WJ w t AN ENQUIRY CONCEBNINO HUMAN UNDERSTANDING AND SELECTIONS FROM A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE BY DAVID HUME WITH HUME'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND A LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH CHICAGO THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO, « 19/2 /7/^ PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. THE present volume is the second of the series of Phil- osophical Classics which The Open Court Publishing Company purposes issuing in cheap form for the convenience and instruction of the general reading public. It is an un- annotated reprint, merely, of the Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, made from the posthumous edition of 1777, together with Hume's charming autobiography and the eulogistic letter of Adam Smith, usually prefixed to the History of England. These additions, with the portrait by Ramsay, which forms the frontispiece to the volume, render the picture of Hume's life complete, and leave but a word to be said concerning his philosophical importance. With the great public, Hume's fame has always rested upon his History of England, — a work now antiquated as his- tory and remarkable only for the signal elegance and sym- metry of its style. But this once prevalent opinion, our age has reversed, and, as has been well remarked,* "Hume, the spiritual father of Kant, now takes precedence over Hume, the rival of Robertson and Gibbon." It is precisely here, in fact, that Hume's significance for the history of thought lies. With him modern philosophy entered upon its Kantian phase, be- came critical and positivistic, became a theory of knowledge. For the old "false and adulterate" metaphysics he sought to substitute a "true" metaphysics, based on the firm founda- tions of reason and experience. His scepticism, — and of scepticism he has since been made the standard-bearer, — was directed against the old ontology only, and not against science proper (inclusive of philosophy). "Had Hume been an absolute sceptic he could never have produced an Immanuel Kant. . . . The spirit of the theoretical philosophy of Hume and Kant, the fundamental conception of their investigations, and the goal at which they aim, are perfectly identical. Theirs •Alfred Weber, History of Philosophy, New York, 1896. 347201. PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. is the critical spirit, and positive knowledge the goal at which they aim. To claim for Kant the sole honor of having founded criticism is an error which a closer study of British philosophy tends to refute."! To this reprint of Hume's Enquiry Concerning Human Undersianding has been added a supplement containing se- lections from his earlier and longer philosophical work, the Treatise on Human Understanding, referred to in the "Author's Advertisement" to the Enquiry (page xxvili., this edition). In spite of Hume's deprecatory reference to the Treatise, it remains the completest expression of his philosophical doctrine. The selected portions of the Treatise comprise (i) certain sections on causality which amplify the causal doctrine of the Enquiry and may profit- ably be read after Section VH. of the latter work; and (2) those sections which embody the essential features of Hume's constructive philosophy, his conception of matter and of self of spirit. Nothing in the Enquiry, with the exception of a few paragraphs of Section XH., corresponds to these sections of the Treatise. They should be read before, or in place of, the comparatively irrelevant sections, IX-XL, of the Enquiry. The first part of this book, pages i to 174, has been edited by Mr. Thomas J. McCormack of La Salle, 111., now principal of the La Salle Township High School. The remainder, pages 17s to 263, has been edited by Prof. Mary Whiten Calkins, of Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. March, 1907. t Weber, loc. cit., pp. 4i9-4?o, ? ./> THE LIFE OF DAVID HUME, ESQ, WRITTEN BY HIMSELF. MY OWN LIFE. TT is difficult for a man to speak long of himself -*- without vanity; therefore I shall be short. It may be thought an instance of vanity that I pretend at all to write my life ; but this narrative shall contain little more than the history of my writings; as, indeed, al most all my life has been spent in literary pursuits and occupations. The first success of most of my writings was not such as to be an object of vanity. I was born the twenty-sixth of April, 1711, old style, at Edinburgh. I was of a good family, both by father and mother : my father's family is a branch of the earl of Home's, or Hume's ; and my ancestors , had been proprietors of the estate which my brother possesses, for several generations. My mother was daughter of Sir David Falconer, president of the col-; lege of justice ; the title of Lord Halkerton came by succession to her brother. My family, however, was not rich ; and being my- self a younger brother, my patrimony, according to the mode of my country, was of course very slender. vi AUTOBIOGRAPHY, My father, who passed for a man of parts, died when I was an infant, leaving me, with an elder brother aqid a sister, under the care of our mother, a woman of singular merit, who, though young and handsome, devoted herself entirely to the rearing and educating of her children. I passed through the ordinary course of education with success, and was seized very early with a passion for literature, which has been the ru- ling passion of my life, and the great source of my en- joyments. My studious disposition, my sobriety, and my industry, gave my family a notion that the law was a proper profession for me; but I found an insur- mountable aversion to every thing but the pursuits of philosophy and general learning; and while they fancied I was poring upon Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Virgil were the authors which I was secretly devouring. My very slender fortune, however, being unsuitable to this plan of life, and my health being a little broken by my ardent application, I was tempted, or rather forced, to make a very feeble trial for entering into a more active scene of life. In 1734, I went to Bristol, with some recommendations to several eminent mer- chants ; but in a few months found that scene totally unsuitable to me. I went over to France, with a view of prosecuting my studies in a country retreat ; and I there laid that plan of life which I have steadily and successfully pursued. I resolved to make a very rigid frugality supply my deficiency of fortune, to maintain AUTOBIOGRAPHY. v\i unimpaired my independency, and to regard every object as contemptible, except the improvements of my talents in literature. During my retreat in France, first at Rheims, but chiefly at La Fleche, in Anjou, I composed my Trea- tise of Human Nature. After passing three years very agreeably in that country, I came over to London in 1737. In the end of 1738, I published my Treatise, and immediately went down to my mother and my brother, who lived at his country house, and was employing himself very judiciously and successfully in the improvement of his fortune. Never literary attempt was more unfortunate than my Treatise of Human Nature. It fell dead-born from the press, without reaching such distinction as even to. excite a murmur among the zealots. But be- ing naturally of a cheerful and sangume temper, I very soon recovered the blow, and prosecuted with great ardor my studies in the country. In 1742, I printed at Edinburgh the first part of my Essays. The work was favorably received, and soon made me entirely forget my former disappointment. I continued with my mother and brother in the country, and in that time recovered the knowledge of the Greek language, which I had too much neglected in my early youth. In 1745, I received a letter from the marquis of Annandale, inviting me to come and live with him in England ; I found also that the friends and family of that young nobleman were desirous of putting him j^iil AUTOBIOGRAPHY. \ under my care and direction, for the state of his mind and health required it. I lived with him a twelve- month. My appointments during that time made a considerable accession to my small forture. I then received an invitation from General St. Clair to attend him as a secretary to his expedition, which was at first meant against Canada, but ended in an incursion on the coast of France. Next year, to wit, 1747, I re- ceived an invitation from the general to attend him in the same station in his military embassy to the courts of Vienna and Turin. I then wore the uniform of an officer, and was introduced at these courts as aid-de- camp to the general, along with Sir Harry Erskine and Captain Grant, now General Grant. These two years were almost the only interruptions which my studies have received during the course of my life : I passed them agreeably, and in good company ; and my ap- pointments, with my frugality, had made me reach a fortune which I called independent, though most of my friends were inclined to smile when I said so : in short, I was now master of neafls^^ousand pounds. I had always entertained a il^fon, that my want of success in publishing the Treatise of Human Na- ture had proceeded more from the manner than the matter, and that I had been guilty of a very usual indiscretion, in going to the press too early. I, there- fore, cast the first part of that work anew in the In- quiry concerning Human Understanding, which was published while I was at Turin. But this piece was A U TO BIO GRAPH Y, ix at first little more successful than the Treatise on Human Nature. On my return from Italy, I had the mortification to find all England in a ferment, on account of Dr. Middleton's Free Inquiry^ while my performance was entirely overlooked and neglected. A new edition, which had been published at London, of my Essays, moral and political, met not with a much better reception. 9 Such is the force of natural temper, that these dis- appointments made little or no impression on me. I went down, in 1749, and lived two years with my brother at his country house, for my mother was now dead. I there composed the second part of my Essay, which I called Political Discourses, and also my In- quiry concerning the Principles of Morals, which is another part of my Treatise that I cast anew. Mean- while, my bookseller, A. Millar, informed me, that my former publications (all but the unfortunate Treatise) were beginning to be the subject of conversation; that the sale of them was gradually increasing, and that new editions were demanded. Answers by rev- erends and right reverends came out two or three in a year ; and I found, by Dr. Warburton's railing, that the books were beginning to be esteemed in good company. However, I had fixed a resolution, which i inflexibly maintained, never to reply to any body; and not being very irascible in my temper, I have easily kept myself clear of all literary squabbles. These symptoms of a rising reputation gave me encourage- X AUTOBIOGRAPHY, ment, as I was ever more disposed to see the favorable than unfavorable side of things; a turn of mind which it is more happy to possess, than to be born to an estate of ten thousand a year. In 1 75 1, I removed from the country to the town, the true scene for a man of letters. In 1752 were published at Edinburgh, where I then lived, my Politi- cal Discourses, the only work of mine that was suc- cessful on the first publication. It was well received at home and abroad. In the same year was published, at London, my Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals ; which, in my own opinion, (who ought not to judge on that subject,) is, of all my writings, his- torical, philosophical, or literary, incomparably the best. It came unnoticed and unobserved into the world. In 1752, the Faculty of Advocates chose me their librarian, an office from which I received little or no emolument, but which gave me the command of a large library. I then formed the plan of writing the History of England; but being frightened with the notion of continuing a narrative through a period of seventeen hundred years, I commenced with the acces- sion of the house of Stuart, an epoch when, I thought, the misrepresentations of faction began chiefly to take place. I was, I own, sanguine in my expectations of the success of this work. I thought that I was the only historian that had at once Biftglected present power, interest and authority, and the cry of popular A UTOBIOGRAPHY. xi prejudices; and as the subject was suited to every capacity, I expected proportional applause. But mis- erable was my disappointment ; I was assailed by one cry of reproach, disapprobation, and even detestation; English, Scotch, and Irish, whig and tory, churchman and sectary, freethinker and religionist, patriot and courtier, united in their rage against the man who had presumed to shed a generous tear for the fate of Charles I. and the earl of Strafford; and after the first ebullitions of their fury were over, what was still more mortifying, the book seemed to sink into obliv- ion. Mr. Millar told me that in a twelvemonth he sold only forty-five copies of it. I scarcely, indeed, heard of one man in the three kingdoms, considerable for rank or letters, that could endure the book. I must only except the primate of England, Dr. Her- ring, and the primate of Ireland, Dr. Stone, which seem two odd exceptions. These dignified prelates separately sent me messages not to be discouraged. I was, however, I confess, discouraged ; and had not the war been at that time breaking out between France and England, I had certainly retired to some provincial town of the former kingdom, have changed my name, and never more have returned to my native country. But as this scheme was not now practica- ble, and the subsequent volume was considerably advanced, I resolved to pick up courage and to per- severe. In this interval, I published, at London, my Natu- xU AUTOBIOGRAPHY, ral History of Religion, along with some other small pieces. Its public entry was rather obscure, except only that Dr. Hurd wrote a pamphlet against it, with all the illiberal petulance, arrogance, and scurrility, which distinguish the Warburtonian school. This pamphlet gave me some consolation for the other- wise indifferent reception of my performance. In 1756, two y^ars after the fall of the first volume, was published the second volume of my history, con- taining the period from the death of Charles I. till the revolution. This performance happened to give less displeasure to the whigs, and was better received. It not only rose itself, but helped to buoy up its un- fortunate brother. But though I had been taught by experience that the whig party were in possession of bestowing all places, both in the state and in literature, I was so little inclined to yield to their senseless clamor, that in above a hundred alterations, which further study, reading, or reflection engaged me to make in the reigns of the two first Stuarts, I have made all of them invariably to the tory side. It is ridiculous to consider the English constitution before that period as a regular plan of liberty. In 1759, I published my history of the house of Tudor. The clamor against this performance was almost equal to that against the history of the two first Stuarts. The reign of Elizabeth was particularly obnoxious. But I was now callous against the im AUTOBIOGRAPHY. sUi pressions of public folly, and continued very peaceably and contentedly, in my retreat at Edinburgh, to finish, in two volumes, the more early part of the English history, which I gave to the public in 1761, with tolerable, and but tolerable, success. But, notwithstanding this variety of winds and seasons, to which my writings had been exposed, they had still been making such advances, that the copy- money given me by the booksellers much exceeded any thing formerly known in England ; I was become not only independent, but opulent. I retired to my native country of Scotland, determined never more to set my foot out of it ; and retaining the satisfaction of never having preferred a request to one great man, or even making advances of friendship to any of them. As I was now turned of fifty, I thought of passing all the rest of my life in this philosophical manner : when I received, in 1763, an invitation from the earl of Hert- ford, with whom I was not in the least acquainted, to attend him on his embassy to Paris, with a near pros- pect of being appointed secretary to the embassy; and, in the mean while, of performing the functions of that office. This offer, however inviting, I at first declined; both because I was reluctant to begin connections with the great, and because I was afraid that the civilities and gay company of Paris would prove dis- agreeable to a person of my age and humor ; but on his lordship's repeating the invitation, I accepted of it. I have every reason, both of pleasure and interest, to xW AUTOBIOGRAPHY, think myself happy in my connexions with that noble- man, as well as afterwards with his brother, General Conway. Those who have not seen the strange effects of modes, will never imagine the reception I met with at Paris, from men and women of all ranks and stations. The more I resiled from their excessive civilities, the more I was loaded with them. There is, however, a real satisfaction in living at Paris, from the great number of sensible, knowing, and polite company with which that city abounds above all places in the universe. I thought once of settling there for life. I was appointed secretary to the embassy ; and, in summer, 1765, Lord Hertford left me, being appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland. I was charge d'affaires till the arrival of the duke of Richmond, towards the end of the year. In the beginning of 17&6, I left Paris, and next summer went to Edinburgh, with the same view as formerly, of burying myself in a philosophical retreat. I returned to that place, not richer, but with much more money, and a much larger income, by means of Lord Hertford's friendship, than I left it; and I was desirous of trying what superfluity could produce, as I had formerly made an experiment of a competency. But in 1767, I received from Mr. Con- way an invitation to be under-secretary ; and this invitation, both the character of the person, and mv connexions with Lord Hertford, prevented me from declining. I returned to Edinburgh in 1769, very AUTOBIOGRAPHY, xv opulent, (for I possessed a revenue of one thousand pounds a year,) healthy, and though somewhat stricken in years, with the prospect of enjoying long my ease? and of seeing the increase of my reputation. In spring, 1775, I was struck with a disorder in my bowels, which at first gave me no alarm, but has since, as I apprehend it, become mortal and incurable. I now reckon upon a speedy dissolution. I have suf- fered very little pain from my disorder ; and what is more strange, have, notwithstanding the great decline of my person, never suffered a moment's abatement of my spirits; insomuch, that were I to name a period of my life which I should most choose to pass over again, I might be tempted to point to this later period. I possess the same ardor as ever in study, and the same gayety in company. I consider, besides, that a man of sixty-five, by dying, cuts off only a few years of infirmities ; and though I see many symptoms of my literary reputaticsn's breaking out at last with addi- tional lustre, I kriiow that I could have but few years to enjoy it. It is difficult to be more detached from life than I am at present. To conclude historically with my own character: I am, or rather was, (for that is the style I must now use in speaking of myself, which emboldens me the more to speak my sentiments;) I was, I say, a man of mild disposition, of command of temper, of an open social, and cheerful humor, capable of attachment, but little susceptible of enmity, and of great moderation % xvi AUTOBIOGRAPHY. in all my passions. Even my love of literary fame, my ruling passion, never soured my temper, notwith- standing my frequent disappointments. My companyj was not unacceptable to the young and careless, as well as to the studious and literary; and as I took a particular pleasure in the company of modest women, I had no reason to be displeased with the reception I met with from them. In a word, though most men, anywise eminent, have found reason to complain of Calumny, I never was touched, or even attacked, by her baleful tooth; and though I wantonly exposed myself to the rage of both civil and religious factions, they seemed to be disarmed in my behalf of their wonted fury. My friends never had occasion to vin- dicate any one circumstance of my character and con- duct ; not but that the zealots, we may well suppose, would have been glad to invent and propagate any story to my disadvantage, but they could never find any which they thought would wear the face of prob- ability. I cannot say there is no vanity in making this funeral oration of myself, but I hope it is not a mis- placed one; and this is a matter of fact which is easily cleared and ascertained. April i8, 1776. LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH, LL. D. TO WILLIAM STRAHAN, ESQ. KiRKALDY, FiFESHIRE, NoV. Q, 1 776. Dear Sir, IT is with a real, though a very melancholy pleasure, that I sit down to give you some account of the behaviour of our late excellent friend, Mr. Hume, during his last illness. Though, in his own judgement, his disease was mortal and incurable, yet he allowed himself to be prevailed upon, by the entreaty of his friends, to try what might be the effects of a long journey. A few days before he set out, he wrote that account of hi5 own life, which, together with his other papers, he has left to your care. My account, therefore, shall begin where his ends. He set out for London towards the end of April, and at Morpeth met with Mr. John Home and myself, who had both come down from London on purpose to see him, expecting to have found him at Edinburgh. Mr. Home returned with him, and attended him dur- ing the whole of his stay in England, with that care and attention which might be expected from a temper xviii LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH, SO perfectly friendly and affectionate As I had written to my mother that she might expect me in Scotland, I was under the necessity of continuing my journey. His disease seemed to yield to exercise and change of air; and when he arrived in London, he was apparently in much better health than when he left Edinburgh. He was advised to go to Bath to drink the waters, which appeared for some time to have so good an effect upon him, that even he himself began to entertain, what he was not apt to do, a better opinion of his own health. His symptoms, however, soon returned with their usual violence; and from that moment he gave up all thoughts of recovery, but submitted with the utmost cheerfulness, and the most perfect compla- cency and resignation. Upon his return to Edinburgh, though he found himself much weaker, yet his cheer- fulness never abated, and he continued to divert him- self, as usual, with correcting his own works for a new editiosi, with reading books of amusement, with the conversation of his friends ; and, sometimes in the evening, with a party at his favorite game of whist His cheerfulness was so great, and his conversation and amusements ran so much in their usual strain, that, notwithstanding all bad symptoms, many people could not believe he was dying. "I shall tell your friend. Colonel Edmonstone,'*said Dr. Dundas to him one day, *'that I left you much better, and in a fair way of recovery." *' Doctor," said he, '*as I believe you would not choose to tell any thing but the truth, LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH, xix you had better tell him that I am dying as fast as my enemies, if I have any, could wish, and as easily and cheerfully as my best friends could desire. " Colonel Edmonstone soon afterwards came to see him, and take leave of him ; and on his way home he could not forbear writing him a letter, bidding him once more an eternal adieu, and applying to him, as to a dying man, the beautiful French verses in which the Abbd Chaulieu, in expectation of his own death, laments his approaching separation from his friend the Marquis de la Fare. Mr. Hume's magnanimity and firmness were such, that his most affectionate friends knew that they hazarded nothing in talking or writing to him as to a dying man, and that so far from being hurt by this frankness, he was rather pleased and flat- tered by it. I happened to come into his room while he was reading this letter, which he had just received, and which he immediately showed me. I told him, that though I was sensible how very much he was weakened, and that appearances were In many respects very bad, yet his cheerfulness was still so great, the spirit of life seemed still to be so very strong in him, that I could not help entertaining some faint hopes. He answered, "Your hopes are groundless. An ha- bitual diarrhoea of more than a year's standing, would be a very bad disease at any age ; at my age it is a mortal one. When I lie down in the evening, I feel myself weaker than when I rose In the morning ; and when I rise in the morning, weaker than when I lay XX LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH. down in the evening. I am sensible, besides, that some of my vital parts are affected, so that I must soon die." **Well," said I, ''if it must be so, you have at least the satisfaction of leaving all your friends, your brother's family in particular, in great prosper- ity." He said that he felt that satisfaction so sensibly, that when he was reading, a few days before, Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead, among all the excuses which are alleged to Charon for not entering readily into his boat, he could not find one that fitted him : he had no house to finish, he had no daughter to provide for, he had no enemies upon whom he wished to revenge himself. *'I could not well imagine," said he, *'what excuse I could make to Charon in order to obtain a little delay. I have done every thing of consequence which I ever meant to do ; and I could at no time ex- pect to leave my relations and friends in a better sit- uation than that in which I am now likel}^ to leave them: I, therefore, have all reason to die contented." He then diverted himself with inventing several jocular excuses, which he supposed he might make to Charon, and with imagining the very surly answers which it might suit the character of Charon to return to them. '«Upon further consideration," said he, **I thought I might say to him, 'Good Charon, I have been correct- ing my works for a new edition. Allow me a little time, that I may see how the public receives the alter- ations.' But Charon would answer, 'When you have seen the effect of these, you will be for making other LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH. xxi alterations. There will be no end of such excuses ; so, honest friend, please step into the boat.* But I might still urge, *Have a little patience, good Charon: I have been endeavouring to open the eyes of the pub- lic. If I live a few years longer, I may have the satis- faction of seeing the downfall of some of the prevailing systems of superstition.' But Charon would then lose all temper and decency. * You loitering rogue, that will not happen these many hundred years. Do you fancy I will grant you a lease for so long a term ? Get into the boat this instant, you lazy, loitering rogue.* " But, though Mr. Hume always talked of his ap- proaching dissolution with great cheerfulness, he never affected to make any parade of his magnanimity. He never mentioned the subject but when the conversa- tion naturally led to it, and never dwelt longer upon it than the course of the conversation happened to re- quire ; it was a subject indeed which occurred pretty frequently, in consequence of the inquiries which his friends, who came to see him, naturally made concern- ing the state of his health. The conversation which I mentioned above, and which passed on Thursday the eighth of August, was the last, except one, that I ever had with him. He had now become so very weak, that the company of his most intimate friends fatigued him ; for his cheerfulness was still so great, his complaisance and social disposition were still so entire, that when any friend was with him, he could not help talking more, and with greater exertion, than Kxii LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH, suited the weakness of his body. At his own desire, therefore, I agreed to leave Edinburgh, where I was staying partly upon his account and returned to my mother's house here at Kirkaldy, upon condition that he would send for me whenever he wished to see me ; the physician who saw him most frequently. Dr. Black, undertaking, in the mean time, to write me occasion- ally an account of the state of his health. On the twenty-second of August, the doctor v*^rote me the following letter : — ** Since my last, Mr. Hume has passed his time pretty easily, but is much weaker. He sits up, goes down stairs once a day, and amuses himself with reading, but seldom sees any body. He finds that even the conversation of his most intimate friends fatigues and oppresses him ; and it is happy that he does not need it, for he is quite free from anxiety, im- patience, or low spirits, and passes his time very well with the assistance of amusing books." I received, the day after, a letter from Mr. Hume himself, of which the following is an extract : — '* Edinburgh, 23d August, 1776. **My Dearest Friend, ''I am obliged to make use of my nephew's hand in writing to you, as I do not rise to-day. * * '*I go very fast to decline, and last night had a small fever, which I hoped might put a quicker period LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH. xxiii to this tedious illness ; but unluckily it has, in a great measure, gone off. I cannot submit to your coming over here on my account, as it is possible for me to see you so small a part of the day ; but Dr. Black can better inform you concerning the degree of strength which may from time to time remain with me. Adieu, etc.*' Three days after, I received the following iettet from Dr. Black : — "Edinburgh, Monday, 26th August, 1776, ''Dear Sir, ** Yesterday, about four o'clock, afternoon, Mr. Hume expired. The near approach of his death be- came evident in the night between Thursday and Fri- day, when his disease became excessive, and soon weakened him so much, that he could no longer rise out of his bed. He continued to the last perfectly sensible, and free from much pain or feelings of dis- tress. He never dropped the smallest expression of impatience; but when he had occasion to speak to the people about him, always did it with affection and tenderness. I thought it improper to write to bring you over, especially as I heard that he had dictated a letter to you, desiring you not to come. When he became very weak, it cost him an effort to speak; and he died in such a happy composure of mind, that nothing could exceed it," xxiv LETTER FROM ADAM SMITH. Thus died our most excellent and never to be for- gotten friend ; concerning whose philosophical opin- ions men will, no doubt, judge variously, every one approving or condemning them, according as they happen to coincide or disagree with his own, but con- cerning whose character and conduct there can scarce be a difference of opinion. His temper, indeed, seemed to be more happily balanced, if I may be al- lowed such an expression, than that perhaps of any other man I have ever known. Even in the lowest state of his fortune, his great and necessary frugality never hindered him from exercising, upon proper oc- casions, acts both of charity and generosity. It was a frugality founded not upon avarice, but upon the love of independency. The extreme gentleness of his nature never weakened either the firmness of his mind or the steadiness of his resolutions. His constant pleasantry was the genuine effusion of good nature and good humour, tempered with delicacy and modesty, and without even the slightest tincture of malignity, so frequently the disagreeable source of what is called wit in other men. It never was the meaning of his raillery to mortify ; and therefore, far from offending, it seldom failed to please and delight, even those who were frequently the objects of it ; there was not per- haps any one of all his great and amiable qualities which contributed more to endear his conversation. And that gayety of temper, so agreeable in society, but which is so often accompanied with frivolous and LETTER FROM ADAM SMTTH. xxv superficial qualities, was in him certainly attended with the most severe application, the most extensive learning, the greatest depth of thought, and a capacity in every respect the most comprehensive. Upon the whole, I have always considered him, both in his life- time and since his death, as approaching as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as per- haps the nature of human frailty will permit. I ever am, dear sir. Most affectionally yours, » Adam Smith. CONTENTS. PAGB Publishers' Preface iii * Autobiography v Letter from Adam Smith to William Strahan .... xvii Author's Advertisement xxviii An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding — Of the Different Species of Philosophy (h ».| - Of the Origin of Ideas u^ — f— ' Of the Association of Ideas Cou t- Sceptical Doubts Concerning the Operations of the Understanding , -r Sceptical Solution of these Doubts (^m^ •♦ Of Probability 57 ■4"^ Of the Idea of Necessary Connexion 61^ ^ Of Liberty and Necessity S^ Of the Reason of Animals 109 — Of Miracles 114 — — - Of a Particular Providence and of a Future State . . 139 Of the Academical or Sceptical Philosophy .... 158 Selections from A Treatise of Human Nature — The Doctrine of Causalityo Book I. Part III. Section I. Of Knowledge 185 . X Section II. Of Probability; and of the Idea of Cause and Effect 190 Section III. Why a Cause Is Always Necessary . . 197 -^ Section XIV. Of the Idea of Necessary Connexion . . 202 vV The Doctrine of Substance. Book I. Part I. Section VI. Of Modes and Substances 22T Book I. Part II. -f- Section VI. Of the Idea of Existence and of External Existence 229 ^ Book I. Part IV. ^ Section II, Of Scepticism with regard to the Senses 232 ^ < Section VI. Of Personal Identity 245 ^^ t Appekdix 260 I I AUTHOR'S ADVERTISEMENT. Most of the principles, and reasonings, contained in this vol- ume,* were published in a work in three volumes, called A Trea- tise of Human Nature: A work which the Author had projected before he left College, and which he wrote and published not long after. But not finding it successful, he was sensible of his error in going to the press too early, and he cast the whole anew in the following pieces, where some negligences in his former reasoning and more in the expression, are, he hopes, corrected. Yet several writers who have honoured the Author's Philosophy with answers, have taken care to direct all their batteries against that juvenile work, which the author never acknowledged, and have affected to triumph in any advantages, which, they imagined, they had ob- tained over it : A practice very contrary to all rules of candour and fair-dealing, and a strong instance of those polemical artifices which a bigotted zeal thinks itself authorized to employ. Hence- forth, the Author desires, that the following Pieces may alone be regarded as containing his philosophical sentiments and principles IVolume II. of the posthumous edition of Hume's works published in 1777 and containing, besides the present Enquiry, A Dissertation on the Pas sions, and An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. A reprint of the latter treatise has already appeared in the Religion of Science Library (No. 46), published by The Open Court Publishing Qo.— Editor. rt SECTION I. OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY. MORAL philosophy, or the science of human na- ture, may be treated after two different manners; each of which has its peculiar merit, and may contrib- ute to the entertainment, instruction, and reformation of mankind. The one considers man chiefly as born Tt for action; and as influenced in his measures by taste ^^ and sentiment; pursuing one object, and avoiding another, according to the valueywhich these objects seem to possess, and according to the light in which they present themselves. As virtue, of all objects, is allowed to be the most valuable, this species of philos- ophers paint her in the most amiable colours ; borrow- ing all helps from poetry and eloquence, and treating their subject in an easy and obvious manner, and such as is best fitted to please the imagination, and engage the affections. They select the most striking observa- tions and instances from common life ; place opposite characters in a proper contrast ; and alluring us into the paths of virtue by the views of glory and happi- ness, direct our steps in these paths by the soundest precepts and most illustrious examples. They make us feel^XSxQ difference between vice and virtue ; they excite and regulate our sentiments ; and so they can but bend our hearts to the love of probity and true honour, they think, that they have fully attained the end of all their labours. 2 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING The other species of philosophers jconsider man v the light of a reasonable rather than an active being,^ and endeavour to form his understanding mor^; than cultivate his manners. They regard human nature as a subject of speculation ; and with a narrow scrutiny examine it, in order to find those principles, which regulate our understanding, excite our sentiments, and make us to approve or blame any particular object, action, or behaviour. They think it a reproach to all literature, that philosophy should not yet have fixed, beyond controversy, the foundation of morals, reason- ing, and criticism ; and should for ever talk of truth and falsehood, vice and virtue, beauty and deformity, without being able to determine the source of these distinctions. While they attempt this arduous task, they are deterred by no difficulties ; but proceeding from particular instances to general principles, they still push on their enquiries to principles more gen- eral, and rest not satisfied till they arrive at those or- iginal principles, by which, in every science, all human curiosity must be bounded. Though their speculations seem abstract, and even unintelligible to common read- ers, they aim at the approbation of the learned and the wise; and think themselves sufficiently compensated for the labour of their whole lives, if they can discover some hidden truths, which may contribute to the in- struction of posterity. It is certain that the easy and obvious philosophy will always, with the generality of mankind, have the preference above the accurate and abstruse ; «ind by many will be recommended, not only as more agree- able, but more useful than the other. It enters more into common life; moulds the heart and affection's; and, by touching those principles which actuate men, HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 3 reforms their conduct, and brings them nearer to that model of perfection which it describes. On the con- trary, the abstruse philosophy, being founded on a turn of mind, which cannot enter into business and action, vanishes when the philosopher leaves the shade, and comes into open day ; nor can its principles easily retain any influence over our conduct and behaviour. The feelings of our heart, the agitation of our passions, the vehemence of our affections, dissipate all its con- clusions, and reduce the profound philosopher to a mere plebeian. This also must be confessed, that the most dur- able, as well as justest fame, has been acquired by the easy philosophy, and that abstract reasoners seem hitherto to have enjoyed only a momentary reputation, from the caprice or ignorance of their own age, but have not been able to support their renown with more equitable posterity. It is easy for a profound philos- opher to commit a mistake in his subtile reasonings; and one mistake is the necessary parent of another, while he pushes on his consequences, and is not de- terred from embracing any conclusion, by its unusual j appearance, or its contradiction to popular opinion. I But a philosopher, who purposes only to represent the ' common sense of mankind in more beautiful and more I engaging colours, if by accident he falls into error, i goes no farther; but renewing his appeal to common I sense, and the natural sentiments of the mind, returns into the right path, and secures himself from any dan- gerous illusions. The fame of Cicero flourishes at present; but that of Aristotle is utterly decayed. La Bruy^re passes the seas, and still maintains his repu- tation : But the glory of Malebranche is confined to his 0W41 nation, and to his own age. And Addison, ,/ 4 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING perhaps, will be read with pleasure, when Locke shaL' be entirely forgotten. The mere philosopher is a character, which is com- monly but little acceptable in the world, as being sup- posed to contribute nothing either to the advantage or pleasure of society ; while he lives remote from communication with mankind, and is wrapped up in principles and notions equally remote from their com- prehension.^ On the other hand, the mere ignorant is still more despised ; nor is any thing deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments. The most perfect character is supposed to lie between those ex- tremes ; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, company, and business ; preserving in conversation that discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; and in business, that probity and accuracy which are the natural result of a just philosophy. In order to diffuse and cultivate so accomplished a char- acter, nothing can be more useful than compositions of the easy style and manner, which draw not too much from life, require no deep application or retreat to be comprehended, and send back the student among mankind full of noble sentiments and wise precepts, applicable to every exigence of human life. By mean.s of such compositions, virtue becomes amiable, science agreeable, company instructive, and retirement enter- taining. I Man is a reasonable being ; and as such, receives from science his proper food and nourishment : But so narrow are the bounds of human understanding, that little satisfaction can be hoped for in this partic- ular, either from the extent or security of his acquisi- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 5 tions. Man is a sociable, no less than a reasonable being : But neither can he always enjoy company agreeable and amusing, or preserve the proper relish for them. Man is also an active bein^ ; and from that disposition, as well as from the various necessities of human life, must submit to business and occupa- tion : But the mind requires some relaxation, and can- not always support its bent to care and industry. It \ seems, then, that nature has pointed out a mixed kind \ *^ of life as most suitable to the human race, and secretly ; admonished them to allow none of these biasses to ; draw too much, so as to incapacitate them for other occupations and entertainments. Indulge your passion . for science, says she, but let your science be human, | and such as may have a direct reference to action and i society. Abstruse thought and profound researches I prohibit, and will severely punish, by the pensive mel- ancholy which they introduce, by the endless uncer- tainty in which they involve you, and by the cold re- ception which your pretended discoveries shall meet with, when communicated. JBe a philosopher; but, 1 amidst all your philosophy, be still a man^^ ' Were the generality of mankind contented to pre- fer the easy philosophy to the abstract and profound, without throwing any blame or contempt on the latter, it might not be improper, perhaps, to comply with this general opinion, and allow every man to enjoy, with- out opposition, his own taste and sentiment. But as the matter is often carried farther, even to the absolute rejecting of all profound reasonings, or what is com- monly called metaphysics^ we shall now proceed to con- sider what can reasonably be pleaded in their behalf. I We may begin with observing, that one consider- able advantage, which results from the accurate and e AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING ] abstract philosophy, is, its subserviency to the easy and humane, which, without the former, can never I attain a sufficient degree of exactness in its sentiments, precepts, or reasoning^ All polite letters are nothing but pictures of human life in various attitudes and situations ; and inspire us with different sentiments, of praise or blame, admiration or ridicule, according to the qualities of the object, which they set before us. An artist must be better qualified to succeed in this undertaking, who, besides a delicate taste and a quick apprehension, possesses an accurate knowledge of the internal fabric, the operations of the under- standing, the workings of the passions, and the various species of sentiment which discriminate vice and vir- tue. How painful soever this inward search or en- quiry may appear, it becomes, in some measure, re- quisite to those, who would describe with success the obvious and outward appearances of life and manners. The anatomist presents to the eye the most hideous and disagreeable objects ; but his science is useful to the painter in delineating even a Venus or an Helen. While the latter employs all the richest colours of his art, and gives his figures the most graceful and en- gaging airs ; he must still carry his attention to the inward structure of the human body, the position of the muscles, the fabric of the bones, and the use and figure of every part or organ. (.Accuracy is, in every f case, advantageous to beauty, and just reasoning to delicate sentiment. In vain would we exalt the one f by depreciating the otherTy Besides, we may obs'erve, in every art or profes- sion, even those which most concern life or action, that a spirit of accuracy, however acquired, carries all of them nearer their perfection, and renders them^ HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 7 more subservient to the interests of society. And though a philosopher may live remote from business, the genius of philosophy, if carefully cultivated by sev- eral, must gradually diffuse itself throughout the whole society, and bestow a similar correctness on every art and calling. The politician will acquire greater foresight and subtility, in the subdividing and balanc- ing of power ; the lawyer more method and finer prin- ciples in his reasonings ; and the general more regular- ity in his discipline, and more caution in his plans and operations. The stability of modern governments above the ancient, and the accuracy of modern philos- ophy, have improved, and probably will still improve, by similar gradations. Were there no advantage to be reaped from these studies, beyond the gratification of an innocent curios- ity, yet ought not even this to be despised ; as being one accession to those few safe and harmless pleasures, which are bestowed on the human race./Jhe sweetest and most inoffensive path of life leads through the avenues of science and learning ;^ and Avhoever^an either remove any obstructions in this way, or open up any new prospect, ought so far to'be esteemed a benefactor to mankind^And though these researches may appear painful and fatiguing, it is with some minds as with some bodies, which being endowed with vigorous and florid health, require severe exercise, and reap a pleasure from what, to the generality of mankind, may seem burdensome and laborious. Ob- scurity, indeed, is painful to the mind as well as to the eye ; but to bring light from obscurity, by whatever labour, must needs be delightful and rejoicing. But this obscurity in the profound and abstract philosophy, is objected to, not only as painful and \ g AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING fatiguing, but as the inevitable source of uncertainty and error. Here indeed lies the justest and most plausible objection against a considerable part of meta- /physics, that they are not properly a science ; but arise either from the fruitless efforts of human vanity, which would penetrate into subjects utterly inaccessible to the understanding, or from the craft of popular super- stitions, which, being unable to defend themselves on fair ground, raise these intangling brambles to cover and protect their weakness. Chaced from the open country, these robbers fly into the forest, and lie in wait to break in upon every unguarded avenue of the mind, and overwhelm it with religious fears and pre- judices. The stoutest antagonist, if he remit his watch a moment, is oppressed. And many, through cow- ardice and folly, open the gates to the enecnies, and willingly receive them with reverence and submission, as their legal sovereigns. But is this a sufficient reason, why philosophers should desist from such researches, and leave super- stition still in possession of her retreat? Is it not proper to draw an opposite conclusion, and perceive the necessity of carrying the war into the most secret recesses of the enemy? In vain do we hope, that men, from frequent disappointment, will at last abandon such airy sciences, and discover the proper province of human reason. For, besides, that many persons find too sensible an interest in perpetually recalling such topics ; besides this, I say, the motive of blind despair can never reasonably have place in the sci- ences; since, however unsuccessful former attempts may have proved, there is still room to hope, that the industry, good fortune, or improved sagacity of suc- ceeding generations may reach discoveries unknown HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 9 to former ages. Each adventurous genius will leap at the arduous prize, and find himself stimulated, rather than discouraged, by the failures of his predecessors ; while he hopes that the glory of achieying so hard an adventure is reserved for him alone./OPhe only methd^ of freeing learning, at once, from these abstruse quesA ^^ tions, is to enquire seriously into the nature of human J understanding, and show, from an exact analysis of | its powers and capacity, that it is by no means fitted 1 for such remote and abstruse subjects. We must sub- yo mit to this fatigue, in order to live at ease ever after : \ And must cultivate true metaphy si cs with some care , \ ,^J^^ in order to destroy the false and adulteratey^ Indo^i/ / lence, which, to some persons, affords a safeguard against this deceitful philosophy, is, with others, over- balanced by curiosity ; and despair, which, at some moments, prevails, may give place afterwards to san- guine hopes and expectations. XAccurate and just rea- soning is the only catholic remedy, fitted for all per- sons and all dispositions f7and is alone able to subvert that abstruse philosopKy and metaphysical jargon, which, being mixed up with popular superstition, ren- ders it in a manner impenetrable to careless reasoners, and gives it the air of science and wisdom. Besides this advantage of rejecting, after deliberate enquiry, the most uncertain and disagreeable part of learning, there are many positive advantages, which result from an accurate scrutiny into the powers and faculties of human nature. It is remarkable concern-/^ ing the operations of the mind, that, though most in- timately present to us, yet, whenever they become the object of reflexion, they seem involved in obscurity ; nor can the eye readily find those lines and boundaries, w^iich discriminate and distinguish them. The objects I xo AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING are too fine to remain long in the same aspect or situa- tion ; and must be apprehended in an instant, by a superior penetration, derived from nature, and im- proved by habit and reflexion. It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science barely to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder, in which they lie involved, when made the object of reflexion and en- quiry. This talk of ordering and distinguishing, which has no merit, when performed with regard to external bodies, the objects of our senses, rises in its value, when directed towards the operations of the mind, in proportion to the difficulty and labour, which we meet with in performing it. And if we can go no farther than this mental geography, or delineation of the dis- tinct parts and powers of the mind, it is at least a satisfaction to go so far ; and the more obvious this science may appear (and it is by no means obvious) the more contemptible still must the ignorance of it be esteemed, in all pretenders to learning and philos- ophy. Nor can there remain any suspicion, that this sci- ence is uncertain and chimerical ; unless we should entertain such a scepticism as is entirely subversive of all speculation, and even action./j.t cannot be doubted, ;\that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from each other, that what is really distinct to the immediate [. perception may be distinguished by reflexion; and / consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood in \ all propositions on this subject, and a truth and false- I (hood, which lie, not beyond the compass of human ^^understanding. / There are many obvious distinctions HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. ix of this kind, such as those between the will and un- derstanding, the imagination and passions, which fall within the comprehension of every human creature ; and the finer and more philosophical distinctions are no less real and certain, though more difficult to be comprehended. Some instances, especially late ones, of success in these enquiries, may give us a juster no- tion of the certainty and solidity of this branch of learning. And shall we esteem it worthy the labour of a philosopher to give us a true system of the plan- ets, and adjust the position and order of those remote bodies ; while we affect to overlook those, who, with so much success, delineate the parts of the mind, in which we are so intimately concerned ? But may we not hope, that philosophy, if culti- vated with care,^ and encouraged by the attention of the public, may carry its researches still farther^ and discover, at least in some degree, the secret springs and principles, by which the human mind is actuated in its operations ? Astronomers had long contented themselves with proving, from the phaenomena, the true motions, order, and magnitude of the heavenly bodies : Till a philosopher, at last, arose, who seems, from the happiest reasoning, to have also determined the laws and forces, by which the revolutions of the planets are governed and directed. The like has been performed with regard to other parts of nature. And there is no reason to despair of equal success in our enquiries concerning the mental powers and economy, if prosecuted with equal capacity and caution. It is probable, that one operation and principle of the mind depends on another; which, again, may be resolved into one more general and universal : And how far these researches may possibly be carried, it will be la AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING difficult for us, before, or even after, a careful trial, exactly to determine. This is certain, that attempts fof this kind are every day made even by tliose who philosophize the most negligently : And nothing can be more .requisite than to enter upon the enterprize with thorough care and attention ; that, if it lie within the compass of human understanding, it may at last be happily achieved ; if not, it may, however, be re- jected with some confidence and security. This last conclusion, surely, is not desirable ; nor ought it to be embraced too rashly. For how much must we dimin- ish from the beauty and value of this species of phi- losophy, upon such a supposition? Moralists ha\'e hitherto been accustomed, when they considered the vast multitude and diversity of those actions that ex- cite our approbation or dislike, to search for some common principle, on which this variety of sentiments might depend. And though they have sometimes car- ried the matter too far, by their passion for some one general principle ; it must, however, be confessed, that they are excusable in expecting to find some gen- eral principles, into which all the vices and virtues were justly to be resolved. The like has been the endeavour of critics, logicians, and even politicians : Nor have their attempts been wholly unsuccessful; though perhaps longer time, greater accuracy, and more ardent application may bring these sciences still nearer their perfection. To throw up at once all pre- tensions of this kind may justly be deemed more rash, precipitate, and dogmatical, than even the boldest and most affirmative philosophy, that has ever attempted to impose its crude dictates and principles on man- kind. What though these reasonings concerning human HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 13 nature seem abstract, and of difficult comprehension ? This affords no presumption of their falsehood. On the contrary, it seems impossible, that what has hith- erto escaped so many wise and profound philosophers can be very obvious and easy. And whatever pains these researches may cost us, we may think ourselves sufficiently rewarded, not only in point of profit but of pleasure, if, by that means, we can make any addition to our stock of knowledge, in subjects of such un- speakable importance. But as, after all, the abstractedness of these specu- lations is no recommendation, but rather a disadvan- tage to them, and as this difficulty may perhaps be surmounted by care and art, and the avoiding of all unnecessary detail, we have, in the following enquiry, attempted to throw some light upon subjects, from which uncertainty has hitherto deterred the wise, and obscurity the ignorant.^ Happy, if we can unite the , boundaries of the differeijt species of philosophy, by^^ reconciling profound enquiry with clearness, and truth with novelty ! And still more happy, if reasoning in this easy manner, we can undermine the foundations of an abstruse philosophy, which seems to have hith- erto served only as a shelter to superstition, and a cover to absurdity and error I t i G SECTION II. XOP THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS. EVERY one will readily allow, that there is a con- siderable difference between the perce ptions of the mind, when a man feels the pain of excessive heat, or the pleasure of moderate warmth, and when he aft- erwards recalls to his memory this sensation, or antic- ipates it by his imagination^ These faculties may mimic or copy the perceptions of the senses ; but they never can entirely reach the force and vivacity of the original sentiment. The utmost we say of them, even when they operate with greatest vigour, is, that they represent their object in so lively a manner, that we could almost say we feel or see it : But, except the mind be disordered by disease or madness, they never can arrive at such a pitch of vivacity, as to render these perceptions altogether undistinguishable. All the colours of poetry, however splendid, can never paint natural objects in such a manner as to make the description be taken for a real landskip. _The most lively thought is still inferior to the dullest sensation.J We may observe a like distinction to run through all the other perceptions of the mind. A man in a fi. of anger, is actuated in a very different manner from one who only thinks of that emotion. If you tell me, that any person is in love, I easily understand your meaning, and form a just conception of his situation ; but never can mistake that conception for the real HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 15 disorders and agitations of the passion. ' When we reflect on our past sentiments and affections, our thought is a faithful mirror, and copies its objects truly ; but the colours which it employs are faint and dull, in comparison of those in which our original per- ceptions were clothed. It requires no nice discern- ment or metaphysical head to mark the distinction be- tween themry Here therefore we may divide all the perceptions of the mind into two classes or species, which are dis- tingu^hed by their different degrees of force and vivac- ity, rjhe less f orcib le and lively are commonly de- nominated Thoughts ox IdecuQ'TYie other species want 1 a name in our language, and in most others ; I sup- pose, because it was not requisite for any, but philos- ophical purpose^ to rank them under a general term or appellation.^Let us, therefore, use a little freedom, and call them Im^resswnsJ? employing that word in a [[ sense somewhat differenTTrom the usual.J^y the term 1\ impression, then, I mean all our more lively percep- II tions, when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or hate, V or desire, or will. /And impressions are distinguishe^^^ from ideas, whicli are the less lively perceptions, of which we are conscious, when we reflect on ajjy of those sensations or movements above mentioned.! Nothing, at first view, may seem more unbounded than the thought of man, which not only escapes all human power and authority, but is not even restrained within the limits of nature and reality. To form mon- sters, and join incongruous shapes and appearances, costs the imagination no more troubie than to conceive the most natural and familiar objects. And while the body is confined to one planet, along which it creeps with pain and difficulty ; the thought can in an instant i6 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING transport us into the most distant regions of the uni- verse ; or even beyond the universe, into the un- bounded chaos, where nature is supposed to lie in total confusion. What never was seen, or heard of, may yet be conceived ; nor is any thing beyond the power of thought, except what implies an absolute contra- diction. «-^ But though our thought seems to possess this un- ! . bounded liberty, we shall find, upon a nearer examina- tion, that it is really confined within very narrow lim- its, and that all this creative power of the mind j amounts to no more than the faculty of compounding tC^ i transposing, augmenting, or diminishing the materials afforded us by the senses and experience.' When we think of a golden mountain, we only join two consist- ent ideas, gold, and mountain, with which we were formerly acquainted. A virtuous horse we can con- ceive ; because, from our own feeling, we can conceive virtue ; and this we may unite to the figure and shape of a horse, which is an animal familiar to us.j In short, all the materials of thinking are derived either from our outward or inward sentiment : the mixture and composition of these belongs alone to the mind and will. Or, to express myself in philosophical language, all our ideas i^or more feeble perceptions jare copies of our impressions(or more lively ones.Jj ■^ To prove this, the two following arguments wil], I hope, be sufficient./. First, when we analyze our thoughts or ideas, however compounded or sublime, y^ we always find that they resolve themselves into such simple ideas as were copied from a precedent feeling or sentimen^ Even those ideas, which, at first view, seem the most wide of this origin, are fojund, upon a nearer scrutiny, to be derived from it. / The idea of HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 17 God, as meaning an infinitely intelligent, wise, and good Being, arises from reflecting on the operations of our own mind, and augmenting, without limit, those a qualities of goodness and wisdom.'7We may prosecute ^ this enquiry to what length we please ; where we shall always find, that every idea which we examine is copied from a similar impression/T Those who would assert that this position is not universally true nor without exception, have only one, and that an easy method of refuting it ; by producing that idea, which, in their opinion, is not derived from this source. It will then be incumbent on us, if we would maintain our doc- trine, to produce the impression, or lively perception, which correspon^is to it. Secondly. ]\i it happen, from a d efect of the or- gan, th at a man is not susceptible of any species of '^ sensation,^ we always find tha t he is as little suscept- ible of the correspondent ideas J A blind man can form no notion of colours; a deaf man of sounds. Restore either of them that sense in which he is deficient ; by opening this new inlet for his sensations, you also open an inlet for the ideas ; and he finds no difficulty in conceiving these objects. J The case is the same, if the object, proper for excitilig any sensation, has never been applied to the organ. A Laplander or Negro has no notion of the relish of wine. And though there are few or no instances of a like deficiency in the^ mind, where a person has never felt or is wholly in- capable of a sentiment or passion that belongs to his species; yet we find the same observation to take place in a less degree. A man of mild manners can form no idea of inveterate revenge or cruelty ; nor can a selfish heart easily conceive the heights of friendship and generosity. It is readily allowed, that other beings ■R i8 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING may possess many senses of which we can have no conception ; because the ideas of them have never , been introduced to us in the only manner by which an (i idea can have access to the mind, to wit, by the actual I feeling and sensati on.^ There is, however, one contradictory phenomenon, which may prove that it is not absolutely impossible for ideas to arise, independent of their correspondent impressions. I believe it will readily be allowed, that the several distinct ideas of colour, which enter by the eye, or those of sound, which are conveyed by the ear, are really different from each other ; though, at the same time, resembling. Now if this be true of differ- ent colours, it must be no less so of the different shades of the same colour ; and each shade produces a distinct idea, independent of the rest. For if this should be denied, it is possible, by the continual gra- dation of shades, to run a colour insensibly into what is most remote from it; and if you will not allow any of the means to be different, you cannot, without ab- surdity, deny the extremes to be the same. Suppose, therefore, a person to have enjoyed his sight for thirty years, and to have become perfectly acquainted with colours of all kinds except one particular shade of blue, for instance, which it never has been his fortune to meet with. Let all the different shades of that colour, except that single one, be placed before him, descending gradually from*the deepest to the lightest; it is plain that he will perceive a blank, where that shade is wanting, and will be sensible that there is a greater distance in that place between the contiguous colours than in any other. Now I ask, whether it be possible for him, from his own imagination, to supply ^ this deficiency, and raise up to himself the idea of that HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 19 particular shade, though it had never been conveyed )^ to him by his senses? I believe there are few but will ^v^ - be of opinion that he can: and this may serve as a ^^ prnnfjjhat J:h«^ t;imp1f^ j'^'^rliS R^*^ ^'^^ alw^nygj in eVCry ^/^ instance, derived fro ni the correspondent impressioQ ^ ; though this mstance is so singular, that it is scarcely worth our observing, and does not merit that for it alone we should alter our general maxim. Here, therefore, is a proposition, which not only seems, in itself, simple and intelligible; but, if a proper use were made of it, might render every dis- pute equally intelligible, and banish all that jargon, which has so long taken possession of metaphysical reasonings, and drawn disgrace upon them. /All ideas, especially abstract ones, are naturally faint and ob- scure : the mind has but a slender hold of them : they are apt to be confounded with other resembling ideas J and when we have often employed any term, though without a distinct meaning, we are apt to imagine it has a determinate idea annexed to it. On the con- trary, all impressions, that is, all sensations, either outward or inward, are strong and vivid : the limits between them are more exactly determined : nor is it easy to fall into any error or mistake with regard to them. When we entertain, therefore, any suspicion" that a philosophical term is employed without any meaning or idea (as is but too frequent), we need but enquire, from what impr^sion is that supposed idea derived? Ai^d if it be impossible to assign any, this will serve to confirm our suspicion.^ By bringing lit is probable that no more was meant by those, who denied innate ideas, than that all ideas were copies of our impressions; though it must be confessed, that the terms, which they employed, were not chosen with such caution, nor so exactly defined, as to prevent all mistakes about their doc- trine. For what is meant by innate ? If innate be equivalent to natural, then 20 AN ENQ UTR Y CONCERNING ideas into so clear a light we may reasonably hope to remove all dispute, which may arise, concerning their nature and reality. all the perceptions and ideas of the mind must be allowed to be innate or natural, in whatever sense we take the latter word, whether in opposition to what is uncommon, artificial, or miraculous. If by innate be meant, contem- porary to our birth, the dispute seems to be frivolous ; nor is it worth while to enquire at what time thinking begins, whether before, at, or after our birth. Again, the word idea, seems to be commonly taken in a very loose sense, by Locke and others; as standing for any of our perceptions, our sen- sations and passions, as well as thoughts. Now in this sense, I should desire to know, what can be meant by asserting, that self-love, or resentment of in- juries, or the passion between the sexes is not innate ? But admitting these terms, impressions and ideas, in the sense above ex plained, and understanding hy.innaie, what is original or copied from no pre cedent perception, then may we assert that all our impressions are innate and our ideas not innate. To be ingenuous, I must own it to be my opinion, that Locke was be trayed into this question by the schoolmen, who, making use of undefined terms, draw out their disputes to a tedious length, without ever touching the point in question. A like ambiguity and circumlocution seem to run through that philosopher's reasonings on this as well as most other subjects. / SECTION III. >^ OF THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. IT is evident that /there is a principle of connexion j between the different thoughts or ideas of the \i mind, and that, in their appearance to the memory or \ imagination, they introduce each other with a certain I $< degree of method and regularity, jln our more serious ' ^^ thinking or discourse this is so observable that any ^ particular thought, which breaks in upon the regular . ^ tract or chain of ideas, is immediately remarked and )^ .\^ rejected.^ And even in our wildest and most wander- J^ ing reveries, nay in our very dreams, we shall find, if we reflect, that the imagination ran jiot altogether at adventures, but that there was stillja^^nnexion up- 1 held among the different ideas, which succeeded each - others Were the loosest and freest conversatio.n to be transcribed, there would immediately "be. observed something;^ which connected it^n ajl.its transitions. Or where this is wanting, the person who broke the thread of discourse might still inform you, that there had secretly revolved in his mind a succession of thought, which had gradually led him from the sub- ject of conversation. Among different languages, even where we cannot suspect the least connexion or com- munication, it is found, that the words, expressive of ideas, the most compounded, do yet nearly correspond to each other : a certain proof that the simple ideas, comprehended in the compound ones, were bound to- Al^ ENQUIRY CONCERNING an gether by some universal principle, which had equal influence on all mankind. Though it be too obvious to escape observation, P^that different ideas are connected together ; /I do not find that any philosopher has attempted to enumerate or class all the principles of associatioja.; i a subject, however, that seems worthy of curiosity .LTo me, there appear to be only three principles of connexion among ideas, Ti2.xii^\y\Resemblance^ Contiguity in time or place, and Cause or Effect. \ That these principles serve to connect ideas will not, I believe, be much doubted. jA picture naturally leads our thoughts to the original : ^ the mention of one apartment in a building naturally introduces an enquiry or discourse concerning the others :2 and if we think of a wound, we can scarcely forbear reflect- ing on the pain which follows it.^ But that this enumeration is complete, and that there are no other principles of association except these, may be difficult to prove to the satisfaction of the reader, or even to a man's own satisfaction. All we can do, in such cases, is to run over several instances, and examine carefully the principle which binds the different thoughts to each other, never stopping till we render the principle as general as possible.^ The more instances we exam- ine, and the more care we employ, the more assurance shall we acquire, that the enumeration, which we form from the whole, is complete and entire. 1 Resemblance. 2 Contiguity. 3 Cause and effect. 4 For instance, Contrast or Contrariety is also a connexion among Ideas but it may, perhaps, be considered as a mixture of Causation and Resem- blance. Where two objects are contrary, the one destroys the other; that is, the cause of its annihilation, and the idea of the annihilation of an object implies the idea of its former existence. SECTION IV. SCEPTICAL DOUBTS CONCERNING THE OPERATIONS OF THE UNDERSTANDING. Part I. ALL the objects of human reason or enquiry may . naturally be divided into two kinds, to wit, Rela^ iions of Ideas y and Matters of Factl Of the first kind are the sciences of Geometry, AlgeDra, and Arithmetic ; and in short, every affirmation which is either intui- tively or demonstratively certain. That the square of the hypoihenusets equal to the squares of the two sides ^ is a proposition which expresses a relation between these figures. That three times five is equal to the half of thirty^ expresses a relation between these nuipbers. Propositions of this kind are discoverable by the mere operation of thought, without dependence on what is anywhere existent in the univers^ Though there" never were a circle or triangle in nature, the truths demonstrated by Euclid would for ever retain their certainty and evidence. v^.^ Matters of fac t, which are the second objects of V human Teason, are not ascertained in the same man- ner ; nor is our evidence of their truth^ however great, \ > of a like nature with the foregoingj The contrary of ^^^ S every matter el iact is-StUl po^ssible; because it can never imply a contradiction, and is conceived by the mind with the samejac^ility. and distinctness, as if ever 24 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING SO conformable to reality. That the sun will not rist to-morrow is no less intelligible a proposition, and implies no more contradiction than the affirmation, that it will rise. We should in vain, therefore, attempt to demonstrate its falsehood. ?Were it demonstratively false, it would imply a contradiction, and could never X be distinctly conceived by the mind. It may, therefore, be a subject worthy of curiosity, to enquire what is the nature of that evidence which assures us Si any real existence and matter of fact, beyond the present testimony of our senses, or the \ records of our memory. | This part of philosophy, it is observable, has been little cultivated, either by the ancients or moderns ; and therefore our doubts and errors, in the prosecution of so important an enquiry, may be the more excusable ; while we march through such difficult paths without any guide or direction. They may even prove useful, by exciting curiosity, and destroying that implicit faith and security, which is the bane of all reasoning and free enquiry. The dis- covery of defects in the common philosophy, if any such there be, will not, I presume, be a discourage- ment, but rather an incitement, as is usual, to attempt something more full and satisfactory than has yet been proposed to tjie public. Ij All reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to ibe founded on the relation of Cause and Effect. By means of that relation alone we can go beyond the evidence of our memory and senses. If you were to ask a man, why he believes any matter of fact, which is absent; for instance, that his friend is in 'the coun- try, or in France ; he would give you a reason ; and this reason would be some other fact ; as a letter re- ceived frpm him, or the knowledge of his former f^? HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 25 olutions and promises. A man finding a watch or any other machine in a desert island, would conclude that there had once been men in that island. JAJI our rea- sonings concerning fact are of the same nature^ And here it is constantly supposed that there is a connexion between the present fact and that which is inferred from it. Were there nothing to bind them together, the inference would be entirely precarious. The hear- ing of an articulate voice and rational discourse in the dark assures us of the presence of some person : Why ? because these are the effects of the huinan make and fabric, and closely connected with it. /if we anat- omize all the other reasonings of this nature, we shall find that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect, and that this relation is either near or remote, direct or collateral. Heat and light are collateral effects of fire, and the one effect may justly be inferred from the other.^ If we would satisfy ourselves, therefore, concern- ing the nature of that evidence, which assures us of , matters of fact,{^e must enq uirei how jwe arrive at the jk kno3vledge of cause and effectTj^ I ^ ^ :,J-shall venture t^ affirm, as a general proposition, which admits of no exception, that the knowledge of > this relation is not in any instance, attained by rea-^/ sonings a ^ort ^vX arises lentirely from experience, J^ when we find'that any particular objects are constantly \ conjoined with each other. Let an object be presented to a man of ever so strong natural reason and abilities ; if that object be entirely new to him, he will not be able, by the most accurate examination of its sensible qualities, to discover any of its causes or effects. Adam, though his rational faculties be supposed, at the very first, entirely perfect, could not have inferred 96 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING from the fluidity and transparency of water that it would suffocate him, or from the light and warmth of fire that it would consume him. No object ever dis- covers, by the qualities which appear to the senses, either the causes which produced it, or the effects which will arise from it ; Tnor can our reason, un- assisted by experience, ever draw any inference con ^\ cerjjing real existence and matter of fac^tA^ r This proposition, that causes and effects are discover- ablCy not by reason but by experience'^WX readily be ad- mitted with regard to such obj^s, as we remember to have once been altogether unknown to us; since we must be conscious of the utter inability, which we then lay under, of foretelling what would arise from them. Present two smooth pieces of marble to a man who has no tincture of natural philosophy ; he will never discover that they will adhere together in such a manner as to require great force to separate them in a direct line, while they make so small a resistance to a lateral pressure. Such events, as bear little analogy to the common course of nature, are also readily con- fessed to be known only by experience ; nor does any man imagine that the explosion of gunpowder, or the attraction of a loadstone, could ever be discovered by arguments a priori. In like manner, when an effect is supposed to depend upon an intricate machinery or secret structure of parts, we make no difficulty in at- tributing all our knowledge of it to experience. Who ") will assert that he can give the ultimate reason, why / milk or bread is proper nourishment for a man, not for a lion or a tiger? But the same truth may not appear, at first sight, to have the same evidence with regard to events, which have become familiar to us from our first ap HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 27 pearance in the world, which bear a close analogy to the whole course of nature, and which are supposed to depend on the simple qualities of objects, without any secret structure of parts. We are apt to imagine that we could discover these effects by the mere opera- tion of our reason, without experience. We fancy, that were we brought on a sudden into this world, we could at first have inferred that one Billiard-ball would com- municate motion to another upon impulse ; and that we needed not to have waited for the event, in order to pronounce with certainty concerning it. Such is the influence of custom, that, where it is strongest, it not only covers our natural ignorance, but even con- ceals itself, and seems not to take place, merely be- cgjjt^e it is found in the highest degree. JUBut to convince us that all the laws of nature, and /^ all the operations of bodies without exception, are * known only by experi^ence, the following reflections-^ may, perhaps, sufficej Were any object presented to us, and were we required to pronounce concerning the effect, which will result from it, without consulting past observation ; after what manner, I beseech you, must the mind proceed in this operation? It must in- vent or imagine some event, which it ascribes to the object as its effect ; and it i^ plain that this invention must be entirely arbitrary. l,,The mind can never pos- sibly find the effect in the supposed cause, by the most accurate scrutiny and examination. For the effect is totally different from the cause, and consequently can never be discovered in ixT] Motion in the second Bil- liard-ball is a quite distmct event from motion in the first ; nor is there anything in the one to suggest the smallest hint of the other. A stone or piece of metal raised into the air, and left without any support, im- 28 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING mediately falls : but to consider the matter a priori^ is there anything we discover in this situation which can beget the idea of a downward, rather than an upward, or any other motion, in the stone or metal? ^ And as the first imagination or invention of a par- ticular effect, in all natural operations, is arbitrary, where we consult not experience ; so must we also es- teem the supposed tie or connexion between the cause and effect, which binds theri together, and renders it impossible that any other effect could result from the operation of that cause. When I see, for instance, a Billiard-ball moving in a straight line towards an- other ; even suppose motion in the second ball should by accident be suggested to me, as the result of their contact or impulse ; may I not conceive, that a hun- dred different events might as well follow from that cause ? May not both these balls remain at absolute rest ? May not the first ball return in a straight line, or leap off from the second in any line or direction ? All these suppositions are consistent and conceivable. Why then should we give the preference to one, which is no more consistent or conceivable than the rest ? All our reasonings a priori vi\\\ never be able to show us any foundation for this preference. In a word, then,y^ery effect is a distinct event from its cause'./ It could not, therefore, be discovered in the cause, and the first invention or conception of ^it, a priori^ must be entirely arbitrary. And even after it is suggested, the conjunction of it with the cause must appear equally arbitrary ; since there are always many other effects, which, to reason, must seem fully as consistent and natural. In vain, therefore, should we pretend to determine any single event, or infer any HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 29 cause or effect, without the assistance of observation and experience. Hence we may discover the reason why no philos- opher, who is rational and modest, has ever pretended to assign the ultimate cause of any natural operation, or to show distinctly the action of that poweif, which produces any single effect in the universe. ^ It is con- fessed, that the utmost effort of human reason is to re- <» duc.e the principles, productive of natural phenomena, to a greater simplicity, and to resolve the many par- ticular effects into a few general causes, by means of reasonings from analogy, experience, and observation^ But as to the causes^ of these general causes, we should y in vain attempt their discovery ;' nor shall we ever be able to satisfy ourselves, by any particular explication of them. These ultimate springs and principles are totally shut up from human curiosity and enquiry. Elasticity, gravity, cohesion of parts, communication of motion by impulse; these are probably the ultimate causes and principles which we ever discover in nature; and we may esteem ourselves sufficiently happy, if, by accurate inquiry and reasoning, we can trace up the particular phenomena to, or near to, these general principles.! The most perfect philosophy of the natural kind only staves off our ignorance a little longer: as perhaps the most perfect philosophy of the moral or metaphysical kind serves only to discover larger por- tions of it. Thus the observation of human blindness , and weakness is the result of all philosophy, and meets I us at every turn, in spite of our endeavours to elude i or avoid it. Nor is geometry, when taken into the assistance of natural philosoph}^, ever able to remedy this defect, or lead us into the knowledge of ultimate causes, by all 30 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING that accuracy of reasoning for which it is so justly cel- ebrated. Every part of mixed mathematics proceeds upon the supposition that certain laws are established by nature in her operations ; and abstract reasonings are employed, either to assist experience in the discov- ery of these laws, or to determine their influence in particular instances, where it depends upon any pre- cise degree of distance and quantity. Thus, it is a law of motion, discovered by experience, that the moment or force of any body in motion is in the compound ra- tio or proportion of its solid contents and its velocity ; and consequently, that a small force may remove the greatest obstacle or raise the greatest weight, if, by any contrivance or machinery, we can increase the ve- locity of that force, so as to make it an overmatch for its antagonist. Geometry assists us in the application of this law, by giving us the just dimensions of all the parts and figures which can enter into any species of machine ; but still the discovery of the law itself is ow- ing merely to experience, and all the abstract reason- ings in the world could never lead us one step towards the knowledge of it. When we reason a priori^ and consider merely any object or cause, as it appears to the mind, independent of all observation, it never could suggest to us the notion of any distinct object, such as its effect ; much less, show us the inseparable and in- violable connexion between them. A man must be very sagacious who could discover by reasoning that crystal is the effect of he^t, and ice of cold, without being previously acquainted with the operation of these qualities. Part II. But we have not yet attained any tolerable satisfac- tion with regard to the question first proposed. Each HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 31 solution still gives rise to a new question as difficult as the foregoing, and leads us on to farther enquiries. When it is asked, What is the nature of all our reason- j y ings concerning matter of fact ? the proper answer seems' ^^ to be, that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. When again it is asked. What is the foun- dation of all our reasonings a7id conclusions ^concerning that relation ? it may be replied in one word, Experience. But if we still carry on our sifting humour, and ask, What is the foundation of all conclusions from experience? \ this implies a new question, which may be of more difficult solution and explication. Philosophers, that give themselves airs of superior wisdom and sufficiency, have a hard task when they encounter persons of in- quisitive dispositions, who push them from every cor- ner to which they retreat, and who are sure at last to bring them to some dangerous dilemma. The best ex- pedient to prevent this confusion, is to be modest in I our pretensions ; and^ven to discover the difficulty \ ourselves before it is objected to us. By this means, \ we may make a kind of merit of our very ignorance. I shall content myself, in this section, with an easy task, and shall pretend only to give a negative answer to the question here proposed. I say then, that, even ^ after we have experience of the operations of cause ■. and effect, our conclusions from that experience are n, not founded on reasoning, or any process of the under- U\ standing. This answer we must endeavour both to ex- plajii^and to defend. j^Lt must certainly be allowed, that nature has kept us at a great distance from all her secrets, and has af- forded us only the knowledge of a few superficial qual- ities of objects ; while she conceals from us those pow- ers and principles on which the influence of those ob- \ 32 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING jects entirely depends^ Our senses inform us of the colour, weight, and consistence of bread ; but neither sense nor reason can ever inform us of those qualities which fit it for the nourishment and support of a human body. Sight or feeling conveys an idea of the actual motion of bodies ; but as to that wonderful force or power, which would carry on a moving body for ever in a continued change of place, and which bodies never lose but by communicating it to others ; of this we can- r not form the most distant conception. But notvv^ith- standing this ignorance of natural powers^ and prin- ciples,! we always presume, when we see like sensible qualities, that they have like secret powers, and expect that effects, similar to those which we have experienced, will follow from them 3 If a body of like colour and consistence with that bread, which we have formerly eat, be presented to us, we makS no' scruple of repeat- ing the experiment, and foresee, with certainty, like nourishment and support, f N^ this is a process of the mind or thought, of which I would willingly know the foundation.^ It is allowed on all hands that there is no known connexion between the sensible qualities and the secret powers; and consequently, that the mind is not led to form such a conclusion concerning their constant and regular conjunction, by anything which it _ knows of their nature. ' As to past Experience, it can be allowed to give direct and certain information^ Jhpse precise objectsonly, And^that precise period of time, which fell under its cognizance : but why this experi- ence should be extended to future times, and to other objects, which, for aught vt^e know, may be only in ap- 1 The word. Power, is here used in a loose and popular sense. The more accurate explication of it would give additional evidence to this argument See Sect. 7. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 33 pearance similar ; this is the main question on which \ I would insist^ The bread, which I formerly eat, nour- ished me ; that is, a body of such sensible qualities was, at that time, endued with such secret powers : but does it follow, that other bread must also nourish me at another time, and that like sensible qualities must always be attended with like secret powers? The consequence seems nowise necessary. At least, it must be acknowledged that there is here a consequence drawn by the mind ; that there is a certain step taken; a process of thought, and an inference, which wants# to be explained. \These two propositions are fa being the same, I have found that siMi an objecti ways been attended with such an effect, and I fores other objects, which are, in appearance, similar, mi attended with sirni/ar^fiSSS^j^Sill allow, if you please, ' that the one propoMion majKListly be inferred from the other; I know, wi ' tl^t it always is inferred. But if you insist that thf iiiierence is made by a chain] of reasoning, I desire you to produce that reasoning. ; The connexion between these propositions is not intu- itive. Tifiere is required a medium, which may enable the mind to draw such an inference, if indeed it be drawn by reasoning and argumerit^jj^at that me- dium is, I must confess, passes nj^^B^^Nihension ; and it is incumbent on those to ]> r:^losopher to have so much curiosity at least as to examine theJ£nnciple of human 11 nature, which gives this mighty authority to experience^jM and makes us draw advantage from that similarity vidiich nature has placed among different objects. /From causes which appear si?nihir we expect similar \ effects. 7 This is the sum of all our experimental con- I clusidns^/Now it seems evident that, if this conclusion were formed by reason, it would be aa. perfect at first, and upon one instance, as after ever so long a course of experience. But the case is far otherwise. Nothing so like as eggs; yet no one, on account of this appear- ing similarity, expects the'"^feS;rtL'^t,aste and relish in all of them. It is only af ten^* IprigiljCburse of uniform ex- periments in any kind, that we attain a firm reliance and 'security with regard to a particular £vent. Now where is that process of reasoning ^mch, from one instance, draws a conclusion, so different from that 36 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING which it infers from a hundred instances that are no- wise different from that single one ? This question I propose as much for the sake of information, as with an intention of raising difficulties. I cannot find, I cannot imagine any su.ch reasoning. But I keep my mind still open to instruction, if any one will vouch- safe to bestow it on me. Should it be said that, from a number of uniform experiments, we infer a connexion between the sensi- ble qualities and the secret powers ; this, I must con- fess, seems the same difficulty, couched in different terms. The question still recurs, on what process of argument this inference is founded ? Where is the me- dium, the interposing ideas, which join propositions so very wide of each other ? It is confessed that the colour, consistence, and other sensible qualities of bread appear not, of themselves, to have any connex- ion with the secret powers of nourishment and support. For otherwise we could infer these secret powers from the first appearance of these sensible qualities, without the aid of experience ; contrary to the sentiment of all philosophers, and contrary to plain matter of fact. Here, then, is our natural state of ignorance with re- gard to the powers and influence of all objects. How is this remedied^iJ^ experience ? It only shows us a number of uniform effects, resulting from certain ob- jjects, and teaches us that those particular objects, at that particular time, were endowed with such powers and forces. When a new object, endowed with simi- lar sensible qualities, is produced, we expect similar powers and forces, and look for a like effect. From a body of like colour and consistence with bread we ex- pect like nourishment and support. But this surely is a step or progress of the mind, which wants to be HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 37 explained. When a man says, I have found , in all past j instances f such sensible qualities conjoined with such secret i powers : And when he says, Similar sensible qualities j will always be conjoined with similar secret powers ^ he is not guilty of a tautology, nor are these propositions in any respect the same. You say that the one proposi- tion is an inference from the other. But you must con- fess that the inference is not intuitive ; neither is it demonstrative : Of what nature is it, then ? To say it is experimental, is begging the question. For all in- ferences from experience suppose, as their foundation, that the future will resemble the past, and that similar powers will be conjoined with similar sensible quali- ties. If there be any suspicion that the course of na- ture may change, and that the past may be no rule for the future, all experience becomes useless, and can give rise to no inference or conclusion. It is impossi- ble, therefore, that any arguments from experience can prove this resemblance of the past to the future; since all these arguments are founded on the supposition of that resemblance. Let the course of things be allowed hitherto ever so regular ; that alone, without some new argument or inference, proves not that, for the future, it will continue so. In vain do you pretend to have learned the nature of bodies from your past experience. Their secret nature, and consequently all their effects and influence, may change, without any change in their sensible qualities. This happens sometimes, and with regard to some objects : Why may it happen always, ^__ and with regard to all objects ? What logic, what process of argument secures you against this supposi- tion ? jMy practice. VOU ^ ay, j-(^fntp<; my dnnhts. Rnt ^ you mistake Jiie- ourport jai my questia n^ ^s an agen t, \ I am quite satisfied in the point : ^"^ n^ R phf'^?°^r^'=^^> | 38 AKT ENQUIRY CONCERNING Jwho has some share of curiosity, I will not say scep- /ticism, I want to learn the foundation of this inference. No reading, no enquiry has yet been able to remove my difficulty, or give me satisfaction in a matter of such importance. Can I do better than propose the difficulty to the public, even though, perhaps, I have small hopes of obtaining a solution ? We shall, at least, by this means, be sensible of our ignorance, if we do not augment our knowledge. f^ I must confess that a man is guilty of unpardonable I arrogance who concludes, because an argument has \escaped his own investigation, that therefore it does [not really exist. 1 must also confess that, though all the learned, for several ages, should have employed themselves in fruitless search upon any subject, it may still, perhaps, be rash to conclude positively that the subject must, therefore, pass all human comprehension. Even though we examine all the sources of our knowl- edge, and conclude them unfit for such a subject, there may still remain a suspicion, that the enumeration is not complete, or the examination not accurate. But with regard to the present subject, there are some con- siderations which seem to remove all this accusation of arrogance or suspicion of mistake. It is certain that the most ignorant and stupid peasants — nay infants, nay even brute beasts — improve by experience, and learn the qualities of natural ob- jects, by observing the effects which result from them. When a child has felt the sensation of pain from touch- ing the flame of a candle, he will be careful not to put his hand near any candle ; but will expect a similar effect from a cause which is similar in its sensible qual- ities and appearance. If you assert, therefore, that the understanding of the child is led into this conclu- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING 39 sion by any process of argument or ratiocination, I may justly require you to produce that argument ; nor have you any pretense to refuse so equitable a demand. You cannot say that the argument is abtruse, and may pos- sibly escape your enquiry ; since you confess that it is obvious to the capacity of a mere infant. If you hesi- tate, therefore, a moment, or if, after reflection, you pro- duce any intricate or profound argument, you, in a man- ner, give up the question, and confess that it is not reasoning which engages us to suppose the past re- sembling the future, and to expect similar effects from causes which are, to appearance, similar. This is the proposition which I intended to enforce in the present section. If I be right, I pretend not to have made any mighty discovery. And if I be wrong, I must acknowl- edge myself to be indeed a very backward scholar ; since I cannot now discover an argument which, it seems, was perfectly familiar to me long before I was out of my cradle. SECTION V. SCEPTICAL SOLuf ION OF THESE DOUBTS. Part I. THE passion for philosophy, like that for religion, seems liable to this inconvenience, that, though it aims at the correction of our manners, and extirpation of our vices, it may only serve, by imprudent manage- ment, to foster a predominant inclination, and push the mind, with more determined resolution, towards that side which already draws too much, by the bias and propensity of the natural temper. It is certain that, while we aspire to the magnanimous firmness of the philosophic sage, and endeavour to confine our pleasures altogether- within our own minds, we may, at last, render our philosophy like that of Epictetus, and other Stoics, only a more refined system of selfish- ness, and reason ourselves out of all virtue as well as social enjoyment. While we study with attention the vanity of human life, and turn all our thoughts towards the empty and transitory nature of riches and honours, we are, perhaps, all the while flattering our natural indolence, which, hating the bustle of the world, and drudgery of business, seeks a pretence of reason to give itself a full and uncontrolled indulgence. There , is, however, one species of philosophy which seems little liable to this inconvenience, and that because it •strikes in with no disorderly passion of the human HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 41 mind, nor can mingle itself with any natural affection or propensity; and that is the Academic or Sceptical philosophy. The academics always talk of doubt and suspense of judgement, of danger in hasty determina- tions, of confining to very narrow bounds the enquiries of the understanding, and of renouncing all specula- tions which lie not within the limits of common life and practice. SNothing, therefore, can be more con- trary than such a philosophy to the supine indolence of the mind, its rash arrogance, its lofty pretensions, and its superstitious credulity .^Every passion is mor- tified by it, except the love of ifruth ; and that passion never is, nor can be, carried to too high a degree. It is surprising, therefore, that this philosophy, which, in almost every instance, must be harmless and inno- cent, should be the subject of so much groundless re- proach and obloquy. But, perhaps, the very circum- stance which renders it so innocent is what chiefly exposes it to the public hatred and resentment. By flattering no irregular passion, it gains few partizans: By opposing so many vices and follies, it raises to itself abundance of enemies, who stigmatize it as libertine, profane, and irreligious. Nor need we fear that this philosophy, while it en- deavours to limit our enquiries to common life, should ever undermine the reasonings of common life, and carry its doubts so far as to destroy all action, as well as speculation, feature will always maintain her rights, and prevail in the end over any abstract reasoning whatsoeverT^Though we should conclude, for instanceT^ as in the foregoing section, that, in all reasonings from experience, there is a step taken by the mind which is not supported by any argument or process of the un- derstanding ; there is no danger that these reasonings, 42 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING on which almost all knowledge depends, will ever be affected by such a discovery. If the mind be not en- gaged by argument to make this step, it must be in- /duced by some other principle of equal weight and j / authority ; and that principle will preserve its influence \ j as long as human nature remains the same. What / I that principle is may well be worth the pains of enquiry. Suppose a person, though endowed with the strong- est faculties of reason and reflection, to be brought on a sudden into this world ; he would, indeed, immedi- ately observe a continual succession of objects, and one event following another ; but he would not be able to discover anything farther. He would not, at first, by any reasoning, be able to reach the idea of cause and effect ; since the particular powers, by which all natural operations are performed, never appear to the senses; nor is it reasonable to conclude, merely be- cause one event, in one instance, precedes another, that therefore the one is the cause, the other the effect. Their conjunction may be arbitrary and casual. There may be no reason to infer the existence of one from the appearance of the other. And in a word, such a person, without more experience, could never employ his conjecture or reasoning concerning any matter of fact, or be assured of anything beyond what was im- mediately present to his memory and senses. Suppose, again, that he has acquired more experi- ence, and has lived so long in the world as to have ob- served familiar objects or events to be constantly con- joined together; what is the consequence of this ex- perience ? He immediately infers the existence of one object from the appearance of the other. Yet he has not, by all his experience, acquired any idea or knowl- edge of the secret power by which the one object pro- l\ HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 43 duces the other ; nor is it, by any process of reasoning, he is engaged to draw this inference. But still he finds himself determined to draw it : And though he should be convinced that his understanding has no part in the operation, he would nevertheless continue in the same course of thinking. There is some other princi- ple which determines him to form such a conclusion. This principle is Custom or Hab it. For wherever | the repetition of any particular act or operation pro-i{ duces a propensity to renew the same act or operation, \; without being impelled by any reasoning or process of the understanding, we always say, that this propensity is the effect of Custo?ft. By employing that word, we- pretend not to have given the ultimate reason of such a propensity. We only point out^a^rinciple of human nature, which is universally acknowledged, and which is well known by its effects/ Perhaps we can push our enquiries no farther, or pretend to give the cause of /^•^'^.. this cause ; but must rest contented with it as the ul- 7 ^-a^ timate principle, which we can assign, of all our con- ^ ^^ elusions from experience. It is sufficient satisfaction, ^''^ that we can go so far, without repining at the narrow- ^^< ness of our faculties because they will carry us no far. Xhef. And it is certain we here advance a very intel- ligible proposition at least, if not a true one, when we assert that, after the constant conjunction of two ob- jects — heat and flame, for instance, weight and solidity — we are determmed by_custom alone to expect the oiie^hs^cath^^ This hypothesis seems even the only one which explains the difficulty," why we draw, from a thousand instances, an inference which we are not able to draw from one instance, thixi is, in no respect, different from them. Reason is incap- able of any such variation. The conclusions which it .V-- 44 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING draws from considering one circle are the same which it would form upon surveying all the circles in the universe. But no man, having seen only one body move after being impelled by another, could infer that , every other body will move after a like impulse. '■- Alt i inferences from experience, therefore, are effects of li custom, not of reasoning. M y^ '< 1 Nothing is more useful than for writers, even, on morale political, or physical subjects, to distinguish between reason and experience, and to sup- pose, that these species of argumentation are entirely diiferent from each other. The former are taken for the mere result of our intellectual faculties, which, by considering A /r/^i^/ the nature of things, and examining the effects, that must follow from their operation, establish particular principles of sci- ence ai:d philosophy. The latter are supposed to be derived entirely froai sense and observation, by which we learn what has actually resulted from the operation of particular objects, and are thence able to infer, what will, f i)r thefuture, result from them. Thus, for instance, the limitations and restraints of civil government, and a legal constitution, may be defended, either from reason, which reflecting on the great frailty and corruption of human nature, teaches, that no man can safely be trusted with unlimited authority; or from experience a.nd history, which inform us of the enormous abuses, that ambi- / tion, in every age and country, has been found to make of so imprudent a / confidence. ' The same distinction between reason and experience is maintained in all our deliberations concerning the conduct of life ; while the experienced statesman, general, physician, or merchant is trusted and followed ; and the unpractised novice, with whatever natural talents endowed, neglected and despised. Though it be allowed, that reason may form very plausible conjectures with regard to the consequences of such a particular conduct in such particular circumstances ; it is still supposed imperfect, without the assistance of experience, which is alone able to give stability and certainty to the maxims, derived from study and reflection. But notwithstanding that this distinction be thus universally received, both in the active speculative scenes of life, I shall not scruple to pronounce, that it is, at bottom, erroneous, at least, superficial If we examine those arguments, which, in any of the sciences above men- tioned, are supposed to be the mere effects of reasoning and reflection, they will be found to terminate, at last, in some general principle or conclusion, for which we can assign no reason but observation and experience. The only difference between them and those maxims, which are vulgarly esteemed the result of pure experience, is, that the former cannot be established without some process of thought, and some reflection on what we have observed, in order to distinguish its circumstances, and trace its consequences : Whereas in the latter, the experienced event is exactly and fully familiar to that which we infer as the result of any particular situation. The history of a Tiberius or a Nero makes us dread a like tyranny, were our monarchs freed from the restraints of laws and senates .• But the observation of any fraud or cruelty HUMAN- UNDERSTANDING, 45 J^ustomj^then^Js the great guide of human life. It is that principle alone which renders our experience useful to us, and makes us expect, for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past. Without the influence of custom, we should be entirely ignorant of every matter of fact be- yond what is immediately present to the memory and senses. We should never know how to adjust means to ends, or to employ our natural powers in the pro- duction of any effect. There would be an end at once of all action, as well as of the chief part of speculation. But here it may be proper to remark, that though our conclusions from experience carry us beyond our memory and senses, and assure us of matters of fact which happened in the most distant places and most remote ages, yet some fact must always be present to the senses or memory, from which we may first pro- ceed in drawing these conclusions. A man, who should find in a desert country the remains of pompous build- ings, would conclude that the country had, in ancient in private life is sufficient, with tlie aid of a little thought, to give us the same apprehension; while it serves as an instance of the general corruption of human nature, and shows us the danger which we must incur by reposing an entire confidence in mankind. In both cases, it is experience which is ulti- mately the foundation of our inference and conclusion. There is no man so young and unexperienced, as not to have formed, from observation, many general and just maxims concerning human affairs and the conduct of life ; but it must be confessed, that, when a man comes to put these in practice, he will be extremely liable to error, till time and farther experience both enlarge these maxims, and teach him their proper use and application. In every situation or incident, there are many particular and seemingly minute circumstances, which the man of greatest talent is, at first, apt to overlook, though on them the justness of his conclusions, and conse- quently the prudence of his conduct, entirely depend. Not to mention, that, to a young beginner, the general observations and maxims occur not always on the proper occasions, nor can be immediately applied with due calmness and distinction. The truth is, an unexperienced reasoner could be no reat soner at all, were he absolutely unexperienced; and when we assign tha character to any one, we mean it only in a comparative sense, and suppose him possessed of experience, in a smaller and more imperfect degree. 46 AN" ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING times, been cultivated by civilized inhabitants; but did nothing of this nature occur to him, he could never form such an inference. We learn the events of former ages from history ; but then w^e must peruse the vol- umes in which this instruction is contained, and thence carry up our inferences from one testimony to another, till we arrive at the eyewitnesses and spectators of these distant events. In a word, if we proceed not upon some fact, present to the memory or senses, our reasonings would be merely hypothetical ; and how- ever the particular links might be connected with each other, the whole chain of inferences would have noth- ing to support it, nor could we ever, by its means, ar- rive at the knowledge of any real existence. If I ask why you believe any particular matter of fact, which you relate, you must tell me some reason ; and this reason will be some other fact, connected with it. But as you cannot proceed after this manner, in infini- tum, you must at last terminate in some fact, which is present to your memory or senses ; or must allow that your belief is entirely without foundation. What, then, is the conclusion of the whole matter ? A simple one ; though, it must be confessed, pretty remote from the common theories of philosophy, f All belief of matter of fact or real existence is derived merely from some object, present to the memory or senses, and a customary conjunction between that and some other object J Or in other words; having found in many instances, that any two kinds of objects — flame and heat, snow and cold — have always been con- joined together ; if flame or snow be presented anew to the senses, the mind is carried by custom to expect heat or cold, and to believe that such a quality does exist, and will discover itself upon a nearer approach. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 47 This belief is the necessary result of placing the mind in such circumstances. It is an operation of the soul, when we are so situated, as unavoidable as to feel the passion of love, when we receive benefits ; or hatred,> when we meet with injuries. All these operations areVTl ' *2C* a species of natural instincts, which no reasoning or Jy **^ !£ -^ process of the thoughtand understanding is able either to produce or to prevent. "" At this point, it would be very allowable for us to stop our philosophical researches. In most questions we can never make a single step farther; and in all questions we must terminate here at last, after our most restless and curious enquiries. But still our curiosity will be pardonable, perhaps commendable, if it carry us on to still farther researches, and make us examine more accurately the nature of this belief, and of the customary conjunction, whence it is derived. / By this means we may meet with some explications and anal- ogies that will give satisfaction ; at lea. t to such as love the abstract sciences, and can be entertained with speculations, which, however accurate, may still retain a degree of doubt and uncertainty. As to readers of a different taste ; the remaining part of this section is not calculated for them, and the following enquiries may well be understood, though it be neglected. Part II. Nothing is more free than the imagination of man ; and though it cannot exceed that original stock of ideas furnished by the internal and external senses, it has unlimited power of mixing, compounding, separ- ating, and dividing these ideas, in all the varieties of fiction and vision. It can feign a train of events, with all the appearance of reality, ascribe to them a partic- I 48 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING ular time and place, conceive them as existent, and paint them out to itself with every circumstance, that belongs to any historical fact, which it believes with the greatest certainty. ' Wherein, therefore, consists the difference between such a fiction and belief?; It lies not merely in any peculiar idea, which is annexed to such a conception as commands our assent, and which is wanting to every known fiction. For as the mind has authority over all its ideas, it could volun- tarily annex this particular idea to any fiction, and con- sequently be able to believe whatever it pleases ; con- trary to what we find by daily experience. We can, in our conception, join the head of a man to the body of a horse ; but it is not in our power to believe that such an animal has ever really existed. It follows, therefore, that (the difference between action and belief' lies in some sentiment or feeling, which is annexed to the latter, not to the former, and which depends not on the will, nor can be commanded at pleasure. It must be excited by nature, like all other sentiments; and must arise from the particular situation, in which the mind is placed at any particu- lar juncture.\\ Whenever any object is presented to the memory or senses, it immediately, by the force of cus- tom, carries the imagination to conceive that object, which is usually conjoined to it ; and this conception is attended with a feeling or sentiment, different from the loose reveries of the fancy. In this consists the whole nature of belief. For as there is no matter of fact which we believe so firmly that we cannot con- ceive the contrary, there would be no difference be- tween the conception assented to and that which is rejected, were it not for some senrtment which dis- tinguishes the one from the other. If I see a billiard- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 49 ball moving towards another, on a smooth table, I can easily conceive it to stop upon contact. This concep- tion implies no contradiction ; but still it feels very differently from that conception by which I represent to myself the impulse and the communication of mo- tion from one ball to another. Were we to attempt a definiiion of this sentiment, we should, perhaps, find it a very difficult, if not an impossible task ; in the same manner as if we should endeavour to define the feeling of cold or passion of anger, to a creature who never had any experience of these sentiments. Belief is the true and proper nameZL tf* of this feeling; and no one is ever at a loss to know 1 ^ the-meaning of that term ; because every man is every j ^ moment conscious of the sentiment represented by it. J rs • U It may not, however, be improper to attempt a descrip- tion of this sentiment ; in hopes we may, by that means, arrive at some analogies*, which may afford a more perfect explication of it. I say, then, that belief is nothing but a more vivid, lively, forcible, firm, steady conception of an object, than what the imagination | alone is ever able to attain. This variety of terms,' which may seem so unphilosophical, is intended only to express that act of the mind, which renders realities, or what Is taken for such, more present to us than fic" tions, causes them to weigh more in the thought, and gives them a superior influence on the passions and imagination. Provided we agree about the thing, it is needless to dispute about the terms. The Imagination has the command over all its ideas, and can join and mix and vary them, in all the ways possible. It may concerve fictitious objects with all the circumstances of place and time. It may set them, in a manner, be- fore our eyes, in their true colours, just as they might 50 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING have existed. But as it is impossible that this faculty of imagination can ever, of itself, reach belief, it is evident that belief consists not in the peculiar nature or order of ideas, but in the manner of their concep- tion, and in \kiQ\t feeling to the mind. I confess, that it is impossible perfectly to explain this feeling or manner of conception. We may make use of words which express something near it. But its true and proper name, as we observed before, is belief \ which is a term that every one sufficiently understands in common life, ^nd in philosophy, we can go no farther I than assert, that belief is something felt by the mind, J \ which distinguishes the ideas of the judgement from the fictions of the imagination. It gives them more weight and influence ; makes them appear of greater impor- tance ; enforces them in the mind ; and renders them the governing principle of our actions. I hear at pres- ent, for instance, a person's voice, with whom I am acquainted ; and the sound come^ as from the next room. This impression of my senses immediately con- veys my thought to the person, together with all the surrounding objects. I paint them out to myself as existing at present, with the same qualities and rela- tions, of which I formerly knew them possessed. These ideas take faster hold of my mind than ideas of an enchanted castle. They are very different to the feeling, and have a much greater influence of every kind, either to give pleasure or pain, joy or sorrow. Let us, then, take in the whole compass of this doctrine, and allow, that the sentiment of belief is nothing but a conception more intense and steady than what attends the mere fictions of the imagination, an(f that this manner of conception arises from a customary conjunction of the object with something present to HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 51 the memory or senses : I believe that it will not be difficult, upon these suppositions, to find other opera- tions of the mind analogous to it, and to trace up these phenomena to principles still more general. We have already observed that nature has estab- lished connexions among particular ideas^ and that no sooner one idea occurs to our thoughts than it intro- duces its correlative, and carries our attention towards it, by a gentle and insensible movement. These prin- ciples of connexion or association we have reduced to three, namely, Resemblance, Contiguity and Causation; which are the only bonds that unite our thoughts to- gether, and beget that regular train of reflection or discourse, which, in a greater or less degree, takes place among mankind. Now here arises a question, on which the solution of the present difficulty will de- pend. Does it happen, in all these relations, that, when one of the objects is presented to the senses or memory, the mind is not only carried to the concep- tion of the correlative, but reaches a steadier and stronger conception of it than what otherwise it would have been able to attain ? This seems to be the case with that belief which arises from the relation of cause and effect. And if the case be the same with the other relations or principles of associations, this may be es- tablished as a general law, which takes place in all the operations of the mind. We may, therefore, observe, as the first experiment to our present purpose, that, upon the appearance of the picture of an absent friend, our idea of him is evi- dently evAvfenedL hyi^Q resemblance, and that every passion, which that idea occasions, whether of joy or sorrow, acquires new force and vigour. In producing this effect, there concur both a relation and a present 52 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING impression. Where the picture bears him no resem- blance, at least was not intended for him, it never so much as conveys our thought to him : And where it * is absent, as well as the person, though the mind may pass from the thought of the one to that of the other, it feels its idea to be rather weakened than enlivened by that transition. We take a pleasure in viewing the picture of a friend, when it is set before us ; but when it is removed, rather choose to consider him directly than by reflection in an image, which is equally distant and obscure, x-^ The ceremonies of the Roman Catholic religion may be considered as instances of the same nature. The devotees of that superstition usually plead in ex- cuse for the mummeries, with which they were up- braided, that they feel the good effect of those exter- nal motions, and postures, and actions, in enlivening their devotion and quickening their fervour, which otherwise would decay, if directed entirely to distant and immaterial objects. We shadow out the objects of our faith, say they, in sensible types and images, and render them more present to us by the immediate presence of these types, than it is' possible for us to do merely by an intellectual view and contemplation. Sensible objects have always a greater influence on the fancy than any other; and this influence they readily convey to those ideas to which they are related, and which they resemble. I shall only infer from these practices, and this reasoning, that the effect of resem- blance in enlivening the ideas is very common ; and as in every case a resemblance and a present impres- sion must concur, we are abundantly supplied with experiments to prove the realit}^ of the foregoing prin- ciple. HUMAN- UNDERSTANDING. 53 We may add force to these experiments by others of a different kind, in considering the effects of contig- uity as well as of resemblance. It is certain that dis- tance diminishes the force of every idea, and that, upon our approach to any object ; though it does not discover itself to our senses ; it operates upon the mind with an influence, which imitates an immediate im- pression. The thinking on any object readily trans- ports the mind to what is contiguous ; but it is only the actual presence of an object, that transports it with a superior vivacity. When I am a few miles from i home, whatever relates to it touches me more nearly than when I am two hundred leagues distant ; though even at that distance the reflecting on any thing in the neighbourhood of my friends or family naturally pro- duces an idea of them. But as in this latter case, both the objects of the mind are ideas; notwithstanding there is an easy transition between them ; that transi- tion alone is not able to give a superior vivacity to any of the ideas, for want of some immediate impression.^ No one can doubt but causation has the same in- fluence as the other two relations of resemblance and contiguity. Superstitious people are fond of the rel- iques of saints and holy men, for the same reason, that they seek after types or images, in order to enliven 1 ' Naturane nobis, inquit, datum dicam, an errore quodam, ut, cum ea loca videamus, in quibus memoria dignos viros acceperimus multum esse versatos, magis moveamur, quam siquando eorum ipsorum aut facta audiamus aut scriptum aliquod legamus ? Velut ego nunc moveor. Venit enim mihi Plato in mentem, quem accepimus primum hie disputare solitum: cuius etiam illi hortuH propinqui non memoriam solum mihi afferunt, sed ipsum videntur in conspectu meo hie ponere. Hie Speusippus, hie Xenocrates, hie eius auditor Polemo ; cuius ipsa ilia sessio fuit, quam videmus. Equidem etiam curiam nostram, Hostiliam dico, non hane novam, quae mihi minor esse videtur postquam est maior, solebam intuens, Scipionem, Catonem, Laeliuml nostrum vero in primis avum cogitare. Tanta vis admonitionis est in locis; ut non sine causa ex his memoriae deducta sit disciplina.' Cicero de Finibus. Lib. v. 54 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING their devotion, and give them a more intimate and strong conception of those exemplary lives, which they desire to imitate. Now it is evident, that one of the best reliques, which a devotee could procure, would be the handywork of a saint ; and if his cloaths and furniture are ever to be considered in this light, it is because they were once at his disposal, and were moved and affected by him ; in which respect they are to be considered as imperfect effects, and as connected with him by a shorter chain of consequences than any of those, by which we learn the reality of his existence. Suppose, that the son of a friend, who had been long dead or absent, were presented to us; it is evi- dent, that this object would instantly revive its corre- lative idea, and recall to our thoughts all past intima- cies and familiarities, in more lively colours than they would otherwise have appeared to us. This is another phaenomenon, which seems to prove the principle above mentioned. We may observe, that, in these phaenomena, the belief of the correlative object is always presupposed; without which the relation could have no effect. The influence of the picture suppose^ that we believe our friend to have once existed. CofJf^ity to home can never excite our ideas of home, unless we believe that it really exists. Now I assert, that this belief, where it reaches beyond the memory or senses, is of a simi- lar nature, and arises from similar causes, with the transition of thought and vivacity of conception here explained. When I throw a piece of dry wood into a fire, my mind is immediately carried to conceive, that it augments, not extinguishes the flame. This transi- tion of thought from the cause to the effect proceeds not from reason. It derives its origin altogether from HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 55 custom and experience. And as it first begins from an object, present to the senses, it renders the idea or con- ception of flame more strong and lively than any loose, floating reverie of the imagination. That idea arises immediately. The thought moves instantly towards it, and conveys to it all that force of conception, which is derived from the impression present to the senses. When a sword is levelled at my breast, does not the idea of wound and pain strike me more strongly, than when a glass of wine is presented to me, even though by accident this idea should occur after the appearance of the latter object ? But what is there in this whole matter to cause such a strong conception, except only a present object and a customary transition to the idea of another object, which we have been accustomed to conjoin with the former ? This is the whole operation of the mind, in all our conclusions concerning matter of fact and existence ; and it is a satisfaction to find some analogies, by which it may be explained. The"~~j transition from a present object does in all cases give \ strength and solidity to the related idea. Here, then, is a kind of pre-established harmony *^ between the course of nature and the succession of our i^easy and though the powers and forces, by which the former is governed, be wholly unknown to us ; yet our thoughts and conceptions have still, we find, gone on in the same train with the other works of nature. Custom is that principle, by which this correspondence has been effected \ so'necessary to the subsistence of our species, and the regulation of our conduct, in every circumstance and occurrence of human life. Had not the presence of an object, instantly excited the idea of those objects, commonly conjoined with it, all our knowledge must have been limited to the narrow sphere a 56 AAT ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING of our memory and senses ; and we should never have been able to adjust means to ends, or employ our nat- ural powers, either to the producing of good, or avoid- ing of evil. Those, who delight in the discovery and contemplation oi final causes, have here ample subject to employ their wonder and admiration. I shall add, for a further confirmation of the fore- going theory, that, as this operation of the mind, by which we infer like effects from like causes, and vice versa, is so essential to the subsistence of all human creatures, it is not probable, that it could be trusted to the fallacious deductions of our reason, which is slow in its operations; appears not, in any degree, during the first years of infancy; and at best is, in every age and period of human life, extremely liable to error and mistake. It is more conformable to the ordinary wis- dom of nature to secure so necessary an act of the mind, by some instinct or mechanical tendency, which may be infallible in its operations, may discover itself at the first appearance of life and thought, and may be independent of all the laboured deductions of the understanding. As nature has taught us the use of our limbs, without giving us the knowledge of the muscles and nerves, by which they are actuated ; so has she implanted in us an instinct, which carries for- ward the thought in a correspondent course to that which she has established among external objects; though we are ignorant of those powers and forces, on which this regular course and succession of objects V totally depends. 4% '■ ^ SECTION VI. OF PROBABILITY. 1 j THOUGH there be no siich thing as Chance in the world; our ignorance of the real cause of any event has the same influence on the understanding, and begets a like species of belief or opinion. There is certainly a probability, which arises from a superiority of chances on any side ; and according as this superiority encreases, and surpasses the oppo- site chances, the probability receives a proportionable encrease, and begets still a higher degree of belief or assent to that side, in which we discover the superior- ity. If a dye were marked with one figure or number of spots on four sides, and with another figure or num- ber of spots on the two remaining sides, it would be more probable, that the former would turn up than the latter ; though, if it had a thousand sides marked in the same manner, and only one side different, the probability would be much higher, and our belief or expectation of the event more steady and secure. This process of the thought or reasoning may seem trivial and obvious ; but to those who consider it more nar- 1 Mr. Locke divides all arguments into demonstrative and probable. In this view, we must say, that it is only probable all men must die, or that the sun will rise to-morrow. But to conform our language more to common use, we ought to divide arguments into demonstrations, proofs, and probabilities. By proofs meaning such arguments from experience as leave no room for doubt or opposition. 58 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING rowly, it may, perhaps, afford matter for curious spec- ulation. It seems evident, that, when the mind looks for- ward to discover the event, which may result from the throw of such a dye, it considers the turning up of each particular side as alike probable ; and this is the very nature of chance, to render all the particular events, comprehended in it, entirely equal. But find- ing a greater number of sides concur in the one event than in the other, the mind is carried more frequently to that event, and meets it oftener, in revolving the various possibilities or chances, on which the ultimate result depends. This concurrence of several views in one particular event begets immediately, by an irtex- plicable contrivance of nature, the sentiment of belief, and gives that event the advantage over its antagonist, which is supported by a smaller number of views, and recurs less frequently to the mind. If we allow, that belief is nothing but a firmer and stronger conception of an object than what attends the mere fictions of the imagination, this operation may, perhaps, in some measure, be accounted for. The concurrence of these several views or glimpses imprints the idea more strongly on the imagination; gives it superior force and vigour ; renders its influence on the passions and affections more sensible ; and in a word, begets that reliance or security, which constitutes the nature of belief and opinion. The case is the same with the p robability of causes , as with that of chance. There are some causes, which are entirely uniform and constant in producing a par- ticular effect ; and no instance has ever yet been found of any failure or irregularity in their operation. Fire has always burned, and water suffocated every human HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 59 creature : The production of motion by impulse and gravity is an universal law, which has hitherto admit- ted of no exception. But there are other causes which have been found more irregular and uncertain; nor has rhubarb always proved a purge, or opium a soporific to every one, who has taken these medicines. It is true, when any cause fails of producing its usual effect, philosophers ascribe not this to any irregularity 'n nature; but suppose, that some secret causes, in the particular structure of parts, have prevented the op- eration. Our reasonings, however, and conclusions concerning the event are the same as if this principle had no place. Being determined by custom to transfer the past to the future, in all our inferences ; where the past has been entirely regular and uniform, we ex- pect the event with the greatest assurance, and leave no room for any contrary supposition. But where different effects have been found to follow from causes, which are to appearance exactly similar, all these various effects must occur to the mind in trans- ferring the past to the future, and enter into our con- sideration, when we determine the probability of the event. Though we give the preference to that which/ has been found most usual, and believe that this effect/ will exist, we must not overlook the other effects, but must assign to each of them a particular weight and authority, in proportion as we have found it to be more or less frequent. It is more probable, in almost everj country of Europe, that there will be frost sometime in January, than that the weather will continue oper throughout the whole month ; though this probability varies according to the different climates, and ap- proaches to a certainty in the more northern kingdoms. Here then it seems evident, that, when we transfer the ) 6o AI^ ENQUIRY CONCERNING I past to the future, in order to determine the effect, I which will result from any cause, we transfer all the \ different events, in the same proportion as they have vappeared in the past, and conceive one to have existed a hundred times, for instance, another ten times, and another once. As a great number of views do here 1 concur in one event, they fortify and confirm it to the limagination, beget that sentiment which we call beliefs and give its object the preference above the contrary f event, which is not supported by an equal number of experiments, and recurs not so frequently to the thought in transferring the past to the future. Let any one try to account for this operation of the mind upon any of the received systems of philosophy, and he will be sensible of the difficulty. For my part, I shall think it sufficient, if the present hints excite the curiosity of philosophers, and make them sensible how defective all common theories are in treating of such curious and such sublime subjects. SECTION VII, OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNEXION. Part I. THE great advantage of the mathematical sciences above the moral consists in this, that the ideas of the former, being sensible, are always clear and deter- minate, the smallest distinction between them is im- '^ mediately perceptible, and the same terms are still N^v^ expressive of the same ideas, without ambiguity oru^ ^ variation. An oval is never mistaken for a circle, nor ^^ an hyperbola for an ellipsis. The isosceles and scale-^N^"- * num are distinguished by boundaries more exact than r ^*^^i vice and virtue, right and wrong. If any term be de- -ir y fined in geometry, the mind readily, of itself, substi- v /^ tutes, on all occasions, the definition for the term de- fined : Or even when no definition is employed, the object itself may be presented to the senses, and by that means be steadily and clearly apprehended. But the finer sentiments of the mind, the operations of the understanding, the various agitations of the passions, though really in themselves distinct, easily escape us, when surveyed by reflection ; nor is it in our power to recall the original object, as often as we have occasion to contemplate it. Ambiguity, by this means, is grad- ually introduced into our reasonings : Similar objects are readily taken to be the same : And the conclusion becomes at last very wide of the premises. 62 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING One may safely, however, affirm, that, if we con- sider these sciences in a proper light, their advantages and disadvantages nearly compensate each other, and reduce both of them to a state of equality. If the mind, with greater facility, retains the ideas of geom- etry clear and determinate, it must carry on a much longer and more intricate chain of reasoning, and compare ideas much wider of each other, in order to reach the abstruser truths of that science. And if moral ideas are apt, without extreme care, to fall into obscurity and confusion, the inferences are always much shorter in these disquisitions, and the interme- diate steps, which lead to the conclusion, much fewer than in the sciences which treat of quantity and num- ber. In reality, there is scarcely a proposition in Euclid so simple, as not to consist of more parts, than are to be found in any moral reasoning which runs not into chimera and conceit.. Where we trace the prin- ciples of the human mind through a few steps, we may be very well satisfied with our progress ; considering how soon nature throws a bar to all our enquiries con- cerning causes, and reduces us to an acknowledgment pi' of our ignorance. l^The chief obstacle, therefore, to \ our improvement in the moral or metaphysical sci- jl ences is the obscurity of the ideas, and ambiguity of >"l!j the terms^The principal difficulty in the mathematics ' I is the length of inferences and compass of thought, requisite to the forming of any conclusion. And, per- haps, our progress in natural philosophy is chiefly re- tarded by the want of proper experiments and phae- nomena, which are often discovered by chance, and cannot always be found, when requisite, even by the most diligent and prudent enquiry. As moral philos- ophy seems hitherto to have received less improve- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. O3 ment than either geometry or physics, we may con- clude, that, if there be any difference in this respect among these sciences, the difficulties, which obstruct the progress of the former, require superior care and capacity to be surmounted. There are no ideas, which occur in metaphysics,] more obscure and uncertain, than those oi power, force, \ energy or necessary connexion, of which it is every mom-! ent necessary for us to treat in all our disquisitions. We shall, therefore, endeavour, in this section, to fix, if possible, the precise meaning of these terms, and thereby remove some part of that obscurity, which is so much complained of in this species of philosophy. It seems a proposition, which will not admit of much dispute, that all our ideas are nothing but copies of our impressions, or, in other words, that it is impos- sible for us to think of any thing, which we have not ante- cedently/^//, either by our external or internal senses. I have endeavoured 1 to explain and prove this propo- sition, and have expressed my hopes, that, by a proper application of it, men may reach a greater clearness and precision in philosophical reasonings, than what they have hitherto been able to attain. Complex ici^as may, perhaps, be well known by definition, which is nothing but an enumeration of those parts or simple ideasTthat compose them. But when we have pushed up definitions to the most simple ideas, and find still some ambiguity and obscurity ; what resource are we then possessed of ? By what invention can we throw light upon these ideas, and render them altogether precise and determinate to our intellectual view ? /Produce the impressions or original sentiments, from ' which the ideas are copied. These impressions are al 1 1 Section II. ' 64 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING Strong and sensible. They admit not of ambiguity. They are not only placed in a full light themselves, but may throw light on their correspondent ideas, which lie in obscurity. And by this means, we may, perhaps, attain a new microscope or species of optics, by which, in the moral sciences, the most minute, and most simple ideas may be so enlarged as to fall readily I under our apprehension, and be equally known with ! the grossest and most sensible ideas, that can be the 1 object of our enquiry. To be fully acquainted, therefore, with the idea of power pxJie^^essary connexion, let us examine its im- pressionj and in order to find the irnpTessioh wltH' greater certainty, let us search for it in all the sources, from which it may possibly be derived. r When we look about us towards external objects, and consider the operation of causes, we are never able, in a single instance, to discover any power or necessary connexion ; any quality, which binds the effect to the cause, and renders the one an infallible consequence of the other. We only find, that the one does actually, in fact, follow the other. The impulse of one billiard-ball is attended with motion in the sec- ond. This is the whole that appears to the outward senses. The mind feels no sentiment or inward im- pression from this succession of objects : Consequently there is not, in any single, particular instance of cause and effect, any thing which can suggest the idea of power or necessary connexion. From the first appearance of an object, we never can conjecture what effect will result from it. But were the power or energy of any cause discoverable by the mind, we could foresee the effect, even without experience ; and might, at first, pronounce with cer- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 65 talnty concerning it, by mere dint of thought and rea- soning. In reality, there is no part of matter, that does ever, by its sensible qualities, discover any power or energy, or give us ground to imagine, that it could produce any thing, or be followed by any other object, which we could denominate its effect. Solidity, exten-^ sion, motion ; these qualities are all complete in them- selves, and never poipt out any other event which may result from them. \The scenes of the universe are con- tinually shifting, and one object follows another in an uninterrupted succession; but /the power of force, m which actuates the whole machine, is entirely con- cealed from us, and never discovers itself in any of the sensible qualities of bo^yj We know, that, in fact, heat is a constant attendant of flame ; but what is the connexion between them, we have no room so much as to conjecture or imagine. It is impossible, there- fore, that the idea of power can be derived from the contemplation of bodies, in single instances of their operation ; because no bodies ever discover any power, which can be the original of this idea.^ Since, therefore, external objects as they appear to the senses, give us no idea of power or necessary con- nexion, by their operation in particular instances, let us see, whether this idea be derived from reflexion on the operations of our own minds, and be copied from any internal impression. It may be said, that we are every moment conscious of internal power; while we 1 Mr. Locke, in his chapter of power, says, that, finding from experience, \ that there are several new productions in matter, and concluding that there ' must somewhere be a power capable of producing them, we arrive at last by this reasoning at the idea of power. But no reasoning can ever give us a new» original, simple idea; as this philosopher himself confesses. This, therefore, 1 can never be the origin of that idea. 66 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING *eel, that, by the simple command of our will, we can move the organs of our body, or direct the faculties of our mind. An act of volition produces motion in our limbs, or raises a new idea in our imagination. This influence of the will we know by consciousness. Hence we acquire the idea of power or energy ; and are cer- tain, that we ourselves and all other intelligent beings are possessed of power. This idea, then, is an idea of reflection, since it arises from reflecting on the op- erations of our own mind, and on the command which is exercised by will, both over the organs of the body and faculties of the soul. We shall proceed to examine this pretension ; and first with regard to the influence of volition over the organs of the body. This influence, we may observe, is a fact, which, like all other natural events, can be known only by experience, and can never be foreseen from any apparent energy or power in the cause, which connects it with the effect, and renders the one an in- fallible consequence of the other. The motion of our body follows upon the command of our will. Of this we are every moment conscious. But the means, by which this is effected ; the energy, by which the will performs so extraordinary an operation ; of this we are so far from being immediately conscious, that it must for ever escape our most diligent enquiry. j Yoxjirsi'y is there jjiy principle in all nature more lHjisterionajthanjhe union of soul with body; by which a supposed spiritual substance acquires such an influ- ence over a material one, that the most refined thought is able to actuate the grossest matter ? Were we em- powered, by a secret wish, to remove mountains, or control the planets in their orbit j this extensive au- thority would not be more extraordinary, nor more HUMAN- UNDERSTANDING. 67 beyond our comprehension. But if by consciousness we perceived any power or energy in the will, we must know this power; we must know its connexion with the effect ; we must know the secret union of soul and body, and the nature of both these substances; by which the one is able to operate, in so many instances, upon the other. ^^^^;?^/y^ Wejire^not able to move all the organs of the body with a like authority ; though we cannot as- sign any reason besides experience, for so remarkable a difference between one and the other. Why has the will an influence over the tongue and fingers, not over the heart and liver ? This question would never em- barrass us, were we conscious of a power in the former case, not in the latter. We should then perceive, in- dependent of experience, why the authority of will over the organs of the body is circumscribed within such particular limits. Being in that case fully ac- quainted with the power or force, by which it operates, we should also know, why its influence reaches pre- cisely to such boundaries, and no farther. Ajnan, suddenly struck with palsy in the leg or arm, or who had newly lost those members, frequently endeavours, at first to move them, and employ them in t heir u sual offices. Here he is as much conscious of power to command such limbs, as a man in perfect health is conscious of power to actuate any member which remains in its natural state and condition. But consciousness never deceives. Consequently, neither in the one case ^or in the other, are we ever conscious of any power, f ^ye learn the influence of our will from experience alone. And experience only, teaches us, how one event constantly follows another; without 68 AN- ENQUIRY CONCERNING instructing us in the secret connexion, which binds them together, and renders them inseparable. Thirdly, We learn from anatomy, that the immedi- ate object of power in voluntary motion, is not the member itself which is moved, but certain muscles, and nerves, and animal spirits, and, perhaps, some- thing still more minute and more unknown, through which the motion is successfully propagated, ere it reach the member itself whose motion is the immediate object of volition. Can there be a more certain proof that the power, by which this whole operation is per- formed, so far froni being directly and fully known by an inward sentiment or consciousness, is, to the last degree, mysterious and unintelligible ? Here the mind wills a certain event : Immediately another event, un- known to ourselves, and totally different from the one intended, is produced ; This event produces another, equally unknown : Till at last, through a long succes- sion, the desired event is produced. But if the original power were felt, it must be known : Were it known, its effect also must be known ; since all power is rela- tive to its effect. And vice versa, if the effect, be not known, the power cannot be known nor felt. How in- deed can we be conscious of a power to move our limbs, when we have no such power \ but only that to move certain animal spirits, which, though they produce at last the motion of our limbs, yet operate in such a manner as is wholly beyond our comprehension ? We may, therefore, conclude from the whole, I hope, without any temerity, though with assurance; that our idea of power is not copied from any senti- ment or consciousness of power within ourselves, when we give rise to animal motion, or apply our limbs, to 1 their proper use and office. That their motion follows HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 69 the command of the will is a matter of common expe- rience, like other natural events : But the power or energy by which this is effected, like that in other natural events, is unknown and inconceivable.^ Shall we then assert, that we are conscious of a power or energy in our own minds, when, by an act or command of our will, we raise up a new idea, fix the mind to the contemplation of it, turn it on all sides, and at last dismiss it for some other idea, when we think that we have surveyed it with sufficient accuracy? I believe the same arguments will prove, that even this command of the will gives us no real idea of force or energy. Firsts It must be allowed, that, when we know a \ power, we know that very circumstance in the cause, j by which it is enabled to produce the effect : For thesej are supposed to be synonimous. We must, therefore, know both the cause and effect, and the relation be- tween them. But do we pretend to be acquainted with the nature of the human soul and the nature of an idea, or the aptitude of the one to produce the other? This is a real creation ; a production of something out of nothing : Which implies a power so great, that it may 1 It may be pretended, that the resistance which we meet with in bodies, obliging us frequently to exert our force, and call up all our power, this gives us the idea of force and power. It is this nisus, or strong endeavour, of which we are conscious, that is the original impression from which this idea is cop- ied. But, first, we attribute power to a vast number of objects, where we never can suppose this resistance or exertion of force to take place ; to the Supreme Being, who never meets with any resistance ; to the mind in its command over its ideas and limbs, in common thinking and motion, where the effect follows immediately upon the will, without any exertion or summoning up of force ; to inanimate matter, which is not capable of this sentiment. Secondly, This sentiment of an endeavour to overcome resistance has no known con- nexion with any event : What follows it, we know by experience; but could not know it h priori. It must, however, be confessed, that the animal nisus^ which we experience, though it can aflford no accurate precise idea of power, enters very much into that vulgar, inaccurate idea, which is formed of ito 70 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING seem, at first sight, beyond the reach of any being, less than infinite. At least it must be owned, that such a power is not felt, nor known, nor even conceiv- able by the mind. We only feel the event, namely, the existence of an idea, consequent to a command of the will : But the manner, in which this operation is performed, the power by which it is produced, is en- tirely beyond our comprehension. T Secondly^ The command of the mind over itself is limited, as well as its command over the body ; and these limits are not known by reason, or any acquain- tance with the nature of cause and effect, but only by experience and observation, as in all other natural events and in the operation of external objects. Our authority over our sentiments and passions is much weaker than that over our ideas ; and even the latter authority is circumscribed within very narrow bound- aries. Will any one pretend to assign the ultimate reason of these boundaries, or show why the power is deficient in one case, not in another. Thirdly y This self-command is very different at dif- ferent times. A man in health possesses more of it than one languishing with sickness. We are more master of our thoughts in the morning than in the ev- ening : Fasting, than after a full meal. Can we give any reason for these variations, except experience ? Where then is the power, of which we pretend to be conscious ? Is there not here, either in a spiritual or material substance, or both, some secret mechanism or structure of parts, upon which the effect depends, and which, being entirely unknown to us, renders the power or energy of the will equally unknown and incomprehensible ? Volition is surely an act of the mind, with which / HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 71 we are sufficiently acquainted. Reflect upon it. Con- sider it on all sides. Do you find anything in it like this creative power, by which it raises from nothing a new idea, and with a kind of Fiat^ imitates the omni- potence of its Maker, if I may be allowed so to speak, who called forth into existence all the various scenes of nature ? So far from being conscious of this energy in the will, it requires as certain experience as that of which we are possessed, to convince us that such ex- traordinary effects do ever result from a simple act of volition. The generality of mankind never find any difficulty in accounting for the more common and familiar oper- ations of nature — such as the descent of heavy bodies, the growth of plants, the generation of animals, or the nourishment of bodies by food : But suppose that, in all these cases, they perceive the very force or energy of the cause, by which it is connected with its effect, and is for ever infallible in its operation. They ac- quire, by long habit, such a turn of mind, that, upon the appearace of the cause, they immediately expect with assurance its usual attendant, and hardly con- ceive it possible that any other event could result from it. It is only on the discovery of extraordinary phae- nomena, such as earthquakes, pestilence, and prodi- gies of any kind, that they find themselves at a loss to assign a proper cause, and to explain the manner in which the effect is produced by it. It is usual for men, in such difficulties, to have recourse to some in- visible intelligent principle^ as the immediate cause of that event which surprises them, and which, they think, cannot be accounted for from the common powers of nature. But philosophers, who carry their scrutiny a 1 0e6$ arrb it.ywixvi\^. 4 72 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING little farther, immediately perceive that, even in the most familiar events, the energy of the cause is as un- intelligible as in the most unusual, and that we only learn by experience the frequent Conjunction of objects, without being ever able to comprehend anything like Connexion between them. Here, then, many philoso- phers think themselves obliged by reason to have re- course, on all occasions, to the same principle, which the vulgar never appeal to but in cases that appear miraculous and supernatural. They acknowledge mind and intelligence to be, not only the ultimate and prig- inal cause of all things, but the immediate and sole cause of every event which appears in nature. They pretend that those objects which are commonly denom- inated causes, are in reality nothing but occasions \ and that the true and direct principle of every effect is not any power or force in nature, but a volition of the Supreme Being, who wills that such particular objects should for ever be conjoined with each other. Instead of saying that one billard-ball moves another by a force which it has derived from the author of nature, it is the Deity himself, they say, who, by a particular voli- tion, moves the second ball, being determined to this operation by the impulse of the first ball, in conse- quence of those general laws which he has laid down to himself in the government of the universe: But philosophers advancing still in their inquiries, discover that, as we are totally ignorant of the power on which depends the mutual operation of bodies, we are no less ignorant of that power on which depends the operation of mind on body, or of body on mind ; nor are we able, either from our senses or consciousness, to assign the ultimate principle in one case more than in the other. The same ignorance, therefore, reduces them HUMAN- UNDERSTANDING 73 to the same conclusion. They assert that the Deity is the immediate cause of the union between soul and body ; and that they are not the organs of sense, which, being agitated by external objects, produce sensations in the mind ; but that it is a particular volition of our omnipotent Maker, which excites such a sensation, in consequence of such a motion in the organ. In like manner, it is not any energy in the will that produces local motion in our members : It is God himself, who is pleased to second our will, in itself impotent, and to command that motion which we erroneously attribute to our own power and efficacy. Nor do philosophers st5p at this conclusion. They sometimes extend the same inference to the mind itself, in its internal opera- tions. Our mental vision or conception of ideas is nothing but a revelation riiade to us by our Maker. When we voluntarily turn our thoughts to any object, and raise up its image in the fancy, it is not the will which creates that idea : It is the universal Creator, who discovers it to the mind, and renders it present to us. Thus, according to these philosophers, every thing is full of God. Not content with the principle, that nothing exists but by his will, that nothing possesses any power but by his concession : They rob nature, and all created beings, of every power, in order to ren- der their dependence on the Deity still more sensible and immediate. They consider not that, by this the- ory, they diminish, instead of magnifying, the gran- deur of those attributes, which they affect so much to celebrate. It argues surely more power in the Deity to delegate a certain degree of power to inferior crea- tures, than to produce every thing by his own immedi- ate volition. It argues more wisdom to contrive at 74 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING first the fabric of the world with such perfect foresight that, of itself, and by its proper operation, it may serve all the purposes of providence, than if the great Crea- tor were obliged every moment to adjust its parts, and animate by his breath all the wheels of that stupen- dous machine. But if we would have a more philosophical confu- tation of this theory, perhaps the two following reflec- tions may suffice. First, it seems to me that this\theory of the univer- sal energy and operation of the Supreme Being is too bold ever to carry conviction with it to a man, suffici- ently apprized of the weakness of human reason, and the narrow limits to which it is confined in all its oper- ations. Though the chain of arguments which con- duct to it were ever so logical, there must arise a strong suspicion, if not an absolute assurance, that it has carried us quite beyond the reach of our faculties, when it leads to conclusions so extraordinary, and so remote from common life and experience. We are got into fairy land, long ere we have reached the last steps of our theory ; and there we have no reason to trust our common methods of argument, or to think that our usual analogies and probabilities have any author- ity. Our line is too short to fathom such immense abysses. And however we may flatter ourselves that we are guided, in every step which we take, by a kind of verisimilitude and experience, we may be assured that thfs fancied experience has no authority when we thus apply it to subjects that lie entirely out of the sphere of experience. But on this we shall have oc- casion to touch afterwards.^ Secondly, I cannot perceive any force in the argu- 1 Section XII. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING 75 ments on which this theory is founded. We are ig* norant, it is true, of the manner in which bodies oper- ate on each other: Their force or energy is entirely incomprehensible : But are we not equally ignorant of the manner or force hy which a mind, even the su, preme mind, operates either on itself or on body ? Whence, I beseech you, do we acquire any idea of it ? We have no sentiment or consciousness of this power in ourselves. We have no idea of the Supreme Being but what we learn from reflection on our own faculties. Were our ignorance, therefore, a good reason for re- jecting any thing, we st 4d be led into that principle of denying all energy in the w upreme Being as much as in the grossest matter. V 'e surely comprehend as little the operations of on- a^^ of the other. Is it more difficult to conceive that mv.tion may arise from im- pulse than that it may .Ise from volition ? All we know is our profound ignorance in both cases. ^ Paf- I. But to hasten to a Cr elusion of this argument, which is already drawn out to too great a length : We have sought in vain for i-'-fiiigr of power or necessary connexion in all the souiccs from which we could sup- 1 1 need not examine at length the vis inertiae which is so much talked of in the new philosophy, and which is ascribed to matter. We find by experi- ence, that a body at rest or in motion continues for ever in its present state, till put from it by some new cause ; and that a body impelled takes as much motion from the impelling body as it acquires itself. These are facts. When we call this a vis inertiae, we only mark these facts, without pretending to have any idea of the inert power; in the same manner as, when we talk of gravity, we mean certain effects, without comprehending that active power. It was never the meaning of Sir Isaac Newton to rob second causes of all force or energy ; though some of his followers have endeavoured to establish that theory upon his authority. On the contrary, that great philosopher had recourse to an etherial active fluid to explain his universal attraction ; though he was so cautious and modest as to allow, that it was a mere hypothesis, not 76 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING pose it to be derived. It appears that, in single in- C \ stances of the operation of bodies, we never can, by ^ > our utmost scrutiny, discover any thing but one event following another, without being able to comprehend ; j any force or power by which the cause operates, or v^ any connexion between it and its supposed effectTi he same difficulty occurs in contemplating the operations of mind on body — where we observe the motion of the latter to follow upon the volition of the former, but are not able to observe or conceive the tie which binds together the motion and volition, or the energy by which the mind produces this effect. The authority of the will over its own faculties and ideas is not a whit more comprehensible : So that, upon the whole, 'there I appears not, throughout all nature, any one instance \ of connexion which is conceivable by us.: All events seem entirely loose and separate. One event follows another; but we never can observe any tie between "^ them. /They seem conjoined, but never connected. J And as we can have no idea of any thing which never ap- peared to our outward sense or inward sentiment, the^__ necessary conclusion seems to be that we have no idea of connexion or power at all, and that these words are absolutely without any meaning, when employed either in philosophical reasonings or common life. But there still remains one method of avoiding this conclusion, and one source which we have not yet examined. When any natural object or event is pre- to be insisted on, without more experiments. I must confess, that there is something in the fate of opinions a little extraordinary. Des Cartes insinu* ated that doctrine of the universal and sole efficacy of the Deity, without in- sisting on it. Malebranche and other Cartesians made it the foundation of all their philosophy. It had, however, no authority in England. Locke, Clarke, and Cudworth, never so much as take notice of it, but suppose all along, that matter has a real, though subordinate and derived power. By what means has it become so prevalent among our modern metaphysicians ? HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 77 sented, it is impossible for us, by any sagacity or pen- etration, to discover, or even conjecture, without ex- perience, what event will result from it, or to carry our foresight beyond that object which is immediately present to the memory and senses. Even after one instance or experiment where we have observed a par- ticular event to follow upon another, we are not entitled to form a general rule, or foretell what will happen in like cases ; it being justly esteemed an un- pardonable temerity to judge of the whole course of na- ture from one single experiment, however accurate or certain. iBut when one particular species of event has -i always, in all instances, been conjoined with another, \ we make no longer any scruple of foretelling one upon I the appearance of the other, and of employing that ! reasoning which can alone assure us of any matter of j fact or existence. We then call the one object, C^z^j^; 1 the other, Effect, We suppose that there is some - \ connexion between them;' some j^jwer in the one, by which it infallibly produces the other, and operates with the greatest certainty and strongest necessity.^ It appears, then, that this idea of a necessary con. nexion among events arises from a number of similar instances which occur of the constant conjunction of these events ; nor can that idea ever be suggested by any one of these instances, surveyed in all possible lights and positions. But there is nothing in a num- ber of instances, different from every single instance, which is supposed to be exactly similar ; except only, that after a repetition of similar instances, the mind is carried by habit, upon the appearance of one event, to expect its usual attendant, and to believe that it will exist. This connexion, therefore, which we / merely animal, and from which we can h priori draw no inference, we are I apt to transfer to inanimate objects, and to suppose, that they have some such feelings, whenever they transfer or receive motion. With regard to energies, which are exerted, without our annexing to them any idea of communicated motion, we consider only the constant experienced conjunction of the events; and as yj&feel a customary connexion between the ideas, we transfer that feeling to the objects; as nothing is more usual than to apply to external bodies every internal sensation, which they occasion. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 8x sion, nor consequently can suggest any idea of power or necessary connexion/^ But when many uniform in- stances appear, and the same object is always followed by the same event; we then begin to entertain the notion of cause and connexion. We then feel a new sentiment or impressson, to wit, a customary connex- ion in the thought or imagination between one object and its usual attendant; and this sentiment is the origin al of that idea which we seek for. For as this idea arises from a number of similar instances, and not from any single instance, it must arise from that cir- cumstance, in which the number of instances differ from every individual instance. But this customary connexion or transition of the imagination is the only circumstance in which they differ. In every other par- ticular they are alike. The first instance which we saw of motion communicated by the shock of two billiard balls (to return to this obvious illustration) is exactly similar to any instance that may, at present, occur to us ; except only, that we could not, at first, infer one event from the other ; which we are enabled to do at present, after so long a course of uniform experience. I know not whether the reader will readily apprehend this reasoning. I am afraid that, should I multiply words about it, or throw it into a greater variety of lights, it would only become more obscure and intri- cate. In all abstract reasonings there is one point of view which, if we can happily hit, we shall go farther towards illustrating the subject than by all the elo- quence in the world. This point of view we should endeavour to reach, and reserve the flowers of rhetoric for subjects which are more adapted to them. \ t^"^' SECTION VIII. OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY, Part I. FT might reasonably be expected in questions which X have been canvassed and disputed with great eager- ness, since the first origin of science and philosophy, that the meaning of all the terms, at least, should have been agreed upon among the disputants; and our enquiries, in the course of two thousand years, been able to pass from words to the true and real sub- ject of the controversy. For how easy may it seem to give exact definitions of the terms employed in rea- soning, and make these definitions, not the mere sound of words, the object of future scrutiny and examina- tion? But if we consider the matter more narrowly, we shall be apt to draw a quite opposite conclusion. From this circumstance alone, that a controversy has been long kept on foot, and remains still undecided, we may presume that there is some ambiguity in the expression, and that the disputants affix different ideas to the terms employed in the controversy. For as the faculties of the mind are supposed to be naturally alike in every individual ; otherwise nothing could be more fruitless than to reason or dispute together; it were impossible, if men affix the same ideas to their terms, that they could so long form different opinions of the same subject ; especially when they communicate their HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 83 views, and each party turn themselves on all sides, in search of arguments which may give them the victory over their antagonists. It is true, if men attempt the discussion of questions which lie entirely beyond the reach of human capacity, such as those concerning the origin of worlds, or the economy of the intellectual system or region of spirits, they may long beat the air in their fruitless contests, and never arrive at any de- terminate conclusion. But if the question regard any subject of common life and experience, nothing, one would think, could preserve the dispute so long unde- cided but some ambiguous expressions, which keep the antagonists still at a distance, and hinder them from grappling with each other. This has been the case in the long disputed ques- tion concerning liberty and necessity ; and to so re- markable a degree that, if I be not much mistaken, we shall find, that all mankind, both learned and ig- norant, have always been of the same opinion with regard to this subject, and that a few intelligible defi- nitions would immediately have put an end to the whole controversy. I own that this dispute has been so much canvassed on all hands, and has led philoso- phers into such a labyrinth of obscure sophistry, that it is no wonder, if a sensible reader indulge his ease so far as to turn a deaf ear to the proposal of such a question, from which he can expect neither instruction nor entertainment. But the state of the argument here proposed may, perhaps, serve to renew his attention ; as it has more novelty, promises at least some decision of the controversy, and will not much disturb his ease by any intricate or obscure reasoning. I hope, therefore, to make it appear that all men have ever agreed in the doctrine both of necessity and »^^ 84 AN" ENQ UIR V CONCERNING ^i liberty, according to any reasonable sense, which / can be put on these terms ; and that/ the whole ^con- troversy has hitherto turned merely upon wordsi \ We shall begin with examining the doctrine of necessity.*) ^ It is universally allowed that matter, in all its op- erations, is actuated by a necessary force, and that every natural effect is so precisely determined by the energy of its cause that no other effect, in such par- ticular circumstances, could possibly have resulted from it.^ The degree and direction of every motion is, by the laws of nature, prescribed with such exactness that a living creature may as soon arise from the shock of two bodies as motion in any other degree or direc- tion than what is actually produced by it.^ Would we, therefore, form a just and precise idea of necessity, we must consider whence that idea arises when we apply it to the operation of bodies. It seems evident that, if all the scenes of nature were continually shifted in such a manner that no two events bore any resemblance to each other, but every object was entirely new, without any similitude to whatever had been seen before, we should never, in that case, have attained the least idea of necessity, or of a connexion among these objects. We might say, upon such a supposition, that one object or event has followed another ; not that one was produced by the other. \The relation of cause and effect must be utterly unknown to mankind. . Inference and reasoning con- , cerning the operations of nature would, from that mo- X.ment, be at an end; and the memory and senses re- ^ main the only canals, by which the knowledge of any '*' real existence could possibly have access to the mind. Our idea, therefore, of necessity and causation arises entirely from the uniformity observable in the opera- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 85 tions of nature, jfwhere siijiilar objects are constantly % conjoined together, and^^he mind is determined by \, custom to infer the one from the appearance of the *^ other. ^ These two circumstances form the whole of that necessity, which we ascribe to matter. • Beyond^ j ** ,fthe constant conjunction of similar objects, and the con- 1 / j sequent inference from one to the other, we have no 3 'notion of any necessity or connexion. .-.^..^-^ ----'::::>«*' Ttf it appear, therefore, that all manlmiB have ever | allowed, without any doubt or hesitation, that these! J2 .,two circumstances take place in the voluntary actionsfY^ / of men, and in the operations of mind ; it must follow,' % 1 that all mankind have ever agreed in the doctrine of / j necessity, and that they have hitherto disputed, merel^ 'for jiot understanding each other. ^.-^--" LAs to the first circumstance, the constant and reg- ular conjunction of similar events, we may possibly satisfy ourselves by the following considerations. It is universally acknowledged that there is a great uni- formity among the actions of men, in all nations and ages, and that human nature remains still the same, in its principles and operations. The same motives always produce the same actions :^ The same events follow from the same causes. Ambition, avarice, self- love, vanity, friendship, generosity, public spirit: these passions, mixed in various degrees, and distrib- uted through society, have been, from the beginning of the world, and still are, the source of all the actions and enterprises, which have ever been observed among mankind. Would you know the sentiments, inclina-\ ti.ons, and course of life of the Greeks and Romans ? ( Study well the temper and actions of the French and English : You cannot be much mistaken in transfer- ring to the former most of the observations which you 86 AlSr ENQ UIR V CONCERNING have made with regard to the latter. Mankind are so much the same, in all times and places, that history informs us of nothing new or strange in this particular. Its chief use is only to discover the constant and uni- versal principles of human nature, by showing men in all varieties of circumstances and situations, and fur- nishing us with materials from which we may form our observations and become acquainted with the regular springs of human action and behaviour. These rec- ords of wars, intrigues, factions, and revolutions, are so many collections of experiments, by which the poli- tician or moral philosopher fixes the principles of his science, in the same manner as the physician or natu- ral philosopher becomes acquainted with the nature of plants, minerals, and other external objects, by the experiments which he forms concerning them. Nor are the earth, water, and other elements, examined by Aristotle, and Hippocrates, more like to those which at present lie under our observation than the men described by Polybius and Tacitus are to those who now govern the world. Should a traveller, returning from a far country, bring us an account of men, wholly different from any with whom we were ever acquainted ; men, who were entirely divested of avarice, ambition, or revenge; who knew no pleasure but friendship, generosity, and public spirit ; we should immediately, from these cir- cumstances, detect the falsehood, and prove him a liar, with the same certainty as if he had stuffed his narration with stories of centaurs and dragons, mira- cles and prodigies. And if we would explode any for- gery in history, we cannot make use of a more convin- cing argument, than to prove, that the actions ascribed to any person are directly contrary to the course of - HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 87 nature, and that no human motives, in such circum- stances, could ever induce him to such a conduct. The veracity of Quintus Curtius is as much to be sus- pected, when he describes the supernatural courage of Alexander, by which he was hurried on singly to attack multitudes, as when he describes his supernat- ural force and activity, by which he was able to resist them. So readily and universally do we acknowledge a uniformity in human motives and actions as well as in the operations of body. Hence likewise the benefit of that experience, ac- quired by long life and a variety of business and com- pany, in order to instruct us in the principles of hu- man nature, and regulate our future conduct, as well as speculation. By means of this guide, we mount up to the knowledge of men's inclinations and motives, from their actions, expressions, and even gestures; and again descend to the interpretation of their actions Jxova our knowledge of their motives and inclinations. I The general observations treasured up by a course of experience, give us the clue of human nature, and teach us to unravel all its intricacies.,/ Pretexts and appearances no longer deceive us. Public declarations pass for the specious colouring of a cause. And though virtue and honour be allowed their proper weight and authority, that perfect disinterestedness, so often pre- tended to, is never expected in multitudes and parties; seldom in their leaders ; and scarcely even in individ- uals of any rank or station. /But were there no uni- formity in human actions, and were every experiment which we could form of this kind irregular and anom- alous, it were impossible to collect any general obser- vations concerning mankind ; and no experience, how- ever accurately digested by reflection, would ever 88 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING serve to any purpose. Why is the aged husbandman more skilful in his calling than the young beginner but because there is a certain uniformity in the opera- tion of the sun, rain, and earth towards the production of vegetables \ and experience teaches the old practi- tioner the rules by which this operation is governed and directed./ We must not, however, expect that this uniformity of human actions should be carried to such a length as that all men, in the same circumstances, will always act precisely in the same manner, without making any allowance for the diversity of characters, prejudices, and opinions. Such a uniformity in every particular, is found in no part of nature. On the contrary, from observing the variety of conduct in different men, we are enabled to form a greater variety of maxims, which still suppose a degree of uniformity and regularity. Are the manners of men different in different ages and countries ? We learn thence the great force of custom and education, which mould the human mind from its infancy and form it into a fixed and established character. Is the behaviour and conduct of the one sex very unlike that of the other ? Is it thence we be- come acquainted with the different characters which nature has impressed upon the sexes, and which she preserves with constancy and regularity? Are the ac- tions of the same person much diversified in the dif- ferent periods of his life, from infancy to old age? This affords room for many general observations con- cerning the gradual change of our sentiments and in- clinations, and the different maxims which prevail in the different ages of human creatures. Even the char- acters, which are peculiar to each individual, have a uniformity in their influence ; otherwise our acquain- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 89 tance with the persons and our observation of their conduct could never teach us their dispositions, or serve to direct our behaviour with regard to them. I grant it possible to find some actions, which seem to have no regular connexion with any known motives, and are exceptions to all the measures of conduct which have ever been established for the government of men. But if we would willingly know what judge- ment should be formed of such irregular and extraor- dinary actions, we may consider the sentiments com- monly entertained with regard to those irregular events which appear in the course of nature, and the operations of external objects. All causes are not con- joined to their usual effects with like uniformity. An artificer, who handles only dead matter, may be dis- appointed of his aim, as well as the politician, who directs the conduct of sensible and intelligent agents. The vulgar, who take things according to their first appearance, attribute the uncertainty of events to such an uncertainty in the causes as makes the latter often fail of their usual influence ; though they meet with no impediment in their operation. But philosophers, observing that, almost in every part of nature, there is contained a vast variety of springs and principles, which are hid, by reason of their minuteness or re- moteness; find, that it is at least possible the contra- riety of events may not proceed from any contingency in the cause, but from the secret operation of contrary causes. This possibility is converted into certainty by farther observation, when they remark that, upon an exact scrutiny, a contrariety of effects always be- trays a contrariety of causes, and proceeds from their mutual opposition. A peasant can give no better rea- son for the stopping of any clock or watch than to 90 AN ENQUIEY CONCERNING say that it does not commonly go right : But an artist easily perceives that the same force in the spring or pendulum has always the same influence on the wheels; but fails of its usual effect, perhaps by reason of a grain of dust, which puts a stop to the whole move- ment. j|/ From the observation of several parallel in- stances, philosophers form a maxim that the connexion between all causes and effects is equally necessary, i and that its seeming uncertainty in some instances i proceeds from the secret opposition of contrary causes Thus, for instance, in the human body, when'tlie usual symptoms of health or sickness disappoint our expectation ; when medicines operate not with their wonted powers; when irregular events follow from any particular cause ; the philosopher and physician are not surprised at the matter, nor are ever tempted to deny, in general, the necessity and uniformity of those principles by which the animal economy is conducted. They know that a human body is a mighty compli- cated machine : That many secret powers lurk in it, which are altogether beyond our comprehension : That to us it must often appear very uncertain in its opera- tions : And that therefore the irregular events, which outwardly discover themselves, can be no proof that the laws of nature are not observed with the greatest regularity in its internal operations and government. The philosopher, if he be consistent, must apply the same reasoning to the actions and volitions of in- telligent agents. The most irregular and unexpected resolutions of men may frequently be accounted for by those who know every particular circumstance of their character and situation. A person of an obliging dis- position gives a peevish answer : But he has the tooth- ache, or has not dined. A stupid fellow discovers an HUMAN- UNDERSTANDING. 91 uncommon alacrity in his carriage : But he has met with a sudden piece of good fortune. Or even when an action, as sometimes happens, cannot be particu- larly accounted for, either by the person himself or by others ; we know, in general, that the characters of men are, to a certain degree, inconstant and irregular. This is, in a manner, the constant character of human nature; though it be applicable, in a more particular manner, to some persons who have no fixed rule for their conduct, but proceed in a continued course of caprice and inconstancy. The internal principles and motives may operate in a uniform manner, notwith- standing these seeming irregularities ; in the same manner as the winds, rain, clouds, and other varia- tions of the weather are supposed to be governed by steady principles ; though not easily discoverable by human sagacity and enquiry. j[iThus it appears, not only that the conjunction be- tween jTiaJtiY.es,and voluntary .actioiiLg^is as regular and uniform as that between the cause and effect in any part of nature ; but also that this regular conjunction has been universally acknowledged among mankind, and has never been the subject of dispute, either in philosophy or common life."/ Now, as it is from past experience that we draw all inferences concerning the future, and as we conclude that objects will always be conjoined together which we find to have always been conjoined ; it may seem superfluous to prove that this experienced uniformity in human actions is a source whence we draw inferences concerning them.7 But in order to throw the argument into a greater variety of lights we shall also insist, though briefly, on this latter topic. The mutual dependence of men is so great in all 92 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING societies that scarce any human action is entirely com- plete in itself, or is performed without some reference to the actions of others, which are requisite to make it answer fully the intention of the agent. The poor- est artificer, who labours alone, expects at least the protection of the magistrate, to ensure him the enjoy- ment of the fruits of his labour. He also expects that, when he carries his goods to market, and offers them at a reasonable price, he shall find purchasers, and shall be able, by the money he acquires, to engage others to supply him with those commodities which are requisite for his subsistence. In proportion as men extend their dealings, and render their intercourse with others more complicated, they always compre- hend, in their schemes of life, a greater variety of vol- untary actions, which they expect, from the proper motives, to co-operate with their own. In all these conclusions they take their measures from past expe- rience, in the same manner as in their reasonings con- cerning external objects ; and firmly believe that men, as well as all the elements, are to continue, in their operations, the same that they have ever found them. A manufacturer reckons upon the labour of his ser- vants for the execution of any work as much as upon the tools which he employs, and would be equally surprised were his expectations disappointed. In short, this experimental inference and reasoning con- cerning the actions of others enters so much into human life, that no man, while awake, is ever a mo- ment without employing it. Have we not reason, therefore, to affirm that all mankind have always agreed in the doctrine of necessity according to the foregoing definition and explication of it ? Nor have philosophers ever entertained a different r HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 93 Opinion from the people in this particular. For, not to mention that almost every action of their life sup- poses that opinion, there are even few of the specula- tive parts of learning to which it is not essential. What would become of history^ had we not a dependence on the veracity of the historian according to the experi- ence which we have had of mankind ? How could politics be a science, if laws and forms of government had not a uniform influence upon society? Where would be the foundation of moralsy if particular char- acters had no certain or determinate power to produce particular sentiments, and if these sentiments had no constant operation on actions ? And with what pre- tence could we employ our criticism upon any poet or polite author, if we could not pronounce the conduct and sentiments of his actors either natural or unnatu- ral to such characters, and in such circumstances ? _ it seems almost impossible, therefore, to engage eithet" ^^ \ in science or action of any kind without acknowledg- f/1 ing the doctrine of necessity, and this inference from /// motive to voluntary actions, from characters to con- /j/ du^tr --"^ . And indeed, when we consider how aptly naturat \ and mora/ evidence link together, and form only one ,. chain of argument, we shall make no scruple to allow that they are of the same nature, and derived from the saime principles. A prisoner who has neither money nor interest, discovers the impossibility of his escape, as well when he considers the obstinacy of the goaler, as the walls and bars with which he is surrounded ; and, in all attempts for his freedom, chooses rather to work upon the stone and iron of the one, than upon the inflexible nature of the other. The same prisoner, when conducted to the scaffold, foresees his death as 94 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING certainly from the constancy and fidelity of his guards, as from the operation of the axe or wheel. His mind runs along a certain train of ideas ; The refusal of the soldiers to consent to his escape ; the action of the executioner ; the separation of the head and body ; bleeding, convulsive motions, and death. Here is a connected chain of natural causes and voluntary ac- tions ; but the mind feels no difference between them in passing from one link to another : Nor is less cer- tain of the future event than if it were connected with the objects present to the memory or senses, by a train of causes, cemented together by what we are pleased to call a physical necessity. The same experienced union has the same effect on the mind, whether the united objects be motives, volition, and actions ; or figure and motion. We may change the name of things ; but their nature and their operation on the understanding never change. Were a man, whom I know to be honest and opu- lent, and with whom I live in intimate friendship, to come into my house, where I am surrounded with my servants, I rest assured that he is not to stab me be- fore he leaves it in order to rob me of my silver stand- ish ; and I no more suspect this event than the fall- ing of the house itself, which is new, and solidly built and founded. — But he may have been seized with a sud- den and unknown frenzy. — So may a sudden earthquake arise, and shake and tumble my house about my ears- I shall therefore change the suppositions. I shall say that I know with certainty that he is not to put his hand into the fire and hold it there till it be consumed : And this event, I think I can foretell with the same assurance, as that, if he throw himself out at the win- dow, and meet with no obstruction, he will not remain HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 95 a moment suspended in the air. No suspicion of an unknown frenzy can give the least possibility to the former event, which is so contrary to all the known principles of human nature. A man who at noon leaves his purse full of gold on the pavement at Char- ing-Cross, may as well expect that it will fly away like a feather, as that he will find it untouched an hour after. /Above one half of human reasonings contain inferences of a similar nature, attend ed w ith more or less degrees of certainty proportioned to our experP" ence of the usual conduct of mankind in such partic- ular situations.! ""^ I have fre5«ently considered, what could possibly be the reason why all mankind, though they have ever, without hesitation, acknowledged the doctrine of necessity in their whole practice and reasoning, have yet not discovered such a reluctance to acknowl- edge it in words, and have rather shown a propensity, in all ages, to profess the contrary opinion. The mat- ter, I think, may be accounted for after the following manner. If we examine the operations of body, and the production of effects from their causes, we shall find that all our faculties can never carry us farther in our knowledge of this relation than barely to observe that particular objects are constantly conjoined together, and that the mind is carried, by a customary transition^ from the appearance of one to the belief of the other. But though this conclusion concerning human ignor- ance be the result of the strictest scrutiny of this sub- ject, men still entertain a strong propensity to believe that they penetrate farther into the powers of nature, and perceive something like a necessary connexion between the cause and the effect. When again they turn their reflections towards the operations of their 96 AN ENQUIR Y CONCERNING own minds, and pd no such connexion of the motive ll and the action;; they are thence apt to suppose, that I- there is a difference between the effects which result ; from material force, and those which arise from If thought and intelligence. iBut being once convinced / that we know nothing farther of causation of any kind / than merely the constant conjunction of objects, and the I consequent inference of the mind from one to another, and finding that these two circumstances are univer- sally allowed to have place in voluntary actions ; we may be more easily 1^ to own the same necessity common to all causes^ And though this reasoning may contradict the systems of many philosophers, in ascribing necessity to the determinations of the will, we shall find, upon reflection, that they dissent from it in words only, not in their real sentiment. Neces- sity, according to the sense in which it is here taken, has never yet been rejected, nor can ever, I think, be rejected by any philosopher. It may only, perhaps, be pretended that the mind can perceive, in the opera- tions of matter, some farther connexion between the cause and effect ; and connexion that has not place in voluntary actions of intelligent beings. Now whether it be so or not, can only appear upon examination ; ,^nd it is incumbent on these philosophers to make good their assertion, by defining or describing that necessity, and pointing it out to us in the operations of material causes. It would seem^indeed, that men begin at the wrong end of this question concerning liberty and necessity, when they enter upon it by examining the faculties of the soul, the influence of the understanding, and the operations of the will. iXet them first discuss a more simple question, namely, the operations of body and HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 97 of brute unintelligent matter ; and try whether theyj can there form any idea of causation and necessity, except that of a constant conjunction of objects, and subsequent inference of the mind from one to another. If these circumstances form, in reality, the whole of that necessity, which we conceive in matter, and if these circumstances be also universally acknowledged to take place in the operations of the mind, the dis- pute is at an end ; at least, must be owned to be thenceforth merely verbal. But as long as we will rashly suppose, that we have some farther idea of necessity and causation in the operations of external objects ; at the same time, that we can find nothing farther in the voluntary actions of the mind ; there is no possibility of bringing the question to any deter- minate issue, while we proceed upon so erroneous a supposition. The only method of undeceiving us is to mount up higher ; to examine the narrow extent of science when applied to material causes ; and to con- vince ourselves that all we know of them is the con- stant conjunction and inference above mentioned. We may, perhaps, find that it is with difficulty we are in- duced to fix such narrow limits to human understand- ing : But we can afterwards find no difficulty when we come to apply this doctrine to the actions of the will. For as it is evident that these have a regular conjunction with motives and circumstances and char- acters, and as we always draw inferences from one to, the other, we must be obliged to acknowledge in words that necessity, which we have already avowed, in every deliberation of our lives, and in every step of our conduct and behaviour.^ 1 The prevalence of the doctrine of liberty may be accounted for, from another cause, viz. a false sensation or seeming experience which we have, 98 AN ENQUIRY CONCERmNG But to proceed in this reconciling project with re- gard to the question of liberty and necessity ; the most contentious question of metaphysics, the most con- tentious science ; it will not require many words to prove, that all mankind have ever agreed in the doc- trine of liberty as well as in that of necessity, and that the whole dispute, in this respect also, has been hith- erto merely verbal. For what is meant by liberty, when applied to voluntary actions ? We cannot surely mean that actions have so little connexion with mo- tives, inclinations, and circumstances, that one does not follow with a certain degree of uniformity from the other, and that one affords no inference by which we can conclude the existence of the other. For these are or may have, of liberty or indifiference, in many of our actions. The necessity of any action, whether of matter or of mind, is not, properly speaking, a qual- ity in the agent, but in any thinking or intelligent being, who may consider the action ; and it consists chiefly in the determination of his thoughts to infer the existence of that action from some preceding objects; as liberty, when opposed to necessity, is nothing but the want of that determination, and a certain looseness or indifference, which we feel, in passing, or not passing, from the idea of one object to that of any succeeding one. Now we may observe, that, though, in reflecting on human actions, we seldom feel such a looseness, or indifference, but are commonly able to infer them with considerable certainty from their motives, and from the dispositions of the agent; yet it frequently happens, that, in /^^^w/«^ the actions themselves, we are sensible of something like it; And as all resembling objects are readily taken for each other, this has been employed as a demonstrative and even intuitive proof of human liberty. We feel, that our actions are subject to our will, on most occasions; and imagine we feel, that the will itself is subject to nothing, because, when by a denial of it we are provoked to try, we feeli that it moves easily every way, and produces an image of itself (or a Vellelty' as it is called in the schools) even on that side, on which it did net settle. This image, or faint motion, we persuade ourselves, could, at that time, have been compleated into the thing itself; because, should that be denied, we find, upon a second trial, that, at present, it can. We consider not, that the fantastical desire of jewing liberty, is here the motive of our actions. And it seems certain, thatJhowever we may imagine we feel a liberty within our- selves, a spectator can commonly infer our actions from our motives and character;, 'and even where he cannot, he concludes in general, that he might, were he perfectly acquainted with every circumstance of our situation and temper, and the most secret springs of our complexion and disposition. Now this is the very essence of necessity, according to the foregoing doctrine. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 99 plain and acknowledged matters of fact. '^By libert)^ V then, we can only mean a power of actingor not actingi according to the determinations of the wi/jhfjth.3it is, if we choose to remain at rest, we may; if we~cEoosB^to ni6ve,"we "al:Ba"may:~~"Nowl:^^ HypbTfietical liberty is universally allowed to belong to every one who is not a prisoner and in chains. Here, then, is no subject of dispute. Whatever definition we may give of liberty, we should be careful to observe two requisite circum- stances ; frst, that it be consistent with plain matter of fact ; secondly y that it be consistent with itself. If we observe these circumstances, and render our defi- nition intelligible, I am persuaded that all mankind will be found of one opinion with regard to it. |~It is universally allowed that nothing exists with- ^^'^ '. out a cause of its existence, and that chance, wher d^^^'T strictly examined, is a mere negative word, and means not any real power which has anywhere a being in\ nature. ] But it is pretended that some causes are ne- cessary, some not necessary. Here then is the ad- vantage of definitions. Let any one define a cause, without comprehending, as a part of the definition, a necessary connexion with its effect ; and let him show distinctly the origin of the idea, expressed by the defi- nition ; and I shall readily give up the whole contro- versy. But if the foregoing explication of the matter be received, this must be absolutely impracticable. Had not objects a regular conjunction with each other, we should never have entertained any notion of cause and effect ; and thia_regular conjunction produces that inference of the understanding, which is the only con nexion, that we can have any comprehension of. Whoever attempts a definition of cause, exclusive of ' tj Ja^ loo AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING these circumstances, will be obliged either to employ unintelligible terms or such as are synonymous to the term which he endeavours to define. ^ And if the definition above mentioned be admitted ; liberty, when opposed to necessity, not to constxaint, is the same thing with chance; which is universally allowed to have no existence^ y^ Part II. / There is no method of reasoning more common, and yet none more blameable, than, in philosophical disputes, to endeavour the refutation of any hypothe- sis, by a pretence of its dangerous consequences to religion and morality. | When any opinion leads to absurdities, it is certainly false ; but it is not certain that an opinion is false, because it is of dangerous consequence. Such topics, therefore, ought entirely to be forborne ; as serving nothing to the discov- ery of truth, but only to make the person of an antag- onist odious. This I observe in general, without pretending to draw any advantage from it. I frankly" submit to an examination of this kind, and shall ven- ture to affirm that the doctrines, both of necessity and of liberty, as above explained, are not only consistent with morality, but are absolutely essential to its support. ' ^ Necessity may be defined two ways, conformably 1 Thus, if a cause be defined, that which produces any thing; it is easy to observe, that producing is synonimous to causing. In like manner, if a cause be defined, that by which any thing exists; this is liable to the same objec- tion. For what is meant by these words, by which ? Had it been said, that a cause is that after which any thing constantly exists; we should have under- stood the terms. For this is, indeed, all we know of the matter. And this constancy forms the very essence of necessity, nor have we any other idea of it. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. loi . to the two definitjpns of cause, of which it makes an . -| V^ essential part. [j[t_c^on^ists_ejther_ jnjthe_^ ^0^ conjunction of like objects, or in the inference of the^ understanding from one object to another. Now ne- cessity, in both these senses, (which, indeed, are at bottom the same) has universally, though tacitly, in the schools, in the pulpit, and in common life, been allowed to belong to the will of man ; and no one has ever pretended to deny that we can draw inferences concerning human actions, and that those inferences « are founded on the experienced union of like actions, with like motives, inclinations, and circumstances. The only particular in which any one can differ, is, that either, perhaps, he will refuse to give the name of necessity to this property of human actions: But as long as the meaning is understood, I hope the word can do no harm : Or that he will maintain it possible to discover something farther in the operations of matter. But this, it must be acknowledged, can be of no consequence to morality or religion, whatever it may be to natural philosophy or metaphysics. We may here be mistaken in asserting that there is no idea of any other necessity or connexion in the actions of body : But surely we ascribe nothing to the actions of the mind, but what everyone does, and must readily allow of. We change no circumstance in the received orthodox system with regard to the will, but only in that with regard to material objects and causes. Noth- ing, therefore, can be more innocent, at least, than this doctrine. All laws being founded on rewards and punish- ments, it is supposed as a fundamental principle, that these motives have a regular and uniform influence on the mind, and both produce the good and prevent the io2 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING evil actions. We may give to this influence what name we please \ but, as it is usually conjoined with the action, it must be esteemed a cause, and be looked upon as an instance of that necessity, which we would here establish. The only proper object of hatred or vengeance is a person or creature, endowed with thought and con- sciousness ; and when any criminal or injurious ac- tions excite that passion, it is only by their relation to the person, or connexion with him. /'Actions are, by their very nature, temporary and perishing ; and where they proceed not from some cause in the char- acter and disposition of the person who performed them, they can neither redound to his honour, if good; nor infamy, if evil. The actions themselves may be blameable; they may be contrary to all the rules of morality and religion : But the person is not answer- able for them ; and as they proceeded from nothing in him that is durable and constant, and leave nothing of that nature behind them, it is impossible he can, upon their account, become the object of punishment ^ or vengeance. According to the principle, therefore, which denies necessity, and consequently causes, a man is as pure and untainted, after having committed the most horrid crime, as at the first moment of his birth, nor is his character anywise concerned in his actions, since they are not derived from it, and the wickedness of the one can never be used as a proof of the depravity of the other. Men are not blamed for such actions as they per- form ignorantly and casually, whatever may be the consequences. Why ? but because the principles of these actions are only momentary, and terminate in them alone. Men are less blamed for such actions as HUMAN- UNDERSTANDING. 103 they perform hastily and unpremeditately than for such as proceed from deliberation. For what reason ? but because a hast}' temper, though a constant cause or principle in the mind, operates only by intervals, and infects not the whole character. Again, repentance wipes off every crime, if attended with a reformation of life and manners. How is this to be accounted for? but by asserting that actions render a person criminal merely as they are proofs of criminal principles in the mind; and when, by an alteration of these principles, they cease to be just proofs, they likewise cease to be iriminal. But, except upon the doctrine of necessity, they never were just proofs, and consequently never were criminal. It will be equally easy to prove, and from the same arguments, that liberty^ according to that definition above mentioned, in which all men agree, is also es- sential to morality, and that no human actions, where it is wanting, are susceptible of any moral qualities, or can be the objects either of approbation or dislike. For as actions are objects of our moral sentiment, so far only as they are indications of the internal char- acter, passions, and affections ; it is impossible that they can give rise either to praise or blame, where they proceed not from these principles, but are derived altogether frem external violence. I pretend not to have obviated or removed all ob- jections to. this theory, with regard to necessity and liberty. I can foresee other objections, derived from topics which have not here been treated of. It may be said, for instance, that, if voluntary actions be sub- jected to the same laws of necessity with the operations of matter, there is a continued chain of necessary causes, pre-ordained and pre-determined, reaching I04 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING from the original cause of all to every single volition of every human creature. No contingency anywhere in the universe \ no indifference ; no liberty. While we act, we are, at the same time, acted upon. The ultimate Author of all our volitions is the Creator of the world, who first bestowed motion on this immense machine, and placed all beings in that particular position, whence every subsequent event, by an in- evitable necessity, must result. Human actions, therefore, either can have no moral turpitude at all, as proceeding from so good a cause ; or if they have any turpitude, they must involve our Creator in the same guilt, while he is acknowledged to be their ultimate cause and author. For as a man, who fired a mine, is answerable for all the consequences whether the train he employed be long or short ; so wherever a continued chain of necessary causes is fixed, that Be- ing, either finite or infinite, who produces the first, is likewise the author of all the rest, and must both bear the blame and acquire the praise which belong to them. Our clear and unalterable ideas of morality establish this rule, upon unquestionable reasons, when we ex- amine the consequences of any human action ; and these reasons must still have greater force when ap- plied to the volitions and intentions of a Being infi- nitely wise and powerful. Ignorance or impotence may be pleaded for so limited a creature as man ; but those imperfections have no place in our Creator. He foresaw, he ordained, he intended all those actions of men, which we so rashly pronounce criminal. And we must therefore conclude, either that they are not crim- inal, or that the Deity, not man, is accountable for them. But as either of these positions is absurd and impious, it follows, that the doctrine from which they HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 105 are deduced cannot possibly be true, as being liable to all the same objections. An absurd consequence, if necessary, proves the original doctrine to be absurd ; in the same manner as criminal actions render crim- inal the original cause, if the connexion between them be necessary and evitable. This objection consists of two parts, which we shall examine separately ; First, that, if human actions can be traced up, by a necessary chain, to the Deity, they can never be criminal \ on account of the infinite per- fection of that Being from whom they are derived, and who can intend nothing but what is altogether good and laudable. Or, Secondly, if they be criminal, we must retract the attribute of perfection, which we ascribe to the Deity, and must acknowledge him to be the ultimate author of guilt and moral turpitude in all his creatures. The answer to the first objection seems obvious and convincing. There are many philosophers who, after an exact scrutiny of all the phenomena of nature, conclude, that the whole, considered as one system, is, in every period of its existence, ordered with per- fect benevolence; and that the utmost possible happi- ness will, in the end, result to all created beings, with- out any mixture of positive or absolute ill or misery. Every physical ill, say they, makes an essential part of this benevolent system, and could not possibly be removed, even by the Deity himself, considered as a wise agent, without giving entrance to greater ill, or excluding greater good, which will result from it. From this theory, some philosophers, and the ancient Stoics among the rest, derived a topic of consolation under all afflictions, while they taught their pupils that those ills under which they laboured were, in real- io6 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING ity, goods to the universe; and that to an enlarged view, which could comprehend the whole system of nature, every event became an object of joy and exul- tation. But though this topic be specious and sub- lime, it was soon found in practice weak and ineffec- tual. You would surely more irritate than appease a man lying under the racking pains of the gout by preaching up to him the rectitude of those general laws, which produced the malignant humours in his body, and led them through the proper canals, to the sinews and nerves, where they now excite such acute torments. These enlarged views may, for a moment, please the imagination of a speculative man, who is placed in ease and security; but neither can they dwell with constancy on his mind, even though undisturbed by the emotions of pain or passion; much less can they maintain their ground when attacked by such powerful antagonists. The affections take a narrower and more natural survey of their object ; and by an economy, more suitable to the infirmity of human minds, regard alone the beings around us, and are actuated by such events as appear good or ill to the private system. The case is the same with moral as with physical ill. It cannot reasonably be supposed, that those remote considerations, which are found of so little efficacy with regard to one, will have a more powerful influ- ence with regard to the other. The mind of man is so formed by nature that, upon the appearance of cer- tain characters, dispositions, and actions, it immedi- ately feels the sentiment of approbation or blame; nor are there any emotions more essential to its frame and constitution. jThe characters which engage our ap- probation are cHiefly such as contribute to the peace HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 107 and security of human society; as the characters which excite blame are chiefly such as tend to public detri- ment and disturbance ^Whence it may reasonably be presumed, that the rfioral sentiments arise, either me- diately or immediately, from a reflection of these op- posite interests. What though philosophical medita- tions establish a different opinion or conjecture ; that everything is right with regard to the whole, and that the qualities, which disturb society, are, in the main, as beneficial, and are as suitable to the primary in- tention of nature as those which more directly pro- mote its happiness and welfare? Are such remote and uncertain speculations able to counterbalance the sen- timents which arise from the natural and immediate view of the objects? A man who is robbed of a con- siderable sum ; does he find his vexation for the loss anywise diminished by these sublime reflections? Why then should his moral resentment against the crime be supposed incompatible with them? Or why should not the acknowledgment of a real distinction between vice and virtue be reconcileable to all speculative sys- tems of philosophy, as well as that of a real distinction between personal beauty and deformity? Both these distinctions are founded in the natural sentiments of the human mind: And these sentiments are not to be controuled or altered by any philosophical theory or speculation whatsoever. The second objection admits not of so easy and sat- isfactory an answer ; nor is it possible to explain dis- tinctly, how the Deity can be the mediate cause of all the actions of men, without being the author of sin and moral turpitude. These are mysteries, which mere natural and unassisted reason is very unfit to handle ; and whatever system she embraces, she must find her- zo8 self involved in inextricable difficulties, and even con- tradictions, at every step which she takes with regard to such subjects. To reconcile the indifference and contingency of human actions with prescience; or to defend absolute decrees, and yet free the Deity from being the author of sin, has been found hitherto to ex- ceed all the power of philosophy. Happy, if she be thence sensible of her temerity, when she pries into these sublime mysteries ; and leaving a scene so full of obscurities and perplexities, return, with suitable modesty, to her true and proper province, the exami- nation of common life; where she will find difficulties enough to employ her enquiries, without launching into so boundless an ocean of doubt, uncertainty, and contradiction ! N. SECTION IX. OF THE REASON OF ANIMALS / /\LL our reasonings concerning matter of fact are jTJl. founded on a species of Analogy which leads us to expect from any cause the same events, which we have observed to result from similar causes, j Where the causes are entirely similar, the analogyls perfect, and the inference, drawn from it, is regarded as cer- tain and conclusive: nor does any man ever entertain a doubt, when he sees a piece of iron, that it will have weight and cohesion of parts; as in all other instances, which have ever fallen under his observation. But where the objects have not so exact a similarity, the analogy is less perfect, and the inference is less con- clusive ; though still it has some force, in proportion to the degree of similarity and resemblance. The ana- tomical observations, formed upon one animal, are, by this species of reasoning, extended to all animals; and it is certain, that when the circulation of the blood, for instance, is clearly proved to have place in one creature, as a frog, or fish, it forms a strong presump- tion, that the same principle has place in all. These analogical observations may be carried farther, even to this science, of which we are now treating; and any theory, by which we explain the operations of the understanding, or the origin and connexion of the passions in man, will acquire additional authority, if we find, that the same theory is requisite to explain no AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING the same phenomena In all other animals. We shall make trial of this, with regard to the hypothesis, by which we have, in the foregoing discourse, endeav- oured to account for all experimental reasonings; and it is hoped, that this new point of view will serve to confirm all our former observations. First, It seems evident, that animals as well as men learnltnany things from experience, and infer, that the same events will always follow from the same causes. By this principle they become acquainted with the more obvious properties of external objects, and grad- ually, from their birth, treasure up a knowledge of the nature of fire, water, earth, stones, heights, depths, &c., and of the effects which result from their opera- tion. The ignorance and inexperience of the young are here plainly distinguishable from the cunning and sagacity of the old, who have learned, by long obser- vation, to avoid what hurt them, and to pursue what gave ease or pleasure. A horse, that has been accus- tomed to the field, becomes acquainted with the proper height which he can leap, and will never attempt what exceeds his force and ability. An old greyhound will trust the more fatiguing part of the chace to the younger, and will place himself so as to meet the hare in her doubles; nor are the conjectures, which he forms on this occasion, founded in any thing but his observation and experience. This is still more evident from the effects of disci- pline and education on animals, who, by the proper application of rewards and punishments, may be taught any course of action, and most contrary to their natu- ral instincts and propensities. Is it not experience, which renders a dog apprehensive of pain, when you menace him, or lift up the whip to beat him ? Is it HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, iii not even experience, which makes him answer to his name, and infer, from such an arbitrary sound, that you mean him rather than any of his fellows, and in- tend to call him, when you pronounce it in a certain manner, and with a certain tone and accent? J' In all these cases, we may observe, that the animal fers some fact beyond what immediately strikes his senses ; and that this inference is altogether founded on past experience, while the creature expects from the present object the same consequences, which it has always found in its observation to result from similar objects. \ ^"^ Secondly, It is impossible, that this inference of the animal can be founded on any process of argument or reasoning, by which he concludes, that like events must follow like objects, and that the course of nature will always be regular in its operations. For if there be in reality any arguments of this nature, they surely lie too abstruse for the observation of such imperfect understandings ; since it may well employ the utmost care and attention of a philosophic genius to discover and observe them./ Animals, therefore, are not guided in these inferences by reasoning : Neither are chil- dren : Neither are the generality of mankind, in their ordinary actions and conclusions : Neither are philos- ophers themselves, who, in all the active parts of life, are^iri_the main, the same with the vulgar, and are , governed by the same maxims. Nature must have^ provided some other principle, ""of more ready, and I more general use and application;! nor can an opera- \ tion of such immense consequence in life, as that of \ inferring effects from causes, be trusted to the uncer- ] tain process of reasoning and argumentation. \ Were this doubtful with regard to men, it seems to'admit oi II IZ2 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING no question with regard to the brute creation ; and the conclusion being once firmly established in the one, we have a strong presumption, from all the rules of analogy, that it ought to be universally admitted, without any exception or reserve, ^t is custom aloneJ which engages animals, from every o^ject^tTiat'strikes their senses, to infer its usual attendant, and carries their imagination, from the appearance of the one, to conceive the other, in that particular manner, which we denominate belief. No other explication can be given of this op^ation, in all the higher, as well as lower classes of sensitive beings, which fall under our notice and observation.^ 1 Since all reasonings concerning facts or causes is derived merely from custom, it may be asked how it happens, that men so much surpass animals in reasoning, and one man so much surpasses another? Has not the same custom the same influence on all? We shall here endeavour briefly to explain the great difiference in human understandings: After which the reason of the difference between men and animals will easily be comprehended. 1. When we have lived any time, and have been accustomed to the uni- formity of nature, we acquire a general habit, by which we always transfer the known to the unknown, and conceive the latter to resemble the former. By means of this general habitual principle, we regard even one experiment as the foundation of reasoning, and expect a similar event with some degree of certainty, where the experiment has been made accurately, and free from all foreign circumstances. It is therefore considered as a matter of great importance to observe the consequences of things; and as one man may very much surpass another in attention and memory and observation, this will make a very great difiference in their reasoning. 2. Where there is a complication of causes to produce any effect, one mind may be much larger than another, and better able to comprehend the whole system of objects, and to infer justly their consequences. 3. One man is able to carry on a chain of consequences to a greater length than another. 4. Few men can think long without running into a confusion of ideas, and mistaking one for another; and there are various degrees of this in- firmity. 5. The circumstance, on which the effect depends, is frequently involved in other circumstances, which are foreign and extrinsic. The separation of it often requires great attention, accuracy, and subtilty. 6. The forming of general maxims from particular observation is a very nice operation ; and nothing is more usual, from haste or narrowness of mind which sees not on all sides, than to commit mistakes in this particular. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 113 But though animals learn many parts of their knowledge from observation, there are also many parts of it, which they derive from the original hand of nature; which much exceed the share of capacity they possess on ordinary occasions ; and in which they improve, little or nothing, by the longest practice and experi- ence. These we denominate Instincts, and are so apt to admire as something very extraordinary, and inexpli- cable by all the disquisitions of human understanding. But our wonder will, perhaps, cease or diminish, when we consider, that the experimental reasoning itself, which we possess in common with beasts, and on which the whole conduct of life depends, is nothing but a species of instinct or mechanical power, that acts in us unknown to ourselves ; and in its chief op- erations, is not directed by any such relations or com- parisons of ideas, as are the proper objects of our in- tellectual faculties. Though the instinct be different, yet still it is an instinct, which teaches a man to avoid the fire ; as much as that, which teaches a bird, with such exactness, the art of incubation, and the whole economy and order of its nursery. 7. When we reason from analogies, the man, who has the greater expe- rience or the greater promptitude of suggesting analogies, will be the better reasoner. 8. Byasses from prejudice, education, passion, party, &c., hang more upon one mind than another. 9. After we have acquired a confidence in human testimony, books and conversation enlarge much more the sphere of one man's experience and thought than those of another. It would be easy to discover many other circumstances that make a dif* ference in the understandings of men. SECTION X OF MIRACLES. Part I. THERE is, in Dr. Tillotson's writings, an argument against the real presence, which is as concise, and elegant, and strong as any argument can possibly be supposed against a doctrine, so little worthy of a seri- ous refutation. It is acknowledged on all hands, says that learned prelate, that the authority, either of the scripture or of tradition, is founded merely in the tes- timony of the apostles, who were eye-witnesses to those miracles of our Saviour, by which he proved his divine mission. Our evidence, then, for the truth of the Christian religion is less than the evidence for the truth of our senses ; because, even in the first authors of our religion, it was no greater ; and it is evident it must diminish in passing from them to their disciples; nor can any one rest such confidence in their testi- mony, as in the immediate object of his senses. But a weaker evidence can never destroy a stronger; and therefore, were the doctrine of the real presence ever so clearly revealed in scripture, it were directly con- trary to the rules of just reasoning to give our assent to it. It contradicts sense, though both the scripture and tradition, on which it is supposed to be built, carry not such evidence with them as sense; when they are considered merely as external evidences, and are HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 115 not brought home to every one's breast, by the imme- diate operation of the Holy Spirit. Nothing is so convenient as a decisive argument of this kind, which must at least silence the most arrogant bigotry and superstition, and free us from their imper- tinent solicitations. I flatter myself, that I have dis- covered an argument of a like nature, which, if just, will, with the wise and learned, be an everlasting check to all kinds of superstitious delusion, and conse- quently, will be useful as long as the world endures. For so long, I presume, will the accounts of miracles and prodigies be found in all history, sacred and pro- fane. / Though experience be our only guide in reasoning concerning matters of fact ; it must be acknowledged, that this guide is not altogether infallible, but in some^ cases is apt to lead us into errors. One, who in our climate, should expect better weather in any week of June than in one of December, would reason justly, and conformably to experience ; but it is certain, that he may happen, in the event, to find himself mistaken. However, we may observe, that, in such a case, he would have no cause to complain of experience ; be- cause it commonly informs us beforehand of the un- certainty, by that contrariety of events, which we may learn from a diligent observation. All effects follow not with like certainty from their supposed causes. Some events are found, in all countries and all ages, to have been constantly conjoined together : Others are found to have been more variable, and sometimes to disappoint our expectations; so that, in our reason- ings concerning matter of fact, there are all imaginable degrees of assurance, from the highest certainty to the lowest species of moral evidence. 1 16 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING A wise man, therefore, proportions his belief to the evidence. In such conclusions as are founded on an infallible experience, he expects the event with the last degree of assurance, and regards his past experience as a full proof of the future existence of that event. In other cases, he proceeds with more caution : He weighs the opposite experiments : He considers which side is supported by the greater number of ex- periments : to that side he inclines, with doubt and hesitation; and when at last he fixes his judgement, the evidence exceeds not what we properly call prob- ability. All probability, then, supposes an opposition of experiments and observations, where the one side is found to overbalance the other, and to produce a degree of evidence, proportioned to the superiority. A hundred instances or experiments on one side, and fifty on another, afford a doubtful expectation of any event ; though a hundred uniform experiments, with only one that is contradictory, reasonably begets a pretty strong degree of assurance. In all cases, we must balance the opposite experiments, where they are opposite, and deduct the smaller number from the greater, in order to know the exact force of the supe- rior evidence. To apply these principles to a particular instance ; we may observe, that there is no species of reasoning more common, more useful, and even necessary to human life, than that which is derived from the testi- mony of men, and the reports of eye-witnesses and spectators. This species of reasoning, perhaps, one may deny to be founded on the relation of cause and effect. I shall not dispute about a word. It will be sufficient to observe that our assurance in any argu- ment of this kind is derived from no other principle HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 117 than our observation of the veracity of human testi- mony, and of the usual conformity of facts to the re- ports of witnesses. It being a general maxim, that no objects have any discoverable connexion together, and that all the inferences, which we can draw from one to another, are founded merely on our experience of their constant and regular conjunction ; it is evi- dent^ that we ought not to make an exception to this maxim in favour of human testimony, whose connexion with any event seems, in itself, as little necessary as any other. Were not the memory tenacious to a cer- tain degree; had not men commonly an inclination to truth and a principle of probity, were they not sensible to shame, when detected in a falsehood : Were not these, I say, discovered by experience to be qualities, inherent in human nature, we should never repose the least confidence in human testimony. A man deliri- ous, or noted for falsehood and villany, has no manner of authority with us. And as the evidence, derived from witnesses and human testimony, is founded on past experience, so it varies with the experience, and is regarded either as proof QX. di. probability i according as the conjunction be- tween any particular kind of report and any kind of object has been found to be constant or variable. / There are a number of circumstances to be taken into consideration in all judgements of this kind ; and the ultimate standard, by which we determine all disputes, that may arise concerning them, is always derived from experience and observation. Where this experience is not entirely uniform on any side, it is attended with an unavoidable contrariety in our judgements, and with the same opposition and mutual destruction of argument as in every other kind of evidence. We fre- ii8 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING quently hesitate concerning the reports of others. We balance the opposite circumstances, which cause any doubt or uncertainty; and when we discover a superi- ority on one side, we incline to it; but still with a diminution of assurance, in proportion to the force of its antagonist. . This contrariety of evidence, in the present case, may be derived from several different causes; from the opposition of contrary testimony ; from the character or number of the witnesses ; from the manner of their delivering their testimony; or from the union of all these circumstances. We entertain a suspicion con- cerning any matter of fact, when the witnesses con- tradict each other; when they are but few, or of a doubtful character; when they have an interest in what they affirm ; when they deliver their testimony with hesitation, or on the contrary, with too violent asseverations. There are many other particulars of the same kind, which may diminish ar destroy the force of any argument, derived from human testimony. Suppose, for instance, that the fact, which the tes- timony endeavours to establish, partakes of the extra- ordinary and the marvellous; in that case, the evidence, resulting from the testimony, admits of a diminution, greater or less, in proportion as the fact is more or less unusual. The reason why we place any credit in wit- nesses and historians, is not derived from any connex- ion, which we perceive a priori, between testimony and reality, but because we are accustomed to find a con- formity between them. But when the fact attested is such a one as has seldom fallen under our observation, here is a contest of two opposite experiences; of which the one destroys the other, as far as its force goes, and the superior can only operate on the mind by the HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 119 force, which remains. The very same principle of experience, which gives us a certain degree of assur- ance in the testimony of witnesses, gives us also, in this case, another degree of assurance against the fact, which they endeavour to establish; from which contra- diction there necessarily arises a counterpoize, and , ^ mutual destruction of belief and authority. / should not believe such a story were it told me by Cato, was a proverbial saying in Rome, even during the lifetime of that philosophical patriot.^ The in- credibility of a fact, it was allowed, might invalidate so great an authority. The Indian prince, who refused to believe the first relations concerning the effects of frost, reasoned justly; and it naturally required very strong testimony to en- gage his assent to facts, that arose from a state of nature, with which he was unacquainted, and which bore so little analogy to those events, of which he had had constant and uniform experience. Though they were not contrary to his experience, they were not conformable to it.^ 1 Plutarch, in vita Catonis. 2 No Indian, it is evident, could have experience that water did not freeze in cold climates. This is placing nature in a situation quite unknown to him; and it is impossible for him to tell a priori what will result from it. It is making a new experiment, the consequence of which is always uncertain. One may sometimes conjecture from analogy what will follow ; but still this is but conjecture. And it must be confessed, that, in the present case of freezing, the event follows contrary to the rules of analogy, and is such as a rational Indian would not look for. The operations of cold upon water are not gradual, according to the degrees of cold ; but whenever it comes to the freezing point, the water passes in a moment, from the utmost liquidity to perfect hardness. Such an event, therefore, may be denominated extraordi- nary, and requires a pretty strong testimony, to render it credible to people in a warm climate : But still it is not miraculous, nor contrary to uniform ex- perience of the course of nature in cases where all the circumstances are the same. The inhabitants of Sumatra have always seen water fluid in their own climate, and the freezing of their rivers ought to be deemed a prodigy: But they never saw water in Muscovy during the winter; and therefore they can- not reasonably be positive what would there be the consequence. 120 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING But in order to encrease the probability against the testimony of witnesses, let us suppose, that the fact, which they affirm, instead of being only marvel- lous, is really miraculous; and suppose also, that the testimony considered apart and in itself, amounts to an entire proof; in that case, there is proof against proof, of which the strongest must prevail, but still with a diminution of its force, in proportion to that of its antagonist. . , , . A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature ; and as It firm and unalterable experience has established these laws, the proof against a miracle, from the very nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can possibly be imagined. Why is it more than probable, that all men must die ; that lead can- not, of itself, remain suspended in the air; that fire consumes wood, and is extinguished by water ; unless it be, that these events are found agreeable to the laws of nature, and there is required a violation of these laws, or in other words, a miracle to prevent them ? Nothing is esteemed a miracle, if it ever happen in the common course of nature. It is no miracle that a man, seemingly in good health, should die on a sud- den : because such a kind of death, though more un- usual than any other, has yet been frequently observed to happen. But it is a miracle, that a dead man should come to life ; because that has never been observed in any age or country. There must, therefore, be a uni- form experience against every miraculous event, other- wise the event would not merit that appellation. And as a uniform experience amounts to a proof, there is here a direct and full proof, from the nature of the fact, against the existence of any miracle ; nor can such a HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 121 proof be destroyed, or the miracle rendered credible, but by an opposite proof, which is superior.^ The plain consequence is (and it is a general maxim worthy of our attention), 'That no testimony is suffi- cient to establish a miracle, unless the testimony be of such a kind, that its falsehood would be more mi- raculous, than the fact, which it endeavours to estab- lish ; and even in that case there is a mutual destruc- tion of arguments, and the superior only gives us an assurance suitable to that degree of force, which re- mains, after deducting the inferior.' When anyone tells me, that he saw a dead man restored to life, I immediately consider with myself, whether it be more probable, that this person should either deceive or be deceived, or that the fact, which he relates, should really have happened. I weigh the one miracle against the other ; and according to the superiority, which I discover, I pronounce my decision, and always reject the greater miracle. If the falsehood of his testimony would be more miraculous, than the event which he 1 Sometimes an event may not, in itself ^ seem to be contrary to the laws of nature, and yet, if it were real, it might, by reason of some circumstances, be denominated a miracle ; because, in fact, it is contrary to these laws. Thus if a person, claiming a divine authority, should command a sick person to be well, a healthful man to fall down dead, the clouds to pour rain, the winds to blow, in short, should order many natural events, which immediately follow upon his command ; these might justly be esteemed miracles, because they are really, in this case, contrary to the laws of nature. For if any suspi- cion remain, that the event and command concurred by accident, there is no miracle and no transgression of the laws of nature. If this suspicion be re- moved, there is evidently a miracle, and a transgression of these laws; be- cause nothing can be more contrary to nature than that the voice or command of a man should have such an influence. A miracle may be accurately defined, a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent. A miracle may either be discoverable by men or not. This alters not its nature and essence. The raising of a house or ship into the air is a visible miracle. The raising of a feather, when the wind wants ever so little of a force requisite for that purpose, is as real a miracle, though not so sensible with regard to us. 122 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING relates; then, and not till then, can he pretend to command my belief or opInionry^^tiX %i-\'\\ u^ou- r>^ai.h Part II. In the foregoing reasoning we have supposed, that the testimony, upon which a miracle is founded, may possibly amount to' an entire proof, and that the false- hood of that testimony would be a real prodigy : But it is easy to shew, that we have been a great deal too liberal in our concession, and that there never was av._, miraculous event established on so full an evidence. For Jirst, there is not to be found, in all history, any miracle attested by a sufficient number of men, of such unquestioned good-sense, education, and learn- ing, as to secure us against all delusion in themselves; of such undoubted integrity, as to place them beyond all suspicion of any design to deceive others ; of such credit and reputation in the eyes of mankind, as to have a great deal to lose in case of their being detected in any falsehood; and at the same time, attesting facts performed in such a public manner and in so cele- brated a part of the world, as to render the detection unavoidable : All which circumstances are requisite to give us a full assurance in the testimony of men. Secondly. We may observe in human nature a prin- ciple which, if strictly examined, will be found to di- minish extremely the assurance, which we might, from human testimony, have, in any kind of prodigy. The maxim, by which we commonly conduct ourselves in our reasonings, is, that the objects, of which we have no experience, resemble those, of which we have; that what we have found to be most usual is always most probable ; and that where there is an opposition HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 123 3o\ -^-^-^ ^-^ - '• • -^ '-^ ■ ^f arguments, we ought to give the preference to such as are founded on the greatest number of past obser- vations. But though, in proceeding by this rule, we readily reject any fact which is unusual and incredible in an ordinary degree ; yet in advancing farther, the mind observes not always the same rule ; but when anything is affirmed utterly absurd and miraculous, it rather the more readily admits of such a fact, upon account of that very circumstance, which ought to de- stroy all its authority. The passion of surprise and wonder, arising from miracles, being an agreeable emo- tion, gives a sensible tendency towards the belief of those events, from which it is derived. And this goes so far, that even those who cannot enjoy this pleasure immediately, nor can believe those miraculous events, of which they are informed, yet love to partake of the satisfaction at second-hand or by rebound, and place a pride and delight in exciting the admiration of others. With what greediness are the miraculous accounts of travellers received, their descriptions of sea and land monsters, their relations of wonderful adventures, strange men, and uncouth manners ? But if the spirit of religion join itself to the love of wonder, there is an end of common sense ; and human testimony, in these circumstances, loses all pretensions to authority. A religionist may be an enthusiast, and imagine he sees what has no reality : he may know his narrative to be false, and yet persevere in it, with the best intentions in the world, for the sake of promoting so holy a cause: or even where this delusion has not place, vanity, ex- cited by so strong a temptation, operates on him more powerfully than on the rest of mankind in any other circumstances ; and self-interest with equal force. His auditors may not have, and commonly have not, suf- 124 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING ficient judgement to canvass his evidence: what judge- ment they have, they renounce by principle, in these sublime and mysterious subjects : or if they were ever so willing to employ it, passion and a heated imagina- tion disturb the regularity of its operations. Their credulity increases his impudence : and his impudence overpowers their credulity. Eloquence, when at its highest pitch, leaves little room for reason or reflection; but addressing itself entirely to the fancy or the affections, captivates the willing hearers, and subdues their understanding. Happily, this pitch it seldom attains. But what a Tully or a Demosthenes could scarcely effect over a Roman or Athenian audience, every Capuchin, every itinerant or stationary teacher can perform over the generality of mankind, and in a higher degree, by touching such gross and vulgar passions. The many instances of forged miracles, and proph- ecies, and supernatural events, which, in all ages, have either been detected by contrary evidence, or which detect themselves by their absurdity, prove sufficiently the strong propensity of mankind to the extraordinary and the marvellous, and ought reason- ably to beget a suspicion against all relations of this kind. This is our natural way of thinking, even with regard to the most common and most credible events. For instance : There is no kind of report which rises so easily, and spreads so quickly, especially in country places and provincial towns, as those concerning mar- riages; insomuch that two young persons of equal condition never see each other twice, but the whole neighbourhood immediately join them together. The pleasure of telling a piece of news so interesting, of propagating it, and of being the first reporters of it, HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 125 Spreads the intelligence. And this is so well known, that no man of sense gives attention to these reports, till he find them confirmed by some greater evidence. Do not the same passions, and others still stronger, incline the generality of mankind to believe and report, with the greatest vehemence and assurance, all reli- gious miracles ? Thirdly, It forms a strong presumption against all supernatural and miraculous relations, that they are observed chiefly to abound among ignorant and barbarous nations ; or if a civilized people has ever given admission to any of them, that people will be found to have received them from ignorant and bar- barous ancestors, who transmitted them with that in- violable sanction and authority, which always; attend received opinions.. When we peruse the first histories of all nations, we are apt to imagine ourselves trans- ported into some new world ; where the whole frame of nature is disjointed, and every element performs its operations in a different manner, from what it does at present. Battles, revolutions, pestilence, famine and death, are never the effect of those natural causes, which we experience. Prodigies," omens, oracles, judgements, quite obscure the few natural events, that are intermingled with them. But as the former grow thinner every page, in proportion as we advance nearer the enlightened ages, we soon learn, that there is noth- ing mysterious or supernatural in the case, but that all proceeds from the usual propensity of mankind towards the marvellous, and that, though this inclina- tion may at intervals receive a check from sense and learning, it can never be thoroughly extirpated from human nature. // is strange^ a judicious reader is apt to say, upon 125 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING the perusal of these wonderful historians, that such prodigious events never happen in our days. But it is nothing strange, I hope, that men should lie in all ages. You must surely have seen instances enough of that frailty. You have yourself heard many such marvellous relations started, which, being treated with scorn by all the wise and judicious, have at last been abandoned even by the vulgar. Be assured, that those renowned lies, which have spread and flourished to such a monstrous height, arose from like beginnings ; but being sown in a more proper soil, shot up at last into prodigies almost equal to those which they relate. It was a wise policy in that false prophet, Alexan- der, who though now forgotten, was once so famous, to lay the first scene of his impostures in Paphlagonia, where, as Lucian tells us, the people were extremely ignorant and stupid, and ready to swallow even the grossest delusion. People at a distance, who are weak enough to think the matter at all worth enquiry, have no opportunity of receiving better information. The stories come magnified to them by a hundred circum- stances. Fools are industrious in propagating the imposture ; while the wise and learned are contented, in general, to deride its absurdity, without informing themselves of the particular facts, by which it may be distinctly refuted. And thus the impostor above men- tioned was enabled to proceed, from his ignorant Paphlagonians, to the enlisting of votaries, even among the Grecian philosophers, and men of the most emi- nent rank and distinction in Rome : nay, could engage the attention of that sage emperor Marcus Aurelius; so far as to make him trust the success of a military expedition to his deluisve prophecies. The advantages are so great, of starting an impos- HUMAN- UNDERSTANDING. 127 ture among an ignorant people, that, even though the delusion should be too gross to impose on the gener- ality of them {which, though seldom, is sometimes the case) it has a much better chance for succeeding in remote countries, than if the first scene had been laid in a city- renowned for arts and knowledge. The most ignorant and barbarous of these barbarians carry the report abroad. None of their countrymen have a large cor- respondence, or sufficient credit and authority to con- tradict and beat down the delusion. Men's inclination to the marvellous has full opportunity to display itself. And thus a story, which is universally exploded in the place where it was first started, shall pass for certain at a thousand miles distance. But had Alexander fixed his residence at Athens, the philosophers of that renowned mart of learning had immediately spread, throughout the whole Roman empire, their sense of the matter ; which, being supported by so great au- thority, and displayed by all the force of reason and eloquence, had entirely opened the eyes of mankind. It is true ; Lucian, passing by chance through Paph- lagonia, had an opportunity of performing this good office. But, though much to be wished, it does not always happen, that every Alexander meets with a Lucian, ready to expose and detect his impostures. I may add as a /^z/rM reason, which diminishes the authority of prodigies^ that there is no testimony for any, even those which have not been expressly de- tected, that is not opposed by an infinite number of witnesses ; so that not only the miracle destroys the credit of testimony, but the testimony destroys itself. To make this the better understood, let us consider, that, in matters of religion, whatever is different is contrary; and that it is impossible the religions of 128 AN" ENQ UIR V CONCERNING ancient Rome, of Turkey, of Siam, and of China should, all of them, be established on any solid foun- dation. Every miracle, therefore, pretended to have been wrought in any of these religions (and all of them abound in miracles), as its direct scope is to establish the particular system to which it is attributed ; so has it the same force, though more indirectly, to overthrow every other system. In destroying a rival system, it likewise destroys the credit of those miracles, on which that system was established; so that all the prodigies of different religions are to be regarded as contrary facts, and the evidences of these prodigies, whether weak or strong, as opposite to each other. According to this method of reasoning, when we believe any mir- acle of Mahomet or his successors, we have for our warrant the testimony of a few barbarous Arabians : And on the other hand, we are to regard the authority of Titus Livius, Plutarch, Tacitus, and, in short, of all the authors and witnesses, Grecian, Chinese, and Roman Catholic, who have related any miracle in their particular religion ; I say, we are to regard their testi- mony in the same light as if they had mentioned that Mahometan miracle, and had in express terms contra- dicted it, with the same certainty as they have for the miracle they relate. This argument may appear over subtile and refined ; but is not in reality different from the reasoning of a judge, who supposes, that the credit of two witnesses, maintaining a crime against any one, is destroyed by the testimony of two others, who affirm him to have been two hundred leagues distant, at the same instant when the crime is said to have been com- mitted. One of the best attested miracles in all profane his- tory, is that which Tacitus reports of Vespasian, who HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 129 cured a blind man in Alexandria, by means oi his spittle, and a lame man by the mere touch of his foot ; in obedience to a vision of the god Serapis, who had enjoined them to have recourse to the Emperor, for these miraculous cures. The story may be seen in that fine historian ;i where every circumstance seems to add weight to the testimony, and might be displayed at large with all the force of argument and eloquence, if any one were now concerned to enforce the evidence of that exploded and idolatrous superstition. The gravity, solidity, age, and probity of so great an em- peror, v/ho, through the whole course of his life, con- versed in a familiar manner with his friends and court- iers, and never affected those extraordinary airs of divinity assumed by Alexander and Demetrius. The historian, a cotemporary writer, noted for candour and veracity, and withal, the greatest and most penetrat- ing genius, perhaps, of all antiquity; and so free fronj any tendency to credulity, that he even lies under the contrary imputation, of atheism and profaneness: The persons, from whose authority he related the miracle, of established character for judgement and veracity, as we may well presume ; eye-witnesses of the fact, and confirming their testimony, after the Flavian fam- ily was despoiled of the empire, and could no longer give any reward, as the price of a lie. Utrumque, qui interfuerey nunc quoque memoranty postquam nullum vien- dacio pretium. To which if we add the public nature of the facts, as related, it will appear, that no evidence can well be supposed stronger for so gross and so palpable a falsehood. There is also a memorable story related by Cardi- 1 Hist. lib. V. cap. 8. Suetonius gives nearly the same account in vita Vesp. I30 AM ENQUIRY CONCERNING nal de Retz, which may well deserve our consideration. When that intriguing politician fled into Spain, to avoid the persecution of his enemies, he passed through Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, where he was shewn, in the cathedral, a man, who had served seven years as a doorkeeper, and was well known to every body in town, that had ever paid his devotions at that church. He had been seen, for so long a time, wanting a leg ; but recovered that limb by the rubbing of holy oil upon the stump ; and the cardinal assures us that he saw him with two legs. This miracle was vouched by all the canons of the church ; and the whole company in town were appealed to for a confirmation of the fact ; whom the cardinal found, by their zealous devotion, to be thorough believers of the miracle. Here the relater was also cotemporary to the supposed prodigy, of an incredulous and libertine character, as well as of great genius ; the miracle of so singular a nature as could scarcely admit of a counterfeit, and the witnesses very numerous, and all of them, in a manner, specta- tors of the fact, to which they gave their testimony. And what adds mightily to the force of the evidence, and may double our surprise on this occasion, is, that the cardinal himself, who relates the story, seems not to give any credit to it, and consequently cannot be suspected of any concurrence in the holy fraud. He considered justly, that it was not requisite, in order to reject a fact of this nature, to be able accurately to disprove the testimony, and to trace its falsehood, through all the circumstances of knavery and credulity which produced it. . He knew, that, as this was com- monly altogether impossible at any small distance of time and place; so was it extremely difficult, even where one was immediately present, by reason of the HUMAN UNDERSTANDING bigotry, ignorance, cunning, and roguery of ^.* ^at part of mankind. He therefore concluded, like a just reasoner, that such an evidence carried falsehood upon the very face of it, and that a miracle, supported by any human testimony, was more properly a subject of derision than of argument. There surely never was a greater number of mir- acles ascribed to one person, than those, which were lately said to have been wrought in France upon the tomb of Abbd Paris, the famous Jansenist, with whose sanctity the people were so long deluded. The curing of the sick, giving hearing to the deaf, and sight to the blind, were every where talked of as the usual ef- fects of that holy sepulchre. But what is more extra- ordinary; many of the miracles were immediately proved upon the spot, before judges of unquestioned integrity, attested by witnesses of credit and distinc- tion, in a learned age, and on the most eminent the- atre that is now in the world. Nor is this all : a rela- tion of them was published and dispersed everywhere; nor were the Jesuits ^ though a learned body, supported by the civil magistrate, and determined enemies to those opinions, in whose favour the miracles were said to have been wrought, ever able distinctly to refute or detect them. Where shall we find such a number of circumstances, agreeing to the corroboration of one fact? And what have we to oppose to such a cloud of witnesses, but the absolute impossibility or miracu- lous nature of the events, which they relate ? And this surely, in the eyes of all reasonable people, will alone be regarded as a sufficient refutation. Is the consequence just, because some human tes- timony has the utmost force and authority in some cases, when it relates the battle of Philippi or Pharsa- AN- ENQUIR V CONCERNING lia s^ i^nstance ; that therefore all kinds of testimony must, in all cases, have equal force and authority? Suppose that the Caesarean and Pompeian factions had, each of them, claimed the victory in these bat- tles, and that the historians of each party had uniformly ascribed the advantage to their own side ; how could mankind, at this distance, have been able to deter- mine between them? The contrariety is equally strong between the miracles related by Herodotus or Plutarch, and those delivered by Mariana, Bede, or any monkish historian. The wise lend a very academic faith to every report which favours the passion of the reporter; whether it magnifies his country, his family, or himself, or in any other way strikes in with his natural inclinations and propensities. But what greater temptation than to appear a missionary, a prophet, an ambassador from heaven? Who would not encounter many dangers and difficulties, in order to attain so sublime a character? Or if, by the help of vanity and a heated imagination, a man has first made a convert of himself, and entered seriously into the delusion; who ever scruples to make use of pious frauds, in support of so holy and merito- rious a cause? The smallest spark may here kindle into the great- est flame ; because the materials are always prepared for it. The avidum genus auricularum^^ the gazing populace, receive greedily, without examination, what- ever soothes superstition, and promotes wonder. How many stories of this nature have, in all ages, been detected and exploded in their infancy? How many more have been celebrated for a time, and have afterwards sunk into neglect and oblivion? Where 1 Lucret. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. I33 such reports, therefore, fly about, the solution of the phenomenon is obvious; and we judge in conformity to regular experience and observation, when we ac- count for it by the known and natural principles of credulity and delusion. And shall we, rather than have a recourse to so natural a solution, allow of a miraculous violation of the most established laws of nature? I need not mention the difficulty of detecting a false- hood in any private or even public history, at the place, where it is said to happen ; much more when the scene is removed to ever so small a distance. Even a court of judicature, with all the authority, ac- curacy, and judgement, which they can employ, find themselves often at a loss to distinguish between truth and falsehood in the most recent actions. But the matter never comes to any issue, if trusted to the com- mon method of altercations and debate and flying ru- mours; especially when men's passions have taken part on either side. ^-^In the infancy of new religions, the wise and learned corhmonly esteem the matter too inconsiderable to de- serve their attention or regard. And when afterwards they would willingly detect the cheat, in order to un- deceive the deluded multitude, the season is now past, and the records and witnesses, which might clear up the matter, have perished beyond recovery. No means of detection remain, but those which must be drawn from the very testimony itself of the reporters: and these, though always sufficient with the judicious and knowing, are commonly too fine to fall under the comprehension of the vulgar. Upon the whole, then, it appears, that no testi- mony for any kind of miracle has ever amounted to a 134 ^^ ^^Q U^^ Y ^ ONCERNING probability, much less to a proof; and that, even sup- posing it amounted to a proof, it would be opposed by another proof ; derived from the very nature of the fact, which it would endeavour to establish. It is ex- perience only, which gives authority to human testi- mony; and it is the same experience, which assures us of the laws of nature. When, therefore, these two klnds^ of experience are contrary, we have nothing to do but substract the one from the other, and embrace an opinion, either on one side or the other, with that assurance which arises from the remainder. But ac- cording to the principle here explained, this substrac- tion, with regard to all popular religions, amounts to an entire annihilation ; and therefore we may establish it as a maxim,' that no human testimony can have such force as to prove a miracle, and make it a just foun- dation for any such system of religion.- I beg the limitations here made may be remarked, when I say, that a miracle can never be proved, so as to be the foundation of a system of religion. For I own, that otherwise, there may possibly be miracles, or violations of the usual course of nature, of such a kind as to admit of proof from human testimony; though, perhaps, it will be impossible to find any such in all the records of history. Thus, suppose, all authors, In all languages, agree, that, from the first of January 1600, there was a total darkness over the whole earth for eight days: suppose that the tradition of this extraordinary event is still strong and lively among the people: that all travellers, who return from foreign countries, bring us accounts of the same tradition, without the least variation or contradiction : it is evi- dent, that our present philosophers, instead of doubt- ing the fact, ought to receive It as certain, and ought HUMAN UNDERSTANDING 135 to search for the causes whence it might be derived. The decay, corruption, and dissolution of nature, is an event rendered probable by so many analogies, that any phenomenon, which seems to have a tend- ency towards that catastrophe, comes within the reach of human testimony, if that testimony be very exten- sive and uniform. But suppose, that all the historians who treat of England, should agree, that, on the first of Jan- uary 1600, Queen Elizabeth died ; that both before and after her death she was seen by her physicians and the whole court, as is usual with persons of her rank ; that her successor was acknowledged and pro- claimed by the parliament ; and that, after being in- terred a month, she again appeared, resumed the throne, and governed England for three years: I must confess that I should be surprised at the concurrence of so many odd circumstances, but should not have the least inclination to believe so miraculous an event. I should not doubt of her pretended death, and of those other public circumstances that followed it : I should only assert it to have been pretended, and that it neither was, nor possibly could be real. You would in vain object to me the difficulty, and almost impos- sibility of deceiving the world in an affair of such con- sequence ; the wisdom and solid judgement of that renowned queen j with the little or no advantage which she could reap from so poor an artifice : All this might astonish me ; but I would still reply, that the knavery and folly of men are such common phe- nomena, that I should rather believe the most extraor- dinary events to arise from their concurrence, than admit of so signal a violation of the laws of nature. But should this miracle be ascribed to any new 1 36 AN ENQ UIR V CONCERNING system of religion; men, in all ages, have been so much imposed on by ridiculous stories of that kind, that this very circumstance would be a full proof of a cheat, and sufficient, with all men of sense, not only to make them reject the fact, but even reject it with- out farther examination. Though the Being to whom the miracle is ascribed, be, in this case, Almighty, it does not, upon that account, become a whit more probable ; since it is impossible for us to know the attributes or actions of such a Being, otherwise than from the experience which we have of his productions, in the usual course of nature. This still reduces us to past observation, and obliges us to compare the instances of the violation of truth in the testimony of men, with those of the violation of the laws of nature by miracles, in order to judge which of them is most likely and probable. As the violations of truth are more common in the testimony concerning religious miracles, than in that concerning any other matter of fact ; this must diminish very much the authority of the former testimony, and make us form a general resolution, never to lend any attention to it, with whatever specious pretence it may be covered. Lord Bacon seems to have embraced the same principles of reasoning. *We ought,* says he, *to make a collection or particular history of all monsters and prodigious births or productions, and in a word of every thing new, rare, and extraordinary in nature. But this must be done with the most severe scrutiny, lest we depart from truth. Above all, every relation must be considered as suspicious, which depends in any degree upon religion, as the prodigies of Livy : And no less so, every thing that is to be found in the writers of natural magic or alchimy, or such authors, HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 137 who seem> all of them, to have an unconquerable ap- petite for falsehood and fable. ' ^ I am the better pleased with the method of reason- ing here delivered, as I think it may serve to confound those dangerous friends or disguised enemies to the ' Christian Religion^ who have undertaken to defend it by the principles of human reason. Our most holy religion is founded on Faith^ not on reason ; and it is , a sure method of exposing it to put it tp such a trial y^u. o- as it is, by no means, fitted to endure. To make this L . ^^ . more evident, let us examine those miracles, related ^ in scripture ; and not to lose ourselves in too wide a field, let us confine ourselves to such as we find in the Pentateuchy which we shall examine, according to the principles of these pretended Christians, not as the word or testimony of God himself, but as the produc- tion of a mere human writer and historian. ^Here then we are first to consider a book, presented^to us by a barbarous and ignorant people, written in an age when they were still more barbarous, and in all probability long after the facts which it relates, corroborated by no concurring testimony, and resembling those fabu- lous accounts, which every nation gives of its origin. Upon reading this book, we find it full of prodigies and miracles. It gives an account of a state of the world and of human nature entirely different from the present : Of our fall from that state : Of the age of man, extended to near a thousand years : Of the de- struction of the world by a deluge : Of the arbitrary choice of one people, as the favourites of heaven ; and that people the countrymen of the author : Of their deliverance from bondage by prodigies the most aston- ishing imaginable : I desire any one to lay his hand 1 Nov. Org. lib. ii. aph, 29. 138 AN- ENQUIRY CONCERNING upon his heart, and after a serious consideration de- clare, whether he thinks that the falsehood of such a book, supported by such a testimony, would be more extraordinary and miraculous than all the miracles it relates; which is, however, necessary to make it be received, according to the measures of probability above established. . What we have said of miracles may be applied, without any variation, to prophecies ; and indeed, all prophecies are realjniracles, and as.such only, can be admitted as proofs of any revelation. If it did not ex- ceed the capacity of human nature to foretell future events, it would be absurd to employ any prophecy as an argument for a divine mission or authority from heaven. So that, upon the whole, we may conclude, that the Christian Religion not only was at first attended with miracles, but even at this day cannot be believed by any reasonable person without one. Mere reason is insufficient to convince us of its veracity : And who- ever is moved by Faith to assent to it, is conscious of a continued miracle in his own person, which subverts all the principles of his understanding, and gives him a determination to believe what is most contrary tc5 custom and experience. SECTION XI. OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE. I WAS lately engaged in conversation with a friend ''^^^ 4- ^- who loves sceptical paradoxes ; where, though he advanced many principles, of which I can by no means approve, yet as they seem to be curious, and to bear some relation to the chain of reasoning carried on throughout this enquiry, I shall here copy them from my memory as accurately as I can, in order to submit them to the judgement of the reader. Our conversation began with my admiring the sin- gular good fortune of philosophy, which, as it requires entire liberty above all other privileges, and chiefly flourishes from the free opposition of sentiments and argumentation, received its first birth in an age and Country of freedom and toleration, and was never cramped, even in its most extravagant principles, by any creeds, concessions, or penal statutes. For, except the banishment of Protagoras, and the death of Soc- rates, which last event proceeded partly from other motives, there are scarcely any instances to be met with, in ancient history, of this bigotted jealousy, with which the present age is so much infested. Epicurus lived at Athens to an advanced age, in peace and tran- quillity: Epicureans^ were even admitted to receive the sacerdotal character, and to officiate at the altar, ILuciani av/X7r. rj AanCBai, I40 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING in the most sacred rites of the established religion : And the public encouragement ^ of pensions and sala- ries was afforded equally, by the wisest of all the Roman emperors, '^ to the professors of every sect of philosophy. How requisite such kind of treatment was to philosophy, in hgr early youth, will easily be conceived, if we reflect, that, even at present, when she may be supposed more hardy and robust, she bears with much difficulty the inclemency of Jthe seasons, and those harsh winds of calumny and persecution, which blow upon her. You admire, says my friend, as the singular good fortune of philosophy, what seems to result from the natural course of things, and to be unavoidable in every age and nation. This pertinacious bigotry, of which you complain, as so fatal to philosophy, is really her offspring, who, after allying with supersti- tion, separates himself entirely from the interest of his parent, and becomes her most inveterate enemy and persecutor. Speculative dogmas of religion, the present occasions of such furious dispute, could not possibly be conceived or admitted in the early ages of the world; when mankind, being wholly illiterate, formed an idea of religion more suitable to their weak apprehension, and composed their sacred tenets of such tales chiefly as were the objects of traditional belief, more than of argument or disputation. After the first alarm, therefore, was over, which aroje from the new paradoxes and principles of the philosophers; these teachers seem ever after, during the ages of antiquity, to have lived in great harmony with the es- tablished superstition, and to have made a fair parti- \ Luciani evrovxof • ' Luciani and Dio. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING 141 tion of mankind between them ; the former claiming all the learned and wise, the latter possessing all the vulgar and illiterate. It seems then, say I, that you leave politics entirely out of the question, and never suppose, that a wise magistrate can justly be jealous of certain tenets of philosophy, such as those of Epicurus, which, denying a divine existence, and consequently a providence and a future state, seem to loosen, in a great measure, the ties of morality, and may be supposed, for that reason, pernicious to the peace of civil society. I know, replied he, that in fact these persecutions never, in any age, proceeded from calm reason, or from experience of the pernicious consequences of philos- ophy ; but arose entirely from passion and prejudice. But what if I should advance farther, and assert, that if Epicurus had been accused before the people, by any of the sycophants or informers of those days, he could easily have defended his cause, and proved his principles of philosophy to be as salutary as those o^ his adversaries, who endeavoured, v/ith such zeal, to expose him to the public hatred and jealousy? I wish, said I, you would try your eloquence upon so extraordinary a topic, and make a speech for Epi- curus, which might satisfy, not the mob of Athens, if you will allow that ancient and polite city to have con- tained any mob, but the more philosophical part of his audience, such as might be supposed capable of comprehending his arguments. The matter would not be difficult, upon such condi- tions, replied he : And if you please, I shall suppose myself Epicurus for a moment, and make you stand for the Athenian people, and shall deliver you such an harangue as will fill all the urn with white beans, and 143 AM ENQUIRY CONCERNING leave not a black one to gratify the malice of my adversaries. Very well : Pray proceed upon these suppositions. I come hither, O ye Athenians, to justify in your assembly what I maintained in my school, and I find myself impeached by furious antagonists, instead of reasoning with calm and dispassionate enquirers. Your deliberations, which of right should be directed to questions of public good, and the interest of the com- monwealth, are diverted to the disquisitions of spec- ulative philosophy; and these magnificent, but per- haps fruitless enquiries, take place of your more famil- iar but more useful occupations. But so far as in me lies, I will prevent this abuse. We shall not here dis- pute concerning the origin and government of worlds. We shall only enquire how far such questions concern the public interest. And if I can persuade you, that they are entirely indifferent to the peace of society and security of government, I hope that you will presently send us back to our schools, there to examine, at lei- sure, the question the most sublime, but at the same time, the most speculative of all philosophy. The religious philosophers, not satisfied with the tradition of your forefathers, and doctrine of your priests (in which I willingly acquiesce), indulge a rash curiosity, in trying how far they can establish religion upon the principles of reason; and they thereby excite, instead of satisfying, the doubts, which naturally arise from a diligent and scrutinous enquiry. They paint, in the most magnificent colours, the order, beauty, and wise arrangement of the universe ; and then ask, if such a glorious display of intelligence could proceed from the fortuitous concourse of atoms, or if chance could produce what the greatest genius can never suf- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 143 ficiently admire. I shall not examine the justness of this argument. I shall allow it to be as solid as my antagonists and accusers can desire. It is sufficient, if I can prove, from this very reasoning, that the ques- tion is entirely speculative, and that, when, in my phi- losophical disquisitions, I deny a providence and a future state, I undermine not the foundations of soci- ety, but advance principles, which they themselves, upon their own topics, if they argue consistently, must allow to be solid and satisfactory. You then, who are my accusers, have acknowledged^^ that the chief or sole argument for a divine existence \ (which I never questioned) is derived from the order of nature ; where there appear such marks of intelli- gence and design, that you think it extravagant to as- sign for its cause, either chance, or the blind and un- guided force of matter. You allow, that this is an"> argument drawn from effects to causes. From the order of the work, you infer, that there must have been project and forethought in the workman. If you can- not make out this point, you allow, that your conclu- sion fails ; and you pretend not to establish the con- clusion in a greater latitude than the phenomena of nature will justify. These are your concessions. I desire you to mark the consequences. I When we infer any particular cause from an effect, we must proportion the one to the other, and can never be allowed to ascribe to the cause any qualities, but what are exactly sufficient to produce the e ffect.! A body of ten ounces raised in any scale may serve as a proof, that the counterbalancing weight exceeds ten ounces ; but can never afford a reason that it exceeds a hundred. If the cause, assigned for any effect, be not sufficient to produce it, we must either reject that 144 ^^ ^^Q U^^ Y CONCERNING cause, or add to it such qualities as will give it a just proportion to the effect. But if we ascribe to it further qualities, or affirm it capable of producing other effects, we can only indulge the licence of conjecture, and arbitrarily suppose the existence of qualities and energies, without reason or authority. The same rule holds, whether the cause assigned be brute unconscious matter, or a rational intelligent being. If the cause be known only by the effect, we never ought to ascribe to it any qualities, beyond what are precisely requisite to produce the effect : Nor can we, by any rules of just reasoning, return back from the cause, and infer other effects from it, beyond those by which alone it is known to us. No one, merely from the sight of one of Zeuxis's pictures, could know, that he was also a statuary or architect, and was an artist no less skilful in stone and marble than in col- ours. The talents and taste, displayed in the partic- ular work before us; these we may safely conclude the workman to be possessed of. The cause must be proportioned to the effect ; and if we exactly and pre- cisely proportion it, we shall never find in it any qualities, that point farther, or afford an inference concerning any other design or performance. Such qualities must be somewhat beyond what is merely requisite for producing the effect, which we examine. Allowing, therefore, the gods to be the authors of the existence or order of the universe \ it follows, that they possess that precise degree of power, intelligence, and benevolence, which appears in their workmanship; but nothing farther can ever be proved, except we call in the assistance of exaggeration and flattery to supply the defects of argument and reasoning. So far as the traces of any attributes, at present, appear, so far may HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 145 we conclude these attributes to exist. The supposition of farther attributes is mere hypothesis ; much more the supposition, that, in distant regions of space or periods of time, there has been, or will be, a more mag- nificent display of these attributes, and a scheme of administration more suitable to such imaginary vir- tues. We can never be allowed to mount up from the universe, the effect, to Jupiter, the cause ; and then descend downwards, to infer any new effect from that cause ; as if the present effects alone were not entirely worthy of the glorious attributes, which we ascribe to that deity. The knowledge of the cause being derived solely from the effect, they must be exactly adjusted to each other; and the one can never refer to anything farther, or be the foundation of any new inference and conclusion. You find certain phenomena in nature. You seek a cause or author. You imagine that you have found him. You afterwards become so enamoured of this off- spring of your brain, that you imagine it impossible, but he must produce something greater and more per- fect than the present scene of things, which is so full of ill and disorder. You forget, that this superlative intelligence and benevolence are entirely imaginary, or, at least, without any foundation in reason ; and that you have no ground to ascribe to him any quali- ties, but what you see he has actually exerted and dis- played in his productions. Let your gods, therefore, O philosophers, be suited to the present appearances of nature: and presume not to alter these appearances by arbitrary suppositions, in order to suit them to the attributes, which you so fondly ascribe to your deities. When priests and poets, supported by your author- ity, O Athenians, talk of a golden or silver age, which 146 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING preceded the present state of vice and misery, I hear them with attention and with reverence. But when philosophers, who pretend to neglect authority, and to cultivate reason, hold the same discourse, I pay them not, I own, the same obsequious submission and pious deference. I ask, who carried them into the celestial regions, who admitted them into the coun- cils of the gods, who opened to them the book of fate, that they thus rashly affirm, that their deities have executed, or will execute, any purpose beyond what has actually appeared ? If they tell me, that they have mounted on the steps or by the gradual ascent of reason, and by drawing inferences from effects to causes, I still insist, that they have aided the ascent of reason by the wings of imagination; otherwise they could not thus change their manner of inference, and argue from causes to effects ; presuming, that a more perfect production than the present world would be more suitable to such perfect beings as the gods, and forgetting that they have no reason to ascribe to these celestial beings any perfection or any attribute, but what can be found in the present world. Hence all the fruitless industry to account for the ill appearances of nature, and save the honour of the gods ; while we must acknowledge the reality of that evil and disorder, with which the world so much abounds. The obstinate and intractable qualities of matter, we are told, or the observance of general laws, or some such reason, is the sole cause, which controlled the power and benevolence of Jupiter, and obliged him to create mankind and every sensible creature so imperfect and so unhappy. These attributes then, are, it seems, beforehand, taken for granted, in their greatest latitude. And upon that supposition, I own HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 147 that such conjectures may, perhaps, be admitted as plausible solutions of the ill phenomena. But still I ask. Why take these attributes for granted, or why ascribe to the cause any qualities but what actually appear in the effect ? Why torture your brain to jus- tify the course of nature upon suppositions, which, for aught you know, may be entirely imaginary, and of which there are to be found no traces in the course of nature ? The religious hypothesis, therefore, must be con- sidered only as a particular method of accounting for the visible phenomena of the universe : but no just reasoner will ever presume to infer from it any single fact, and alter or add to the phenomena, in any single particular. If you think, that the appearances of things prove such causes, it is allowable for you to draw an inference concerning the existence of these causes. In such complicated and sublime subjects, every one should be indulged in the liberty of conjec- ture and argument. But here you ought to rest. If you come backward, and arguing from your inferred causes, conclude, that any other fact has existed, or will exist, in the course of nature, which may serve as a fuller display of particular attributes ; I must ad- monish you, that you have departed from the method of reasoning, attached to the present subject, and have certainly added something to the attributes of the cause, beyond what appears in the effect ; other- wise you could never, with tolerable sense or pro- priety, add anything to the effect, in order to render it more worthy of the cause. Where, then, is the odiousness of that doctine, which I teach in my school, or rather, whicn I exam- ine in my gardens ? Or what do you find in this 148 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING whole question, wherein the security of good morals, or the peace and order of society, is in the least con- cerned ? I deny a providence, you say, and supreme gov- ernor of the world, who guides the course of events, and punishes the vicious with infamy and disappoint- ment, and rewards the virtuous with honour and suc- cess, in all their undertakings. But surely, I deny not the course itself of events, which lies open to every one's inquiry and examination. I acknowledge, that, in the present order of things, virtue is attended with more peace of mind than vice, and meets with a more favourable reception from the world. I am sen- sible, that, according to the past experience of man- kind, friendship is the chief joy of human life, and moderation the only source of tranquillity and happi- ness. I never balance between the virtuous and the vicious course of life; but am sensible, that, to a well- disposed mind, every advantage is on the side of the former. And what can you say more, allowing all your suppositions and reasonings ? You tell me, indeed, that this disposition of things proceeds from intelligence and design. But whatever it proceeds from, the disposition itself, on which depends our happiness or misery, and consequently our conduct and deportment in life is still the same. It is still open for me, as well as you, to regulate my behaviour, by my experience of past events. And if you affirm, that, while a divine providence is allowed, and a su- preme distributive justice in the universe, I ought to expect some more particular reward of the good, and punishment of the bad, beyond the ordinary course of events; I here find the same fallacy, which I have before endeavoured to detect. You persist in imagin- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 149 ing, that, if we grant that divine existence, for which you so earnestly contend, you may safely infer conse- quences from it, and add something to the experienced order of nature, by arguing from the attributes which you ascribe to your gods. You seem not to remember, that all your reasonings on this subject can only be drawn from effects to causes; and that every argu- ment^ deducted from causes to effects, must of neces- sity be a gross sophism; since it is impossible for you to know anything of the cause, but what you have antecedently, not inferred, but discovered to the full, in the effect. But what must a philosopher think of those vain reasoners, who, instead of regarding the present scene of things as the sole object of their contemplation, so far reverse the whole course of nature, as to render this life merely a passage to something farther; a porch, which leads to a greater, and vastly different building ; a prologue, which serves only to introduce the piece, and give it more grace and propriety? Whence, do you think, can such philosophers derive their idea of the gods? From their own conceit and imagination surely. For if they derived it from the present phenomena, it would never point to anything farther, but must be exactly adjusted to them. That the divinity may possibly be endowed with attributes, which we have never seen exerted ; may be governed by principles of action, which we cannot discover to be satisfied : all this will freely be allowed. But still this is mere possibility and hypothesis. We never can have reason to infer any attributes, or any principles of action in him, but so far as we know them to have been exerted and satisfied. Are there any marks of a distributive justice in the I50 AN ENQUIR V CONCERNING world ? If you answer in the affirmative, I conclude, that, since justice here exerts itself, it is satisfied. If you reply in the negative, I conclude, that you have then no reason to ascribe justice, in our sense of it, to the gods. If you hold a medium between affirma- tion and negation, by saying, that the justice of the gods, at present, exerts itself in part, but not in its full extent; I answer, that you have no reason to give it any particular extent, but only so far as you see it, at present, exert itself. Thus I bring the dispute, O Athenians, to a short issue with my antagonists. The course of nature lies open to my contemplation as well as to theirs. The experienced train of events is the great standard, by which we all regulate our conduct. Nothing else can be appealed to in the field, or in the senate. Nothing else ought ever to be heard of in the school, or in the closet. In vain would our limited understanding break through those boundaries, which are too narrow for our fond imagination. While we argue from the course of nature, and infer a particular intelligent cause, which first bestowed, and still preserves order in the universe, we embrace a principle, which is both un- certain and useless. It is uncertain; because the sub- ject lies entirely beyond the reach of human experi- ence. It is useless ; because our knowledge of this cause being derived entirely from the course of nature, we can never, according to the rules of just reasoning, return back from the cause with any new inference, or making additions to the common and experienced course of nature, establish any new principles of con- duct and behaviour. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 15X I observe (said I, finding he had finished his ha. rangue) that you neglect not the artifice of the dema- gogues of old ; and as you were pleased to make me stand for the people, you insinuate yourself into my favour by embracing those principles, to which, you know, I have always expressed a particular attach- ment. But allowing you to make experience (as in- deed I think you ought) the only standard of our judgement concerning this, and all other questions of fact ; I doubt not but, from the very same experience, to which you appeal, it may be possible to refute this reasoning, which you have put into the mouth of Epi- curus. If you saw, for instance, a half-finished build- ing, surrounded with heaps of brick and stone and mortar, and all the instruments of masonry; could you not infer from the effect, that it was a work of design and contrivance ? And could you not return again, from this inferred cause, to infer new additions to the effect, and conclude, that the building would soon be finished, and receive all the further improvements, which art could bestow upon it ? If you saw upon the sea-shore the print of one human foot, you would conclude, that a man had passed that way, and that he had also left the traces of the other foot, though effaced by the rolling of the sands or inundation of the waters. Why then do you refuse to admit the same method of reasoning with regard to the order of na- ture? Consider the world and the present life only as an imperfect building, from which you can infer a su- perior intelligence; and arguing from that superior intelligence, which can leave nothing imperfect ; why may you not infer a more finished scheme or plan, which will receive its completion in some distant point of space or time? Are not these methods of reasoning 152 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING exactly similar? Ahd under what pretence can you embrace the one, while you reject the other? The infinite difference of the subjects, replied he, is a sufficient foundation for this difference in my con- clusions. In works of human art and contrivance, it is allowable to advance from the effect to the cause, and returning back from the cause, to form new inferences concerning the effect, and examine the alterations, which it has probably undergone, or may still undergo. But what is the foundation of this method of reasoning? Plainly this : that man is a being, whom we know by experience, whose motives and designs we are ac- quainted with, and whose projects and inclinations have a certain connexion and coherence, according to the laws which nature has established for the govern- ment of such a creature. When, therefore, we find, that any work has proceeded from the skill and indus- try of man ; as we are otherwise acquainted with the nature of the animal, we can draw a hundred infer- ences concerning what may be expected from him ; and these inferences will all be founded in experience and observation. But did we know man only from the single work or production which we examine, it were impossible for us to argue in this manner; be- cause our knowledge of all the qualities, which we ascribe to him, being in that case derived from the production, it is impossible they could point to any- thing further, or be the foundation of any new infer- ence. The print of a foot in the sand can only prove, when considered alone, that there was some figure adapted to it, by which it was produced: but the print of a human foot proves likewise, from our other expe- rience, that there was probably another foot, which also left its impression, though effaced by time or HUMAN UNDERSTANDING 153 Other accidents. Here we mount from the effect to the cause; and descending again from the cause, infer alterations in the effect \ but this is not a continuation of the same simple chain of reasoning. We compre- hend in this case a hundred other experiences and observations, concerning the usual figure and members of that species of animal, without which this method of argument must be considered as fallacious and sophistical. The case is not the same with our reasonings from the works of nature. The Deity is known to us only by his productions, and is a single being in the uni- verse, not comprehended under any species or genus, from whose experienced attributes or qualities, we can, by analogy, infer any attribute or quality in him. As the universe shews wisdom and goodness, we infer wisdom and goodness. As it shews a particular de- gree of these perfections, we infer a particular degree of them, precisely adapted to the effect which we ex- amine. But further attributes or further degrees of the same attributes, we can never be authorised to infer or suppose, by any rules of just reasoning. Now, without some such license of supposition, it is impos- sible for us to argue from the cause, or infer any alter- ation in the effect, beyond what has immediately fallen under our observation. Greater good produced by this Being must still prove a greater degree of good- ness : a more impartial distribution of rewards and punishments must proceed from a greater regard to justice and equity. Every supposed addition to the works of nature makes an addition to the attributes of the Author of nature; and consequently, being en- tirely unsupported by any reason or argument, can \ 154 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING never be admitted but as mere conjecture and hy' pothesis.^ ' The great source of our mistake in this subject, and of the unbounded licence of conjecture, which we indulge, is, that we tacitly consider ourselves, as in the place of the Supreme Being, and conclude, that he will, on every occasion, observe the same conduct, which we ourselves, in his situation, would have em- braced as reasonable and eligible. But, besides that the ordinary course of nature may convince us, that almost everything is regulated by principles and max- ims very different from ours; besides this, I say, it must evidently appear contrary to all rules of analogy to reason, from the intentions and project of men, tos those of a Being so different, and so much superior. In human nature, there is a certain experienced co- herence of designs and inclinations; so that when, from any fact, we have discovered one intention of any man, it may often be reasonable, from experience, to infer another, and draw a long chain of conclusions concerning his past or future conduct. But this 1 In general, it may, I think, be established as a maxim, that where any cause is known only by its particular effects, it must be impossible to infer any new effects from that cause; since the qualities, which are requisite to produce these new effects along with the former, must either be different, or superior, or of more extensive operation, than those which simply produced the effect, whence alone the cause is supposed to be known to us. We can never, therefore, have any reason to suppose the existence of these qualities. To say, that the new effects proceed only from a continuation of the same energy, which is already known from the first effects, will not remove the difficulty. For even granting this to be the case (which can seldom be sup- posed), the very continuation and exertion of a like energy (for it is impos- sible it can be absolutely the same), I say, this exertion of a like energy, in a different period of space and time, is a very arbitrary supposition, and what there cannot possibly be any traces of in the effects, from winch all our knowledge of the cause is originally derived. Let the inferred cause be exactly proportioned (as it should be) to the known effect ; and it is impos- sible that it can possess any qualities, from which new or different effects can be inferred. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 155 method of reasoning can never have place with regard to a Being, so remote and incomprehensible, who bears much less analogy to any other being in the uni- verse than the sun to a waxen taper, and who dis- covers himself only by some faint traces or outlines, beyond which we have no authority to ascribe to him any attribute or perfection. What we imagine to be a superior perfection, may really be a defect. Or were it ever so much a perfection, the ascribing of it to the Supreme Being, where it appears not to have been really exerted, to the full, in his works, savours more of flattery and panegyric, than of just reasoning and sound philosophy. All the philosophy, therefore, in the world, and all the religion, which is nothing but a species of philosophy, will never be able to carry us beyond the usaal course of experience, or give us measures of conduct and behaviour different from those which are furnished by reflections on common life. No new fact can ever be inferred from the reli- gious hypothesis ; no event foreseen or foretold ; no reward or punishment expected or dreaded, beyond what is already known by practice and observation. So that my apology for Epicurus will still appear solid and satisfactory ; nor have the political interests of society any connexion with the philosophical dis- putes concerning metaphysics and religion. There is still one circumstance, replied I, which you seem to have overlooked. Though I should allow your premises, I must deny your conclusion. You conclude, that religious doctrines and reasonings can have no influence on life, because they ought to have no influence ; never considering, that men reason not in the same manner you do, but draw many conse- quences from the belief of a divine Existence, and sup- 156 A17 ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING pose that the Deity will inflict punishments on vice, and bestow rewards on virtue, beyond what appear in the ordinary course of nature. Whether this reason- ing of theirs be just or not, is no matter. Its influence on their life and conduct must still be the same. And, those, who attempt to disabuse them of such preju- dices, may, for aught I know, be good reasoners, but I cannot allow them to be good citizens and politicians; since they free men from one restraint upon their pas- sions, and make the infringement of the laws of soci- ety, in one respect, more easy and secure. After all, I may, perhaps, agree to your general conclusion in favour of liberty, though upon different premises from those, on which you endeavour to found it. I think, that the state ought to tolerate every principle of philosophy; nor is there an instance, that any government has suffered in its political interests by such indulgence. There is no enthusiasm among philosophers ; their doctrines are not very alluring to the people ; and no restraint can be put upon their reasonings, but what must be of dangerous conse- quence to the sciences, and even to the state, by pav- ing the way for persecution and oppression in points, where the generality of mankind are more deeply in- terested and concerned. But there occurs to me (continued I) with regard to your main topic, a difficulty, which I shall just pro- pose to you without insisting on it ; lest it lead into reasonings of too nice and delicate a nature. In a word, I much doubt whether it be possible for a cause to be known only by its effect (as you have all along supposed) or to be of so singular and particular a na- ture as to have no parallel and no similarity with any other cause or object, that has ever fallen under our HUMAN UNDERSTANDING 157 observation J It is only when two species of objects are found to be constantly conjoined, that we can infer the one from the other ; and were an effect presented, which was entirely singular, and could not be compre- hended under any known species, I do not see, that we could form any conjecture or inference at all concern- ing its cause. If experience and observation and analogy be, indeed, the only guides which we can rea- sonably follow in inferences of this nature ; both the effect and cause must bear a similarity and resemblance to other effects and causes, which we know, and which we have found, in many instances, to be conjoined with each other. I leave it to your own reflection to pursue the consequences of th'is principle. I shall just observe, that, as the antagonists of Epicurus always suppose the universe, an effect quite singular and un- paralleled, to be the proof of a Deity, a cause no less singular and unparalleled ; your reasonings, upon that supposition, seem, at least, to merit our attention. There is, I own, some difficulty, how we can ever re- turn from the cause to the effect, and, reasoning from our ideas of the former, infer any alteration on the latter, or any addition to it. SECTION XII. OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHy Part I. THERE is not a greater number of philosophical reasonings, displayed upon any subject, than those, which prove the existence of a Deity, and refute the fallacies of Atheists', and yet the most religious philosophers still dispute whether any man can be so blinded as to be a speculative atheist. How shall we reconcile these contraditions? The knights-errant, who wandered about to clear the world of dragons and giants, never entertained the least doubt with regard to the existence of these monsters. The Sceptic is another enemy of religion, who nat- urally provokes the indignation of all divines and graver philosophers ; though it is certain, that no man ever met with any such absurd creature, or conversed with a man, who had no opinion or principle concern- ing any subject, either of action,^ speculation. This begets a very natural question j What is meant by a sceptic? And how far is it possible to push these phil- osophical principles of doubt and uncertainty ?_' There is a species of scepticism, antecedent to all study and philosophy, which is much inculcated by Des Cartes and others, as a sovereign preservative against error and precipitate judgement. It recom- mends an universal doubt, not only of all our former HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 159 opinions and principles, but also of our very faculties; of whose veracity, say they, we must assure ourselves, by a chain of reasoning, deduced from some original principle, which cannot possibly be fallacious or de- | ceitful. \ But neither is there any such original prin- ciple, which has a prerogative above others, that are self-evident and convincing : or if there were, could we advance a step beyond it, but by the use of those very faculties, of which we are supposed to be already diffident. The Cartesian doubt, therefore, were it ever possible to be attamed by any human creature (as it/i plainly is not) would be entirely incurable; and no ' reasoning could ever bring us to a state of assurance and conviction upon any subject. It must, however, be confessed, that this species of scepticism, when more moderate, may be understood in a very reasonable sense, and is a necessary prepar- ative to the study of philosophy, by preserving a proper impartiality in our judgements, and weaning our mind from all those prejudices, which we may have imbibed from education or rash opinion. To begin with clear and self-evident principles, to advance by timorous and sure steps, to review frequently our conclusions, and examine accurately all their consequences; though by these means we shall make both a slow and a short progress in our systems ; are the only methods, by which we can ever hope to reach truth, and attain a proper stability and certainty in our determinations. There is another species of scepticism, consequent to science and enquiry, when men are supposed to have discovered either the absolute fallaciousness of their mental faculties, or their unfitness to reach any fixed determination in all those curious subjects of speculation, about which they are commonly em- i x6o Air ENQUIRY CONCERNING ployed. Even our very senses are brought into dis- pute, by a certain species of philosophers; and the maxims of common life are subjected to the same doubt as the most profound principles or conclusions of metaphysics and theology. As these paradoxical tenets (if they may be called tenets) are to be met w^ith in some philosophers, and the refutation of them in several, they naturally excite our curiosity, and make us enquire into the arguments, on which they may be founded. / I need not insist upon the more trite topics, em- ployed by the sceptics in all ages, against the evidence of sense; such as those which are derived from the im- perfection and fallaciousness of our organs, on num- berless occasions ; the crooked appearance of an oar in water; the various aspects of objects, according to their different distances; the double images which arise from the pressing one eye; with many other iappearances of a like nature. These sceptical topics, lindeed, are only sufficient to prove, that the senses 'alone are not implicitly to be depended on; but that we must correct their evidence by reason, and by con- siderations, derived from the nature of the medium, the distance of the object, and the disposition of the organ, in order to render them, within their sphere, the proper criteria of truth and falsehood. There are other more profound arguments against the senses, which admit not of so easy a solution. It seems evident, that men are carried, by a natural instinct or prepossession, to repose faith in their senses ; and that, without any reasoning, or even al- most before the use of reason, iwe always suppose an external universe, which depends not on our percep- , 1 tion, but would exist, though we and every sensible I HUMAN' UNDERSTANDING, i6i creature were absent or annihilated. Even the animal creation are governed by a like opinion, and preserve this belief of external objects, in all their thoughts, designs, and actions. It seems also evident, that, when men follow this blind and powerful instinct of nature, they always suppose the very images, presented by the senses, to be the external objects, and never entertain any sus- picion, that the one are nothing but representations of the other. This very table, which we see white, and f^hich we feel hard, is believed to exist, independent of our perception, and to be something external to our mind, which perceives it. Our presence bestows not being on it : our absence does not annihilate it. It preserves its existence uniform and entire, independ- ent of the situation of intelligent beings, who perceive or contemplate it. But this universal and primary opinion of all men is soon destroyed by the slightest philosophy, which teaches us, that]'nothing can ever be present to the mind but an image or perception] and that the senses are only the inlets, through wliich these images are conveyed, without being able to produce any immedi- ate intercourse between the mind and the object. The table, which we see, seems to diminish, as we remove farther from it : but the real table, which exists inde- pendent of us, suffers no alteration : it was, therefore, nothing but its image, which was present to the mind. These are the obvious dictates of reason; and no man, who reflects, ever doubted, that the existences, which we consider, when we say, this house and that treCy are nothing but perceptions in the mind, and fleeting copies or representations of other existences, which remain uniform and independent. i6a AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING So far, then, are we necessitated by reasoning to contradict or depart from the primary instincts of na- ture, and to embrace a new system with regard to the evidence of our senses. But here philosophy finds herself extremely embarrassed, when she would justify this new system, and obviate the cavils and objections of the sceptics. She can no longer plead the infallible and irresistible Instinct of nature : for that led us to a quite different system, which is acknowledged fallible and even erroneous. And to justify this pretended philosophical system, by a chain of clear and convin- cing argument, or even any appearance of argument, exceeds the power of all human capacity. By what argument can it be proved, that the percep. 1 tlons of the mind must be caused by external obiects, I entirely different from them, though resembling them (if that be possible) and could not arise either from the energy of the mind Itself, or from the suggestion of some invisible and unknown spirit, or from some other cause still more unknown to us? It is acknowl- edged, that, in fact, many of these perceptions arise not from anything external, as in dreams, madness, and other diseases. And nothing can be more expli- cable than the manner, in which body should so op- erate upon mind as ever to convey an Image of itself to a substance, supposed of so different, and even contrary a nature. It is a question of fact, whether the perceptions of the senses be produced by external objects, resem- I bling them : how shall this question be determined ? By experience surely ; as all other questions of a like nature. But here experience is, and must be entirely silent. The mind has never anything present to it but the perceptions, and cannot possibly reach any expe- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 163 ;/ rience of their connexion with objects. The supposi- tion of such a connexion is, therefore, without any, foundation in reasoning. To have recourse to the veracity of the supreme Being, in order to prove the veracity of our senses, is surely making a very unexpected circuit. If his vera- city were at all concerned in this matter, our senses would be entirely infallible; because it is not possible that he can ever deceive. Not to mention, that, i|[Jhe external world be once called in question, we shall be ata loss to find arguments, by which we may prove the existence of that Being or any of his attributes. This is a topic, therefore, in which the profounder and more philosophical sceptics will always triumph, when they endeavour to introduce an universal doubt into all subjects of human knowledge and enquiry. Do you follow the instincts and propensities of nature, may they say, in assenting to the veracity of sense ? But these lead you to believe that the very perception or sensible image is the external object. Do you dis- claim this principle, in order to embrace a more ra- tional opinion, that the perceptions are only represen tations of something external? You here depart from your natural propensities and more obvious sentiments; and yet are not able to satisfy your reason, which can never find any convincing argument from experience to prove, that the perceptions are connected with any ] external objects. -^ There is another sceptical topic of a like nature, derived from the most profound philosophy; which might merit our attention, were it requisite to dive so deep, in order to discover arguments and reasonings, which can so little serve to any serious purpose. It is universally allowed by modern enquirers, that aW JJ^ V"" 164 AN- ENQUIRY CONCERNING the sensible qualities of objects, such as hard, soft, hot, cold, white, black, &c. are merely secondary, and exist not in the objects themselves, but are perceptions of the mind, without any external archetype or model, which they represent. If this be allowed, with regard to secondary qualities, it must also follow, with regard to the supposed primary qualities of extension and solidity; nor can the latter be any more entitled to that denomination than the former. The idea of ex- tension is entirely acquired from the senses of sight and feeling ; and if all the qualities, perceived by tne senses, be in the mind, not in the object, the same conclusion must reach the idea of extension, which is wholly dependent on the sensible ideas or the ideas of secondary qualities. Nothing can save us from this conclusion, but the asserting, that the ideas of those primary qualities are attained by Abstraction^ an opin- ion, which, if we examine it accurately, we shall find to be unintelligible, and even absurd. An extension, that is neither tangible nor visible, cannot possibly be conceived : and a tangible or visible extension, which is neither hard nor soft, black or white, isjequally be- yond the reach of human conception. /Let any man try to conceive a triangle in general, which is neither Isosceles nor Scalenum, nor has any particular length or proportion of sides ; and he will soon perceive the absurdity of all the scholastic notions with regard to abstraction and general ideas. ^ IThis argument is drawn from Dr. Berkeley; and indeed most of the writings of that very ingenious author form the best lessons of scepticism, which are to be found either among the ancient or modern philosophers. Bayle not excepted. He professes, however, in his title-page (and undoubt- edly with great truth) to have composed his book against the sceptics as well as against the atheists and free-thinkers. But that all his arguments, though otherwise intended, are, in reality, merely sceptical, appears from this, that they admit o/no answer and produce no conviction. Their only effect is to HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 165 Thus the first philosophical objection to the evi- dence of sense or to the opinion of external existence v,j consists in this, that such an opinion, if rested on nat- ural instinct, is contrary to reason, and if referred to reason, is contrary to natural instinct, and at the same time carries no rational evidence with it, to convince an impartial enquirer. The second objection goes farther, and represents this opinion as contrary to reason : at least, if it be a principle of reason, that all sensible qualities are in the mind, not in the object. Bereave matter of all its intelligible qualities, both primary and secondary, you in a manner annihilate , it, and leave only a certain unknown, inexplicable i something, as the cause of our perceptions ; a notion j so imperfect, that no sceptic will think it worth while to contend against it. . . • \ Part II. It may seem a very extravagant attempt of the sceptics to destroy reason by argument and ratiocina- tion ; yet is this the grand scope of all their enquiries and disputes. They endeavour to find objections, both to our abstract reasonings, and to those which regard matter of fact and existence. The chief objection against all abstract reasonings is derived from the ideas of space and time ; ideas, which, in common life and to a careless view, are very clear and intelligible, but when they pass through the scrutiny of the profound sciences (and they are the chief object of these sciences) afford principles, which seem full of absurdity and contradiction. No priestly cause that momentary amazement and irresolution and confusion, which is the result of scepticism. i66 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING dogmas^ invented on purpose to tame and subdue the rebellious reason of mankind, ever shocked common sense more than the doctrine of the infinite divisibil- ity of extension, with its consequences; as they are pompously displayed by all geometricians and meta- physicians, with a kind of triumph and exultation. A real quantity, infinitely less than any finite quantity, containing quantities infinitely less than itself, and so on in infinitum ; this is an edifice so bold and prodig- ious, that it is too weighty for any pretended demon- stration to support, because it shocks the clearest and most natural principles of human reason.^ But what renders the matter more extraordinary, is, that these seemingly absurd opinions are supported by a chain of reasoning, the clearest and most natural; nor is it possible for us to allow the premises without admit- ting the consequences. Nothing can be more convin- cing and satisfactory than all the conclusions concern- ing the properties of circles and triangles ; and yet» when these are once received, how can we deny, that the angle of contact between a circle and its tangent is infinitely less than any rectilineal angle, that as you may increase the diameter of the circle in infinitum^ this angle of contact becomes still less, even in infini- tum, and that the angle of contact between other curves and their tangents may be infinitely less than those between any circle and its tangent, and so on, in infi- 1 Whatever disputes there may be about mathematical points^-'we must allow that there are physical points; that is, parts of extension, which cannot be divided or lessened, either by the eye or imagination. ' These images, then, which are present to the fancy or senses, are absolutely indivisible, and consequently must be allowed by mathematicians to be infinitely less than any real part of extension ; and yet nothing appears more certain to reason, than that an infinite number of them composes an infinite extension. How much more an infinite number of those infinitely small parts of extension* which are still supposed infinitely divisible. - HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, 167 nitum ? The demonstration of these principles seems as unexceptionable as that which proves the three angles of a triangle to be equal to two right ones, though the latter opinion be natural and easy, and the former big with contradiction and absurdity. Reason here seems to be thrown into a kind of amazement and suspence, which, without the suggestions of any scep- tic, gives her a diffidence of herself, and of the ground on which she treads. She sees a full light, which illu- minates certain places ; but that light borders upon the most profound darkness. And between these she is so dazzled and confounded, that she scarcely can pronounce with certainty and assurance concerning any one object. The absurdity of these bold determinations of the abstract sciences seems to become, if possible, still more palpable with regard to time than extension. An infinite number of real parts of time, passing in succession, and exhausted one after another, appears so evident a contradiction, that no man, one should think, whose judgement is not corrupted, instead of being improved, by the sciences, would ever be able to admit of it. Yet still reason must remain restless, and unquiet, even with regard to that scepticism, to which she is driven by these seeming absurdities and contradic- tions. How any clear, distinct idea can contain cir- cumstances, contradictory to itself, or to any other clear, distinct idea, is absolutely incomprehensible; and is, perhaps, as absurd as any proposition, which can be formed. So that nothing can be more scep- tical, or more full of doubt and hesitation, than this scepticism itself, which arises *rom some of the par- i z68 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING adoxicai conclusions of geometry or the science of quantity.^ The sceptical objections to moral evidence, or to the reasonings concerning matter of fact, are either popular or philosophical The popular objections are derived from the natural weakness of human under- standing; the contradictory opinions, which have been entertained in different ages and nations ; the varia- tions of our judgement in sickness and health, youth and old age, prosperity and adversity ; the perpetual contradiction of each particular man's opinions and sentiments ; with many other topics of that kind. It is needless to insist farther on this head. These objec- tions are but weak. For as, in common life, we rea- son every moment concerning fact and existence, and cannot possibly subsist, without continually employing this species of argument, any popular objections, de- rived from thence, must be insufficient to destroy that evidence. The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of scepticism is action, and em- ployment, and the occupations of common life. These v^ 1 It seems to me not impossible to avoid these absurdities and contradic- tions, if it be admitted, that there is no such thing as abstract or general ideas, properly speaking; but that all general ideas are, in reality, particular- ones, attached to a general term, which recalls, upon occasion, other partic- ular ones, that resemble, in certain circumstances, the idea, present to the mind. Thus when the term Horse is pronounced, we immediately figure to ourselves the idea of a black or a white animal, of a particular size or figure: But as that term is also usually applied to animals of other colours, figures and sizes, these ideas, though not actually present to the imagination, are easily recalled; and our reasoning and conclusion proceed in the same way, as if they were actually present. If this be admitted (as seems reasonable) it follows that all the ideas of quantity, upon which mathematicians reason, are nothing but particular, and such as are suggested by the senses and im- agination, and consequently, cannot be infinitely divisible. It is sufi5cient to have dropped this hint at present, without prosecuting it any farther. It cer tainly concerns all lovers of science not to expose themselves to the ridicule and contempt of the ignorant by their conclusions ; and this seems the readi- est solution of these difficulties. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 169 principles may flourish and triumph in the schools ; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to re- fute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish] like smoke, and leave the most determined sceptic inj the same condition as other mortals. The sceptic, therefore, had better keep within his proper sphere, and display those philosophical objec- tions, which arise from more profound researches. Here he seems to have ample matter of triumph; while he justly insists, that all our evidence for any matter of fact, which lies beyond the testimony of sense or memory, is derived entirely from the relation of cause and effect ; that we have no other idea of this relation than that of two objects, which have been frequently conjoined together ; that we have no argu- ment to convince us, that objects, which have, in our experience, been frequently conjoined, will likewise, in other instances, be conjoined in the same manner ; and that nothing leads us to this inference but custom or a certain instinct of our nature ; which it is indeed difficult to resist, but which, like other instincts, may j be fallacious and deceitful. While the sceptic insists upon these topics, he shows his force, or rather, in- deed, his own and our weakness ; and seems, for the time at least, to destroy all assurance and conviction. These arguments might be displayed at greater length if any durable good or benefit to society could ever be expected to result from them. For here is the chief and most confounding objec- [ tion to excessive scepticism, that no durable good can I ever result from it ; while it remains in its full force I ;/ rl I70 AN ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING and vigour. We need only ask such a sceptic, What his meaning is? And what he proposes by all these curious researches ? He is immediately at a loss, and knows not what to answer. A Copernican or Ptolemaic, who supports each his different system of astronomy, may hope to produce a conviction, which will remain con- stant and durable, with his audience. A Stoic or Epicurean displays principles, which may not be dur- able, but which have an effect on conduct and beha- Iviour. But a Pyrrhonian cannot expect, that his phi- losophy will have any constant influence on the mind : ©r if it had, that its influence would be beneficial to I Society. On the contrary, he must acknowledge, if he jwill acknowledge anything, that all human life must Iperish, were his principles universally and steadily to jprevail. All discourse, all action would immediately Icease ; and men remain in a total lethargy, till the •necessities of nature, unsatisfied, put an end to their miserable existence. It is true ; so fatal an event is very little to be dreaded. Nature is always too strong for principle. And though a Pyrrhonian may throw II himself or others into a momentary amazement and \ confusion by his profound reasonings; the first and most trival event in life will put to flight all his doubts and scruples, and leave him the same, in every point of action and speculation, with the philosophers of every other sect, or with those who never concerned I themselves in any philosophical researches. When he I awakes from his dream, he will be the first to join in the laugh against himself, and to confess, that all his , objections are mere amusement, and can have no [ other tendency than to show the whimsical condition I of mankind, who must act and reason and believe ; though they are not able, by their most diligent en- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 171 quiry, to satisfy themselves concerning the foundation / of these operations, or to remove the objections, which* may be raised against them. Part III. There is, indeed, a more mitigated scepticism or academical philosophy, which may be both durable and useful, and which may, in part, be the result of this Pyrrhonism, or excessive scepticism, when its un- distinguished doubts are, in some measure, corrected by common sense and reflection. The greater part of mankind are naturally apt to be affirmative and dog- matical in their opinions ; and while they see objects only on one side, and have no idea of any counterpois- ing argument, they throw themselves precipitately into the principles, to which they are inclined ; nor have they any indulgence for those who entertain op- posite sentiments. To hesitate or balance perplexes their understanding, checks their passion, and sus- pends their action. They are, therefore, impatient till they escape from a state, which to them is so un- easy : and they think, that they could never remove themselves far enough from it, by the violence of their affirmations and obstinacy of their belief. But could such dogmatical reasoners become sensible of the strange infirmities of human understanding, even in its most perfect state, and when most accurate and cautious in its determinations; such a reflection would naturally inspire them with more modesty and reserve, and diminish their fond opinion of themselves, and their prejudice against antagonists. The illiterate may reflect on the disposition of the learned, who, amidst all the advantages of study and reflection, are \ 172 A AT ENQ UIR Y CONCERNING commonly still diffident In their determinations : and if any of the learned be inclined, from their natural temper, to haughtiness and obstinacy, a small tincture of Pyrrhonism might abate their pride, by showing them, that the few advantages, which they may have attained over their fellows, are but inconsiderable, if compared with the universal perplexity and confusion, which is inherent in human nature. In general, there is a degree of doubt, and caution, and modesty, which, in all kinds of scrutiny and decision, ought for ever to accompany a just reasoner. Another species of mitigated scepticism which may be of advantage to mankind, and which may be the natural result of the Pyrrhonian doubts and scruples, is the limitation of our enquiries to such subjects as are best adapted to the narrow capacity of human understanding. The imagination of man is naturally sublime, delighted with whatever is remote and extra- ordinary, and running, without control, into the most distant parts of space and time in order to avoid the objects, which custom has rendered too familiar to it. A correct judgement observes a contrary method, and avoiding all distant and high enquiries, confines itself to common life, and to such subjects as fall under daily practice and experience ; leaving the more sub- lime topics to the embellishment of poets and orators, or to the arts of priests and politicians. To bring us to so salutary a determination, nothing can be more serviceable, than to be once thoroughly convinced of the force of the Pyrrhonian doubt, and of the impos- sibility, that anything, but the strong power of natural instinct, could free us from it. Those who have a propensity to philosophy, will still continue their re- searches; because they reflect, that, besides the im- HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 173 mediate pleasure, attending such an occupation, phil- osophical decisions are nothing but the reflections of common life, methodized and corrected. But they will never be tempted to go beyond common life, so long as they consider the imperfection of those facul- ties which they employ, their narrow reach, and their inaccurate operations. While we cannot give a satis- factory reason, why we believe, after a thousand expe- riments, that a stone will fall, or fire burn; can we ever satisfy ourselves concerning any determination, which we may form, with regard to the origin of worlds, and the situation of nature, from, and to eternity ? This narrow limitation, indeed, of our enquiries, is, in every respect, so reasonable^ithat it suffices to make the slightest examination into the natural pow- ers of the human mind and to compare them with their objects, in order to recommend it to us. We shall then find what are the proper subjects of science and enquiry. It seems to me, that the only objects of the abstract science or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect spe- cies of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere soph- istry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number aire'entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more cu- rious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums their equality or inequality, through their different appearances. But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to" observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely I 174 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides, cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly de- fined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a vio- lation of property. This proposition is, indeed, noth- ing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, ^hich may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. All other enquiries of men regard only matter of fact and existence ; and these are evidently incapable of demonstration. Whatever is may not be. No nega- tion of a fact can involve a contradiction. The non- existence of any being, without exception, is as clear and distinct an idea as its existence. The proposition, which affirms it not to be, however false, is no less conceivable and intelligible, than that which affirms it to be. The case is different with the sciences, properly so called. Every proposition, which is not true, is there confused and unintelligible. That the cube root of 64 is equal to the half of 10, is a false proposition, and can never be distinctly conceived. But that Cae- sar, or the angel Gabriel, or any being never existed, may be a false proposition, but still is perfectly con- ceivable, and implies no contradiction. The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect ; and these arguments are founded entirely on experience. HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 175 If we reason a priori, anything may appear able to produce anything. The falling of a pebble may, for aught we know, extinguish the sun; or the wish of a man control the planets in their orbits. It is only ex-\ perience, which teaches us the nature and bounds of cause and effect, and enables us to infer the existence of one object from that of another.^ Such is the foun- dation of moral reasoning, which forms the greater part of human knowledge, and is the source of all human action and behaviour. Moral reasonings are either concerning particular or general facts. All deliberations in life regard the for- mer ; as also all disquisitions in history, chronology, geography, and astronomy. The sciences, which treat of general facts, are pol- itics, natural philosophy, physic, chemistry, &c. where the qualities, causes and effects of a whole species of objects are enquired into. Divinity or Theology, as It proves the existence of a i^eity, and the immortality of souls, is composed partly of reasonings concerning particular, partly con- cerning general factSo It has a foundation in reason, so far as it is supported by experience. But its best and most solid foundation is faith and divine reve lation. Morals and criticism are not so properly objects of the understanding as of taste and sentiment. Beauty, whether moral or natural, is felt, more properly than perceived. Or if we reason concerning it, and endeav- our to fix its standard, we regard a new fact, to wit, i That impious maxim of tha ancient philosophy, Ex niktlo, nihil fit, by which the creation of matter was excluded, ceases to be a maxim; according to this philosophy. Not only the wiH of the supreme Being may create mat- ter; but, for aught we know a priori, the will of any other being might create it, or any other cause, that the most whimsical imagination can assign. 176 AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING the general tastes of mankind, or some such fact, which may be the object of reasoning and enquiry. When we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we make ? If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphys- ics, for instance; let us ^iSY^Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number ? No. Does it \ ''contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence ? No. Commit it then to the flames;^ for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. SELECTIONS FROM A TREA TISE OF HUMAN NA TUBE BOOK I, BY DAVID HUME A TREATISE O F Human Nature: BEING An Attempt to introduce the ex- perimental Method of Reafoning I NTO MORAL SUBJECTS. Rara temporumfelicitas^ ubi /entire^ qucB velis; & qucB fen ias^ dicere licet. Tacit, Book L OF THE UNDERSTANDING. LONDON: Printed for John Noon, at the White-Hart, near Mercer's- Chapel \w Cheapfide. MDCCXXXIX. The Contents of A Treatise of Human Nature BOOK I. Or THE UXDERSTANDINO. PART I. Of ideas; their origin^ composition^ abstraction connexion^ ^c. SECT, PAGE I. Of the origin of our ideas II. Division of the subject .... III. Of the ideas of the memory and imagination IV. Of the connexion or association of ideas V. Of relations ..... VI. Of modes and substances VII. Of abstract ideas . . . . , 227 PART II. Of the ideas of space and time. I. Of the infinite divisibility of our ideas of space and time ........ II. Of the infinite divisibility of space and time . III. Of the other qualities of our ideas of space and time IV. Objections answer'd ...... V. The same subject continu'd VI. Of the idea of existence and of external existence . 229 PART III. Of knowledge and probability, I. Of knowledge 185 II. Of probability; and of the idea of cause and effect . 190 III. Why a cause is always necessary? .... 197 * Only the sections thus indicated are here reproduced. l82 CONTENTS. SECT. IV. Of the component parts of our reasonings concerning causes and effects ..... V. Of the impressions of the senses and memory . VI. Of the inference from the impression to the idea VII. Of the nature of the idea, or belief VIII. Of the causes of behef ..... IX. Of the effects of other relations, and other habits X. Of the influence of belief .... XI. Of the probability of chances . . • XII. Of the probability of causes .... XIII. Of unphilosophical probability *XIV. Of the idea of necessary connexion XV. Rules by which to judge of causes and effects XVI. Of the reason of animals .... 202 PART IV. Of the sceptical and other systems of philosophy I. Of scepticism with regard to reason II. Of scepticism with regard to the senses III. Of the antient philosophy IV. Of the modern philosophy V. Of the immateriality of the soul VI. Of personal identity VII. Conclusion of this book Appendix .... 232 245 260 * Only the sections thus indicated are here reproduced. THE DOCTRINE OF CAUSALITY SELECTIONS FROM BOOK /., PART III. BOOK I. PART III. OF KNOWLEDGE AND PROBABILITY. Section I. Of knowledge. There are^ seven different kinds of philosophical relation, vis. resemblance, identity, relations of time and place, proportion in quantity or number, degrees in any quality, contrariety, and causation. These re- lations may be divided into two classes; into such as] depend entirely on the ideas, which we compare to- gether, and such as may be changed without any change in the ideas. 'Tis from the idea of a triangle,^ that we discover the relation of equality, which its three angles bear to two right ones ; and this relation is invariable, as long as our idea remains the same. On the^ntrary;, the relations of contiguity and dis- iance betwixt two objects may be chang'd merely by an alteration of their place, without any change on the objects"^ themselves or on their ideas; and the place depends on a hundred different accidents, which can- not be foreseen by the mind. 'Tis the same case with identity and causation. Two objects, tho' perfectly re- sembling each other, and even appearing in the same place at different times, may be numerically different: And as the power, by which one object produces an other, is never discoverable merely from their id 1 Part I., Sect V. -f- i86 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III I 'tis evident cause and effect are relations, of which we receive information from experience, and not from any abstract reasoning or reflexion. There is no single phaenomenon, even the most simple, which can be accounted for from the qualities of the objects, as they appear to us; or which we cou'd foresee without the help of our memory and experience. It appears, therefore, that of these seven philo- sophical relations, there remain only four, which de- pending solely upon ideas, can be the objects of knowl- edge and certainty. These four are resemblance, con- trariety, degrees in quality, and proportions in quan- tity or number. Three of these relations are discover- able at first sight, and fall more properly under the province of intuition than demonstration. When any objects resemble each other, the resemblance will at first strike the eye, or rather the mind; and seldom requires a second examination. The case is the same with contrariety, and with the degrees of any quality. No one can once doubt but existence and non-existence destroy each other, and are perfectly incompatible and contrary. And tho' it be impossible to judge exactly of the degrees of any quality, such as colour, taste, heat, cold, when the difference betwixt them is very small ; yet 'tis easy to decide, that any of them is supe- rior or inferior to another, when their difference is considerable. And this decision we always pronounce at first sight, without any enquiry or reasoning. We might proceed, after the same manner, in fixing the proportions of quantity or number, and might at one view observe a superiority or inferiority betwixt any numbers, or figures; especially where the differ- ence is very great-and remarkable. As to equality or any exact proportion, we can only guess at it from a SECT. I BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 187 single consideration ; except in very short numbers, or very limited portions of extension; which are com- prehended in an instant, and where we perceive an impossibility of falling into any considerable error. In all other cases we must settle the proportions with some liberty, or proceed in a more artificial manner. I have already observed, that geometry, or the art, by which we fix the proportions of figures; tho' it much excels, both in universality and exactness, the loose judgments of the senses and imagination; yet never attains a perfect precision and exactness. Its first principles are still drawn from the general appear- ance of the objects ; and that appearance can never af- ford us any security, when we examine the prodigious minuteness of which nature is susceptible. Our ideas seem to give a perfect assurance, that no two right lines can have a common segment; but if we consider these ideas, v/e shall find, that they always suppose a sensible inclination of the two lines, and that where the angle they form is extremely small, we have no standard of a right line so precise, as to assure us of the truth of this proposition. Tis the same case with most of the primary decisions of the mathematics. There remain, therefore, algebra and arithemetic as the only sciences, in which we can carry on a chain of reasoning to any degree of intricacy, and yet pre- serve a perfect exactness and certainty. We are pos- sest of a precise standard, by which we can judge of the equality and proportion of numbers ; and according as they correspond or not to that standard, we deter- mine their relations, without any possibility of error. When two numbers are so combined, as that the one has always an unite answering to every unite of the other, we pronounce them equal ; and 'tis for want of l88 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III such a standard of equality in extension, that geometry can scarce be esteem'd a perfect and infallible science. But here it may not be amiss to obviate a difficulty, which may arise from my asserting, that tho' geometry falls short of that perfect precision and certainty, which are peculiar to arithmetic and algebra, yet it excels the imperfect judgments of our senses and imagination. The reason why I impute any defect to geometry, is, because its original and fundamental principles are deriv'd merely from appearances ; and it may perhaps be imagin'd, that this defect must always attend it, and keep it from ever reaching a greater exactness in the comparison of objects or ideas, than what our eye or imagination alone is able to attain. I own that this defect so far attends it, as to keep it from ever aspiring to a full certainty : But since these fundamental principles depend on the easiest and least deceitful appearances, they bestow on their conse- quences a degree of exactness, of which these conse- quences are singly incapable. 'Tis impossible for the eye to determine the angles of a chiliagon to be equal to 1996 right angles, or to make any conjecture, that approaches this proportion; but when it determines, that right lines cannot concur; that we cannot draw more than one right line between two given points; its mistakes can never be of any consequence. And this is the nature and use of geometry, to run us up to such appearances, as, by reason of their simplicity, cannot lead us into any considerable error. I shall here take occasion to propose a second observation concerning our demonstrative reasonings, which is suggested by the same subject of the mathe- matics. 'Tis usual with mathematicians, to pretend, that those ideas, which are their objects, are of so SECT. I BOOK L OF THE UNDERSTANDING 189 refin'd and spiritual a nature, that they fall not under the conception of the fancy, but must be comprehended by a pure and intellectual view, of which the superior faculties of the soul are alone capable. The same notion runs thro' most parts of philosophy, and is prin- cipally made use of to explain our abstract ideas, and to shew how we can form an idea of a triangle, for instance, which shall neither be an isosceles nor scale- num, nor be confin'd to any particular length and proportion of sides. Tis easy to see, why philosophers are so fond of this notion of some spiritual and refin'd perceptions ; since by that means they cover many of their absurdities, and may refuse to submit to the de- cisions of clear ideas, by appealing to such as are obscure and uncertain. But to destroy this artifice, we need but reflect on that principle so oft insisted on, that all our ideas are copy'd from our impressions. For from thence we may immediately conclude, that since all impressions are clear and precise, the ideas, which are copied from them, must be of the same nature, and can never, but from our fault, contain any thing so dark and intricate. An idea is by its very nature weaker and fainter than an impression ; but being in every other respect the same, cannot imply any very great mystery. If its weakness render it obscure, ' 'tis our business to remedy that defect, as much as possible, by keeping the idea steady and pre- cise; and till we have done so, 'tis in vain to pretend to reasoning and philosophy. Section II. Of probability; and of the idea of cause and effect. This is all I think necessary to observe concerning those four relations, which are the foundation of science; but as to the other three, which depend not upon the idea, and may be absent or present even while that remains the same, 'twill be proper to explain them more particularly. These three relations are identity, the situations in time and place, and causa- tion. All kinds of reasoning consist in nothing but a c ompar ison, and a discovery of those relations, either constant or inconstant, which two or more objects bear to each other. This comparison we may make, either when both the objects are present to the senses, or when neither of them is present, or when only one. When both the objects are present to the senses along with the relation, we call this perception rather than reasoning; nor is there in this case any exercise of the thought, or any action, properly speaking, but a mere passive admission of the impressions thro' the organs of sensation. According to this way of thinking, we ^}^h^ B9^^9 r^^^iv^ ^s reasoning any of the observa- tions we may make concerning identity, and the rela- tions of time and place; since in none of them the mind can go beyond what is immediately present to the senses, either to discover the real existence or the relations of objects. 'Tis only causation, which pro- duces such a conn^ion, as to give us assurance from SECT. II BOOK L OF THE UNDERSTANDING 191 t he existence or action of one object, that 'twas fol- low'd or preceded by any other existence or action; nor can the other two relations be ever made use of in reasoning, except so far as they either affect or are affected by it. There is nothing in any objects to per- swade us, that they are either always remote or always contiguous; and when from experience and observa- tion we discover, that their rela^tt^in this particular is invariable, we always conclu^^^M'e is some secret cause, which separates or unites^^K The same rea- soning extends to identity. We^Hdily suppose an object may continue individually tl^fcne, tho' several times absent from and present t^Ke senses; and ascribe to it an identity, notwithsSnaing the inter- ruption of the perception, whenever we conclude, that if we had kept our eye or hand constantly upon it, it wou'd have convey'd an invariable and uninterrupted perception. But this conclusion beyond the impres sions of our senses can be founded only on the con- nexion of cause and eifect; nor can we otherwise have any security, that the object is not chang'd upon us, however much the new object may resemble that which was formerly present to the senses. Whenever we discover such a perfect resemblance, we consider, whether it be common in that species of objects; whether possibly or probably any cause cou'd operate in producing the change and resemblance ; and accord- ing as we determine concerning these causes and effects, we form our judgment concerning the identity of the object. Here then it appears, that of those three relations, which depend n^Tupon the mere ideas, the only one, that can be trac'd beyond our senses, and informs us of existences and objects, which we do not see or„feel, / 192 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE FART III is^ causatio n. This relation, therefore, we shall en- deavour to explain fully before we leave the subject of the understanding. To begin regularly, we must consider the idea of causation, and see from what origin it is deriv'd. 'Tis impossible to reason justly, without understanding per- fectly the idea concerning which we reason; and 'tis impossible perfec^^p understand any idea, without tracing it up to i^^Hfin, and examining that primary impression, from^^Kn it arises. The examination of the impression t^Bws a clearness on the idea; and the examinatioi^^Pthe idea bestows a like clearness on all our reas^Kg. Let us thereiSe cast our eye on any two objects, which we call cause and effect, and turn them on all sides, in order to find that impression, which produces an idea of such prodigious consequence. At first sight 1 perceive, that I m ust not search f or it in any o^ the particular q iialit ies of the objects; since, which-ever of these qualities I pitch on, I find some object, that is not possest of it, and yet falls under the denomination of cause or effect. And indeed there is nothing existent, either externally or internally, which is not to be con- sider'd either as a cause or an effect; tho' 'tis plain there is no one quality, which universally belongs to all beings, and gives them a title to that denomination. The idea, then, of causation must be deriv'd from some relation among objects; and that relation we must now endeavour to discover. I find in the first place, that whatever objects are consider 'd as causes or effects, are contiguous ; and that nothing can oper- ate in a time or place, which is ever so little remov'd from those of its existence. Tho' distant objects may sometimes seem productive of each other, they are SECT. II BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 193 commonly found upon examination to be link'd by a chain of causes, which are contiguous among them- selves, and to the distant objects; and when in any particular instance we cannot discover this connexion, we still presume it to exist. We may therefore con- sider the relation of contiguity as essential to that ^ of causation; at least may suppose it such, according A to the general opinion, till we can find a more^ proper occasion to clear up this mattgjjjl^ examining what objects are or are not susceptib^Hp juxtaposition and conjunction. ,-;v The second relation I shall observe as essential to causes and effects, is not so universally acknowledg'd, ^^ but is liable to some controversy. Tis that of priority [ ^ of time in the cause before the effect. Some. pretend that 'tis not absolutely necessary a cause shou'd pre- cede its effect; but that any object or action, in the^* ^. very first moment of its existence, may exert its pro- / ^ ductive quality, and give rise to another object or action, perfectly co-temporary with itself. But beside that experience in most instances seems to contradict this opinion, we may establish the relation of priority by a kind of inference or reasoning. 'Tis an estab- lish 'djrnaxim both in natural and moral philosophy, that an object, which exists for any time in its full perfection without producing another, is not its sole cause; but is assisted by some other principle, which pushes it from its state of inactivity, and makes it exert that energy, of which it was secretly possest. Now if any*°cause may be perfectly co-temporary with its effect, 'tis certain, according to this maxim, that they must all of them be so; since any one of them, which retards its operation for a single moment, exerts 1 Part IV., Sect. V. ,€^ 194 ^ TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III not itself at that very Individual time, in which it might have operated ; and therefore is no proper cause. The consequence of this wou'd be no less than the destruction of that succession of causes, which we observe in the world; and indeed, the utter annihila- tion of time. For if one cause were co-temporary with its effect, and this effect with its effect, and so ^ on, 'tis plain there wou'd be no such thing as succes- sion, and all objecjs must be co-existent. If this argumem:- appear satisfactory, 'tis well. If not, I beg the reader to allow me the same liberty, which I have us'd in the preceding case, of supposing it such. For he shall find, that the affair is of no great importance. Having thus discover'd or suppos'd the two rela- tions of contigu ity and succession to be essential to causes and effects, I find I am stopt short, and can proceed no farther in considering any single instance of cause and effect, potion in one body is regarded upon impulse as the cause of motion in another. When we consider these objects with the utmost atten- tion, we find only that the one body approaches the other; and that the motion of it precedes that of the other, but without any sensible interval. 'Tis in vain to rack ourselves with farther thought and reflexion upon this subject. We can go no farther in consider- ing this particular instance. Shou'd any one leave this instance, and pretend to define a cause, by saying it is something productive of another, 'tis evident he wou'd say nothing. For what does he mean by production f Can he give any defini- tion of it, that will not be the same with tha* of causation? If he can ; I desire it may be produc'd. If SECT, IJ BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 195 he cannot ; he here runs in a circle, and gives a synon- imous term instead of a definition. Shall we then rest contented with these two rela- tions of contiguity and succession, as affording a com- pleat idea of causation? By no means, ^nobject y mayLJae^contiguous and prior to another, without being considered as its^cause. There is a necessary con- / NEXiON to be taken into consideration; anJthat rela- j tion is of much greater importance, than any of the other two above-mention'd. Here again I turn the object on all sides, in order to discover the nature of this necessary connexion, and find the impression, or impressions, from which its idea may be deriv'd. When I cast my eye on the k nown qualit ies of objects, I immediately discover that the relation of cause and effect depends not in the least on them. When I consider their relations, I can find none but those of contiguity and succession ; which I have already regarded as imperfect and unsatisfac- tory. Shall the despair of success make me assert, that I am here possest of an idea, which is not pre- ceded by any similar impression? This wou'd be too strong a proof of levity and inconstancy ; since the con- trary principle has been already so firmly established, as to admit of no farther doubt; at least, till we have more fully examin'd the present difficulty. We must, therefore, proceed like those, who being in search of any thing that lies conceal'd from them, and not finding it in the place they expected, beat about all the neighbouring fields, without any certain view or design, in hopes their good fortune will at last guide them to what they search for. 'Tis necessary for us to leave the direct survey of this question concerning the nature of that necessary connexion, which enters 196 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III into our idea of cause and effect ; and endeavour to find some other questions, the examination of which will perhaps afford a hint, that may serve to clear up the present difficulty. Of these questions there occur two, which I shall proceed to examine, vis. First, For what reason we pronounce it necessar y, JK^ that every thing wKose existence has a beginning, shou'd also have a cause? Secondly, Why we conclude, that such particular causes must necessarily have such particular effects; and what is the nature of that inference we draw from the one to the other, and of thehelief^we repose in it? I shall only observe before I proceed any farther, that tho' the ideas of cause and effect be deriv'd from the impressions of reflexion as well as from those of sensation, yet for brevity's sake, I commonly mention only the latter as the origin of these ideas ; tho' I de- sire that whatever I say of them may also extend to the former. Passions are connected with their objects and with one another; no less than external bodies are connected together. The same relation, then, of cause and effect, which belongs to one, must be common to all of them. V- Section III. Why a cause is always necessary. To begin with the first question concerning the necessity of a cause: 'Tis a general maxim in philos- ** ophy, that whatever begmsjo exist, must have a cause of existence. This is commonly taken for granted in alFreasonings, without any proof given or demanded. 'Tis suppos'd to be founded on intuition, and to be one of those maxims, which tho' they may be deny'd with the lips, 'tis impossible for men in their hearts really to doubt of. But if we examine this maxim by. the idea of knowledge above-explain'd, we shall dis- cover in it no mark of . any such i ntuiti ve certainty ; but on the contrary shall find, that^tis~o? a nature quite foreign to that species of conviction. All certainty arises from the comparison of ideas, and from the discovery of such relations as are unal- terable, so long as the ideas continue the same. These relations are resemblance, ^proportions in quantity and t^^^^^ number, degrees of any quality, and contrariety ; none ^V^^*^^: of which are imply'd in this proposition, Whatever has a beginning has also a cause of existence. That prop- osition therefore is not intuitively certain. At least any one, who wou'd assert it to be intuitively certain, must deny these to be the only infallible relations, and must find some other relation of that kind to be im- ply'd in it; which it will then be time enough to examine. y 198 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III But here is an argument, which proves at once, that the foregoing proposition is neither intuitively nor demonstrably certain. We can never demonstrate the necessity of a cause to every new existence, or new modification of existence, without shewing at the same time the impossibility there is, that any thing can ever begin to exist without some productive principle; and where the latter proposition cannot be prov'd, we must despair of ever being able to prove the former. Now that the latter proposition is utterly incapable of a demonstrative proof, we may satisfy ourselves by con- sidering, that as all distinct ideas are separable from each other, and as the ideas of cause and effect are evidently distinct, 'twill be easy for us to conceive any object to be non-existent this moment, and existent the next, without conjoining to it the distinct idea of a cause or productive principle. The separation, there- fore, of the idea of a cause from that of a beginning of existence, is plainly possible for the imagination; and consequently the actual separation of these objects is so far possible, that it implies no contradiction nor absurdity; and is therefore incapable of being refuted by any reasoning from mere ideas; without which 'tis impossible to demonstrate the necessity of a cause. Accordingly we shall find upon examination, that every demonstration, which has been produc'd for the necessity of a cause, is fallacious and sophistical. All the points of time and place,^ say some philoso- phers, in which we can suppose any object to begin to exist, are in themselves equal; and unless there be some cause, which is peculiar to one time and to one place, and which by that means determines and fixes the existence, it must remain in eternal suspence; and 1 Mr. Hobbea. SECT. Ill BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 199 the object can never begin to be, for want of some- thing to fix its beginning. But I ask ; Is there any more difficulty in supposing the time and place to be fix'd without a cause, than to suppose the existence to be determin'd in that manner? The first question that occurs on this subject is always, whether the object shall exist or not: The next, when and where it shall begin to exist. If the removal of a cause be intuitively absurd in the one case, it must be so in the other: And if that absurdity be not clear without a proof in the one case, it will equally require one in the other. The absurdity, then, of the one supposition can never be a proof of that of the other; since they are both upon the same footing, and must stand or fall by the same reasoning. The second argument,^ which I find us'd on this head, labours under an equal difficulty. Every thing, 'tis said, must have a cause ; for if any thing wanted a cause, if would produce itself; that is, exist before it existed; which is impossible. But this reasoning is plainly unconclusive ; because it supposes, that in our denial of a cause we still grant what we expressly deny, vis. that there must be a cause ; which therefore is taken to be the object itself; and that, no doubt, is an evident contradiction. But to say that any thing is produc'd, or to express myself more properly, comes into existence, without a cause, is not to affirm, that 'tis itself its own cause ; but on the contrary in exclud- ing all external causes, excludes a fortiori the thing itself which is created. An object, that exists abso- lutely without any cause, certainly is not its own cause ; and when you assert, that the one follows from the other, you suppose the very point in question, and take 2 Dr. Clarke and others. X X v^ 200 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III it for granted, that 'tis utterly impossible any thing can ever begin to exist without a cause, but that upon the exclusion of one productive principle, we must still have recourse to another. 'Tis exactly the same case with the^ third argu- ment, which has been employ'd to demonstrate the necessity of a cause. Whatever is produc'd without any cause, is produc'd by nothing; or in other words, has nothing for its cause. But nothing can never be a cause, no more than it can be something, or equal to two right angles. By the same intuition, that we perceive nothing not to be equal to two right angles, or not to be something, we perceive, that it can never be a cause ; and consequently must perceive, that every object has a real cause of its existence. I believe it will not be necessary to employ many words in shewing the weakness of this argument, after what I have said of the foregoing. They are all of them founded on the same fallacy, and are deriv'd from the same turn of thought. 'Tis sufficient only to observe, that when we exclude all causes we really do exclude them, and neither suppose nothing nor the object itself to be the causes of the existence; and consequently can draw no argument from the absurd- ity of these suppositions to prove the absurdity of that exclusion. If every thing must have a cause, it fol- lows, that upon the exclusion of other causes we must accept of the object itself or of nothing as causes. But 'tis the very point in question, whether every thing must have a cause or not; and therefore, accord- ing to all just reasoning, it ought never to be taken for granted. I Mr. Locke, SECT. Ill BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 201 They are still more frivolous, who say, that every effect must have a cause, because 'tis imply'd in the very idea of effect. Every effect necessarily pre-sup- poses a cause; effect being a relative term, of which cause is the correlative. But this does not prove, that every being must be preceded by a cause; no more than it follows, because every husband must have a wife, that therefore every man must be marry'd. The true state of the question is, whether every object, which begins to exist, must owe its existence to a cause; and this I assert neither to be intuitively nor demonstratively certain, and hope to have prov'd it sufficiently by the foregoing arguments. Since it is not from knowledge or any scientific reasoning, that we derive the opinion of the necessity of a cause to every new production, that opinion must necessarily arise from observation and experience. The next question, then, shou'd naturally be, hozv expe- rience gives rise to such a principle? But as I find ir"wiTFEie~more convenient to sink this question in the following. Why we conclude, that such particular causes must necessarily have such particular effects, and why we form an inference from one to another? we shall make that the subject of our future enquiry. 'Twill, perhaps, be found in the end, that the same answer will serve for both questions. * 5jC 5fS * * * 3): if. He in if 4c / I Section XIV. Of the idea of necessary connexion. Having thus explain'd the manner, in which we reason beyond our immediate impressions, and con- clude that such particular causes must have such par- ticular effects; we must now return upon our foot- steps to examine that question, which^ first occur'd to us, and which we dropt in our way, vis. What is our idea of necessity, when we say that two objects are necessarily connected together. Upon this head I repeat what I have often had occasion to observe, that as we have no idea, that is not deriv'd from an impression, we must find some impression, that gives rise to this idea of necessity, if we assert we have really such an idea. In order to this I consider, in what objects necessity is commonly suppos'd to lie; and finding that it is always ascrib'd to causes and effects, I turn my eye to two objects suppos'd to be plac'd in that relation; and examine them in all the situations, of which they are susceptible. I immediately perceive, that they are contiguous in time and place, and that the object we call cause precedes the other we call effect. In no one instance can I go any farther, nor is it possible for me to discover any third relation betwixt these objects. I therefore enlarge my view to com- prehend several instances; where I find like objects always existing in like relations of contiguity and suc- cession. At first sight this seems to serve but little 1 Sect. 2. SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 203 to my purpose. The reflection on several instances only repeats the same objects ; and therefore can never give rise to a new idea. But upon farther enquiry I find, that the repetition is not in every particular the same, but produces a new impression, and by that means the idea, which I at present examine. For after a frequent repetition, I find, that upon the appear- ance of one of the objects, the mind is determined by custom to consider its usual attendant, and to con- sider it in a stronger light upon account of its rela- tion to the first object. 'Tis this impression, then, or determination, which affords me the idea of necessity. I doubt not but these consequences will at first sight be received without difficulty, as being evident deductions from principles, which we have already establish'd, and which we have often employ'd in our reasonings. This evidence both in the first principles, and in the deductions, may seduce us unwarily into the conclusion, and make us imagine it contains nothing extraordinary, nor worthy of our curiosity. But the' such an inadvertence may facilitate the reception of this reasoning, 'twill make it be the more easily forgot; for which reason I think it proper to give warning, that I have just now examin'd one of the most sublime questions in philosophy, vis. that concerning the power and efficacy of causes; where all the sciences seem so much interested. Such a warning will naturally rouze up the attention of the reader, and make him desire a more full account of my doctrine, as well as of the arguments, on which it is founded. This request is so reasonable, that I cannot refuse complying with it; especially as I am hopeful that these principles, the more they are examin'd, will acquire the more force and evidence. 204 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III There is no question, which on account of its im- portance, as well as difficulty, has caus'd more disputes both among antient and modern philosophers, than this concerning the efficacy of causes, or that quality which makes them be followed by their effects. But before they enter'd upon these disputes, methinks it wou'd not have been improper to have examin'd what idea we have of that efficacy, which is the subject of the con- troversy. This is what I find principally wanting in their reasonings, and what I shall here endeavour to supply. I begin with observing that the terms of efficacy, agency, power, force, energy, necessity, connexion, and productive quality, are all nearly synonimous; and therefore 'tis an absurdity to employ any of them in defining the rest. By this observation we reject at once all the vulgar definitions, which philosophers have given of power and efficacy; and instead of searching for the idea in these definitions, must look for it in the impressions, from which it is originally deriv'd. If it be a compound idea, it must arise from compound im- pressions. If simple, from simple impressions. I believe the most general and most popular expli- cation of this matter, is to say,^ that finding from experience, that there are several new productions in matter, such as the motions and variations of body, and concluding that there must somewhere be a power capable of producing them, we arrive at last by this reasoning at the idea of power and efficacy. But to be convinc'd that this explication is more popular than philosophical, we need but reflect on two very obvious principles. First, That reason alone can never give rise to any original idea, and secondly, that reason, as 1 See Mr. Locke; chapter of Power. SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING \ on- \ distinguish'd from experience, can never make us con- clude, that a cause or productive quality is absolutely requisite to every beginning of existence. Both these considerations have been sufficiently explain'd; and therefore shall not at present be any farther insisted on. " I shall only infer from them, that since reason can never give rise to the idea of efficacy, that idea must be deriv'd from experience, and from some particular instances of this efficacy, which make their passage into the mind by the common channels of sensation or reflection. Ideas always represent their objects or impressions; and vice versa, there are some objects necessary to give rise to every idea. If we pretend, therefore, to have any just idea of this efficacy, we must produce some instance, wherein the efficacy is plainly discoverable to the mind, and its opera- tions obvious to our consciousness or sensation. 'By the refusal of this, we acknowledge, that the idea is impossible and imaginary ; since the principle of innate ideas, which alone can save us from this dilemma, has been already refuted, and is now almost universally rejected in the learned world. Our present business, then, must be to find some natural production, where the operation and efficacy of a cause can be clearly conceiv'd and comprehended by the mind, without any ^ danger of obscurity or mistake. — ""^""^ In this research we meet with very little encourage- ment from that prodigious diversity, which is found in the opinions of those philosophers, who have pretended to explain the secret force and energy of causes. ^ There are some, who maintain, that bodies operate by 1 See Father Malhranche^ Book VI., Part II., chap. 3, and the illustrations upon it. 2o6 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III their substantial form; others, by their accidents or quahties ; several, by their matter and form ; some, by their form and accidents ; others, by certain virtues and faculties distinct from all this. All these sentiments again are mix'd and vary'd in a thousand different ways; and form a strong presumption, that none of them have any solidity or evidence, and that the sup- position of an efficacy in any of the known qualities of matter is entirely without foundation. This pre- sumption must encrease upon us, when we consider, that these principles of substantial forms, and acci- dents, and faculties, are not in reality any of the known properties of bodies, but are perfectly unintelligible and inexplicable. For 'tis evident philosophers wou'd never have had recourse to such obscure and uncertain principles had they met with any satisfaction in such as are clear and intelligible ; especially in such an affair as this, which must be an object of the simplest under- standing, if not of the senses. Upon the whole, we may conclude, that 'tis impossible in any one instance to shew the principle, in which the force and agency of a cause is plac'd ; and that the most refin'd and most vulgar understandings are equally at a loss in this particular. If any one think proper to refute this assertion, he need not put himself to the trouble of inventing any long reasonings; but may at once shew us an instance of a cause, where we discover the power or operating principle. This defiance we are oblig'd frequently to make use of, as being almost the only means of proving a negative in philosophy. The small success, which has been met with in all the attempts to fix this power, has at last oblig'd phi- losophers to conclude, that the ultimate force and effi- cacy of nature is perfectly unknown to us, and that SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 207 'tis in vain we search for it in all the known qualities of matter. In this opinion they are almost unanimous ; and 'tis only in the inference they draw from it, that they discover any difference in their sentiments. For some of them,- as the Cartesians in particular, having establish'd it as a principle, that we are perfectly ac- quainted with the essence of matter, have very natur- ally inferr'd, that it is endow'd with no efficacy, and that 'tis impossible for it of itself to communicate motion, or produce any of those effects, which we ascribe to it. As the essence of matter consists in extension, and as extension implies not actual motion, but only mobility; they conclude, that the energy, which produces the motion, cannot lie in the extension. This conclusion leads them into another, which they regard as perfectly unavoidable. Matter, say they, is in itself entirely unactive, and depriv'd of any power, by which it may produce, or continue, or com- municate motion: But since these effects are evident to our senses, and since the power, that produces them, must be plac'd somewhere, it must lie in the Deity, or that divine being, who contains in his nature all excellency and perfection. 'Tis the deity, therefore, who is the prime mover of the universe, and who not only first created matter, and gave it it's original im- pulse, but likewise by a continu'd exertion of omnipo- tence, supports its existence, and successively bestows on it all those motions, and configurations, and quali- ties, with which it is endow'd. This opinion is certainly very curious, and well worth our attention; but 'twill appear superfluous to examine it in this place, if we reflect a moment on our present purpose in taking notice of it. We have estab- lish'd it as a principle, that as all ideas are deriv'd 2o8 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III from impressions, or some precedent perceptions, 'tis impossible we can have any idea of power and efficacy, unless some instances can be produc'd, wherein this power is perceiv'd to exert itself. Now as these in- stances can never be discovered in body, the Cartesians, proceeding upon their principle of innate ideas, have had recourse to a supreme spirit or deity, whom they consider as the only active being in the universe, and as the immediate cause of every alteration in matter. But the principle of innate ideas being allow'd to be false, it follows, that the supposition of a deity can serve us in no stead, in accounting for that idea of agency, which we search for in vain in all the objects which are presented to our senses, or which we are internally conscious of in our own minds. For if every idea be deriv'd from an impression, the idea of a deity proceeds from the same origin; and if no impression, either of sensation or reflection, implies any force or efficacy, 'tis equally impossible to discover or even imagine any such active principle in the deity. Since these philosophers, therefore, have concluded, that matter cannot be endow 'd with any efficacious principle, because 'tis impossible to discover in it such a principle; the same course of reasoning shou'd de- termine them to exclude it from the supreme being. Or if they esteem that opinion absurd and impious, as it really is, I shall tell them how they may avoid it; and that is, by concluding from the very first, that they have no adequate idea of power or efficacy in any object; since neither in body nor spirit, neither in superior nor inferior natures, are they able to discover one single instance of it. The same conclusion is unavoidable upon the hy- pothesis of those, who maintain the efficacy of second SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 209 causes, and attribute a derivative, but a real power and energy to matter. For as they confess, that this energy Hes not in any of the known qualities of matter, the difficulty still remains concerning the origin of its idea. If we have really an idea of power, we may attribute power to an unknown quality: But as 'tis impossible, that that idea can be deriv'd from such a quality, and as there is nothing in known qualities, which can pro- duce it; it follows that we deceive ourselves, when we imagine we are possest of any idea of this kind, after the manner we commonly understand it. All ideas are deriv'd from, and represent impressions. We never have any impression, that contains any power or effi- cacy. We never therefo re have an y idea of power. It has been establish'd as a certain principle, that general or abstract ideas are nothing but individual ones taken in a certain light, and that, in reflecting on any object, 'tis as impossible to exclude from our thought all particular degrees of quantity and quality as from the real nature of things. If we be possest, therefore, of any idea of power in general, we must also be able to conceive some particular species of it; and as power cannot subsist alone, but is always re- garded as an attribute of some being or existence, we must be able to place this power in some particular being, and conceive that being as endow'd with a real force and energy, by which such a particular effect necessarily results from its operation. We must dis- tinctly and particularly conceive the connexion betwixt the cause and effect, and be able to pronounce, from a simple view of the one, that it must be follow'd or preceded by the other. This is the true manner of conceiving a particular power in a particular body: and a general idea being impossible without an indi- 210 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III vidual; where the latter is impossible, 'tis certain the former can never exist. Now nothing is more evident, than that the human mind cannot form such an idea of two objects, as to conceive any connexion betwixt them, or comprehend distinctly that power and efficacy, by which they are united. Such a connexion wou'd amount to a demonstration, and wou'd imply the abso- lute impossibility for the one object not to follow, or to be conceiv'd not to follow upon the other: Which kind of connexion has already been rejected in all cases. If any one is of a contrary opinion, and thinks he has attain'd a notion of power in any particular object, I desire he may point out to me that object. But till I meet with such-a-one, which I despair of, I cannot forbear concluding, that since we can never distinctly conceive how any particular power can pos- sibly reside in any particular object, we deceive our- selves in imagining we can form any such general idea. Thus upon the whole we may infer, that when we talk of any being, whether of a superior or inferior nature, as endow'd with a power or force, proportion'd to any effect ; when we speak of a necessary connexion betwixt objects, and suppose, that this connexion de- pends upon an efficacy or energy, with which any of these objects are endow'd; in all these expressions, so apply'd, we have really no distinct meaning, and make use only of common words, without any clear and determinate ideas. But as 'tis more probable, that these expressions do here lose their true meaning by being wrong apply d, than that they never have any meaning; 'twill be proper to bestow another consider- ation on this subject, to see if possibly we can discover the nature and origin of those ideas, we annex to them. SECT. XIV BOOK L OF THE UNDERSTANDING 211 Suppose two objects to be presented to us, of which the one is the cause and the other the effect ; 'tis plain, that from the simple consideration of one, or both these objects we never shall perceive the tie, by which they are united, or be able certainly to pronounce, that there is a connexion betwixt them. Tis not, there- fore, from any one instance, that we arrive at the idea of cause and effect, of a necessary connexion of power, of force, of energy, and of efficacy. Did we never see any but particular conjunctions of objects, entirely different from each other, we shou'd never be able to form any such ideas. But again; suppose we observe several instances, in which the same objects are always conjoin'd to- gether, we immediately conceive a connexion betwixt them, and begin to draw an inference from one to another. This multiplicity of resembling instances, therefore, constitutes the very essence of power or connexion, and is the source, from which the idea of it arises. In order, then, to understand the idea of power, we must consider that multiplicity; nor do I ask more to give a solution of that difficulty, which has so long perplex'd us. For thus I reason. The repetition of perfectly similar instances can never alone give rise to an original idea, different from what is to be found in any particular instance, as has been ob- serv'd, and as evidently follows from our fundamen- tal principle, that all ideas are copy'd from impressions. Since therefore the idea of power is a new original idea, not to be found in any one instance, and which yet arises from the repetition of several instances, it follows, that the repetition alone has not that effect, but must either discover or produce something new, which is the source of that idea. Did the repetition 212 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III neither discover nor produce any thing new, our ideas might be multiply 'd by it, but wou'd not be enlarg'd above what they are upon the observation of one single instance. Every enlargement, therefore, (such as the idea of power or connexion) which arises from the multiplicity of similar instances, is copy'd from some effects of the multiplicity, and will be perfectly under- stood by understanding these effects. Wherever we find any thing new to be discover'd or produc'd by the repetition, there we must place the power, and must never look for it in any other object. But 'tis evident, in the first place, that the repeti- tion of like objects in like relations of succession and contiguity discovers nothing new in any one of them; since we can draw no inference from it, nor make it a subject either of our demonstrative or probable rea- sonings ;i as has been already prov'd. Nay suppose we cou'd draw an inference, 'twou'd be of no consequence in the present case; since no kind of reasoning can give rise to a new idea, such as this of power is ; but wherever we reason, we must antecedently be possest of clear ideas, which may be the objects of our reason- ing. The conception always precedes the understand- ing; and where the one is obscure, the other is uncer- tain; where the one fails, the other must fail also. Secondly, 'Tis certain that this repetition of similar objects in similar situations produces nothing new either in these objects, or in any external body. For 'twill readily be allow'd, that the several instances we have of the conjunction of resembling causes and effects are in themselves entirely independent, and that the communication of motion, which I see result at present from the shock of two billiard-balls, is totally 1 Sect. 6. SECT. XIV BOOK L OF THE UNDERSTANDING 213 distinct from that which I saw result from such an impulse a twelve-month ago. These impulses have no influence on each other. They are entirely divided by time and place; and the one might have existed and communicated motion, tho' the other never had been in being. There is, then, nothing new either discover'd or produc'd in any objects by their constant conjunction, and by the uninterrupted resemblance of their rela- tions of succession and contiguity. But 'tis from this resemblance, that the ideas of necessity, of power, and of efficacy, are deriv'd. These ideas, therefore, rep- resent not any thing, that does or can belong to the objects, which are constantly conjoin'd. This is an argument, which, in every view we can examine it, will be found perfectly unanswerable. Similar in- stances are still the first source of our idea of power or necessity ; at the same time that they have no influ- ence by their similarity either on each other, or on any external object. We must therefore, turn ourselves to some other quarter to seek the origin of that idea. Tho' the several resembling instances, which give rise to the idea of power, have no influence on each other, and can never produce any new quality in the object, which can be the model of that idea, yet the observation of this resemblance produces a new im- pression in the mind, which is its real model. For after we have observ'd the resemblance in a sufficient number of instances, we immediately feel a determin- ation of the mind to pass from one object to its usual attendant, and to conceive it in a stronger light upon account of that relation. This determination is the only effect of the resemblance; and therefore must be the same with power or efficacy, whose idea is de- 214 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III riv'd from the resemblance. The several instances of resembling conjunctions lead us into the notion of power and necessity. These instances are in them- selves totally distinct from each other, and have no union but in the mind, which observes them, and col- lects their ideas. Necessity, then, is the effect of this observation, and is nothing but an internal impres- sion of the mind, or a determination to carry our thoughts from one object to another. Without con- sidering it in this view, we can never arrive at the most distant notion of it, or be able to attribute it either to external or internal objects, to spirit or body, to causes or effects. The necessary connexion betwixt causes and effects is the foundation of our inference from one to the other. The foundation of our inference is the tran- sition arising from the accustom'd union. These are, therefore, the same. The idea of necessity arises from some impression. There is no impression convey'd by our senses, which can give rise to that idea. It must, therefore, be deriv'd from some internal impression, or impression of reflexion. There is no internal impression, which has any relation to the present business, but that pro- pensity, which custom produces, to pass from an object to the idea of its usual attendant. This therefore is the essence of necessity. Upon the whole, necessity is something, that exists in the mind, not in objects; nor is it possible for us ever to form the most distant idea of it, consider'd as a quality in bodies. Either we have no idea of necessity, or necessity is nothing but that determination of the thought to pass from causes to effects and from effects to causes, according to their experienced union. SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 215 Thus as the necessity, which makes two times two equal to four, or three angles of a triangle equal to two right ones, lies only in the act of the understand- ing, by which we consider and compare these ideas; in like manner the necessity or power, which unites causes and effects, lies in the determination of the mind to pass from the one to the other. The efficacy or energy of causes is neither plac'd in the causes themselves, nor in the deity, nor in the concurrence of these two principles ; but belongs entirely to the soul, which considers the union of two or more objects in all past instances. 'Tis here that the real power of causes is plac'd, along with their connexion and neces- sity. I am sensible, that of all the paradoxes, which I have had, or shall hereafter have occasion to advance in the course of this treatise, the present one is the most violent, and that 'tis merely by dint of solid proof and reasoning I can ever hope it will have ad- mission, and'^overcdfne the inveterate prejudices of mankind. Before we are reconcil'd to this doctrine, how often must we repeat to ourselves, that the simple view of any two objects or actions, however related, can never give us any idea of power, or of a connexion betwixt them : that this idea arises from the repetition of their union : that the repetition neither discovers nor causes any thing in the objects, but has an influence only on the mind, by that customary transition it pro- duces : that this customary transition is, therefore, the same with the power and necessity; which are conse- quently qualities of perceptions, not of objects, and are internally felt by the soul, and not perceiv'd exter- nally in bodies? There is commonly an astonishment attending every thing extraordinary ; and this astonish- 2i6 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III merit changes immediately into the highest degree of esteem or contempt, according as we approve or dis- approve of the subject. I am much afraid, that tho' the foregoing reasoning appears to me the shortest and most decisive imaginable; yet with the generality of readers the biass of the mind will prevail, and give them a prejudice against the present doctrine. This contrary biass is easily accounted for. 'Tis a common observation, that the mind has a great pro- pensity to spread itself on external objects, and to conjoin with them any internal impressions, which they occasion, and which always make their appear- ance at the same time that these objects discover them- selves to the senses. Thus as certain sounds and smells are always found to attend certain visible objects, we naturally imagine a conjunction, even in place, betwixt the objects and qualities, tho' the qualities be of such a nature as to admit of no such conjunction, and really exist no where. But of this more fully^ hereafter. Mean while 'tis sufficient to obseTve, that tlie same pro- pensity is the reason, why we suppose necessity and power to lie in the objects we consider, not in our mind, that considers them; notwithstanding it is not possible for us to form the most distant idea of that quality, when it is not taken for the determination of the mind, to pass from the idea of an object to that of its usual attendant. But tho' this be the only reasonable account we can give of necessity, the contrary notion is so riveted in the mind from the principles above-mention'd, that I doubt not but my sentiments will be treated by many as extravagant and ridiculous. What! the efficacy of causes lie in the determination of the mind! As if 1 Part IV., Sect. 5. SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 217 causes did not operate entirely independent of the mind, and wou'd not continue their operation, even tho' there was no mind existent to contemplate them, or reason concerning them. Thought may well depend on causes for its operation, but not causes on thought. This is to reverse the order of nature, and make that secondary, which is really primary. To every opera- tion there is a power proportion'd ; and this power must be plac'd on the body, that operates. If we remove the power from one cause, we must ascribe it to another: But to remove it from all causes, and bestow it on a being, that is no ways related to the cause or effect, but by perceiving them, is a gross absurdity, and contrary to the most certain principles of human reason. I can only reply to all these arguments, that the case is here much the same, as if a blind man shou'd pretend to find a great many absurdities in the sup- position, that^the colour of scarlet is not the same with the sou'ndjj^LjJt^un^netno r lig ht^jj^^ .<;amp wit]j_.gn1irl- ity. if we have really_no idea ofji power or^^cac^ in any object, or of any real connexion betwLsd: causes ^ and effects, 'twill be to little purpose to prove, that an efficacy is necessary in all operations. We do not understand our own meaning in talking so, but igno- rantly confound ideas, which are entirely distinct from each other. I am, indeed, ready to allow, that there may be several qualities both in material and imma- terial objects, with which we are utterly unacquainted; and if we please to call these power or efficacy, 'twill be of little consequence to the world. But when, instead of meaning these unknown quali- ties, we make the terms of power and efficacy signify something, of which we have a clear idea, and which is 2i8 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART III incompatible with those objects, to which we apply it, obscurity and error begin then to take place, and we are led astray by a false philosophy. This is the case, when we transfer the determination of the thought to external objects, and suppose any real intelligible con- nexion betwixt them; that being a quality, which can only belong to the mind that considers them. As to what may be said, that the operations of nature are independent of our thought and reasoning, I allow it; and accordingly have observ'd, that objects bear to each other the relations of contiguity and suc- cession; that like objects may be observ'd in several instances to have like relations; and that all this is independent of, and antecedent to the operations of the understanding. But if we go any farther, and ascribe a power or necessary connexion to these ob- jects; this is what we can never observe in them, but must draw the idea of it from what we feel internally in contemplating them. And this I carry so far, that^ I am _| :g3dv to rnnygd- n^v jTrp^pnt ^ r^agnn^ mto an instance of it, by a subtilityTwrnchit will nnt ISf ^lififiT cult to CQffiprehend. When any object is presented to us, it immediately conveys to the mind a lively idea of that object, whkh is usually found to attend it; and this determination of the mind forms the necessary connexion of theses objects. But when we change the point of view, from^ the objects to the perceptions; in that case the impres- sion is to be considered as the cause, and the lively idea as the effect; and their necessary connexion is that new determination, which we feel to pass from the idea of the one to that of the other. The uniting principle among our internal perceptions is as unin- telligible as that among external objects, and is not SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 219 known to us any other way than by experience. Now the nature and effects of experience have been already sufficiently examin'd and explain'd. It never gives us any insight into the internal structure or operating principle of objects, but only accustoms the mind to pass from one to another. Tis now time to collect all the different parts of this reasoning, and by joining them together form an exact definition of the relation of cause and effect, which makes the subject of the present enquiry. This order wou'd not have been excusable, of first examin- ing our inference from the relation before we had explain'd the relation itself, had it been pos- sible to proceed in a different method. But as the nature of the relation depends so much on that of the inference, we have been oblig'd to advance in this seemingly preposterous manner, and make use of terms before we were able exactly to define them, or fix their meaning. We shall now correct this fault by giving a precise definition of cause and effect. There may two definitions be given of this relation, which are only different, by their presenting a different view of the same object, and making us consider it either as a philosophical or as a natural relation; either as a comparison of two ideas, or as an associa- tion betwixt them. We may define a cause to be *An o bject precedent and contiguo us to another, and where all theobjects resembling the former are plac'd in like relations of precedency and contiguity to those objects, that resemble the latter.' If this definition be esteem'd defective, because drawn from objects foreign to the cause, we may substitute this other definition in its place, zi2. 'A cause is an object precedent and con- tiguous to another, and so united with it, that the idea 220 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE. PART III of the one determines the mind to form the idea of tEe other, and the impression of the one to form a morejively idea of the other/ Shou'd this definition also be rejected for the same reason, I know no other remedy, than that the persons, who express this deH- cacy, should substitute a juster definition in its place. But for my part I must own my incapacity for such an undertaking. When I examine with the ut- most accuracy those objects, which are commonly denominated causes and effects, I find, in considering a single instance, that the one object is precedent and contiguous to the other; and in inlarging my view to consider several instances, I find only, that like objects are constantly plac'd in like relations of succession and contiguity. Again, when I consider the influence of this constant conjunction, I perceive, that such a rela- tion can never be an object of reasoning, and can never operate upon the mind, but by means of custom, which determines the imagination to make a transition from the idea of one object to that of its usual attendant, and from the impression of one to a more lively idea of the other. However extraordinary these sentiments may appear, I think it fruitless to trouble myself with any farther enquiry or reasoning upon the subject, but shall repose myself on them as on established maxims. Twill only be proper, before we leave this subject, to draw some corollaries from it, by which we may remove several prejudices and popular errors, that have very much prevail'd in philosophy. First, We may learn from the foregoing doctrine, that all causes are of the same kind, and that in particular there is no foundation for that distinction, which we sometimes make betwixt efficient causes, and causes sine qua non; or betwixt efficient causes, and formal, and material, SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 221 and exemplary, and final causes. For as our idea of efficiency is deriv'd from the constant conjunction of two objects, wherever this is observ'd, the cause is efficient; and where it is not, there can never be a cause of any kind. For the same reason we must reject the distinction betwixt cause and occasion, when suppos'd to signify any thing essentially different from each other. If constant conjunction be imply 'd in what we call occasion, 'tis a real cause. If not, 'tis no relation at all, and cannot give rise to any argu- ment or reasoning. Secondly, The same course of reasoning will make us conclude, that there is but one kind of necessity, as there is but one kind of cause, and that the common distinction betwixt moral and physical necessity is without any foundation in nature. This clearly ap- pears from the precedent explication of necessity. 'Tis the constant conjunction of objects, along with the determination of the mind, which constitutes a physi- cal necessity: And the removal of these is the same thing with chance. As objects must either be con- join'd or not, and as the mind must either be deter- min'd or not to pass from one object to another, 'tis impossible to admit of any medium betwixt chance and an absolute -necessity. In weakening this conjunction and determination you do not change the nature of the necessity; since even in the operation of bodies, these have different degrees of constancy and force, without producing a different species of that relation. The distinction, which we often make betwixt power and the exercise of it, is equally without foun- dation. Thirdly, We may now be able fully to overcome all that repugnance, which 'tis so natural for us to 222 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE. PART III entertain against the foregoing reasoning, by which we endeavour'd to prove, that the necessity of a cause to every beginning of existence is not founded on any arguments either demonstrative or intuitive. Such an opinion will not appear strange after the foregoing definitions. If we define a cause to be an object pre- cedent and contiguous to another, and where all the objects resembling the former are plac'd in a like relation of priority and contiguity to those objects, that resemble the laitter; we may easily conceive, that there is no absolute nor metaphysical necessity, that every beginning of existence shou'd be attended with such an object. If we define a cause to be. An object pre- cedent and contiguous to another, and so united with it in the imagination, that the idea of the one determines the mind to form the idea of the other, and the im- pression of the one to form a more lively idea of the other; we shall make still less difficulty of assenting to this opinion. Such an influence on the mind is in itself perfectly extraordinary and incomprehensible; nor can we be certain of its reality, but from experi- ence and observation. I shall add as a fourth corrollary, that we can never have reason to believe that any object exists, of which we cannot form an idea. For as all our reasonings concerning existence are deriv'd from causation, and as all our reasonings concerning causation are deriv'd from the experienc'd conjunction of objects, not from any reasoning or reflexion, the same experience must give us a notion of these objects, and must remove all mystery from our conclusions. This is so evident, that 'twou'd scarce have merited our attention, were it not to obviate certain objections of this kind, which might arise against the following reasonings concern- SECT. XIV BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 223 ing matter and substance. I need not observe, that a full knowledge of the object is not requisite, but only of those qualities of it, which we believe to exist. THE DOCTRINE OF SUBSTANCE SELECTIONS FROM BOOK /., PARTS /., //., IF. PART I. OF IDEAS, THEIR ORIGIN, COMPOSITION, CONNEXION, ABSTRACTION. ♦ 5|C ♦ ♦ * * ****** Section VI. Of modes and substances. I wou'd fain ask those philosophers, who found so much of their reasonings on the distinction of sub- stance and accident, and imagine we have clear ideas of each, whether the idea of substance be deriv'd from the impressions of sensation or reflexion? If it be convey 'd to us by our senses, I ask, which of them; and after what manner? If it be perceiv'd by the eyes, it must be colour; if by the ears, a sound; if by the palate, a taste; and so of the other senses. But I believe none will assert, that substance is either a colour, or sound, or a taste. The idea of substance must therefore be deriv'd from an impression of re- flexion, if it really exist. But the impressions of re- flexion resolve themselves into our passions and emo- tions; none of which can possibly represent a sub- stance. We have therefore no idea of substance, dis- s ,/ tinct from that of a collection of particular qualities. X^/' nor have we any other meaning when we either talk or reason concerning it. The id ea of a substance as well as that of a mode, is nothing but a collection of simple ideas, that are united by the imagination, and have a particular name 228 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART I assigned them, by which we are able to recall, either to ourselves or others, that collection. But the differ- ence betwixt these ideas consists in this, that the par- ticular qualities, which form a substance, are com- monly refer'd to an unknown something, in which they are supposed to inhere ; or granting this fiction should not take place, are at least supposed to be closely and inseparably connected by the relations of contiguity and causation. The effect of this is, that whatever new simple quality we discover to have the same con- nexion with the rest, we immediately comprehend it among them, even tho' it did not enter into the first conception of the substance. Thus our idea of gold may at first be a yellow colour, weight, malleableness, fusibility; but upon the discovery of its dissolubility in aqua regia, we join that to the other qualities, and suppose it to belong to the substance as much as if its idea had from the beginning made a part of the compound one. The principle of union being regarded as the chief part of the complex idea, gives entrance to whatever quality afterwards occurs, and is equally comprehended by it, as are the others, which first pre- sented themselves. That this cannot take place in modes, is evident from considering their nature. The simple ideas of which modes are formed, either represent qualities, which are not united by contiguity and causation, but are dispers'd in different subjects; or if they be all united together, the uniting principle is not regarded as the foundation of the complex idea. The idea of a dance is an instance of the first kind of modes ; that of beauty of the second. The reason is obvious, why such complex ideas cannot receive any new idea, without changing the*name, which distinguishes the mode. PART II. OF THE IDEAS OF SPACE AND TIME. ***** 5|C ****** Section VI. Of the idea of existence, and of external existence. It may not be amiss, before we leave this subject, to explain the ideas of existence and of external exist- ence ; which have their difficulties, as well as the ideas of space and time. By this means we shall be the better prepar'd for the examination of knowledge and prob- ability, when we understand perfectly all those par- ticular ideas, which may enter into our reasoning. There is no impression nor idea of any kind, of which we have any consciousness or memory, that is not conceiv'd as existent; and 'tis evident, that from this consciousness the most perfect idea and assur- ance of being is deriv'd. From hence v/e may form a dilemm.a, the most clear and conclusive that can be imagin'd, viz. tha t since we never remember any idea or impr ession without attributing existence to it, the idea of existence must either be deriv'd from a ^lFtinct impression, conjoin'd with every perception or object of our thought, or must be the very same with the idea of the perception or object. As this dilemma is an evident consequence of the principle, that every idea arises from a similar impres- 230 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART II sion, so our decision betwixt the propositions of the dilemma is no more doubtful. So far from there being any distinct impression, attending every impression and every idea, that I do not think there are any two distinct impressions, which are inseparably conjoin'd. Tho' certain sensations may at one time be united, we quickly find they admit of a separation, and may be presented apart. And thus, tho' every impression and idea we remember be consider'd as existent, thejdea, of existence is not de rived from any particul ar imp res- sion. The idea of existence, then, is the very same with the idea of what we conceive to be existent. To reflect on any thing simply, and to reflect on it as existent, are nothing different from each other. That idea, when conjoin'd with the idea of any object, makes no addition to it. Whatever we conceive, we concdvfiJxt be existent . Any idea we please to form is the idea of a being; and the idea of a being is any idea we please to form. Whoever opposes this, must necessarily point out that distinct impression, from which the idea of entity is deriv'd, and must prove, that this impression is in- separable from every perception we believe to be exist- ent. This we may without hesitation coticlude to be impossible. Our foregoing^ reasoning concerning the distinc- tion of ideas without any real difference will not here ^erve us in any stead. That kind of distinction is founded on the different resemblances, which the same simple idea may have to several different ideas. But no object can be presented resembling some object with respect to its existence, and different from others 1 Part I., Sect. 7. SECT. VI BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 231 in the same particular ; since every object, that is pre- sented, must necessarily be existent. A like reasoning will account for the idea of exter- nal existence. We may observe, that 'tis universally allow'd by philosophers, and is besides pretty obvious of itself, that nothing is ever really present with the mind but its perceptions or impressions and ideas, and that external objects become known to us only by those perceptions they occasion. To hate, to love, to think, to feel, to see ; all this is nothing but to perceive. Now since nothing is ever present to the mind but perceptions, and since all ideas are deriv'd from some- thing antecedently present to the mind ; it follows, that 'tis impossible for us so much as to conceive or form an idea of any thing specifically different from ideas and impressions. Let us fix our attention out of ourselves as much as possible : Let us chace our imagination to the heavens, or to the utmost Hmits of the universe; we never really advance a^^;^ beyond ourselves, nor rpn fwirpivp any kind nf existcnc^ . but those p erceptions, which have_ appf^ar'd in th at nar - row compass. This is the universe of the imagination, nor have we any idea but what is there produc'd. The farthest we can go towards a mnrfpfinn n^j, external objecta. when suppos'd specifically different from our perceptions, is to form a relative idea o f t hem, without pretending to comprehend the related objects. Generally speaking we do not suppose them specifically different ; but only attribute to them differ- ent relations, connexions and durations. But of this more fully hereafter.^ H: * * * * * 1 Fart IV., Sect. 2. PART IV. OF THE SCEPTICAL AND OTHER SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY. * * * * * * * * * if: Section II. ^ * Of scepticism zvith regard to the senses. Thus the sceptic still continues to reason and be- lieve, even tho' he asserts, that he cannot defend his reason by reason; and by the same rul e he must asse nt to the principle concerning the existence of body, tho' he cannot pretend by any arguments "of philosophy to maintain its veracity. Nature has not left this to his choice, and has doubtless esteem'd it an affair of too great importance to be trusted to our uncertain rea- sonings and speculations. We may well ask. What causes induce us to believe in the existence of body? but 'tis vain to ask. Whether there be body or not? That is a point, which we must take for granted in all our reasonings. The subject, then, of our present enquiry is con- cerning the causes which induce us to believe in the existence of body; and my reasonings on this head I shall begin with a distinction, which at first sight may seem superfluous, but which will contribute very much to the perfect understanding of what follows. We ought to examine apart those two questions, which are commonly confounded together, viz. Wliy we attribut e a^ coNTiNu'p existence \o objects. evetT wh en they are SECT. II BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 233 not present to the senses; and why we suppose them to have an existence distinct from the mind and per- ception. Under this last head I comprehend their situation as well as relations, their external position as well as the independence of their existence and operation. These two questions concerning the con- tinued and distinct existence of body are intimately connected together. For if the object_s of^our senses continue to exist, even . when they are not perceiv'd, Jh pjr pyi sten re, Jg_(^f„_nij , or purpose. A ship, of which a consider- able part has been chang'd by frequent reparations, is still consider'd as the same; nor does the difference of the materials hinder us from ascribing an identity to it. The common end, in which the parts conspire, is the same under all their variations, and affords an easy transition of the imagination from one situation of the body to another. But this is still more remarkable, when we add a sympathy of parts to their common en d, and suppose that they bear to each other, the reciprocal relation of cause and effect in all their actions and operations. This is the case with all animals and vegetables ; where not only the several parts have a reference to some general purpose, but also a mutual dependence on, and connexion with each other. The effect of so strong a relation is, that tho' every one must allow, that in a very few years both vegetables and animals endure a total change, yet we still attribute identity to them, while their form, size, and substance are entirely al- ter'd. An oak, that grows from a small plant to a large tree, is still the same oak; tho' there be not one particle of matter, or figure of its parts the same. An infant becomes a man, and is sometimes fat, sometimes lean, without any change in his identity. SECT. VI BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 253 We may also consider the two following phae- nomena, which are remarkable in their kind. The first is, that tho' we commonly be able to distinguish pretty exactly betwixt numerical and specific identity, yet it sometimes happens, that we confound them, and in our thinking and reasoning employ the one for the other. Thus a man, who hears a noise, that is frequently interrupted and renew'd, says, it is still the same noise ; tho' 'tis evident the sounds have only a specific iden- tity or resemblance, and there is nothing numerically the same, but the cause, which produc'd them. In like manner it may be said without breach of the pro- priety of language, that such a church, which was formerly of brick, fell to ruin, and that the parish rebuilt the same church of free-stone, and according to modern architecture. Here neither the form nor materials are the same, nor is there any thing common to the two objects, but their relation to the inhabitants of the parish; and yet this alone is sufficient to make us denominate them the same. But we must observe, that in these cases the first object is in a manner anni- hilated before the second comes into existence; by which means, we are never presented in any one point of time with the idea of difference and multiplicity; and for that reason are less scrupulous in calling them the same. Secondly, We may remark, that tho' in a succes- sion of related objects, it be in a manner requisite, that the change of parts be not sudden nor entire, in order to preserve the identity, yet where the objects are in their nature changeable and inconstant, we admit of a more sudden transition, than wou'd other- wise be consistent with that relation. Thus as the nature of a river consists in the motion and change of 254 ^ TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART IV parts; tho' in less than four and twenty hours these be totally alter'd ; this hinders not the river from con- tinuing the same during several ages. What is natu- ral and essential to any thing is, in a manner, ex- pected; and what is expected makes less impression, and appears of less moment, than what is unusual and extraordinary. A considerable change of the former kind seems really less to the imagination, than the most trivial alteration of the latter; and by breaking less the continuity of the thought, has less influence in destroying the identity. We now proceed to explain the nature of personal identity , which has become so great a question in philosophy, especially of late years in England, where all the abstruser sciences are study'd with a peculiar ardour and application. And here 'tis evident, the same method of reasoning must be continu'd, which has so successfully explain'd the identity of plants, and animals, and ships, and houses, and of all the com- pounded and changeable productions either of art or nature. The identity, which we ascribe^ to ^he^minj of man, is onlv a^c titious one, and of a like kind with that which we ascribe to vegetables and apimal bodies. It cannot, therefore, have a different origin, but must proceed from a like operation of the imag- ination upon like objects. But lest this argument shou'd not convince the reader; tho' in my opinion perfectly decisive; let him weigh the following reasoning, which is still closer and more immediate. 'Tis evident, that the identity, which we attribute to the human mind, however per- fect we may imagine it to be, is not able to run the several different perceptions into one, and make them lose their characters of distinction and difference, SECT. VI BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 255 which are essential to them. Tis still true, that every, distinct perceptio n, which enters into the composition of the mind, is a distinct existence, and is different, and distinguishableTand " separabl e" from j^very other perception, either contemporary or successive. But, as, notwithstanding this distinction and separability, we suppose the whole train of perceptions to be united by identity, a question naturally arises concerning this relation of identity ; whether it be something that really binds our several perceptions together, or only associates their ideas in the imagination. That is, in other words, whettipr in pronouncing concerning the identity of a person, we observe some real bond among his, per cep-^ ,tions#»or only feel one among the ideas we form of them. This question we might "Easily decide, "li we wou'd recollect what has been already prov'd at large, that the understanding never observes any real con- nexion among objects, and that even the union of cause and effect, when strictly examin'd, resolves itself into a customary association of ideas. For from thence it evidently follows, that identity is nothing_really. hfic^ longing to these different perceptions, and uniting^ fhem together ; but is merely aquality, which we attri- > bute to them, because of the unio n oT^ their ideas in the ^ i magination , when we reflect upon them. Now the only qualities, which can give ideas an union in the imagination, are these three relations above-mentibn^dT These are the uniti ng principles in the ideal world, and without them every distinct object is separable by the mind, and may be separately consider'd, and appears not to have any more connexion with any other object, than if disjoined by the greatest differ- ence and remoteness. 'Tis therefore, on some of these three relations of re semblan ce, contiguity and caus- 2S6 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART IV ation, that identity depends; and as the very essence of these relations consists in their producing an easy transition of ideas; it follows, that our noti ons of per - sonal identity , proceed entirely from the smooth and uninterrupted progress of the thought along a train of con nected ideas. ,^ according to the^ principles above- e xplained. The only question, therefore, which remains, is, by what relations t his uninterrupted progress of our thought^is^produc'd, when we consider the successive existence of a mind or thinking person. And here' tis evident we must confine ourselves to resembl^Cfie 3.nd causation . and must drop contiguity, which has little or no influence in the present case. To begin with resemblance; suppose we cou'd see clearly into the breast of another, and observe that succession of perceptions, which constitutes his mind or thinking principle, and suppose that he always pre- serves the memory of a considerable part of past per- ceptions; 'tis evident that nothing cou'd more con- tribute to the bestowing a relation on this succession amidst all its variations. For what is the memory but a faculty, by whjfh we raise up the images of past perceptions? And as an image necessarily resembles its object, must not the frequent placing of these resembling perceptions in the chain of thought, con- vey the imagination more easily from one link to another, and make the whole seem like the continu- ance of one object? In this particular, then, the mem- ory not only rJiscnvers th^ identity, but also contributes to its production, by producing the r elation of resem- blance among the perceptions. The case is the same whether we consider ourselves or others. SECT. VI BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 257 As to causation; we may observe, that the true idea of the h uman min d, is to consider it as a system of diff erent perceptio ns or differente xisten^ s. which are link'd together by the relation of cause andeffect, and mutually produce, destroy, influence, and modify each other. Our impressions give rise to their cor- respondent ideas; and these ideas in their turn pro- duce other impressions. One thought chaces another, and draws after it a third, by which it is expell'd in its turn. In this respect, I cannot compare the soul more properly to any thing than to a republic or com- monwealth, in which the several members are united by the reciprocal ties of government and subordina- tion, and give rise to other persons, who propagate the same republic in the incessant changes of its parts. And as the same individual republic may not only change its members, but also its laws and constitu- tions; in like manner the same person may vary his character and disposition, as well as his impressions and ideas, without losing his identity. Whatever changes he endures, hisseyeral— paj^s are still co^ nected by the relat ion orcausati on. And in this view "our identity with regard to the passions serves to cor- roborate that with regard to the imagination, by the making our distant perceptions influence each other, and by giving us a present concern for our past or future pains or pleasures. As memory alone acquai nts us with the continu- ance and extent of this s uccession of perceptions, 'tis to be consider'd, upon that account chiefly, as the source of ^^e£sonalJil£ilUty. Had we no memory, we never shou'd have any notion of causation , nor con- sequently of that chain of cau ses and effects, which cons titute our self or person. But having once acquir'd 258 A TREATISE OF HUMAN NATURE PART IV this notion of causation from the memory, we can extend the same chain of causes, and consequently the identity of our persons beyond our memory, and can comprehend times, and circurhstances, and actions, which we have entirely forgot, but suppose in general to have existed. For how few of our past actions are there, of which we have any memory? Who can tell me, for instance, what were his thoughts and actions on the first of January 171 5, the nth of March 1719, and the 3d of August 1733? Or will he affirm because he has entirely forgot the incidents of these days, that the present self is not the same person with the self of that time; and by that means overturn all the most establish'd notions of personal identity? In this view, therefore, memQry does not so much p roduce^ as disco ver personal identit y, by shewing us the r ela-_ tion ot cause and eff ect among our different percep- tions. 'Twill be incumbent on those, who affirm that memory produces entirely our personal identity, to give a reason why we can thus extend our identity beyond our memory. The whole of this doctrine leads us to a conclu- sion, which is of great importance in the present affair, viz. that all the nice and subtile questions concerning personal identity can never possibly be decided, and are to be regarded rather as grammatical than as phil- osophical difficulties. Identity ^depends on ^thfi-idar tion of ideas; and these relations produce identity, by means of that easy transition they occasion. But as the relations, and the easiness of the transition may diminish by insensible degrees, we have no just stand- ard, by which we can decide any dispute concerning the time, when they acquire or lose a title to the name of identity. All the disputes concerning the identity SECT. VI BOOK I. OF THE UNDERSTANDING 259 of connected objects are merely verbal, except so far as the relation of parts gives rise to some fiction or imaginary principle of union, as we have already observed. What I have said concerning the first origin and uncertainty of our notion of identity, as apply'd to the human mind, may be extended with little or no varia- tion to that of .^plidty. An object, whose different co-existent parts are bound, together by a close rela- tion, operates upon the imagination after much the same manner as one perfectly simple and indivisible, and requires not a much greater stretch of thought in order to its conception. From this similarity of opera- tion we attribute a simplicity to it, and feign a prin- ciple of union as the support of this simplicity, and the center of all the different parts and qualities of the object. Thus we have finish'd our examination of the sev- eral systems of philosophy, both of the intellectual and moral world ; and in our miscellaneous way of reason- ing have been led into several topics ; which will either illustrate and confirm some preceding part of this dis- course, or prepare the way for our following opinions. 'Tis now time to return to a more close examination of our subject, and to proceed in the accurate anatomy of human nature, having fully explained the nature of our judgment and understanding. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 4( 4: 4c * * 4$ APPENDIX. ****** I had entertain'd some hopes, that however de- ficient our theory of the intellectual world might be, it wou'd be free from those contradictions, and absurd- ities, which seem to attend every explication, that hu- man reason can give of the material world. But upon a more strict review of the section concerning personal identity, I find myself involv'd in such a labyrinth, that, I must confess, I neither know how to correct my former opinions, nor how to render them consis- tent. If this be not a good general reason for scep- ticism, 'tis at least a sufficient one (if I were not already abundantly supplied) for me to entertain a diffidence and modesty in all my decisions. I shall propose the arguments on both sides, beginning with those that induc'd me to. deny the strict and proper identity and simplicity of a self or thinking being. . When we talk of self or substance, we must have an idea annex'd to these terms, otherwise they are altogether unintelligible. Every idea is deriv'd from preceding impressions; and we have no impression of self or substance, as something simple and individual. We have, therefore, no idea of them in that sense. Whatever is distinct, is distinguishable; and what- ever is distinguishable, is separable by the thought or imagination. All perceptions are distinct. They are, therefore, distinguishable, and separable, and may be conceiv'd as separately existent, and may exist s^epa- rately, without any contradiction or absurdity. APPENDIX 261 When I view this table and that chimney, nothing is present to me but particular perceptions, which are of a Hke nature with all the other perceptions. This is the doctrine of philosophers. But this table, which is present to me, and that chimney, may and do exist separately. This is the doctrine of the vulgar, and implies no contradiction. There is no contradiction, therefore, in extending the same doctrine to all the perceptions. In general, the following reasoning seems satis- factory. All ideas are borrow'd from preceding per- ceptions. Our ideas of objects, therefore, are deriv'd from that source. Consequently no proposition can be intelligible or consistent with regard to objects, 'which is not so with regard to perceptions. But 'tis intelligible and consistent to say, that objects exist distinct and independent, without any common simple substance or subject of inhesion. This proposition, therefore, can never be absurd with regard to percep- tions. When I turn my reflexion on myself, I never can, perceive this .y^// jwith^ut some one or more percep- / tions ; nor can I ever perceive any thing but the percep- > tions. 'Tis the composition of these, therefore, which '^ forms the self. We can conceive a thinking being to have either many or few perceptions. Suppose the mind to be reduced even below the life of an oyster. Suppose it to have only one perception, as of thirst or hunger. Consider it in that situation. Do you conceive any thing but merely that perception? Have you any no- tion of self or substance? If not, the addition of other perceptions can never give you that notion. 262 A TREATISE OF HUMAN MATURE The annihilation, which some people suppose to follow upon death, and which entirely destroys this self, is nothing but an extinction of all particular per- ceptions; love and hatred, pain and pleasure, thought and sensation. These therefore must be the same with self; since the one cannot survive the other. Is self the same with substance f If it be, how can that question have place, concerning the subsistence of self, under a change of substance ? If they be distinct, what is the difference betwixt them? For my part, I have a notion of neither, when conceiv'd distinct from particular perceptions. Philosophers begin to be reconcil'd to the principle, that we have no idea of external substanc e , distinct from the ideas of particular qualities. This must pave the way for a like principle with regard to the mind, that we have no notion of it, distinct from the par- ticular perceptions. So far I seem to be attended with sufficient evi- dence. But having thus loosen'd all our particular perceptions, when^ I proceed to explain the principle of connexion, which binds them together, and makes us attribute to them a real simplicity and identity; I am sensible, that my account is very defective, and that nothing but the seeming evidence of the precedent reasonings cou'd have induc'd me to receive it. If perceptions are distinct existences, they form a whole only by being connected together. But no connexions among distinct existences are ever discoverable by human understanding. We only feel a connexion or determination of the thought, to pass from one object to another. It follows, therefore, that the thought_ alone finds personal identity, when reflecting., o n the . train of past perceptions, that co mpose a mind, the APPENDIX 263 ideas of them are felt to be connected together, and naturally introduce each other. However extraordin- ary this conclusion may seem, it need not surprize us. Most philosophers seem inclin'd to think, that per- sonal identity arises from consciousness; and con- sciousness is nothing but a reflected thought or per- ception. The present philosophy, therefore, has so far a promising aspect. But all my hopes vanish, when I come to explain the principles, that unite our success- ive perceptions in our thought or consciousness. I cannot discover any theory, which gives me satisfac- tion on this head. In short jtliere are two principles, which J...camiQt^ "render consistent ; nor is it in niy_ pow^r_ to^renouace, either of them, viz. that all our distinct perceptions ars distinct existences, and that the mind never perceives any real connexion among distinct existences. Did our perceptions either inhere in something simple and individual, or did the mind perceive some real connex- ion among them, there wou'd be no difficulty in the case. For my part, I must plead the privilege of a sceptic, and confess, that this difficulty is too hard for my understanding. I pretend not, however, to pro- nounce it absolutely insuperable. Others, perhaps, or myself, upon more mature reflexions, may discover some hypothesis, that will reconcile those contradic- tions. INDEX Abstraction, 164. Abstract sciences, 167, 173. Academic philosophy, 41 et seq. Accuracy, 6. Addison, 3. Alchemy, 136. Alexander, 87. Alexander, the false prophet, 126. Algebra, 187. Ambiguous expressions, 83. Analogy, reasoning by, 109. Animals, reason of, 109 et seq. Annihilation, 22, A priori, 25, 26, 34, 44. Aqua regia, 228. Arguments, demonstrative, 57; probable, 57; mutual destruc- tion of, 121. Arithmetic, 187. Aristotle, 3, 86. Association of ideas, 21 et seq., SI et seq., 255. Assurance, degrees of, 115. Astronomy, 175. Atheists, 159. Athens, 139, 141. Aurelius, Marcus, 126. Bacon, 136. Bayle, 164. Bede, 132. Belief, 47 et seq., 50 et seq., 60, 112, 196. Berkeley, 164. Bible, 137. Billiard-ball, 2y, 48, 64, 72, 78, 81. Bodies, operation of, j6, 84 et seq., 95. Body, existence of, 232 et seq. Caesar, 174. Cartesians, 207 et seq. Cartesian doubt, 159. Catastrophes, 135. Cato, 119. Causation, jy et seq., 185 et seq., 257. Cause and effect, 22 et seq., 42 et seq,. 84 et seq., 143 et seq., 169, 198, et seq., 255. Causes, ultimate, 29 et seq.; simi- lar, 35 et seq.; final, 56; prob- ability of, 58; invisible, 71; oc- casional, y2; definition, 219. Chance, 57 et seq., 99, 221. Chemistry, 175. Child, burnt, 38. Christian religion, 114, 137, 138. Chronology, 175. Cicero, 3, 53, 124. Clarke, 76, 199. Climates, 59. Color-sensation, i8.- Conduct, human, determinism and liberty in, 85 et seq. Conjecture, 154. Conjunction, 72 et seq., 76 et seq., 85, 169; customary, 47, 50; con- stant, 96, 231. Connexion, 25 et seq., 32, 36, 51 et seq., 72 et seq.; necessary, 61 et seq., 64, 76 et seq., 99. 196, 202 et seq. Constraint, 100. Contiguity, 22 et seq., 53 et seq., 192, et seq. Continued existence of objects, 2^2 et seq. Contrariety, 22, 185. Contrast, 22. Copies of impressions, ideas, 16 et seq., 63 et seq., 80, 189, 208, 211, 222, 227. INDEX 26s Creator, responsibility of, 104. Criticism, 175. Cudworth, 76. Curtius, Quintus, 87. Custom, 43 et seq., 55, 112. Customary, connexion, 80 et seq.; transition, 79 et seq., 95. Definitions, exact, 82. Deity, 207 et seq. Demetrius, 129. Demonstration, proper objects of, ^73- Demonstrative, arguments, 57; reasoning, 34. Demosthenes, 124. Descartes, 76, 158. Design, 151, Determination of the mind, 203, 213 et seq. Determinism, 83 et seq. Distance, 235. Distinctness, 231 et seq., 260 et seq. Divine existence, argument for, 143- Divinity, 175. Divisibility, infinite, 166. Doubt, Cartesian, 159. Dreams, 1 62. I>ye, 57. Effect. See Cause. Elizabeth, Queen, 135. Eloquence, 124. End, common, 252. Endeavour, 69. Energy, 63, 80; of causes, 205 See Force. Epicurus, 139 et seq., 141 et seq., IS5, 170- Ethics, 148 et seq. Euclid, 23, 62. Evidence, 24; natural, 93 et seq.; for the truth of Christian re- ligion, 114; contrariety of, 118; of sense, 160 et seq.; objections to moral, 168 et seq. Evil, 105 et seq. Existence, idea of, 229 et seq.; continued, of objects, 2^2 et seq.; distinct, of objects, 233 et seq. Experience, 26 et seq., 134, 162, 174; foundation of conclusions from, 31 et seq.; reasonings from, 35, 41; inferences from, 44; the foundation of evidence, 115 et seq., 186 et seq., 201. Experiments, 116, 235. Extension, idea of, 164. External objects, belief of, 161 et seq. Extraordinary, the, 118 et seq. Fact, matters of, 23 et seq. Faith, 137, 138. Fiction, 48. Final causes, 56. Force, 63, 80, 204 et seq., sop et seq., 231. Free will, 83 et seq. Future state, 139 et seq. Gabriel, 174. General ideas, 164, 168, 209. Geography, 175; mental, 10. Geometry, 29, 61, 168, 187. God, 73, 74, 104, 107, 136, 153, 156, 163. Gods, the, 144 et seq. Gravity, 59. Habit, 43 et seq. Harmony, pre-established, 55. Heredotus, 132. Hippocrates, 86. History, 93, 175. Hobbes, 1 98. Human body, 90. Human nature, science of, i et seq.; principles and operations of, 85 et seq. Human mind, 254. Hypothesis, 149. Ideas, origin of, 14 et seq.; asso- ciation of, 21 et seq.; relations of, 2$ et seq.; complex, 63; copies of our impressions, 63 et seq., 80, 189, 208, 211, 222, 227, general, 164, 168. 266 INDEX Identity, 185, 190. Identity, personal, 245 et seq. Identity, of objects, 250 et seq. Images, sensible, 52. Imagination, 47 et seq., 49, 172, 234 et seq. Impostures, 126. Impressions, 15 et seq.; original, 63; of power, 213. Indeterminism, 83 et seq. Indian prince, 119. Infinite divisibility, 166. Innate, 19; ideas, 208. Instincts, 113. Invisible causes, 71. Jansenist miracles, 131. Jesuits, 131. Jupiter^. 145, 146. Justice, distributive, 149. La Bruyere, 3. Liberty, 83 et seq.; defined, 99. Limbs, use of our, 56. Livy, 128, 136. Locke, 4, 20, 57, 65, 76, 200, 204. Lucian, 126, 139, 140. Lucretius, 132. Magic, 136. Mahomet, 128. Malebranche, 3, 76, 205. Mankind, the same in all times and places, 86 et seq. Mariana, 132. Marvellous, the, 118 et seq.; pro- pensity to the, 124 et seq. Mathematics, 23, 30, 61, 174, 187. Matters of fact, 23 et seq., 176. Medicine, 90. Mental, geography, 10; research, II. Metaphysics, 5 et seq., 62, 176. Mind, command of, over the body, 70. Miracles, 114 et seq.; defined, 121; reasons for discrediting, 122 et seq. Mode, 227 et seq. Moral evidence, 93 et seq.; objec- tions to, 168 et seq. Morality, doctrines of necessity and of liberty consistent with, 100. Moral, philosophy, i et seq.; rea- soning, 34, 175. Morals, 93, 175. Motion, 27. Motives and voluntary actions, conjunction between, 85 et seq. Muscovy, 119. Myself. See Self. Natural evidence, 93 et seq. Natural philosophy, 175. Nature, course of, 150; violatio/is of the course of, 134. Necessary connexion, 64, 196, 2^2 et seq. Necessity, 83 et seq., 98 et sec^ ; as an inference, 85; defintil, 100, 197 et seq., 216; in H.q mind, 214. Newton, 75. Number, 173, 176, 185 et seq. Occasions, 72 et seq. Objects, sensible, 52, 232 et seq ; external, 242. Paphlagonia, 126. Paris, Abbe, 131. Pentateuch, 137. Perceptions, 14. Pharsalia, battle of, 131. Philippi, battle of, 131. Philosophers, fame of, 3. Philosophy, 139 et seq.; nature of, I et seq.; natural, 175. Physic, 175. Plutarch, 128, 132. Points, mathematical, 166. Politics, 93. Polybius, 86. Possibility, 149. Power, 63, 64, 68 et seq., 80, 204 et seq.; impression of, 213. See Force. Pre-established harmony, 55. Pre-ordination, 103. Priority, 193. INDEX 267 Probability, 57 et seq., 116 et seq,, 120, 134- Prodigies, reasons for discredit- ing, 122 et seq. Proofs, 57, 116 et seq., 120, 134. Propliecies, 138. Prophet, Alexander the false, 126. Protagoras, 139. Providence, a particular, 139 et seq.; divine, 148. Public good, questions of, 142. Punishments, loi. Purpose, 252, Pyrrhonism, 168, 170, 172. Qualities, sensible, 65; secondary and primary, 164. Quantity, 173, 176; science of, 168. Reason, 26 et seq.; of animals, 109 et seq.; attempt to destroy, 165, 234 et seq. Reasoning, two kinds of, 34; con- cerning matter of fact, nature of, 31 et seq.; d priori, 34; ' demonstrative, 34; moral, 34, 62, 175; from experience, 41; comparison, 190. Regular succession, 56. Relations of ideas, 23 et seq. Relations, philosophical, 185, 219. Religion, 123, 127. Religious doctrines and life, 155. Resemblance, 22 et seq.; 51 et seq., 185, 256. Retz, Cardinal de, 130. Rewards, loi. Roman Catholic religion, 52. Roman emperors, 140. Saragossa, miracle of, 130. Sceptical philosophy, 41 et seq., 158 et seq., 244. Scepticism, mitigated, 171; with regard to senses, 232 et seq. Science, proper subjects of, 173. Sciences, abstract, 167, 173. Self, idea of, 245 et seq., 260 et seq. Senses, 32; evidence of, 160 et seq.; perceptions of the, 162 et seq. Sensible, images, 52; objects, 52; qualities, 65. Serapis, 129. Shaftsbury, Lord, 349. Similar, causes, 35 et seq.; effects, 35 et seq.; instances, 81; ob- jects, 61, 79. Simplicity of mind, 247. Socrates, 139. Soul, 249. Soul with body, union of, 66 et seq. Space, ideas of, 165 et seq. Stoics, 40, 105, 170. Substance, 227, 249, 260. Succession, regular, 56. Suetonius, 129. Sumatra, 119. Supreme Being, 208. Surprise, 123 et seq. Tacitus, 86, 128. Terms, meaning of, 82. Testimony, human, 116 et seq.; circumstances requisite to give full assurance to, 122. Theology, 175. Thoughts, IS et seq. Tillotson, Dr., 114. Time, ideas of, 165 et seq.; re- lations of, 185. Transition of the mind, 220. Truth, criteria of, 160. Ultimate causes, 29 et seq. Uniformity in nature, 84 et seq., 87 et seq. Velleity, 98. Vespasian, 128. Vis inertiae, 75. Volition, 66 et seq., 83 et seq. Will, 66 et seq., 83 et seq. Witnesses, 118. Wonder, 123 et seq. Zeuxis, 144. DCTI lOKl ripri II ATinN nFPARTMENT RETURN TO the circulation desl< of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY University of California Richmond Field Station, BIdg. 400 1301 South 46th Street Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS To renew or recharge your library materials, you may contact NRLF 4 days prior to due date at (510) 642-6233 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW MAR I 9 2008 DD20 12M 7-06 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY