are very dif- 
 ferent. There it is caused by the presence 
 of need to meet external opposition, while 
 our feeling in regard to this is expressed 
 by Daniel Webster : " I apprehend no 
 danger to our country from a foreign foe." 
 The national purpose here "is rather 
 manifested in a strong determination to 
 make a success of democracy to enable the 
 people to realize through self-government 
 the highest possible form of national de- 
 velopment.'* In Europe the idea is to ed- 
 ucate for state purposes ; in America, for 
 the individual. There the aim is to pro- 
 duce law-abiding citizens, to strengthen 
 the state by the enlightenment of its citi- 
 zens. Here, it is to develop law-abiding 
 and law-making citizens, and education is 
 an end in itself. And in addition to the 
 
Courses of Study 51 
 
 wide difference in spirit, there is an equal 
 difference in the workings of educational 
 systems. There the state enforces its code 
 according to its own idea. Here the local 
 authorities treat educational regulations 
 according to local needs of advancement. 
 Hence, with similar regulations, it would 
 be incongruous to place the American states 
 beside European and other countries in the 
 lists given above. Therefore, I have made 
 a separate classification for these states, 
 with the subdivisions given below. 
 
 {a) Physiology and hygiene, with special 
 
 REFERENCE TO THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL 
 AND narcotics, IS PRESCRIBED IN ALL THE 
 STATES 
 
 The value of this is questioned by many if 
 not by a majority of those engaged in teach- 
 ing, and the regulations in many cases verge 
 perilously upon the ridiculous, as viewed 
 from the standpoint of the schoolroom. 
 
52 State Control of 
 
 They bear much stronger testimony to the 
 zeal than to the common sense of the good 
 people behind the movement. 
 
 {b) No OTHER STATE PRESCRIPTION 
 
 In a number of states the school law 
 does not state what branches are to be 
 taught, but it does prescribe the subjects 
 for examination of teachers, and these con- 
 stitute the instruction in the common 
 schools. They are also indirectly indicated 
 by the compulsory school laws. There is 
 little prescription for the high school, but 
 its subjects are usually determined by uni- 
 versity requirements. 
 
 New York — It is strange to find highly 
 centralized New York in this list, but it is 
 true that the state nowhere prescribes the 
 subjects to be taught, except indirectly 
 through the compulsory school law which 
 provides that children coming under that 
 act shall be instructed in reading, writing, 
 
Courses of Study 53 
 
 arithmetic, spelling, English grammar, and 
 geography. Local boards of education 
 prescribe courses of study, and may add to 
 the above. In case of abuse of their 
 authority, appeal may be had to the state 
 superintendent, who has power to withdraw 
 the subjects complained of. However, the 
 examinations of the State Board of Regents 
 largely determine the branches of instruc- 
 tion in both common and high schools. 
 
 Ohio is a type of extreme decentraliza- 
 tion. Excepting for indirect prescription 
 through the compulsory school law, all 
 authority is in the hands of local school 
 boards. 
 
 Florida — County boards prescribe 
 courses of study. 
 
 Iowa — Local boards prescribe. Voters 
 at the annual meetings may add to the 
 course, but may not limit the board. Boards 
 for union high schools arrange courses sub- 
 ject to approval of the state superintendent. 
 
54 State Control of 
 
 Nebraska — District boards prescribe 
 courses which may include all the subjects 
 necessary for a first grade teacher^s certifi- 
 cate. High schools are under local author- 
 ity also. 
 
 Arkansas — The County Uniformity Act 
 states upon what subjects uniform texts 
 are to be selected, and thus indirectly pre- 
 scribes the branches to be taught. 
 
 Delaware — Teachers must be qualified 
 to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, Eng- 
 lish grammar, and such branches as the 
 local committee may select — by the old 
 law of 1829. Uniform texts to-day practi- 
 cally prescribe the branches. 
 
 Alabama — Township board has con- 
 trol. 
 
 New Jersey — The county superintend- 
 ent shall prepare a course of study sub- 
 ject to the approval of the state superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 Rhode Island — The town committee 
 
Courses of Study 55 
 
 have power to prescribe the courses under 
 direction of the state commissioner. 
 
 (c) Prescribed courses for communities 
 
 BELOW A FIXED POPULATION 
 
 Oregon — In towns of 4000 or more, the 
 schools are under the entire control of 
 their local boards of directors. All others 
 operate under the rules of the state board 
 of education, though the state law does not 
 directly specify the state board control of 
 the course of study. For ungraded schools 
 the prescribed branches are reading, arith- 
 metic, writing, spelHng, geography, gram- 
 mar, United States history, elementary 
 natural science, common school literature, 
 and citizenship; music may be added, 
 but nothing else unless by vote of the 
 directors. High schools and schools of 
 advanced grade may also have algebra, 
 geometry, astronomy, geology, general 
 history, composition, natural philosophy. 
 
56 State Control of 
 
 chemistry, botany, bookkeeping, science 
 of government, and vocal music. In actual 
 practice these schools are not limited to 
 such subjects alone. Free gymnastics and 
 breathing exercises are recommended for 
 primary pupils. 
 
 Washington — Cities of 10,000 or over 
 prescribe courses of study and kinds of 
 texts in addition to those prescribed by 
 the state board. Otherwise this state falls 
 in class {e). 
 
 (tf) Instruction LiMriED to certain branches 
 
 Virginia — Instruction is limited to 
 spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 grammar, and geography, and no other 
 may be given except by special regula- 
 tion of the state board. It is true that 
 any district board with the sanction of the 
 county board may admit such branches 
 as qualify pupils for teachers' examina- 
 tions, or for entrance to higher institutions 
 
Courses of Study 57 
 
 of the state, but a fee may be required 
 for such instruction. The regulations of 
 the state board have added history of 
 the United States and of Virginia to the 
 branches for common schools. 
 
 North Carolina — No studies shall be 
 taught except spelling, defining, reading, 
 arithmetic, writing, English grammar, ge- 
 ography, and the history of this state and 
 the United States. But it is provided that 
 the school committee may make special 
 arrangements and allow other branches 
 to be taught. 
 
 Kentucky — The instruction prescribed 
 by the state board of education shall em- 
 brace reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, 
 English grammar, English composition, 
 geography, civil government, history of 
 the United States, and of Kentucky. Trus- 
 tees of graded schools may add to these. 
 
 Vermont — All pupils are to be in- 
 structed in good behavior, reading, writ- 
 
58 State Control of 
 
 ing, arithmetic, spelling, English grammar, 
 geography, freehand drawing, history and 
 constitution of the United States, and in 
 the geography, history, constitution, and 
 principles of Vermont. They may be 
 taught vocal music also. In districts of 
 more than one school or in schools of 
 more than one department, the prudential 
 committee may provide free instruction in 
 higher branches of English study ; and if 
 there are three or more teachers, ancient 
 and foreign languages may be taught. 
 
 California — Instruction is obligatory by 
 law in (i) reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 geography, nature study, language and 
 grammar. United States history, and civil 
 government; (2) music, drawing, book- 
 keeping, and humane education alone may 
 be required where there are more than 100 
 children on the census list. Other studies 
 may be authorized by county or city 
 boards, but in lieu of some ** member " of 
 
Courses of Study 59 
 
 the above, not in addition thereto. Teach- 
 ing of manners and morals is required also. 
 
 {e) The state prescribes, or has power to 
 
 PRESCRIBE, A UNIFORM COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 Indiana — The management and con- 
 trol of the schools are by the trustees 
 (one to each township), and this is taken 
 to involve the right to prescribe courses 
 of study. County boards adopt courses 
 for district schools, and cities arrange 
 their own courses. By the Haworth de- 
 cision (State vs, Haworth, 122 Indiana 
 462) the legislature has power to pre- 
 scribe courses of study and the system 
 of instruction. The state manual, com- 
 piled by a committee of county superin- 
 tendents in 1892 and revised in 1895, 1897, 
 and 1899, provides a uniform course for 
 common and high schools. The common 
 school course is in general use, but is not 
 compulsory, and the high school course is 
 
6o State Control of 
 
 merely suggestive. The statute of 1869 
 requires that all instruction shall be in 
 English, and that the trustees shall pro- 
 vide teaching in orthography, reading, 
 writing, arithmetic, English grammar, ge- 
 ography, physiology, history of the United 
 States, and good behavior ; and such addi- 
 tional subjects as pupils may require and 
 the trustees may direct. If the guardians 
 of twenty-five pupils demand it, there 
 must be instruction in German. Voters 
 at the annual meeting may add other 
 branches. 
 
 Arizona — The territorial board of edu- 
 cation has power to prescribe and to en- 
 force a course of study for the public 
 schools. The school laws prescribe in- 
 struction in reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 orthography, geography, grammar, history 
 of the United States, bookkeeping, indus- 
 trial drawing, and such other studies as 
 the local boards may prescribe; but no 
 
Courses of Study 6r 
 
 other studies are to be pursued to the 
 neglect or exclusion of the studies enumer- 
 ated. Instruction in manners and morals 
 is to be given throughout the school 
 course, and all schools are to be taught 
 the English language. The territorial 
 board lays down minute regulations for 
 teachers and pupils, classifies schools as 
 primary and grammar, and states the re- 
 quirements for promotion. Instruction in 
 branches higher than those enumerated 
 is left to the discretion of the principal. 
 Maryland — Regulations of the state 
 board. The system of instruction shall 
 embrace orthography, reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, geography, history of the 
 United States and of Maryland, general 
 history, constitution of the United States 
 and of Maryland, English grammar, book- 
 keeping, algebra, geometry, physiology, 
 natural philosophy, drawing, vocal music, 
 domestic economy, and good behavior; 
 
62 State Control of 
 
 also the German language and elements of 
 agriculture when ordered by the county 
 board. 
 
 The work for each grade, from i to 6 
 inclusive, is prescribed with some subjects, 
 as drawing, needlework, and domestic 
 economy, recommended but not obligatory. 
 The time is prescribed for each class in a 
 mixed school; as, ist class — one lesson of 
 twenty minutes, and three of fifteen each. 
 Schedules for high schools and higher 
 classes of graded schools are recommended 
 but not prescribed. 
 
 Michigan — The district boards specify 
 the subjects to be pursued in the schools 
 in addition to those prescribed by law, — 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, geog- 
 raphy, grammar, national and state his- 
 tory, and civil government. 
 
 By the act of 1897 the state superintend- 
 ent is authorized to prepare for district 
 schools a course of study comprising the 
 
Courses of Study 63 
 
 branches then required for third grade cer- 
 tificates, which shall be known as " The 
 Agriculture College," completion and di- 
 ploma to admit to the freshman course of 
 the Agricultural College. 
 
 The state manual of studies prepared by 
 a committee of county secretaries is not 
 compulsory. High school courses are 
 largely determined by the requirements of 
 the state university. 
 
 Minnesota — Local boards prescribe 
 courses of study, but the state law pre- 
 scribes the branches to be taught. 
 
 There is a system of state aid for state 
 graded schools, but schools receiving such 
 aid must conform to the state requirements. 
 Such high schools must have a course of 
 study embracing branches prerequisite for 
 admission to the University of Minnesota. 
 The state course of study, time-tables, etc., 
 are not compulsory, but are to serve as 
 models. 
 
64 State Control of 
 
 There may be introduced in the schools 
 the elements of social and moral science, 
 including industry, order, economy, punc- 
 tuality, patience, self-denial, health, purity, 
 temperance, cleanliness, honesty, truth, 
 justice, politeness, peace, fidelity, philan- 
 thropy, patriotism, self-reliance, self- 
 respect, hope, perseverance, cheerfulness, 
 courage, gratitude, pity, mercy, kindness, 
 conscience, reflection, and will. 
 
 Nevada — The state board of education 
 shall prescribe and cause to be adopted 
 the course of study in the public schools. 
 The state board prescribes uniform texts 
 in the principal studies in the public 
 schools; to wit: reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, spelling, language, grammar, orthog- 
 raphy, history of the United States, physi- 
 ology, and drawing ; also for schools in 
 which the trustees may add the following : 
 algebra, geometry, physics, astronomy, 
 physical geography, chemistry, Latin, 
 
Courses of Study 65 
 
 rhetoric, literature, English history, gen- 
 eral history, civics, geology, bookkeeping, 
 and music. 
 
 Montana — The state superintendent 
 shall prepare and prescribe a course of 
 study for all the public schools of the state. 
 District boards of trustees have power to 
 determine what branches, if any, in addi- 
 tion to those required by law, shall be 
 taught, subject to the approval of the 
 county superintendent. The branches 
 prescribed by law are reading, penman- 
 ship, written arithmetic, mental arithmetic, 
 geography, English grammar, history of 
 the United States, civics of the United 
 States and of Montana. Attention in the 
 whole course is to be given in the cultiva- 
 tion of manners, the laws of health, physi- 
 cal exercise, and the ventilation and tem- 
 perature of the schoolroom. 
 
 South Carolina — The state board of 
 education has the power to prescribe and 
 
66 State Control of 
 
 enforce the course of study for the free 
 public schools. It is the duty of county 
 boards and boards of trustees to have 
 taught as far as practicable, reading, writ- 
 ing, arithmetic, orthography, geography, 
 English grammar, elements of agriculture, 
 history of the United States and of South 
 Carolina, morals and good behavior, alge- 
 bra, English literature, and such others as 
 the state board may from time to time 
 direct. 
 
 North Dakota — The state superintend- 
 ent shall prepare and prescribe a course 
 of study for public and normal schools. 
 Each teacher shall give instruction in 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, lan- 
 guage, English grammar, geography. 
 United States history, and civil govern- 
 ment. District boards determine addi- 
 tional branches. The English language 
 alone is to be used in the schools. 
 Schools desiring to be state high schools 
 
Courses of Study 67 
 
 must have the branches prescribed by 
 the state high school board for the first 
 two years of the course. 
 
 A constitutional provision requires in- 
 struction as far as is practicable in those 
 branches of knowledge which tend to 
 impress truthfulness, temperance, purity, 
 public spirit, and respect for honest labor 
 of every kind. Recent legislation provides 
 for teaching in the public schools the hu- 
 mane treatment of animals. 
 
 Tennessee — The primary schools are to 
 have five grades, with a system of promo- 
 tion arranged by the county superintend- 
 ent according to the general regulations 
 of the state superintendent. Secondary 
 schools include these five grades and three 
 more. Primary school subjects are read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, orthography, 
 grammar, geography, history of Tennessee, 
 history and constitution of the United 
 States, vocal music, and elocution. Sec- 
 
68 State Control of 
 
 ondary schools, besides the above, include 
 elementary geology of Tennessee, elemen- 
 tary principles of agriculture, algebra, 
 plane geometry, natural philosophy, book- 
 keeping, physiology and hygiene, civil gov- 
 ernment, and rhetoric. 
 
 West Virginia — It is the duty of the 
 state superintendent to prescribe a manual 
 and grade a course of study of primary in- 
 struction for country and village schools. 
 In primary schools the following are 
 required: reading, writing, arithmetic, or- 
 thography, English grammar, and hy- 
 giene. Instruction may be given in 
 general history. United States and state 
 history, general and state geography, 
 single entry bookkeeping, civil govern- 
 ment, and in the theory and art of teaching. 
 It is the duty of teachers and boards of 
 education to provide moral training. 
 
 A board of education has no power to 
 add any further subjects nor require them 
 
Courses of Study 69 
 
 to be taught [opinion from state office]. 
 The theory and art of teaching is not a sub- 
 ject for primary schools, but teachers have 
 to pass an examination on it [opinion]. 
 
 Wisconsin — The superintendent deter- 
 mines the course of study for ungraded 
 schools. District or township boards de- 
 termine the organization, management, and 
 control of district schools and additional 
 subjects to those prescribed, which are 
 orthography, orthoepy, reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, grammar, geography, history 
 and constitution of the United States, 
 and the constitution of Wisconsin. In- 
 struction is to be in English, but a school- 
 board may have a foreign language taught 
 for one hour a day. The state superin- 
 tendent prepares the course for free high 
 schools. The course may be modified with 
 his consent, but must include the theory 
 and art of teaching, and the organization, 
 management, and course of study for un- 
 
70 State Control of 
 
 graded schools. A school-board may have 
 a foreign language taught for one hour 
 each day. 
 
 Missouri — By the law of 1900 county 
 superintendents and district trustees are 
 to enforce the state course of study pre- 
 pared by the state board of education. 
 No pupil may enter a central high school 
 who has not completed the common school 
 course in descriptive geography, practical 
 arithmetic, mental arithmetic, language 
 lessons and elementary grammar, United 
 States history, and physiology. 
 
 Louisiana — The state board shall give 
 such directions as it may see proper as 
 to the branches of study which shall be 
 taught. But the following are required in 
 every district : orthography, reading, writ- 
 ing, arithmetic, geography, grammar. 
 United States history, laws of health, 
 and physical education. In certain places 
 instruction in French may also be given. 
 
Courses of Study 71 
 
 Maine — The state superintendent is 
 required to prescribe the studies to be 
 taught in the common schools, reserving 
 to town committees the right to prescribe 
 additional studies. In free high schools 
 the course of study shall embrace the ordi- 
 nary English academic studies taught in 
 secondary schools, especially the natural 
 sciences in their application to mechanics, 
 manufacturing, and agriculture; but the 
 ancient or modern languages and music 
 shall not be taught therein except by di- 
 rection of the superintending school com- 
 mittee having charge thereof. 
 
 Massachusetts — Reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, grammar, geography, drawing, his- 
 tory of the United States, and good be- 
 havior are prescribed for all common 
 schools ; algebra, vocal music, agriculture, 
 and sewing shall be taught by lectures or 
 otherwise in all public schools in which 
 the school committee deem it expedient. 
 
72 State Control of 
 
 Every town may, and every town of 500 
 families shall, maintain a high school in 
 which shall be taught general history, 
 bookkeeping, surveying, geometry, natural 
 philosophy, chemistry, botany, and the 
 civil polity of this commonwealth and of 
 the United States. Every town of 4000 or 
 more shall prescribe in addition Greek and 
 French, astronomy, geology, rhetoric, logic, 
 political economy, intellectual and moral 
 science. Subjects for evening schools are 
 prescribed. 
 
 (/) A MINIMUM PRESCRIBED 
 
 Schools of this division are under the 
 entire control of local boards, who may 
 in addition to the minimum prescribed by 
 law have taught any branches they choose. 
 The prescribed branches are those for the 
 lowest grade of teachers' examinations in 
 Colorado y Illinois y and Mississippi ; read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, spelling, English 
 grammar, and geography in Connecti- 
 
Courses of Study 73 
 
 ctity New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, 
 and Pennsylvania, In Kansas the course 
 of study for the county high schools is pre- 
 scribed for three courses of three years 
 each. In Pennsylvania the courses in 
 schools receiving state aid are subject to 
 the approval of the state superintendent, 
 and such schools must employ teachers 
 legally certified to teach algebra, geome- 
 try, etc., the subjects usually found in 
 high schools. 
 
 In addition to these branches, Georgia 
 requires agriculture and civil government ; 
 South Dakota adds United States history 
 and civil government. Texas adds compo- 
 sition. Utah requires the metric system 
 and moral instruction free from sectarian 
 control; it is the duty of the county super- 
 intendent to see that the pupils are in- 
 structed in the branches required by law. 
 Wyoming adds history of the United 
 States, civil government, and the humane 
 
74 State Control of 
 
 treatment of animals. The state super- 
 intendent advises as to the courses of 
 study. 
 
 New Hampshire — The local authorities 
 may permit or prescribe algebra, geometry, 
 surveying, bookkeeping, philosophy, chem- 
 istry, and natural history, or may permit 
 any of these, and add other suitable 
 studies. 
 
 The foregoing does not pretend to be a 
 thorough or exact classification, and others 
 would probably place various of the states 
 differently. The distinctions are not well 
 marked, and the classification is more or 
 less arbitrary; but these differences after 
 all amount to very little, for they are much 
 less in the actual working of the schools 
 than the statutes or codes would imply, 
 the schools of the whole country being 
 practically homogeneous. Moreover, here 
 as elsewhere in American life, the law is 
 not enforced to the letter, but is interpreted 
 
Courses of Study 75 
 
 and carried out by the local authorities 
 according to their means and necessities. 
 The educational affairs of the county, the 
 largest subdivision of the state, are admin- 
 istered by the county superintendent, usu- 
 ally an elective officer ; or where an appoint- 
 ive officer, usually equally representative 
 of the people, thus further insuring educa- 
 tion as an expression of the popular will. 
 The complete independence of cities, 
 large and small, in general is to be noted, 
 and also the almost entire lack of high 
 school prescription — other than for town- 
 ship or county schools. It is the policy 
 of the state to encourage and stimulate 
 popular education rather than to attempt 
 its control, — to recognize the independ- 
 ence of the people in their local self- 
 government. And if political democracy 
 in America, on trial before the world, is 
 justifying itself, no less so is educational 
 democracy. The school district is the 
 
76 State Control of 
 
 real political unit (for historical reasons 
 it is the county in the South), and the 
 extreme ideal of democracy is represented 
 in those states where the electors at the 
 annual school meeting have the right to add 
 branches to the school course. "Spon- 
 taneity is the keynote of education in the 
 United States. Its varied form, its un- 
 even progress, its lack of symmetry, its 
 practical effectiveness, are all due to the 
 fact that it has sprung unbidden and un- 
 forced from the needs and aspirations of 
 the people. Local preference and indi- 
 vidual initiative have been ruling forces. 
 What men have wished for, that they have 
 done. They have not waited for State 
 assistance, or for State control.** 
 
 That the common schools of the country 
 are homogeneous has been stated, and the 
 high schools are no less so. In view of 
 the vast area of this country, its varying 
 conditions, and numerous political divi- 
 
Courses of Study 77 
 
 sions, this seems almost marvelous and we 
 inquire as to the reason. It is that edu- 
 cational progress has been left largely in 
 the hands of the collective body of educa- 
 tors. Unity among these has been brought 
 about through the influence of such leaders 
 as Horace Mann and Colonel Parker, 
 through educational books, the universities, 
 the National Educational Association, 
 teachers' associations, teachers' institutes, 
 educational magazines, and the possibility 
 of teachers in any state securing employ- 
 ment in any other. The influence of the 
 National Bureau of Education is not to be 
 omitted, but it is to be remembered that 
 this influence is exerted through suggestion 
 and not by authority. 
 
 It may be seen that the foregoing may 
 be formulated into an argument against 
 centralization, and it had been the writer's 
 purpose to adduce further argument were 
 this chapter not too long already, — not 
 
78 State Control of 
 
 against centralization everywhere, but 
 against it in this country ; for while under 
 an autocratic or paternal government where 
 the initiative comes from above it may be 
 desirable, it is not necessary in the United 
 States where the government is from below. 
 The present tendency is toward centraliza- 
 tion, — a tendency which might be deplored 
 were it not certain that the principle of 
 local self-government is too firmly fixed ever 
 to be subverted. The evolution is likely 
 to be into some form sufficiently elastic, 
 but more efficient than that which holds 
 to-day. 
 
 The arguments for centralization in brief 
 are economy, uniformity, and a higher 
 standard of education. 
 
 Economy to a certain extent I grant, 
 but the very wastefulness of the past has 
 had valuable results, and from its experi- 
 ences is developing a rational system along 
 characteristic American lines. 
 
Courses of Study 79 
 
 Uniformity is not to be desired. It pro- 
 duces a mechanical attitude and fosters 
 dependence. It is un-American and strikes 
 at the very root of democracy, — the ini- 
 tiative of the individual. 
 
 It may be admitted that a temporary 
 standard may be reached more quickly, 
 that defects may at once be removed by 
 state intervention, but these things depend 
 upon the^ people finally, and the gains will 
 be more secure in the long run if they 
 are left to the community. Surely the 
 boundless confidence in the people ex- 
 pressed by Lincoln and other statesmen 
 is not misplaced. A perusal of the re- 
 ports of state superintendents from their 
 early issues until to-day reveals wonder- 
 ful progress, — a progress as great as 
 that of state-controlled European systems. 
 And in Europe itself, to those who refer 
 to German progress, the opponents of 
 centralization can point to Denmark, un- 
 
8o State Control 
 
 surpassed in literacy and prosperity, or to 
 Finland before it succumbed to the anaes- 
 thetic of Russian autocracy. But com- 
 parisons are of little value, for we must 
 finally return to the principle laid down in 
 the introduction to this work, — that an 
 educational system is merely one manifes- 
 tation of the activities or life of a people. 
 
RECENT LEGISLATION 
 
RECENT LEGISLATION 
 
 Massachusetts gives the school com- 
 mittee power to supervise and control all 
 athletic organizations composed of pupils 
 of the school and bearing the name of the 
 school. It also may determine directly 
 or through an authorized representative 
 under what conditions such organizations 
 may enter into competition with similar 
 organizations in other schools. 
 
 The last legislature has provided for the 
 appointment of a commission which shall 
 have authority relating to the establish- 
 ment and supervision of independent in- 
 dustrial schools throughout the state. 
 
 It has also authorized the Agricultural 
 College to establish a normal department 
 to instruct teachers in the elements of 
 agriculture. 
 
 Pennsylvania gives boards of education 
 
84 State Control 
 
 the power to establish and maintain one 
 or more schools for the instruction of 
 pupils in the useful branches of the me- 
 chanic arts, athletics, and kindred subjects, 
 and to provide the necessary buildings, 
 etc. She also provides for a system of 
 humane education. 
 
 Oklahoma provides for a scheme of ethi- 
 cal and humane education for the public 
 schools. 
 
 Arizona provides for instruction in man- 
 ual training and domestic science in the 
 pubHc schools. 
 
 Ke7itucky recently appropriated ;?20,- 
 ooo for various matters including indus- 
 trial training for colored persons. 
 
 Minnesota provides for county schools 
 of agriculture and domestic science. 
 
 New Jersey provides for industrial 
 schools. 
 
 Wisconsin provides for the teaching of 
 agriculture in the public schools. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION 
 
 Australia — New South Wales — Teach- 
 ing is nonsectarian, but includes general 
 religious instruction (except where guard- 
 ian objects), using a text-book or the scrip- 
 ture history lessons in the readers. 
 
 Western Australia — Similar to New 
 South Wales, — special religious instruc- 
 tion limited to half an hour a day. 
 
 Victoria — No teacher shall give other 
 than secular instruction in any state school 
 building. May have religious instruction 
 after the close of school by some person 
 other than the teacher. 
 
 Queensland — Similar to Victoria ; but 
 those giving religious instruction must have 
 permission of the Minister of Education. 
 
 South Australia — Schools secular; may 
 87 
 
88 State Control of 
 
 have scripture reading, Protestant or 
 Douay version, before the regular open- 
 ing; attendance on this is not compul- 
 sory. 
 
 Tasmania — First half hour may be de- 
 voted to sacred history, — unsectarian and 
 confined to passages from state-approved 
 books. A " conscience clause'' permits the 
 withdrawal from this of pupils whose guard- 
 ians object. There may also be special 
 instruction by clergymen in special class 
 rooms, or after hours in schoolrooms, but 
 not on two consecutive days to children of 
 any one denomination. 
 
 Austria — Religious instruction is given 
 throughout the school course, elementary 
 and secondary; special teachers are usu- 
 ally in charge. 
 
 Argentine Republic — No provision for 
 religious instruction. 
 
 Brazil — No provision for religious in- 
 struction. 
 
Courses of Study 89 
 
 Bermuda — In government schools, pro- 
 vided for with a "conscience clause." 
 
 Belgium — Clergy may give religious 
 instruction or provide for its being given 
 by teacher or other person during the first 
 or last half hour of the school day. Par- 
 ents may have children excused by request. 
 
 British Guiana — Religious instruction 
 allowed, but any scholar may be excused 
 without forfeiting any other school in- 
 struction. 
 
 Central America — None provided for. 
 
 Cape Colony — Allowable, with a "con- 
 science clause." 
 
 Canada — British Columbia — Secular 
 and nonsectarian ; Lord's Prayer may be 
 used in opening and closing. 
 
 Manitoba — Teachers permitted to read 
 selected forms of prayer and scripture for 
 opening and closing exercises. 
 
 Ontario — Same as Manitoba. 
 
 Nova Scotia — Devotional exercises al- 
 
90 State Control of 
 
 lowed if no parents object in writing; may 
 then be allowed if so arranged as to give 
 no offense. 
 
 New Bnmswick — May open and close 
 with Lord's Prayer and scripture readings 
 (Protestant or Catholic version). Purely 
 voluntary and no pupil required to attend 
 if contrary to will of guardian. 
 
 Prince Edward Island — No sectarian 
 or religious teaching; principles of moral- 
 ity to be inculcated. 
 
 Quebec — Roman Catholic schools have 
 regular instruction in religion and cate- 
 chism ; Protestant schools may have first 
 half hour of day for religious instruction. 
 
 Territories — May open and close with 
 Lord's Prayer. May have religious in- 
 struction last half hour if permitted or de- 
 sired by trustees. 
 
 Denmark — Religious instruction through- 
 out school course ; children may be ex- 
 cused by request of parents. 
 
Courses of Study 91 
 
 England — A graded course as in other 
 subjects, but un sectarian ; a "conscience 
 clause '' gives freedom of withdrawal from 
 religious instruction or exercises. 
 
 Ireland, Scotland, and Wales are similar 
 to England. 
 
 France — Public schools are purely sec- 
 ular. Moral instruction is prescribed. 
 
 Finland — Scripture instruction and cat- 
 echism required in public schools* 
 
 Greece — Religious history and cate- 
 chism part of course in Demotic and Hel- 
 lenic schools. 
 
 British Guiana — Allowed with a " con- 
 science clause.** 
 
 Hungary — Religion and morality are 
 obligatory subjects. In public elementary 
 and secondary schools religious instruc- 
 tion is given by external teachers of va- 
 rious sects. 
 
 Italy — Moral, not religious, instruction 
 required in course. 
 
92 State Control of 
 
 India — No religious instruction in 
 public schools. 
 
 Japan — Moral instruction only. 
 
 Jamaica — Allowed in government 
 schools, with a " conscience clause." 
 
 Mexico — No religious instruction. 
 
 Norway — In primary schools the only 
 standard fixed by law is that of religious 
 knowledge; religious instruction through- 
 out secondary and normal courses. 
 
 Netherlands — Certain hours set apart 
 for religious instruction by different clergy ; 
 teachers may not give religious instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 New Zealand — Religious instruction 
 may be given out of school hours. 
 
 Natal — School opened with prayer; 
 regular religious instruction of an unsec- 
 tarian kind may be permitted, but is not 
 compulsory. 
 
 Newfoundland — In denominational 
 schools each denomination teaches its 
 
Courses of Study 93 
 
 own dogmas, but in state-aided schools 
 not to children whose parents object. 
 
 Portugal — Instructions require that only 
 the essential points of the catechism (R.C.) 
 be taught, though teachers may extend the 
 instruction. Non-Catholics not required 
 to attend religious instruction. 
 
 Germany — Prussia — Regular instruc- 
 tion from two to four hours a week through- 
 out course ; slight difference for Protestants 
 and Roman Catholics ; Jews also provided 
 for. Pupils must receive instruction in 
 the faith of their parents. 
 
 Russia — The official church has great 
 control of the schools and provides re- 
 ligious instruction throughout. 
 
 Servia — Religious instruction through- 
 out the school course. 
 
 Switzerland — Biblical history and 
 morals throughout. 
 
 Sweden — Required in primary, normal, 
 and secondary schools throughout. 
 
94 State Control 
 
 United States. — No religious prescrip- 
 tion ; religious instruction not allowed in 
 public schools. Scripture reading and 
 hymn singing form part of the opening 
 exercises in many schools. In 1896, of 
 946 superintendents reporting, 454 have 
 Bible reading in all their schools, 295 in 
 part, and 197 in none. In some states, 
 as in Nebraska, it is illegal to have even 
 Bible reading in the public schools. The 
 majority of states are silent on this phase, 
 and Bible reading for opening exercises is 
 largely a matter of custom. 
 
GRADING OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 
 
GRADING OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 
 
 Austria — Kindergarten : 2 to 6 years 
 of age. 
 
 Elementary: People's schools of 5 
 classes of i year each; citizens* schools 
 of 3 years additional. 
 
 Ungraded schools of 2 or more classes. 
 
 Normal schools of 2 or 3 years ; admit 
 by examination from elementary schools 
 and prepare for teaching in same. 
 
 Secondary schools not connected with 
 elementary schools and divided into gym- 
 nasien of 8 years and realschulen of 7 
 years. 
 
 Enter university from gymnasien. 
 
 Commercial, technical, industrial contin- 
 uation schools, etc., also. 
 
 Australia — New South Wales — Infant 
 schools of 2 years. 
 
 97 
 
gS State Control of 
 
 Primary: First class, i| years; second 
 class, I year; third class, 2 years; fourth 
 and fifth classes, i year each. 
 
 Secondary: High schools admit by ex- 
 amination from third class. 
 
 Superior schools are those doing work 
 above the third class. 
 
 Enter university at Sydney by examina- 
 tion from high school. 
 
 Primary schools are classified as first 
 class, second class, etc., by attendance, 
 ' — first class having 600 or more ; second 
 class, 400 to 600, etc. 
 
 Training schools offer a 2 years' course 
 and admit after a 4 years* pupil-teacher 
 course. 
 
 Victoria — Public schools have 6 stand- 
 ards of I year each. 
 
 Training school gives I year, admitting 
 after pupil-teacher course. 
 
 University of Melbourne. No public 
 secondary schools. 
 
Courses of Study 99 
 
 Queensland — Primary: First class, 2 
 years ; second class, i J years ; third class, 
 I J years; fourth class, i|- years; fifth class, 
 \\ years ; sixth class, \\ years. 
 
 Eight classes of primary schools classi- 
 fied by attendance, — first of over 800 to 
 eighth of 30 or 40. 
 
 Teachers take pupil-teacher training 
 course of 4 years. 
 
 No training school. 
 
 Secondary: High schools of 3 or 4 
 years. 
 
 No university. 
 
 South Australia — Primary schools : 
 Classes i, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of i year each. 
 
 Training college admits after 4 or 3 
 years* pupil-teacher course. 
 
 Primary schools divided by attendance 
 into 12 classes, — first class of 600 or more 
 to twelfth class of 20 to 30. 
 
 No state secondary schools. 
 
 University at Adelaide. 
 
loo State Control of 
 
 Western Australia — Infant schools of 
 2 years. 
 
 Elementary schools of standards i, 2, 3, 
 4> 5> ^> 7> of I year each, and may be an 
 ex-7 in addition. 
 
 No training schools, but pupil-teacher 
 course of 4 years. 
 
 No state secondary schools nor univer- 
 sity (1901). 
 
 Tasmania — First class of 2 years, 
 then classes 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 of i year 
 each. 
 
 4 years* pupil-teacher course being from 
 class 5. 
 
 No free state education. No state sec- 
 ondary education. 
 
 University of Tasmania. 
 
 Argentina — Kindergarten from 3 to 6 
 years of age. 
 
 Public schools of 8 or 9 classes of i year 
 each in 3 divisions, — primary, elementary, 
 and graduated (similar to Massachusetts). 
 
Courses of Study ici ; 
 
 Complete above to enter normal school 
 of 4 years or kindergarten normal of 2 
 years. 
 
 Superior normal for secondary and 
 normal teachers. 
 
 Secondary : National colleges of 6 years* 
 course. Leaving examination admits to uni- 
 versities of 6 years* courses, also to mili- 
 tary academy, to schools of commerce, of 
 mines, of pilots, and of agriculture. 
 
 Brazil — Primary schools are divided 
 into first grade and second grade ; the first 
 grade has 6 classes of i year each and is 
 in 3 divisions, — elementary, intermediate, 
 and higher ; these are of 2 years each and 
 include the ages from 7 to 13. The second 
 grade has 3 classes of i year each, from 
 13 to 15 years of age. Diploma from first 
 grade admits to secondary school, and from 
 second grade to normal. 
 
 Secondary: 7 classes of i year each; 
 graduation admits to the university, com- 
 
ro2 State Control of 
 
 prised of schools of law, medicine, etc., 
 located in different cities. 
 
 British Guiana — Infant schools from 
 3 to 7 years of age, followed by 8 stand- 
 ards of I year each. The upper grades 
 of these include a number of secondary 
 studies. 
 
 Cape Colony — Elementary : Standard B 
 and standards i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and ex- 
 standards of I year each. 
 
 Training schools of i year. Pupil- 
 teacher course of 3 years, which may be 
 extended to 5 years. 
 
 Secondary : Same as elementary up to 
 and including standard 5, followed by 
 high school standards A, B, C, and D. 
 
 University of the Cape of Good Hope 
 is merely an examining body. 
 
 Canada — Ontario — Elementary: Forms 
 I, 2, 3, and 4 of 2 years each, and may be 
 form 5 of I or 2 years, form 5 being the 
 same as first year of high school. 
 
Courses of Study 103 
 
 Enter high school by examination from 
 form 4. 
 
 Secondary: High schools divided into 
 forms I, 2, 3, and 4 of i year each. Ex- 
 amination from form 3 admits to model 
 schools, normal schools, and the universi- 
 ties. Examination from form 4 admits to 
 sophomore class in university and to the 
 normal college. 
 
 Model schools with a 6 months* profes- 
 sional training give a 3 years' license to 
 teach in public schools (elementary), and 
 normal schools with a year's professional 
 training give a life certificate to teach in 
 elementary schools. The normal college 
 with a year's work permits to teach in 
 high schools. 
 
 Nova Scotia — Public school (elemen- 
 tary), 8 grades of i year each. 
 
 Secondary : High school of 4 grades, 
 known as grades 9, 10, 11, and 12 of pub- 
 lic school or D, C, B, and A of high 
 
I04 State Control of 
 
 school. Examination from ii or B ad- 
 mits to colleges and universities. 
 
 Normal schools admit on high school 
 certificate or teacher*s license. 
 
 Manitoba — Public schools (elementary), 
 8 grades of i year each ; may add i grade 
 further. 
 
 Intermediate schools same, but include 
 preparation for third class academic cer- 
 tificate. 
 
 Secondary : Collegiate schools of 4 years 
 prepare for University of Manitoba and 
 second and first class academic certifi- 
 cates. Normal schools admit on third, 
 second, and first class academic certifi- 
 cates and prepare for same grade of pro- 
 fessional certificates. 
 
 British Columbia — Public schools (ele- 
 mentary), 4 forms of usually 2 years each. 
 
 Secondary : High school of 4 forms of 
 I year each, prepare for various Canadian 
 universities. 
 
Courses of Study 105 
 
 No normal school or university (1901). 
 
 Prince Edward Island — Primary, ad- 
 vanced grade, and first class schools. 
 Complete course classified by readers i to 
 6, about 2 years each. 
 
 One college and normal school amalga- 
 mated. No university. 
 
 New Brunswick — Common schools (ele- 
 mentary), grades i to 8 of i year each. 
 Superior add to these. 
 
 Secondary: Grades 9 to 12 inclusive. 
 Examination from 1 1 to enter the univer- 
 sity. 
 
 Quebec — Schools are Roman Catholic or 
 Protestant. Elementary are of 4 grades. 
 Model schools add 2 years, fifth and 
 sixth, and prepare teachers for elementary 
 schools and entrance to universities. 
 
 Secondary : Academy of 2 years ac- 
 cepted for first 2 years of university. 
 
 Montreal has elementary schools of 6 
 years ; senior schools, which add 3 years ; 
 
io6 State Control of 
 
 and high schools, real secondary schools, 
 of lo years. 
 
 Denmark — Elementary schools of 6 to 
 8 years, followed by continuation school 
 (evening). Enter normal school of 3 years 
 from elementary. 
 
 Secondary: Preparatory to age of 12; 
 then Latin course of 6 years, or real with 
 4 years' course. Praliminar completes real, 
 and artium Latin, and admits to university. 
 
 People's schools for young men and 
 women are adult boarding schools. 
 
 England — Infant classes from 3 to 7 
 years of age. 
 
 Elementary : Standards i to 7 inclusive 
 and ex-7, of i year each. 
 
 Training colleges, 2 years* course, 
 mostly denominational. Originally stu- 
 dents were required to have had 4 years 
 as pupil teachers, but may now have 3 
 years, 2 years, or i year, dependent on 
 passing certain examinations. 
 
Courses of Study 107 
 
 Secondary : No state system. 
 
 Numerous colleges and universities. 
 The University of London is only an ex- 
 amining body. 
 
 France — Ecoles maternelles : 2 to 6 
 years of age. 
 
 Lower primary : 6 to 13 years of age, 3 
 courses of 2 years each, — elementary, 
 middle, and advanced, completion confer- 
 ring the certificate D'Etudes Primaire. 
 
 Course complementaires : 2 years more. 
 
 Upper primary : 2 years, similar to the 
 course complementaires or complete if 3 
 or more ; confers Brevet Elementaire. 
 
 Primary normal schools admit by exam- 
 ination those holding Brevet Superieure. 
 
 Industrial and commercial schools admit 
 by Brevet Eldmentaire. 
 
 Secondary : Lycdes and communal col- 
 leges ; 10 years' courses, either classical 
 or modern, in 3 sections, — elementary, 8 
 to 1 1 years of age ; grammar, 11 to 14 ; 
 
io8 State Control of 
 
 and superior, 14 to 18. These have 3 
 courses, — philosophical, mathematical, 
 and scientific, all leading to the same de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Letters which admits 
 to the university. The 6co\e normale 
 sup6rieure trains for secondary schools. 
 France has also continuation schools and 
 industrial and technical schools of various 
 kinds. 
 
 Finland — Primary : Lower school of 
 2 years, upper school, or secondary 
 school. 
 
 Secondary : Incomplete, or complete in 
 8 years ; in 2 divisions, — Finnish and 
 Swedish. 
 
 Complete lyceum course admits to uni- 
 versity with leaving examination. There 
 are also commercial and technical schools. 
 
 Greece — Elementary : Demotic schools 
 of 4 years, followed by Hellenic of 4 years. 
 Graduates of Hellenic schools enter sec- 
 ondary or normal schools. 
 
Courses of Study 109 
 
 Grammato-scholeion are ungraded 
 schools. 
 
 Secondary : Gymnasion divided into the 
 first class of 4 years, and the second of 2 
 years. Dismissal examination admits to 
 university. 
 
 Hungary — Compulsory kindergarten 
 from 3 to 6 years of age. 
 
 Elementary: 6 to 12; 5 classes of i 
 year each. 
 
 Revision school from 12 to 15. 
 
 Higher elementary schools admit on 
 completion of elementary course ; 3 years 
 for boys and 2 for girls. 
 
 Citizen schools admit after 4 years, ele- 
 mentary; 6 years for boys and 4 for 
 girls. 
 
 Training colleges admit after 4 years of 
 secondary or citizen school, 3 years* 
 course. 
 
 Secondary: Gymnasien and realschulen, 
 or classical and modern. Admit after 4 
 
no State Control of 
 
 years' elementary course at 9 years of age. 
 Eight classes of i year each ; leaving ex- 
 amination qualifies to enter university. 
 
 State Training College for secondary 
 teachers, 2 to 4 years. 
 
 India — Elementary : Primary school 
 divided into lower of 3 standards of i year 
 each, and upper of i standard of i year, 
 after completion. 
 
 Secondary: Middle and high schools; 
 or lower and upper secondary; or col- 
 legiate and district. These in 2 divisions 
 of 3 years each. Examination from upper 
 prepares to enter university. 
 
 Training schools of 2 or 3 years. 
 
 Italy — Asilo — Kindergarten, from 4 
 to 6 years of age. 
 
 Elementary : Inferior — 3 classes of i 
 year each; superior — 2 classes of i year 
 each. Also evening, holiday, and adult 
 schools supplementary to public day 
 schools. 
 
Courses of Study iii 
 
 Normal: Superior of 6 years, 3 of 
 preparation and 3 of instruction ; inferior 
 of 5 years, 3 of preparation and 2 of 
 instruction. 
 
 Secondary : 8 years ; gymnasium di- 
 vided into inferior of 3 years and superior 
 of 2 years, followed by the lyceum of 3 
 years. Graduates of the lyceum enter the 
 universities. 
 
 Also secondary technical schools. 
 
 Japan — Elementary: Ordinary, 3 or 
 4 classes of i year each, and higher of 
 
 2 to 4 classes of i year each. From 
 higher to normal school of 4 years. 
 
 Secondary: Middle schools of 5 years, 
 leading to higher schools or colleges of 
 
 3 or 4 years ; these lead to the university. 
 
 Technical schools also provided. 
 
 Jamaica — Primary : Preparatory, stand- 
 ard A, 4 to 6 years of age; and junior, 
 standard B or standard i, 6 to 8 years 
 of age. 
 
112 State Control of 
 
 Elementary : standards 2 to 6 inclusive, 
 and may have 7. 
 
 Training colleges have 2 or 3 years* 
 courses. I 
 
 Mexico — Elementary : Primary course 
 from 6 to 12 years of age, 6 classes. 
 Enter normal school after 4 years' primary 
 and have 4 years* course. 
 
 Secondary : National colleges and other 
 preparatory schools of 4 or 5 years. 
 
 Many technical and trade schools. 
 
 Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nica- 
 ragua, and Costa Rica, similar to Mexico 
 but not so complete. 
 
 Norway — Complete primary schools 
 have a 7 years* course in 3 divisions; 
 the first of classes i, 2, and 3 ; the 
 second of classes 4 and 5 ; and the third of 
 classes 6 and 7. 
 
 Undivided schools (rural) have two divi- 
 sions: first and second, or more, ranging 
 to the complete course. Continuation 
 
Courses of Study 113 
 
 schools carry on advanced work, as do 
 night schools and county schools. 
 
 Training colleges admit from a year's 
 preparatory course and give 2 years' work. 
 
 People's high schools for young men 
 and women are inexpensive boarding 
 schools for general culture. 
 
 Workingmen's colleges offer lectures, 
 chiefly scientific. 
 
 Secondary: Middelskole admits from 
 fifth year of the elementary school. The 
 leaving examination of the Gymnasium ad- 
 mits to the only university. 
 
 Netherlands — Kindergarten. 
 
 Elementary : 6 to 8 classes of i year 
 each. 
 
 Burgher schools — mostly evening; a 
 kind of high school with courses of 2 to 
 4 years. 
 
 Secondary: Higher burgher schools 
 have 4 years' courses, and diploma ad- 
 mits to university. Enter from elementary. 
 
114 State Control of 
 
 Gymnasia similar to Germany. 
 
 New Zealand — Elementary : Primary 
 schools of standards i, 2, and 3, of i or 
 2 years, and 4, 5, and 6, of i year 
 each. 
 
 Pupil-teacher course is usually 5 years, 
 of which 2 may be remitted by passing 
 class D examination or the university 
 matriculation. 
 
 Secondary : Mostly endowed high 
 schools, with 3 and 4 years* courses. 
 
 State university merely an examining 
 body. 
 
 Natal — Elementary : Primary schools 
 of 7 standards of i year each. 
 
 Secondary: High schools; enter from 
 primary, 3 or 4 years* courses. 
 
 No normal school or university. 
 
 Portugal — Maternal schools, 3 to 6 
 years of age. 
 
 Elementary: Primary schools in 2 
 grades; first grade of 3 classes of i 
 
Courses of Study 115 
 
 year each, and second grade of i class of 
 I year. 
 
 Continuation evening schools for boys 
 and men. 
 
 Normal schools admit from higher pri- 
 mary; have an elementary course of 2 
 years and a complementary course of i 
 year additional. 
 
 Secondary : admit from higher primary. 
 These are lyc^es and are of 2 kinds, — 
 national of 5, and central of 7 classes of 
 I year each. Leaving examination ad- 
 mits to the only university. 
 
 Industrial schools have 3 courses of 
 from 3 to 5 years. 
 
 Prussia — Typical of Germany. 
 
 Elementary : Volkschulen — in cities and 
 large towns have 8 grades of i year 
 each. 
 
 Einklassige Volkschule (ungraded) of 
 fewer than 80 pupils; 3 classes of 2, 3, 
 and 2 or 3 years respectively. 
 
ii6 State Control of 
 
 Halbtagschule of more than 80 pupils, 
 in 2 half-day divisions, {a) Schools with 
 I teacher; {b) schools with 2 teachers; 
 {c) with 3 teachers; {d) with 4 teachers. 
 
 Each of these has elaborate sub- 
 divisions. 
 
 Prapar and entstalten are preparatory 
 to the normal schools, mostly private. 
 They require 8 years of elementary cur- 
 riculum and have 3 years' courses. 
 
 Normal schools (called teachers* semi- 
 naries) admit by examination from pri- 
 vate instruction or preparatory gymnasien, 
 realschulen, or middle schools. Course 
 of 3 years. 
 
 Secondary : Gymnasien admit at 9 years 
 of age, and have 3 classes of 3 years each, 
 these subdivided into i-year classes. Grad- 
 uation admits to universities. 
 
 Progymnasien are gymnasien lacking 
 some of the higher classes. They have 
 usually only lower and middle classes. 
 
Courses of Study 117 
 
 Realschulen of 9 years, similar to gym- 
 nasien, but English replaces Greek and 
 more time is given to French and natu- 
 ral science. Graduation admits to uni- 
 versity courses in mathematics, science, 
 and modern languages, — debarred from 
 professions and certain civil service posi- 
 tions. 
 
 Realschulen have 6 classes of i year 
 each with no classical languages. 
 
 Oberrealschulen add 3 years to real- 
 schulen. Graduates admitted to univer- 
 sity courses in mathematics and natural 
 science. Standing about same as real- 
 gymnasien. Hohere madchenschulen of 
 9 years for girls admit at 6 years of age. 
 A few gymnasien for girls. 
 
 Secondary teachers, after passing the 
 state examinations, have 2 years in a sem- 
 inary, — I seminarjahr and i probejahr. 
 
 Russia — Maternal or infant schools 
 have 2 or 3 years. 
 
ii8 State Control of 
 
 Elementary village schools have i, 2, 
 or 3 classes of i year each. Higher 
 grades of elementary schools in cities 
 have S classes of i year each, or 2-class 
 model schools with a 5 years' course. From 
 the fourth year may enter gymnasium. 
 
 Evening and Sunday schools for adults. 
 
 Secondary : Gymnasium of 8 classes of 
 
 1 year each; progymnasium of 8 years; 
 and realgymnasium of 7 years. The first 
 
 2 admit on graduation to the universi- 
 ties and the other to the higher technical 
 schools. 
 
 There are also technical, naval, military, 
 and theological schools. 
 
 Servia — Elementary : Primary course 
 of 4 years of i class each; and higher 
 primary of 3 classes of i year each. 
 
 Secondary: Admit on completion of 
 lower primary course. A complete sec- 
 ondary school has a junior and senior 
 division of 4 years each, or 8 classes in 
 
Courses of Study 119 
 
 all. Leaving examination admits to the 
 university. Normal schools of 4 years* 
 course admit after completion of junior 
 division of gymnasium. 
 
 Switzerland — Kindergarten, 4 to 6 
 years of age. 
 
 Elementary : Primary schools in 2 divi- 
 sions ; the elementarschule with classes 4, 
 5, and 6 of I year each. Boys then may 
 enter (at 12). 
 
 Secondary: (i) The kantonschule (or 
 gymnasium), or (2) the higher grade school 
 (sekunarschule), or (3) classes 7 and 8 of 
 the primary school. Examination from 
 the gymnasium admits to universities. 
 
 At 14 boys may pass from (i) or (2) to 
 an industrieschule for a 4 years* course, 
 commercial or technical. 
 
 Girls' primary and higher grade schools 
 are about the same as the boys*, with 
 needlework in addition. At 15 they may 
 enter a girls* high school and have a choice 
 
120 State Control of 
 
 of 3 courses, — general, commercial, or 
 training for primary teaching. 
 
 The gewerkeschulen (handicrafts and 
 industrial arts) are similar to the English 
 evening schools, but are day schools. 
 Apprentices go twice a week for a morn- 
 ing. They have a preparatory course of 
 I year, and a handicraft course of i year ; 
 completion allows entrance to the Tech- 
 nicum, or the Industrial Art School. 
 
 There also are continuation commercial 
 schools. 
 
 Training colleges have courses of 2 to 
 4 years, and admit by examination from 
 the higher primary. Some require 2 or 
 3 years of sekundarschule. 
 
 Sweden — Elementary : Primary edu- 
 cation in the junior school for 2 years, 
 in the senior school for 4 years. Con- 
 tinuation schools advance the work, and 
 a few places have higher grade schools 
 for those who have finished the primary. 
 
Courses of Study 121 
 
 Lower primary schools of a few classes 
 are only in the country. 
 
 Normal schools admit primary graduates 
 at 16 and have 4 years' courses; the peo- 
 ple's high schools admit primary graduates 
 at the age of 18 and have 2 years' work, 
 — about 6 months to each year. 
 
 Secondary ! Admit to age of 9, 9 years* 
 course of 5 classes of i year each, and 
 sixth and seventh of 2 years each. Clas- 
 sical and modern courses differentiate at 
 end of fourth year. Leaving examination 
 admits to the universities. Teachers for 
 secondary schools must be university grad- 
 uates with a year in a training college. 
 
 United States — Kindergarten : 4 to 6 
 years of age. 
 
 Elementary : 7, 8, or 9 grades in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country ; an average 
 of about 8 years below the high school. 
 Graduates enter the high school. 
 
 Secondary : high schools of 3 or 4 
 
122 State Control of 
 
 years' courses. In the South and West 
 graduates enter university without ex- 
 amination. In the East by entrance 
 examinations. 
 
 All southern and western states and 
 some eastern states have state universities, 
 — the summit of a connected system from 
 the kindergarten through the university. 
 
 Normal schools have i to 4 years* 
 courses ; high school graduates usually 
 enter the third year. 
 
 High schools are not uniform, ranging 
 from a single course in the smaller to a 
 variety of courses or electives in the larger. 
 The state of New York is the most nearly 
 uniform, controlling through the Regents* 
 Examinations. 
 
Courses of Study 123 
 
 BOOKS CONSULTED 
 
 Reports of the United States Com- 
 missioner of Education. 
 
 Circulars of Information — United 
 States Bureau of Education. 
 
 Special Reports on Educational Sub- 
 jects — Educational Department of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 School laws of various countries men- 
 tioned. 
 
 School laws of the American states. 
 
 Elementary Education in France — 
 Teegan. 
 
 Technical and Industrial Education in 
 France — Teegan. 
 
 English Education — Sharp less. 
 
 Educational Systems of Great Britain 
 and Ireland — Balfour. 
 
 Elementary Schools of Great Britain — 
 Greenough. 
 
124 State Control of 
 
 Methods in the Schools of Germany — 
 Prince, 
 
 French Schools through American 
 Eyes — Parsons, 
 
 Prussian Schools through American 
 Eyes — Parsons. 
 
 Educational Foundations of Trade and 
 Industry — Ware. 
 
 The State and Education — Schaible. 
 
 State Education for the People — 
 Bardeen. 
 
 The Educational Conquest of the Far 
 East — Lewis. 
 
 The Lore of Cathay — Martin. 
 
 Progress of Education in India — 
 Cotton. 
 
 The Schools of Greater Britain — 
 Russell. 
 
 Documents Illustrative of American 
 Educational History — Hinsdale. 
 
 Schools of England and Germany — 
 Ross. 
 
Courses of Study 125 
 
 The School System of Ontario — Ross. 
 
 Education in India — Chamberlain. 
 
 European Schools — Klemm. 
 
 German Elementary Education — 
 Perry. 
 
 German Higher Schools — Russell. 
 
 Secondary Schools of Germany — 
 Bolton. 
 
 School Supervision and Maintenance — 
 Fellows. 
 
 Education in the United States — 
 Butler. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Superiority — Demolins. 
 
 Austro-Hungarian Life in Town and 
 Country — Palmer. 
 
 Dutch Life in Town and Country 
 — Hough. 
 
 France as It Is — Lebon and Pelet. 
 
 Teaching in Three Continents — Grasby. 
 
 Educational Codes — Sonnenschein. 
 
 Reports on Foreign Education, in Ed- 
 ucation and other magazines. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 BERKELEY 
 
 Return to desk from which borrowed. 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 JUL 9 1949 
 
VB 354 1 1 
 
 54.n38 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY