HOMERIC GRAMMAR D. . MONRO Bonbon HENRY FROWDE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE AMEN CORNER, E.G. UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO A GRAMMAR OF THE HOMERIC DIALECT BY D. B. MONRO, M.A. PROV03T OF ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED L'objet de cette science est de rechercher dans 1'esprit de 1'homme la cause de la transformation des idionies M. BUBAL AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1891 I All rights reserved] PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS BY HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OP THE REV. JAMES KIDDELL LATE FELLOW AND TUTOR OP BALLIOL PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IT may be said, without fear of giving offence, that a new Grammar of the Homeric dialect is sorely wanted. The admirable Griechische Formenlehre of the late H. L. Ahrens is now just thirty years old, and is confined, as its title indi- cates, to the inflexions. Not only has the course of discovery been going on since Ahrens wrote (and with hardly less rapidity than in the first years of the new science), but the historical method has been carried into the field of syntax. And apart from ' comparative philology,' the researches of Bekker, Cobet, La Roche, and many other students have brought together a wealth of material that only needs careful analysis and arrangement to make it accessible to the general body of learners. The plan of this book has sufficient novelty to call for some explanation. I have not attempted to write a Comparative Grammar, or even a Grammar that would deserve the epithet 1 historical : ' but I have kept in view two principles of arrange- ment which belong to the historical or genetic method. These are, that grammar should proceed from the simple to the com- plex types of the Sentence, and that the form and the mean- ing should as far as possible be treated together. Now the simplest possible Sentence apart from mere exclamations consists of a Verb, or word containing in itself the two ele- ments of all rational utterance, a Subject and a Predicate. We begin, therefore, by analysing the Verb, and classifying (i) the Endings, which express the Person and Number of the Subject ( 1-7), and serve also to distinguish the ' Middle ' or Reflexive use ( 8), and (2) the modifications of the Stem which yield the several Tenses and Moods. These modifica- tions, we at once perceive, are more numerous than the mean- ings which they serve to express, and we have therefore to viil PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. choose between classifying according to formation i. e. ac- cording to the process by which each Tense- Stem and Mood- Stem is derived from the simple Verb-Stem or Root, and the ordinary classification according to meaning (Present, Future, Perfect, Aorist, &c.). The former course seemed preferable because it answers to the historical order. The problem is to find how pre-existing forms common to Greek and Sanscrit, and therefore part of an original ' Indo-European ' grammar were adapted to the specifically Greek system of Tense-mean- ings. I have therefore taken the different formations in turn, beginning with the simplest ( 9-20, 23-27, 29-69, 79-83), and introducing an account of the meaning of each as soon as possible ( 21, 28, 70-78). This part of the subject naturally includes the accentuation of the different forms of the Verb ( 87-89). The next great division of the subject is concerned with the first enlargement of the Sentence. A word may be added which taken by itself says nothing contains no Subject and Predicate but which combines with _and qualifies the primi- tive one-word Sentence. The elements which may gather in this way round the basis or nucleus formed by the Verb are ultimately of two kinds, Nouns and Pronouns ; and the relations in which they may stand to the Verb are also two- fold. A Noun or Pronoun may stand as a Subject limiting or explaining the Subject already contained in the Person- Ending or may qualify the Predicate given by the Stem of the Verb. These relations are shown by the Ending, which again may be either a Case-Ending or an adverbial Ending. We begin accordingly by an account of the Declensions, sup- plemented by a list of the chief groups of Adverbs (Chapter V). When we pass from the Endings to the Stems of Nouns and Pronouns, we find that they are essentially different. A ' Nominal Stem' consists in general of two parts, (i) a predi- cative part, usually identical with a Verb-Stem, and (2) a Suffix. Each of these two elements, again, may be complex. The addition of a further Suffix yields a fresh Stem, with a corresponding derivative meaning ; and thus we have the dis- tinction between Primitive or Verbal and Secondary or De- nominative Nouns. The Suffixes employed in these two PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ix classes are generally distinct, and deserve a more careful enumeration than is usually given in elementary grammars. The predicative part, again, may be enlarged by a second Nominal Stem, prefixed to the other, and qualifying it nearly as a Case- form or Adverb qualifies the Verb. The Compounds thus formed are of especial interest for the poetical dialect of Homer. The analysis which I have given of the chief forms which they present must be taken to be provisional only, as the subject is still full of doubt. With respect to the mean- ing I have attempted no complete classification. It is always unsafe to insist on distinctions which may be clear to us, but only because we mark them by distinct forms of expression. The chapter on the formation of Nouns should perhaps have been followed by one on the formation of Pronouns. The material for such a chapter, however, lies for the most part beyond the scope of a grammar. It is represented in this book by a section on Heteroclite Pronouns ( 108), which notices some traces of composite Pronominal Stems, and in some degree by another on the Numerals ( 130). When we come to examine the syntactical use of the Cases, we find ourselves sometimes dealing with sentences which contain at least two members besides the Verb. Along with the constructions which may be called ' adverbial ' (using the term Adverb in a wide sense, to include all words directly construed with the Verb), we have the constructions in which the governing word is a Noun or Preposition. And in these again we must distinguish between the government of a Case apparently by a Noun or Preposition, really by the combined result of the Noun or Preposition and the Verb, and the true government by a Noun alone, of which the dependent Genitive and the Adjective are the main types. These distinctions, however, though of great importance in reference to the deve- lopment of the use of Cases, cannot well be followed exclu- sively in the order of treatment. I have therefore taken the Cases in succession, and along with them the chief points which have to be noticed regarding the ' concords ' of Gender ( 166-168) and Number ( 169-173). In the Infinitive and Participle (Chapter X) we have the first step from the simple to the complex Sentence. The pre- X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. dicative element in the Verbal Noun is treated syntactically like the same element in a true or ' finite ' Verb ; that is to say, it takes ' adverbial ' constructions. Thus while retaining the character of a Noun it becomes the nucleus of a new imperfect Sentence, without a grammatical Subject properly so called (though the Infinitive in Greek acquired a quasi- Subject in the use of the Accusative before it), and standing to the main Sentence as an adverb or adjective. While the Infinitival and Participial Clauses may thus be described as Nouns which have expanded into dependent Sentences, the true Subordinate Clause shows the opposite process. In many instances, especially in Homeric syntax, we can trace the steps by which originally independent Sentences have come to stand in an adverbial or adjectival relation. The change is generally brought about, as we shall see, by means of Pronouns, or Adverbs formed from Prono- minal stems. Hence it is convenient that the account of the uses of the Pronouns (Chapter XI) should hold the place of an introduction to the part in which we have to do with the relations of Clauses to each other. The next chapter, however, does not treat directly of sub- ordinate Clauses, but of the uses of the Moods in them. It seemed best to bring these uses into immediate connexion with the uses which are found in simple Sentences. In this way the original character of Subordinate Clauses comes into a clearer light. If anything remains to be said of them, it finds its place in the account of the Particles (Chapter XIII) ; in which also we examine the relations of independent Sentences, so far at least as these are expressed by grammatical forms. The last chapter contains a discussion of the Metre of Homer (Chapter XIV), and of some points of 'phonology' which (for us at least) .are ultimately metrical questions. Chief among these is the famous question of the Digamma. I have endeavoured to state the main issues which have been raised on this subject as fully as possible : but without much hope of bringing them to a satisfactory decision. A book of this kind is necessarily to a great extent a compilation, and from sources so numerous that it is scarcely possible to make a sufficient acknowledgment of indebted- PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xi ness. The earlier chapters are mainly founded on the great work of G. Curtius on the Greek Verb. More recent writers have cleared up some difficulties, especially in the phono- logy. I have learned very much from M. de Saussure's Me'moire sur le systeme primitif des voyelles, and from several articles by K. Brugmann and Joh. Schmidt, especially the last. I would mention also, as valuable on single points, the papers of J. Paech (Vratisl. 1861) and H. Stier (Curt. Stud. II) on the Subjunctive, B. Mangold on the 'diectasis' of Verbs in -da> (Curt. Stud. VI), F. D. Allen on the same subject (Trans, of the American Phil. Assoc. 1873), Leskien on o-o-in the Fut. and Aor. (Curt. Stud. II), and K. Koch on the Augment (Brunsvici 1868). On the subject of Nominal Composition I may name a paper by W. Clemm in Curt. Stud.VIL, which gives references to the earlier literature of the subject, and one by F. Stolz (Klagenfurt 1874). On the forms of the Personal Pronouns there is a valuable dissertation by P. Cauer (Curt. Stud. VII) : on the Numerals by Joh. Baunack (K. Z. XXV) : on the Com- parative and Superlative by Fr. Weihrich (De Gradibus, &c. Gissae 1869). Going on 'to the syntax of the Cases, I would place first the dissertation of B. Delbriick, AUativ Localis Instrumental, &c. (Berlin 1867), and next the excellent work of Hubschmann, Zur Casuslehre (Miinchen 1875). On the Accusative I have obtained the greatest help from La Roche, Der Accusativ im Homer (Wien 1861): on the Dual from Bieber, De Duali Numero (Jena 1864). On the Prepositions I have used the papers of C. A. J. Hoffmann (Liineburg 1857- 60, Clausthal 1858-59), T. Mommsen (see 221), Giseke, Die allmaliche Entstehung der Gesdnge der Ilias (Gottingen 1853), La Roche, especially on into (Wien 1861) and eiri (in the Z.f. ost. Gymn.), Rau on -napd (Curt. Stud. Ill), and the articles in Ebeling's Lexicon. On this part of syntax the fourth volume of Delbruck's Forschungen is especially instructive. Of the literature on the Infinitive I would mention J. Jolly's Geschichte des Infinitivs im Indogermanischen (Miinchen 1873), also a paper by Albrecht (Curt. Stud. IV), and a note in Max Mtiller's Chips from a German Workshop (IV. p. 49 ff.). The use of the Participle has been admirably treated by Classen, in his Beobachtungen uber den homerischen Sprachgebrauch Xll PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. (Frankfurt 1867). A paper by Jolly in the collection of Sprachwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Leipzig 1874) is also suggestive. On the subject of the Pronouns the chief source is a dissertation by E. Windisch in Curt. Stud. II. On the Article almost everything will be found in H. Foerstemann's Bemerkungen ilber den Gebrauch des Artikels bei Homer (Mag- deburg 1861). The controversy on the Reflexive Pronoun is referred to in 255. On the Homeric uses of the Moods, besides Delbriick's great work, I would mention Jolly's monograph entitled Ein Kapitel vergleichender Syntax (Miin- chen 1872), and L. Lange's elaborate papers on d (Leipzig 1872-73). It is to be regretted that they have not yet been carried to the point of forming a complete book on the Homeric use of et. For the general theory of the subject Prof. Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses is of the very highest value. Regarding the cognate question of the uses of av and KW the main principles have been laid down by Delbrlick. It is worth while to mention that they were clearly stated as long ago as 1832, in a paper in the Philological Museum (Vol. I. p. 96), written in opposition to the then reigning method of Hermann. For the other Particles little has been done by Homeric students since Nagelsbach and Hartung. I have cited three valuable papers; on re by Wentzel, on T! (r/e) by Praetorius, and on M by A. R. Vierke. I would add here a paper on the syntax of Causal Sentences in Homer, by E. Pfudel (Liegnitz 1871). On all syntactical matters use has been made of the abundant stores of Kiihner's Ausfuhrliche Grammatik. And it is impossible to say too much of the guidance and inspiration (as I may almost call it) which I have derived from the Digest of Platonic Idioms left behind by the lamented friend to whose memory I have ventured to dedicate this book. On the collateral subjects of Metre I have profited most by Hartel's Homerische Studien, La Roche, Homerische Unter- suchungen (Leipzig 1869), Knos, De digammo Homerico (Upsaliae 1872-79), and Tudeer, De dialectorum Graecarwni digammo (Helsingforsiae 1879). OXFORD, July 18, 1882. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE rapid progress of linguistic science during the nine years that have passed since this Grammar was first published has necessitated considerable alteration and enlargement in a new edition. Much has been discovered in the interval ; much that was then new and speculative has been accepted on all sides ; and much has been done in sifting and combining the results attained. The Morphologischen Untersuchungen of Osthoff and Brugmann have been followed by Brugmann's admirable summary of Greek grammar (in Iwan Miiller's Handbuch], and his comprehensive Grundriss der vergleichen- den Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Of three portions of this work that have already appeared (Strassburg 1886-90-91), the last (treating chiefly of the Declensions) came too late to be of service to the present book. The part which deals with the Verb has not yet been published : and the volume on Comparative Syntax, promised by Delbruck the first complete work on this part of the subject is also still to come. It will doubtless be a worthy sequel to the Altindische Syntax, which now forms the fifth volume of his Syntaktische Forschungen. Among other books which have appeared since the publication of this Grammar, or which were not sufficiently made use of for the first edition, I would mention Job. Schmidt's Pluralbildungen der indogermanischen Neutra (Weimar 1889), G. Meyer's Griechische Grammatik (second edition, Leipzig 1886), the new edition of Mr. Goodwin's Moods and Tenses (London 1889), the treatises in Schanz's series of Beitrage zur historischen Syntax der griechischen Sprache, Aug. Fick's two books (see Appendix F), articles by Wackernagel, Frohde and others in Kukris Zeitschrifj; and Bezzenberger's Beitrage, the long series of papers by Aug. xiv PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Nauck collected in the Melanges gre'co-romains (St. Peters- burg 1855-88) a book not often seen in this country, and the dissertations of J. van Leeuwen in the Mnemosyne. The two writers last mentioned are chiefly concerned with the restoration of the Homeric text to its original or pre- historic form. Their method, which is philological rather than linguistic, may lead to some further results when the numerous MSS. of the Iliad have been examined and have furnished us with an adequate apparatus criticus. Although very much has been re-written, the numbering of the sections has been retained, with a few exceptions ; so that the references made to the first edition will generally still hold good. The new sections are distinguished by an asterisk. I will not attempt to enumerate the points on which new matter has been added, or former views recalled or modified. The increase in the size of the book is largely due to the fuller treatment of the morphology. Additions bearing on questions of syntax will be found in 238, 248, 267, 270*, 362, 365. On the whole I have become more sceptical about the theories which seek to explain the forms of the Subordinate Clause from parataxis, or the mere juxta-position of independent clauses. In general it may be admitted that the complex arose in the first instance by the amalgamation of simpler elements : but we must beware of leaving out of sight the effect of 'contamination' in extending syntactical types once created. The neglect of this consideration is in reality another and more insidious form of the error from which recent writers on morphology have delivered us, viz. that of explaining grammatical forms as the result of direct amalgamation of a stem with a suffix or ending, without duly allowing for the working of analogy. OXFOKD, March 21, 1891. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER, I. The Person-Endings. PAG i. Sentences Subject and Predicate . . . i 2. Stem and Endings . . . . . i 3. The Person-Endings . . . . . . i 4. Thematic Vowel Non-Thematic forms . . .2 5. Table of Person-Endings . . . . .2 6. Influence of the Ending on the Stem . . .6 7. The forms of the 3 Plural . . . .8 8. Meaning of the Middle . . . . -9 CHAPTER II. The Tenses. 9. Verb-Stem Tense-Stem . . . . .10 10. Formation of Tense-Stems . . . . .11 IT. The Simple Non-Thematic Present . . . .12 12. Variation of the Stem Examples . . .12 13. The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist . . . 14 14. Metathesis . . . . . . 15 15. Aorists in -a and -Kd . . . . .16 1 6. The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present . . . 17 17. The Presents with -VTJ (-va) and -vu . . . .18 1 8. Thematic forms . . . . .18 19. Non-Thematic Contracted Verbs Presents . . .20 20. Aorists . . .22 21. Meaning of Non-Thematic Tenses . . .22 12. The Perfect . . . . . . .22 23. Reduplication . . . . . .26 24. The forms of the 3 Plural . . . -27 25. Long and Short Stems . . . .28 26. The Perfect Participle . . . .28 27. Thematic forms . . . . -3 28. Meaning of the Perfect . . . . 31 29. The Simple Thematic Present . . . . 32 30. With Short Stem . . . . -33 31. The Thematic Aorist . . . . . .34 32. Remarks . . . . . 3^ 33. Doubtful forms . . . . -37 34. Thematic Aorists in Homer . . . -38 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 35. The Reduplicated Thematic Present . . . -39 36. The Reduplicated Aorist (Thematic) . . . -39 37. Aorists in -a . . . . . .40 38. Tense- Stems formed by a Suffix . . . .40 39. The Aorist in - fo]-v . -44 44. Meaning of the Passive Aorists . . -44 45. Suffixes of the Present-Stem . . . -45 46. T-Class (-re, -TO) . . . . . .46 47. Nasal Class (-ve, -vo, &c.) . . .^ .46 48. Iterative Class (-O-KS, -O-KO) . . . . -47 49. Iterative Tenses . . . . -47 50. I-Class (-if, -10) . . . . . .48 51. Verbs in -iw, &c. . . . . .48 52. Epenthesis . . . . . -49 53. Assimilation of i . . . -49 54. Compensatory lengthening . . . -5 55. Verbs in -aw, -ew, -oco Assimilation . . 50 56. Contraction . . . . -54 57. Synizesis . . . . . .55 58. Meaning of Verbs of the I-Class . . .56 59. Desideratives . . . . .56 60. Frequentatives . . . . .56 61. Intensives . . . . .56 62. Collateral forms of the Present in Homer . . 56 63. The Future in - . . . . . . 58 65. Futures from Perfect and Aorist Stems . . -59 66. Future Middle . . . . -59 67. The Augment (Historical Tenses) . . . .60 68. The Pluperfect . . . . .61 69. Loss of Augment . . . . .62 70. Meaning of the Present and Aorist Stems . . .62 71. Present-Stem Relative progress . . .63 72. Essentially progressive action . . .64 73. Past process (the Imperfect) . . .64 74. Descriptive Imperfect . . . .64 75. Aorist-Stem . . . . . .65 76. Aorist of the immediate past . . .65 77. Aorist Participle (coincidence) . . .66 78. Aorist of present time : 66 Aor. in Similes gnomic Aor. . . 67 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xvii CHAPTER III. The Moods. PAGE 79. The Moods Infinitive and Participle . "'.." . 67 80. The Subjunctive Non-Thematic Tense-Stems . . 68 81. Contraction . . ' . . .69 82. Thematic Tense-Stems . . . -7 83. The Optative . . . . . . .72 84. The Verbal Nouns . . . . . -73 85. The Infinitive . . . . -74 86. The Participle . . . . -75 CHAPTER IV. Accentuation of the Verb. 87. General rule of accentuation of Verbs . . -75 88. Accent in Composition . . . 76 89. The Infinitive and Participle . . -77 CHAPTER V. Nouns and Pronouns. 90. Nominal and Pronominal Stems . . . 78 91. Declensions . . . . . . . 78 92. The Vocative. . . . . -79 93. The Case-Endings . . . . . -79 94. Stems in -i, -v and -cr . . . .80 95. Stems in -a . . . . . .81 96. Cases The Nominative Singular . . . .81 97. The Accusative Singular . . , . .82 98. The Genitive Singular . . . -83 99. The Dative Singular . . . .83 99*. Plural . . . . . .84 100. The Accusative Plural . . . .84 101. The Genitive Plural . . . -85 102. The Dative Plural . . -:.. -85 103. The Dual ...... 86 104. The Instrumental in -i(v) . . .86 105. Contraction, Synizesis, Hyphaeresis . . -87 1 06. Variation of the Stem . . . . .88 107. Heteroclite Nouns > . . . . -9 1 08. Heteroclite Pronouns . . . . 92 109. Adverbial Endings . . . . . -93 1 10. Case-forms as Adverbs . . . -94 in. Accentuation of Nouns . . . . -97 1 1 2. The Vocative . . . . .98 CHAPTER VI. Formation of Nouns. 113. Nominal Stems Primary and Secondary . . -99 114. Primary Suffixes .... 100 114*. Variation of Suffixes . .104 115. Accentuation . . .107 116. Gender . ... - v ' .108 xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 117. Secondary Suffixes . . . . . .no 1 1 8. Compound Suffixes . . . . .in 1 1 8*. Suffixes of different periods . . .in 119. Gender . . . . . .112 1 20. Denominative Verbs . . . . 113 121. Comparison of Adjectives . . . . .114 122. Meaning of Comparatives and Superlatives . 116 123. Composition . . . . . . .116 124. Form of the Prefixed Stem . , . 117 125. Form of the Second Stem . . . .120 126. Meaning of Compounds . . . .122 127. Stems compounded with Prepositions . . 123 128. Accentuation of Compounds . , .124 129. Proper Names . . . . .124 130. Numerals . . . . . . -125 CHAPTER VII. TTse of the Cases. 131. Relation of Nouns and Pronouns to the Verb . .127 132. The Accusative Internal and External Object . .128 133. Neuter Pronouns . . . . .129 134. Neuter Adjectives . . . . .119 1 35- Cognate Accusatives . . . .129 136. Other Adverbial Accusatives . . .130 137. Accusative of the part affected . . .131 138. ,, of Time and Space . . .132 139. ,, with Nouns .... 132 140. ,, of the External Object . . . 133 141. Double Accusatives . . . . 134 142. The Dative ....... 135 143. The 'true' Dative ..... 135 144. The Instrumental Dative . . . . 137 145. The Locatival Dative . . . 139 146. The Genitive . . . . . .140 147. The Genitive with Nouns . . . .141 148. ,, in the Predicate . . .142 149. of Place . . . 143 150. of Time .... 143 151. The quasi-Partitive Genitive . . . 144 152. The Ablatival Genitive . . . 147 153. The Genitive of Price .... 148 154. The Case-Ending -i(v) ..... 148 155. Instrumental ..... 149 156. Ablative . , . . . . 149 157. Locative . ... . . . 150 158. Dative and Genitive . . . -150 159. Forms in -0ev and -ws The Ending -9v . . . 151 160. The Ending -ws . . . . 152 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xix PAGE 161. The Nominative Impersonal Verbs . . * 152 162. Nominative in the Predicate . . . 153 163. Interjectional Nominative . . . 155 164. The Vocative . . . . . *55 165. Substantive and Adjective . . . . . . 156 1 66. Gender of Adjectives . . . . 157 167. ,, Pronouns . . . . 158 1 68. Implied Predication .... 158 CHAPTER VIII. Use of the Numbers. 169. Collective Nouns . . . . , .158 170. Distributive use of the Singular . . .. . 159 171. Plural of Things . . . .. . .160 172. Neuter Plural with Singular Verb , .160 173. The Dual . . . . ... .161 CHAPTER IX. The Prepositions. 174. Definition . . . . . . .163 175. Adverbial use of Prepositions . . . . 163 176. Tmesis ....... 163 177. Ellipse of the Verb . . . . .164 178. Use with Oblique Cases ..... 165 179. Use with the Genitive . . . .166 1 80. Accentuation ' Anastrophe ' of Prepositions . .166 1 80*. Apocope ....... 169 181. d/*0t ........ 170 182. afjtyi with the Dative . . . . 171 183. Accusative .... 171 184. ,, Genitive .... 172 185. rrtpl ........ 172 1 86. 7re/K with the Dative . . . . 173 187. Accusative .... 174 1 88. Genitive . . . . 174 189. vapa , . . . . . . . 175 190. irapa with the Dative . . .-' . 175 191. Accusative . . . .176 192. ,, " Genitive .... 176 193. fterd ... '. 177 194. fitrd with the Dative . . * '77 195. Accusative . . .178 196. ,, Genitive 178 197. TK . . . . . - . 179 198. M with the Dative . . . . i?9 199. Accusative . . .180 200. Genitive . . 181 ba xx TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 201. VTTO . . . . . . . .l8l 202. vno with the Dative . . . 182 203. Accusative .... 182 204. ,, Genitive . . . .183 205. irpori (TT/WJ), irori . . . . . .184 206. irpori with the Dative . . . .184 207. Accusative . . . .184 208. Genitive .... 184 209. ava with the Dat. with the Gen. . . . 185 210. ava with the Accusative . . . .185 211. Kara . . . . . . . .186 212. Kara with the Accusative . . . .186 213. Genitive . . . . 187 214. 5i . . . . . . . 187 215. Sid with the Accusative .... 187 216. Genitive . . . .188 217. Mp . . . . . . . .188 218. virip with the Accusative . . . .188 219. Genitive .... 188 220. ivi (tv} ....... 189 221. ffvv, \>v ....... 189 222. (IS ........ 190 223. f . . 190 224. air6 . . . . . . . .191 225. np6 ........ 191 226. avri . . . . . . . 192 227. Double Prepositions ..... 192 228. Improper Prepositions ..... 193 229. Homeric and Attic uses . . . . 194 CHAPTEB X. The Verbal Nouns. 230. Nature of the Verbal Nouns .... 195 231. The Infinitive original meaning . . . .196 232. Infinitive with Nouns .... 198 2 33- )> with Impersonal Verbs . . . 198 234. ,, as the Subject .... 199 2 35- with Kelatives .... 201 236. with vpiv and ir&pos . . . 201 237. Accusative with the Infinitive . . . 201 238. Tenses of the Infinitive .... 203 339. Dative with the Infinitive .... 204 240. Predicative Nouns Attraction . . . 204 241. Infinitive used as an Imperative . . . 206 242. Origin and History of the Infinitive . . 207 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xxi PAGE 243. The Participle uses . . . . . 209 244. Tenses of the Participle . . . .211 245. Implied Predication . . . . .212 246. The Genitive Absolute . . . .212 246*. The Verbal Adjectives . . . .214 CHAPTER XI. Use of Pronouns. 247. Subordinate Clauses Deictic and Anaphoric Pronouns . 215 248. Interrogative Pronouns . . . . .215 249. oSe, roa6aSf, roioaSf, d>5e, tvOaSe . . . .216 250. KCIVOS . . . . . . . 217 251. OVTOS ........ 217 avr6s, avTUS . . . . . . .218 The Reflexive Pronoun . . . . .219 254. The Possessive (6s, os . . . .220 255. eos, os as a general Reflexive . . .221 256. The Article . . . . . . .224 257. The Substantival Article .... 224 258. The Attributive . . .226 259. With connecting Particles . . .227 260. With Adjectives . . . .228 261. The defining Article .... 229 262. The Article as a Relative . . . .231 263. The Article with T . . . .232 264. Homeric and Attic use of the Article . .232 265. os 77 o . . . . '" 234 266. os re, os ns . . ... . 235 267. Correlative Clauses . . . .236 268. ovvtKa ...... 240 269. O, OTl, OTf . . . . .241 270. o, on, o re as Conjunctions . . . 244 270*. Indirect Discourse . . . . -245 271. Form of the Relative Clause . . . 245 372. Double Relative Clauses . 247 CHAPTER XII. Use of the Moods. 273. Classification of Sentences ... 248 274. The Subjunctive in Principal Clauses . . .251 275. Affirmative ..- 251 276. Negative . .- 2 53 277. Interrogative . 2 53 278. Prohibitive . . . ' 2 54 279. Homeric and Attic uses ..... 255 280. The Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses Clauses with jt fc . . - 2 55 281. Clauses with 1*17. . . 256 282. Relative Clauses Final . -. -257 283. ,, Conditional . 258 XX11 TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 284. Relatival Adverbs . . . . .260 285. ws, circus. ..... 260 286. iva ...... 261 287. 5pa . . . . .281 308. ore, diruTe . . . . .282 309. lirct . . . . . . .283 310. irptv . . . . . . 283 311. ' Conditional Protasis . . .- .284 312. et Optative of Wish .... 285 313. ti Ktv Conditional Protasis . . . 285 314. (I Final and Object Clauses . . 286 315. History of the Subjunctive and Optative Uses in Independent Clauses . - . .287 316. ,, Subordinate Clauses . . .287 317. Original meaning ..... 289 318. Conditional Protasis with et 290 319. Final Clauses with fl . . . .291 320. ef 5' 076 . . . . . . 291 321. Conclusion ...... 292 322. Homeric and Attic Uses . . . . 293 323. The Indicative Modal Uses . . . . 293 324. Conditional Apodosis .... 294 324*. Ellipse of the Apodosis .... 295 325. Past Tense by Assimilation . . .296 326. Future Indicative . . ' . . . 296 327. The Imperative . . . . . . 298 328. Prohibition . . . . . . 299 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xxiii CHAPTER XIII. The Particles. PAGE 329. Classification of the Particles .... 299 330. icai . ... 300 331- re . . . . ... 301 332. re in general statement .... 301 333- 8 . . -34 334. 8e of the Apodosis ..... 305 335. Enclitic 5e . . . . . .307 336-7. dAAa, avrap, arap, aS, avre, enirrjs .... 308 338. 3 308 339. rir), eirtff] . . . 309 340. ijf, 77 . . ... 310 341. Dependent Interrogative . . . . 311 342-5. fidv, itijv, pkv . . . 312 346. rot . 315 347-8. dpa, yap . 316 349-352. ovv, MI, vv, OTJV . . . . 319 353- P 320 354- 7 e 32i 355- ov, /7 distinction of usage . . . . .322 356. ov5(, firjU, ovoeis . 323 357. Double negatives ..... 323 358. Uses of JUT; Indicative .... 324 359. ov and fir) in Conditional Clauses . . . 325 360. ov with the Infinitive and Participle . . 326 361. m - 326 362. Ktv and dV ....... 327 363. Summary of uses difference of dv and Ktv . 331 364. Original meaning of ov and icev . , . 334 365. Order of Particles and Enclitic Pronouns . . . 335 CHAPTER XIV. Metre and Quantity. 366. The Hexameter ...... 338 367. Diaeresis and Caesura . . -338 368. Spondaic verses . . 34 369. Quantity of Syllables . 34 1 370. Position ... 34 2 371. Lengthening before />, A, /*, v, a, 8 . . . 344 372. Origin of the lengthening . . . 345 373. Final -u of the Dat. Sing. . . 34 6 374. Final -a of the Neut. Plur. . 347 375. Short Syllables ending in a Consonant . . 347 376. Elision, &c. . 349 377. Crasis ... 35 378. Synizesis ... 35 1 378*. Contraction . 35 1 XXIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE 379. Hiatus . -355 380. Long vowels before Hiatus . . -355 381. Shortening of diphthongs before Hiatus . . 356 382. Hiatus after short syllables . . . 357 3Sj. Doubtful Syllables . 357 384. Doubtful vowels ..... 358 385. Doubling of consonants .... 360 386. Metrical licence ..... 360 387. Vocatives ...... 360 388. The Digamma ...... 361 389. Nature of the evidence from metre . . 361 390. Words with initial f 363 391. Words with initial af ("f ) .... 370 392. f inferred from metre only . . . 371 393. Loss of f , esp. before o, a-0i say t/tou, ijXdo-^v we came, are Sentences; the several Predicates are expressed by the Stems ecr-, $a-, fi\do-, and the Subjects by the Endings -ri, -0i, -pev. As the Endings of a Verb may always be translated by Personal Pronouns they are called the Person-Endings. It may happen that the ending has been lost by phonetic corruption, as in tXop* (for Xo.pe-T) he took. This however does not form a real exception, because in Greek such words are used exactly as if the lost ending were still sounded. In English it is different : took can only be used to express a Predicate. The original Subject is lost to the mind as well as to the ear. It should be noticed that the term 'Verb' is used in Grammars with a double meaning, sometimes of a single form as when we say that frimro-^v is 'a Verb' sometimes collectively, as when we say that kriniTo-^v is a 'part' of 'the Verb TVTTTO).' Here 'a Verb' means a group of forms, derived from a common root. 3.] There are three main sets of Person-Endings : 1. Those used in the Tenses called 'Principal' (the Present, Perfect, and Future Indicative), and in the Subjunctive ; these are called the Primary Endings. 2. Those used in the 'Historical Tenses' (the Imperfect, Aorist, and Pluperfect), and in the Optative; these are called the Secondary Endings. 3. The Endings of the Imperative. B 2 THE VERB. [4. 4.] The further modifications which the Endings undergo depend chiefly upon the final letter of the Stem. In certain forms the Ending is preceded by O or E : that is to say, O before the nasals p, v, and E before other letters ; e. g. TVTTTO-ptv, TvirrE-Tc, TinTTQ-vn (older and Dor. form of Tv-nrovcri). We shall call this the Thematic Vowel,* and the Stems which contain it Thematic Stems. The term will naturally include the corresponding Subjunctives, in which the final letter of the Stem varies in the same way between TJ and &>, as ruimi-p.v, Tuimj-re, &c. and the I Sing, in -&>. These long vowels doubtless represent a primitive contraction of the Thematic vowel with some other element : but the exact process can hardly be determined. The forms which do not contain this variable e or o are called Non-Thematic. Among these, again, we have to distinguish a group of Tenses with Stems ending in -a, viz. the Perfect, the First Aorist, and some forms peculiar to the Ionic Dialect, as the Plpf . (e. g. rjbea / knew], the Injpf . TJO, / was, rj'ia I went. In these Stems the -a changes in the 3 Sing, to -c(').t The distinction between Thematic and Non-Thematic applies in strictness only to forms, but may generally be extended to Tenses and Moods. Thus the Pres. and Impf. of TVTTTCD are Thematic, the same Tenses of u> I O ?> b to b b ^ b L a S >S o c* i h h 02 r 3 15 s GO S b t fr r *i &D _c CC 3 P 4 PERSON-ENDINGS. [5. Remarks on the Table of Person-Endings. 1 Sing. On the Subj. in -w-fu see 82, and on the Optatives which take -fu in the i Sing-, see 83. 2 Sing. The original -at remains only in tv-trl thou art. The form Is (or enclitic tis) is read in nine places, but there is only one (Od. 17. 388) in which the metre does not allow tcra' to be read instead. Probably, therefore, tcroi is the genuine Homeric form. The Attic fl is not found in Homer. The Ending -T) % ffo (f r %ff-ffo), irtirvaaai (for irt-nvQ-aai), rtrvfo, &c., in which the , which would properly form -ccai, -ceo, sometimes * On this point recent writers have gone back to the explanation given by Bopp, Vergl. Gr. II. pp. 292, 498. 5-] PERSON-ENDINGS. 5 suffer Hyphaeresis (cp. 105, 4), and drop one e ; as pvOeai (Od. 2. 202), curo-aipeo, eKAeo. But we find also pvOelai. (Od. 8. 180), z>etcu (Od. ii. 114., 12. 141) where it is possible to substitute the uncontracted /xufle'ecu, peeai and cuSeto (II. 24. 503). In the Imper. the Ending -9i is common in Non-Thematic Tenses : i-0i, o-Tij-di, K\v-6t, KcuXv-Oi, eora-0i, opw-Qi, -0i (Od. 3. 380), ejuTUTrATj-fli (II. 23. 311). We find -s in 6e-s, bo-s, irpoe-s (Tjyjo-iTjjui), and the thematic eyt-(nre-s //?.*> 73, tell (cp. Attic o-xe-s). In the forms iffrij (II. 21. 313), Saivv (II. 9. 70), Selicvv (Hes. Th. 526), the long final vowel probably conies by analogy from the Pres. and Impf. Singular forms (by the ' proportion ' Impf. lAe-ye-s, f\eyf : Imper. \tye : : to-nys, larrj : fffTij). For the forms HaO-iara, riOti, SiSov, &c., see 18. 3 Sing. The original -TI remains only in |O--TI(Z;), in which the phonetic change of -TI to -o-i is prevented by the preceding O.-VTI, Aeyo-vrt (as -orai in the Mid. to -I'Tai). The forms with -dai belong to two essentially distinct groups; see 7. The secondary -ay (for -avrj is found in all Aorists which form the i Sing, in -a. It may also be traced in the Impf. of ei/xi, in the form rjv (Hes. Th. 321, 825), for r\av (Sanscr. dsan}. Non-Thematic -v occurs in the forms e^a-y, !/3a-y, lora-y, .i.<^ (f)9a-v, fbv-v (II. II. 263), tyv-v (Od. 10. 397), IKTO-^, Impf. lf-v (in vv-LV, p.fd-iv), Ttpo-Tidt-v (read by Aristarchus in Od. i. 112), fbibo-v (H. Cer. 327), and many Passive Aorists, as !/3Aa- /3e-y, 8i-eVjLiaye-i', aye-y, aAe-y, ba.fj.e-v, Trdyf-v, r/yepOf-v, Koa-^rjOf-v, Ka.T-eKTo.6e-v. On the form ^lavO^v (II. 4. 146) see 40. In these tenses -v is commoner in Homer than -aoV. But -croV is the only Ending found in the two Imperfects rj- are post-Homeric. 1 Dual. -ptQov occurs only once, in TieptitoptBov, II. 23. 485. Elmsley (on Ar. Ach. 733) maintained that this form was a fiction of the grammarians. It is defended by G. Curtius ( Verb. I. 97 f.), and there seems no valid reason for rejecting it. 2 and 3 Dual. In the Historical Tenses, according to the ancient grammarians, the regular Endings are 2 Dual Act. --TQV, Mid. - 3 - T ^ v > This scheme, however, is open to some doubt ; for (1) Homer has three instances of the 3 Dual Impf. in -TOV, where the metre does not admit of -rrjv, viz. SIWK(-TOV (II. 10. 363), envx^-fov (II. 13. 34^), \a.j' (II. I. 338) and KOjuemoi; (II. 8. 109). As to co-row in Od. I. 373, where it is usually taken as a Plural, see 173. Variation of the Stem. 6.] In Thematic Stems it is plain that the Ending influences only the final e(o), leaving the rest of the Stem unaffected. Non-Thematic forms, on the other hand, are liable to variations in quantity which affect the main vowel of the Stem. These variations are governed 'by the general rule that when there are two forms of a Stem the longer is found with the Endings of the 6.] VARIATION OF STEM. 7 Sing. Indie. Act., the shorter with all other Endings, viz. those of the Dual and Plural, the Imperative, and the Middle. Thus : _ (i) a, } o interchange with the corresponding long vowels d (in Ionic rj), i\, d-6i, Mid. e-0a-ro; T^TJ-JU, Mid. rt^e-/xai; St'Sa)-/xi, Mid. (2) t with ei and 01 : as ei-/xt, i Plur. l-pev, Imper. l-6i ; olba, i Plur. i5-juez>. (3) o with eu and u : as e-\eva, Mid. yy-ro ( 15); biKvv-[j.i, i Plur. bfiKvv-p.v. Sometimes with ou, as eiA^Aowfla, stem Note however that all vowels are liable to be shortened before the combination vr, as in the 3 Plur. loray (but eo-rrj-jixev), &c., and the Participle, a-ravr-os, yvovr-os. Also before i of the Optative, a-raLriv, yvoirjv. The same law governs the interchange of (4) a with er and ov : as yzyova (yevos), I Plur. yeya-juer ; neTtovOa (-nevO-os), Part. Fern. -nevaO-vla.* (5) op with ep and op : as tydopa, Mid. ZfyQap-Tai (Pres. <0eipo) for (f)0p-t(a) ; and, with Metathesis (pa for ap, &c.), rerpo^e, Mid. re^paTT-rai (rpe<^)-a)).* The combinations ap^pS) and SA(Xa) represent the primitive ' liquid vowels,' r and 1. They appear in place of the consonantal p and X when these are phonetically impossible : e. g. e0aprai is for k-; edrjKa, I Plur. etfe-juev. These are the principal variations which can be exemplified within the limits of a single Tense. When we compare one Tense with another, we observe further the interchange of (6) Stems with the vowel e or o and Stems in which the vowel is lost ; as IX-CD (for *a-e%-), t-Tf-rn-ov (rt'/x- * Similarly, aX(Xfi) with eX and oX : but it is difficult to find examples in Greek. The form iri-irXa-^v perhaps answers to an original Sing. *m-irt\-nt (cp. Sanscr. piparmi, PI. pipr-mas, Brugmann, M. U. I. p. 44), and the form *T(-ro\-a (Lat. tetulf). 8 THIRD PERSON PLURAL. [7. vca), t-ii(-(pv-ov (v-, cp. oi/-os). Thus we have an apparent interchange of two short Stems, as <|>v- in tite-tyv-ov with S- in iri-tya-Tcu, &c. When loss of < would make the word unpronounceable, it is sometimes retained in the short form, as in i-rtic-ov, rac-ftv (Stems rtK-, TOK-). Again, there are in general two longer forms of each Stem, one marked by the predominance of the sounds e, rj, the other by that of o, at. The chief interchanges which are due to this cause are (7) e and o, including the combinations ei, eu, ep, eX, eji, *v and 01, oo, op, oX, oji, ov. It is needless to give further examples. (8) d (Ionic YI) and w: I-TTT-T? flew, UTTJO-O-CO cower, and Tre-Tmo- j / tf. f j > / KO ; cp. i]-ju(, and (fxa-vt], ob-r]yos and ay-coy-^. (9) TJ and w : priy-vvfjii and e/a-pcoya ; cp. dpT/yco and dpcoy-o's, r/Oos and elco^a. (10) In a certain number of Stems the only variation is between u and o : 8i-8co-//i (80-), o8-co8a, oA-coAa. The Endings which are found with the long Stem have been called the Light, the others the Heavy Endings. The short form of the Stem is usually called the Weak Stem. Of the longer forms that which contains the vowel o (ot, ou, ov, op, oX) may be distinguished as the 0-form : the other will be simply called the Strong form. The different variations may be represented in a tabular form : Strong 0(77) 77 co i fv fp(pe) eA e/u, ev e O-form co co co 01 ov op(po) oA o/x ov o Weak aeoifl p A. ) /u, ) y ) nil . dp(pa) aA 7.] The 3 Plur. offers some exceptions to the general rule : (1) The Ending -ao-i (for -on, -NTI) is used with the long Stem of the Pf., as AfAo'y^-acrt, TT((pvK-d, e-8o-(raz>, &c. Presents : ri^e-ao-i, 8i8o-ao-i (Att.) ; (-TtOe-o-av, f-bibo-crav, &c. Perfects : tg-ap-t (i8-o-ao-t), larav ; et^ao-i (Att. 3 Plur. of eot/ca). /3e/3d-ao-t, yeyd-'ao-i, jae/Ltd-ao-t ; Plpf . j3e(3a-crav, /xe/za-o-ay. t crratn (for !ora-a. The hiatus shows that -dai is for -cracri, the Primary Ending 8.] MIDDLE VOICE. 9 answering to -aw. The corresponding Mid. -o-aroi is found in Doric (yey/adx/raTcu, Tab. Heracl. i. 121, in C. I. 5774). The contraction in lo-raai, T0vauacri, -nOeio-i (for QavTi, riOt-vri). And in these the short vowel is due to the (original) following -NT, as in e-o-rav, f\yep9tv, d\6-vTs, &c. For a plausible hypothesis as to the origin of the Ending -crav see 40. Regarding -(cr)a e/ouo-o-djuevos having drawn him his sharp sword ; ^/aeiro TOOV took Ms bow with him ; let him bear away (as his prize}. (2) The use in which the agent is the direct object of the action, as AOVO-JUCU I wash myself. This is comparatively rare. (3) The Intransitive use, in which the reflexive sense is faint, as $aive-Tai appears (but fyatvei tavTov he shows himself]. So, generally, when the action centres in the agent ; as in Verbs of bodily action (epx ^ 611 ? weYojuai, aXXojuai, ol^o^ai, &c.), and in such uses as \a/3e'o-0cu to gain a hold (not to take a thing), bebpay^vos clutching ; f^ aTO ^ re her arms ; also in Verbs of feeling and thinking (cuo-fldz/ojuai, albeop-ai, /3ovAo]uai, otojuai, p/janpMU ' ' ' ora^at, jxeo/xai, (popai, &c.). So in French, ' je m'ape^ois ' I perceive, ' je me doute ' 1 suspect, ' il se peut ' it may be. 10 THE TENSES. [9. (4) The Reciprocal use ; d/xei/3oVeyos taking Ids turn ; Aeyei;io/Aat, (5) The Passive use, as lx e ~ rat is possessed, e/SArj-ro was struck, -' btbe-ro was hound, eK-ire-no-Tai # drunk up. This is not a very common use of the Middle. It may be illustrated from the similar use of some Reflexive Verbs in French, as ' je me trouve ' 1 am found, 'il se mange ' it is eaten. The Middle is rather more common in Homer than in later Greek. For example, in the class of Verbs of feeling and thinking we may add the Homeric Ipajuat, ya.vvfj.ai, eASojucu, cA^ojaai, 060- /uat, oi'Ojuat, aTfVOfj,ai, Kf^apovro, obixrao-Oai. And the use is ex- tended to Verbs of seeing and hearing, as 6/3<2-jx,ai (Aor. iSe'-, i8eu>, OKOWCO), 8^pKOjuai, oorao/xat, o-Ke7Troju,at, ^pd^bjuaij cp. the Attic o-KOTroS-yiai 7 consider. Conversely, Homer has the Act. ouo 7 think, expect, as well as the Mid. oio-f*ai 7 harbour the thought, suspect (cp. the distinction in French bet weenie /Se/SArjK-eixu. Participle /3dAAo-i>ros j3a\6-vros /Se/SArjK-oYos. It is evident that there might have been a Future 'Time- Mood ' as well as a Past for each Tense-Stem. In English indeed we can distinguish progressive action in the future as well as in the present and past : 1 shall be writing as well as / am writing and / was writing. See Goodwin's Moods and Tenses, 65; Driver's Use of the Tenses in Hebrew, 4. Modern Greek has two such Futures, 6a ypci^co I will be loriting and 0a ypd\^aj / will write, related to each other as eypatyov and eypatya. 10.J Formation of Tense-Stems. Leaving out of sight the meanings of the several Tenses, and looking to the mode of their formation, we may distinguish the following groups : (i) With the Verb-Stem serving as Tense-Stem The Simple Non-Thematic Present, as fa-pi. The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist, as Z-firj-v. The Aorist in -a, as e-x>-a. 12 TENSES. [ll. (2) With Tense-Stem enlarged from Verb-Stem The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present, as n'-flrj-fu. The Present in -nrj-fu and -ni-fu, as ovci'S-yTj-jLu, 8eiK-z>i5-/u. The Perfect. (3) With the Thematic Vowel The ordinary Thematic Present, as Aeyoo. The Present with short Stem, as ayco. The Simple Thematic Aorist, as e-Aa/3-o-z;. (4) With Reduplication (Thematic) The Thematic Reduplicated Present, as yi-yv-o-fj.ai. The Thematic Reduplicated Aorist, as ijy-ay-o-v. (5) With other Suffixes (Non-Thematic) The Aorist in -ad, and in -o-e, -o-o. The Aorist in ~i\~v (Aor. II Pass.). The Aorist in -OTJ-K (Aor. I Pass.). (6) With other Suffixes (Thematic) The Present in -TO (T-Class of Curtius). The Present in -cw (Nasal Class). The Present in -O-KW, and the Iterative forms. The Present in -*u> (I-Class). The Future in -o-w, -(a)w. The Non-Thematic Present and Aorist. 11.] The Simple Non-Thematic Present. The chief Presents in which the Tense-Stem is the same as the Verb-Stem are et-fu (for eo--fu) / am, e?-/u 1 go, ty^-pi / say, r\ he said, Kei-rat lies, r\va-ro II. 17. 25), ari-Tov How, K.iyj\-Tir\v caught, epv-ro protected, oreu-rai in ready, threatens, e8-ju,erac to eat : also tero desired (te'/xevo? eager), if it is to be separated from uj/xt and referred to fte/xcu, Sanscr. m (see 397). For tA?j0i see 16. On the Non-Thematic forms of Contracted Verbs (such as see 19. 12.] Variation of the Stem according to the ' weight ' of the ending is carried out consistently in iq-/u and et-ju. Thus Pres. 0rj-/xi, (jtrj-s, (frrj-a-L, Plur. <^>a-/xeV, <^a-Te, (^acrt. Impf. l-^rj-y, f-Qrj-s and e-(j)r]-a-6a, I-^TJ, I Plur. ^>a-^v (for e-(})aij.v), 3 Plur. ^a-arav and tyav, Part. 0ay. 12.] NON-THEMATIC PRESENT. 13 Mid. 2 Plur. d-o-6e, Impf. e-$a- W z,, e-^a-ro, Imper. $a-o, , Inf. $d-cr0ai, Part. (f)d-p.vos. And similarly Pres. el-pi, ei-o-0a, ei-o-i, 3 Du. t-roy, Plur. i-/xey, f-re, Wi. Impf. 3 Du. I-TTJV, 3 Plur. la-ay, Imper. \-Qi, t- T a>, t-re, Inf. i-fxeyai (once i), and ieWt. The i Sing, fj'ia does not represent the original form of the Impf., which would be fja (forget, Sanscr. dyam). Hence rj'Ca with the 3 Sing, fjei and 3 Plur. Ih.-fMf-l Tjio-av, rfo-av must be formed like pSta and other Pluperfects in -so. ( 68, a) ; ' the e of the original fjea, rjeo-av being changed to t under the influence of *-ptv, uj^U. &c. (Wackernagel, K. Z. xxv. 266). For -crav see 40. The forms fj'iov (i Sing, and 3 Plur.), lev, Part. Iwv, are evidently produced by confusion with the Thematic conjugation ( 30, cp. also 18). The Verb elju I am is inflected as follows : Sing. Dual. Plur. !l. ftpi (l/*ev (for lff-/V) 2. lff-rt, els (5) eff-rov ea-re 3. fff-ri(v~) (ff-r6v elai (Dor. IJ/TI), e-aat. , I. ^a, a (Th. ov) ^ey J 2. ^ff^a, 7;) ; the original 3 Sing. Impf. survives in the Dor. 779 (Vedic as). Again, the 2 Sing. l?jo-0a and 3 Sing. fr]v, rjf]v seem to require a stem (e)o-rj-, found also in Lat. e-rdm (Brugmann, M. U. i. p. 35), The -v of the 3 Sing, is unex- plained : it does not appear to be the v e^eAKuoriKoV, for we find no form *^e alongside of rjev. Note that the i Sing, fjv is not found in Homer. The Homeric forms of ei/te were discussed some years ago by L. Meyer (K. Z. ix. pp. 385, 423). He maintained that the Homeric 3 Sing. Impf. was fyv or (without augment) lev : the forms fy, *T]V and fjtjv being due to 14 TENSES. [13. corruption or misreading. The facts certainly give much countenance to this view, which has been adopted by Curtius (Stud. i. 2, 292) and Nauck. It can hardly be accidental that out of 54 places in which TJV occurs in the thesis or second half of the foot, there are 50 in which it is followed by a vowel, as II. 2. 77 Ntcrrcup os pa IluXoio a.va TJV rJ/xaOoei/ros. Od. 17. 208 a.fuf>l 5' ap' aiydpcav vSa.TOTpt it is elided ; but perhaps the et> may be omitted. The vowel remains long before Heavy Endings in the Stems drj-, 3 Du. ar)-Tov, Inf. arj-^evai, Mid. arj-ro, Part, ai/j- Ki Xn~) 3 -D Part. except that it is shortened before -vr and -i ( 6), as in the Part. deWes blowing, 3 Plur. aeiiA?j-/xz;, 3 Plur. Part. ), 3 Plur. virfp-fia-a-av, Imper. jxera-/3?70i, Inf. ^Tj-juevai : C-OTTJ-I' / stood, Du. 0r] came before, Part. 6d-[jLfvos : e^-e-irnj flew out I4-] NON-THEMATIC AORIST. 15 Ql3d (Hes. Op. 98), 3 Du. Kara-Ttrri-T^v cowered, Mid. l-Trra-ro flew : e-(r|3T] was quenched ; -T\TJ-C / endured, Plur. %-TXrj-fj.fv, 1-rArj-re, Imper. rA?j-rco, rA?/-Te ; l-y^w-i/ / knew, 3 Du. yixo-rrjy, 3 Plur. !-yya>-o-az' j eir-e-TrXur-s C?zY/<^ *07 0Z7r, Part. >m /z'w, Inf. PI&-VO.I. ; dXw-rai to be taken, Part. dAovs : 2-<|)6t.To perished ; KTi'-fieyos z7^ ; e-8o &z under, 3 Du. e-Su-rrjy, 2 Plur. l-8i)-re, Imper. bv-0L, Inf. c-/xez;ai ; I-u grew, 3 Plur. - (II. 4. 319, where some ancient critics read /care'/cra), 3 Sing. l-KTa (the quantity is proved by Od. II. 410 I/era pro, Se'/cro, ACKTO, /XIKTO, &c., with the Inf. TikpQai and the Participles app-fvos, iKfteros, acr/xeroy, see 40. 14.] Metathesis. This term has been employed to explain a number of forms in which a short vowel is lost before a liquid, and the corresponding long vowel follows the two consonants thus brought together : as ^-/SATJ-TTJJ; met, Mid. f3\f)-To was struck (/3dA-, e'A-os), -T\r] endured (raAct-s), TrXij-ro drew near (-Tre'Aa-y), TrAry-ro was filled (Sanscr. par-], l-or/aoo-ro was scattered (orope-), K\r]-r6s called (naX-to), KeA-ojaai), Ka(ri--yvr]-Tos kinsman (yev-), /ne- ftrr?-/xai (/xev-), 8jurj-ro? ^aztf? (8a/u.a-), &c. But this long vowel a, TJ, or a) is clearly of the same nature as therj of (r^-crut ( are obtained by v passing into the semi-vowel (ex e ~ a ^ or ^X ^ a )- The original inflexion then was l-xeu-a (e-xef-a), l-xeu-s, e-xev(-r), Plur. e-xv-pev, l-xv-re (cp. l-Kra-jite^ 13), c-^fv-av, Mid. f-\v-ro (like e- to olo-fla, * Joh. Schmidt, K. Z. xxiii. 277 ; Brugmann, M. U. i. 1-68 ; Frohde, B. B. ix. 1 19. The whole subject, as Brugmann has recently warned us (Grundriss, ii. 8, n. i), is full of uncertainty, and it is possible that forms such aspele- represent the ' root ' or primitive word, from which not only pie- (irA.^-, Lat. ple-nus) and pele-, but a.lso pel- (Sanscr. pi-par-tf) and pi- (iri-Tr\a-nev'), are derived. We are dealing here, not with the derivation of Greek, &c. from Indo-European, where the comparison of other languages, such as Sanscrit, may give us help, but with the formation of Indo-European itself, to which the comparative method is ex hypothesi inapplicable. 1 6.] NON-THEMATIC TENSES. 17 rs-/xez>. The 3 Sing-, in -e(V), follows the analogy of the Thematic conjugation (e^eue like lAeye). The three Aoristsin -Kd, c-6rjKa I put, e-Tj/ca I sent forth, t- I gave, are inflected as follows : 1 Sing. 1-07} Ka I Plur. f-Oe-pt 2 f-dijKa-s 2 Du. e-0e-roi> 2 l-0e-re 3 , 3 M^ 3 Imper. 6e-s, 0e'-rco, Plur. 0e'-re, OG-VTCDV. Inf. 0e'-/zeyai, de-pev, delvai, Part. 0ei?, dt-vros, &c. Mid. e-0e-/AT7i' &c. with 6e- as stem throughout. Thus Qr\K.a-, r}Ka-, 8o>Ka- alternate with 0e-, e-, 80- as long and short Stems respectively. The only forms in Homer which do not conform to this scheme are the i Plur. lv-^Ka-^fv (Od. 12. 401), and the 3 Sing. Mid. d^Ka-ro (II. 10. 31., 14. 187, also Hes. Th. 175). The primitive 3 Plur. e-bo-v occurs in Hes. Th. 30, and in Doric : e-0e-z> only on inscriptions (C. I. 29). The Homeric forms with the stem I- do not take the augment : in Attic we have (e. g.) el-pev el-re (for e-e-/xei; e-e-re). In respect of the -a of the Stem the 2 Sing, e-^xa-s is formed like -\va-s, and the occasional examples of the type f-6r/Ka-^v, f-6r]K.a-To are parallel to e-xeva-/zev, e-xeva-ro. That is to say, the -a comes from H-Or^xa, f-6r]Ka-v. The relation of e-0?]Ka-/xei>, e-077/ca-ro to !-0e-/xez>, e-0e-ro, is complicated by the use of a new Verb-Stem (#17-*- instead of #77-). Thus it is the same as the relation of eoTTJ/ca-juev to eora-^ev ( 22). The Aorist ^ei/ca (without augment eVeiKa) shows no variation of stem ; I Plur. eveuca-/t>tez>, 3 Plur. fivtma-v and eVeiKa-r, Imper. ereuca-re, Mid. 3 Plur. qpcfca-pro. On the Aorist enra see 37. 16.] The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present. These Presents are formed by Reduplication, usually of the initial consonant with t; ridrj-a-i puts, 8i8a>-/xi I give, Irj-a-i (for 0-^0-77-0-1 ?) sends, torao-i (o-i-ora-) they set, irijUTrAao-i they fill (the jn is euphonic : it is dropped after p. in e/x-7rt7rA7j-0i), 81877 lounA, (3i(Bd-s striding ; with Attic Reduplication, ovivrj-vi. (for O^-OI'TJ-) benefits : perhaps also 1X77-^1 be appeased (?Aa-^cti I propitiate, Horn. H. xxi. 5 : Stem tAa for o-t-o-Aa, Meyer, G. G. p. 437). In these Present Stems the quantity of the vowel in the Stem regularly varies under the rules laid down in 6 (i). The vowel is long in e^-TrtVATj-^i (II. 21. 311), fATj-flt, 8i'So>-0i (Od. 3. 380)*, and the Inf. Tt^-juemi (II. 23. 83, 247) and Part. * The variation is perhaps less regular in the Irnper. ; cp. K\V-$I. In Sanscr. the 3 Sing. Imper. has the strong Stem. C 1 8 TENSES. [17. (II. 10. 34). Also in bl(ji-fj.ai I seek (for *8t-8trj-), the Homeric Verb answering to Attic (^-rc'to. IT]IH is now generally connected with Lat. sero (for si-so, cp. Iffrrjpi sisto). Earlier scholars (as Bopp) derived it from the root yd (Lat. ja-c-w~}. Possibly it represents both ?]-|Lu / subdue t K.Lp-vr] mixed, Trep-va-s selling, crulb-va-Tai is scattered, TuX-m-rca comes near, ^ap-va-rai fights. Note c for e in Kip-, 0x18-, iriX-; cp. the later Verbs TTLT-VO>, KTIV-WIM. A few Presents with -vu are common to all periods of Greek, 8euc-yu-ju.i / show, o^-vv-^i I swear, ^(vy-w-jj,!. I join, oAAu/^u (for o\-w-p.i) I destroy ; but they are mainly Homeric or poetical ; op-vv-&i arouse, bai-vv feasted, ay-w-rov break, (rrop-vvaco), fKipva (Od. 7. 182, &c.), irirz/a : Imper. Kad-icrra (H. 9. 202). en'0ei, tet (d^)-it, irpo-iei, &c.), act (v. 1. a?j) blew, facets : Imper. 1 8.] THEMATIC FORMS. 79 , I8i'8ou : Imper. 8i8ou (Od. 3. 58). (II. 6. 523, Od. 4. 372), juefl-iei (II. 10. 121), ritfet (II. 13. 732), 7rap-Ti0eT (Od. i. 192), for which the MSS. usually have avUis, &c. : 818015 (II. 9. 164), 81801 (II. 9. 519, Od. 4. 237). So for Trpotet in II. 2. 752 we should read -Trpotei. Add the Part. /3t/3<3z;ra (II. 3. 22, cp. 13. 807., 16. 609), Fern. /3i/3wjV ^ cU Porson (in his note on Eur. Or. 141) condemns wiets, ri0eis, &c. on the ground that if n0eis were right we ought also to have ri0(3, n0ei, nBov^ev, ritfeire. It is possible, however, that a form like n0eis may have crept in through the analogy of the Verbs in -eco, although no 'Verb' ntfe'to was in use. It is ^> characteristic of the working of analogy to be partial and gradual. In Homer we find the corresponding 3 Sing. Pres. bajj-va, riflei, /xetftet, 81801 forms which are guaranteed by the metre. The forms so guaranteed are indeed few, and perhaps were not found in the oldest text of the poems ; but they are supported by similar forms in Herodotus and other Ionic writers*. Similarly, in the Presents formed with -vv there is evidence of a tendency to introduce the Thematic -iwe(o). The instances are : 100 op-vv-ov (II. 12. 142), wpyye (II. 14. 278), {cvyvvov (II. 19. 393), fyiWrw (II. 19. 1 75)^Taw-ouo-t, TCLVV-OVTO (four times), J ' * In considering this and similar questions it should be remembered (i) that we do not know when the Homeric poems were first written down ; (2) that we do not know of any systematic attention having been paid to spelling, accentuation, &c. before the time of the Alexandrian grammarians ; (3) that the tendency of oral recitation must have been to substitute later for earlier forms, unless the metre stood in the way ; (4) that this modernising process went on in different parts of Greece, and therefore need not represent the exclusive influence of any one dialect ; (5) that the older Ionic alphabet confused e, ei, i] and o, ov, w. C 2 20 TENSES. [19. ravv-eiv (II. 17. 391), awo> (II. 4. 56, but may be Fut.). As to 8cuz>v-?] (2 Sing 1 . Sub.]'. Mid.) see 80. Also, the Verb pvofj.ai protect, save, is for the most part Non- Thematic (Zpv-cro, fpv-ro, 3 Plur. pii-aTo, Inf. pC-o-0cu), but partly Thematic (pve-rai, pve-ro, pvo-vrai, &c.), see n. And the Aor. l-/cAu-oz> is Thematic, except the Imper. nXv-Oi, KAu-re. It should be observed that in all the foregoing cases the Thematic form is obtained by combining thematic endings with the final vowel of the Stem. In other cases the original final vowel is lost, as t'x<('') for f-^'x 7 ?! Si'fiw for Sift-pat, and the like. 19.] Won - Thematic Contracted Verbs. The following Homeric forms are usually regarded as instances of 'irregular Contraction ' of Verbs in -aco, -ea>, -oa> : (-aw) : avvavrri-Trjv met, o-uATj-TTjz' spoiled, Trpocravbri-Trjv spoke to, (poirri-Ti]v went about, Ki-rj scraped, oprj-^vai to pray, yor/-|uez>ai to bewail, TTfivri-fJifvai. to hunger, 6r\-vQou. to milk, ofy&n (-6w): a.TTL\T/]-Triv threatened, 6p:apTr)-Tr]v met, icaA^-jutei/at to call, Ttevdri-y-tvai to mourn, TroOri-^evai to regret, os, o-ao) from o-aoe, &c. On the other hand, as Curtius has shown (Stud. iii. 377-401, Verb. i. 352 ff.), they agree exactly with those Non-Thematic forms in which the rowel before the Ending is long except before -vr and -i, such as the Pres. Kix^-M^at, arj- uez'ot ( 1 2), the Aor. oTTj-jotevai, T\rj-vai, yv<&-fivai } &c. and (as we may add by anticipation) the Passive Aorists in -i]v and -Q^. Moreover, the same type of inflexion appears in the peculiar ' Verbs in -fu ' of the ^Eolic dialect, as 0iAr/-/it, I Plur. 0iAj/-/xe^, 3 Plur. QiXfHTi (for ^I'Ae-vn), Part. os ', and also in the Latin Verbs in -are and -ere, except in the i Sing.; e.g. ama- mini is parallel to bprj-pfvai, docemini to ^opi]-^vai, docemus, doce-nt to ^>tArj-/iei', <^iAetTrvujiu : and these again may be explained by contraction from -airjjut, -rjirj/xt, -oHT/^t, the Greek representatives of the Sanscrit -aydmi. The Latin amo, doceo, PI. amdmus, docemns, would fall into this scheme, if we suppose that they belong to the stage at which the thematic endings had not extended beyond the I Sing. Against this theory it is urged by Brugrnann (M. U. i. 86) that the thematic conjugation of these verbs is found also in Sanscrit, Zend, Slavo-Lithuanian and Germanic all which mem- bers of the Indo-European family, if Curtius is right, must have recast their derivative verbs on the same thematic model. It is more probable therefore that these verbs were originally thematic, and according to the final vowel of the base appeared as verbs in -aco (as vixa-co), -e), or -out (as drjio-w). On this assumption, again, the Homeric forms now in question may be variously explained. Where we find i\ for ee or ae, as Jn , t\i-z>. 22 TENSES. [20. Similarly, again, the analogy of the 'verbs in -/u/ and especially of those tenses which do not vary the quantity of the stem (as KI'XTJ/XI, arj/zt, TtXrj-ro, Zyvoav) has affected the derivative verbs, and has thus produced the non-thematic forms in question $iA?)|uiewu like a?j/ieyai, dAtrrj/jieyos like KL-^rifj.fvos, and so on. The forms Ti6ri-fj.(vaL (II. 23. 83, 247), TiOri-^vov (II. io. 34) are probably due to the influence of the same group of Verbs. A similar process explains the JEolic conjugation of verbs in -/zi (ye'Acu/u, tA?7ju.i, 8oKtV-ra> (/3io-s), eTr-e-TiAco-s (-TrAoo-s), aAw-rat, perhaps a-jr-ovri-To. Regarding the Passive Aorists, see 42-44. 21.] Meaning of the Won- Thematic Pres. and Aor. The Presents formed by Reduplication, and by the Suffixes -w\ and -w, are nearly always Transitive or ' Causative ' in meaning, as torij-jutt, o-KiS-vrj-fii, op-vv-^i : whereas the simpler Verbs, whether Present or Aorist, are usually Intransitive as Zarri-v, eaz>-rai has appeared; o-eo-r/Tre i* rotten TfTrjKa (T?)K-&>), re^rjTra (Aor. Part. ra$-toi>), TreTTTjye (Tray-?)), Kf^n^-ora, KK\r)y-, 17^0?, root crFrjO-) : fir-^-aro were shut to (of gates), from eTr-e'xo) : (rvv-o^K-oTe (better perhaps tnw-oKcoxo're, see Cobet, Misc. Grit. p. 303) leaning together, from 0-w-e'x.co (cp. OKO>X?? *^y or buttress, av-oK. was given by G. Mahlow (IT. Z. xxiv. 295 \ and has been adopted by most scholars. The original Homeric form was probably SeCBoa (or St'Sf oa), which can be restored in all the passages where the word occurs. Others (as Cobet) would substitute 8C8io, a form which is found in several places, sometimes as an ancient v. 1. for 5'56opas art destroyed ($0ap-) ; efj.fj.ope /^ thickened (rpa-) ; e7n-oebpofj.e rz<* over; sees ; lopyas /^-^ ^owtf ; loX-Tra 7 /Sew. Weak forms : eyo? pierced, re'rpaTr-ro (rpeTr-a))^ e-reraA-ro (reAAco). But ep, eX in eep-p-ei-os strung (Lat. *dro), epx" arctt are packed in Part. eepy-p-eVai (fe'py-co), and eeA-jiieVos cooped in : cp. 31, 6. pi appears in /3e/3pt0e z* heavy, epptya J dread, Tre^piK-uTat Irisflhiff, TfTply-vlai chirping, with no corresponding weak Stem. In these words pi seems to come from original ep, p, or r; cp. 29, 4. (7) of and d (for w) : yeyore z* ^om, I Plur. yeya-/xei>; TTfirovda I suffer, 2 Plur. Tre'Tracrfle (for TreTra^-re), Part, -nt-nad-via ; fj.efj.ovas art eager, 2 Plur. fj.tfj.a-Te; AeAo'yx-ao"t /^aw as portion (Aor. lAax- ov) ; 7r^)a-Tat /# 5/a/ (0oy-os), re'ra-rat /* stretched (ro'y-os), 5e8a- ws ( 31, 5). But we find af in /cexavS-ws containing (Aor. ex^ e ) (8) o and e: as in re'roKa (Hes. Op. 59 T ^ C P- A r - e-re/c-oy); ai / aicait (cp. 7rpo-8oK-at ambusli}; eo--; Tfdvr]Ka, Imper. Tf6vd-di; rerAr/Ka, Imper. rerAa-0t. Add also ^f^v-Kf is closed (of a wound), bfbv-K is siink in, though the short form is not found. (b) Perfects with invariable long vowel, especially i\ and u (discussed in 14) : /3e/3A?j-K-et struck, Mid. ^e^Aij-rat (cp. u/*- ^SATj-Tijy, pkri-fj.fvos) ', KfKfJi.rj-K.-as art weary ; TreTrArj-^eyos brought near, KfK\r]-[ji,ai, ftprj-Tai, jae/xyrj-juat, TfTfj.rj-fj.fvos ; fiefll having eaten (Fut. Mid. /Se/Spw-o-erat), jue'ju^Aw-K-e is gone, Similarly, from disyllabic Stems, 8e8arj-/ce (Aor. f-bdrj-v) has learned (Od. 8. 134), rer^-Ke (Od. 10. 88), and the Participles Kf \apri-oT a (e-^dprj-v), fifpaprj-oTa, KfKatfrj'-OTa, TfTir]-oTfs. To this class belong the Perfects of derivative Verbs in -aw, -ew, -ow, -uo), as ftf/3ir]-K-fV (II. IO. 145, 173., 16. 22), VTr-e/x^juu- xe (II. 22. 49!^ 8e8e47Tz;i7-K6t (Od. 17. 359), re0a/)(r?j-K-axi]-Kv (II- 10. 252, with v. 1. irapyx<"ff} is formed as if from *irap-oixta>, for nap-oixofMit. dSrj-K-oTes (Od. 12. 281, and fourjtimes in II. 10) means displeased, disgusted, jf-: < ^' and should probably be written daSrjKorfs, from daSe'tu (for d-af aS-ew). The Subj. f\TiKT|yju.eWi. But we find 7re-7m](>?, ire'-Trrairrat. And in eoTTjKa the rough breathing represents original , &c. Initial p, which generally stands for Fp (sometimes bvX- arai are , shut i n (F*py-)> Plpf. fp^-aro and (with augment) (epx.a-TO. tik/u-d * rvtf HI ttjixai / am clothed with (/W-), tV-am, Plpf. ecr-o-o, eo--ro and (with augment) e-e weak form fax^ without Reduplication would give the Fern. Part. Fa\vla, whence anfa-axyla. These examples make it doubtful whether initial F was origin- ally reduplicated in the Pf. stem. In Sanscr. the roots which begin with va (answering to Gr. fe-) take u-, as imdca (vac-, Gr. feTr-). Thus the fe- of FeFoiKa, fefeAfxeVos, &c. may be later, due to the analogy of other Perfects. Se'x-arat await (II. 12. 147), Plpf. e-Se'y/^y (Od. 9. 513., 12. 230), Part, bcypevos (II. 2. 794., 9. 191., 18. 524., Od. 20! 385),^ with the same Pf. meaning that we have in Se'8eyjuat (aioalt, not receive, 28) : while in other places e-8e/cro, &c. are no less clearly Aorists. It seems that we must recognise a Pf. form *8e'yM at (Buttm. G. G. ii. 149., Curt. Verb. ii. 144), probably older than 8e'5ey//cu. (6) The Reduplication in Sei-Se'x-arat they welcome, seems to be that of the ' Intensive' forms, as in 8ei-8uncoju,ai : see 61. The form belongs to 8ei/c-z>u|u,i, not 8e'x-ojucu (see Veitch). 24.] In the 3 Plur. ^ 1. The long Stem with -ao-i (-a-NTI) is comparatively rare : TTTTOidda, are entirely unknown to Homer. It has been pointed out by Job. Schmidt (K. Z. xxviii. 309) that the aspira- tion in these cases is due to the analogy of the forms in which a similar aspiration is caused by the ending : nrpa^-arm because of the 2 Plur. Ttrpa-6(, Inf. TfTpatp-Oai. This explains why a final denial is not affected : for 8 before passes into tr. 3. An anomalous c for t appears in &i-e'x-arai (Se'/c-wjut, see 23, 6), ep-rjpe'8-arai (epetSa), cp. ^picr-^eVos Hesych.), and OK- 4. A final 8 of the Stem sometimes appears only in the 3 Plur. : as a/crj^e'S-arat, IppdS-arat (paiVa), I Aor. pdcraare), eArjAdS- ^ ' aro. But the last of these forms is doubtful ; it occurs only in Od. 7- 86 xdAKeoi / bt * y 7"P TOI^OI eArjAdSar', where some good MSS. have e 25.] Interchange of Stems. The original variation between the Strong and the Weak form is disturbed by various causes. 1. The O-form of the Stem is found instead of the weak form in d\i]\ov6-fjiev we are come (for dX-fiKvd-^v), ao>pro was hung aloft (cp. aep-dev], eypr\yopde keep aivake, with the Inf. typriyopOcu (II. IO. 67, cp. eyprjyoprt IO. 182); avajy/xev (H. Apoll. 528); cp. eoty//ey (in Tragedy), 6e8otyjuey (Et. M.). 2. The strong Stem of the Pres. takes the place of the weak Stem in crvv~fppr]KTai. (Attic lppo>ya), Ae'AetTT-raij !evy-ju.>cUj 7)pr?pei(7TO (epei'Sco) ; also in eep-/iez;o? ; A.-jLieWs, ep^-arai ( 22, 6),(( So Kex. a ^'S-ws (for Kex^S-fcos, ^aySdva)). ;' eo-rrjre, commonly read in II. 4. 243, 246, is an error for eoTJjre : see j6. 3. The influence of the Present may further be traced in the Perfects which take I for ei ( 22, 4), and u, eo for ou ( 2,2, 5). So e8rj-(os (but eScoS?;), 7rpo-/3e/3ouAa (/3ovAo/xat). In all these cases it is worth noticing that the change does not affect the metrical form of the word : e. g. we may read fl^\vdfjiv, eppa/crat, evyfj.tvai, ^p^pioro, &c. and some of these may be the true Homeric forms. The weak Stem appears to take the place of the O-form in Sei'Sta (as to which see 22, 4), and in ava-jBeflpv^fv (II. 17. 54) gushes up. For the latter Zenodotus read avaptfipoy^v doubt- less rightly, since this is the correct Pf. of dya-/3pexco. In Attic Reduplication the second vowel of a disyllabic Stem may be short, as in eXr/kvOa (less common in Homer than eiA?jAou0a), and /carepTjpiTre (II. 14. 55)- 26.] The Perfect Participle was formed originally from the 26.] PARTICIPLE. 29 weak Stem, but there are exceptions in Homer, due partly to the F of the Masc. and Neut. Suffix (-fws, -ula, -fos), partly to the general tendency to adopt the form of the Sing. Indie, as the Stem. Thus the Homeric Pf. Part, is intermediate between the primitive formation with the weak Stem (as in Sanscrit), and the nearly uniform long Stem of Attic. In particular i. When the Ending -ws (-o'ro?) follows a vowel, one or both of the concurrent vowels may be long : /zejud-o're, p.e/ma-<2re (both for jxejud-fo're). So yeyd-coras ; /3e/3a-<3ra ; TreoJv-core ; KeK^rj-oYas and /ce/cpj-cora ; Teflmj-oros, re^rj-oSra, also reflyeom ; TreTJTTi-ora and TreTmj-cores (717770-0-0)) : TreTrreoira (?rnjTa>). Both vowels are short in w also appears in Terpiy-coras (II. 2. 314), KeKArjy-wras (II. 16. 430). For the latter there is a v. 1. KK\riyovTas (see 27) ; and so perhaps we may read rerpfyoyras. 2. When -cos (-oYos) follows a consonant, the Stem generally takes the long form, as in the Sing. Ind. Act. : aprjp-tas, /xe/^/c- toS, A.eA?)K-cds, eotK-co?, TreTrot^-ws, eopy-ws : except etS-ws (oZ5a), cue-cos or ei'K-tos (II. 21. 254)> eaS-ora (aydtii'to, root As these exceptions show, the strong form is not original : thus flSws is for fiS-fws, eaSoTO for IcrfnS-foTa. So we have /j.f/taws (perhaps nf/mvws'), not Htpovvs. When f was lost the original quantity of the syllable was preserved by lengthening the vowel : and in determining the new long vowel the analogy of the Sing. Ind. naturally had much influence. 3. A long vowel appears in the Feminine db-vla (II. 17. 4, elsewhere Ibvla, Schol. II. 20. 12), doiK-vla (II. 18.418, elsewhere ei'K-uta)*, TeOyrj-vla, TreTrArjy-tna, rer/^x-uia (as Plpf. rerp^x-a)' fiefipW-vla, TTply-vla, Tre^pt/c-iua, KeKATjy-uta (Hes. Op. 449). Later forms, aprjp-vla (Hes. Th. 608), Tt6r]\-vla (Horn. H. xlviii. 4). The form /3e/3<2o-a (Od. 20. 14) is an anomaly, apparently formed from the Masc. /3e/3cds on the analogy of Participles in -ovs, -ovcra and -ets, -eio-a. 4. The K of the Indie. Act. ( 22, 9) appears in rerux^-K-ws (II. 17. 748), geSarj-K-o'res (Od. 2. 6l), d8rj-K-o'res (II. IO. 98, 312, 399, 471., Od. 12. 281), and /3e/3pa>-K-cos (II. 22. 94., Od. 22. 403).' These instances are hardly sufficient to prove that the form is Homeric, since we might read renews, 8e8a?joVe?, &c. (like Kfxapiw, KfKorrjus, &c.) A form ^e^pcocos is sup- ported by Attic /3e/3ps for yeyacos first appears in H. Merc. 17. 5. The form TTfcpv^-orcs flying (only in II. 20 and 21), seems to be formed from the noun (f>va, without the intervention of any Tense-Stem. This account will apply also to KKoir-c5s (II. 13. 60), from KOTT-OS striking. 8e8ouir-6Tos (II. 23. 679) having fallen with a thud. (The regular form would be SeSourrTj-o)?, or rather perhaps ey Sou 7717 -coy, cp. e-ySouTTTj-o-az;.) dpn]-p,eVos, in which the a of aprj is retained, against analogy. It is in favour of this view that many Denominative Verbs form the Pf. Part, without the corresponding Indicative, as KeKo-n]-ws and the others given above ( 22, 9). That is to say, the Participle is treated as a derivative Adjective, which may be formed independently of the corresponding verb. 27.] Thematic Perfects. By this term we understand the forms which arise when a Perfect is inflected like a Present in -w. This change took place universally in Syracusan Doric, oc- casionally in other dialects. The chief Homeric instances are as follows : aywya : 3 Sing, avutyei, which has a Present sense in several places (though more commonly it is a Plpf.), Dual ai/coye-roy ; also fivayov, avayov, aycoye, Opt. arwyoi/xt, Imper. oz>a>ye-Ta>, dzjcoye-re. Such a form as yvnyov may be regarded either as a thematic Plpf. of avaya, or as Impf . of a new thematic Pres. di>ooyco. This remark applies also to the next three cases. ye'vu^a : eyeya>i>e, Inf. yeyawe-juez; (also yeyutvftv or yeya)i>eu>, II. 12. 337). tWoiM jreTT\T)YeWo (II. 23. 361) is apparently ob- tained by transference of quantity from a thematic /ie/xz^-oiro ; but we may read ^e'/^rjro, 3 Sing, of the regular Opt. /xe/x^'-^Tjj; (II. 24. 745). For this, again, some MSS. have /xe/xwn/^, as if from */xe^o-^ai. The 2 Sing. Ind. fiejurr/ (II. 15. 1 8) also points to juejuro/xat, but we may read ^^.vr\ (i. e. /xe/xrrjat). fj^fipXc-rai (II. 19. 343) and fxe'(j.f3\e-To (/leA-co) may be variously explained. Perhaps /xejueA-, the short Stem answering to became by metathesis /ie/*A-, /meju/3Ae- : cp. ij^porov for 6pwpe-Tai (Od. 19. 377, 524, Subj. d/3wp?j-rat II. 13. 27 1). (v. 1. in Od. 22. 56, see 25, 3). We may add the 2,8.] MEANING. 31 Pluperfects SeiSie feared, dnfji/oGei/ (II. n. 266), 67r-^i/o0ei' (II. 2. 219., 10. 134) : perhaps also the Optatives in -oijii, -015, &c. viz. pJ3pti>8-ois (II. 4. 35), /3e/3A7]/cot (II. 8. 270), Tre^evyoi, (H. 21. 609), lArjKoi (H. Apoll. 165); see 83. 28. | Meaning of the Perfect. The Perfect denotes a lasting condition or attitude (efts). If we compare the meaning of any Perfect with that of the corresponding- Aorist or Present, we shall usually find that the Perfect denotes a permanent slate, the Aor. or Pres. an action which brings about or constitutes that state. Thus, 8auo / kindle, 8e8rje blazes, or (better) is ablaze; Kv0e hid, KKtv0 has in hiding ; op-vv-rai bestirs himself, opcope is astir ; a>Ae-ro was lost, oAa>Ae is undone; ^fpape made to Jit, aprjpejlts (Intrans.) ; rapdo-o-o) I disturb, rerpT^et was in disorder ; /u,eipo-/xat / divide, e/^/xope has for his share ; pvopai I save, shelter, ftpy-arai keep safe ; TV%(D I make, re-ru/c-rai is by making (not has been made] ; (pv grew, 7reKe is posted beside, oeoopKe is gazing, epptye shudders, re'rrjKa / am wasting, /xe/xu/ce is closed (of wounds), SeSd/cpuo-cu art in tears, Se'Sefo be in waiting, opcope'xaro were on the stretch, TreTror/j- arat are on the wing, Ke'/c/^Ka / am weary, 7rpo/3e/3ouAa / prefer, 8et8ia I fear, eoATra I hope, riQr\t:a I am in amazement, re'rArjKa-s thou hast heart, irfauvrai has his senses, SeiSe'x-a/at welcome (in the attitude of holding out the hand, while Sei/cw-/xez>os denotes the action], together with many Participles Kex^yw? agape, K6Ka0Tjws panting^ Treirrrjcos cowering, a-vv-o\(i)KOT bent together, KKorr](as in wrath, TCTITJCOJ vexed, dSrj/cwy disgusted, /xe/xTjAw? in thought, TrecpvAay/xeVos on the watch, 8e8payju,eVos clutching, AeAtrj- eager, /cexoAco/xeyo? enraged, &c. So in later Greek ; frjv- os (Thuc. 2. 49) in eruption, eo-TrouSaoyxero? in haste. Verbs expressing sustained sounds, esp. cries of animals, are usually in the Perfect : yeycore shouts, fiefipvxf roars, Ke/cArjyws, AeArjKw?, /xe^r]K&)s, jue/xvKws, rerpiywy, d/xcj!) Latvia. So in Attic, fioQv KOI Ke/cpayw? (Dem.). With Verbs of striking the Perfect seems to express con- tinuance, and so completeness : xeKOTr^s, n-eTrArjyws, /3e/3oA?j-aro ^, /3e/3Arj/cei . (Cp. Ar. Av. 1350 6s av Treir^yri rov irarepa VCOTTOS v Note the number of Imperatives of the Perfect in Homer: ordered, 32 TENSES. [29. (In later Greek this use seems to be confined to the Middle : /XT) i>e(t)6j3t](rd do not be in alarm, TreTrauo-o keep silence.} The number of Homeric Perfects which can be rendered by have is comparatively small. The chief instances in the Active are, eopya-s t/iou hast (lone, OTTCOTTCI / have seen, Ae'AoiTre has left, 7re7racr0e ye have suffered, e8rjS-a>?, /3e/3ps enraged, renews ( =: rertTj-^e^os) vexed, /ceKoprjws ( = KCKopr]- fievos) satiated, /3e/3ap?jws heavy, K.e\apr]ei8eo spare, aei8e sing, aAfi^e anointed, a/u,ei/3e ex- changed, fpeiKOfJifvos torn, l/)6i8e stayed, Ipeiire knocked, down, rei- p.fv to snow (so to be read instead of vl^fp-fv in II. 12. 280). For IKO) 7 wze the Doric form is CIKCO. (.3) 6U : favy- I JJy, 77ev0o/xcu J /am (by hearing), fpeuyerai belches, *pcudu>v reddening, o-7rev8ety to hasten, tyevbovrai play false, evofj-evoi being singed, fa-o-tvovro were urged on, vtvov nodded, 8evo/iai I need ; also, with loss of o before the Thematic vowel, Iv-vtov swam (veF-ov), 0eei runs, irAecoy sailing, T!vke.i breathes, os, %&, pours, KAe'o/xai 1 am famed. 3-] THEMATIC PRESENT. 33 The^ forms with ei for e, as ed-eiv, TrAeiW, irvetav, (for Qk-f.iv, &c.) should probably be written with eu, TrAev-ety, &c. See Appendix C. (4) ep (pe) : 8epK-o-//at 1 behold, Tfp-nfiv to rejoice, TSfpBfro was sacked, ee'pyet confines, repo-erat is dried, fp-nfi creeps, ei nurtures, 7 aw willing. pi from cp appears in rpi/3-e//,ez;ai fo r# (Lat. ter-o], X/H-OJ> anointed (Sanscr. gharsh-ati), ppWov were heavy. lp (pi, pi) for r appears in certain combinations : Kip-vrnu (17), Kpivoa, Kpi-ros (cerno, certus), pifa for fpS-ta, Spi-ov for Spf-ov (SpO-y) : xplos (Lat. cenus), KptOrj for Kpa-Orj, hordeum, 0. Germ, gerste (Meyer, G. G. p. 35 : Thurneysen, K. Z. xxx. 352). (5) ev : iTfv-f-a-Oai to labour, o-reWi groans, /xeW 7 wa^, (pdfyyfo ut, eA^yxet reproves, e ^^ a# a covering ; with loss of o-, rpei (rpeei, for rpe, belong to this head, since ea- is the strong stem. So too Keonrai (for Kfi-ovrai), 3 Plur. of /cei-p-cu. w (instead of TJ) appears in rpcSy-eiv ^o $waw (rpay-), Siw/cetv ^o c^a^e. Both forms appear to be derivative (with suffixed y> K > 45) : rpw-yco may be connected with rop-flv ( 31, 4). SKO-KCO is related to SiV/xai ( 1 1) : it has been supposed to be a Thematic Perfect, with loss of reduplication (i.e. from *Se-5>-Ka). v appears in rpt^x-ouo-t waste away, ava-^v^-fi.v to cool, fpvK-fi restrains. These also are derivative ( 45). o appears in Ao'e washed (Od. 10. 361, H. Apoll. 120), Inf. Aou is inferred from the form XovfvOai (II. 6. 508 = 15. 265), for which we may read AoeW0cu (from the derivative Pres. Ao&o). 30.] Thematic Present with weak Stem. Of this formation there are a few instances : ay-o> 7 drive, bring (Aor. ?/y-ayoz;), axop-ai 7 am vexed (Aor. ?//c-axe), \^O.\OVTda> is not found in Homer except in the Aor. The forms p6XErai (II. n. 319), ejJoXovro (Od. I. 234), p6Xcu) cannot be inferred with certainty from the Opt. a.Troopv(f>oi (II. 23. 187., 24. 21), which may be an Aorist. The forms apx^, *YX W are difficult because original apx-, &YX- would shorten the vowel (before a semi-vowel and mute), and consequently the Stem would be indistinguishable from original apx-, fi"YX"' That in dpx-w the Stem is weak may be inferred from the Nouns au-, cp. 7ri$avo-Ka>), Aae seized, pinned (Xdu-, cp. aTro-Aauo)), aXdero was healed, rj\d (Od. 14. 502) and Xd, Part. \acw (Od. 19. 229, 230) are placed here provisionally. Each occurs once, in a context which does not decide between Aor. and Impf. The existence of an Aor. -f ax-ov has been made probable by W. Schulze (K. Z. xxix. 230). He shows that the form uix ov > generally taken as the Impf. of lax ( 35), is an Aor. in meaning, and constantly occurs after elision (pey iax ov > ^ & ' a X ov > (v-taxov). Consequently we can always read / r (oreix<>) marched, f-i obeyed, l/ceo-flai to come to, Xtreo-^ai to entreat, ^fptTre (epet7ra>) fell down, fipiKt (epetKjw) was torn, i]XiTtv offended (Mid. dXireo-0ai), aiov heard, 8ie feared (Sf i-), 8toz> ran, e-Ktov moved, Z-TTIOV drank, oAiX-e came out, oXeVflai to perish. The e of the strong Stem appears in etAoy, eX-oz; took, cp-eV^ai to ask (cp. 22, 6). It will be seen that ap, pa, aX are generally placed between consonants, where p, X would be unpronounceable. The only exceptions are, eTrrapoi/ and efiaXov. On the other hand op, oX only appear before a vowel. (6) With a (strong ef, ep.) : t-irad-ov (irevO-os) suffered, pad-ov learned, eXaxov obtained as share, %x aoe (^ut. x^oM 01 ) contained, to bite, bdrjraL shall learn (8a, dp. (before a vowel) : H-KTCLV-OV killed, Zdave died, e-Ka/x-oy u-earied, rd/xe cut (cp. e-Sd/z-rj, 42). tv appears in yev-icrQai to become. (7) With loss of c : l-o^-oj; ^^ (f^--, avr-. Some of these which are usually counted as Present Stems require separate notice : al0- occurs in Homer only in the Part. alOoptvos burning : as to the adjectival use of Participles see 244. The Stem is found in the Sanscr. idh-ati burns. al8- occurs in the Indie. albcTo, Imper. aiSeo, Part, albdpevos ; the corresponding Pres. is always ai5eo/x,at. aue shouted may always be an Aor. (II. u. 461., 13. 477., 20. 33-] THEMATIC AORIST. 37 48, 51). We may identify this au- with u in Sanscr. u-noti calk, The d- is a distinct syllable in the Aor. av-a-f, cp. dvrrj. auirj (Od. 5. 490, v. 1. avoi) makes good sense as an Aor., ex- pressing the act of kindling. The Stem is weak (aua- = Sanscr. usJi- in ush-ds, ^Eol. avu>s) ; the strong form appears in et!-a>, Lat. uro. fTT-avpelv exhibits the Thematic form answering to dfTo-vpds ( 13). - occurs in fi\-, dvr- the form is weak (perhaps d\9- is to a strong d\fO- as 0X7-0$ : d\(y-ca or d\K--q : d\- in dAeYw), or else the strong and weak forms coincided (as in dpx-, dyx-> 3)- It appears then that in the Tenses with which we are dealing the strong Stem has generally disappeared, and the Present has been derived afresh from the weak Stem, by means of one of the various Suffixes. Thus we have at8-, Pres. aiS-eoficu ; ave, Pres. aurlca ; aup-, Pres. tir-avp-iaica) ; dvr-, Pres. dvnau, clfTtafcu. The process has been the same in d\iT-ta6at and Pres. dXtr-aivw, dfj.apT-fiv and a/Mpr-dva), eup-fit> and evp-iffKca, IxOtaQai and an-rxQ-avoiMi, o\ia&t and o\ia6-avoj, also in Attic alaO-iaOai and alffG-avofMi. The last is interesting as the only post- Homeric Second Aorist which is used in good Attic prose. 3. A few Thematic Aorists seem to be formed from the Stems of Nouns of the O-declension. Thus expato-jute availed is generally derived from xp^t^os useful (Curt. Verb. ii. 13). So, according to Curtius, tfepfie-re warm ye, 6(pp.-To grew warm, from deppos ; o7rAe-0-0cu (II. 19. 172., 23. 159) to get ready, from o-n\ov (oTrAe-o)); yoov (II. 6. 500) bewailed, from yo'os (yo-dco) ; ap,apT-clv to miss, from a-p.ap-ro- without part in. Some at least of these instances may be otherwise explained. For oirAo-0ai we may read oTrXetcr&u (the uncontracted bn\itoe . . . type A.aos Cobet '^Misc. Crit. p. 415) proposed to read rjyptro, from dytp-. The emendation gives a good sense, but is not absolutely necessary. oS<|>Aov ought ( = irould that'; bears a different sense from the Aor. i4>Aov, but is indistinguishable from the Impf. w (Od. 8. 312 ru pf/ ydvaaOai 6(f>e\\ov, so II. 7. 390., 24. 764, Od. 14. 68., 18. 401). Hence tixpt^ov is pro- bably an older form of the Imperfect which has survived in this particular use. t-rrAev, tirAt-TO, &c. must be Aorists, since (i) eir\fTu occurs in the 'gnomic' use, e.g. II. 2. 480 fflfrt /Sous a.yf\ij(})i pfy' (oxos firkfro iravrw and so in II. 24. 94, Od. 7. 217. This use is not found with the Impf. (2~) (ir\tTo with the meaning of a Present can only be explained as an Aor. = the English Pf., has turned out, lias come to be, (and so is) : see 78, and cp. II. i 2. 271 vvv tn\(To tpyov airavrcav now it has become : with another Aor. similarly used, II. 15. 227 iroA.il KtpSiov tTr\(To, on vTroftffv it is better that he has yielded: also II. 6. 434., 7. 31., 8. 552., 14. 337., 19. 57, Od. 20. 304, &c. The Part, occurs in kiti--n\6^(vov tros (Od.) and Trtpi-ir\onfv, for rt-TK-o), from TCK-. vfoopai 1 go, pass, for zn-vcr-ojucu, or vL-var-io-^ai, from ye and ae'fco). In this group of Verbs the Root is in the weak form ; the vowel of the reduplication is always i. idxw (for fi-faxca) is generally placed in this class. The Pres. Indie, does not occur, and the past Tense taxov is an Aor. in II. 5. 860., 14. 148., 18. 219 ore T' iaxe ffa\m^ ( 79), and may always be so in Homer. As to its original form see 31, i, note. Thus the evidence for iixw is reduced to the Part. lz;-e slew (cp. Tre-^a-rai is slain). (6) Loss of e : e-re-T/>te found, caught (re/x- ?); eeinov said (per- haps for f-Ff-Frjr-ov)* ', also ten era followed, if it is taken to be for crecr77-ro. * The difficulty in the way of this explanation is that in the old Attic inscriptions which distinguish the original diphthong ei (written El) from the sound arising from contraction or ' compensatory ' lengthening (written E), the word e'we is always written with El (Cauer in Curt. Stud. vin. 257). In Sanscr. the corresponding form is avocam, for a-va-vac-am (vac becoming MC). Answering to this we expect in Greek etvwov (Vogrinz, Or. d. horn. Dial p. 123). 40 TENSES. [37. The forms which point to *O--CTJT-TO, viz. ((nrwvrai (Od. 12. 349), (Od. 19. 579., 21. 77), (ffirea0ei/ca-i, &c. : but Inf. ei/ei/ce'-/zez; (II. 19. 194). In these two cases the form in -ov is probably older. Tenses with Suffix (Non-Thematic). 38.] The Tense-Stems which remain to be discussed are formed (like the Presents in -vr^i and -WIJLI) by means of a characteristic Suffix. Of these Tense-Stems three are Non- Thematic, viz. those of the Aorists formed by the Suffixes -ao, -TJ, and -0Tj. It is important to notice the difference between these formations and the Perfect and Aorist Stems which take -K&. The Suffix -K& in such cases is not characteristic of the Tense-Stem. It is only found as a rule with certain Person-Endings. 39.] The Aorist in -o-a (called ' Sigmatic ' and ' Weak* ' Aor.). The Suffix -ad is joined to the Verb-Stem (usually in its strong form), as eppri^e (prjy-), ffKfi-^ra-v (dAei<-), f-irvtv-o-a-v (irvev-), I8eio-e (for l-8fet- ere) feared, H-firi-o-d-v, f-Qv-cra. The following are the chief varieties : i. Verb-Stems ending in a Dental or o-, preceded by a short vowel, form -craft or -a& : thus we have fiptva-a and ^petra (for Tj-per-cra, from eper-) ; co--o-aro, eo-a-eWa-ro (e8- for *7/cra-ro (o8u form the Aorist in this way, as w-jrao-a, ico/u, -oa>, -uw usually form the Aor. with a long- vowel (in -rjcra, -axra, -Do-a). But the Verbs in -u often form the Aor. in -eo-o-a, -eo-a ; not only the Verbs derived from Noun-Stems in -co-, such as reAeco, vaxe'co, d/c^e'o), but also several Verbs derived from Masc. Nouns in -o-s; e.g. eKopeV-craro was satiated (Pf. Ke/copTj-jneyo?), KoreV-o-aro was enraged (nKOTr]-, KeA-\- makes an Aor. Opt. 6eX\ie : see 53. 40.] Primitive Aorists with Suffix -o--. Originally the Sigmatic Aorist was inflected like the Aorist in -d already described ( 15) : that is to say, the a appeared in the I Sing. (perhaps also 3 Plur. -df) and the Stem was liable to variation between a strong and a weak form. Thus from a Stem rev*-, TVK-, with the regular phonetic changes, we should have had Active, I Sing. !reua. 2 ereu (for e-reu/c-o--?). -(T-T). 3 ; (for f-TVK- I Plur. erevyfj-fv (or eruyjxev). 2, IreuKre (or eruKre). 3 fTfvav. Middle, I Sing, krvy^v (for f-TVK-/3os Od. I. 24); Imper. TreXdo-o-e-Toy (II. 10. 442), ae-Te, oto-e-re, Ae'e-o, opo-e-o; Inf. a^t-ptvai (II. 23. 50, in), ola-efjifvaL (II. 3. 120) : perhaps also l-Treo-o-r (wer-). The forms ^(re-ro, eSoo-ero were preferred by Aristarchus to those in -o-dro: see Schol. A on II. 2. 5/9., 3. 262., 10. 513. They were regarded by ancient grammarians as Imperfects (Schol. A on II. i. 496); and this view is supported by one or two passages, esp. Od. 10. 107, where f} ^tv dp es Kpr\vr\v Kare?j- (TTo must mean she was going down to the spring (when the mes- sengers met her). So in the Part., Od. j. 24 01 \j.lv 'TTtepiovos ol 8' aviovros, and II. 5- 46 vv ITTTTOIV e7 pierced as he was mounting his chariot, cp. 23. 379. The forms !o-v, d^-(jivai, &c. answer closely to the Sanscr. Preterite in -sa-m, as d-diksha-m. tireo-ov is difficult to explain as t-irer-aov, both (i) because it can hardly be accidental that we never have t-ntaaov, and (2) because it has to be separated from the Doric everov. Possibly there was a primitive non-Thematic *t-irrra, t-jres, tnts (for l-irtr-y, f-irtr-r}, Du. tirfarov, &c., 3 Plur. t-nfT-av, from which both tirer-ov and Zirfff'ov might be derived in much the same way as i-Krav-ov from the primitive e-KTtva, Plur. parted asunder, e-Tray-rj, e-Sa/^t-Tj, e-ay-Tj, e-/3Aa/3-ei>, e-juty-r;, rdpTr-Tj-^ef and (with Metathesis) rpa7r-7j-ojuei; (repTr-co), &c. The Stem is long in e-TrA^y-ry (cp. f-ireTTXriy-ov, TrXrjy-ij), and once in fdyr] (a. in II. II. 559)*- The Inf. repo-jj-jueycu (repo-T/zxu), which occurs in II. 16. 519, Od. 6. 98, need not be an Aorist: see the similar forms in 19. The Part. dva-f3po\ev (Od. II. 586) is not connected with ava-fitfipo^fv ( 25); see Buttmann, Lexil. There is evidently a close relation between these ' Passive ' Aorists and the forms discussed in 14 (such as t-@\r)-v, (-TTTIJ-V, -TXTJ, e-a&ri}, and we can hardly doubt that they are nothing more than an extension by analogy of that older type (see Brugmann, M. U. i. 71). The chief difference is that (as in the Thematic Aorist) the Stem is usually disyllabic, retaining the short vowel^of the root : thus we have i-Sapy, but Spr)- in Se-Sftrj-rai, &c. The Aorists with Stems in a and (0(519) are parallel to the Aorists in -ij. Thus yrjpa-vai, piu-vai, dXu-vai only differ in the quality of the vowel from 8af|-vat, d\f|-vai : and there might have been numerous Aorists in -civ and -GJV along with those in -ijv, just as there are derivative Verbs in -aw, -oo> as well as in -o. 43.] The Aorist in -Qt]-v. The Stem of this Tense is formed by the Suffix -Or]. The Person-Endings are the same as those of the Aorist in -rj, and the meaning is Reflexive or Passive. In later Greek the Verb-Stem is mostly in the strong form, as f-b^\-0r]-v, -Xfi(f)-6riv, -tv%-9riv ; but this does not seem to have been the original rule : e. g. Homer has t-rv\-6r) was made, Attic f-rcvx-Or]. So we find the weak Stem in Kar-f-Kra-dfv > (/crei- 1 -), ra-0Tj (rev-), rdp(j)-6r] (repTT-co), Tpaty-dfj-vai (rp^'mo). c-ora- 07} (Od. 17. 463), Av-0T7, fg-f-(rv-6ri, e-(p0t-0ey. The Stems of K\ivta and Kpivu> vary in regard to the v : we have f-K\iv-drf and -K\t-6t], Kpn'-0e-ires and 8t-e'-Kpt-0e-i;. 44.] Meaning of the Passive Aorists. The Aorist in -KJ appears to have originally had an Intransitive sense, of which the Passive sense was a growth or adaptation. Thi transition is * In the former edition Bekker's reading iayft (Pf. Subj ) was given as the probable correction for this passage. But the sense required is rather that of the Aor. were (i.e. had been) broken than the Pf. are in a broken state. Cp. Hes. Op. 534 o5 T' fm vtara ia-/t whose back is broken down, i.e. bowed. As to the a of (ayi) see 67, 3. 45-] THEMATIC PRESENT WITH SUFFIX. 45 seen (e.g.] in ex"/ 07 ? rejoiced, fbdrj learned, pvrj floived, appeared. In these instances the Passive grows out of the Intransitive meaning (as in the Middle forms it grows out of the Reflexive meaning). Similar transitions of meaning may be found in the Perfect ( 28, fin.}, the Aorist (eo-^T? was quenched), and even in the Present, as ^mr&rrctp to be driven out, jceirat is laid down (as Pf. Mid. of ri'0?]^t), and 7rdo-x&> itself. The Aorist in -Qi\-v is often indistinguishable in meaning from the Aor. Middle. There appears to be ground for dis- tinguishing it from the Aor. in -T\V as originally reflexive rather than intransitive (Wackernagel, K. Z. xxx. 305.) In many cases Middle forms are used in Homer interchangeably with those in -fa]-v : thus we find ddo-aro and aacrOt], aiSero rjSea-aro and aibeo-dr)T, at^acrdai and dlxOrjvat., bwrjcraro and bvvda-drj, Kopecro-aro and Kopecrdrjv, \wf]0T7, epeuraro and epeurflr;, wp/iTjcraro and topju^Tj, &c. ; also f(j>dtTo and f(pdtOev, ap.TnvTO and djj.Trvvv6r], AVTO and \v6rj, exraro and fKTadev, ACKTO and eAe'x^Tji', JMIKTO and k This observation has recently suggested a very probable account of the origin of the Aor. in -Orj-v. The 2 Sing. Mid. Ending in Sanscr. is -thus, to which would correspond Greek -6-rjs. Hence the original inflexion was (e.g.) t-\v-p.r)v, t-\v-0rjs, 6-A.v-To, &c. Then f\v6rjs was regarded as e-\v6rj-s, that is to say, \v6rj- was taken as the Tense-Stem, and the inflexion was completed on the model of the already formed Aorists in -t\v (Wackernagel, I. c.). The Aorists in -i\-v and -Oij-v are formations peculiar to Greek, and were doubtless developed along with the separation of Present and Aorist forms which had hardly been completed in the time of Homer (Curtius, Verb. ii. I ft). It is worth notice that the three Aorists that have a distinctive Suffix agree in avoiding the Thematic Endings, while the Impf. tends to adopt them, as in TiOei, cSCSov, wjivve, &c. The reason doubtless was that the Thematic inflexion already prevailed in the Present. Thus a distinction of form was gained which was especially needed for the Aorists in -tj-v. Forms like 1 4>iXi (which at first, as we see from iXi]) were adopted as Imperfects, while tjxCY 1 ! & c - were retained as Aorists. Thematic Present (with Suffix). 45.] In the forms to which we now proceed the Verb-Stem receives a suffix which serves to distinguish the Present Stem ; as TVTT-TCO, Ka/z-yo), (3d-, KreiVa) (for KTfv-tco). These suffixes may be compared with other elements used in the same way, but not always confined to the Present ; as K in oAe-Kco / destroy, epv-Kco / restrain, SIW-KW I chase, y in T^-yco / cut, x in rTj-x^evai to swim, Tpv-xovvL they ivaste, a-^-x^tv to smear, (aug-eo), 6 in crxe'-tfe held, to-dew (e8-0e>) to eat, 46 T-CLASS NASAL CLASS. [46. j3pi-6o-v were heavy, vXrj-dfv was full, tpc-Of provoke, Hazes, nivv-0ci diminishes, 6ivv-di wastes, Zpya-dtv kept OaXe-Oo-vres blooming, /xer-e-Kta-0ov moved after, T/epe-flo- flutter, fjyfpe-Oo-vTo were assembled (ayep-, in dyetpoo), &c. These elements were called by Curtius Root-Determinatives (Chron. p. 22 ff.) the name implying that they are of the nature of suffixes modifying or ' determining' the meaning of a simple Root. But their origin and primitive significance are quite unknown (Brug- maim, Grundriss, ii. 8, n. 2). 46.] The T-Class. The suffix -re (o) is usually found with a Verb-Stem ending in a labial mute (TT, ft, <), as cviir-re rebuke (fvlir-i]), xaA.e7r-rei annoys, dorpcur-Tei lightens, -) fasten, KpinTT-) bury, pdirreiv to sew, string together; /3Aa7rrei (/3Aa/3-) harms. The Stem is in the weak form; the corresponding long forms are generally wanting. This suffix is combined with Reduplication in i-d-jr-ru* (for l- icbr-ra), cp. Lat. jac-io] I hurl, which occurs in Od. 2. 376 Kara Xpda KaXov Id-TTTrj shall maltreat (lit. knock about) her fair flesh*. ITT may be for TT-I-, and, if so, these Verbs would belong to the I-Class ( 50). In some cases, however, the IT represents an original guttural. Thus we find tviffffca (tviK-ia})j as well as fviirroa (WIT-JJ) ; ireffffcu, later irtvTca (ittir-wv) vi^ai, later viirroi (aitoviirreaOai in Od. 18. 179 is doubtful). Here iviaau, irtcraw, vifa are formed by the suffix -k(o), and consequently kviirra, ireirrai, viirrca must be otherwise explained. So in v paying (a penalty], bv-vc sank in, 6v~ vov bustled, Kap-ve grew weary, rdp-vf cut ; -ai'e(o) after a mute, rjp-dpT-avf missed, *]\b-av6 made fat, \r]d-dvet makes to forget, 018- dvfi swells, Kvb-dvet glorifies, c-Ktvd-avov hid, an-fyQ-aveat. becomest hateful: often with the weak Stem and v inserted, pleases (a8-), Xavd-avofj-riv, f-^avb-avov, f-\d-y\-avov, The suffix -ai'c(o) is combined with Reduplication (as in 35) * With l-air-TO) may be connected l-A(J>-0Ti, which occurs in the phrase iirl 8' aaTris idtftOrj KOI ic6pvs (II. 13. 543., 14. 419% of a warrior's shield, which falls with or after him. For the aspirate (la^Orj for k-ia(p&rf) compare It]Ka, teo-ro, &c. This explanation was given by Ebel, in K. Z. iv. 167. The scholar to whom I owe this reference, F. Froehde, derives it from Sanscr. vapami, ' I throw, strew about : ' so drrToeinfc = ' one whose words are thrown about at random ' (Besz. Beitr. iii. 24). See Ciu-tius, Verb. ii. 364 (2 ed.). 49-] ITERATIVE CLASS. 47 in m/x-TrA-dverat (II. 9. 679), ifr^ava (for *), idvu> (for The class of Verbs in -vw is derived from the Non-thematic Verbs in -^u-. Sometimes, as has been noticed ( 18), -v\i takes the Thematic e or o after it, as in o^-vvw for o^vv-u,i ; but in other cases, especially when -vu follows a vowel, u. becomes F and is lost. Thus &-vu- gives dwo> 1 accomplish, and also avfrai (d) draws to a close : so rLvv-rai punishes and TLVCO, 6ivv- (in ) and <0tW The vowel of dyco, (for KAtv-ico, KOLV-IO)) it is always long. Note also that -i'e(o) for -^(o) is confined to the Present, while the v of /cAu>o>, &c. appears in other Tenses (Solmsen, K. Z. xxix. 78). eXauKu has been explained as *eXa-i/u-o>, but there is no parallel for epen thesis of u. The d of iKavca, Ki%dva> points to -av-Fu, but the forms have not been satisfactorily explained. 48.] Stems formed by -ttf( (for eo--o-Ke) ttftt? ^ ^**J/ V y'/i o S foitntloV f 500), piTTTa-(TK, oL%v-(TK, 7ro)Ae-cTK-To, (j)6f-(TK, KG. ', and trom Aorist Stems, as o-rd-acnco-v has sometimes a distinctly Iterative meaning in Homer, as Od. 8. 565 ~Ka.vai.06ov, bs taffKt noffeiSdur' a-y&aaaOa.i, and the Pres. or -ua> (for -t-tco, -a-ta), &c.), the i blending with the final vowel of the Stem. b. With epenthesis of i, in -aifo, -cupu (for -ar-tco, -ap-ico). c. With assimilation, in -AXu> (for -A-tco), -OXTOJ (for -K-J^W, -T-ICO), and -w (for -S-to>, -y-tco). d. By compensatory lengthening in -ci^w, -eipu, -i^u, -Ow, -upo> (for -fv-LU), -ep-too, -tV-io>, -vv-td), -vp-ico). That the i of -eii>o>, -etpco is not a true diphthong (and therefore not due to epenthesis) is shown by the corresponding Doric -rjyco, -Tjpo). e. In -aw, -e, -ou>, -auw, -euw, -oow (for -a-tco, &C.). a. Verbs in -uo, &c. 51.] The Verbs in which the original i becomes i, thus form- ing -tco, -atco, -aco, -via, are almost confined to the Homeric dialect. The chief examples are as follows : (1) -iu : fo-OUi eats, 18101; I sweated, ^r\vif. 6e angry, pao-rie whip, ' ava-KriKL gushed forth, KOVLO-VTCS raising dust. In these verbs ' (except perhaps the first two) the Verb-Stem ends in i, so that f - : (e. g.) Kovio-vres is for Kovi-io-vres ; so probably Ttco / honour, \ (pdiu / waste away, for rt-tco, <^^t-tco. The i therefore is naturally 'f>l~/ f long, but may be shortened before a vowel ; hence it is usually doubtful in quantity. T/oi>t'V(iHJt)toff TT^o(f265 t Trtt'f'-'fpSd) r i : '"'-' ""i' iij V : > : -> ftitlfll (2) 'au : usually with loss of , it will usually be found that the diphthong belongs to the whole Verb, not merely to the Present Stem. So perhaps Ipciao-Oe ye loved, IXdovrai appease, fXwv drove (Part. l\atuv\ ticXcov broke : unless these forms are obtained by simple change from the Non- Thematic tpa-fMi, &c. ( 1 8). For the Presents in -eiw from -efo (Ofica, ir\(i are of this Class (original -uico), as v, -r}irva>, ot^uco. The vowel is doubtful, but only because it comes before another vowel (as was noticed in the case of Verbs in -ico). tOvto generally has v ; but v in Iir-i0vovo-i (II. 18. 175), which ought to be so divided, not iit\.-Qvov. aipw (for ap-tco) is distinct from dcipco, which by contraction would become c[fxu : cp. atiSca, aSoj (Brugmann, K. Z. xxvii. 196). This Class includes also the numerous Denominatives in -curw, -aipw : see 1 20. The Stem is in the weak form. c. Assimilation of t. 53.] Examples : -XXw : aXXo-/xat, /3dXXa>, iraXXco, oreXXto, reXXco ; from Nonns, dyye'XXco, vavriXXopat. ; with Reduplication drtrdXXco I rear, tend, cp. drdXXo) / cherish. Epenthesis (instead of Assimilation) is found in 6eiX I owe. -CTCTOJ : opdu>, ya^o-pai ; for -ytto in ab-p.cu, pea>, Tpia> ; with reduplication, fj,ifj.vdC / cause to go, eAeAiiio 1 make to quiver (II. i. 530)*. d. Compensatory lengthening. 54.1 Examples : -en/u (for -ey-j-w), in reiz>o>, /cretva), -eipw (for -ep-iw), in etpo>, Keipco, p;eipoju,ai, Tmpco, crTreipco, refpco, , dyetpa), deip&>, eyetpa), efleipco. -icw (for -ic-iw), in K\tvu>, Kpivca, optyw. -ui'u (for -uc-j,co), in TrAwco, evrvva*. -upw (for -up-*u), in Kvpco, /xvpo/xat, (frvpoo, d8vpo/xat. e. Verbs in -aa), -ea>, -oco. 55.] Assimilation. This term is applied to certain forms of the Verbs in -aco, in which, instead of contraction, we find assimilation of one of two concurrent vowels to the other, as opo'co for 6pa&), opaas for 6p(iets. The chief varieties are as follows : () Forms with simple Assimilation, the vowel being long gives fj.va>6-ij.voi. fj.vda, Kpejadco. (c) With lengthened second vowel opdo-vres gives opoco-vre? 6pdoi.-T 6po-v from Srjtoo), dpoa>o"i (Od. 9. Io8) from dpda>, KaT-rjiriocavTo (II. 5. 417), eorrparocoz/ro (II. 4. 37^)^ pvn6u>vra (Od.). * Cobet (Msc. Crrt.), following Bentley, has sought to show that the forms of tXeXi^cd belong in reality to IXi where the meaning is to set trembling (with intensive re- duplication, like daxtC cu > oAoAva>, &c.). 55-] ASSIMILATION. 51 (d) With lengthened second vowel (the first being also long), in very few forms bpaovcri gives Spwoxri /J-aLIJ-doVO-L jUCU/ZtoCOfTt f)j3dov(ra Other isolated examples are: p-cvoivr/ycn. (IJ. 15. 82); dAo'co (Od. 5. 377), 2 Sing. Imper. of dA&juat (for etXaeo dAaow); KejcpaWrai, Kprjrjvai, Kpaialvu* ; (j)adi>0T] ''(for $atv-6r}) ; (ro'coo-t (Subj.), (row?, o-oo) (Opt., cp. 83), res (o-ao'co). Similar phenomena may be seen in opo'co 6p<3 : i.e. in opoco the a has been assimilated to the following u, but is not yet uttered in one breath with it. In the forms opoWre?, opo'oxri, &c. he pointed out that the long vowel is never wanted for the metre, and accordingly he wished to read opo'oires, opoovai., &c. To this last proposal exception was taken by G. Curtius (Erlauterungen, p. 96), who made the tfudit counter-supposition that, as the a of these Verbs was originally long, the successive steps might be opaovres, opwoirts and (by metathesis of quantity) opoWres. The stage -wo- is exemplified in juyojo'/xevoy. 2. The main objection to this theory lies in the circumstance that the forms opoco, opaas and the like are exclusively ' Epic/ "that is to say, they are confined to Homer, Hesiod, and their direct imitators. If they had been created by any natural development of Greek sounds, we should expect to find them in other dialects. But neither in Ionic nor elsewhere is there any trace of their existence in living speech. It must be admitted, too, that neither Meyer nor Curtius has given a satisfactory account of the long vowel in opoWi, opoWro, opoWres, &c. A form opo'oyre?, as Curtius pointed out, would give opovvTfs, not opwires. And if there has been metathesis of quantity, why do we never find 6po' for 6pdofj.ev } or opaare for opaere ? 3. An entirely different theory was put forward by J. Wack- 52 /-CLASS. [55. ernagel (Bezz. Beitr. iv. 259). The true Homeric forms, in his view, are the original uncontracted opaoo, opaeis, &c. and these have passed into the opo'co, opdqs, &c. of our Homer by a process of textual corruption consisting of two stages : ( i ) contraction, according to the ordinary rules of Attic, into 6p<3, 6pqs, &c. which would obviously give forms of different metrical value from the original words, and then (2) restoration of the metre by a kind of ' distraction ' (in the old sense of the term), i.e. the insertion of a short vowel before the new contracted ->, -as, &c. Thus ovx opaeis first became ov% opas, and then metri gratia ov\ opaas*. 4. Paradoxical as this may seem, there can be little doubt that it is substantially right. The forms in question, as Wacker- nagel justly argues, are not a genuine growth of language. They are the result of literary tradition, that is to say, of the modernising process which the language of Homer must have undergone in the long period which elapsed before the poems were cared for by scholars. The nature of this process is excellently described and illustrated in his dissertation. In many cases, too, he shows that when the later form of a word ceased to fit the metre, some further change was made by which the metrical defect was cured, or at least disguised. Corruption of this latter kind may often be traced in the various readings of MSS. But must we suppose that 6poo>, &c. went through the two changes which Wackernagel postulates ? 5. The case is unique, not only from the large number of forms involved, and the singularly thorough and systematic way in which they have been introduced into the text, but also from the circumstance which he has himself so well pointed out, viz. their unreal conventional stamp. They are hardly more ' modern ' in the sense of being familiar through contemporary speech than the forms which they have displaced. Wacker- nagel has shown how ecos and reo>s supplanted the original ^os and TTJOS, even where the result was absolute ruin to the verse ; as in Od. 19. 367, where nearly all the MSS. have ecus ucoio. Similarly the loss of the old Gen. in -oo ( 98) has produced the forms AioAou, 'Io> ? 6. It is a further objection to this part of WackernageFs theory that in several words the original -au, -acts, -aouo-a, &c. * This theory was criticised by Curtius in the Leipziger Siudien, iii. pp. 1925. 55-] ASSIMILATION. 53 have been retained. The instances are, mierda>, -dei (Hes. Th. 775)5 -dou, -dotev, /cpaSdcoj', eAdcoz;, lAdovrai, rrjAefldouras ; with a, dvajuatjudeij Tmydcov, -doyra, Si^dcoy. (The forms which have lost a f, as Ade, de, fypaov, do not concern us now.) A third variety is exhibited by the form vaicTaao-av (-, dpas ? We have to deal with a time when 6p<3, opas were the forms of ordinary speech, while opdo), dpdets were only known from the recitation of epic poetry. Under such conditions it is surely possible that the poetical forms were partially assimilated to the colloquial forms that opdco, opdety were changed into opo'co, dpdas by the influence of the familiar 6p<3, opas. Similarly kiqvbavt for tavbave. was doubtless due to the presence of the later rjvbave, not to any process of contraction and distraction. The principle is con- stantly exemplified in language ; cp. the change of typacrl, the original Dat. Plur. of (pp^v, into rdop,ai only occurs once (II. 12. 54 /-CLASS. [56. 287 XidoL TTMT&VTO 0a/zetai), while the form Trordo/zai is well attested. In the other cases the restoration is supported by etymology (rpoTrdo) from rpoTrrj, &c.), and by the considerable traces of rpoTrdco, rpoxdco, orpo^dco in our manuscripts (see Leaf on II. 15. 666). The process must have been that (e.g.) original TpoTTa.dos we find the two forms ows (II. 16. 188 taya*f(v but never 6os or wos is remarkable, since it is related to (f>aos as nvwontvos to nvddos came under the influence of dos TjeAtoto dyeipeai ?}8e /xeraAAas eavba, jj.r) KevOe, and the like f. It has indeed been noticed that there is an apparent preference for the resolved -ao^ of the i Sing-, and 3 Plur. Impf. ; but this must be accidental. We must conclude then that contracted and uncontracted forms of verbs in -aw were used in the language of Homeric times with equal freedom : or at least if this be thought improbable that they subsisted together as alternative forms in the poetical dialect. * fyous may represent an ancient Plur. dci>s (Joh. Schmidt, Pluralb. p. 142). f Mangold, Curt. Stud. vi. 194. J Menrad, pp. 122-124. 57-] CONTRACTION SYNIZESIS. 55 /fW/J'Tv'TJ! 2. Verbs in -eu rarely contract -co or -e&>, except in the f/XtvV Participle (-eu/xei>os for -eofjitvos). This rule is confirmed from New Ionic inscriptions (Erman, Curt. Stud. \. 292), as well n \ j as the MSS. of Herodotus. For eo in 7rotev/x?]i; (II. 9. 495), >} 0rjewro (II. 7. 444), oxXewrai (II. 21. 261), eyeycovew (Od. 9. 47, ** &c.) and a few similar forms we should write -co (see 57). i^mX^wro The contraction of -ee, -e is established by the large number Mwvtvu of instances * in which it is required by the metre. Moreover J ? it is not merely a license, necessary for the sake of admitting certain forms into the hexameter (such as rapfleis, vtiKflv. *?$ / \ reXeircu, T/yetcr^at, oyzapayet, e^nXei, olvo-^ofi). Among theaj&t. instances of contraction in the last foot we find 29 of -ei for -ee (as xoAo? 5e piu> aypio? $pei), and 16 of -ei for -eei (as KCU ju,e yXvKv? Ifjiepos cupei) ; also the forms iAei 6e e pirjrtera Zeus, also II. 7. 280., 10. 245, 552., 1 6. 94, Od. 15. 74), So/cei (Od. 2. 33, and six times in the phrase cos ju.ot boK.fi elvai, aptcrra), reAet (II. 4. 161), KaXei (II. 3. 390, Od. 17. 382), fyofiei (II. 17. 177). On the other hand the uncontracted form has the support of the metre in about a hundred places, and against the instances now quoted of ofiffiv. The uncontracted form therefore seems to have a slight preference, when the metre allows either. In the MSS. of Homer contraction is generally introduced as far as possible, according to the tendencies of Attic : but the open forms occasionally survive, chiefly in the fourth foot (in such forms as irpoattyaivft Oeios ovetpos Kal yrte ofma IStadat Kara 6' rjpee Ilr}\(iaiva). And the metre clearly points to the open form in several other places : as II. II. 55^ (=17. 663) rds re rpeei. (affvpevSs iff p. 21. 362 cty 5 \ffirjs fi evSov KT\. 16. 201 aTf(i\((r( Ipwefffftv. Od. 10. 548 doartfTt f\vicvv vitvov. 3. Verbs in -oco generally contract; -^oXovfjLai, Kopv^ovrai, yowov^at.. For the ' assimilated ' forms SrjtocoiTo, KarrjTnocovTO, vir\'(- eorparo'coyra, pvn6u>vTa ( 55) we ought, on the analogy of the Verbs in -aw, to substitute brjloovro, &c. 57.] Synizesis. The vowel e sometimes coalesces with a fol- lowing o or w, so as to form one syllable^ for the purpose of the metre ; e. g. deXTrreoyres, ?}Xa0Teoy, rryiveov, e-nopdtov (at the end of a verse), oi'/ceWo, eiXeWi, XP^^ VOS - Whether the pronun- ciation of these words differed from that of the contracted forms is a question which perhaps there are no means of determining. * About 160 according to the list in Menrad, pp. 132-142. 56 /-CLASS. [58. Meaning of Verbs of the I-Class. 58.1 Verbs in -cw are mainly Intransitive, whether formed from Adjectives, as dTnorea) I am unbelieving, or abstract Nouns, as juox^e'ft) / labour. But there is also a group of Causatives in -eo), as $o/3eo> I put to flight, o^(a, ke desolate. Exceptions are, vTrvv-ovrfs sleeping, /5iyo'o> / shudder, /3too> / live. 59.] Besideratives. One instance in -oreiw is found in Homer, O\I/LOVTS (II. 14. 37) going to see. A suffix -j,e(o) may be found in KaKKfiovTfs going to bed (na.r6.-Kei-iJ.cu), in-o^va going to drink, bpaivas (II. 10. 96) thou art for doing. 60.] Frequentatives, expressing habitual action, in -raco, -rao, -Tea) : as V)^fTao-^ai, ycuerdco, olvoTro-rafa, frj-reoo (8i-^-/xai TtfTOMVTi, \KV working curiously, K-TraL-(f)acrcriv to rush in front, Trap.-(f>aiv(i)v gleaming, /3a/x-/3au>a>y staggering, p.apfj.aipovTs glittering, Kcip-Keupe chattered, irop-^vpe was troubled (lit. of water), Tia-fyXa&vTa splashing, TIO.-T:TO.(V^V peeping round, /xat-ju.dei rages, Sez/StAAcoy (for 8eA.8- ?) winking. 62.] Collateral forms of the Present. It is characteristic of the Homeric language that Present Stems formed in different ways from the same Verb-Stem often subsist together in actual use, as alternative forms expressing the same (or nearly the same) meaning. Thus we have XTJ^-OJ, A.Tjtf-dvco, XavOava* ; -neudo- ; (pv-KO-pcu, tpv- K-dvto, pv-K-av6-d)aaKa> / allege (i. e. keep saying, or perhaps try to say) has something of the Iterative force (cp. ptirraoxc he kept flinging about) which in 63.] FUTURE. 57 OVTJ'O-KCO, SiSao-Kco, &c. has been softened or generalised into the ordinary meaning of the Present. Similarly the reduplication in pijjas striding, lH[Avdfco 1 stay waiting, Tiraivto I stretch is to be compared with that of the Intensive Verbs. The Perfect, too, may be regarded as a refined and generalised kind of Intensive ; cp. the forms \\T)ita, KtKpaya, [xe^vJKa, &c. with xapxaipio, 6\oXva>, 7ra4>\djco, &C. Future in -. 63.] The Stem of the Future is formed by suffixing -o-e(o) to the Verb-Stem (in the strong form) ; as ^Tj-o-ei, 8a>-, 8eio> (SeiK-), e/c-Treptrco (irepO-), TreiVo/xat (-rrekO-), ^etVerai (x^S-), eo/xai . (Sex-), ei-o-ojuat (eT-p-i). The Stem ea- gives eo--o-o/iat and eo-ojicu (3 Sing, eo-e-rai and e0--rai) ; so eo--0-a> (Ftv-). The Futures $pdo-o-o-juai (or $pd, rs/^aJ &q KaAe-oucra (II. 3. 3^3)- oAeirat, oAe-eo-^e (also oAe epucnrercu (II. 10.44), oAeVco (Od. 13. 399), apta-a-ofjieOa. There remain: dpK yo-vv^trfrai (II. 14. 504), oAe', -ia>> viz. carder croixn (II. 4. 324), OavfjidrrcreTai (II. 1 8. 467), e^OTrXLcrcrovcri (Od. 6. 69), avTLCKTfis (Od. 22. 28). On the whole it would appear that the Futures with aa (or v ; d$i/(nra>, Aor. dcpucnrd/xeiJos, Fut. dt/wfew. From jxaxo-jtat, besides Aor. fiaxtaaaOai, Fut. fiaxt-ovrai, the MSS. give an Aor. \La.\fcrcraTo, Fut. jta)(T]cro}jiai. The ancient critics were divided as to these forms : Aristarchus wrote |Aax"H craTO > (xaxTjcrofiai, others \La\ea-fraro, \ia\- eo-CTO|j.ai. The form (MXfaffa-To is supported by ^axtaaaOai ; on the other hand IMx^ ao l^ ai is supported by fjaxrjrrjs, fiaxn^oiv, &c. Considering the number of cases in which the language has avoided forming the First Aorist and the Future in the same way, the probability would seem to be that the MSS. are right. For yvvaiica yano'0'Tai avros, which the MSS. give in II. 9. 394, Aristarchus read ywaiKd ye nacrcrerai avrus: doubtless rightly, the trochaic caesura in thef--' fourth foot being unknown in Homer ( 367, 2 : Veitch, p. 130). The usual Fut. is yapfca. Verb- Stems ending in a liquid (p, \, \i, v) insert e and drop the a, as /xey-e-co, dyyeA-eW, /cep-e'eiv, Kpav-ttcrOai,, drptJi'-e'co, KTef-eo)*, and (with contraction) fK-tyavel (II. 19. 104), *cara-(crem (II. 23. 412). But some Stems in p form -paw, as <5ia-$0e'p-o-ei, op-aovcra ' (II. 21. 335), 6fp-, the vowel being invariably long. Exceptional : 5t5(o-(roju,ev (Od. 13. 358), bibuxreiv (Od. 24. 314). On the anomalous Futures eSo/xcu, -Trio/xai, biju>, KCICO, /3etojuai, see 59, 80. 64.] The Future in -aea>. The Suffix -o-ee(o) is found in co--o-arai (II. 2. 393., 13. 317, Od. 19. 302), and 7renai, &c. : see however Rutherford's New Phrynichus, pp. 91-95) ; it answers to the Doric Fut. in -auo. 65.] Futures from Perfect and Aorist Stems. A Future Perfect meaning appears in /xe/xv^-o-o/iat 1 shall remember, fce/cA^-a-?/ thou wilt Lear the name, eioTj-o-erat will be said, KexoAw-o-ercu he will be in wrath, Se&^o/xai I will await, irec^-a-erai will appear (II. 1 7. 1 55), Tre^Tj-o-eat thou wilt be slain, rere^erai will be made, AeAefyerai will remain behind, /3e/3p&>(rerai will be devoured. In these cases the Fut. answers to a Perfect in actual use. For ir<|>Y|civ- does not occur in the inflexion of the Verb, and there is no analogy to suggest it. More probably nttyrjaeai is formed from -nefparai on the analogy of tv, Mid. Ktudbo-vTo ; and 7re0rjaorrai ((/>$ayv. Hence there was a tendency to have recourse to the Middle whenever a distinctly intransitive sense was wanted. Historical Tenses the Augment. 67.] The Augment takes two forms, the Syllabic and the Temporal. The Syllabic Augment is the prefix I-, and is used for Stems beginning- with a consonant. The Temporal Augment is a simple lengthening of the initial vowel of a Stem, the vowels d and e becoming ?j ; as rjyo-v (ayo-), ?;Aa-cra-z> (eAa-), uce-ro (IKC-), >p-ro (op-), 7jA.7JA.a-ro (Pf. eA.7/Aa-rat), yvfov (aivea>), x fro (otx~ fxai). So the Impf. ?Ja / went (Sanscr. di/am], from the stem el (ei-jut) : as to the form ijia see 12. Many seeming exceptions are due to the loss of the original initial consonants, F, has the smooth breathing owing to the following x. Also eta (eaco for a-fFaca). L (or y] perhaps in CTJKO (for e-tTjKa) and, with contraction, ), and 7rap-ei077 (-e-e^7/). But see 16. Several Homeric forms have been supposed to point to a Syllabic Augment T|- (instead of '-). One of these tji'a I went has been already explained (12). As to the others we have to note as follows : (i) TJeipv (II. 10. 499) is not from etpo to join together (Lat. sero\ but from dei'pu : for, as Cobet has shown (Misc. Crit. p. 326), atipto is a technical word in the sense required (cp. II. 15. 680 owae/percu 'iirirovs, also the words wvo\6ti (poivo\o(vat, &c.)*. These point to an Augment tj-, the combinations ijf o, t)f a passing into eco, ca (as in paatXtus, -ed for -ijf or, -i?f a). Such an Augment is also found in T|i8ijs, rjeiSti (Plpf. of o?5a), and T]io-K. There is much probability in the suggestion of G. Meyer (G. G. p. 423) that this TJ- is a Temporal Augment obtained from the prothetic - so often found before f : e.g. in f-tiad/j.evos (f 5-). Thus TJUTKS would be the aug- mented form of ('tonal, not of . (4) The forms dvtarys, a"V are peculiarly difficult on account of the Homeric Pres. oty-vvm, Aor. wi'fa, and Lesbian oeiyco (Pres. Inf. dfiyrjv, Coll. 214, 43). We might read dv-6tiye, &c., but the ordinary forms 0170; (Hes. Op. 817), av-oiyoa, &c. would still be unexplained. Initial p is nearly always doubled, initial X, JA, c, a- very often. This may often be explained as the assimilation of an original initial F or or : thus eppry^a is for e-Fprja, and so eppee (F(py-) and Fpey-), eppiyr/cre (Fply-). Again t-ppeev is for l-o-peev, iivvfov for f-a-veov, I \\aj3e perhaps for e-ov\.a/3e (Joh. Schmidt^ Pturalb. p. 434). So e8eio-ey (which Ar. wrote $>eiy-fa. The 3 Sing-, usually has -ec(i') contracted -*i(f), as e-7re77oi'0ei, rjv&yeiv, SeSr/et, ^pTjpet, /3e/3?7Kei. The Plur. occurs only once in Homer, in eouc-eo-av (II. 13. 102) : the Dual never. To this group belongs 7}5ea I knew, 2 Sing. rjeforjs (for e-fet'Seas), also rjSrjo-fla, 3 Sing. 7/ei'8ei, ?j8ei (or, as Aristarchus read, 1761817, 778/7). As to the augment TJ- see 67. In respect of form ?jj8ea is a Sigmatic Aorist, standing for e-fei'Serra, Sanscr. dvedisAam, and is only a Pluperfect because it is used as the past tense answering to 0180, (M. U. iii. p. 16). 69.] Loss of Augment. The Augment is so often dropped in c| J f Homer that the augmented and the unaugmented forms are almost equally numerous. It has been observed however * that the forms without the Augment are comparatively rare in the speeches, the proportion of augmented to unaiigmented forms (excluding speeches which mainly consist of narrative matter) being about jo to 3, whereas in narrative it is about 5 to 7. It would appear therefore that the Augment is chiefly omitted where the context shows that past time is meant ; and this is confirmed by the remarkable fact that the Iteratives, which are only used as Historical Tenses, do not take the Augment. The only clear instance of an Iterative form with the Augm. is t-j KOVTO (Od. 20. 7). On the forms t-tn.i6ntro (% f2/J r ll<** Meaning of the Present and Aorist Stems. 70.] The forms which contain the Present Stem, (the Pre- sent and Imperfect Indie., with the Moods of the Present) denote progressive action (incipient, continued, repeated, &c.), as opposed to a single fact or event. It is easy to understand why a language which distinguished these two kinds of action should have no Aorist for present time (*J3-fjiu, *\a.fia>, &c.). The present is not a space of time, but a point ; what is present therefore is not (generally speaking") a whole action or event, but the fact that it is in course of happening. So in English we usually say, not I write now, but J am writing now. The mere effort of regarding an action as in present time almost obliges us to give it a progressive character. The forms tlju, eijii, 4>"np.L. ^Y^j YP C * < I >U) > & c - i n which the Stem has the form generally found only in Aorists ( n, 30), may be regarded as surviving * Konrad Koch, De Augmento apud Hwnerum omisso, Brunswick, 1868. 7I-] IMPERFECT. 63 instances of the ' Present Aorist,' i.e. of a Present not conveying the notion of progress. We may compare the English use of / am, I go (now archaic in the sense of I am going}, I say (says he), &c. In these cases the use of a distinctly progressive form has not been felt to be necessary. A past action may usually be regarded, if we choose, as a single fact, irrespective of its duration (e/3ao-i'Xeuo-> Irrj r/na/coin-a he reigned, not he continued reigning}. But an action which is thought of as contemporary with some other event is almost necessarily regarded as progressive. Accordingly, answering to the Present / am writing (now}, we have the Past Tense 1 was writing (when he came). It follows from what has been said that a Pres. or Impf. may be used either (i) because the action intended is essentially progressive, or (2) because the time is fixed by reference (a) to the moment of speaking, or (ft) to a point of time in the past. E.g. 8iSco/u may mean either 1 seek to give, 1 offer, or I am giving; fbibov either he offered or he was giving. In the second of these uses the notion of progress is only relative, arising from the relation of time under which the action is thought of *. 71.] From the relative notion of progress or continuance is derived the general rule that the Impf. is used of a subordinate action or circumstance : II. 8. 87 o<$>p 6 yepcoy aTrerajure ro'$p' "EKropos axce'es ITTTTOI y\6ov while he was cutting the chariot came. Some varieties of this use may be noticed : (1) The Impf. shows that a Verb stands in a special connexion with the Verb of another clause ; II. i . 3-5 ^/v^as "AiSi Trpoia^fv fjpuxav, avTovs 8e eXcopia reuxe KVV(T(TIV sent down the souls of heroes to Hades, while it made themselves a prey to dogs. Od. 8. 532 '$' aXXou? fj,ev iravras eXdVOafe Sa/cpua Xei/3coz>, 'AX- KIVOOS Se fjuv oto? e7re(ppao-ar' 7)8' euo'rjo-e while he was unobserved by the others, Alcinous observed him. So II. 7- 33 &s apa z>Tj0-a? 8a>Ke i$o? apyuporjXoy, Aia? 8e ^oo-r^pa Si'Sou (gave in exchange). Od. 8. 63 TOV Trept Mover' ec/uAr/o-e, 8i8ou 8' ayaOov re Kanov re, d<0aX|iz<3z> juey a/xepcre, 8t'8ou 8' fjbelav aotb^v. (2) In oratio obliqua, as II. 22. 439 ?;yyeiX' orri pa ol TTOO-IS fj.ifj.ve TruXawy. (3) The action or point of time to which the Verb in the Impf. is subordinate may be merely implied : II. 4. 155 Oavarov vv roi opjci' tTapvov it was death then to you that I made (in making the treaty]. So in the common use with apa : as cri/ 8' OVK apa rolos tt] IO-TCLVTO were drawn up in the plain, TTapiararo came and stood beside, &c. Note i. We should read icrroo-av (not rr&aav as a First Aor.) in II. 2. 525 arixas Icrraauv (Bekk., La R., from the best MS.}. 12. 56 TOVS lo-ratrav vfts 'AXHW^ which the Greeks had planted; see 73. Od. 3. 180 Ttrparov fipap erjv or' tc'Ap^ti vrjas ttaas TvSdStca trapot . . . icrracrav (see Ameis a. ?.). 8. 435 at SJ \otrpo\oov rpinoS' to-Taaav ) , , , - a \ Bekk. . La Roche. Is. 307 avTiKa \afiirrripas r/)ts icrrao-av ) 2. The Verb ay is often so used : IL i. 367 TT)V SI SitirpdOofitv rt KM TJ^ofitv . **^ fv0d5f iravra. ; II. 7. 363 KTrj/Mira S* oaa' a.-ybyct\v the treasures which I brought (=Aare brought} ; IL 9. 664 TT)V \ta&o0tv ^ye whom he had brougM. In this Verb, however, the Aorist meaning appears distinctly in the Participle ; II. 6. 87 >7 8 J-wd-yowo ytpaias assembling ( = having assembled*) ; IL I. 311 tlotv ofywv brought and seated (cp. 3. 48., 4. 392., n. 827., 22. 350). Perhaps these uses should be connected with the Aoristic form of the Stem ( 70). (3) In Verbs expressing the beginning of a motion, as Stpwro bestirred himself (but wpro arose) ; a J 93- So in Attic pav6dv(i> I understand, ala-6a.vofj.ai I am aware, -nwddvofMai I learn (Goodwin, 28). 73.] A process thought of in relation to the present time, or to a point in the past, is expressed by the Impf. ( = Engl. I have been doing, I had been doing) : e. g. H. 6. 282 \tzya. yap p.iv 'OAv^ios erpee$ov; why have 1 reared thee ? 9. 524 fTTv06p.6a we have been accustomed to hear. So the Participle, II. 3. 44 v ?)' eA/ceju,ej; eis aAa 8i ovpovs T ^KaOaLpov K.r.A. The Impf . appears sometimes to be used in a description along with Aorists for the sake of connexion and variety (i. e. in order to avoid a series of detached assertions) : e.g. in II. i. 437-439., 2. 43-45-; 4- 113-119, Od. 4. 577-580. 75.] The Aorist gives the meaning of a Verb without the accessory notion of progress or continuance. It does not describe, or transport us to a time in the past when the action was present (as the Impf. does), but makes us think of it as now past. Hence it asserts a single occurrence, an action, or series of actions, regarded as an undivided whole, or completion, a culmin- ating point, in which the action is summed up. Thus /^ioyo I am toiling, e/^ioyrjo-a (II. I. 162) 1 have toiled ; voe'co I think of, eyorjo-e perceived, understood ; flapae'co / feel confident, Oapa-rio-as talcing courage, and so Seto-as, dAy^tras, /ztcrrjo-e, ^e/xeo-rjcre, &c., of the access of a feeling; br]piv9^Tr]v (II. 16. 756) joined in strife; TTaTrTrjvas casting a glance; z>?jo-a? either raising his voice or having spoken: ir } ^juari ba.KpV(ravT$ (II. 19. 229) performing the due weeping for the day. 76.] The Aorist is often used in Homer of the immediate past that which in an especial sense is thought of as now past : II. 2. 1 14 vvv 8e KdKTJv aitdrriv /SouAcvcraro, /cat /ze bvcrifXta "Ap-yos t/cecr0ai. Od. I. 182 vvv 8' <58e vv vrjt Karr\KvQov (cp. 23. 27). II. 2O. 1 6 rnrr' O.VT', apyiKepavve, deovs a-yopr/vbe Sometimes the Aor. seems to give the question a tone of im- patience: II. 2. 323 TITTT av( fyeveade ; 4. 243 rtyO' OVTCOS lorrjTe reflrjTroVes ; (vulg. eorrjre, an impossible form), cp, 20. 178 TI vv Toa-a-ov 6/jiiAov TroAAot' e77eA0o)i' ecmjs ; 21. 5^^-j ^2. 122., Od. 4. 810., 10. 64. Cp. the Attic use of rt ou, as Soph. O. T. IOO2 rt 6r)r' eyo) ov)(t . . . e^eAu(rd/irjy ; (Goodwin, 62). When the Aor. is used of an action which is subordinate to another in the past,* it implies completion before the main action : II. 2. 642 ovb' ap Ir' avrbs erjy, Odve 8e avdbs MeAeaypos he was no longer living, and yellow-haired Meleager had died. A similar use of the Aor. is regular in the Subj., as II. T. 168 eiret Ke KO/XCO when I have grown weary : and in the Participle, as &s tlirwv having thus spoken. The Aor. in these uses expresses, not past time as such (with reference to the moment of speak- F 66 TENSES. [77. ing-), but completion with reference to (i. e. usually before) the time of the principal Verb. 77.] The Participle of the Aor. is sometimes used to express exact coincidence with the action of the principal Verb : as pfj 8e diacra went with a spring, ^(.vcra^ivr] Trpo&rjvba spoke a he, aAro XaOatv leaped unseen, Here a Pres. Part, would imply that there was a distinct subordinate action : the Aor. expresses something that coincides .with, or is part of, the main action. This is especially found with Verbs expressing the manner (tone, gesture, &c.) with which a thing is said or done : II. 6. 54 o/xoKATJoras 1 CTTOS rjvba shouted the words ; II. 8. 219 ironrvva-avTi. do&s drpvvai 'A^aiovs to make hot haste in stirring up the Greeks ; II- J 3- 597 X e V a TrapctKpe/xdo-as : II. 10. 139., 16.474.,, 17. 334.,, 2O. 161, Od. 2. 422., 17. 330 (cp. (f)(vyiv Ttapaareia-avTi Arist. Eth. Nic. 4- 3- 15). 78.] The Aor. sometimes appears to be used of present time. (i) As in II. 14. 95 vvv Se wvofra^v Tiayyv S oz v Tpwoup TTO^LV a^(pLij.a.^u>fjLai., wAero /ieV /X06 VOCTTOS, drop KAeos aQOtrov Icrrai* = my return will have been, lost, i. e. will be ipso facto lost. The * So Eur. Med. 791 a^uufa, I. A. 510 a-rrfirrvaa : where, as Aken observes, 'die Handlung geschieht erst mit dem Aussprechen ' (Grundz. 18). These Aorists are sometimes explained of the past time at which the action began. As a reviewer of the former edition put it, ' Greek speakers, in describing feelings excited by the previous remarks of other speakers, frequently refer those feelings to the time when they were felt, and not to the present time of the description' (Saturday Rev., Feb. 17, 1883). That is to say, tiryvtaa means I praised (when I heard}. But this kind of subordination to a past event is precisely what is expressed by the Impf., not the Aor. The reviewer goes on to explain tirXtro in II. 19. 57 by the presence of the particle ap (^ dp ri r6S" (ir\fTo this icas as we can now see}, ' as in the common r\v apa'. This would only be possible if lirAtro were an Impf. ; see 33. 79-] AORIST MEANING. 67 speaker puts himself at the (future) point of time given by the context, and uses the Tense which then becomes appropriate. (2) Again When .an assertion is made irrespective of time, the Pres. or Aor. is used the Pres. for continuous and the Aor. for single or momentary action. Hence the use In similes, as II. 3. 23 wore \{ 8' fv arrjOeaai rtOti voov fvpvoira Zevs, where the MS. reading riOi may be defended as an Impf. marking subordina- tion to the Aor. 8ice : cp. the examples in 71. 2. Much light has been thrown upon the history of the Aorist by the com- parison of the use in Sanscrit (Delbriick, S. F. ii, and A. S. p. 280). If the result has not been to determine the original force of the Aorist, it has at least shown that the question cannot be settled from the material furnished by Greek alone. The use which predominates in Greek, the historical use to assert the happening of a single event in the past, is almost unknown to the earliest Sanscrit. In the Veda the Aor. is employed, as often in Homer ( 74^, of what has happened in the immediate past. In the early Sanscrit prose (the Brahmanas) the Aor. is used of what has happened to the speaker himself. It is worth noticing that these uses, in which the Aor. answers approximately to the English Pf. with have, are found in later Greek in the case of the verbs whose Pf. retains its original meaning. As Mr. Gildersleeve puts it, ' when the Perfect is used as a Present, the Aorist is used as a Perfect. So (KTrjffaftrjv I have gained possession of, itiicrufKU I possess' (Am. Journ. of Phil. iv. 429). Hence, if the Greek Perfect is originally a kind of present, there is a presumption that the Aor. was originally akin in meaning to our Perfect. On this view the ordinary historical Aor. is a derivative use. CHAPTER III. THE MOODS. 79.] The Moods of the Verb (properly so called) are the Subjunctive, the Optative, and the Imperative. It is convenient however to rank the two Verbal Nouns, the Injinitive and the 68 MOODS. [80. l^articijjh 1 , along with them. The meanings of the Moods and Verbal Nouns cannot well be discussed until we come to the chapters dealing- with Complex Sentences. T/te Suljunctii'e. 80.] Non-Thematic Tense-Stems usually form _the_ JSubj. by taking the Thematic "\ owel, with the Primary Endings ;_exceDt that when the Thematic Vowel enters into a diphthong, or is fol- lowed by two consonants, it becomes TJ or w instead of e or o. Thus the scheme is Sin Act. Dual. Plur. Mid. Act. Mid. Act. Mid. -0/j.at -dfjiev -o/xe$a, -eat -erov -r](rOov -ere -rfcj-Qf -ercu -erov -rjadoi- -600-1(7;) -coyrat. The long 17 or u, it will be seen, comes in place of e or o wherever it can do so without disturbing the metre. Examples : Strong Aorists : t-$Qr\, Subj. $Qr}-r\ : I-/3//, Subj. /3?/-o) (or ^3eto)), v7re/3-/3?;-77, /3?j-o/iez> (or fiei-opev) : e-orij, Subj. o-rri-tjs, 0-777-77, a-Trj-erov, 0-TTj-oiJi.ev, (rr^-ft)(rt : e-yyco, Subj. yv&-u>, yz-'co-ojitey, e-8i>, Subj. bvu), $v-r]S, bwj : e-^SArj-ro, Subj. e-$0t-To, Subj. aA-ro, Subj. aA-erat : Stem Or]-, Subj. 0a-a> (or 0^-co), 6i]-fls, dd-o^v (or a-o-0ei-o/jiai : Stem 77-, Subj. e(/>-ei'-o, 0^-77-77 : Stem 8co-, Subj. 8w-77 and bu>-^Tj-/ti, Subj. 07/-7J : Kixrj-i'at, Subj. Ki)(et-cd, Ki^d-o^v (or so epei-o/xei' as if from ^Hpy-i. Passive Aorists : f-ha.fj.ri, Subj. so 8aet-co, aAoj-a), a\ ( 45). Pf. Mid. Trpoa-apripfTat (Hes. Op. 431). ot5a, Subj. ei'Se'oo, 1877?, 8l.] SUBJUNCTIVE. 69 For !Bo, &c., Tyrannic wrote ei8o>, nS^s, 18^, i8w is Subj. of e-fe/Seet ( 68) ; etSco with the Plur. fiS-o-fitv, eiS-t-rf, is Subj. of a Non-Thematic *fi8-(j,i, Sanscr. ved-mi (M. U. iii. 18). The form i8a>, read by most MSS. in II. 14. 235, is a mere error for elStw. * VM Aorists in -o-a : e-^Sr/o-a-^er, Subj. ^a-o^v : 7/yetpa, Subj. dyeip-o/xey : e-Tia-a, Subj. rtV-ere, 7to--axn : ?7juefya-70, Subj. d/xety-erat : ^Aeva-ro, Subj. dA.ev-erai : and many more. These Subjunctives properly belong- to the older inflexion of the Sigmatic Aorist without -d ( 40). To these should be added some forms used as Futures : ai, eSon-ai shall eat (cp. Sanscr. ad-mi, Lat. est for ed-t). 8r)-eis, 8^-o/jie^ S^-ere shall find, with the strong Stem answer- ing to 8a(cr)- in SeSaev, &c. fSei-o-fjicu *^0$ &f, from the stem jSiT-; also in the form Pe'ojicu. Evidently (Seiopu : |3iui/ai : : 8i]a> : Saf^ai. It will be found that the Homeric uses of these words are all such as can be referred to the Subj. On moftcu and Ketco see 59. The form STJIS may be ;i trace of an older inflexion, -to, -ts, -ct, answering to -ojxev, -ere. It will be seen that the strong form of the Stem is found in the Subjunctive, as $77-77, b(o-ojj,ev, eorr/K-rj. Apparent exceptions are, (i) the Subj. of et/xi in which the I of to/xev (for et-o/xe unexplained, while the forms !-&>, t-Tjcri may be Thematic, (as are Opt. iot, Part, icoy); and (2) the forms d$-e-7/ (Aor. of d^-tTj-fxi), These forms are the result of transference of quantity, - for 0-777-0-, &c v and it is important to notice that the last six are always scanned as disyllables, thus forming the transition to the contracted fydGxri, oroi/xei;, &c. Anomalous lengthening is found in (ier-eiw (II. 23. 47) for (JIT--W. On the ei for t\ in /3et'-co, ^ei-co, 8a/xet-o), &c. see Append. C. 81.] Subjunctives with lengthened Stem-vowel. The formation of the Subj. by means of the Thematic vowel must have been confined originally to Stems ending in a consonant, or in one of the vowels i, u. The hiatus in such forms as $77-77, o-r77-o/xei>, yv(a-op.v is enough to prove that they are not primitive. In Vedic Sanscrit, accordingly, while as-a-ti, han-a-ti are Subj. of as-ti, han-ti, we find sthd-ti, da-ti as the Subj. answering to the Aorists d-sthd-t, d-dd-t. These would become in Homer OTTJ-O-I, 8o)-o-i or (with the usual i of the 3 Sing.) o-r/J-o-t, 8o)-crt. Similarly we may infer an original Plural or^ey, 0-77776, 0-777^71 (0-77^0-1); o|u.at), Ka0-ord-rai, Trpo-TiOrjVTi, &c. (Meyer, G. G. p. 502). In Homer it may be recognised in the 3 Sing, forms (f)fj(TLV (Od. I. 1 68), $0770-1 (II. 23. 805), 770-1 (II. 15. 359), iJL(0-ir](ri (II. 13. 234), 8cp(Ti ; perhaps in 8<3, 8w?, 8<2ju.ez>, 8<3o-6, Ttepi-btofjifOov, fTTt-b(ap.fOa ; yvvs, yv&nfv, yvGxri ; eiri-firiTov, TTfiprjOiJTOv, &c. which are usually regarded as contracted from the regular Homeric 8wco, SWT;?, buto^v, &c. and in bvvrj-rai., eTri-oTTjrcu ( 87, 3). How then did the Homeric forms of the type of $77-77, OTTJ- op,fv, yvto-ofMfv arise? Doubtless by a new application of the process already familiar in l-o-ptv (ei-/xt), $0i-e-rai, \ev-e-rai., TreTroi^-o-juer, &c. We may compare the extension of the Endings -drai, -a-ro to the Pf. /3e/3A77-arai, in imitation of K^/cAY-arai, flpv-arai (5). Contraction appears in the 3 Sing. $77 (Od. 19. 122), 0-777 (Od. l8 - 334), #/ (Od. 2. 358), Qavy (II. 9. 707), yp (II. I. 411., 16. 273) unless we suppose that these are obtained by dropping the -cri of $77-0-1, &c. on the analogy of the Thematic -77. Also in the I Plur. /xe0-<3/Atz> (II. IO. 449), (rvv-dt^da (II. 13. 381)^ baut^ev (II. 2. 299), jbte/xy-w/xe^a (Od. 14. 168; and the 3 Plur. 2o-i, ew/xev, &c.), except when a vowel precedes (as in 5a<3^er). The two forms of the Subj. present a certain analogy to the two kinds of derivative Verbs the Attic -aew, -tta, -os (II. 9. 424, 68iJ are probably Optatives ; see 83. 82.] Thematic Tense-Stems form the Subj. by changing e into T) and o into w. The Subjunctive of the Thematic Aor. and Pres. frequently employs the Person-Endings -/at and -o-i : e.g. e0e'A.-co^i, efo'A-Tjo-i ; eurcojui, eiTnjcri; dyayco/xt, ay ayTjeri; rvx^p-i, TTJ^^O-I; t8co/it, KreiVco/it; ayycri, afibr]^v (II. 7. 38), o/xr-Tjre (II. 23. 2io), br]Xri(r-r)TaL (II. 3. 107), jxi'Tjo-wjuefla (II. 15. 477, &c.), Travtrcojiey (II. 7. 29), TTava-wp-ecrda (II. 7. 290., 21. 467), Trejux/fcojuev (Od. 2O. 383), ViTT\ri(aiJiv (II. 12. 7 2 )> $06wql> (Od. 16. 369), -rrepcio-Tjre (Od. 15. 453), avTida-rjrov (II. 12. 356), Tpeoor/re (Od. 16. 293., 19. 12), Seio-rjre (II. 24. 779), jSouXevo-co/^ev (Od. 1 6. 234). In most of these instances the original reading is probably either a Pres. Subj. or an Opt. Thus in II. 21. 467 the best MSS. have irauwpecrOa, and in Od. 20. 383 there is good authority for ir<|i.ir|xev (in II. 15. 72 the MSS. are divided between irovko and irav0io-o>n.v follows a Past Tense ( 298), irpi0io-aifj.v, irp4(raiT. For avruicnjTOv we may have either the Opt. avrvdo-ai/rov or a Pres. Subj. dvTidTjTOv. For Tptoo-i)T we should perhaps read rp 2 33)> fc> r non, 8a/me-iei;, bo-lev : once -tTj- viz. (TTa-Lr)(rav (II. 17. 733). The i is lost in 8^7 (Od. 9. 377., 18. 348., 20. 286, for fK-bv[j.fv, XfXvro (Od. 1 8. 238 La Roche), baivvro (II. 24. 665), 8at2n/-aro (Od. 18. 248), ^dlro, a-no-^dL^v (for (j>0i-i-TO, cbro- 2. In Thematic Tenses the scheme of Endings is : Sing. Dual. Plur. 1. -OI/AI Mid. - 2. -OLS -oio 3. -01 -otro Mid. -OLTOV -OL(r9oi> -oirrjy -olcr&r]v Mid. - -otre -oiaro. 3. The Aorist in -a& forms the Optative in two ways (1) In - j are doubtful. pepX^Koi is the reading of Aristarchus in II. 8. 270, where the best MSS. have (SepX^Kei. In II. 21. 609 yvto^tvai os T Ticfavyoi, os T tdav KrA., the reading ire^euyei is given by one good MS. (D.), and evidently agrees better with etfare. peflpwGois (II. 4. 35) points to a form /3e'/3/)co0a, of which however there is no other evidence. IXifjicoi (H. Apoll. 165) may be Pf. or Pres. Irregular forms : Thematic lot-y, eoi (II. 9. 142, 284), tot (II. 14. 2i), 8tot-ro (Od. 17. 317). Homer has also U-trj (II. 19. 209), to be compared with flbeir], 8e8tet?7. 84.] VERBAL NOUNS. 73 The so-called '^EohVOpt. of Contracted Verbs (-urj-v, -oirf-v) appears in $1X0117 (Od. 4. 692) and c^opou? (Od. 9. 320). In II. 14. 241 most authorities give irurxoiT]s as an Opt. (rSi icev emaxoi^ \inapoiis iroSas ti\anivafav. Three of the chief MSS. (A. B. C.) have ^ricrxoies, and this was quoted by Herodian, apparently as the only reading known to him (see Ludwich, A.H.T. i. 374). The Syr. palimpsest has moxoias. All three forms are anomalous ; lma\p'n)s finds a parallel in dyayolrjv (Sappho) and one or two other forms, but can hardly be Homeric. The forms crows (II. 9. 681), croeo (II. 9. 424) are so written by modern editors. Most MSS. have cro^s, cro^. In the former place we learn that Ar. doubted between erctcps and creeps (or creeps, for the accent here is conjectural). The ancient grammarians apparently took both forms as Opt. (which suits the sense, 304, a). Some wrote cracps, crato (or creeps, crow), deriving them directly from craow : others creeps, creep, from creoco or croco. It is not difficult to restore the uncontracted craoots, craooi, or, if the Subj. is preferred, oi.v. The I Sing, in -oi-v (instead of the anomalous -oi-fti) was not unknown in Attic (Bekker, H. B. p. 1 1 1 ff) *. irapa-c|)0a-ii)-cn (II. 10. 346), with Primary instead of Secondary Ending, is perhaps a pseudo-archaic form, made on the analogy of the Subjunctives in The Verbal Nouns. 84.] Infinitives and Participles are not properly speaking Verbs since they do not contain a Subject and Predicate but Nouns : the Infinitive is a kind of Substantive and the Parti- ciple an Adjective. In certain respects however they belong- to the scheme of the Verb : 1. They answer in form and meaning to the Tense Stems; each Tense Stem has in general an Infinitive and a Participle formed from it. 2. They are distinguished as Active and Middle (or Passive) in sense. 3. They are construed with the same oblique cases of Nouns, and the same Adverbs and Adverbial phrases, as the correspond- ing Verbs. * It must not be supposed, however, that the i Sing, and the 3 Plur. in otv are primitive forms. The termination -oiv was originally impossible in Greek (as -em and -om are in Sanscrit) ; we should expect -oia, -oiav (Sanscr. -et/am, -eyus). Hence -oi-|u probably made its way into Greek in place of *-o.a, as -erai-p.1 in the Aor. in place of -ema (see Brugmann, in Curt. Stud. ix. 313). The 3 Plur. form airorivotav is found in the Eleian dialect. 74 INFINITIVE. [85. 85.] The Infinitive Active is formed (i) In Non-Thematic Tenses (except the Aor. in -, bo-ptv, rfdva-pev, op-vv-^v ; also in J-npev (five times, but always where we may write e/x/xei/), lb-p.ev (II. 11.719), and evy-vv-fj.ev (II. 1 6. 145), in which the long u is irregular. The full Suffix -^cai only occurs in i-eWt ; but there are many other Infinitives in -vai, all of them containing a long vowel or diphthong in which an e may be supposed to have been absorbed ; as bovvat (for bo-evai, see Max Miiller, Chips, iv. 56), dflvai, (TTrjvaL, fir/vcu, bvvat,, yv&vai., dAwvcu, /3i<3i>ai, arjvai, (f)oprj~vai, Sibovvai (II. 24. 425). The original form of the Suffix seems to have been -fevcu, I >. o?iv'<*\ From dfu (tcr-) are formed f^tvai, t^ev, (fitvcu, tpev, and Hvcu. Of these e/xej/aj, Zpfv are irregular ; they follow the analogy of Oifufvai, &c. Cp. the I Plur. f*tv (Soph. El. 21). From (J-pt are formed t-^evcu, t-pfv, and l-tvai. In one place (II. 20. 365) ipevai is scanned with I perhaps in imitation of epfifvat (Solmsen, K. Z, xxix. 72). The common Attic Present Infinitives Iff-rd-vat, rt6t-vai, 8i86-vm, titm-vv-vai, &c., as well as the Perfect Infinitives in -tvcu, are entirely unknown in Homer. (2) In Thematic Tenses by -c-ftcmi, -e-fiey, -eiv as dit The Ending -c-eii/ only occurs in the Thematic Aor., and is anomalous ; compare /3aA-e'-eu> (Stem /3aXe-) and /3aAA.-az; (Stem /3aAAe-). The original ending was doubtless -ecc : thus Stem /3aAe-, Inf. /3aAe'-ev, contr. /3aAetv. /3aAAe-, /3aAAe-;, ,, /iJaAAeir. In the Aor. the metre usually allows us to restore -eec (see Renner, Curt. Stud. i. 2. p. 33). It is possible that the forms /SaXt'-etr, &c., are genuine, since -eev might pass into -iv from the analogy of the Pres. Inf. in -iv, just as in_the Rhodian dialect -cjtev became -cjwiv. Leo Meyer (Vergl. Gr. ii. 284) proposed to read &a\(-/jKv, &c. But, as Renner points out (I. c.~), the change from -ev to -iv is very much slighter, indeed is a mere matter of spelling. Original Pa\tptv, &c. would probably have been retained. (3) The Aor. in --cu 'for knowing' 87-] PARTICIPLE. 75 (Sanscr. vifl-mdn-e). Similarly bovvai is bo-Fev-ai (dd-vdn-e) ' for giving-/ Probably the Infinitives in -a and -cc (-en/) originally differed in meaning from those in -y.tvai, -evai, &c. In Greek, however, the sense of the Inf. as a Case-form is lost, so that the different forms are all construed in exactly the same way. 86.] The Participle. The Aorist, the Present, and the Future Tense Stems form the Active Participle by the Suffix -rr- : thus we have, Non-Thematic ora-vr-, ri.9t-vT- ; Thematic /3oAo-/;r-, orrj-o-o-yr-, &c. The vowel before rr is always short, as yvo-vr-, piye-vr-. The Perfect Stem takes -or or -oo- (originally -For, -foa), Fern, -uid (for -uT]fu. The 2 Sing. Imper. s). Such was the commonly accepted account ; but the ancient grammarians were not agreed as to the enclitic character of the Dual and Plural forms (on or6v see Charax 1151 ; on 4>a(XEV. a,T, 4>acr(, ibid. ; on tajjuv, or, eurt, Eust. 1457, 48). Again, one grammarian denies that <|>T)(I( was ever enclitic (Charax 1152) ; another holds that it should be written 4>YJtu, at least in such instances as tyfjfu yap ovv Karavevaat, KT\. (Tyrannic ap. Eust. 1613, 18). In all likelihood the original forms were, Sing, tern, ^H- 1 ; Plur. crp,tv, a(jicv, and we may suppose that tj(xi and or are not properly oxytone, but are unaccented forms made oxytone as enclitics (w^wOrj Sia rf)i> iirovvav avrois 76 ACCENT. [88. t^KXiaiv Apoll. Synt.\ The Sanscrit Verbs of the same kind follow the rule of accenting the Stem in the Sing., the Ending in the Dual and Plur. ; and this must be connected with the difference of quantity between strong and weak Steins ( 6;. See Benfey, Vcdica und Linguisticu, pp. 90 S. The 2 Sing-, els is enclitic, though the corresponding Attic form eZ is not; but see 5. As to $r/? there is a contradiction ; it is not enclitic according- to Arc. 142, 8, but enclitic according to Schol. A. II. 17. 147 both notices being supposed to rest on the authority of Herodian (ed. Lentz, i. 553, 4 and ii. 105, 5) 2. The 3 Plur. torao-t, rifleun, bibovo-i, bei.Kvv(n, are properi- spomena (Herodian, i. 459, ed. Lentz). This can hardly have been the original accentuation, since they are not contracted forms, but represent 'lara-VTi, &c. Probably it comes from the Attic ia-rani (contracted from lara-aai, cp. nQi-aai, &c.)- The Doric forms are written nOtvri, &c. by Eustath. Od. 1557, 45 ; but we do not know that this represents the usage of any living dialect. 3. Subjunctives such as tyavfj, 5aw/zei> are circumflexed, as being contracted forms (for (f)avipj, 8a^o/xe^). On eiSeoo, dbfjs, ei8//, ei8eco(ri see 80. Optatives in which -ITJ- becomes -i- before Heavy Endings are accented on the i throughout, as 8iaKptz>#eu-e, Sa/xaer. But Middle forms to which there is no corresponding Active follow the general rule : Swoo/xat, Swrjai (so Herodian, but Tyrannic wrote bwS)fj.ai,, bvvfjai, Schol. II. 6. 229), KfpwvTai (II. 4. 260), eTTtcrr/jrat ( 280); eTHorairo, ovaio, oi-'oiro. 4. The Imperatives ei-rre', eA^e, are oxytone (and so in Attic evpe, t8e, Aa/3e). Similarly Tyrannio wrote TnOlaOe, \a(3ltjjii in fact retain the original accentuation, which was doubtless that of the Indo- European language. The Imperatives el-ire, cXOt, &c., are evidently words that would often be used to begin a sentence. The ordinary accent of a Greek verb, the so-called ' recessive ' accent, repre- sents the original enclitic condition. The Opt. 4>aiTjv, for example, is originally oxytone. On the Sanscrit rules it loses its accent, and we should have (e. g.) t-y'.o-4>aiT]v. But owing to the Greek rhythmical law this is impossible. Accordingly the accent goes back as far as the Greek rules will allow, and we have i^uj-ipairjv. 5. The__fin_al_ -eu of__the_ Endings -JAf the Opt.,, which is for original -air, counts as long. 88.] Accent in Composition. Unaugmented forms of Com- pound Verbs are accented as though the Verb were an enclitic 89.] ACCENT. 77 following- the Preposition : hence v-exov, Trpo'-e?, irapa-0e?, Trepi- /cetrat, a^o-cr^vTai. If the final syllable of the Preposition is lost by elision or apocope the accent falls on the first syllable ; hence {/'<-eA/,uai (Herodian, i. 469, 7, ed. Lentz). We have to recognise in such cases the encroachment of the common Thematic type, though we may doubt whether the change reaches back to the earliest form of the text of Homer. According to Herodian, the 2 Sing. Imperative . On the Aor. Inf. in -elv, see 85, 2. The forms in -KCU, -acu accent the penultimate, as Uvai, aX&vai, epva-at. The Middle forms of the Thematic Aorist and Perfect are also paroxytone, as irifleVflai, AeAa0e'0eis, jue/xaws, Xafiwv, reraywr. So the Presents ea>z>, lav. 78 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. [90. The Part, of the Pf. Middle is paroxytone. But follows aK.ayj]a, Gen. Ao'yo-io, &c. : auto- is the Stem of the Case-forms at/ro'-s, O.VTO-V, avro-lo, and also of the Adverbs avro-Oev, avro-Oi., aiircos, &c. The Stems now 'in question belong to two great classes, those of Nouns and of Pronouns, called Nominal and Pronominal Stems respectively. The term 'Noun' includes Substantives and Ad- jectives. The other ' parts of speech' Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions may ultimately be resolved into Case-forms or Adverbial forms either of Nouns or Pronouns. The distinction between Nouns and Pronouns brings before us in a new form the fundamental antithesis involved in the division of a Verb into a Stem which 'predicates,' and a Person-Ending which marks the Subject. A Noun either denotes a single object or group of objects (i. e. when it is a 'proper name'), or denotes objects through their permanent attributes, as belonging to a class ; whereas a Pronoun denotes an object by its local position, or momentary relation to something else, as ' this ' or ' that,' ' here ' or ' there,' ' same ' or ' other.' This contrast is shortly expressed by saying that Nominal Stems are Predicative, and Pronominal Stems Demonstrative ; the former name or describe, the latter only ' point out ' what is intended. Accordingly, Nominal Stems are in general either identical with, or formed from, the Stems of Verbs : Pronouns are found to contain the same elements as those which furnish the Person-Endings of Verbs. The simplest forms obtained by analysis are thus of two kinds. They were first clearly dis- tinguished by Bopp, and called by him Verbal and Pronominal Roots respectively (Vergl.-Gr. 105). The Cases. 91.] Declensions. The main distinction is that between the Consonantal Declension (including that of Stems in -\. and -u), 93-] CASE-ENDINGS. 79 which forms the Genitive in -os, and the Vowel Declensions, of which three may be distinguished : (1) Stems in -o (chiefly Masc. and Neut.) : Gen. -oio. (2) -d, -T] (chiefly Fern.) : Gen. -as, -ijs. (3) -e (Personal Pronouns) : Gen. -eio. 92.] Vocative. A Noun used in addressing a person by his name or title has properly no Case-Ending. Accordingly the Vocative Case consists in general of the simple Stem ; e. g. Zev /3a(riAeu, Alav (for Alan--), Stoyeves, oo ava (for draKT-). In II. i. 86 KdX^av (Voc. of KdA)(as) was read by Aristarchus, KdA)(a by Zenodotus. On the other hand in II. 12. 231 Ar. read IIouAvSa/uia, but Zen. FIovAuSd/xay. The form AaoSdjua in Od. 8. 141 probably has the authority of Aristarchus. Stems in -o form the Voc. in -e, as $i'Ae eicupe. Some Stems in -o(rj) shorten the final vowel, as vv^a, Voc. of vv^rj, and the Masc. o-u/3 -01 (2) -a(r)), - k d; -TJ-S -a -at Ace. "V -d -e -df, Neut -a, -co -ovs (for -o~vs) -a -as (-a-vs) Gen. -O? -OUV -CDV (1) -oio, -oo, -ou -oi'iv -<&v (2) -rjs; -ao, -eco -dcoy, -ecor (3) -eio, -eo, -eu -l(v) -euav, -ev , yeWo-i, yeas all less common than the corresponding 1 forms with TJ-, vfjfs, vr]S>i>, vijea-cn, vfjas. The forms VTJV-S, vrjv-ai are irregular, since original au before a consonant would appear in Greek as ov (cp. Zevs for original dyetts]. Hence the true Greek form is preserved in the Instrum. va-<()iv ( 104) and the Compounds ravcri-K\VTus, Navai-icda, &c. The ) of vrjv-s and vrjv-ai is taken by analogy from the other Cases. 3aoriXeu-s, Gen. /3acrtA?/-os (but Dat. Plur. fiacriXev-cn). riir)Xeu-s, Gen. rfr]Ar/-os and n?;Ae'-os. In oblique Cases of Stems in -eu the e seems to be nearly confined to proper names ; cp. TuSe'os TvSe'i TuSea, 'Arpe'os 'Arpe'i, rjcre'a, NrjA.e'a, &c. On Zews, (3ovs see 106, 2. 2. Stems in -i and -u form the same Cases in two ways : (1) Retaining* the Stem-vowel, as KOVL-S KOVL-OS, Tldpi-s Yldpi-os, l\vs tASos, l\6v-s l\dv-6s. orv-s cru-o's, eid (II. 7. 135, Od. 15. 297), and (a) in the Gen, in -do and -aw. Other exceptions "totne scheme given above will be best treated under the separate Cases. 96.] Nominative Singular. The final -9 is retained after vowels and mutes, but lost with Stems ending in p, as Trar^p, ju^o-rojp. Stems ending in v either (i) take final -9 (with loss of v], as els (for ev-s), Ois Ace. Olv-a, /ueAas Gen. /xe'Aav-os, or (2) do not take -9, but lengthen^ preceding vowel, as yd&v Gen. yQov-6s, TTOI^V Gen. TTotjuey-os. So with Stems in -vr : bovs Gen. SoVr-oy, but I8 <^)p-f]v, &c. are forms due to the -v of the oblique Cases : and on the other hand bibovs, ri0ei?, &c. have followed the analogy of corresponding monosyllabic words, bovs, Oeis, &c. There is a remarkable group of Masc. Stems in -CI(TJ), with Nom. Sing, in -d, viz. Titles of gods : ye^eAryyepera, oTepoTrTjyepera, /xrjrtera, (Zfvs] ; a,Ka/crjra ('Epjixeias a.) ; Kvavo^alra Titles of heroes : tTTTrora, i777TTjA(ira, at)(ju,7jra; One proper name, ueVra (II. 2. 107). Except ue'ora these words are only found as adjectives : thus we_have qiXM^ 7 "^ Au/cdcoz;, Kvavo^alra Yloa-eibdoyv, but aix/^ 7 " 7 ]^ Kvai'o^airrjs when the same words are substantives. The accent generally follows the forms in -77-5 where suck forms exist ; thus iTTTrora, al^rjTa, like iTTTroVtys, CU^TJTTJS. But it is thrown back in evpvoTra, jixTjriera, d/cciKTjra, ancient epithets only known from the traditional Homeric use. These are in reality Vocatives which have been turned into Nominatives. That is to say, they belonged originally to certain established forms of address ftrjriera Ztv, Kvavo\aira HofftiSaov, lirnora : IIt]\tv, &c. and were not inflected when the names to which they were attached came to be used in the Nona. In this way the rhythm, which doubtless had a traditional sacredness, re- mained unaltered, and the whole phrase retained something of its vocative character. The feeling which might lead to this is that expressed by Eumaeus in Od. 14. 145 S. TOV fj.lv lywv, Si tiv*, leal ov -aapcovr' &von&(iv tu5f'o/tcu' irfpl yap [i (iv (ovra. I call him by the title -qOeios even in his absence, the word jjOeios being only used as a form of address. Cp. also in (2). The Nominatives in -d are evidently part of the archaic and conventional style of Epic poetry. They are commoner in the Iliad than in the Odyssey in the proportion of 3 to I. The ancient grammarians regarded them as ./Eolic, but without sumcient reason. G 82 DECLENSION. [97. The form eupvoira also appears as an Ace., and has accordingly been ex- plained from a Nom. tvpv-oty. It is improbable however that it is a different word from the Nom. Voc. tvpvoira. Probably the fact that it had the appear- ance of an Ace. of one of the numerous Compounds in -o^ led to an extension of use *. 97.] Accusative Sing. The Ending -d is found after con- sonants and the diphthongs TJU, eu ; as vrjv-s vfja (for vrjva, vt]Fa), /3ao-iAev- $ /3a & c -> an( i on the other hand (8v-v, tTTiba (II. 8. 373) and yXavK.G>Ttiv (Od. I. 156), avaXntia and avaXniv (Od. 3. 375)? oTTiba and OTTIV, Kvirpiba and Kvirpiv ; Oovpiv, 'Ipiy, avXiv, QfTiv. Cp. also \api-v (for ^aptr-a), and Kopv-v (for Kopvd-a), found in the line II. 13. 131 ( = 16. 315), do"7rt? ap d(T7rt5' epeibe, Kopvs KOpvv, avzpa 8' avrjp. In Attic there are many more such forms ; opviv, &c. Note that no oxytones form the Ace. in -ic. The Accusatives afjv (Od. 12. 313), "Apijv, Mcy^v are probably formed directly from the Nom. aijs, "Aprjs, Me-y^y, on the analogy of Masc. Nouns in -ij-s. On the other hand Zfjv (Ztvi), PUV (^oCs), are very ancient forms, 7 answering to the Sanscr. dyam, gam (Joh. Schmidt in K. Z. xxv. 17) : see 106, 2. A final 8 is lost in the Neut. Pronouns o, TO, TOVTO, cuewo, &\\o (Lat. id, is-tud, illml, aliud), and in ri (Lat. quid] : perhaps also in the Personal Pronouns, Ace. Sing. ep.e (^e), , (T(f)to, e (Curt. Stud. vi. 417 ff.; Max Miiller, Chips, iv. 44). vyjvSJCJJS * It will be shown hereafter ( 116, 2) that the Masc. Nouns in -TTJS are probably derived from Feminines in -TIJ, of abstract or collective meaning. Hence it is possible that the Homeric Nominatives in -rfi come directly from these Feminines : so that (e. g.) fajTiesa. meant literally Counsel rather than Counsellor. The abstract word may have been used as a title, like 0lij Tlpiafjioio and the like. According to Joh. Schmidt (Pluralb. p. 400) evpvoira is originally a Neuter: see 107, 2. t The forms TuSi? (II. 4. 3$) and MJ;TT (II. 15. 339) are probably false : see Nauck, Mel. gr.-rom. iii. 222. 99-] SINGULAR. 83 98.] Genitive Singular. The Stems in -o form the Gen. in e,{.$381 -oio, -oo, -ou. Of these forms only -oio and -ou are read in the existing text of Homer; but there are sufficient traces of -oo, and indeed several places where it is called for by the metre. Thus we must read jin^iM p* II. 2. 5 J 8 vices 'I^n'roo p.-ya6vp.ov. 15. 66 (=21. 104) 'lAtoo 22. 313 dypioo, npoo-Oev e /crA. Od. 10. 36 8<3pa Trap' AtoAoo p,eyaA?jropos. 60 ftijv els AioAoo icAvra Sahara. II. 9. 440, &c. 6/Aotioo TrroAe'/xoio (for 6fj,odov TroAe'fzoio). 2. 325 oo rcAe'o? ovTror' dAeirai | / t ^ Od. I. 70 oo Kpdros eo-/ce /xeyioroi> J * ' ' II. 2. 73 J 'Ao-KArjTTioo 8vo 7rai8e. 15. 554 5. 21 a8eA(/>eo'o Kra//,eWio : so in 6. 61 (=7- Od. 14. 239 Also in the two lines fituM^ II. 6. 344 eiVe, eu'jufieAt-co. (So in Ionic, Curt. Stud. v. 294., viii. 172.) The Pronominal Stems in -,e, viz. ejue (jue), o-e (for rfe), and I or ee, form the Gen. in -e-io, -eo and (by contraction) -eu. Thus we find 6JACIO, e/xeo (II. I O. 1 24), ep,ev ; (II. 1 1 . 20 1 ) : so in Doric we find e/uV and tiv, lv. 99*.] Plural. Several Stems in -o which are Masc. (or Fern.) in the Sing, form a Neut. Plur. : KcXevOos, Plur. /ce'Aeufloi and more commonly /ce'Aeufla ; //rjpo's, Plur. /^irjpoi and \njpa ; KVK\OS, Plur. KVK\OL and KVK\O. ; 16s, Plur. lot and la : Tdprapos, Plur. Tdprapa (Hes.). There is probably a slight change of meaning, the Neuter expressing vague mass or quantity rather than plurality : cp. bpvfj.d thicket, and post-Homeric 8eo>ta, 0eo-jua, o-tra, Lat. loca, joca. Thus KcXevda means a group of paths, and could not be used (e.g.] in such a passage as II. 10. 66 TroAAat yap ava crrparoV etpv-as (Od. 9.389), VCKVS (Od. 24. 417) and vtw-as, fiovs and po-as. c ( I f 102.] PLURAL. 85 Stems in -u, Gen. -eo?, have only -eas in Homer : except TTO\VS, read by Zenodotus in II. 2. 4, perhaps in other places (II. i. 559-> I 3- 734-, *5- 66., 20. 313., 21. 59, 131, Od. 3. a6., 4. 170), where the MSS. have iroAeas or The MS. of Schol. A in II. 2. 4 gives iroXeis as read by Zen., but the context shows that the true reading of the scholium is TroXvs. But there is no trace of this form in any of the other places. The Personal Pronouns have rj^as (once ij^as), vp.ea$, o-(/)eas (once ). The Pronominal Stems Tjp.e-, up,e-, o-<|>e- form ^jueuoy and fytt&v and v[j.tov, o-(petu>v o-$ecoz> (encl.) and ox^wz;. These forms are plausibly explained by supposing that origi- nally the Gen. was in -eio, as in the Singular. Then *d/zfxeio, *vfj.p.(lo, were assimilated to the Gen. Plur. in -w, and o-Qeiwv followed the same analogy later (Brugmann, K. Z. xxvii. 397). 102.] Dative Plural. The two Endings of the Dat. Plur. are -o-i(k) and -eo-o-i(i'). Many Nouns in Homer form the Case in both ways, e. g. fiov-cri and /3o-e ty-ecrt, cuy-fcn, o6-6(ri, avaKT-ecri. occur once each. An ending -o-o-i (instead of -l(v) is originally in all probability the Instrum. Plur. of the Stem o-fe- (for (rF-Lv) : cp. Lat. sibi, for s-bi. If so, the other Case-forms e', a^eicoz;, atyi-ai as well as the corresponding Duals /cu7rtVd (II. 8. 42) : but Fern. Trpo^az'eVre, TrA^yeWe (of two goddesses, II. 8- 378, 455); . The Genitive and Dative Ending in all Nouns is -ouv, as -nob-ouv, ?7T7r-ouV. The contracted form -OIK and the Fern, -cuy do not occur. The Personal Pronouns have : i. Nom. Ace. v&'i, v& (y&'iv II. 1 6. 99, afy&'iv Od. 23. 52?); Gen. Dat. r&ir. 2. Nom. Ace. o-^xSV, o(f)to; Gen. Dat. a^wt'y (o-ffxpv Od. 4. 62). 3. Ace. a(f)(t) (encl.) ; Dat. tv (encl.). 104.] Instrumental. The Homeric poems have preserved many instances of an Ending -); e.g. opeo--iy, 105.] CONTRACTION, &C. 87 vav-^iv, (jvyo-cfri, /3ir]-), Lat. si-bi. These are relics of an original Instrumem fa^Case, c W<<^ 105.] Contraction, &c. The loss of i, u and o- between vowels ( 94) does not generally lead to contraction in the Homeric dialect : note that 1. The Dat. Sing, of Stems in -eo- and -u (Gen. -eos) often forms ei (for -e-'i), but nearly always before a vowel, so that the ci is scanned as a short syllable ( 380); e.g. rei'xet VTTO Tpwcoy, rj eirei T) epyw, &c. No such rule will be found to hold for the Dat. Sing, of Stems in -i, as iro'Aei, dyvpei &c. either because -ei from -ci-i became monosyllabic earlier than -ei from -ecr-i or -ef-i ; or because, as has been suggested ( 99), the true form of the Dat. is TTO'AI, ayvpl, &c. Exceptions, real or apparent, to this rule are II. 6. 1 26 o-cS Odpa-fi (read Odpa-e'i o-<3, cp. II. 7. 153 Odpnf'i o>). 17. 647 fv 8e are often scanned as one syllable by ' Synizesis/ as 0eoi' (II. I. 18), o-aKea (II. 4. 113), revxa (II. 7. 307, &c.) ; so with the Pronouns ^e'as, v^tas, a<^e'as. In II. I. 1 8 vpw fi.lv Of ol SoTev 'O\vfjnria SW/JMT' ex VTfs *^e word 0ot is not certain, since 'O\vfj.ma S&IJMT' exovrts the lords of Olympus is used as a Substan- tive, and Ofoi is therefore unnecessary (Fick, Ilias p. 75). 3. The Gen. Sing, has -eus for -e-os in a few words; 'Epe'/3evs,X37 Bdpaevs, 6tpevs, Od^fvs chiefly awaf ei'p^eVa. It is probably better to write -cos and admit Synizesis. On -eu in e/xeu, creC, ev, rev see 37^^- 4. Nouns with Stems in -eco- (as K\eos, 8eos) and some Nouns in -ds are liable to ' Hyphaeresis/ or dropping a vowel before another vowel: as /cAe'a (for KAe'e-a), and so 8u(7K\ea, d/cAea, a/cAe'-es ; v^s, r?]Aet, y7jAea (Neut. Sing. vrjAees) ; ^eow5?js, 0eou5e'a (for 6co-bFris god-fearing], virepSea (II. 17. 330); ye>a, Se'ira, Kepo, K/>ea, a Od. 4. 66). Kpfo. occurs in the phrase Kpta fSfttvcu, and in one or two other places before a vowel ; but more frequently it is followed by a consonant, and is to be scanned Kpta or Kpta (necessarily so in Od. 9^347, where it ends Gwlt/ifm the line). Possibly the a is shortened by the analogy of the ordinary Neut.xs' f^ l t Plur. forms in -& (Meyer, G. G. p. 348). Or, as is now maintained by Joh. - Schmidt (Pluralb. p. 321 ff.), Kpta, yipa, &c. are stems in -&, originally distinct^/ from the corresponding stems in -So-, and are therefore properly Singular, but capable of being used in a collective sense. On this view tepia meant flesh, Kpiaa pieces of flesh: cp. pfjpa and pnjpot ( 99*). Schmidt does not admit hyphaeresis in most of these words, holding that it only occurred when three vowels came together in the oldest Greek: so that (e.g.) we may have St'a for Sfffa (Sffifff-a), but not K\ea for K\f^ta. 5. There are also several contracted forms from Stems in -eeo- which offer some difficulty : d/cA^eis (II. 12. 316), dxAeiws (Od. I. 341., 14. 371), ctkAeuSs (II. 22. no), fiJK\flas (II. io. 281, Od. 21. 331 ; al. eu/cATjas), aya.K\fjos (dya/cAetos Hesych.), Ha.TpOKh.rjos, TIa.TpOK\rja, 'Hpa/cATjos, 'Hpa/cA^a, 'Hpa/cA^i', BafluKAT/a, Aio/cATjos, Ato/cA?/a ; axprjeTs, ^p.\pfiS>v (also ^a^pr]S)v Hesych.) ; tijppelos ; bfiovs (II. IO. 37^., 15- 4) '> o'^etou?, (Gen. Plur. of Kpe'as) should be Kped-coy (as in H. Merc. 130), or perhaps /cpeeW (see 107, 3); and ^axp^eis, ^axpeiwy should be ^axpae'e?, C a XP a " e'cov. For a"TTf(rai we can read v, the stem ScuFp- standing to Sai/p (for 8af?jp) as avbp- to avr\p (Ebel, K. Z. i. 293). 2. Zfvs, for fyr)v$ (Sanser. dyduth forms the Gen. and Dat. from the Stem 8iF. The original Ace. is Zrjv, Sanser. dydm (with loss of u] : Aia follows the analogy of AID'S, Au. Similarly (3ov$, for */3o)Ss (Sanser. gdus], Gen. /3oF-6s, Ace. in Horn. /3&v (Sanser. gam). KVUIV, Voc. KVOV, forms the other Cases from the Stem KUV-. Cp. Sanser. gvan, Ace. gvdn-am, Gen. gun-as, &c. The Ace. Kvv-a (like Aia) follows the analogy of the Gen. and Dat. Similarly, *Fpr\v a lamb (surviving in TroXv-pprjv-fs) forms Gen. apv-6s (for Frv-6s), &c. 3. Adjectives in -eis, Gen. -en-os (Stem -fen--), form the Dat. Plur. in -eo-o-i, -0-1. To explain this we must first suppose the weak Stem in Far- (with a for ec, cp. 31, 5 an( ^ 37 )> which would give a Dat. Plur. in -aacri, -an ; this form then was assim- ilated to the other Cases by change of a to e. A form in -apa: $pev = Far : fen-). In the same way 8cu/zox-s ', Acc. 8t7rru)(-a. epoypo-s ; Plur. epfyp-es, epir/p-as. (di'8pd-n-o8o-i> post-Horn.) ; Dat. Plur. dySpaTrdS-ecro-i. dA/o; ; Dat. dA/c-i. v(Tfj.ivri ; Dat. vcr^lv-i. Acc. l&K-a. s, Gen. 'Ai8a-o ; also "A'ib-os, Dat. "A'ib-i. (or (pvXaKovs, as Aristarchus accented the word) ; also QvXaK-as, Dat. Plur. $uAaK-eo-o-t. , Dat. Plur. ocr(7CH(7i (Hes. Sc. 426). 7roAAo'-s and TIO\V-S are both declined throughout : so bducpvo-v and bditpv, 2. With forms in -T or -dr : yovv, Gen. yowo's (for yovF-os), Plur. yow-a, yovr-coy, yowz>-e<7(7i ; also yowar-os, &C. 8o'pu, Gen. bovpos (for bopF-os), &c. ; bovpar-os, &c. oveipo-s ; Plur. 6Vet'par-a. TrpdTTo-v ; Plur. Trpoo-ajTrar-a, Dat. TrpocrcoTrao-i. Hence the form 2>7ra (ets wTra IbtcrOai,, Kar' f.v-u>-na iu>v} may be a Neut. Sing. : cp. ^Eolic 6n-no.ro. eyes *. oSs ; Gen. oi!ar-os, Dat. Plur. ovacn and oxri. (cp. ^/xep-a); r//xar-o?, &c. (cp. Tj/xdr-tos). So impap (ireipar-a), rjTiap, ovOap, ei8ap, ovtiap, qbpeTap, are'ap. i58ar-os. See 114*, 8, d. , Acc. yjzpi-v (cp. \api-fis) ', Plur. xap""-f ?> & c - s, ju,eAi-rj8e'a) ; p,eAtr-os, &c. XP ~ l/ > X/ 30 '""' a ^ so X/" 07 " ' 5 (^- IO - 575) -a (Od. 18. 172, 179). We should add the whole class of Nouns in -/la, Gen. -JAOT-OS : since the -p.a of the Nom. Acc. is not for -/xdr, but answers to the Latin -men, Gen. -min-is. 3. Between -cur- and -ca- : re'pa?, repaa, repd-coy, repd-ecrari ; but re^pea (in the sense of ' stars/ II. 18.485). the Sanscr. a may represent either c or o, so' that (e. g.) padds may be woSoy or ireSos, and similarly a may be t\ or o> : and (2) Sanscr. a often answers to Greek o, so that (e. g.) padam may point to either noSa or iruiSa. See Joh. Schmidt, K. Z. xxv. 23 ff., Brugmann, Grundr. i. 311, p. 251. * The old explanation of oimu from 6ir-/ta, by 'progressive assimilation,' seems to be groundless. 107'] HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 9! oSSas, ovfe-os, &c. : so K&O.S, icwe-a, Kre'pa?, /crepe-a (and New Ionic yepea, &c. ; Attic /3pe'rous, Kve. Thus the first appeared in the Gen., giving (e. g.) repas, repeat, repot, Plur. rtpaa, rfpecav, repaai or repd-taai. Then e was extended to other Cases, and on the other hand a was sometimes restored, as in repacav, upfacuv. See 106, 4, and Joh. Schmidt, Pluralb. p. 325. 4. Comparatives in -s in Homer is open to some doubt ; it is clear however that the Stems in -T are post- Homeric. Nom. fpos occurs in II. 14. 315, Ace. fpov in the phrase If tpov tvro put away dtsire, Dat. fp

). Thus the word may be either yi\o-s (Gen. -ov) or ycXcos, Ace. yi\u> (for yik.ti)~a or Y^' a ) ' C P- 0*80; for alSoa. The Stem ft\oa- appears in -yeXoios, cp. aJSoibs, rjoios. From tSpus we have Ace. ISpSi ; but this must be read ISpoa in one place (II. 10. 574 iSpcD jroAA.oi' at the end of the line), and always may be so read. The Dat. is ISpf (II. 17. 385, 745), possibly to be written ISpoi. Hence iSpan is probably like x/** 5 - Two other Case-forms of this type are lx (II. 5. 416), Ace. of l\wp, and KVKeiw (II.) or KVKCW (Od.), Ace. of xvicdw. Cp. also alu (Aesch. fr. 413), Ace. of alwv. The history of all these instances is very similar. The original Stem ended with a spirant (commonly a), the loss of which in the oblique Cases caused hiatus (-oos, -ot, -oo, &c.) : then these forms were replaced by adopting Stems in -T and -v. Cp. 114*, 6-8. 108.] Heteroclite Pronouns. The following points remain to be noticed : 1. The stems efie (^e) and , e do not form a Nom. Sing. It is evident that the original Nom. coalesced at a very early period with the Stem of the Verb, becoming the ending -\u. ; just as the French je has ceased to be used except in a fixed place before the Verb, so that it is hardly a separate word. In the Plural also the Nom. was not originally formed from the same Stems as the oblique Cases. Both a/ >/ In the forms with rr, -mr (as OTTI, OTTTTCO?) we have to recognise %r*j> the original Neuter 08 (Sanscr. yad). Thus 08 TI becomes or TI (not OOTI, since TI is a distinct word, not a Suffix). In orreo, which occurs in the Odyssey (i. 124., 17. 121., 22. 377), 68- is indeclinable (cp. o-m), and so in OTTTTCOS, OTTTTOO-OS, oirirolos, &c. For the assimilation we may compare Ka8 8e, /cirrr Tiebiov, &c. (for KO.T be, KO.T 7re8ioi>). 3. The Article is declined from two Stems : 6-, Fern, a-, which gives 6, 17, ol, al : perhaps also cos thus, if it is distinct from the Relatival -0i, cKaoro-01, aAA.o-0i, eKTO-di, Hvbo-dt, a-no-TTpo-Oi., v^ro-Qi, tyyv-Qi ; from Nouns, vuo-di, 6->]pr]-di (Od. 14. 352), oiKO-06, rjti-Oi,, ovpavo-Oi, Krjpo-Oi ; 'IAio'-0i, Kopiv66- di, 'A/3u8o'-^i. Note that eject is not found in Homer. -0a place ; v-0a, evrav-Qa., vTrcu-Oa (cp. also brjda, niwvQa). -Qe(v) place, from Prepositions ; 7rpo'0--0e(v), 3vw-$f(v) and OTU- place whence, used with nearly the same Stems as -61; o-0ev, no-dfv, fv-0fv, Kfl-6fv, a\Xo-dev, v^o-dcv, Ttavro-Ofv, aptyo- Tep<-6ev, ere'poo-tfey. From Nouns, -f]S>-6^v, Aio'-^fv (H-)' ovpavo- 6tv, iTnro-dev, &c. This Suffix is often used with the Prepositions e and CLTTO, as (K Ai6-0v, air ovpavo-dev, &c. With the Stems e/xe, o-e, I, it forms a Genitive; as II. I. 280 o-0ev 8' eyo> OVK dAeyt'C 40 - form 0fv is only found in the Iliad. -0oi, only in tvTav-Ooi there (Od.). 94 DECLENSION. [lIO. -TOS place ; eVro's, eK-ro's. Originally, perhaps, it expressed the place whence, as Lat. caeli-tus, (Uvini-tus. ' -TiS; in av-rts iac-, a0w' (Attic av-0ts). -CT place whither ; itd-cre, oTnro-cre, Ket-- (Tf } ojuo'-cre. From Nouns, TrdVro-cre, KUKAo'-cre. -4>i(^), -<|>is, in vocr-i(v) apart, AtKpt-a, in /j,e with Numerals ; 8t-\a tfwo ways, rpi-\a, TTVTa-\a, tTiTa-\a. -X^a, in the same sense, Tpi-yQa, rerpa-x#d. -KIS, -KI ; with Numerals, in 8eKa-/a?, rerpd-Kis, eivd-ias, eiKO9, u>s, TT&S, ovT-a>s (also ovr-o)), 6/x-<3s, $i'A.-a>s, alv&s, KapTraXtjuo)?, d(nra, d-TnW-o), av-(a, Kdr-co, Trporep-co (further on], e/caore'p-a), eKao-rdr-a) (farther, farthest], do-o-orep-co nearer. Two others are Adverbs of manner, 5-8 e, ovr-co (for which is only written when a vowel follows in the same sentence). 96 DECLENSION. [lIO. The ending -cos has long been considered to be the Greek form of the original Ablutival -ot (Lat. -orf) of o- stems In Greek, however, a final -d would disappear (as in d'AAo, Lat. aliu-d, &c.) and consequently the theory applies only to the forms without -s, viz. w5e and ov-ria. The difficulty was met by Curtius (Curt. Stud. x. 219) with the suggestion that -T would pass into -S before a dental or i\cas, &c.* -ou place ; TTOV, 6fj.ov, dy\ov, rrjAoCj v\l/ov, avrov, all perispo- mena. They are the same in meaning as the corresponding Adverbs in -60i. -Sor, -%i\v, -8a, forming Adverbs o manner, are evidently Accusatives from Stems in -80-, -817- ( 114); e.g. &>x.a- bov, &c. ; fid-br]v steppingly, Tfj.rj-br]v, Kpv(3-briv, K\rj-br]v, e7riypa/3- brjv, &c. (all from Verbs), also a peculiar group in -d-8T)c, as fiTL(TTpo(f)d-briv wheeling about, TrpoTpoird-brjv headlong, eT dva(f)av-bd, avroa^e-bd. It is evident that these are much more numerous than the Noun-Stems in -So, -Brj can ever have been. In such cases we have to explain, not the derivation of the indi- vidual forms, but the origin of the type. Other Adverbs obtained from Accusatives are : aKrjv in silence, * As adverbs of the Gen. Abl. form (ra\(o^, &c.) must have existed at one time alongside of those in -COT from o- stems, the conjecture may be hazarded that this adverbial -os was one of the influences which determined the choice of - an( ^ those in -Si-s, as oAAuSts, dp.oL/3rjb(s. Note also the group formed by -s subjoined to a monosyllabic Verbal Stem ; Trvg with the fist, tiri-pi.^ in con- fusion, a-TTa once, jxai/f idly, d-8a with the teeth (Sa/c-vaj). The nature of this -s is obscure. Brugmann (K. Z. xxiv. 74) connects it with the -s of the Prepositions e, aty, a^i-s, holding that it is Ablatival. Joh. Schmidt (Pluralb. 357) supposes a group of Neuter stems, like the nouns in -a?, -es, &c. Accentuation of Case-forms. 111.] For the purpose of accentuation Nouns may be divided into those in which the accent remains on the Stem (and as far as possible on the same syllable of the Stem), and those in which it passes in the Gen. and Dat. to the Case-Ending. Nouns of the Vowel-Declensions generally belong to the first of these groups. The last syllable if accented has the acute in the Nom. and Ace., the circumflex in the Gen. and Dat., and in the Adverbs in -ou and -ws : e. g. xaXos, KaAow, KaAw &c., Adv. KoAcos ; but Ace. Plur. KaAovs. On the Nouns in -a, see 96. One or two Feminines with Nom. Sing, in -a accent the Ending in those Cases in which the last syllable is long, as \iia., Gen. /ZITJS ; ta, Dat. lp ; rap<|>os thick, Fern, rap^eia, but Plur. rapfaiai, Ace. rap^eta? ; ayuia street, Gen. ayvifjs, Plur. ayviai, ayvids. So da^iai and da^ids answer to a Nom. Sing. 0aju,eia, Masc. *6aiJLVs (cp. 0ajue'-es, 0a/-ie'a?) ; and Kava-reiprjs (II. 4. 342, &c.) is Gen. of Kauorfipa. atircDS in the very way (from avr6s], is made barytone by the authorities. The word is only Homeric, and the original accentuation awrtos had evidently been lost, perhaps by a confusion with ovrus. The oxytone Adverbs in -i and -i, as avToi/t>x<> acvovSi, pctawrl, may date from a time when the Loc. of the o- declension was regularly oxytone the accent determining the appearance of e for o. H 98 DECLENSION. [lI2. The second group consists of (1) Nouns with monosyllabic Stem, as irou's, nob-os, irob-t, TTOb-o'lLV, TTob-5)V, TTOCTCrl; KOWK, KVV-OS, KVV-t, KVV-toV, KU(Ttj O^p, 6t]p-6s, Qr]p-i, 6rjp-&v, 6r)p-(r(. (2) The words Trarrip, /ATJTTJ/), dvydrrjp, avrip, yacrr-qp ; Gen. TTCLTp-ds, jurjrp-os, dvyarp-os, avbp-os, yaarp-os &c. The accent of jUTjrqp and dvyarr\p is anomalous : cp. the Accu- satives /xTjrep-a, Ovyarep-a. Probably the Nona. Sing, was originally oxytone. The change of accentuation may be ex- plained by supposing that the Nom. was influenced by the accent of the Vocative that in fact the Voc. pro tanto took the place of the Nom. (cp. 96). It is evident that the Voc. of these words would be especially familiar to the ear. The Dat. ending -com never takes the accent j hence Tro'8-eo-cri, vrj-f ; 810- s, Voc. bioyeves. Proper Names with a long vowel in the penultimate are often properispomena, as SapTrribdtv, Voc. Sapirrjbov ; 'Azmjwop, Voc. 'Avrfjvop; Maxdw, Voc. Maxaoi;. Otherwise they are mostly proparoxytone, as 'Ayafie//i;oi>, "AiroAAor. Oxytones in -eus form the Voc. in -eu, as Zev, 'Obvcrev. This may be regarded as a retraction of the accent, since the cir- cumflex stands for a double accent, viz. an acute followed by a grave in the same syllable (Zei! = Zcv). Originally the Vocative, unless it stood at the beginning of a sentence, was enclitic. Hence the barytone accent is to be explained as in the case of the Verb ( 87), viz. as the result of an original loss of accent. H3-] NOUN FORMATION. 99 CHAPTER VI. FORMATION OP NOUNS. 113.] Nominal Stems. Some Nouns are formed with Stems identical with Verb-Stems ; TrTv%-es folds (TrnWoo for TJTVX~I.(D), ori'x-es ranks (orfC\), , f-nran-ov), 8<3 house, for 8a>;x, cp. 8a- (r/7w) in bd-TTtbov (lit. home-floor), pai/r-as &0z0tf (peTr-oo), p&y-as clefts, openings (priy-vvni), 0a>s jackal (0ea>), OTT-O. &w'ce (Fen-), + tv + o, and to many similar cases. H 2 100 NOUN FORMATION. [114. Pi imitire Nouns. 114.] Primary Suffixes. The form of the Verb-Stem in Primitive Nouns is liable to the same variations as in the Tenses ( 38). It will be seen that these variations are connected with the accent ; but this part of the subject will be best treated separately ( 115). The chief Primary Suffixes are as follows : -O, Fern, -a, -7] ; the Verb-Stem taking three forms (1) The weak form ; as dy-o'-s leader, vy-o-v yoke, ) helper, CTTTOVO-IJ (cr7re'r8-co) libation, TTOT-TJ ji iffl/f, po?/ flow. (3) Attic reduplication ; as dy-a>y-?j leading, d/ccoK?) point, e5a>8?7 eating, OTTOO-TH) sight, 6bu>OTJ smell. The radical vowel appears as co. -i : as Tpovy-ia) flight, o-^ifa () thick; fiaO- v-?, Aiy-v-s, yXvK-v-s, fiapvs, (3paovs, Kparus, Tta\vs, evpvs (for f-Fpv-, root fep-). But rjov-s has the strong 1 Stem : and WKV-S the O-form. Fern, -eid (for -ef-ia), -ed, as 7;8eta, a>Kea. (2) Gen. -u-os ; in Substantives (chiefly Fern.), as TtXrjO-v-s multitude, 16-v-s path, aim, l\vs mud, VZK-V-S (Masc.) corpse, yevv-s chin, -yrjpv-s voice, cry. As to the declension of Nouns in -is, Gen. -ios, and -vs, Gen. -vos, see 94. -GO", with the strong form of the Stem, as rel^-os wall, re^x- e-a arms, err-os word, TrevO-os suffering, (3ev0-os depth (cp. J3a0-v-s), Ofp-os warmth, summer, yd-os pleasure. Fern, -etu (for -eo--ia), as ?}piyei;eta. The O-form of the Stem is found in o^-os chariot (cp. the Pf. o/c<>x a > 26, 5); the weak form in 09, alvv, ixp ( 1O 7 ad Jin.). The Stem is probably in the weak form ; see 30. -aas ' build.' The Stem is in the strong form ; indeed the Stem-vowel is always c, except in yijpas old age, was jleece, and ovbas floor ; cp. yepas, Senas, /cepas, KV(pas, /cpeas, Krepa?, Trepa?, crefias, o-eAa?, o-Kfiras, crcpe'Aas, repas : also *epas (epavvos for epacr-vos) and *ye\as (e-yeAacr-o-a). -V, -w, - v ) -w : e. g. rep-rjy, Gen. -ev-o$ (retpco) ^o/i(, apcr-i\v male, av^-r\v neck ; Trtir-ov (Voc.) tender one, dprjy-o'v-es defenders, reKrcov, Tj-ept-KTi'oyes ; ayK-wy, Gen. -<3y-o? elbow, aywy, aWtoy. Fern, -aim (-ay-ta), in Aeaiya : imitated by way of sarcasm in 0e'-aii>a (II. 8. 5). " -Z^Tj -orr, in Participles, and in a few Substantives, as paK.-o>v a serpent, lit. the ' staring ' animal (8e'p*:-ojuai), riv-av, yepcov. -ax, in oblique Cases of Neuter Nouns as ((JScop), vbar-os, &c. The d of this Suffix represents the weak form of a nasal syllable ; see 38, and 1 14*, 8, c. -O.VT, notably in Compounds, as d/cap-as, dap;a9, 7roA.vrA.as. -w, in rdAas, p.e'Aas : perhaps originally Stems in -avr, which have followed the analogy of -ei>, -ov (Meyer, G. G. p. 304). -60, -

, ai^-?7p (aW-co) 4n^^ *^, 6a-7jp husband's brother (levir] ; eA-a>p ^oo^, vb-ap water ; /xax-ap yrea^ (II. ii. 68), lap spring. -op in the Homeric aop sword, r\Top breast is perhaps only the ^Eolic form of -ap (-r). As to the Nom. and Ace. Neut. forms in -wp see 1 14*, 8, d. -10, -10 is very rare in Greek as a Primary Suffix : Brugmann gives epefo-ia ruins and (post-Horn.) ay-ios, arTvy-ios, vfat. The ancient grammarians noticed that the Stem before -dp is long- (Herodian ii. 769 ed. Lentz). -fJLO ', with the O-form, as TTOT-P.O-S (TSZT-} fall, Kop-po-s a trunk, oX-^to-s (^eX-) a rolling stone, pa>x~/>ios (^y-) gully. -/it ; in (pi]-{j.L-s report, bvva-fj.i-s power. -p.lv in prjy-fj.lv beach on which the waves break, Dat. fght : also Nom. vtrp-ivr]. -p.ev, -p-ov, -p.w ; TTvd-p.r]v (Gen. -pteV-os) base, dur-fi^y breath, Xtju.77^ haven, Trotpujy shepherd, Sei-fuoy (-/nov-os) fearing, \ivr\-\u^v mindful, ir\-\m>v shooter, rep-paw end, 0^-fj.tav-a (Ace.) a ^a/?. Also the Infinitives in -fiey-ai (Dat.) and -liek (Loc.) : see 84. -flax ; as 8ei-/ia, Gen. -par-os, fear, ovop.a name, &c. Of these Suffixes -p.ov and -p.dr go with the strong form, of the Stem, -p.w with the weak form. With -o, -T) are formed -p.wo (in Participles), and -JAKO, -finj, as (3t\-fjivo-v a dart, XL-pLvt] a marsh ; -p.va (-juv-ta), in ij.fpi-fj.va care. -p.ap, -pop ; as re/c-fiap and ren-pup a device ; -^epo, in t-/i6po-s desire. -VO, -wo ; as bft-vo-s fearful, Trrr\-vo) thunder. (2) In the weak form, as ora-ro'-s stalled, bpa-ro-s flayed; a.K.-rr\ beach ; btK-Trj-s beggar, 7rapai-/3d-r?7-?. For the use of -TO to form Superlatives and Ordinal Numerals see i2i and 130. -TL, -OH ; generally with the weak Stem, as e/xe-TLvr] (from 8<3-ns) ^j/^. -Tl); Pp-T&-sf0od t K\l-rv-s a slope, jumyor-rv-s wooing, bai-ru-s feasting, ebrj-rv-s eating. This Suffix is especially common in Homer : dyoprjTV?, a\aa>Tvs, (Borjrvs, ypaTrrus, eAeijTO?, KiOapiarvs, aKOVTLcrTVS) dapiarus, op^rjorvs, oTpvvrvs, pva-TaKTvs, -TGp, in TTarrip, JUTJTT/P, dvyar^p, flvd-rep-fs, yaar^p, -n]f>, -rap, -Tup ; as bo-rrjp-a and 8w-rop-a (Ace.) giver, j3orrjp-fs and (Bfaropts herdsmen, lorcop witness, atp-rjTutp shooter, tir-anr-rip ' driver,' huntsman, 8t-o7rr?jp ^, ATJI'OTTJP spoiler, KOO-^T^P arrayer, yci](T-T(ap-a (/xrjS-o/jiat) adviser: also of things, with a touch of personification, KprjTTjp, , as (cp. ev-a-raO-ris, also arrj-dos) formed like irX^- 0, 4>Aeye-0o>, ^ivy-dca, &c. Practically, however, they are single Primary Suffixes : -Ojxo is especially common in Homer, cp. dp- 6jj.6s, api-0juo's, Kr]X^-0^6s, f\Krj-Op.6s, opyy-Onos, Kw(fl-9p,6s: \v- Opov, pee-Jpa, /xeA7r/j-0pa, pf-Xa-Qpov, fiepf-6pov. Cp. also -0fta in t-0/za-ra 104 NOUN FORMATION. [l!4*- Similarly from Verb-Stems with the suffix -T we have \al-r-p.a gulf (cp. ACU-/U.OS throat}, dv-r-p-rf breath, also av-T-\j.r\v (root av-), (pe-T-fjLos oar, t, e or o. Thus we may have -Twp, -rop, -rjp, -rep, -rp; -\uav, -fioc, -}it\v, -\ifv, -pv (-p.a, -pav) ; -wo-, -o/), 8corop-os and 8o-r?jp, 8orr/p-os. The interchange of o and e in the Suffix -o (as ^)iAo-s, Voc. belongs to this head. The three forms of a Suffix are hardly ever to be seen in the Greek declension ; one of them being usually taken as the Stem of all the oblique Cases. Thus the strong form is generalised in pirja--7a>p, -rcop-os, the second in 8a5-ra)/3, -rop-os, to the exclusion of the original ^/xrjorp-os, *b&)Tp-6s, &c. The ' weakest ' form, however, often appears in derivatives ; e. g. 770ip.riv, TTOifj.ev-os, Tioi^v-r] : beipuv, beifj-ov-os, Sei/.icura) (for -/xay-ico, -jur-ia)) : OepaTHtiv, Fern, depai^v-rj, also Qepa-naiva (for -TTV-IO) : iTj-rr/p, larp-o's : v8cop, vbp-os : reK-puop, TfKp.aipop.ai (for re*c/iap- io-/xai), &c. Cp. Lat. car-5(n], Gen. car-n-is. 3. The relation of the forms - are found in barytone words. Thus we have the pairs borrip and 8o>ra>p, pr\Ti]p and pjyrcop, ftorrjpes and /^coropes, -TrarTjp but <]E>para)p, also Lat. sor-or (Sanscr. svdsd). In composition, too, the loss of accent is regularly accompanied by the change from TJ, e to u, o : Many exceptions, however, remain unexplained. 4. The Nouns of Relationship (the group Trarr^p &c.) with one or two similarly inflected words (dor^p, yaor^p) are distinguished from the Nouns of the Agent in -Trip (-rcop) by the use of the shorter form -rep in the Accusative : Trare'p-a, Sanscr. pitdr-am, but Sorr/p-a, Sanscr. ddtar-am. Similarly among Stems in -n apa-rjv, apvtv-a answer to Sanscr. vrsh-a, vrshan-am (instead of -dn-am). This peculiarity has been explained as the result of an original difference of quantity. That is to say, the form pitar (Gr. irarep-) has been taken to be the strong Stem, because it is the Stem of the Ace. If so, the tj of the Nom. has to be explained as due to the analogy of the -rjp of 8or?7p, &c. But this view cannot well be reconciled with the fact that the Stem pitar- occurs not only in the Ace. pitdram but also in the Loc. pitdr-i. The Loc. is a Case which regularly takes the middle Stem; cp. ddtdr-am, Loc. ddtdr-i, dcmdn-am, Loc. dgman-i. Hence we must recognise a group of Stems in -? and -n forming the Ace. with the middle form. Thus the original declension would.be (e.g.], Strong form, Nom. ita-r^p, Middle form, Ace. Tra-rep-a, Loc. ira-rep-i, Voc. Tra-rep, Weakest form, Gen. 7ra-rp-o's. The cause of this difference in the treatment of the Accusative has still to be found *. 5. The Stems in -ant, -mant, -vant, (Gr. -oi>r, &c.) interchange with shorter forms in -at, -mat, -vat, Gr. -ar, -jiar, -Far. ^ In Greek the Suffix -orr is used to form the Part. Pres., as r-os, but Fern. Ae'cuva (for Xt-Fv-ia, cp. Lat. led, leon-is): depaitvv, -ovros, but Oepd-jr-v-i] : irp6s, Ace. Fib-Faxr-a, Gen. Fib-va-os, &c. this might become Ace. FtS-Fov-a, Gen. Fib-Focr-os, &c. (by the same levelling which we have in ba>-Tu>p, Ace. bui-rop-a, Gen. 8w-rop-os), then Ace. Ftb-Fo-a, Gen. Fib-F6-os &c. At this stage the endings -OT-OS, -oT-a &c. may have been introduced through analogy perhaps of the Pres. Part. However this may be, this is one of several instances in Nominal Declension of T creeping in to form a Stem for the oblique Cases. 7. A Suffix which originally was closely parallel to the -Fu>s of the Pf . is to be seen in the -iw or -iw of the Comparative ; Sanscr. -yams, -ya$, (-*#)> Greek -iuc, -iov, -to- (in -IO--TOS). Here the v, in spite of the Sanscr. nasal, is as difficult to explain as the T of the Pf . However the older endings -o-a, -o-es (for -oV ( 107 ad Jiii)*. 8. Heteroclite forms occur when different Suffixes are brought into a single declension. In particular (a) Suffixes ending in -v interchange with Suffixes in -p. Thus we find -nitav, Gen. TTLOV-OS fat, but Fern. -nUipa (iri-fep-ta) and the Neut. Substantive Tiiap fatness. Also ^et/xwy, but Xei/jiep-tos. (Cp. the Lat. femur, femin-is, and jec-ur, jecin-or-is, which is for an older jecin-is.} () Similarly along with rjws we have Tjep-ioy at dawn^ and the Adv. T\pi (Sanscr. us/ids and ushdr). (c] Final jr^ is introduced in the Suffix; as in rjira-T-os (f or ' f]Trv-T-os, cp. the Sanscr. yakrt, Gen. yakn-as, and the ''' - - . . , - , . . - - , * The suffixes of the Pf. Part. Act. and the Comparative have lately been the subject of much controversy : see Brugmann, K. Z. xxiv. 79 ff., Grundr. 1 35> '36, pp. 403, 417 ; Joh. Schmidt, K. Z. xxvi. 341 ff., 378 ff., Plurdfb. p. 157 ; Collitz, Bezz. Beitr. x. 25, 63. The chief difficulty lies in the nasal of the Sanscrit strong Cases. Such a gradation as -vans (or -vens), -res, -us, or -ions, -ios (or --ies), -is, is unexampled. Joh. Schmidt takes the nasalised forms (Sanscr. -vams-, -tarns) as his point of departure, but has been unable to explain -ros, -ias, -us, -is to the satisfaction of other scholars.' Those who assume a primitive -ros, -ios have hitherto been equally unsuccessful in accounting for Sanscr. -raws, -iams and Greek -vav. The explanation of the T of -OT-OS, &c. is also difficult, but there it is at least certain that it is of secondary origin. It is to be noted that the traces of -ior in the Comparative are confined to strong Cases, as Ace. Sing, ,-ocr-a, Nom. Plur. -op, reKjucop, vvKTwp (Ace. used adverbially) were originally Collective or Abstract nouns (Joh. Schmidt, Pluralb. p. 193). On this view vbwp waters (Germ, gewasser) is properly a different word from the stem *vba or *vbap which we infer from the oblique Cases : re'jc/xcop is originally a Collective or Abstract from re'/cjuctp : and similarly eAoop, ee'A8o>p, TreAcop, vvKrap (cp. vvKTfp-is), which only occur in the Nom. Ace., are nouns formed like x fL ^ v (x*W a )> t8ws (albear- in aiSeojucu, av-atbris), ye'Acos (yeAao-- in yeAdw), &c. When #8cop, &c. were brought into use as Nominatives answering to Neuter oblique Cases, they naturally followed these in respect of gender. Cp. 1 10 (ad fin.}. 115.] Accentuation. The accent is often connected with the form of the Suffix, and sometimes varies with the meaning. But the rules that can be given on this subject are only partial. 1. Stems in -o are generally oxytone when they denote an agent, barytone when they denote the thing done ; e. g. i cjnyriT*.^ -^ A c^u^^-fil^- ^wtoy^p f^ 6. Nouns in -rjp and -t\v are oxytone, except /XTJTTJP, dvydTrjp (but see ill, 2), apa-^v, rlptyp. Nouns in -wp and -we are mostly barytone, but there are many exceptions, esp. the Abstract Nouns in -Swe, the Sub- stantives in -/iur, as Satrujuwy, ^ye/icoy, K7j8e/icoy, and most Nouns in -WK, Gen. -ojyo?, as ayvv, dy/ca>z>, xetjuwi;, reAapvwy. 7. Stems in -TO with the O-form are barytone, with the weak form oxytone ; e. g. KOI-TO-S, VOO--TO-S, but ora-ro'-s, &c. 8. Stems in -n\ are mostly oxytone. Accordingly the Prim- 108 NOUN FORMATION. [ll6. itive Masculines in -TTJ-S, which are Nouns of the Agent, can generally be distinguished from the Denominatives in -TTJV ( 11 7) : e.g. ayoprjr^s a speaker, but vavrr/s a ship-man. 9. Abstract Nouns in -TI, -CTI are barytone ; in -TU oxytone. It will bo seen that, roughly speaking, when the Verbal Stem is in the weak form, the Suffix is accented, and vice versd : also that words with an active meaning (applicable to a personal agenC] are oxytone, those with a passive meaning (expressing the thing dotte) are barytone. 116.] Gender. The Gender of Nouns is determined in most cases by the Suffix. The following rules do not apply to Com- pounds,, as to which see 125. j . Stems in -o are Masc. or Neut., with some exceptions, as 6b6s, arapTtos, /ceAeu^o?, vfjaos, ?jyos, a/xTreAo?, voaos, TCKppos, \l/rj(j)os, o-7roSos, \l/dfj.ados, pd/35o?, SOKO'S, pivos, Trpo-y^oos. In these the change of gender seems to be due to the meaning. K\VTOS is used as a Fern, in II. 2. 742 /cAuros 'iTTTroSdjuaa. In Od. 4. 406 TtiKpov aTioTtveiova-ai . . ob^v it is best to take TiiKpov as an adverb, not with d8/ji?]i> : cp. II. 6. 182. ilwAos has the two epithets Tj/xafloas and i}ya0e?j, and is probably therefore of both Genders. 2. Stems in -TJ (for -a) are mainly Fern. ; but Stems in -TT] denoting an agent are Masc., as SC'K-TTJ-S a beggar, alw^-Ti]-? a warrior. Also, TTO'P/OJ-S the ring of a spear, f-Trj-s comrade, rajnirj-s dispenser, v^t]vLi]-^ a youth, perhaps dyyeA- ITJ-S a messenger; also the proper names Bopea-s, 'Ep/xeta-s, Atreta-s, Avyeta-s, Tetpe(rta-?, 'AyxtVrj-s, 'At8rj-s. The Masc. Nouns in -as, -TQS are probably formed originally from Feminine abstract or collective Nouns in -a, -tj. The first step is the use of the word as a concrete : cp. Od. 22. 209 o/AJjAtKuj 8e pot eo-crt thou art one of the same age (6/x^At^) with me ; II. 12. 213 bijfjiov eovra leing one of the common people. So in Latin magistrates, potesfas (Juv. 10. ico), optio : English a relation (=& relative). The next step is the change to the Masc., which leads to the use of the Endings -TJS, Gen. -ao on the analogy of the Masc. -os, Gen. -oio. We may compare Fr. un trompette bearer of a trumpet, Italian il podesth the magistrate, where the change of meaning is marked by the gender only. So errj-s is probably from a word (rfe'-rrj kindred, vr)vir]-5 from a Fern, z^znr/ youth, dyyeAtrj-? (if the word exists, see Buttmann, Lexil. s. v.) from dyyeAt'rj. The Masc. ra/xt'rj-s may be formed from the concrete Fern. ra/xiTy, the office of household manager being generally filled by a woman (yvvr] ra^ir] Od.). And so the Nouns in -T s owe their origin to the older abstract or col- lective Nouns in -TTJ, as ciK-r?/, fipovrrj, dpf-rr/, yere-r?/, &c. See Delbriick, Synt. Forsch. iv. pp. 7-13. Il6.] GENDER. 109 3. Stems in -ia, -18, -a8 are Fern. ; also most Stems in -i. But IJ.O.V-TL-S is Masc., and some Adjectives Ib-pi-s, rp6(f)-i-s, evvi-s are of all genders. Masc. Nouns in -o sometimes form a Fern, in -i, -18, -8 : as 6ovpo-s, Fern. Oovpi-s (Ace. Qovpt-v, Gen. dovpib-os) ; ins (II. 18. 357, where Yen. A has /SOCUTTJ m/wa"Hp77). The I appears also in d^fS-oj, m^piS-as, li)jrA.oa/xT8-s. 4. Adjectives in -u generally form the Fern, in -eia or -ca (for -ef-ia), as r]bfla, &>/cea. But 6r]Xv-s as a Fern, is commoner tlt& /.^* than OrjXtia; and we also find rjbvs durpj (Od. 12. 369), TTOV\VV J ' e^>' vypr\v (II. 10. 27)- On the other hand most Substantives in -u-s are Fern, (and oxytone), and this u is frequently long, as in I0v-s aim (whereas the Adj. Wv-s straight has o), Tr\r]6v-s multitude, l\v-s mud, 'Epivv-s, and the Abstract Nouns in -TO-S, as f3pa>-Tv-$, 6p\ri if/tvSos !/*vy-ri flight; /3ov\ri counsel, also the body of counsellors, a council; aeT (for -FCVT), Fern, -eo-o-a ; v\r\-tvr-a, Fem. vX^-eo-o--a wooded, bivrj-fvT-afull of eddies, Xeipio'-evr-a like the lily, ft -I/CO ; only found in opfyav-iKo-s orphan, Tiap6fv-iKTi virgin, and a few Adjectives from proper names, as Tpco-tKo'-s, *AX6-s, Voc. aotye, is related to the form cro<(>- (in ffcxfi-irj) as irdrtp to irarp- in varp-os, irarp-tos (Brugmann, Grundr. ii 59, p. 102). II 8*.] SECONDARY SUFFIXES. Ill ~Tf] ; vav-rr]-s, iTnro'-ra, roo-ra (Voc.), aypo-rai, KOpwy-Trj-s, VTrrjvij-rrj-s, 770X177-717-9 and TroXt-TTj-s, 6bi-Tr]-s. Some of these are perhaps Primitive : e. g. al^rj-rri-s may come from an obsolete ^cuxjuaw to wield the spear : see 1 20. -T77T; (piX6-Tr]T-a love, brj'io-TTJr-a battle. -lo'p/iiy a lyre, piy a reed-pipe, o-aX7riy a trumpet, Xai'yy-es pebbles, orpo^aXiyf eddy, pa0a/jiiyy-e? drops. The i of -181), -ijio, -ivo, -IKO was probably not part of the original Suffix, but was the final vowel of the Stem. We may either suppose (e. g.) that (tap-i-pos was formed directly from a Stem fiop-i (cp. noipa for pop-ia), or that it followed the analogy of aktci-nos, S are entirely post- Homeric. 118.] Compound Suffixes. There are some remarkable in- stances in Homer of a Secondary amalgamating with a Primary Suffix. E. g. -ciX-eo ; a^-aXeo-s dry, dpy-aXeo-9 (for dXy-aXe'o-s) painful, Qap-aXe'o-y, Kep8-aXeo-s, Xeuy-aXeo-?, /xuS-aXe'o-s, pcay- aXe'o-j, (r/xepS-aXe'o-s. It is used as a Secondary Suffix in Xe-n-r- oXeo-s thin, oTrr-aXeo-s roast. -dX-ifio ; Ki)8-aXt)ixo-s glorious, KapTr-a.XifJ.o-s swift, TrerK-aXtjuo-s shrewd. -two (for -ee$p-iioi> : Kpv7TT-dbi.os, bix.6-abi.os, pivv -8-of, in Ti]Kf-b6v-L (Dat.) wasting, ar}bu>v nightingale : -8wnf] in fieXe-Soopai cares. -b-avo, in piye-bavos horrible, rjTtebavos, TrevKfbavos, ovTibav6"s. 118*.] Suffixes of different Periods. In the great variety of Suffixes discovered by the analysis of the Greek Noun it is im- portant to distinguish those which are ( living ' in the period of 112 NOUN FORMATION. [119. the language with which we are concerned, and those which only survive in words handed from an earlier period. Thus in Homer the oldest and simplest Suffixes, as -o, -i, -u, -ecr, -a] : e.g. 'ArpetST] meaning the family of Atreus, 'Arpdbrj-s would mean one of the 'Arpfibrj f. * On this point see Brugmann (Gwndr. ii. 57, p. 99). It will be seen that he gives no countenance to the view (which has been put forward in Germany and elsewhere) that the Suffixes were originally without meaning. f It may be conjectured that the epithets in -uov, such as Kpoviuv, ' 120.] DENOMINATIVE FORMS. 113 120.] Denominative Verbs. Some apparent anomalies in the Denominative Verbs may be explained by the loss of an inter- mediate step of formation. Thus, there are many Verbs in -euw not formed from Nouns in -eu-s, as /3ouAewa> (j3ov\-ri), dyopevco (ayopfy, dripevv (drip) ; so that, instead of the three stages VOIJLO-S, Denom. Noun von-ev-s, Denom. Verb j,-op>ev-&> apioro-s, dpto-r-ev-s dpio-r-ev-co the language goes directly from any Noun to a Verb in -euw. Again, the Verbs in -iw ( 60) presuppose Nouns in -MJ, . which are seldom found in use : S^pido-fiat (cp. brjpL-s from which an intermediate Srjpi'-rj might be formed), ^Tidca (cp. (paArjpioWra, e^tdao-^at (Od. 21. 429), Similarly, a Primitive Noun may appear to be Denominative because the Verb from which it is formed is wanting. E.g. if in the series avL-t] vexation, din-doo, avi-q-po-s oiv-s ffrief, oiv-a>, 6'iv-p6-s the Verb were passed over, we should appear to have a Deno- minative Noun in -po-s. Again, if the Primitive Noun in -t) and the Verb in -aw were both wanting, we should prac- tically have the Compound Suffix -rj-po : and this accordingly is the case (e. ^.) in al\(r-r]p6-s (atya) swift, dv-r]\ri (6v-Xri ceasing. Note that the dif- ference between -cop?? and -o>Arj is euphonic ; -a>prj is found only when there is a preceding A in the Stem. The Verb-Stem in Denominative Verbs is not always the same as that of the Noun from which it is formed : in par- ticular i . Verbs in -ew, -ow lengthen the final -o of the Noun-Stem to -?j and -vyds originally ' a body of exiles,' then o&Ti-a6l3T)-ffa, ir(-<]>60ri-fuu go back to a period when the Pres. was either 2. Verbs in - form Tenses and derivative Nouns as if from a Verb-Stem in -8 ; as {//3/n-s, vfipi-fa, v/SpioTTJs (as if v/3pi8-T7j-s, although there is no 8 in the declension of vfipi-i). 3. Verbs in -iu from Nominal Stems in -po, -Xo, -1*0 often suppress the final -o, as nadapo-s, Kadaipo) (for Ka0ap-ia>) ; iroi- Kt'Ao-s, TToiKtAAco (for 7roiKiA-ia>), -TToiKi'A-fiara. So perhaps airi- vucrcro) from cnrlvvro-s, and even ep&ro- (for , Kpar-v-s)- icaK-woy, i>Ti-o\iov-fs better written Aiy-o-s), fjiiT(av, eAao-o-cop the a points to forms *dayx-i(av, *eAayx-ia>y, in which the nasal of the original *0fyX-ia>z>, *c\y\-iv was retained, but the e changed into d. The Superlative -IOTO is used in the same way ; we have : 7Jf5-ioro-s (f/b-v-s), &K-HTTO-S Aeyj(-ioTO-s (eAeyx-oy), OIKT-IOTO-S (otaT-o-s), /xT (3dd-i(rro-s (f3ad-v-s), pr)-'i -S) TO.\-i Plur., also Dat. Sing-, yjjrrfi, Nom. Plur. x*/ 37 /**)- Original TrAeees (for 7rA.e-6ec., and with the Superlative meaning in vir-aro-s, ve'-aro-s, irufj.- aro-s. p.ecrcr-aros, lo-^-aro-s, and Trpwros (for Trpo-aro-s) ; also combined with Ordinal Suffixes in the Homeric rpi-T-aro-s, e/38op>aro-s, oybo-aro-s. The form -dro is probably due to the analogy of the Ordinals reVpa-ro-s, eva-To-s, SeKa-ro-s, in which the a is part of the Stem f. A Suffix -fio may be recognised in irpo-po-s foremost man (Lat. iitfi-mu-s, sum-mu-s, pri-mu-s, ulti-mu-s, mini-mus). The common Suffixes -repo, -TO,TO appear with a Verb-Stem in -repo-s . Ill avirjpecr-Tepos (Od. 2. 190) the Stem follows the analogy of 0viJ.-rjpes, &c. In ^apieo--repos (for Xapt^ar-repos) there is the same assimilation as in the Dat. PI. Xapieo-crt ( 106, 3). In /muxo^-raro-s innermost the Stem appears to be a Locative case-form ; cp. Trapot-repot more forward, and * So G. Mahlow and J. Schmidt, K. Z. xxvi. 381. A different analysis is given by Collitz in Bezz. Beitr. ix. 66 and Brugmann (Grundr. ii. 135, p. 402), who explain Tr\tts as pte-is-es, i. e. from the weakest form of the Stem. This view does not apply so well to x/> f '- a > since it leaves unexplained the diverg- ence between it and the Superl. \tipia-ros. It may be noticed as an argument for the supposition of Hyphaeresis that we do not find the Gen. ir\tos, x^>os, just as we do not find Hyphaeresis in the Gen. of Nouns in -eos, -eijs ( 105, 4). Cp. however, the absence of trace of a Gen. dpe'ivo-os ( 114, J, foot-note'). f Ascoli in Curt. Stud. ix. p. 339 if. J This very probable etymology is given by Brugmann, K. Z. xxv. p. 298. According to Brugmann the w of aofyurfpos, &c. is not a metrical lengthening, but comes from the adverbs * aow, &c. (related to ffofws as OVTU to OVTOJS, no), like the later tcarA-Ttpos from KCLTU, &c. I 3 ll6 COMPOSITION. [l22. later forms like Karw-Tepo-s. dvw-raro-s, &c. ; so probably in repos and vTrep-repos. On the analogy of vTttp-repos we can explain eWp-repos (cp. virep-Oe : Zvep-df, &c.). The form ytpai- repos, again, may be suggested by iraXairepos, through the relation yepaio's : TraAcuo's and the likeness of meaning (Meyer, G. G. p. 372). The words 8ei-repo's, dpiorepos are formed like Comparatives, but are distinguished by their accent. The Suffix -rcpo is combined with the Suffix -iov in do--Tfpa.L, opp. to /carat/fora! avQp&'noi.vi.v (Od. 13. ill). 6r]\v-Tpai female (opp. to male). \ ' the class of youths. OTrAo-repoi j Cp. II. 19. 63 Tpoxri TO Kfpbiov that is a gain to the Trojans (rather than to us). Hence the Comparative is sometimes used as a softened way of expressing the notion of the Positive : as II. 19. 56 apeiov 'good rather than ill'; II. i. 32 o-awrepos safe (as we speak of being ' on the safe side ') : so Qaa-aov with an Imper. Hence too the idiomatic use of the double Comparative, Od. i. 164 eAcKppo'repoi Trobas flvai rj a(f>vioTepoL to be light of foot rather than wealthy. Composition. 123.] It is a general law of Greek and the kindred languages 12 4-] PREFIXED STEM. Ijy that while a Verb cannot be compounded with any prefix except a Preposition, a Nominal Stem may be compounded with any other Nominal Stem, the first or prefixed Stem serving to limit or qualify the notion expressed by the other. The Homeric language contains very many Compounds formed by the simple placing together of two Nominal Stems : as TTTO \ i- iTop6o-s sacker of cities, po8o-86po-s bringing counsel, vty-ayoprj-s talking loftily, 7rpo>0-??/3?]-s (for Trpcoro-^rj-s) in the prime of youth, &c. 124.] Form of the Prefixed Stem. The instances which call for notice fall under the following heads : a. Stems in -o, -rj : The great number of Nominal Stems in -o created a tendency (which was aided by the convenience of pronunciation) to put -o in place of other Suffixes. Thus we have -o for -T), as vAo-Tojuo-s wood-cutter, &c.* tnibwfc -o for -ev). Stems in -rj instead of -o appear in 6a\afj.r]-ir6\o-$ attendant of a chamber, Trvprj-tyopo-s bearing wheat, fXa(pr]-j36\o-s, e Karri -/36\o-s, Kpava^-TTfbo-s, i>Trepri-, Lat. torqueo), ciAt-7ro8-es trailing (?) the feet (of oxen), aAt-TrAoo-s washed by the sea, also aAi-arys, dAi-7rop(pupo?, 'AAi-apros, c AAi-a>i>ot, 'AAi-fle'poT/s (cp. aAi-evs fisherman), alyi-fioro-s fed on by goats, alyL-Ki^r deserted by goats, xaAi-(ppa>i; of light mind, 8ai-v warlike (or prudent], dAei-KaKo-s % defender against ill, \a6i-Krjbris forgetting care, TTVKI- p.rjbi]s with shrewd counsel, KaAAt-ywaiK-a with beautiful women (cp. /caAAi-p-os), Kvbi-dveipa glorifying men (cp. Kvbi-6 (cp. av-a\Ki-s), and the words beginning- with dpi- and epi-. The meaning of several of these words is very uncertain, owing to the merely ornamental and conventional way in which they are used in Homeric poetry. It seems to follow that they are survivals from an earlier period, one in which the number of Stems in -i was probably greater than in Homeric times. Loss of o may be recognised in apri-nos ( = apnos rows 7ro'8as), t-8a>pos grain giving (feia), Kparai-yvaAo? of strong pieces, ATJI- (po/3os, perhaps also fxiai-cpwos, 'AA^at-pieyrj?, TaAai'-mopos : cp. yepcu-repos from yepcuo-s. c. Stems in -at : This group is mainly Homeric : epucri-TrroAi (Voc.) deliverer of the city (with v. 1. puo-i-irroAi II. 6, 305), depo-t-TroS-es lifting the feet (i. e. with high action), TrAr^-iTnro-s smiter of horses, Xvai- loosening the limbs (of sleep), rawer t-iTTepo-s, TaAa, o-s, Tepx/a-xopr; (Hes.), fvoepeDe-TTToAep;o-s, Meve-Acto-s, Meve-crOfvs, &c.) : ex e '~ dv^o-s restraining passion, eyt-fypav possessing judgment, fye-TrevKes carrying sharpness, 'Exe-7rft>Ao-s, 'Exe-znjos, 'Exe-KArjs ; dye-Aeuj driving spoil, apxe-KaKO-s beginning mischief, dyxe-juaxo-s fighting close, Aexe-TTOuy with beds of grass : 'Apx^-Aoxo-s, epe-KAos, MeAe- aypo-s ; (pepe-otKos carrying his house (of the snail in Hes.), eype- KySoi/xos stirring tumult : also (if e is elided) ^ev8-ayyeAo-s bringing false news, atQ-o-fy fiery, juo-y-ay/ceia the meeting-place of glens, dAe^aye/xos keeping off wind, 'A\e-avbpos. Stems in -v with enduring mind, raAa-epyo-s enduring in work, raAavpivos (for raAa-fptvo-s) bearing a shield of hide, raAa-Trer^Tjs bearing sorroiv, raAa-Tretptos bearing trial ; and T\TJ- in TArj-TroAejuos &c. : also TO.VU-, in raw-yAcocro-os ^z^ outstretched tongue, long-tongued, Tavv-(pv\\os long-leaved, raw-y\\wes long-notched (arrows), and ^po- in 'Epv-Aao?, defender of the host. e. Stems in -v : a for n appears in 6vofj.d-K\VTOs of famous name, Kwa-pma. for Kua-juuia on the analogy of nvv-a. f. Case-forms : Nom. Ace. in Numerals, as Zv-bfKa, bvu-beKa. The Dative is probably to be recognised in aprji-^aTo-s slain in war (and so 'Aprji-9oo-s, ' Aprji-\VKo-s), Trvpi-rjKifc sharpened by fire (TTVpi-Kava-To-s, nvpL-(p\rye0a)v), bu-irfT^s falling in the sky ; the Dat. Plur. in KTjpeo-o-i-cpo'prjro-s brought by the fates, opeo-* nursed in mountains, eyxecn'-^wpo-s great with spears, evTeo-6-epyo-s working in harness, T^i^cn-TrK^Ta (Voc.) drawing near to (assailing] walls, Nauo-t-Kaa, Mrjdeori-Kcia-rr;, Ilao-t-^Tj, Xepari-ba^as ; a Locative form in ^a^ai-^vv^ sleeping on the ground, 6801- 7ro'po-s a wayfarer, ^opoi-Tvifli] figuring in the dance, ITuAoi- yfvrjs born at Pyhis, 7raAai-(/)aro-s of ancient fame, and perhaps (to express manner] in i0cu-yei>?js duly born, oAoo-rpox<>-s rolling. Cp. e/x-7rupt-^37jrr/s made to stand over the fire, i. e. a kettle. 120 COMPOSITION. [l25- This use of the Dative may have been suggested by the Stems in -i and -at. Compounds such as f\tcfffi-irerr\os, wXtcri-Kapvos, d\ Ttixtfft-irkriTTjs, optff't-rpotyos, &c. in which the Dat. Plur. takes the place of the Stem. Cp. Tlpurtai-Xaos. Conversely, (p(a-f3io-s life-bearing, and 6po-s, &c. The forms 5u-$tAo-s, dp?]i-$iAo-s, dprjt-Kra/xevo-?, Sai'-Krd/iepo-?, bovpi-K^vro-s, Sovpi-KAetro-s, vavtn-KXvro-s, should probably be written as separate words, Au , also TTUV- (altogether} in ^a/i- irav, Trav-aio\os, Ttav-diroTnos, Tra/x-Trpcoros, &c. An ending -TJ (for -6i) may be seen in j;e7y-$aros new-slain, This is perhaps an Instrum.. as TTOI-TT; ( no). 125.] Form of the second Stem. i. The use of a Root- Noun, i. e. a Verbal Stem without a distinct Nominal Suffix ( 113), is more common in Composition than in simple Nouns: as, bi-uy-s yoked in a pair, bi-Tr\aK-a two-fold, ^p-vift-a hand- washing, otv-oTT-a wine-like, vrjioa (vy-Fib-a) ignorant, alyt-Xnr-os (Gen.) left by goats, iroXv-ait; much starting, ^ou-TrA^ an ox-whip. The Stem, it will be seen, is in the Weak form. 2. Nouns in -pr]v (Gen. p. 4. Some Stems take a final -T, as a-(3\fj-T-a (Ace. Sing.) un- thrown, d-K/x?/-r-es unwearied ; so eTri-jSAifo a-bfj.ris, d-yi>?. 5. In Adjectives the Suffix is often replaced by one ending in -o ; as o-Trarpo-s of one father, /3ap/3apd-Aeye'0a>i>, &fo-K\vfj.fvos : also where it is a mere Adjective without any Tense-meaning, as TroAv-rAa?, cp. d-8djaas. In other cases we can write the words separately, as itoXiv TrAayx^e^ras, banpv \^v, /xeAovcra, Kaprj Ko/xocoire?, cu z'aterdcoi', evpu peco^, eu oppevos, "Aprji Krdjbteroj, 8at jcrd/>iero?, &c. 7. Abstract Primitive Nouns are not used in the second part : thus we do not find e7re(r-/3oA?7, but e7reo--/3oAuj (through a con- crete e7reo--/3o'Ao-s) : and so /So-r/Aao-uj (not /3o-7jAa?. epe'cj)-oj cover, Kar-Tjpe^-T/y, d^-Tjpe^)-?js, v-rr ip-u change, e^-7jp.oi^-os. r- row, (piA-r/per-/^?, 5oAi)(-r7per/^os. K- carry, Si-rji'eK-rj?, TroS-TjyeK-^j, 8oup-7jre/c-7]y. 122 COMPOSITION. [126. - come, - assemble, 6/x-Tjyep-ee?, pc,8- strive, ap-t^-i] pi ores striven about. So 7708-171^09, ev-cow/^tos (7roAu-coM;ju,os, &c.), ev-r](f)fvris (from &- ?;/ceoTos, dy-an'oro?, ept-owrjs (ova- help}, tar-copeta (opos), St-rj/coVtot and rpi-rjKo'crioi (fKaTov),^'<^^-^p^(^f>'^fy Similar lengthening is found, but less frequently, in the first part of the Compound; a>Aeo-i'-/cap7ros, TjAtro'-ju^yo?, 'flpei-0wa. Also in other derivatives, as rivp.6-fis, rivop-eri, rrjAetfo'coo-a (0a Ae'0co), - riyepeOovrai (dyep-). 126.] Meaning of Compounds. The general rule is that the prefixed Stem limits or qualifies the meaning of the other : as co/xo-yepow hale old man, 8i]/u.o-yepcoz> e?/rios with a horse-plume, iTrmo-xairrj-s with horse's mane (as a plume], /3aOv-bivr]-s ( = /3aOv- Siz/ry-ets), &c. Such Compounds are called by Curtius Attributive. The formation is analogous to the turning of abstract into con- crete Nouns by a mere change of Gender (instead of a Suffix), 1 16. Thus bto-yevris (= blov yeros )(>*>) is to blov yfvos as \lrfvbri$ false to \j/evbos falsehood. Among the meanings which may be conveyed by a Stem in a Compound, note the poetical use to express comparison: as deAAo-TTos storm-foot, i. e. with feet [swift] as the storm, honey-voiced, pobo-b&KTvXo-s, KW-MTTI-S, &c. So too like the wind in feet, 0u/zo-AeW like a lion in spirit. The order of the two Stems may be almost indifferent ; i. e. it may be indifferent which of the two notions is treated as quali- fying the other; e.g. Tiob-toKrjs swift of foot ( = O>KVS TOVS 7ro5as) 1 27.] MEANING OF COMPOUNDS. 123 is the same in practical effect as &KV-TTOVS swift-foot, with swift feet (wKei? TTooas ex&>z>). In the Compounds called by Curtius Objective, i. e. where the relation between the two parts is that of governing and governed word, the general rule requires that the governed word should come first, as in nnro'-Sa/io-s horse-taming. This order appears to be reversed in certain cases in which the first Stem has the force of a Verb. The Stems so used are 1. Stems in -e ( 124, d\ as eAjce-xtrcoyes, tyt-v, &c. 2. Stems in -ai ( 124, c], as eAKe-o-t-Tre-n-Xos, (^i-cr-rjycop, &c. 3. Some of the Stems in -i, as eiAi-TroSes, Kvbi-aveipa, a^apri- voos (Hes.), Aafli-KT/STjs, XaQi-v, repTTL-Kepavvos ( 124, 6) ; and in -o, as (iAo-7rroAe|ios loving war, (piXo-Kf promos, oj, $vyo-7rroAe)Lios flying from ^var, d/zapro-eTnfc blundering in speech, r}XLT6-p.r]vos astray as to tJ/e month : also the Compounds of raAa-, rArj-, as TaAa-Trez^s enduring sorrow, TArj-Tro'Ae/ios, &c., and TOKU-, as Tavv-Trrepos (Hes.), which is=the Homeric raywi-Trrepos. In most of these cases the inversion is only apparent. For instance, eAKfo-i-TreTrAos means trailing the robe as distinguished from other ways of wearing it ; the notion of trailing is there- fore the limiting one. So rawa-i-TTTepos means long-winged; s, TAr;-7roAe/uos. Neo-Trro'Ae/xos describe varieties of the genus ' warrior/ Nevertheless w 7 e must recognise a considerable number of Compounds in which the Prefixed Stem is Verbal in form as well as in meaning. A similar group has been formed in English (e. g. catch-penny, make-shift, do-nothing, &c.), and in the Romance languages (French vau-rien, croque-mitaine, Italian fa-tutto, &c.). These groups are of relatively late formation, and confined for the most part to colloquial language. The corresponding Greek forms represent a new departure of the same kind. The process by which the second part of a Compound passes into a Suffix cannot often be traced in Greek. An example may be found in -airo-s (iroS-a-Tro's, T/jueS-a-rro's, aAAo8-a7ro$), = Sanscr. -anc, Lat. -inauu-s (long-inqmis, prop-inquus\ In the adjectives in -ov(, as olvo\jr, aLOo-fy, TIVO^, v&po\jf, ^po^r, the original sense of the Stem -oir is evidently very faint. In the proper names AldCo-rres, AoAoires, "E\Ao7res, OeAo^, &c. it becomes a mere Suffix. 127.] Stems compounded with Prepositions. These are of two readily distinguishable kinds : i . The Preposition qualifies ; as (Tn-fj.apTvpo$ witness to (some- thing], iTfpi-KTiov-ts dwellers around, d/^i'-^aAo-s with crest on both sides, Trpo-typuv with forward mind. Forms of this kind are 124 NOUN FORMATION. [128. sometimes obtained directly from Compound Verbs : e.g. from e-e'x&), not from e and 0x09. 2. The Preposition governs, i. e. the Compound is equivalent to a Preposition governing a Noun ; fv-vv%-io-s in the night., Kctra-x^op-io-s under-ground, aTro-6vp.-i.o-s displeasing (lit. away from the mind}, &c. ; also (but less commonly) without a Secondary Suffix, as ey-Ke$aAo-s brain (lit. within the head), eV- dpovpo-s attached to the soil. The placing of the Preposition before the governed Stem is a departure from the general rule stated above. It may be held, however, that the Preposition serves (in some of these Com- pounds at least) as the limiting or qualifying member of the word. Compare wx-w-s by night, v-vv%-io-s within the night : it is evident that the tv limits the sense of vfyios in essentially the same way as irav- in Trav-vTv^-io-s all the night. So /cara- X#oV-io-s is nearly equivalent to -^Oov-io-s ; the Preposition merely makes it clear in what sense the Suffix -10 is to be understood ' belonging to the earth ' by being under it. 128.] Accentuation. The Accent generally falls on the last syllable of the prefixed Stem, or if that is impossible, then as far back as possible ; \pv7, 'Adrivrj, &c., and of certain heroes, as Ildpi?, ITpia/xo?, Atas, Tew/epos, &c. PROPER NAMES NUMERALS. 125 Note that the gods whose names are Compound, as AL A?y-/!/,)JTr7p, Ilepo-e-cpoVeia, are less prominent in Homer. The second part of a Proper Name is liable to a peculiar shortening- ; Ilarpo-KAo-s, 4>epe-KAos, for IlaTpo-KAojs, ^ept-KXerjs, 20e'z/e-Aos for 20ez;e-Aao-?, Atyi-p, 'Afj.vv- TCdp, &C. in -TTJ-S, as epo-i-rrjs (cp. epcr-Aoyos, &c.), IIoAi-rTjs, 'OpeV- TT]s, Qvtar-rris, MeV-rrj? (cp. MeV-rcop). in -wv, as AoA.-ooi>, 'Ayd0-a>v (cp. AO.KU>V = AaKe8atp.oVios). in -60-s, as Hep(r-fvs (from Ilepo-e-tpoVos), Olv-tvs (cp. Oiz;o- jj-aos, &c.) ; Optor-ews, Aeovr-evs, &c. in -io-s ; AoA-tos (Ao'A-o\^, &c.) 'O5-ios, Tux-tos, 4>^-ios, KaA?7(r-ios, and many more. in -ia-s, -a-s ; FUA-ujs, Tetpecr-tas ; 'Ep/xeta?, Aiveias, Auyetas. In these names the Suffix is not used with its proper force, but merely in imitation of the corresponding groups of Common Nouns. This is evident from the fact that so many of these words are inexplicable as Simple Nouns. Note especially the names in -TO-S and -UK from Adjectives, as Evpv-ro-s, "I (II. 6. 422). The Stem d- (for sm-) in #-7ra, a-7rAoos, &c. is to be regarded as a weak form of the Stem 4c- (sam). The weak form sm- is to be traced in /xux, for o-p.-to. 2. The forms Su'o and Sou are equally common in Homer. * Aug. Fick, Die griechischen Personennamen tiach ihrer Bildung erklart, GSttingen, 1874. 126 NOUN FORMATION. [130. For the number 1 2 we find the three forms 5ua>8e--. Constructions of these two kinds are found in Sentences which involve the addition of one word only to the Verb. Those of the second kind might be called ' Adverbial ' using the term in the widest sense, for a word construed with a Verb- Stem. Note that a Nominative may be used ' adverbially ' : e.g. pcwnXeiis IO--TI may mean he-is king (as well as the king he-is). See 162. 3. The Noun &c. maybe connected with, and serve to qualify, another Noun or Adverbial word. E.g. in the sentences /3aa\^v (2) cannot well be separated from the extension of the same construction in iityas IOTI rb ffuifM (3). The Nomina- tive, too, is used not only as the Subject, but also as the Predicate, or part of it. It will be best therefore to take the several Cases in succession, and to begin with the ' oblique ' Cases. The Accusative. 132.] Internal and External Object. The uses of the Ac- cusative have been divided into those in which the Ace. repeats, with more or less modification, the meaning given by the Verb, and those in which the action of the Verb is limited or directed by an ' Object ' wholly distinct from it. E. g. in the sentence eA/cos o fji ovracre, lit. the wound which he wounded me, o (e'A/cos) qualifies ovrao-t by a word which expresses to some extent the same thing as the Verb owuo-e : whereas /^e qualifies it in a different way. As the latter kind of Ace. had been known as the Ace. of the EXTERNAL OBJECT, so the former has more recently been termed the Ace. of the INTERNAL OBJECT. We shall take first the different uses which fall under the description of the ' Ace. of the Internal Object/ The foundation of this division (as Delbriick observes, Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 29) is the circumstance that all Accusatives which * In later Greek Adverbs are constantly used to qualify substantives : as 6 di Qaai\fvs, 6 irplv xpjvos, &c. But this use only becomes possible when we have the Article to show how the Adverb is to be understood. J 35-] ACCUSATIVE. I2 9 do not express the external Object of an action may be explained in nearly the same way. The real difficulty arises when we try to find a principle which will explain these different Accu- satives and at the same time exclude the relations expressed by other Cases or Adverbial forms. No such principle can be laid down. The fact seems to be that the Accusative originally had a very wide ' Adverbial ' use, which was encroached upon by the more specific uses of other Cases. The different constructions included under the ' Internal Object ' have all the appearance of fragments of an earlier more elastic usage. 133.] Neuter Pronouns may be used in the Accusative ' ad- verbially/ i. e. to define the action of the Verb : as II. i. 289 a TLV ov TTLTov, TTp>Ta in the first place, iroXv, TroAAoV, TroAAa much, /xeya greatly, oXfyov, TVT06v little, Icrov, Icra equally ; oaov, TOO-OV, Tolov ; avTiov, tvavTiov; vcrTepov, vorara, p,a\\ov, judAiora, acrcrov, ay^tora ; v (Neut. of rjvs or ei;s), f]bv, OCLVOV, oeivd, alva, ttaXov, /caAa. WKvd, ju,acpa, abivd, fiapv, ftapla, 6^v, rap^ea, vTre'p/xopa, eyfie'^ta, o^a, *X a \ an( i many more. In general there is no difference perceptible between the Neut. Sing, and Neut. Plur. But compare TvrQov for a little space, and TVT0a Kfdo-at. split into little pieces (Od. 12. 388). Note the combination of Pronoun and Adjective in TO TTP&TOV, TO, Trpwra, TO TPITOV, TO TfTapTov : also in Ta aAAa in other respects. This construction is very common in Homer, and may almost be said to be the usual Homeric mode of forming an Adverb. It has been already observed that Adverbs in -ws are com- paratively rare in Homer ( no). 135.] Cognate Accusative. This term denotes that the Verb K J3 o USE OF CASES. [i3 6 - is construed with a Substantive in the Ace. of 'cognate' form, or at least of equivalent meaning 1 . A Connate Ace. is generally used to introduce the Adjective or Pronoun which really qualifies or defines the predication con- tained in the Verb: e.g. a-pr^KTov iroXf^ov TioX^i^iv to wage a war without result (cp. the adverbial use of a Neut. Adj. in uXXiiKTOv -noXepiCtiv to war wit/tout ceasing] ; os KCV apL fiovXtvay w/io shall give the lest counsel ( = apiara fiovXevoy) ; t KaAeowi call by way of surname : and with a Noun in the Plural, fiovXas fiovXevfiv to give counsel (from time to time) ; bdo-a-avTo p.oipas divided into the several shares ; ai'x^as ai'x/zao-o-oixri yecorepoi (with repetition for the sake of emphasis), &c. "With a Pronoun referring to a cognate Noun ; Ato/Sr/s . . fjv eMf Aa)/37j yap KCU /ceure . . rrji> obbv 17 8r) KrA.) ; so obbv oi^fa-Oat, obbv ^y?;cracr^at to lead on the way ; and again t^tcriiqv f \delv to go on an expedition (and in Od. 21. 20 eev a-yadas taking the lead in good counsels ; Od. 8. 23 aeOXovs . . TOVS . . eTreipTjo-air' 'O8unev "Aprja let us join battle, epiba pr\ywvro fiapfiav broke in grievous strife. So probably we should explain II. I. 31 f^ov Ae^os avriouxrav, like II. 15. 33 T;u>v so long as our way is through -fields and tillage of men, dypovs = 6bbv fv aypois. Note that this construction is chiefly applied to the familiar spheres of action battle, council, feasting. &c. i2) Abstract Nouns expressing an attribute of the action. 1. 9. 115 ov TI \fffijbos e/xa? aras Kare'Aeay with no falsehood- I37-] ACCUSATIVE. hast thou recounted my folly : Od. 7. 297 ravra TOI . . a So ge'/xas (in phrases like Se/za? Trupo's // C P- 9- 374- Od. 3. 243 ITTOS aAAo /xeraXATjcrai to ask another question. II. 5- 7*5 V P" oX^-ov TOV pvdov inrtarTrjiJLev our promise was idle. (4) Words expressing the sum or result of an action are put in the Ace. ; as II. 4. 207 !/3aAey . . TW ju,ez> fcAeos a/x/xt 8e irevOos ; 24. 735 P^<* x et P s eAcov 0,770 TTVpyov Xvypov oke&pov : Od. 6. 184. So Tioivriv in condensation, itpotyaaiv on the pretence, eTUKArjo-iy nominally, y^apw as a favour (only in II. 15. 744). The use of Substantives to qualify a Verb evidently bears the same relation to the use of Neut. Adjectives as Nouns in Appo- sition bear to ordinary Adjectives qualifying Nouns. Note. Many of these constructions have been treated as varieties or ex- tensions of the ' Cognate Accusative.' E. g. from 6Sov ikOfiv have been explained, on the one hand, o8dv rftriaaaOai, oSov avriyayt, &c., on the other, dyyeXirjv tXOeiv, &c. ; so Salvwro yafjiov, Saivv racpov, have been regarded as modelled on Sairrjv 5aivva6ai ; pvOov virfffrrjfMfv as justified because a promise is a fJLvffos, if/(v5os KaTt\(as because if/tvSos = a false tale, and so on. It must not be supposed, however, that these analogies explain any of the uses in question, or that the ' Cognate ' Ace. is prior to the others, either in simplicity or in the order of development. If we compare the Cognate Ace. with the use of Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, we see that (e. g.) dpiara fiov\(veiv is simpler, and doubtless earlier in type, than dpioTrjv f}ov\i)v f}ov\(vetv, a ittp \mi 7repiei//,i voov I am beyond others in understanding; v was pleased at heart listening ; ov A.?/ye /leWs ceased not in his fury ; yevos b 3 TIV e/c Trora/xoio descent he was from the river, ycverjv ea>Ki (II. 14. 474) was like in descent, i.e. bore 'a family like- ness ' ; adava.Tiia, &c, 138.] Accusative of Time and Space. The word expressing duration of time is put in the- Ace., as era p.rjva p-tvcov waiting a '' month, xei/xa e#8ei sleeps through the winter, rpls avagaa-dai yeW avbp&v to reign for three generations of men. The Accusative of Space expresses the extent of an action, as II. 23. 529 Aenrero bovpbs epcoTjv was a spear's throw behind. These Accusatives are to be compared with the Neuter Adjec- tives of quantity, as TroAv, oAiyov, TVT&OV, TO ejxe fabv TTeirvOoLTo if he heard (f me alive (of my being alive) ; II. 5. 702 t-nvdovro ^era Tpwea-my "A/orja heard of Ares (as) among the Trojans. Especially with a Participle, as Od. 17. 549 ei K avrov yvcaw vrj^prfa -navr eW- TTovra if I find him telling (that he is telling) nothing but truth ( 245, 2). And with a subordinate clause, as II. 2. 409 j?8ee yap Kara 6vp.bv a8eA$eov a>? e-Troyeiro ; II. 8. 535 avpiov rjv apeTrjv StaetVerai ei K' ffj-ov eyxos ftetVrj irepxoiJ.vov he will know about his valour, whether he will withstand my spear (i. e. whether his valour is such that &c.) ; cp. 13. 375., 18. 601., 20. 311. (4) The Ace. of the object to which motion is directed (termi- nus ad quern] is common with uye'o/xai, IKCO, iKawo (which always 134 USE OF CASES. [141. imply reaching a point), but is comparatively rare with other simple Verbs, such as et/uu, ep^o/iou, i>e'o/xai, ayco, ^ye'ojtxai. The words so used with these Verbs are mostly Nouns denoting house (5<3, II. 7. 363, &c. ; bopov, Od. 7. 22, II. 22. 482; OLKOV, Od. 14. 167), Vy (Od. 6. 1 14., 15. 82), wtfife? land (II. 7. 335., 15. 706): cp. also II. I. 322 Hp^earOov K.\icrLr]v ; 6. $7 i>i>vryo>, voer<|>ifofiai, tnroeiica) (II. 15. 228) ; and even with other Verbs of motion it may express the terminus a quo if the context suggests it, as avtSiifftro KV/JM rose from the wave, virepwia, ica.Ttfla.ivt came doion from the upper chambers. ' The uses with Prepositions are treated of in the sections dealing with the several Prepositions (181-218). 141.] Double Accusatives. It is needless to enumerate the different circumstances in which a Verb may be construed with two Accusatives. Many examples will be found among the passages already quoted ; and it will be seen that the combina- tion of an Ace. of the External Object with one of the various ' Accusatives of the Internal Object ' is especially frequent. Thus with Verbs of saying the Ace. of the thing said may be combined with an Ace. of the person spoken to : as II. 5. 170 CTTOS re fj.iv avriov r]vba (so 9. 58., 1 6. 207, Od. 23. 91). Again, with Verbs of taking away there may be an Ace. of the thing taken and the person from whom it is taken : as II. 8. 108 ovs -nor' OTT' Alvtiav IAo/xr/i>, II. 6. 70 CTreira be KOI ra e/crjAot veKpovs afj. nebiov cruAr/o-ere (cp. 16. 58., 17. 187). So with Verbs of cleansing; II. 16. 667 K\ai.vf(f)s at/ia Kadrjpov tXdiav e/c /3eA.ecoi> Sapirribova (cp. 18.345); also Od. 6. 224 x/ 30 ' vL&ro bios 'Odvo-o-evs aX^v, and (with three Accusatives) II. 21. 122 01 JAi,M$-$ II. 9. 54 os KCU'ci TroAA' UpbtfrKtv e^ou* Qlvijos 647 u>$ l* a I43-] DATIVE. 135 The notion ' doing ' given by pe'&> is so vague that an Ace. of the person would be ambiguous : but the more definite notions of doing evil, &c. become susceptible of the construction. So with d-neiv, as Od. I. 302 Iva rts (re eii flny may speak well of thee: cp. II. 6. 479. A similar account is to be given of the ' Accusative of the Whole and Part/ which is very common in Homer; e.g. rbv Pake. KV-THJ^V him he smote on the shin, vyez> epKos OOOVTWV has escaped you over the fence of teeth. The second Ace. has been sometimes explained as parallel in construction to the first, the part being added ' epexegetically ' or in 'Apposition'' to the whole. But it is impossible to separate rbv /3dA.e KVTJ/UTJZ; from flXrjTo Kvqfjufv : in both the Ace. of the part is a limiting Accusa- tive. The difference between this and a double Ace. arising from Apposition appears if we consider that Tp&as 8e r/ao/xos alvbs vTTTjXvfle yma fccurrop is equivalent to TpoSes Irpc/xov TO, yvla fcaoro?, where eKaaros is (as before) epexegetic of Tpwe?, but yvla is an Ace. qualifying the Verb. The Dative. 142.] Comparison of the Case-system of Greek with that of Sanscrit shows that the Greek Dative does the work of three Sanscrit Cases, the Dative, the Instrumental, and the Locative. There is also reason to think that distinct forms for these three Cases survived down to a comparatively late period in Greek itself. This is made probable (i) by the traces in Homeric Greek of Instrumental and Locative Case-forms, and (2) by the readiness with which the uses of the Greek Dative (especially in Homer) can be re-apportioned between the three Cases the original or true Dative, and the two others. 143.] The true Dative expresses the person to or for whom something is done, or who is regarded as chiefly affected or interested: e.g. II. I. 283 'AxiAAT/i' jue0e'ju,ez> yo\w to put away his anger for (in favour of] Achilles ; cp. Od. n. 553- Od. i . 9 Tolept Krj8o/xerw ; and so K\v6i /xoi in prayers (II. 5. H5> Od. 2. 262). See 151, d. 4. The Dat. with Verbs meaning to give commands (KeAevo), err] fjiaiv u>, &c.), and to lead the way (ap\u>, fiytopai, ^ye/xoye^co) is apparently the true Dat. But this does not apply to Verbs meaning to have power, to le king (as /cpareco, avao-0-co) : e.g. avav- o-e/^ev 'Apyetoto-t probably means to be king among the Argives (Loc.). See 145 (7, a). 5. The ' Dat. of the Agent ' with Passive Verbs seems to be a special application of the true Dat.; cp. II. 13. 168 o ot KKicrir\<$>i Xe'XeiTrro which for him was ( = which he had) left in the tent, ?x e ^' "E/cropt was had as wife by Hector. So Tpaxny bapvafj-tvovs, IlTjAeuozn bap-eis, &c. because the victory is gained by the victor ; and so in Attic, ?}0poia07] Kvpw ro 'EXXrjviKov ' Cyrus got his Greek force collected/ The restriction to Past Tenses is intelligible, because the past fact is thought of as a kind of possession or advantage (cp. the English auxiliary have of past events). This view is strongly supported by the Latin Dat. of the Agent, which is not common except with Verbals and Past Participles (Roby, 1146). Evidently no&i* facienda' things for us to do/ nobis facta = ' things we have got done/ The true Dat. of Nouns denoting things is rare in Greek (perhaps only used when the thing is regarded as an agent, or stands for a person, as ITpiajuo6o (3ir) for I44-] INSTRUMENTAL DATIVE. 137 In this respect Latin offers a marked contrast ; cp. the various uses, especially of abstract Substantives, explained by Mr. Roby under the headings 'indirect object' (1143, n. n), 'work contemplated' (1156), 'predicative dative' (11586.). The source of the difference evidently is that the Dat. is not liable, as in Greek, to be confounded with the Loc. and Instrum. It will be seen however that the Greek Infinitive is in fact the Dat. of an abstract Substantive. 144.] The Instrumental Dative. The so-called Instrumental Case appears to have been employed to express whatever accom- panies or shares in an action : not only the instrument or cause, but any attendant object or circumstance. Hence it covers the ground of the Datives of ' circumstance/ ' manner/ &c. The Dat. of circumstance &c. is common with abstract or semi- abstract words : as r}xy with noise (jcAayy?7, dAaA?]r<3, tvo-tri], &c.) ; criyri, CTUOTJTJ ; albol with reverence (Od. 8. 172); avayKrj, fiirj, (nrovbrj : KaKtj aio-rj with evil fortune ; (frvyy (IKOZTO) in flight ; Kepbocrvvrj in his cunning ; yerer/ l>y descent. In Homer it often expresses the reason or occasion (for which MAtk)> 8ia with the Ace. is regular in later Greek) : Od. 3. 363 0iAo'rrjri cTTovTai accompany o^lt of friendship (propter am or em) ; Od. 9. 19 os TTO.O-L boXoia-tv avQptoTioKri |u,eApri re re fcai wacri; Od. 17. 423 oltriv T' ev (oovcri KOL a(f)veiol things because of which men live well and are called opulent. So of an almost personal agent, Od. 14. 299 fj 5' !0eez> Bope'rj az>e/^fc> the ship coursed on with (driven by) the North wind. The ' comitative ' or ^sociative^ sense is chiefly found in Plural, which denotes attendants, surroundings, adjuncts, &c. ; II. 1 8. 506 Toia-iv fTTfir r/j'io-o-ov with these (the sceptres) they started up ; Od. 4. 8 tTTTrcHo-i KCU apfj.a(n TrefjiVf sent with horses and chariots (cp. 4. 533) ; Od. u. 161 vr)i re KCU erapoio-t with a ship and com- rades ; II. 12. 28 Kvpao-L irc^-jre let go with the waves ; II. 2. 818 jue/iao'res eyxetrjcn ardent with their spears; 1^ 6. 243 jfecrn/s al6ovo-ri bends forward with the ears (of a field of corn) : II. 6. 513 revxecn Traptyaivcav glittering with his armour ; similarly II. 100 (rrrj^eo-t -na^aivovra's shining with (naked) breasts. For the corresponding Sing. cp. Od. 10. 140 vrji KarTjyayo'jueo-fla ; Od. 9. 68 7rS>p(r avepov Boperjv AaiAavrt ^eo-Treo-trj ; Od. 12. 24tvirVtp0e 6e yata (pdi>fi\oiv 'AiHiAojyp on KT\. ' rejoiced at the fact (of his coming, &c.)/ The Instrum. is used in Sanscrit of the space over which action extends. The nearest approach to this in Greek is the Dat. of the way by which : cp. the Adverbs ft, Ty, rfjbe, Try, OTTTJ, iravry. But see 158, note. The Dat. is probably Instrumental (not Locative) in Od. i. 197 KaTfpvKtTai, tvpti TTovTu (by, not on, the sea). Also with de'xo^ai, &c., as II. 6. 136 vTreSe'faro KOA.TT&}, Od. 1 6. 7 viroSeofiai . In later Greek 8e'xo/xcu is construed with OIKW, 7ro'A.et, &c. without a Preposition. Note the occasional use of the Instrumental Dat. with Verbs of buying, as II. 7. 475 olviCovro aAAoi p.ev x.aAK(5 KT\., Od. 15. 483 TTpiaTO Kreare(T(T; koitnv (cp. II. 4. 161 e) ' * Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 58) notices the difficulty of finding a special explanation of the ' sociative ' use of the Dat. in combination with avros. It may help towards such an explanation to observe that the use of a Case-form in a particular sense not unfrequently depends upon the presence of a quali- fying word in agreement with it. E. g. (fiol flovkopivca eari it is for me what I desire. Toi\ov TOV tTtpov by the waU on the other side. fitacrov Sovpos (\wv taking the spear by the middle. ^ cl TfOviwros dicovaai if he were to hear of his being dead. fi\8tro Tpoifflv Safnfa.fj.ti'ovs he was rexed at their being subdued by Trojans. In each of these instances the qualifying word indicates the sense in which the Case is used, and so makes the use possible. The ' ethical Dat.' is sug- gested by f$ov\ontvw, the Gen. of place by ertpov, the Gen. of part by fj.t in the house, ro/xw at pasture, TTOI/TW out at sea, aiytaAw on the shore, x 6 '/ 30 "*? on dry land (II. 4. 424-5), OVOCL on the ground, Trebly, xQovl ; xop> at the dance, /idx??, /3ovAr/, ayopfj, Tpa-n^H a ^ table (Od. 21. 35), o-e'Acu T>vp6$ in the Jire light. But the Dat. in ept8t ^vvtrjKe pa^ca-dai (II. i. 8), vapHvt ^x 6 " Kapbtr/, $pe aXcorjs, ficvOtcri Ai/xz;rj?, Tap(pef/, em, impel, /xerd, OTTO, d^d, irepi, djji4>i, and the Verbs compounded with them, is generally Locatival. It is used (like the simple Dat.) after Verbs of motion: see 194, 198, 202, 206. The sense may admit or require a true Dat. : cp. II. I. 174 Trap' fjjioi ye KOI aAAot others are at hawl with me (Loc.), or I have others at t//i/ command (true Dat.). So II. 7. 73 v fj.lv fv yap laert may mean there are among you (Loc.), or you have (true Dat.) among yon. Cp. Lat. inesse alicui or in ahqno. (7) The Locatival Dat. of persons is chiefly found in the Plural : (a\ with Kpareu, dvdo-, |3a : II. 2. 669 Oeolvi Kal av6pu>- TTOHTLV avdaa-fi. is king among gods and men ; Od. I. 71 oov Kpdros tort /xeytoToy TTCUTIV Kt>KAs rt'ero oifay. Cp. II. 23. 73 ^' o-^iVt rioi;. So in Sanscrit the Loc. is used of the person wz'^i or before whom con- duct is judged : ' may we be guiltless before Varuna ' (Delbriick, A. p. 118). (d) occasionally with Adjectives implying eminence &c., as II. 6. 477 apnrpfTTfa TpoWcri distinguished among the Trojans, Od. 15. 227 rfuAt'otcri p,ey' e^o^a 8co/xara vaiav. The Genitive, 146.] The Greek Genitive, as appears at once by comparison, with Latin or Sanscrit, stands for the original or ' true ' Geni- tive, and also for the Ablative. The uses of the Gen. may therefore be divided (theoretically at least) between these two Cases. The distinction however is more difficult than in the case of the Dative ; partly, perhaps, because the Case-forms of the Ablative were earlier lost than those of the Locative and Instrumental, but also from the peculiar syntactical character of the Genitive. The Ablative (like the cases already treated of) belongs originally to the second group of constructions distinguished in 131, i. e. it is construed with I47-] GENITIVE. 141 the predicate given by a Verb. The Genitive is originally of the third group ; and properly qualifies a Noun. Hence the Ablative and Genitive uses are generally distinguished partly in meaning, partly in grammatical structure. But they are not always distinguished by the structure, since (i) the Ablative (like the Ace. and Dat.) may be construed with an Adjective, and (2) the true Gen. may be predicative (like an Adj.), and thus apparently construed with a Verb. To give a single example : dewv yovos tcrri might be (theoretically) = fie is offspring from-gods (Abl.), and on the other hand 6eo>v ^eyove may \>Q = he is offspring of-gods (Gen., see 148). 147.] The Genitive with Nouns. The manner in which a Genitive serves to define or qualify the ( governing'' Noun may be very various. E.g. TpaW \6\os may mean anger of (i. e. felt by] the Trojans, or (as in II. 6. 33,5) anger at the Trojans, or anger on account of the Trojans (as in II. 15. 138 \6\ov vlos CTJOS means anger about the death of his son). Compare also fpKos TroXe/xoio a bulwark in (or against) war. tpjcos doovriov the fence (made] of teeth. rtpas /xepoTro)!' a.v6pu>7ru>v a sign to men. XaOpr] A.aojji4bovTos with secrecy from Laomedon. /3u/ acKovros with force used to one unwilling. Kv^ara -navroiav av^u^v the waves raised by all winds. oju,(/>aAot Kacrorirepoio bosses made of tin. 'lAiou 7TTo\U0pov the town of Ilios. 'Oi'ArJos Ta\vs Atas swiff Ajax son of Oileus. baijjiovie feiyoov unaccountable stranger ! z>ofios vArjy pasture ground in the wood. VOCTTOS yaujs <&aiTJKu>v return to the land of the Phaeacians. VTTO\I/I.OS aAAooy suspected by others. eTTiorpo^oj av9pu>7T(av going about among men. atyvfibs /3ioroto rich in substance. iOvs Ato/izijSeos straight for Diomede. The different uses of the Genitive often answer to the dif- ferent meanings given by the Suffixes which serve to form Adjectives from Nouns ( 117). Compare, for instance, II. 2. 54 Neorope'r; Trapa vqt ITuAotyez/eos ySao-tA^o? by the ship of Nestor the Pylian king ; II. 6. 180 Qtlov yeros ovb' avOpunrav the offspring of gods, not of men ; TOOV aiyo's (II. 4. 105) a bow of goat's horn, but ao-Kos atyetos a bag of goatskin ; 'O'i\rjos rayys Alas and Alas 'OtAta^Tj?; TeAa/xwi'ios vios the son of Telamon ; and so in the Pronouns, e/xeio -TTO^TJ (II. 6. 362), but 077 7ro9ij (II. 19. 321). These uses have been classified as Objective and Subjective, Possessive, Partitive, Material, &c. In many cases however the variety of relations expressed by the Gen. eludes this kind of analysis. Such classifications, moreover, are apt to lead us into the fallacy of thinking that relations which are distinct to us, because expressed by different language, were distinctly conceived by those who expressed them all in the same way ; the fallacy, in 142 USE OF CASES. [148. short, of supposing the distinctions of thought to be prior to the language which embodies them. The relation of the Genitive to the governing Noun is in many ways analogous to the relation of the Accusative to the Verb, and also to that which subsists between the first part of a Compound Noun and the second. In each of these cases the relation is that of a defining or qualifying word to the notion defined or qualified, and it is one which may be of various kinds, as may be suggested by particular combinations of meaning. Notice, as especially frequent in Homer (1) the use of a Gen. after Nouns meaning 1 grief \ anger, &c., to express the object or cause of the feeling- : as a\os fjvioypio grief for the chariot-driver (II. 8. 124, 316, &c.), a\os vtOtv (II. 4. 169) ; obvi'i] 'HpaK\7/os (II. l5- 25) ', TtivQos 770180? a7ro^>6 'ijueVoto (II. 1 8. 88); KT/SC' e/iwy krapuv (II. 22. 272, Od. II. 382); and so in the much-disputed phrase 'EA.e'z>?js op/x^/xara re (rrova^ds re (II. 2. 356, 590), which can only mean efforts and groans about Helen. (2) the ' partitive ' use after n'y (Interrog.) and ris (Indef.), often with several words interposed : as II. i . 8 rts T' ap o-^coe 6eu>v KT\. ; II. I. 88 ov rts e/^eu WVTOS . . \flpas eirourei a~up.Tra.v- Aa.va.uv no one shall . . . of all the Greeks. The partitive Gen. is also seen in the Homeric phrases Sia bright one among goddesses, 8Ta yvvaiK.G>v, bai^ovie tivv Ait NeVropi r 3 avbpS>v, 148.] Genitive in the Predicate. Among the various uses of the Gen. in construction with a Verb the first to be noticed are those in which the Case evidently retains its attributive or adjectival character. This use is rare in Homer : examples are, at/xaro's 1 ets ayadoio thou art of good blood, eiroir](rev craKos atoAoy 7rra/3oetoi> ravpav arpe(/>e'coi> made a shield seven hides thick, of (hides of] goodly bulls. In classifying the Greek uses of the Gen. the chief object is to separate constructions of this kind (in which the Case is ultimately the adjectival or ' true ' Gen.) from those in which it represents an Ablative, and therefore is essen- tially akin to the Adverbs. * Prof. Max Miiller (Lectures, I, p. 103) shows how the Genitive Ending -oio (for -o-o-j,o) may be explained as a Suffix of the same kind as those which form Adjectives from Nouns. If his hypothesis is admitted, the Genitive is simply ' an Adjective without Gender,' in respect of form as well as use. And even if the identification on which he chiefly relies (of the Case-ending -sya and Suffix -tya with the Pronoun syas, syd, tyad) should be thought open to question, there can be little doubt that the Case is originally ' adnominal ' or adjectival in character. 15-] GENITIVE. 143 This use of the Gen. is singularly common iu Latin : see Roby, 1282. The reason for this difference between Greek and Latin evidently is that in Latin the Gen. is not confounded with the Abl. The same explanation has been given of the free use which Latin makes of the predicative Dative ( 143, ott). 149.] Genitive of Place. A Gen. expresses a vague local relation (within, in the sphere of, &c.), in the following uses : (1) After a negative II. 17. 37 2 vfv in the court outside (cp. 9. 239). (3) With Verbs of motion, to express the space within which the motion takes place, as II. 2. 785 SieVpTjo-ow -rreSuno made their way over the plain : so lu>v TroAe'os TreSi'oio, ITTTTCO drt;bjuei>Kiv, KOVLOVTCS 7re8ioto, &c. ; IO. 353 eA/ce^erat veiolo ^Sa^etrj? TTYIKTOV aporpov : 24. 264 tva TTprja-a-w^ev obolo, cp. Od. 2. 404., 3. 476. This use of the Gen. is almost confined to set phrases ; accordingly it is only found with the Gen. in -oio (the archaic form). The difference of meaning between this Genitive and the Accusative of Space ( 138) seems to be that the Acc^ measures the action of the Verb, whereas the Gen. only gives a local rela- tion in which the action stands. When an Ace. of quantity and a Gen. are both used, the Ace. often seems to govern the Gen. ; e. g. 6/xi'Aov Tto\\6v e-nekdutv advancing far in the throng, Trape^eA- 6tlv TTfbiow .TvrOov, to ffo a short space of plain beyond. 'So with Adverbs : evda KOL tvff Wvcre p.a-yj] TreStoio : abrjv eAacrcu TroAe'/xoto ; and with a negative : OVK "Apyeos Tjev = he was nowhere in Argos. Thus the Gen. has a partitive character. 150.] Genitive of Time. This Gen. expresses a period of time to which the action belongs, without implying anything as to its duration ; e. g. Od. 14. 16 1 rovb' aiiTov XvKafiavTos fXevo-erai he will come (some- time in] this very year. So II. 5. 523 vTr\vepir}s in calm weather ; 8. 470 riovs in the morning ; 11.691 T&V irporfpaw ereW informer years ; 22. 27 oTrwprjs eio-t goes in autumn. It appears from the corresponding construction in Sanscr. and 144 USE OF CASES. [151. Zend that this is the true Genitive (Delbruck, Synt. Forsch. iv. P- 4.5)- For the ' Gen. Absolute' which is akin to the Gen. of time see 246. 151.] The quasi- partitive Genitive. Under this term we may include a number of constructions in which the Gen. is used (in preference to some other Case) because the action of the Verb does not affect the person or thing- in a sufficiently direct and unqualified way : e.g. in Acoroto (f)ayu>v eating of the lotus (not eating up the lotus) ; Trre'puyos Aa/3e took by the wing (noi took the wing') ; XovecrQai Trora/xoTo to bathe in a river (but \ovtiv voart to bathe with water),* The chief uses to which this view may be applied are : (a] With Verbs that imp\j fastening to, holding by, &c. : II. I. 197 av6ijs be Ko'po?? e'/Ve rTrjAetWa took Achilles by the hair. So x t pos eAwy taking by the hand (but Se^trepr/y eAe x^P a ^^ the right hanil}, -nobbs eA./ce dragged by the foot, brjvev -nobos fastened by the foot, KOZHOS SeSpay/xeVo? clutching the dust, Atcra-eV/cero yovvfav entreated by seizing the knees, epeitraro yaCrjs propped himself against the earth (i. e. his hand touching it), /^eVo-ou bovpbt t\u>v taking his spear by the middle ; and with a metaphorical sense, irepio-^eo 7Tcuo's take charge of thy child, cre'o eerat will defend upon thee. * Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 39) aptly quotes from J. Grimm the saying that ' the Accusative shows the fullest, most decided mastering of an object by the notion contained in the Verb of the sentence. Less " objectifying" is contained in the Gen. ; the active force is tried and brought into play by it, not exhausted.' The contrast, however, is to be traced not merely between the Gen. and the Ace., but generally between the Gen. and all the Cases which are used primarily with Verbs. Thus the Gen. of Space and Time may be compared with the Locative, the Gen. of Material with the Instrumental ; and perhaps other Genitives with the Abl. ( 151,6, note, 153, note). It is important to observe here (especially since we have adopted the term ' quasi- Partitive ' for these uses) that the partitive relation is not the only one which may lie at the root of the construction. The Gen. expresses any relation, however indefinite, in which one Noun may stand to another. 1. The Gen. of Place noticed in 149 (2) is not partitive; for Svcropfvov 'firfpiovos (e. g.~) does not mean within sunset, but on the side of, belonging to, sunset. The Gen. is like the Latin ' novarum rerum esse 'to be on the side of change ; cp. Liv. 22. 50 ad Cannas fugientem consulem vix septuaginta secuti sunt, alterius niorientis prope totus exercitus fuit. 2. The Gen. of Time is similar. Such a Gen. as 1701)? in tJie morning is to be compared with the use of the Adj. in tarirtpioi a. Ae'xos avTiouxrav because Ae'xos is the whole object, cp. 136, i). (c) With Verbs meaning to aim at, strive after, desire, care for, complain of, grieve for, be angry about, &c. ; as Mavros d/coVrKre threw a dart at Ajax, ov TraiSos dpefaro held out his arms for his child, V ov TI juerarpeTrTj ov8' dAeyt^ets 1 these you do not regard or heed, KwcAcoTros Kex'^wrat is enraged on behalf of the Cyclops ; and many similar instances. Kiihner ( 416, Anm. 9) quotes II. 5. 582 xW^V dy/coiya rv)^b)i> fieVoz> as a use of Tvy\av(D with the Ace. But it is possible to construe dyKwya with /3dAe in the earlier part of the sentence. (<7) With Verbs meaning to hear, perceive, know of, remember, and the like ; the Gen. expressing (1) the person from whom sound comes ; (2) the person about whom something is heard, known, &c. (3) the sound heard (but the Ace. is more usual). The particular thing heard or known is often indicated by a Participle agreeing with the Genitive : e.g. II. I. 257 ei cr rd8e Trdvra TrvOoiaro papvaptvotiv ( = if they heard of all this fighting on your part]. II. 4. 357 cbs yv5> x^o/xeWto ( = o>s ey^co avrov ort Od. 2. 22O el 8e K Te6vr]G>Tos dovo-a> : SO 4. 7^8, &c. The Verb oT8a, when it means to know about, to be skilled in, takes a Gen., as II. II. 657 ovbe TI ot5e irev6fos knows nothing of the sorrow. So Od. 21. 506 ^o'p/xiyyos eTnordjiez'Os /cat aoibfjs : II. 16. 811 oiba(TKoiJ.fvos TToAe'/xoio. So jjL^p.R)|jiai takes a Gen. when it means IletMnk myself of , am affected by the memory (II. 2. 686, Od. 15. 23): see 140, 4, a. Cp. Lat. memini with the Gen. or Ace., perhaps with a similar difference of meaning (Roby, 1332). L 146 USE OF CASES. [151. (e) The Gen. of material, &c. The construction so termed is found with Verbs that imply the use of a material (especially one of indefinite quantity), a stock drawn upon, &c. E.g. II. 1. 470 Kovpot jjifv KprjTTJpas eTte(TTe\l/avTo TtoToio filled up the cups to the brim with liquor ; 9. 214 Trao-cre 8' dAo's sprinkled with salt. So irvpos in the phrases npijo-cujKvpos to burn with fire, > Tivpbs fxeiAioW/xei> to propitiate (the dead) with fire. II. 18. 574 yj)V(Toio TfTfv^aro were made of gold. Od. 3. 408 aTToo-T&fiovTes aXfLcparos shining with fat. And with a distinctly partitive force : Od. I. 140 x a / n CM e ' j;r ? Trapfovriav favouring him (with good things] from her store ; 9. 102 Aooroio (pay to give a taste of. II. 5. 268 rf)s yeverjs ocAei/'e stole (a strain] from the brood. 9. 580 TTfbiOio Tapfo-dai to cut off (a TffjLtvos) from the plain. 14. 121 'A8p7joT06o 8' eyTj/ie Qvyarp&v married (one) from the daughters of Adrastus (so Od. 9. 225., 12. 64., 15. 98). The Gen. with Verbs meaning to stint, grudge, spare is pro- bably of the same nature (to stint being = to give little). The Genitives in Aoveo-0ai -Trora/ioio to bathe in a river, \fipas vi\l/dij.vo$ TToXirjs a\6s washing his hands in the sea, &e. are inter- mediate between this group and the Genitives of Space ( 149). A Gen. of the person may be used with Verbs meaning to gain profit from; e.g. II. I. 410 Iva. iravrfs firavpcavTai. j3acri\f)os : 1 6. 31 ri (rev aAXos 6vri. Note also the elliptical expression, II. 21. 360 TI /not !/n8os /cai aptoyrjs what (share) have I in combat and aid ? Most of these Genitives are clearly l partitive/ and all of them can be explained as ' true ' Genitives. There is a similar use of the Gen. in Sanscrit with Verbs meaning to enjoy, &c. (Delbruck, A. S. 109). Some however may be Ablatives. In particular, the Gen. of material with Tewx">, iroie'o>, &c. is so re- garded by Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 48) on the ground of the Sanscrit use. It may be that in certain cases the original usage allowed either Gen. or Abl., according to the shade of meaning to be expressed ; just as with Verbs of filling Latin employs the Gen. or the Abl. (/) W^h Verbs meaning to rule, be master ; viz. dfcuriru, Gen. of the place or thing, as II. i. 38 TeW8oio re ? I miss, lose, fail in. T/owas a^vvf. ve&v keep off the Trojans from the ships: so with va), TTvv6a.vofj.ai, t's, IKUS, e/cro'?. ax//-, TrdXiv, it may be either the Ablative or the true Genitive. "When motion from is not implied, the Case is probably the true Gen. ; see 228. It should be observed that the use of the Ablatival Gen. with simple Verbs is comparatively restricted in Homer. It is not used, as it is in Sanscrit, with simple Verbs of going, coming, bringing (e.g. we could not substitute the Gen. for the form in -Qf.v in such phrases as KXicrfyOev lovva, aypoOfv fp\o[j,tvr], olnoQfv f)ye, ' \\Lodfv jue $epoozj, &c.), but only with Verbs which imply xepara/iou or distance from a point, or which are compounded with Prepositions such as e, euro, &c. Later poets secrn to be more free in this respect (probably because they treated the usage as an archaism, adopted as being poetical; : e. g. Soph. 0. T. 142 flaPpuv 'iaraadt, Ant. 418 x^o^s atipas, Phil. 630 vtuis a-jovra, &c. Further extensions are, the use for the place from which something is seen, as Soph. El. 78, 324, and for the ayent, Eur. Or. 497, El. 123. 153.] Gen. of Price. Verbs meaning to change places with take an Ablatival Gen., as yow yovvbs a//.et/3o)i> (quoted in the last section) : hence the constructions II. 6. 235 re^x^' /-tei/3e XP'' ' 601 X a ^ Ket/a)z; exchanged armour, (jolden (passing in exchange] for bronze. II. I. ill Xpuo-rjiSo? ayXa anoiva ... begaa-dai to accept a splen- did ransom for Chryse'is ; so Od. II. 327 ^ \pva-ov (fiiXov avbpbs (be^aro who took gold for (to betray) her husband. II. II. 106 \vo-fi> aiioivtov released for a ransom. Hence we may explain the construction with Verbs meaning to value at, set off against (a price) ; as II. 23. 649 TI/XTJS fjs re fx' eoi/ce reri/x?jo-0cu ; so with the Adjectives avra^ios, &c. It is possible however that a word expressing value or price may be con- strued as a Gen. with a Noun. As we can say Tei/'xa 4/caTo//j3oia armour worth a hundred oxen, we might have rtuxa IKO.TOV fiotuv (as in Attic prose, e. g. Seta f.awv \ojpiov a plot worth ten minae) ; cp. the Latin magni emere, magni facere, &c. Case-forms in -$i(v). 154.] The Case-Ending -4>i(^) is found in a number of Homeric forms which appear to be construed indifferently as Datives or Genitives. It will be shown, however, that there is ground for believing these forms to have been used for the Dat. only in the instrumental and locatival senses (the latter being comparatively rare), and for the Gen. only in the ablatival sense. They formed, therefore, a ' mixed Case/ composed of the same elements as the Latin Ablative, viz. the original Instr. Abl. and Loc. In respect of usage these forms are archaic : that is to say, they are confined for the most part to lines and phrases of a I56-] FORMS IN -(N). 149 fixed conventional type. In several instances the survival is evidently due to the influence of the metre : thus 8i, CTTTJ- Seoxju take the place of baKpwov, orrjdfatv ; ooreo^ic and iKpio^i^ of doreW, doreoKn, and iKpuoy, iKpioio-i forms impossible in a hexa- meter. So Si* opeoxfdj KCIT' opcoxju, oir' o\ei(c) appear to have been forms of the Instrumental (Sing, and Plur.), and the majority of the Homeric examples may be referred to that Case : ere'prj^t with the other hand (II. 16. 734, &c.), 8ef6rep7?$i (Od. 19. 480); j3iT7eprepos, Od. 6. 6, &c.) ; avaynai^i bapcvras (II. 2O. 143); yVrj with Prepositions, aju' 1701 <^aivo\jAvr](^iv, crvv t-mroicnv KOL oy^crfyiv (often in the Iliad), also Trap' oyjea-fyiv (construed with Verbs of rest, II. 5. 28, 794., 8. 565., 12. 91., 15. 3) unless o^eo-^tv is a Loc. ( 157); with words expressing- agreement, likeness, &c., as TraAa/xijepiu dpijpet fitted' his hand, 0eo prja-Tap draAazros (II. 7- 366, &c.). With Verbs of trusting ; II. 4. 303 ITTTTOOT^TJ re KCU y cHs ; so dyXairj^t (II. 6. 510), /Si'rjcpi (several times). 156.] Ablative. Forms used as Ablatival Genitives are II. 2. 794 vaviv f\ev(roij.(6' aiira K&evda, Od. 14. 498 Trapa vavtyiv eTrorpweie vttffQo*. So 1 8. 305 ?rapa vavtyiv avfa-rrj bios ' 8. 474 Trpu> op^ai Trapa yau^i 7ro8w/cea 16. 281 fKiroptvoL Trapa yav^t Trobu>Ka fj.rjvi.0p,bv p.ev aTTOppi^at, <^)iAorrjra 8' l In these three places the notion of leaving the ships is implied, so Trapd i>av$i has the meaning of Tiapd ve&v. J.50 USE OF CASES. [157. down from : KOT' opei we may compare the use of the Dative with and diro, which is one of the peculiarities of the Arcadian and Cyprian dialects (Meister, ii. 119, 296). The parallel of the Latin Abl. has been noticed. 157.] Locative. This use is found in several clear instances, as well as others of an indecisive kind : II. 19. 323 4>0u7 : 22. 139 Tjure /ap/cos opeoxpiy KT\. ; 22. 189 ij/( = Od. 15. 148): irpos, in Od. 5. 432 Trpos Korv\r)bov6(pi.v (sticking] to the suckers: dfii, in Od. 16. 145 (pOu-vOd 8' a^ ooTfofpt xpvs : uiro, in vir o%(rl lupiofpiv, ITT' m vevprjQiv (all in the Od.) the Case may be Loc. or Gen. irop' auToii occurs four times in the Iliad (12. 302., 13. 42., 20. 140., 23. 640). In three of these places there is a v. 1. trap' avroOi (or irapavroOi), which generally gives a better sense, and which is required by the grammar in 13. 42 eXirovTO St vrjas 'Axeriod. 158.] The true Dat. and Gen. There is only one example of the true Dat., viz. II. 2. 363 o>? (ppTjrpr] (pp^Tprj Otpet, &c. It may be thought possible that Si' 6pecri and SIOL oTr)6fffi are fragments of this use. If so, one or two other uses assigned above to the Loc. may be really Instr. ; especially opeai, II. II. 474., 22. 139, 189. On the other hand, if the forms in -<|>i(v) constitute a ' mixed Case ' (Locative, Instrumental, and Ablative), there must have been a tendency to extend its sphere from the Loc. and Instr. to the Dat., and from the Abl. to the Gen. Thus the few instances of forms in -i(v) standing for the true Dat. and Gen. may be first steps towards an amalgamation of five Cases (such as we have in the Greek Dual). One or two are probably among the ' false archaisms ' which doubtless exist in Homer, though not to the extent supposed by some commentators : see 216. Forms in -Qev and -ws. 159.] The Ending -0ec expresses the point from which motion takes place ; hence it is common in construction with Verbs of motion, and after the Prepositions e| and dire. Cp. also II. 3. 276 Zeu Trarep "IbrjOev fieSeW ruling from Ida. 8. 397 "IbijOev eirei i6e when he saw, looking from Ida. 15. 716 "E/cra>p 8e Trpvp-vr/Ofv CTTCI Aa/3e when he had got hold from (i. e. in the direction from, beginning with] the stern ; so ere'pa>0ev on the other side, ajuo7-e'pa>0ei> on both sides. Of time ; rj&Oev from (beginning with] dawn. In a metaphorical sense ; of an agent (regarded as the source of action), as II. 15. 489 Aio'tfev /3A.a$0eW (3t\efJ.va : Od. 16.^447 ov5e TI fj.iv 6a.va.TQv rpo/xeWtfai avu>ya ZK. ye /xz^jo-rr/pcoy 6e66fv 5' OVK ear' dA.eW0cu. Also, II. IO. 68 Trarpodev e/c yeixiTjs ovopafav naming . from (on the side of] the father. And in two phrases. II. 7. 39, 226 olodev oios quite alone, and II. 7. 97 alvodev alvus quite terribly, where the force of the Ending- is indistinct. It is to be observed that (except in the Personal Pronouns) this form is not found with Verbs meaning to deprive of, free Jj2 USE OF CASES. [160. from, defend, surjmss, or with the corresponding Adjectives and Adverbs. Hence it cannot be held to be equivalent to an Ab- lative ( 152), and probably differed from the Abl. in expressing motion from rather than separation. On the other hand, the Pronominal forms ejue'0ev, vtOfv, edev are freely construed (1) as Ablatives: Ttpo tOtv, virep crtdev, avev f^0(v; and with a Comparative, II. I. 114 ov tOtv eon \eptiu>v, &c. Cp. also II. 9. 419 juciAa yap edev . . \eipa trjv t>7repecrxe. (2) as true Genitives: II. 4. 169 ciAAa /xot alvbv a\os OVK dAeyi^co), reaching or touching (dynamo, ireipdfa, &c.) : and with acrcror, Trpoo^e, avra, avriov, eVeKa, e/cijn. 160.] The Ending -us is generally derived from the Ablative of Stems in -o ( no), although -of. would not regularly become -us, and the transition of meaning is not a very easy one. The chief examples in common use in Homer are From Pronominal Stems : u>s, TOO?, TTWS, 6/xwy, din-coy, aAAcos. From Stems in -o : alvu>s, ao-Tracruos, e/cTrayAa)?, eTTtorajMeroos, s, KaKcos, KapTraAt/xa)?, KpaiTTv&s, Kparfp&s, orpaAea)?, s, p?;t'8tcos, orepews, aruycpa)?, )(aAe7rcos, /xeyaAcos, KaAw?, From other Stems : TTO.VTMS, Atye'cos, arpeKecos, acr^aAews, dpa- Kparea)?, It will be seen that comparatively few of these Adverbs come from the s/u-< familiar Adjectives. Thus na\ws, aiaxp&s, fjttyd\ws, Ta\fojs, i\cas are very rare in Homer ; and there is no Adverb of the kind from Se/oy, Zeros, 6/>0os, @af,vs, ^'//e Nominative. 161.] Impersonal Verbs. It is evident that in a language which distinguishes the Person and Number of the Verb by the Ending, it is not essential that there should be a distinct word as Nominative. CCT-TI (e.g.) stands for he is, she is, it is; the person or thing meant by the Ending may be left to be gathered from the context. In certain cases, however, the Subject meant by an Ending of the Third Person is too indefinite to be expressed by a particular Noun, such as the context could supply to the mind. For instance, in the sentence ovrcos eo--rt it is so, the real Subject given by the Ending -n (in English by the word it) is not a particular thing already mentioned or implied, but a vague 162.] NOMINATIVE. 153 notion ' the case/ ' the course of things/ &c.* Verbs used with a vague unexpressed Subject of this kind are called IMPERSONAL. The vague Subject maybe a Plural, as II. 16. 128 OVKZTI (pvKTa TT\ovTv coming forth by nighty tvbov riavvv\i.ot islept all night, x^Cos Zfir) went yesterday. Such Adjectives seem to answer most nearly to the Gen. of time within which, but may also express duration, as ira^rj/xeptos and Travvv^ios. 2. In describing the attitude, manner, position, &c. in which an action is done : as TtaXivopcros aTre'oTTj stood off with a start back- wards, VTITIOS o#8a epdadr) was dashed face upwards on the ground; so TTC^OS ei\ri\ov6a, Aa/3pos tnaiyLfav, Ttpotypw rerATjKas (cp. irpo- (frpovttos), d/xerpoeTrrjs e/coAwa, &c. 3. The Pronouns 08 e and Ketros are sometimes used instead of Adverbs of place : II. 5- 604 /cat vvv ol Trapa Kflvos "Aprjs now too yonder is Ares at his side ; 10. 434 pvjiKes 018' airdvfvOe here are the Thracians apart ; Od. 6. 276 TIS 8' o8e Nauo-iKaa eTrerai ; So OVTOS in II. IO. 82 TIS 8' OVTOS KT\. 4. With Verbs meaning to be, to become, to appear, to be made, called, thought, &c.; as /cd/moroi rpdfav they were nurtured the mightiest, (i.e. to be the mightiest); et yap TO re'ruKrai it is a good thing. In the Plural, OUKC'TI (pv/cTa -neXovrai there is no more escaping ; cp. Aotyta epya ra5' eVcrerai this will be a pestilent business. In one or two instances the Adverbial form in -ws is used in phrases of this kind : II. 1 1. 762 &s eov et iror' IW ye such 1 was if I was ; II. 9. 551 Koup^recro-i KO.K>S yv things went ill for the Ciiretes ; II. 7. 424 biayvutvai ^oAeTrois fjv it roas hard to distinguish; II. II. 838 TTWS T 6.p eoi rd8e epya; Od. II. 336 irws v/xfuy avrjp 08 e aivfTai et^at. This may be regarded as older than the Neut. Nominative, since it indicates that the Verb is not a mere 1 copula/ but has a meaning which the Adverb qualifies. Cp. II. 6. 131 brjv r\v lived long ( = brjvaib$ TJV) : also the Adverbial Neut. Plur., as Thuc. I. 25. 4 oVres . . o/zoia, 3. 14. I ieiT; Kal ovfibos tcr(TTai (I xrA. to thee it will be a humbling and reproach if Sfc. ov ye'p,e(ris it- is no wrong ; OVK apa TLS x&pis yev it- was no matter of thanks ; ei 8e' p.ot aTcra bnt if it is my fate : with a Pronominal Subject, AW^TJ rd8e y eo-o-erat this will be a shame. The use of an abstract Noun instead of an Adjective is a license or boldness of language of which we have already had examples; see 116 and 126. It is worth while to notice the tendency to import the ideas of obligation, necessity, &c. into these phrases : e.g. ou i>e'fie$ shame ! (II. 5. 787., 13. 95., 16. 422). A similar account may be given of one or two passages in which commentators generally suppose ( anacoluthon ' : viz. II. IO. 436 TOV 8r/ KaAAiorous ITTTTOVS Ibov 1786 /xeyioroti?' Aei>KoYepo6 x'ovos, OeUw 8' 6/xoiot whiter than snow they are ! &c. ; and so in the equally abrupt II. IO. 547 a-iv&s aKTivetrcnv eoi/cores TjeAtoio. 2. 353 aa-Tpd-nruiv e7Ti8ei' emiVi/xa (r?7/xaTa (fraivcav (he did so I tell you) by lightning on the right fyc. Od. i. 5 1 vfjo-os bevbpriea-a-a, dea 8' evl Scofxara vaiei an island (it i-s) well wooded, and a goddess has her dwelling there ! These forms of expression, when we seek to bring them under the general laws of the grammatical Sentence, resolve themselves into Predicates with an unexpressed Subject. On the logical Propositions of this kind see Sigwart (Logik, I. p. 55). The Predicate, he shows, is always expressed in a word (or words) ; but the Subject, when it is of the kind which would be expressed by a Pronoun (it, this, &c.) may be indicated by a gesture. The simplest examples of the type are the imperfect sentences used by children, such as horse ! for this is a horse. When such sentences are introduced into literary language, they give it an abrupt and interjectional character, as in the examples quoted. We might add the phrases such as ov repeais it is no wrong ( 162), in which the want of a Verb makes the expression somewhat interjectional. Compare, for instance, ov vfptais with alSus, 'A/xyt?ot shame on you, Greeks ! also the so-called ellipse in commands, as dAA.' apo but up ! The Vocative. 164.] Regarding the use of the Vocative in Homer the chief point to be noticed is the curious one (common to Greek and Sanscrit) that when two persons are addressed, connected by re, the second name is put in the Nominative.* For instance II. 3. 277 Ze Trarep V 18rj^ey /ie8eW Kvbiarrf ^yia-re, 'He'Aios ff os /crA. Similarly, the Vocative is not followed by 8e or any similar Conjunction, but the Pronoun (TV is interposed; as II. i. 282 (TV 8e Travf KT\. but, son of Atreus, cease Sfc. * Delbriick, Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 28. Ij6 ADJECTIVES. [165. The Nominative is often used for the Voc., especially, it would seem, in order to avoid the repetition of the Voc. ; e.g. II. 4. 189 eu'e (read Tranjp). II. 18. 385 rnrre 0e'ri Tavinrt-nXf. indvti$ (Qe'ris 1 Zenod.). ^ Adjectival Use of the Noun. 165.] Substantive and Adjective. This seems a convenient place for one or two remarks on the distinction expressed by these terms. It will be seen from 114 and 117 that there is no general difference in the mode of forming Substantives and Adjectives. Certain Suffixes, however, are chiefly or wholly employed in the formation of abstract and collective Nouns : as in the Feminine Nouns in -ri-s, -TV-S, -b(av, the Neuters in -/xa(r), the Denomin- atives in -TT]s (Gen. -TTJT-OS). In respect of meaning and use the distinction between the concrete Substantives and Adjectives is practical rather than logical. Certain Nouns are mainly used as qualifying words in agreement with other Nouns ; these are classed as Adjectives. In such combinations as /3o{5s ravpos, avepes dA^rjo-rcu, x a ^ K *? es avbpes, fiacnXevs Kvpos, 'Aya/jit/it'ow 'ArpeiSrjs, where the qualifying word is one that is not generally used as an Adjective, we speak of the ' adjectival use ' of a Substantive. Conversely, when an Adjective stands by itself to denote an individual or group of objects, the use is called ' substantival ' : e.g. KOKO'S a base fellow, K.O.K.O. eril-s, TVKTOV KO.KOV a made mischief. This is a use which arises when the objects to which an Adjective applies are such as naturally form a distinct class. Thus the Suffixes which form Nouns in -TJJ-S, -Typ, -rcop and -eus are practically confined to Substantives. Abstract and Collective Nouns, it is evident, are essentially Substantives. Thus there is a clear distinction, both in form and meaning, between Abstract and Concrete Nouns; but not between Substantives and Adjectives. The common definition of an Adjective as a word that expresses ' quality ' (' Adjectives express the notion of QUALITY,' Jelf, ii. p. 7) is open to the ob- jections (i) that an abstract Substantive may be said to express quality, and (2) that every concrete Noun of which the etymological meaning is clear 1 66.] ADJECTIVES. 157 expresses quality in the same way as an Adjective. E. g, the definition does not enable us to distinguish /tax^Tjjy from (iaxfifuar. It is evident that the use of a Nominative in the Predicate as jScwriAevs Ian he is king is strictly speaking an adjectival use. The corresponding distinction in the Pronouns does not need much explanation. The Personal Pronouns are essentially Sub- stantives (being incapable of serving as limiting or descriptive words) ; the Possessive Pronouns are essentially Adjectives. The others admit of both uses; e.g. OVTOS this one, and avr\p OVTOS (in Attic 6 avrip OVTOS) this man. 166.] Gender of Adjectives. In a few cases the Gender of the Adjective is independent of the Substantive with which it is construed. i. When a person is described by a word which properly denotes a thing (viz. a Neuter, as TCKVOV, TZKOS, &c., or an abstract Noun, /3iij ITpiajuoto, &c.), the concord of Gender is not always observed. Thus we have <|>iAe TKVOV (but iAov re/co?, e^aA?]) ; again II. II. 690 \da>v yap p e/ca/cco(re /3i?j 'Hpa/cA^efy ( = Heracles). Od. I J . 90 ?]A0e 8' 67Ti ^V\TI Qrjj3aiov Tetpeo-tao In such cases grammarians speak of a ' construction according to the meaning' (/cara (rivta-iv). The term is unobjectionable, provided that we remember that constructions according to the meaning are generally older than those in which meaning is overridden by idiom or grammatical analogy. 2. Where an Adjective refers to more than one Noun, it fol- lows the most prominent : or (if this is at all doubtful) the Masc. is used of persons, the Neut. of things: e.g. II. 2. 136 at 8e TTOU ^/xerepat r dAo^oi /cat jnJTri r/ar' evi /xeyapois 7rori8ey/xei>ai because the wives are chiefly thought of : but II. 18. ^14 retxos jue'v p" aXoxpi re (i'Aat /cat i>?j7ria pvaT e^eoraores, /xera 8' v KCU TT&V p.ey' olG>v etAero, Kpivapevos rptTj/coVt' i)8e vo^TJas (three hundred head] : cp. also II. 5. 140, Od. 12. 332. 3. A Noun standing as Predicate may be Neuter, although the Subject is Masc. or Fern. : as ov/c ayadov iroXvKoipavtr]. This is a kind of substantival use. 158 USE OF THE NUMBERS. [167. 167.] Gender of Pronouns. A substantival Pronoun de- noting 1 a person may retain its proper Gender although the antecedent is a Neuter, or an abstract word ; as II. 22. 87 tyiXov ddkos, bv TKOV avr-ff. Conversely a Neuter Pronoun may be used substantially of a thing which has been denoted by a Masc. or Fern, word : II. 2. 873 bs Kal ^vaov ex 00 '' 7<"o'Ae|uoi>8' lev r\vT Kovprj, y?j7rios, ov5e TI 01 TO y 7T7jpK(re \vypbv o\0pov. Cp. II. ii. 238., 1 8. 460, Od. 12. 74 (with the note in Merry and RiddelPs edition). On the other hand, a Pronominal Subject sometimes follows the Gender of a Noun standing as Predicate, as avrr] SIKTJ eort this u the manner, r\ fleets errri which is right. .But the Neuter is preferred if a distinct object is meant by the Pronoun; as Od. i. 226 OVK. Zpavos ra.be y eori what I see is not a club-feast. 168.] Implied Predication. An Adjective (or Substantive in an adjectival use) construed with a Noun in an oblique Case may be so used as to convey a distinct predication ; as OVKC'T' fj.ol $i'Aa TO.VT ayopeveis = t/tis (that you now speak] is not pleasing to me. So after Verbs meaning to make, cause to be, call, think, &c. ; w* 8e Xi6ovs Troirjo-e Kpoviav Zeus made the people (to be) stones. This use is parallel to that of the Nominative in the Predicate ( 162) : cp. the forms of sentence XaoZ e^ivovro A./0oi, \aovs liroirjat \iOovs. In the latter the predicative Noun (hiOovs) is construed with an oblique Case, instead of with the Subject. A Noun so used is called a TERTIARY PREDICATE : cp. 162, 3. CHAPTER VIII. USE OP THE NUMBERS. 169.] Collective Nouns. The Subject of a Plural Verb may be expressed by means of a Collective Noun ; as &>s Qaa-av rj TT\-qdvs thus they said, the multitude (cp. II. 15. 305-, 23. 157). Conversely, a Participle construed with a Collective Noun and Singular Verb maybe Plural: as II. 18. 604 Trfpua-rad' o/ziAos repTTO/ierot. Cp. II. 1 6. 281 fKivqdev 8e aA.ayyes eA7ro//evoi, also Od. ii. 15. In these instances, again, the construction is said to be ' ac- cording to the meaning' ( 166). The principle is evidently that an abstract or collective word may be used in ' apposition ' to a concrete word. It may be noticed however that the com- 17-] SINGULAR. 159 binations such as opiXos - repTro'^eyoi are only found when there is some pause between the words ; otherwise the Genitive would be used (construed as in TpoW Karcbva-fO' o^uAoy, &c.). 170.] Distributive use of the Singular. The word is often used in the Sing-, with a Plural Verb, as ZjBav OIKOVOC /ca(rros they went home, each one, 5e8ji>o7^ea-f9a CKCUTTOS we are each one obedient. Other words in a clause may follow fKaoros in respect of Number.: as II. 2. 775 frnroi 8e irap apuaviv ola-iv CKaaros the horses each Reside his chariot ; II. 9. 656 ol 8e IKCO-TOS eXcbf Se'Tras ap.(pi.KV7r\Xov o"77eurazrres Trapa ^7705 \cra.v Tta\iv. Even the Verb is made Sing, in II. 16. 264 01 8' aAKip.oi> 777-0/3 exovres 7rpoVo-a> vras Tre'rerai xai ap.vvei. olcn reKeo-V 8' aAA.coi> TIS KCV . . ovvo^ar etTTot we should doubtless read ovvo^a (Fet-noi). Similarly the Dual is used of a group of pairs : II. 16. 370 TroAAoi 8' kv ra^pw ep7jo-app;are? a>Kees UTTTOI aavT tv Trpwra) pu/xw XLTTOV ap/iar' aya/cra)i/ where the Dual agavre (like the Sing, pu/xw) refers to owe chariot. Probably, too, we should read ap/xa avanTdav (i. e. FavaKTonv). So II. 23. 362 ol 8' a/xa Traire? ec|)' ITTTTOUV //.aoriya? aeipav, Od. 20. 348 oWe 8' apa ro, also II. 9. 503, Od. 19. 444. The Dual is often used in this way in Aristophanes : cp. Av. 622 avartivovrts TUJ \tipe, and other instances given by Bieber (De duali numero, p. 44). In II. 5. 487 ftri ircas us a\f/lai Xivov aKovre iravaypov, the Dual dA.z> /3az;, aAAov K c^daiprjcri fipor&v KT\. it is the way of kings, (a king) will hate one Sfc. ; and in the same clause, II. 10. 259 pwerat 8e Kapr; 0aA.fp<3y alfr&v (of a kind of helmet) ; II. 2. 355 iipiv nvo. Trap Tpwcoy dAo'^o) jcara- KoijUTj^yai beside the wife of some Trojan ; II. 19. 7 aAAa' TIV olu> . . VTT' eyxeo? 77p.erepoio before the spear of one of us. The distri- butive TIS is equivalent to a Plural. Hence a peculiar vague use of the Plural, as II. 3. 49 w6v avbp&v al\p.r]Tafj.a, ptyapov a hall or room, 5(o/xara, jueya/m a house: Xturpov and Ae'/crpa a bed. Trv\ai a gate is only used in the Plur. ; Qvpr\ is used as well as Ovpa.i, but only of the door of a room (Od\ap.o$). (2) Natural objects of undefined extent : \l/d[j,aOos and -fydpaQoi (as we say sands], aAes (once aAs) salt, Kovirj and KOZHCU dust, vvpos and TrvpoL wheat, pftQpov and pttOpa, /cC/aa (in a collective sense) and KVfjLara, bditpv and bdupva, Kpla (seldom /cpeas) meat, (rdpKfs (once Sing.)^^. (3) Parts of the body : V&TOV (or v&ros the Nona. Sing, does not occur in Homer) and vara, (rrrjdos and (more commonly) oTTj^ea, Trpocr&Trov and Trpoo-coTra the countenance, (pprjv and (pptves. (4) Abstract words : AeAao-^eyo? i-miocrvvcuav forgetting horse- manship, Troba>Kftr)(Ti TTTroi6a>s trusting to speed of foot, avaXittiyvi bafjifVTfs overcome by want of prowess, TroAutSpeiT/o-i vooio through cunning of understanding : so aracrflaAiai, a(ppabiai, ayrjvopiai, decri- (ppocrvvai, TfKfocrvvaL, fj.f9r]fj.ocrvvai, &c. ; note also TrpoboKai ambush, TTpo^oai mouth of a river, b&pa gift (II. 20. 268 xpvo-osyap epvKajce, dcopa ^eoio), KVV&V \j.i\.isr]Qpa the sport of dogs, (pvKrd escaping, tcra fairness ( 161). The Plural in such cases is a kind of imperfect abstraction ; the particular manifestations of a quality are thought of as units in a group or mass, not yet as forming a single thing. (5) Collective words : /xrjAa flocks ; so Tipo^ara is only Plur. in Homer (cp. 7rpo/3acris Od. 2. 75). (6) Pronouns and Adjectives ; see the examples of adverbial 133, !34J cp- also 161. 172.] Neuter Plural. The construction of the Neut. Plur. with a Singular Verb is the commoner one in Homer, in the pro- portion of about three to one. When the Plural is used, it will 1 73-] NEUTER PLURAL DUAL. l6l generally be found that the word is really Plural in meaning (i. e. that it calls up the notion of distinct units). Thus it is used with Nouns denoting agents ; as IQvta applied to the men of the Greek army (II. 2. 91, 464), to birds (II. 2. 459), to swine (Od. 14. 73) ; so with 4>{!A' avOput-nav (Od. 15. 409). Distinctly plural parts of the body: Trrepa, x f &- fa > ovara, /xe'Aea : so TrediAa (of the shoes of Hermes). Numerals: Se'/ca oro'p-ara (II. 2. 489), ovara reWapa (II. II. 634), reWapa Se'pjiiara (Od. 4. 437), aiTro'Aia eV8e*a Travra (Od. 14. 103); so with Travra and TroAAa (II. n. 574., 15. 714., 17. 760, Od. 4. 437, 794., 9. 222., 12. 411), and when the context shows that distinct things are meant : as II. 5. 656 T>V [lev bovpara (the spears of two warriors), 13. 135 A few instances occur in fixed phrases, which may represent an earlier syntax ; XVVTO 8e yvla (but also Avro yovvara), a^^ava epya ytvovro, &c. Note especially the lines ending with Tre'Acwrai (ra re Trrepa vrjvcrl TreAourai, or r' r//xara juaKpa TreAo^rai, VKTa Tre'Aozmu, &c.). The exceptions to the use of the Sing, are fewest with Pro- nouns and Adjectives : doubtless on account of their want of a distinct Plural meaning (see the end of last section). 173.] The Dual is chiefly used (i) of two objects thought of as a distinct pair, and (2) when the Numeral bva> is used. i. Thus we have the natural pairs x e 'P e > ^X 66 ' TCVOVTZ, l*ripu>, oWe, d, and (in the Gen. Dat.) 7ro8o?u', p ora0/xo) door-posts ; iTnroo the horses of a chariot, /3o'e a yoke of oxen, apvf a pair of lambs (for sacrifice); bovpe (in IL 13. 241., 16. 139 of the two spears usually carried, but 8vo bovpe is more common) ; 7Toraju,o) (II. 5. 773) of the two rivers of the Troad, and so Kpowco (II. 22. 147). So of the two warriors in a chariot (II. 5. 244, 272, 568), two wrestlers (II. 23. 707), two dancers (Od. 8. 378), the Sirens (Od. 12. 52, &c.); the 'ArpeiSa and Alavrf. The Numeral is generally added in speaking of two wild animals (Oijpe bva, AeWre 8vo>, &c.) : KaVpw (II. II. 324) and AeWre (II. 16. 756) are hardly exceptions, since the context shows that two are meant. Also aterw (Od. 2. 146) of two eagles sent as an omen, and yinre (Od. n. 578) of the vultures that devoured Tityos. The Dual in II. 8. 185-191 (where Hector calls to four horses by name) might be defended, because two is the regular number ; but probably v. 185 is spurious. In II. 23. 413, again, al K diroKij6?jo-arre (pepw/xetfa ^Cipov aed^ov the Dual is used because M 162 USE OF THE NUMBERS. [173. it is the horses that are chiefly in the driver's mind, although he associates himself with them. In II. 9. 182-195 the Dual refers to the two envoys, Phoenix being overlooked. Again, when two agents have been mentioned together, or are represented as acting together in any way, the Dual may be used: as II. i. 531 r&> y &s ftovXcvcravre (of Thetis and Achilles), 16. 823 (of a lion and boar fighting), Od. 3. 128., 13. 372, &c. Similarly, of the meeting of two rivers, II. 4. 453 (S [JLHryayKeiav (rup-ftaXXfTOv o/3/n/ior vbap (cp. 5- 774)- The Dual Pronouns wi and w'i are used with comparative regularity: see II. i. 257, 336, 574., 5. 34, 287, 718, &c. This usage may be a matter of traditional courtesy. Hence perhaps the scrupulous use where the First Person Dual is meant; II. 4. 407 ayayovd' ('Diomede and I') ; 8. 109 depa-novTe our attendants; II. 313 rt TtaOovTf XfXa.aiJ.e6a KT\. ; 12. 323 u> TTCTTOV fl . . ? should be read aitaiTi^ovd' 1705, since Telemachus there is speaking of his mother and himself. So with the Second Person, II. 1.216 (Athene and Here), 322 (the heralds), 3. 279., 7. 279. In II. 3. 278 KCU ot vTrtvtpOf Kafiovras dvOp&irow riwa&ov, OTIS K iiriopicov opoaffri the two gods indicated by the Dual are doubtless Hades and Persephone, as appeal's from II. 9. 456 Oeol 5' tTt\(iov firapds, Ztvs rt Karax^ovios KOI tiraivti Tltpattpovtia, and 9. 569, where Althaea beats upon the earth KiK\-fi 8e npivQtvre bva KOL TTfvrriKOi'Ta fir\TT]v : where the Dual is used by a kind of attraction to the word ova). The Dual is never obligatory in Homer, since the Plural may always be used instead of it. Hence we often have a Dual Noun or Pronoun with a Plural Verb or Adjective, and vice versa. The Neut. Dual (like the Neut. Plur.) may go with a Sing. Verb : thus we have oacre with all three Numbers. Certain of the ancient grammarians Zenodotus among them supposed that Homer sometimes used the Dual for the Plural. But Aristarchus showed that in all the passages on which this belief was founded the Dual either had its proper force, or was a false reading. The use of the Dual in Attic is nearly the same as in Homer : in other dialects it appears to have become obsolete. This was one of the reasons that led some grammarians to maintain that Homer was an Athenian. I7 6 -] PREPOSITIONS. 163 CHAPTER IX. THE PKEPOSITIONS. Introductory. 174.] Prepositions are words expressing some local relation, and capable of being 1 used as prefixes in forming Compound Verbs. The Prepositions are also used in construction with oblique Cases of Nouns and Pronouns. The Adverbs that are construed with oblique Cases, but do not enter into composition with Verbs, are called Improper Prepositions. The list of Homeric Prepositions is the same (with perhaps one exception, see 226) as that of later classical Greek. In the use of Prepositions, however, there are some marked differ- ences between the two periods ( 229). There are no 'Inseparable' Prepositions in Greek: see how- ever 221. 175.] Adverbial use. In post- Homeric Greek it is a rule (subject to a few exceptions only) that a Preposition must either (i) enter into Composition with a Verb or (2) be followed im- mediately by and 'govern' a Noun or Pronoun in an oblique Case. But in the Homeric language the limitation of the Pre- positions to these two uses is still far from being established. A Preposition may not only be separated from the Case-form which it governs (a licence sometimes found in later writers), but may stand as a distinct word without governing any Case. In other words, it may be placed in the sentence with the freedom of an Adverb : e.g. apfyi may mean either on both sides (of an object expressed by an oblique Case) or simply on loth sides ; ei> may mean in (taking a Dat.), or simply inside ; and so of the others, e.g. ye'Aao-o-e 5e 77aeiAo/irjz>) Aeneas. VTTO 8' ea-^fTo jjLia-dov and promised (vTreV^cro) hire. V&TOL fia\u>v turning his back. OTTO upet r^rj^as cutting off his hands by a sword. This is the sense in which the word T^OIS was employed by the Greek grammarians, who looked at the peculiarities of Homer as deviations from the later established \isage, and accordingly regarded the independent place of t he Preposition as the result of a ' severance ' of the Compound Verb. We may retain the term, provided that we understand it to mean no more than the fact that the two elements which formed a single word in later Greek were still separable in the language of Homer. The distinction between Tmesis (in the strict sense) and other ' adverbial ' uses cannot be drawn with any certainty. The clearest cases are those in which the compound Verb is necessary for the construction of other words in the sentence ; e. g. in air' AlvcLav eAo'jurjy or VTTO 5 lo^ero [j-icrdov. On the other hand, the use is simply adverbial in Trepi (frpevas fyiepos alpet desire seizes his heart all round (because the Compound Trepiatpeoo means to strip off, to take away from round a thing). o>s TOVS ^ye/xoVe? 8teKoVp;eoi' . . jbterci 6e Kpeuoj; 'Ayapie'/xya>p and in the midst the king Agamemnon. a>? Tpwes Trpo fj.ev aAAoi dp/jpore?, avrap tit aAAoi the Trojans, arrayed some in front, others behind. 177.] Ellipse of the Verb. In certain cases, viz. when the Verb is understood, a Preposition may represent the whole Pre- dicate of a clause : oluivol 8e ire'pi TrAe'e? j}e yvvaiKes about (him) are more 8fc. HvO' tvi p.fv $iAo'r?7s therein is love. ov rot ITTI 8eos there is no fear for thee. dAA' ava but up ! Trapa 8' avrip the man is at hand. Trap' e/xoiye Kal aAAoi others are at my command (not are beside me, but=7rapei(n in its derived sense). So when a Verb is to be repeated from a preceding clause ; as II. 24. 229-233 evOfv 8&>e/ca p.fv TrepiKaAAe'a? eeAe ireirhovs . . CK 8e 8v' aWavas rpiirobas : II. 3. 267 &pvvro 8' avru' eiretra ava avbp&v 'Ayajute'/xj/coi', av 8' 'OSvo-evs (sc. w 178.] TMESIS USE WITH CASES. 165 178.] Use with oblique Cases. Prepositions are frequently used in Greek with the Accusative, the locatival and instru- mental Dative, and the ablatival Genitive ; much less commonly (if at all) with the true Genitive. It may be shown (chiefly by comparison with Sanscrit) that the government of Cases by Prepositions belongs to a later stage of the language than the use of Prepositions with Verbs. In the first instance the Case was construed directly with the Verb, and the Preposition did no more than qualify the Verbal meaning. E.g. in such a sentence as eis Tpofyv r)A0e the Ace. Tpoirjv originally went with fj\0. If however the construction Tpoir/f 77X6*6 ceased to be usual except with fls, the Preposition would be felt to be necessary for the Ace., i. i governing the Accusative in II. II. 482 o>s pa TOT' ap., &c. ; and in vrjbs artb npvp.vris x^aSis TreVe like v^bs a-noQpuv, and numerous similar constructions. Thus the history of the usage of Prepositions confirms the general principle laid down in a previous chapter ( 131), that the oblique Cases, with the exception of the true Genitive, are 166 PREPOSITIONS. [179. primarily construed with Verbs, and that consequently the con- struction of these Cases with Nouns and (we may now add) Prepositions is always of a derivative kind. 179.] Use with the Genitive. Where the Genitive with a Preposition is not ablatival, it may usually be explained in two ways, between which it is not always easy to choose : 1 i ) It may be derived from one of the uses with Verbs dis- cussed in 149-151. E.g. the Genitive in os T flo-LV Sia bovpos which goes through the wood is probably the Genitive of the space within which motion takes place. For etcrii; bia bovpos has the same relation to TreSioto iajKeii> and TTCO'IOIO bia-npria-creiv, that rjXOfv ds Tpoirfv has to Tpoir]v ri\Qtv and Tpoirjy ela-rjXOev. (2) It may be of the same kind as the Genitive with a Noun : e.g. the construction with avrl may be the same as with the Adverbs avra, avriov, avria, &c., and the Adjectives avrios, (vav- rios, &c., and this is evidently not akin to any of the construc- tions with Verbs, but falls under the general rule that a Noun or Pronoun qualifying a Noun is put in the Genitive ( 147). It is held by Curtius (Elucidations, c. 17) that the Genitive with awl, Trpo, 8 id, v-nep, VTTO, when they do not necessarily imply motion from, is of the same kind as the ordinary Genitive with Adjectives and Adverbs, i. e. the true Genitive. This view is supported by the Improper Prepositions, which nearly all govern the Genitive, whatever their meaning : e.g. eyyvs and e/cds, tvros and euros, aura, IJ.XP L > tvt Ka > & c - For in these cases the construction evidently does not depend upon the local relation involved, but is of the same kind as in be^as irvpos, \apiv "Tpututv, &c. On the other hand, it is pointed out by Delbriick (Synt. Forsck. iv. p. 134) that such a construction of the Genitive is unknown in Sanscrit, and this argument, which applies to Trpo, VTTO, uTrep (Sanscr. prd, upa, updri], is confirmed by the Latin construction of. pro, sub, super with the Abl. He would allow the supposition however in the case of dvri (the Sanscrit dnti being an Adverb), and perhaps Sid ; regarding these words as having become Prepo- sitions more recently than the others. 180.] Accentuation. The rules for the accentuation of Com- pound Verbs have been already given in 88. They proceed on the general principle that (except in the augmented forms) the accent falls if possible on the Preposition; either on the last syllable (as d?ro'-8os), or, if that is elided, then on the first (as V7r-aye). In regard to the other uses, and in particular the use with 180.] ACCENTUATION. 167 Cases, the general assumption made by the Greek grammarians is that all Prepositions are oxytone. They do not recognise the modern distinction according to which lv, els, and e| are unac- cented. This distinction rests entirely on the practice of the manuscripts (Chandler, p. 254), and apparently arises from the accident of the smooth breathing and accent falling on the same letter (Wackernagel, K. Z. xxix. 137). Disyllabic Prepositions, however, are liable in certain cases to become barytone. The exact determination of these cases was a matter of much difficulty with the ancients, and unfortunately we cannot now determine how far their dicta rest upon observa- tion of usage, and how far upon analogy and other theoretical considerations. The chief points of the accepted doctrine are : (n) The disyllabic Prepositions, except dp, $ ^h f*4x$ * vl > Ztvpov VTTO, &c. Some held that the insertion of Se before the Preposition did not prevent Anastrophe, and accordingly wrote Sere 8' a-no, &c. (2) Also, according to some, if the Prep, stands at the end of a verse, or before a full stop (Schol. A on II. 5- 283). (3) Also, when it is equivalent to a Compound Verb ( 177) ; as evi, firi, irepi, irdpa (for lz>-e es Trdi/ras 'A^aiovs. Most Prepositions, as appears from the Sanscrit accent, are originally barytone, and the so-called Anastrophe is really the retention of the accent in certain cases in which the Preposition is emphatic, or has a comparatively independent place in the sentence. Just as there is an orthotone eon and an enclitic ci is probably a real oxytone, like the Adverb d/xr\(Ti, /car-e'xei, the reason is purely rhythmical. The first of these changes had not taken place in the time of Homer. As to the second we are practically without evidence. We do not even know when the law of three syllables obtained in Greek. It may be observed however that (1) When a word of three syllables could not be unaccented, the form Tre'pt 8ei8ia became impossible ; but it does not follow that Trepi lost its accent at the same time. An intermediate wept, 8etdia is quite admissible as a hypothesis. (2) In many places in Homer it is uncertain whether a Preposition is part of a Compound or retains its character as a separate word. Thus we find II. 4. 538 TToAAol 8e irepl KTCWOVTO KOL aAAoi (Wolf, from Ven. A.). 1 6. 497 f[j.(v Trept fj.dpva.0 xaAK<3 (ir^pl sic Ven. A.). 1 8. 191 oTfCro yap ' H fie'0' 6ju.tA.eov (Ar.). with the variants TrepiKmVovro, Trepijotapvao, Trapoia-fp-ev, fj.eOop.l- \eov. And the existing texts contain a good many Compounds which we might write divisim without loss to the sense ; as II. 1 8. 7 vj]vo-KOZ>ra, II. 2. 150, 384., 3. 12., 4. 230., 5- 332, 763, 77*; 6 - 100, & c - In reference to such forms we may fairly argue that the tendency of grammarians and copyists, unfamiliar with the free adverbial use of the Prepositions, would be always towards forming Compounds; hence that modern critics ought to lean rather to the side of writing the words separately, and giving the Prepositions the accent which belonged to them as Adverbs. With regard to the accent of Prepositions in the ordinary use with Case-forms it is still more difficult to decide. A Sanscrit Preposition generally follows the Noun which it governs : hence it does not furnish us with grounds for any conclusion about the Greek accent. 180*.] Apocope. Most Prepositions appear in Homer under several different forms, due to loss of the final vowel combined (in most cases) with assimilation to a following consonant. i;o PREPOSITIONS. [l8l. Thus we find Trap a and Trap : dz-d, av, ap. (jScu/btoicn, (f>6vov) : Kara, KaS (8e), Ka / 3-(/3aAe), Kar-(^afe), Kap (pooy), Kay (yo'fv), KctK (Kei means on both gitles, or (if the notion of two sides is not prominent) all round. It is doubtless connected with ap.$o> loth. The adverbial use is common; e.g. with a Verb understood, Od. 6. 292 v Se Kpr]vi] met, d//(pl 8e Aetp-wy and around is a meadow. It is especially used in reference to the two sides of the body : II. 5- 3 IQ afj.(f)l 8e ocrcre KeAat^Tj vv eKaAuv^e black night covered fils eyes on loth sides (i.e. both eyes); II. 10. 535 dft^)i KTVTTOS ovaTa /3dAAet : II. 1 8. 414 crTroyyo) 5' d/x<^)t Trpo'cra)7ra /ecu )(eip' ai:oij.6pyi'v : Od. 2. 153 Trape.i/zs dp.0i re 8eipds : O4r-- ol 3 So II. 6. 1 17 d/x0t 8e /itv a~(j)vpa rvTrre KOI av^iva Sepyxa //e shield smote him on the ankles on both sides and on the neck. Here d/Af is generally taken to mean above and beneath j wrongly, as the passages quoted above show. This use of a^i is extended to the internal organs, esp. the midriff ((^pe'res) regarded as the seat of feeling : as II. 3. 442 ov yap Tito Trore // o>8e eppeV So Hesiod^ Theog. 554 ^wa-aro 5e c/>peVas d/ui is a natural extension of the ordinary locatival Dative the Preposition being adverbial, and not always needed to govern the Case. Compare (e. g.) II. I. 45 TO w/zoto-ty ex^v (Loc. Dat., 145, 3). 2O. 150 a[jL(pl 8' ap apprjKTOv v(pc\r]v iJ.9a afj-tpl ydju,a> we shall agree about the marriage ; II. 7. 408 d//.$l 8e vexpol- O-LV as to the question of the dead; II. 16. 647 d/x,' 'OSuoTjt fjiv6f6fMr]v. This last variety (in which the notion of two sides disappears) is confined to the Odyssey : cp. 5. /i<~w k* 287, 14. 338, 364. A true Dative may follow dfii, but cannot be said to be governed by it; e.g. in II. 14. 420 dju,$t 8e ol ftpd^ Ttvyjea his arms rattled about him the Dat. is 'ethical/ as in II. 13. 439 pf}ev 8e ol dju^t yj.TG>va. So in II. 4. 431 d/i(/>i 8e Trao-t revx ea TTOiKtA' eAa/xTre, the Dat. is not locatival, but the true Dat. The two kinds of Dat. may be combined, as II. 18. 205 d/i^l 8e 01 The construction of dfit with the Dat. is not found in Attic prose. It survives in the poetical style, and in Herodotus. 183.] The Accusative with dp,cf>i is used when the Verb ex- presses motion, as II. 5. 314 d/>ut 8' fbv (j)i\ov viov e\f.vaTo Tn/xe'e A.euKw. Also to express extent, diffusion over a space, &c. (ideas naturally conveyed by terms denoting motion) : Od. II. 419 us ap.(pl KprjTTJpa TpavtCas re TrA as we lay (scattered] about fyc. Accordingly it is especially used in Homer ~ (i) of dwellers about a place, as II. 2. 499, 751 &c. 1/2 PRErOSITIONS. [184. (2) of attendants or followers ; as II. 2. 445 01 8' a^fi 'Arpeuova . . 6vvov they bustled about Agamemnon. The description about (a person} does not exclude the person who is the centre of the group ; e.g. in II. 4. 294 (Agamemnon found Nestor) ovs erdpovs o-re'XXoyra . . d//i takes an Ace. is not motion to a point,, but motion over a space. Hence this Ace. is not to be classed with Accusa- tives of the terminus ad quern, but with the Accusatives of Space ( I 3^)- This remark will be confirmed by similar uses of other Prepositions. 184.] The Genitive with dfii is found in two instances, II. 1 6. 825 jj.d)((r0ov TtioaKos a^ 0X17775 fight over a small spring of water. Od. 8. 267 dei'8eu> d/x<' "Apeos ^tXorrjros KrX. Another example may perhaps lurk in II. 2. 384 eS 8e' rij ap/zaros afj.(f)ls Ibvv KrX. if we read d/z$t Fiouv (having looked over, seen, to his chariot). With this meaning compare II. 18. 254 d/x,$l /udXa $pdeo-0e : and for the construction the Attic use of Trep6op flet'eiz/ ra^vv exceeding swift to run. 1 8. 549 irfpi 6avp.a reVv/cro was an exceeding wonder. Od. 4. 722 Tre'pt ydp ^ot 'OXv/A7nos aXye' eSco/ce for Zeus has given to me griefs beyond measure. The meaning beyond is found in Tmesis, II. 12. 322 iro'Xe/Aou Trept roVSe uyoVrs escaping this war: II. 19. 230 TroXe/xoio -rrepi o-ruyepoto Xiircoyrat shall remain over from war : and in Composi- tion, Treptei/xi / excel, Treptyiyvo/xai 1 get beyond, surpass, TreptoiSa / know exceeding well (II. 13. 728 ftovXy Trepu'8/zez/ai dXXcoy to be knowing in counsel beyond others ; cp. Od. 3. 244., 17. 317). The Gen. in such constructions is ablatival ( 152). 1 86.] 'AM*I, KEPI. I7 3 186.] The Dative with irepi (as with a^i) is Locatival; as II. 1 . 303 epcoTjo-et Trepl bovpi will gush over (lit. round upon] the #pear ; 2. 389 Trept 8' eyxet X 6 V a Ka/xetrai Aw Aa#^ will be weary with holding the spear ; 2. 416 x"" pa irepiSiiaav, 15. 123 irepibeiaaaa Qtoiffi, 21. 328., 23. 822). Most commentators here take irepi = exceedingly and the Dat. of the person as a Dativus ethicus : irepl ydp Sit voipem for he feared exceedingly for the shepherd, &c. But it is difficult to find Homeric analogies for such a use of the Dative, and the meaning over, on behalf of is supported by later writers : H. Merc. 236 x ca ^ fvov ""*P<- &ovai, H. Cer. 77 a\vvij.fvriv irtpl iraiSi, Hdt. 3. 35 ntpl tojvToi SfipaivovTa, Thuc. I. 60 StSiores irept rA. ; also by the use of d|xf which the following are the chief instances : II. 4. 53 ray Siairtpaai, or' av roi dnexOwTai ntpl Kr)pi (cp. 4. 46, &C ). Od. 6. 158 Kftvos 8' av irepi afjpt fMucapraTos efoxoc aAAwr. II. 21. 65 irepi 8" ij0e\e Ov/ty (so 24. 236). 22. 70 a\vaffovTts irepl OV/M. Od. 14. 146 irepl yap p.' e. II. 16. 157 roiaiv rt irfpl ptalv affirtros d\/cf]. Od. 14. 433 rrepl yap pealv aifftjia ySij. In all these places the Dative may be construed as a Locative (although K-qpt without irepi is only found in H. 9. 117) : the only question is whether the Preposition is to be taken in the literal local sense round, all over, or in the derivative sense exceedingly. In favour of the latter it may be said that the same combinations of Preposition and Verb are found without a Dat. such as Ktjpi or Ovjxto, where accordingly irepi must mean exceedingly ; compare II. 13. 430 TTJV wf pi K?ipi i\rjae varri Od. 8. 63 rov irepl Moiio-' e(f>t\T)ff( Od. 14. 433 nepl yap peclv acrireros dAwJ ) Od. 12. 279 iripi TOI fifvos ) Od. 5. 36 irepl KTJPI Oebv ais ripjaovai ) II. 8. 161 irepl /J.(v ae T'IOV Aavaot. ' Again, in II. 4. 46 raw /xoi irepl Kijpi niaKero the meaning beyond is required by the Gen. rdaiv; cp. 4. 257 irfpl n*v ae TIOJ Aavaaiv t*)Qttt***, 7. 289 irepl 5" ey\ei 'Axaia/v (fteprarus effot, 17. 22 irepl oQive'i &\ep.eaivfi. So with the Ace. in II. 13. 631 irepl P evas I/pvr]v OLKL ZdevTo made their dwellings round Dodona. Generally speaking 1 the Accusative implies surrounding in a less exact or complete way than the Dative. It makes us think of the space about an object rather than of its actual circumference. Occasionally, of course, the circumference is the space over which motion takes place, or extent is measured : as II. 12. 297 pen/re pd/38otV eju/Lieyai to surpass all, Od. I. 235 &UTTOV fTroir/a'av Trept TtavTutv have made him unseen more than all men, 4. 23 1 e-rrio-ra/ieyos Trepl TrdvTtov. This use is distinctively Homeric. The Gen. is abla- tival, as with Adjectives of comparison ( 152). 2. With trepi = round, over (in the local sense) the Gen. is very rare ; the instances are Od. 5- 68 178' avrov TfTavvcTTO ?rept (TTretou? y 130 TOV fjJfv eycoi; eVaaxra Trept rpOTTio? /3e/3awra. The Gen. may be akin to the (partitive) Gen. of place ( 149) : the vine e. g. grew round in or over (but not covering] the cave. 3. With -nepi=over (the object of a contest), as II. 16. i &>s ol /xez> Trept vybs eiioWAjuoio payjovTO, 12. 142 afjiiivecrOai Trept vrj&v to defend the ships ; sometimes also in the figurative sense, about, II. II. 700 Trept TptTroSo? yap ejueA\oi> 0evo-es re 190.] HEPI, IIAPA. Trepi \jsvxns as when life is at stake ; and of doubt, II. 20. 17 77 rt Trepi Tpuxav Kal 'Axcuwy /xep/Ai7piei?. The use with Verbs of aw^r and fear is closely akin; II. 9. 449 7raAA.a/a8os Trepi x^ 7 " J 17. 240 vemvos Tre'pi 8ei'8ia (unless we read Trepixwo-aro, irepio'eiSia). The weapons of the contest are said to be f ought over in Od. 8. 225 epieo-/coy Trepi roo>y; so II. 15. 284 OTTTTOTC Kovpoi epio-o-eiai; Trepi p.v9a)v. And this is also applied to the quarrel itself, II. 16. 476 crvviTYiv epifios Trept Qvpofiopoio (cp. 2O. 253). Under this head will come the Gen. in II. 23. 485 rpnroSo? Trept8w//e0ov ^ us wager a tripod, Od. 23. 78 ffjuiOfv Trepi8o)(rop.ai avr?ys / will stake myself. Whatever may be the original meaning of irepiSocrOcu, it is construed as i=to join issue, contend (Lat. pignore certare) : cp. the Attic use Trept8i8op.ai TIVI Trepi (Gen. of the thing staked). By a not unnatural extension, Trepi with the Gen. follows Verbs meaning to speak, know, &c., but only in the Odyssey; viz. i. 135 ( = 3' 77) ^ va V- lv "Kepi TrctTpos aTrotxo/xeyoto epoiro ; 15. 347 ffor' aye piot Trept /xrjrpoj KrA. ; 17. 5^3 ^ a 7"P e ^ 7re P^ KetVou; also i. 405., 7. 191., 16. 234., 17. 371., 19. 270. Note that the cor- responding use of dfii with the Dat. is similarly peculiar to the Odyssey ( 182). The origin of this group of constructions is not quite clear. It may be noted, however, that they answer for the most part to constructions of the Gen. without a Preposition ; cp. afnvvtaOat irfpl vrjwv and d/^wfadai v^uv ; and again tine irtpl fjtrjTpos, olSa wept tcdvov, &c. with the examples given in 151, d. impel. 189.] The Preposition irapd (irapai, by Apocope irdp) means alongside. It is common in the adverbial use (see 177), and also in Tmesis and Composition. Note the derivative meanings (1) at hand, hence at command ; as II. 9. 43 Trap rot 680? the way is open to you; Od. 9. 125 ov yap KuKAwTreo-o-i ye'es Trapa. (2) aside; as II. II. 233 Trapat 8e' ot erpaTrer' eyxos the spear was turned to his side (instead of striking him). (3) hence figuratively, Trapa p ^Tra^e cozened me ' aside' away from my aim : and so TrapTreTri0a)j> changing the mind by per- suasion, TiapetTrajy talking over, &c. ; also, with a different metaphor, wrongly. (4) past, with Verbs of motion, as epxo/xat, eA.awa>, &c. 190.] With the Dative irapd means beside, in the company of, near. It is applied in Homer to both persons and things (whereas in later Greek the Dat. with irapci is almost wholly Jj6 PREPOSITIONS. [191. confined to persons) ; thus we have Trapa I/TJI, Trapa vr)va-L (very frequently), Trap' ap/xacri, Trapa fiu>fj. \a^,dbis /3aAe. Hence the use of the Ace. often implies motion: as II. u. 314 -ap' e/x' IOTCKTO place yourself beside me ; Od. I. 333 err?) pa Trapa (TTadpov came and stood beside the pillar ; II. 6. 433 Aaoi; Se a-njo-ov Trap' fptveov. Similarly of the place near which a weapon has struck, as II. 5. 146 K\i]iba Trap' ui^ov TrAr/fe struck the collar-bone by the shoulder. (2) of motion or extent alongside of a thing (esp. a coast, a river, a wall, &c.) ; II. I. 34 /3ij 5' a.Kteo? KovAeoi; atopro hung beside the sword-scabbard, r, (3) of motion past a place; as II. u. 166, 167 ol 8e Trap' "IAou aijij.a . . Trap 1 (piveov ecra-evovTo they sped past the tomb of Ilus, past the fig-tree ; 11. 6. 42 Trapa rpoyov e^eKvAurflrj rolled out past the wheel; II. 16. 312 ovra o'avra (rrepvov yv\j.vu>dvTa nap' do-TriSa passing the shield (implied motion, OVT a = thrust at and struck). The derivative meaning beyond ( = in excess of) is only found in Homer in the phrases Trap bvvapw (II. 13. 787) and Trapa fwlpav (Od. 14. 509): but cp. the Adj. TrapaiVios against fate. 192.] With a Genitive irapd properly means sideways from, aside from. As with the Dative, it is used of things as well as persons (whereas in later Greek it is practically restricted to persons). On the other hand it is confined in Homer to the local sense ; thus it is found with Verbs meaning to go, bring, take, &c. not (as afterwards) with aKova, navdavu), olba, or the like. An apparent exception is II. II. 794 i 8e nva pfa, Kai Tivd ol Trap Zyvos CTre'^paSe Trorna /jiTjrr/p, where however the notion of bringing a message is sufficiently prominent to explain the use. So II. n. 603 /ceida>i> struck him (aiming) pqst^the chariot. So too a A*. sword is drawn Trapa fj-r/pov sideways from the thigh. The same meaning lies at the root of the frequent use of irapd in reference to the act of passing from one person to another (as in 7ra/>aSi8a>/u and 7rapa8e'xo/xai), hence of gifts, messages, &c. It is usual to regard irapa with the Gen. as meaning from the side of, from beside, de chez. But this is contrary to the nature of a prepositional phrase. The Case-ending and the Stem must form a single notion, which the Pre- position then modifies ; hence (e. g. ) irapa ftr/pov means beside from-the-thigh, not from beside-lhe-thigh. This is especially clear where the Preposition is joined to a Verb ; Od. 19. 187 irapair\d-faaa MoA.eioij' driving-aside from- Maleae : and in II. 4. 97 TO w Kfv ty nafj.iTparra irap' asyXaa Supa ^>e//ojo the rhythm connects irapa with : in Tmesis, Od. 12. 312 fierd 8' aorpa /3e/3?7Ke the stars have changed their place. So jueTaTravo/xevoi (II. 17. 373) means with turns or intervals of rest. 194.] With the Dative ficrd means between or (less exactly) among. The meaning between is found in phrases such as /ucra Xepo-i, jmera TTOCTO-I, /xera $pe ( 145? 6). The construction of (lerd with the Dative is in the main Homeric. It is occasionally imitated in later poetry. 195.] With the Accusative fierd has the two meanings among and after. The meaning among is found after Verbs of motion with Plurals, and also with Collective Nouns, as p.eO' o^yvpiv, /xe0' o/xiAoy ', so //era belirvov to (join the company at] a feast, juera r ?/0ea /cat vofjLov tTnrcDV = to the pasture ground where other horses are. It occurs without a Verb of motion in II. 2. 143 7raz> fiiayjovro. 21. 458 ov8e /^ie0' T/juecof Treipa KrA. 24. 400 TtSi' /xera TraAAo/jtevo? KAr;/5(a Aax. ^- Od. IO. 320 /xer' aAAcoi; Ae'^o eratpaw. 16. 140 //era b[j.a>u>v T ein oi/cw Trire KrA. Of these instances the first is in a passage probably inserted afterwards to glorify the Athenians ; the second is in the 0ewir j, and therefore doubtful; in the third we should perhaps 198.] META, 'EHI. 179 write ftcTa-rraXXofiecos and construe of them casting lots in turn I was chosen. But the last two indicate that the use had crept colloquial language as early as the Odyssey, taking the place of auV or ajxa with the Dative. See 221. em. 197.] The Preposition em means over, upon ; sometimes after (as we speak of following upon) ; with, at (i. e. close upon) ; in addition, besides, esp. of an addition made to correspond wiih or complete something else ; also, attached to, as an inseparable in- cident or condition of a person or thing ; and conversely, on the condition, in the circumstances, &c. Examples of these meanings in the adverbial use are II. i. 462 em 5' aWo-na olvov Aei/3e poured wine over (the meat). 13. 799 irpb ptv T aAA', avrap kit a\\a in front behind. Od. i. 273 0eot 8' em fj.dprupoi eorcoy the gods lie witnesses thereto. 5. 443 * 1J- ' , eir- aAAao-o-o), &c. ; /br, in e-Tri-KAw^co z!o ,^m / w>^* a ?o;-^ unfinished: so II. 4. 178 eirt Tracrt m a// c'^* r/m/^ wz'^. N 2 iHo PREPOSITIONS. [199. (3) Od. 17. 454 V K a-P a " ot/ y *- eiSe'i KOI (frptvcs fjcrav with form thou hast not understanding too; II. 13. 485 T(38' c^i 0V|UG> with this spirit (too}; Hes. Theog. 153 la^ys cm a8ei. (4) Od. n. 548 roiwS' eir' deflAw with such a prize (when such a thing is prize) ; /xi for fxed hire (given the hire, hence in view of it). Ifeoz (5) 7r' fjijLaTifor the day, i. e. as the day's work, in a single Note also that em meaning upon very often takes the iifter Verbs of motion, as KaT^vfv CTT' ovbci poured on to the ground : hence with the meaning against, as CTT aX\riXoi CTT' avrriv there was a path leading to it ; II. 2. 218 firl aTr]0os o-vro^coKore bent in over the chest. Hence the phrases expressing attitude, as cm oro'/xa, CTTI yovva, &c. Two forms, ITTI 8e^ta and CTT' dpiorepa, are used even when motion is not expressed ; as II. 5. 355 cSpey l-Treira fiaxrjs kit apLfrrepa dovpov "Aprja ijfj.evov. Note however that e^' dptorepot? and eTr' dptarepcoj; are metrically impossible. 2. The use with persons in the meaning towards, in quest of, is rare, and almost confined to the Iliad : as 2. 18 /3?y 8' op' CTT' 'Arpcibriv 'Ayanfyvova, TOV 8' fKi^avfv : also 5* 59-> IO - J ^> 54^ 85, 150., IT. 343, 805., 12. 342., 13. 91, 459-; J 4- 24v 16. 535., 21. 348, Od. 5. 149. 3. The meaning over, with Verbs of motion, is very common ; eTTi TTOVTOV (lo>v. TrAecov, e seen that they are from books 9, 10, 23, 24. Notice also the use with Neuters expressing quantity ; as II. 5. 772 Tocrvov em Qp^crKovm to such, a distance they bound ; also em TroAAoy a long way, em l tf^s all night and on through morning and midday. 200.] The Genitive with em is used in nearly the same sense as the Dative, but usually with less definitely local force; in particular (1) with words expressing the great divisions of space, esp. when a contrast is involved (land and sea, &c.) ; as eirl Xe'p so bearing down on, as II. - 1 3. 6 TTCTovTai e?r' 'HKeavoio podav : II. 5- 7 TrporpfirovTO jtxe- /* ' : CTTI vrj&v : Od. 3. 171 yeoi/xe^a y?7(rou em ^U/JITJS e cowr#tf #y ^e w/a^ Psyria. So perhaps II. 7. 195 ) (ny?/ e' v^idtav (keeping the words) to yourselves. (4) of time; eV clprivr^s (II. 2. 797, &c.) ; em Trporepcoy avdpu- TIVV (II. 5. 637, &c.). Cp. the Gen. of Time, 150. In later prose the Gen. is very common, and the uses become indistinguishable from those of the Dat. i OTTO. 201.] The Preposition uiro (also uTrai) usually means beneath, as in II. 2. 95 VTTO 8e a-TfvaxiCfro yala the earth groaned beneath (their tread]. The original sense, however, seems to have been upwards, as in the Superlative vV-aros uppermost (cp. in/a aloft, VTT-TI.OS facing upwards). On this view we can understand why 1 82 PREPOSITIONS. [2O2. UTTO is not applied (like icard) to express downward motion. Hence, too, it is especially used of supporting a thing, as II. i. 486 VTTO 5' epjuara fia/cpa rdinxrcrav : and on the same principle it expresses resistance to a motion (whereas Kard implies yielding, going with the stream &c.) ; as II. . 505 VTTO 8' fov ^yto^es the drivers wheeled them up, i. e. to face (the Trojans) : and so vTr-aiTiacras meeting face to face, vTfo-y.f.vut to stand against (as we say, up to] ; and with the derived notion of answering, v-Tr-aeiSco / sing in correspondence, V7ro-Kpu>op.cu ( = Att. a-noKpivo^aC), VTTO- )3aAAa> I take up (a speaker), inr-aKova* I hear in reply, i. e. show that I hear (by answering or obeying). So too the Compounds 6<|>-op&>, uir-oij/ios, urnS-Spa, &c. do not express looking down, but looking upwards from under ; even in II. 3. 217 viral 8e iSea/ce Kara \9ovos o)u,;xara irT/^as it is the face that is bent downwards : ep. II. 19. 17. From the notion of being immediately under is derived that of being moved by, i. e. of agency or cause. The transition may be seen in V7ro-ei/ca) I give way (before], V7ro-rpea> &c. ; so II. 16. 333 was warmed by (the blood). 202.] With the Dative fat is very common in the simple local meaning, under. It is sometimes found with Verbs of motion, as Od. 4. 297 8e/m' ^ ir ' ai^ovcnj Bf^fvai ; and even when motion from is intended, in II. 18. 244 lAucrai> v(f) apuacriv wxeas ITTTTOUS. In this case however we have to consider that ap^droiv is metri- cally impossible. The derived sense under the charge or power is found in such uses as II. 5- 231 v<$) rjvio^ (of horses), 6. 139 Zevs yap ot VTTO (r/cTJTrrpo) eSa/xacro-e, 6. 171 0e<3z; VTT' aiiv^ovi -TTO/XTTT/ : also, with the notion of an effect produced (where the Gen. would therefore be rather more natural), VTTO x e P"' (oanijvai, davteiv, &c.), VTTO bovpi (-Tv-ntis, &c.) ; II. 13. 667 yoyo-fa) VTT' dpyaXe'^ <}>6i(r0aL, Od. 4. 295 UTTIXI) VTTO yAuKeptp rapTr&Sjue^a : and often of persons, as II. 5- 93 VTTO Tu8ei8?7 -jrvKtvat K\OVCOVTO 203.] The Accusative is used with UTTO (i) of motion ^o a point under, as II. 2. 216 VTTO "lAjoj; 77X^6 c/we under (the walls of] Troy. 17. 309 TOV fia\.' VTTO K\7]i5a fjilorriv (so often with Verbs of striking, &c.). Also (2) of motion passing under, and hence of extent under : Od. 15. 349 i TTOW In f&joucrii; VTT' auyas i)eAtoio i. e. anywhere that the sun shines (cp. VTT' rjaj T ^Kiov re an equivalent phrase). II. 2. 603 o\ 8' lx oj; 'ApKaSirji' VTTO Kt>AA.7jj;77? opos. 3. 37 1 "yX e ^^ V- lv "ToAvKeoros l/xas a-TroA^i; VTTO 8eip?7i> (i.e. passing under the throat). 204.] "rno. 183 In one or two places it is applied to time : II. 16. 202 Tcavd 1 VTTO //.Tjvifljuo'y all the time that my anger lasted ; so perhaps II. 22. 102 vvyQ' 1 VTTO rrivb' dAoTjz; (but night is often regarded as a space of darkness). 204.] The Genitive with uiro is found in two or three distinct uses : (i) with the force of separation from : as II. 17. 235 veKpbv VTT Aiavros fpvetv from under Ajax ; Od. 9. 463 VTT apveiov so II. 19. 17 oWe beivbv VTTO jSAe^apcoi; a>s ei cre'Aay In this use the Gen. is ablatival, cp. 152. Originally OTTO with an Abl. probably meant upwards from : see 192- (2) of place under, with contact (especially of a surface) ; as II. 8. 14 VTTO \dovos eon flepeOpov- Od, U-S2 Od. 5' 34^ T obe Kpribep.vov VTTO crTepvoio Tavva-aai. II. I. 501 beiTprj b' ap' VTT' arOepe&vos eAoOcra taking hold of him under the chin. 4. 1 06 VTTO orepyoto Tv^ricras. 16. 375 tty 4 S' aeAAa o-KibvaO' inr6 ve(j>ta)v, i. e. seeming to reach the clouds (cp. 15. 625., 23. 874). These uses of the Gen. are evidently parallel to some of those discussed in 149 and 151 ; compare (e.g.) into veQeuv with the Gen. of space within which (Tre&uno diwKetr, &c.), and vit avOepe&vos eAouo-a with KO/IXTJS eAe ( 151 a ) took by the hair. They are doubtless to be regarded (like the Gen. with em, 200) as varieties or developments of the Genitive of Place.' As with the Dative, the notion under passes into (3) the metaphorical (or half metaphorical) meaning under the influence of, by the power of; as II. 3. 61 os T tlcriv bia bovpbs VTT avepos under the man's hand ; Od. 19. 114 aperwwi 8e Aaoi VTT' avrov under his rule ; and many similar uses. Cases may be noted in which the agency intended is indirect (where later writers would rather use bia with an Ace.) : II. 1 6. 590 rjv pa T av-qp a ft 1/6 ?}e Kat tv TToAe^w brjtwv VTTO 0vp.opairj Ais. So of other accompaniments, as II. 18. 492 baibuv VTTO kap.TTOneva.wv by the light of blazing torches. 184 PREPOSITIONS. [205. irpcm. 205.] The Preposition irpori (irpos, TTOTI) expresses attitude or direction towards an object. It is found in the adverbial use; Od. 5. 255 Trpoy 8' apa iri]bd\iov Tnw/o-aro he made a rudder to be put to (the raft); hence commonly in addition, besides a use which remained in later Greek. It is a question whether ir-pori and TTOTI are originally the same word. The present text of Homer does not indicate any differ- ence of usage. 206.] With the Dative irpori means resting on, against, beside a thing : as II. 4. 1 12 TTOTL yaiy ayK\ivas resting (the boio] against the ground : Od. 5- 329 irpos aAA?jArj(rty t\ovTai hold on to one another. With Verbs of motion it implies that the motion ends on or beside the object; Od. 9. 459 6ei.voiJ.tvov npbs ovbe'i. *A]\ The later meaning besides, in addition, is only found in Od. 10. 68 aacrdv fi' erapoi re KOKOI 77/369 rotcri re virvos. 207.] With the Accusative irpri nayjtcrdai to Jight with a man in opposition to a god ; also addressing (persons), with Verbs of speaking, &c. ; in one place of time, Od. 17. 191 TTOTI ecnrepa towards evening. Note that the literal local sense appears in all the Homeric uses of irpoTi with the Ace. : the metaphorical uses, viz. in respect of, for the purpose of, in proportion to, according to, &c., are later. 208.] With the Genitive irport expresses direction without the idea of motion towards or rest on the object : as Od. 13. no at [&.v irpbs /3ope'ao . . at 8' av Trpos VOTOV i. e. not at or facing the north and south, but more generally, in the direction fixed by north and south ; II. 10. 428-430 Trpos fj.fv ctAos . . irpbs 0vju/3pjjs : II. 22. 198 TTort TTTo'Atos in the direction of Troy ; Od. 8. 29 ije irpbs e(nrepiu>v avdpdt-nMv (=from east or west). Among derived senses we may distinguish (1) at the hand of, from (persons), as II. i. 160 Ttpbs Tptowv, II. 831 TO. ere Trport (pacriv ^ (2) on the part of, by the will of, as II. i. 239 ot re Tipbs Atos etpvarat who uphold judgments on behalf of Zeus ; II. 6. 456 Trpbs aAA?)y IOTOJ; vcpaivois at another's bidding : and, perhaps in a metaphorical sense, Od. 6. 207 irpbs yap Atos etcrii; aTraires eu>ot re 7iT(\oi re. 210.] HPOTI, 'ANA. 185 (3) before, ~by (in oaths and entreaties); as II. 13. 324 -rrpos Trarpos yovvd(op.ai I entreat in the name of thy father. The Preposition here implies that the god or person sworn by is made a party to the act ; cp. Od. 1 1 . 66 vvv 8e being preferred) except in the elliptical oVa up ! But it has a derivative adverbial sense in II. 18. 562 jue'Acu/es 8' ava jSorpves rj to put off. a.v& is seldom used with the Dative ; the meaning is up on (a height of some kind), as II. i. 15 xpu <**> o-/c^7rrp&) raised on a golden staff; 15. 152 ava Tapyapo); so 8. 441., 14. 352., 18. 177., Od. ii. 128^23. 275., 24. 8. This use is occasionally found in Pindar (Ol. 8. 67, Pyth. i. 10), and lyric parts of tragedy, but is not Attic. With the Genitive d^d is only used in three places in the Odyssey (2. 416., 9. 177^ 15. 284), and only of going on board a ship (ava vrjos /3atVo)). The meaning up from is only found in Composition : avebv voXiijs dXos, &c. 210.] With the Accusative dcd means up along, up through, of motion or extent : ava aa-rv, a/i Ttebiov, ava 8w/xara, av' obov, av c EAAd8a, &c. ; II. 5. 74 av obovras VTTO yXSxraav ra/xe x a ^ KO ' s ^ ne spear cut its way up through the teeth and under the tongue ; so ava oTo'/xa, used literally (II. 16. 349., 22. 452, &c.), and also of words uttered, II. 2. 250 fiao-iXfjas ava oroV fyav having the kings passing through your mouth (i. e. talking freely of them) ; similarly ava 6vp.6v of thoughts rising in the mind. Note also the applica- tion to mixing, as Od. 4. 41 Trap 5' tfiaXov (etas, ava be *cpi \(VKOV f^av ', cp. Od. 9. 209 (with the note in Merry and Riddell's edition). The Accusative is evidently one of Space ( 138), 1 86 PREPOSITIONS. [211. The use with collective Nouns, as av o^ikov through the press, V.ayj]v ava, au ovov av vciivas, &c. seems to be peculiar to the Iliad. The use in II. 14. 80 ava VUKTO, may be explained either of time or of space: cp. uiro VUKTO, ( 203), Sici vuina ( 215). The meaning up on, up to (of motion) may be traced in II. 10. 466 6rJKv ava /XU/HKIJZ; : Od. 22. 176 KIOV' av v\^rjA.?jz; cpvcrai. draw (the cord] up to a high pillar ; perhaps in the phrase ava 6' appara ' tfiaivov (Od. 3. 492, &c.). KttT{. 211.] The Preposition nard (by Apocope K<18, &c.) means cloicn, and is parallel in most uses to avd. It is never purely adverbial (xarco being used instead, cp. av(t>), but is common in Tmesis, as II. I. 436 Kara 8e TTpv^vijcri ebrja-av, 19. 334 Kara Trajn- Trav TeOvdiJLfv, &c., and in Composition. Besides the primary sense (seen in /car-ayco / bring down, Kara-vevM / nod downwards, i. e. in assent, &c.) it often has the meaning all over, as Kara-eiwo> / clothe, Karaxe'co I pour over ; hence completely, as Kara Travra (payelv to eat all up, Kara-Kreu>a> I kill outright: also in the place, as before, as /cara\enra> / leave where it was, &c. Kara is not used with the Dative. If such a use ever existed it was superseded by UTTO (just as avd, with the Dat. gave way to em). The possibility of the combination may be seen from the phrases /car' avroQi, /car' avOi. 212.] With the Accusative Kara means down along, down through, as Kara poov down stream ; cp. II. 16. 349 ava through the city, &c. : again, Kara Qpeva Kal Kara Ovuov in mind and spirit. Other varieties of use are : (1) with collective Nouns (chiefly in the Iliad), as Kara arrparov through the camp, Tr6h.ep.ov Kara, Kara K\OVOV, &c. (2) with Plurals (less common), as Kar' OVTOVS going among them, Kar' avdpu>Trov$ dXaXija-^at. (3) of the character or general description of an action, as Kara 7rpfjiv (aA.aA?70-0e) on a piece of business, fi\6ov Kara XP e ' 7r\a(6p.fvoi Kara Arjida (all in the Odyssey). (4) to express place ; esp. of wounds, e.g, Kar' couov about (some- where on) the shoulder. Cp. II. I. 484 IKOITO Kara o-rparov arrived opposite (within the space adjoining) the camp ; Od. 5. 441 TroroftoTo Kara crro/xa te vlav. 2 1 5.] KATA, AIA. !8; (5) to express agreement (from the notion of falling in with], in the phrases Kara dvpov, Kara KOCT^OV, Kara juoipav, KOT' aurar. (6) distributively : as II. 2. 99 ep?jn;0ei> 8e Ka0' eSpas their several seats ; and so in 2. 362 Kpu>' aySpas Kara tcard XP** is like dyye\ir]v tXQtiv : in /rarct Koapov it is like the adverbial Sfpas, 0*771', &c. : Kpivt KO.T& Ke'xvr' ax\vs a mist was shed over his eyes ; Kara yat?js down in the earth. /2'<)3> Comparing the similar uses of Im ( 200), UTTO ( 204, 2), and irpoTi ( 208), we can hardly doubt that the Gen. in this latter group is originally akin to the Genitives of Place ( 149). Sid. 214.] The Preposition 8 seems to mean properly apart, in twain. It is not used freely as an Adverb ; but the original sense appears in the combinations 8ta7rpo, Sia/xTrepes, and in Tmesis and Composition, as 8ta-o-r^ai to stand apart ; Sia-rajxvco / cut asunder; bia KTrja-iv bareovTo divided the possession. From the notion of going through it means thoroughly^ as in 8ia-7rep0&> / sack utterly. In several Compounds, as bia-ra^vca, 8i-aipeco, 8ia-8a7rra>, the notion of division is given by the Preposition to the Verb ; e. g. a> I separate by cutting, &c. 215.] The Accusative with 8i< is often used to denote the space through which motion takes place : as II. i. 600 8ia bu>fj.ara TronrvvovTa bustling through the palace (so 8ia (TTre'os, 8ta ftrfa-cras, 8ia pcoTTTji'a, &c.). 14. 91 [jivdov ov ov KV o.vf\p -ye 8ia o-rop.a irafiTrar ayotro ( = with which a man would not sully his mouth: cp. dz;a oro'p-a, 2io). Od. 9. 400 wKeov ev T 3- JST., 19. 154, 523. These places do not show the later distinction between by means of and by reason of. 216.] The Genitive with Sid implies passing through some- thing in order to get beyond it; esp. getting through some obstacle: as II. 4- 135 OL ^- t^ v &P &o"rijpos eA.?jA.aro. So of a gate, II. 3. 263 bia S/canSz; fyov ITTTTOVS : and of lower and upper air, &c. 6Y Tjepos aldzp LKavtv, 8Y aldepos ovpavbv IKC, TrebCovbe 8ta re^ecov. So again 5ta Ttpo^ayjMv, oV 6/itAou &c. of making way through the press. The Ace. is used where we expect this Gen. in II. 7. 247 e 5e Sia TjTvxas- jjAtfe we^ through six folds : but this may be partly due to the metrical impossibility of Trruxwi>. Conversely, in II. 10. 185 os re Ko.6' v\r]v fpxnraL bi op(ri is perhaps a false archaism: but cp. 158. 217.] The Preposition uirep (or uireip) means higher, hence over, beyond. It is not found in the adverbial use, or in Tmesis, or with a Dative. In Composition uWp expresses going across or beyond, hence excess, violation of limits, &c. 218.] With the Accusative uirep is used (1) of motion or extent over a space, as II. 23. 227 vnelp a\a KibvaTcu ijcos. This use is not common; II. 12. 289., 24. 13, Od. 3. 68i) 4. 172., 9. 254, 260. (2) of motion passing over an object: as II. 5. 1 6 vnep a^ov, apicrrfpov T/A.U0' d/oK?7 ; Od. 7. 135 virtp ovbbv e/STjVeTo. (3) metaphorically, in excess of, in violation of: v-jrep alcrav, inrcp polpav, vvfp opKia: also, somewhat differently, II. 17. 327 vTitp 0eov in spite of God. 219.] With the Genitive oire'p is used both of position and of motion over an object, esp. at some distance from it ; as orr; 8' ap inrep Ke^aA^?; II. 15. 382 vrjbs vnep roi^v (of a wave com- 221.] AIA, 'THEP, ENI, 2TN. 189 ing) over the sides of a ship: II. 23. 327 oaov T opym trip alrjs a fathoms length above ground. Metaphorically it means over so as to protect, hence in defence of, on behalf of; as II. 7. 449 mxo? eretxiVo-avro ve&v vrnp ; II. I. 444 eKa.ToiJ.(3r)v pVfcu inrep &avalW*'l) (2) with abstract words (rare in the Iliad) ; h TrdvTeva-i. TTOVOHTI (II. 10. 245, 279), (v iravTea-cr Ipyoto-i (II. 23. 671), fv aAye(Tt (II. 24. 568) ; daXiri cvi (II. 9. 143, 285), ev vrjiner) (IL 9. 491) ; (v (^tAorrjrt ; kv poiprj aright (II. 19. 1 86), at) our feast. It is used with an Instrumental Dative ( 144). To express equally with, or at the same time as, Homer uses ajxa with a Dat. ; while true commonly means attended by, ivith the help of, &c. Hence ), and seldom in Tmesis : II. 8. 115 ro> 8' et? a/i^orepco Ato/xTjSeos ap/xara jSTjrrjv. The motion is sometimes implied: as II. 15. 275 eAevo-ojuer ^ we tf>fe counsel to one purpose ; II. 9. 102 eiireu; eis ayadov to speak to good effect (so n. 789., 23. 305). It 223.] The Preposition e (or CK) usually expresses motion out from an object. It is not used purely adverbially, but there are many examples of Tmesis : as e epoy evro, ex 8e ol rjvio^os TT\rjyr) (frptvas his charioteer lost (lit. was struck out of) his wits, IK re KOI o\/re reXei (II. 4. 161) ^e? brings it to pass (eKreXei) /fl^. With a Gen. (ablatival) e^ is used of motion from or out of. Sometimes the idea of motion is implied: II. 13. 301 CK PTJKTJS 'EQvpovs fj.tTa Oapricrcrto-dov armed them- selves to come from Thrace after the Ephyri. 14. 129 Hv9a 8' eTTeir' avrot fjitv e)(a)/xe^a Srj'ior^ros ex /SeXecor ^o/ Tjrop. Note also : II. IO. 68 Trarpofler ex yez;e?js 6z/o/idC calling them by the father s name according to family; II. 9. 343 (486) e/c 6vfj.ov from the heart, heartily (but II. 23. 595 e* dvpov Treo-eeiy fo /a^ away from a persons favour], diro. 224.] The Preposition Awo means off, away, at a distance from. It is not used adverbially, but is common in Tmesis ; as II. 8. 1 08 ovs TTOT' aii Alvfiav eAo'p)z> which I took from Aeneas. In Composition it generally gives the Verb the notion of separating; e.g. aTro-KoirTu) is not / hew at a distance, but I separate by hew- ing : so aTreKo'oTxeoy cleared away (Od. 7. 232), and similarly cbro- 8vo), aTro/3aAAa>, aTroAovco, aTiopprj-yvv^i, diroKcnnKO (all used in Tmesis). Hence we must explain II. 19. 254 airb rpi^as apd- fjLfvos cutting hair as an dirapxTJ, or first offering ; cp. Od. 3. 446., 14. 422. Sometimes d has the force of restoration or return, as in a-no- 6i8o)/xi, aTro-yoareo) (cp. a\|f backwards}. So airo-enrelv means either to speak out or to forbid, refuse. In a few cases it has an in- tensive force, as in d'Tro/x.Tji'uo, aTtriyjStTo, aTro^au/xd^o). With the Genitive diro generally expresses motion away from, not implying previous place within the object (whereas e means proceeding from). It is also used of position, as II. 8. 16 ocrov ovpavos eor' a-rrb yaiT/s as far as heaven is from earth ; Od. I. 49 (friXav UTTO Trrj/xara -naa^fi suffers woes far from his friends ; meta- phorically, II. i. 562 OTTO dvfjLov /xSAAoy fyol Ifreoi you will be the more out of favour with me; a-no SO'^TJS away from expectation. This Gen. is clearly ablatival. 225.] The Preposition irpo means forward, in front. It is seldom used as an Adverb; II. 13. 799 irpb ptv T aAA', xrA. ; II. 16. 1 88 eayaye Trpo 0o'ooo-8e brought forth to the light: and of time, II. i. 70 Trpo T fovra the past. In one or two other instances we may recognise either the free adverbial use or Tmesis : II. i. 195 Trpo ydp rJKf, I. 442 Trpo' p.' eire/A^e, Od. l. 37 Trpo ot eiTrop,ei>. Traces of a use of irpo with the Locative may be seen in the phrases ovpavodi Trpo in the face of heaven, '\Xi6Qi Trpo in front of (y6j tf$\ Troy, and (perhaps in the temporal sense) 7}<30i Trpo' before dawn. /{So f6f In these cases the meaning is to the front in, hence immediately before. Jljuu^ (%. o/3oio for- ivard in the flight, i.e. having betaken themselves to flight (so Diintzer a. I.]. The temporal sense is rare in Homer; Od. 15. 524., 17. 476 7T/>o yapoLo before marriage j II. 10. 224 xat re TT/JO 6 ro> tvorjo-e one thinks of a thing before another. dcrt. h 226.] The only certain Compound with dm in Homer appears to be avTi-(pp(r0ai to oppose (II. I. 589., 5. 701., 22. 482, Od. 16. 238) : for the Verbs dvri/3oA.eo> meet and diriropeoo pierce may be derived from the Nouns dvri-/3oAos, avri-ropos : also in II. 8. 163 we may read yvvaiKos ap } avrl re'rt>o, not dyrereYuo (cp. Od. 8. 546 o-vrl Kaa-Lyvi]Tov fetvo's 6' IK^TTIS re re'ruKrai), and in Od. 22. 74 for dyrio^eo-^e (/5o/^ _/? against} avr' itrxeo-^e (*'. e. avra lo-^eo-^e, cp. Od. I. 334 avra itapeiaatv a-^o^vr] \mapa Kpr/beuva). drri also resembles the Improper Prepositions (esp. the Adverbs avra, O.VTLOV, &c.) in being used with the Gen., but not with the Dat. or Ace. It means in place of, hence in the character of, equivalent to: as II. 21. 75 avrt roi dp' Uerao. Double Prepositions. 227.] It is characteristic of Homer to form a species of com- pound by combining two Prepositions. We have df4! irpi, like our round about : also irfpi T evet3s in like manner. etui's takes a Gen. in the meaning aside from (II. 8. 444., 23. 393, Od. 14. 352). It is also found with the Ace. in the same sense as apfyl, in the phrase dtol Kpovov a^tyls eoVres, II. 14. 274., 15. 225 (see also II. u. 634, 748, Od. 6. 266); and once with a Dat., viz. in II. 5, 723 o-t8?]pea) aozn adepts. Also as an Adv. = around in II. 9. 464., 24. 488. eiffw generally takes an Accusative, as tf IAioz> eio-co to Ilium : but a Gen. in Od. 8. 290 6 8' eto-co Sw/zaros ^ei went inside the house (not merely to the house). The word ws was supposed to govern an Accusative in one place in Homer, viz. Od. 17. 218 o>? cuei TOV ojuoioy ayet 0eos &>s TOV opoiov. But the true construction is (as Mr. Ridgeway has pointed out) o>s o>s as God brings like as he brings like, i. e. deals with a man as he dealt with his like (see Journal of Philology, vol. xvii. p. 113). Note the frequency of Compounds formed by one of these words following a Preposition : iv-avra, tta-avra, av-avra, K&T-avra, irap-avra., tv-avriov, Kar-fv- O 194 PREPOSITIONS. [229. avridV : tn-irpoaOtv, irpo-irapotOt, fttT'OiriaQtv, air-avtvOtv, av-arfpdfv, diro-voff(f>i, i/w-fffpde, Ka.T-a.VTiKpv. Cp. a.v-fii\a, Si-afAirtpfs, naT-avTu6t, &c. These are not true Compounds (o-uvOtra), but are formed by irapdOto-is, or mere juxta- position : i. a. they do not consist of two members, of which the first is wholly employed in limiting or qualifying the second, but of two adverbial words qualifying the same Verb. Thus they are essentially akin to the combinations formed by a Preposition and its Case : see 178. Homeric and Attic uses of Prepositions. 229.] The development of the language between the Homeric and the Attic period is especially shown in the uses of Preposi- tions. It may be convenient here to bring together some of the chief points. 1 . Most of the Prepositions, but esp. dfiij ircpi, impd, Itri, uiro, irpoTi, eVi are used in Homer adverbially, i. e. as distinct words Afterwards they become mere unaccented words or prefixes. 2. A variety of the same process shows itself in the disuse of Tmesis. Besides the Prepositions already mentioned, this applies to fierd, dyd, Kara, Sid, e, dire, els. In these processes of development we have seen that the loss of independent meaning is accompanied by a change (which is in all probability simply a loss) of accent. 3. The construction with the Dative (which is mostly loca- tival) is the one in which the Preposition retains most nearly its own 'adverbial' meaning so much so that it is often doubtful whether the Preposition can be said to ' govern ' the Case at all. Accordingly we find that this construction is comparatively rare in Attic. It is virtually lost (except as a poetical survival) with dp.i, irepi, p-CTd, dvd, and ow. 4. On the other hand the Genitive is more frequent in Attic, and not confined (as it generally is in Homer) to uses in which it has either an ablatival or a quasi-partitive sense. Thus it is used with dji^i, ircpi, and p-crd : also with Bid of motion through. In such uses as these the Case ceases to have a distinct meaning : it merely serves (as with the Improper Prepositions) to show that the Noun is governed by the Preposition. 5. The development of meaning is chiefly seen in the exten- sion from the literal sense of place to various derivative or metaphorical senses. Some of these senses are beginning to be used in the Homeric language : e.g. dp.<}>i with the Dat. = about, concerning ; ircpt with the Gen. (probably also the Dat.) in the same meaning ; irapd with the Ace. = in excess of, in violation of; p-erd with the Ace. = after ; cm with the Ace. = towards (a person) : Sid with the Ace. = owing to : e| = in consequence of. Others may safely be counted as post- Homeric ; note in particular 230.] INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 195 i with the Acc. = about, nearly (of time and number); also = concerning, in relation to: with the Dat. = in the opinion of; with the Kcc. = during the continuance of; also compared with : with the Ace. = answering to; also during the time of: with the Gen. = about, against : 4iri with the Dat. = in the power of: with many phrases in which the force of the Preposition is vague, such as 81' opyrjs, ava Kparos, irpos (3iav, e/c TOV ep.(f)a- vovs, &c. 6. There are slight but perceptible differences between the usage of the Iliad and that of the Odyssey ( 182, 188, 196, 199, 215). Some uses, again, are peculiar to one or two books of the Iliad, esp. 9, 10, 23, 24 : see 199 (4), 220, 223 (fin.). CHAPTER X. THE VERBAL NOUNS. Introductory. 23O.] The preceding chapters deal with the Simple Sentence : that is to say, the Sentence which consists of a single Verb, and the subordinate or qualifying words (Case-forms, Adverbs, Pre- positions) construed with it ( 131). We have now to consider how this type is enlarged by means of the Verbal Nouns. The Infinitive and Participle, as has been explained ( 84), are in fact Nouns : the Infinitive is an abstract Noun denoting the action of the Verb, the Participle a concrete Noun expressing that action as an attribute. They are termed ' Verbal ' because they suggest or imply a predication, such as a finite Verb ex- presses (e. g. epxerai aycoy avrovs implies the assertion ayei avrovs), and because the words which depend upon or qualify them are construed with them as with Verbs (ay-e'eo-0ai, 3>/>ro Trerecrflai, &c. Cp. also II. I. 22 (Trev(j)riiJ.riopijvai, TroAATjcriz; vr} vrjvcrlv cTre'r/aeTrey olnov airavra TcAfarftu re yepoj/rt KCU e/r7re8a "navra (pv\do-creiv *cre for shouting (=zso that one could shout) both ways. 13. 775 *L TOI 6vp.bs avainov alridao-dat since your mind is for blaming (is such that you must blame] the innocent. Od. 17. 2O ov yap em orafyioio-i ptvtiv en r^Ai/cos ei/xi I am not yet of the age to remain. 17. 347 at8ci)s 6' OVK aya9ri Kex/^jtieVa) d^8pt 7rapeiz;at shame is not good to be beside a needy man (is not a good ' backer ' for). 21. 195 "noioi K etr' 'Oovcrrji. fajjajvepev et TtoOev tX6oi;how would you behave in regard to fighting for Ulysses ? Od. 2. 60 fifitK 5' ou vv n roioi anwefuv may be either we are not like him, so as to defend, or simply ice are not fit to defend. The construction of the Inf. is the same in either case : the difference is whether roioi means ' of the kind ' with reference to ofos 'OSvcrfffvs taice or to the Inf. dfuwffjitv. The latter may be defended by Od. 17. 20 (quoted above). This construction is extended to some Nouns even when they are not used as predicates ; as dtUiv rax^s swift to run, Bav^a. ibepr] evoetv there is a time for fyc. So with al avdyKri, albas, beos, eA.7ra>p7j, &c. followed by an Infinitive to express what the fate, need, shame, &c. brings about, or in what it consists. These examples throw light on two much-debated passages : II. 2. 291 77 fJ.r)v Kal irovos early avirjQivTa vftaffat verity there is toil for a man to return in vexation, i. e. ' I admit that the toil is enough to provoke any one to return.' Thus understood, the expression is a slightly bold use of the form of sentence that we have in wpij karlv eCSecc, fiotpa iarlv d\vai, Ovpus eartv avainov ainaaffOai, &c. The other interpretation, ' it is toil to return vexed,' though apparently easier, is not really more Homeric ; and it certainly does not fit the context so well. II. 7. 238 o?S' errt 5eia, olS' kit' dpiarefM voj^rjaai 05>v d.^a\(t]v, TO /j.oi effTt ra\avpivov iro\(j.ifiv I know how to turn my shield of seasoned ox-hide to the right and to the left, wherefore 1 have that wherewith to war in stout-shielded fashion ( = 1 have a good claim to the title of raXavpivos -iro\ftia"rfis, elsewhere an epithet of Ares). Here TTI is used as in tanv dJSeiv, &c. In II. 13. 99-101 ^ jJ.tya 0avfj.a TO&' o0a\(toiaiv dpwftai, fpaias t/j.cu (=$avjM effn) : opaco does not take an Inf. ( 245). 234.] Infinitive as apparent Subject, &c. In the Imper- sonal uses the Infinitive appears to stand as Subject to the Verb ; apyaXeov eort QktrQai making is hard ; ov /u,ey yap TL K.O.&OV /3acri- Aeue'juey to oe a king is not a lad thing. This construction how- ever is not consistent with the original character of the Infinitive. It is plain that ea-riv tvbeiv can never have meant ' sleeping is/ but ' there is (room &c.) for sleeping ' : and so apya\eov eori 0(r6aL is originally, and in Homer, it (the case, state of things, fyc.) is hard in view of making. It is only in later Greek that we have the form apyaXtov eort TO OtvQai., in which 0treiW0ai. 4. 345 fi'da aoibrjv Tepireiv : II. n. 2O TOV Trore' 01 Kiwpijs 5a>ce ivrjiov di-ai ; thence it comes to mean ' to give (such a state of things) that some event shall happen/ i. e. to grant the happening ; as 8os Tivaa-Oai grant that I may punish. In such a passage as II. 3. 322 TOV 8os a.TTO(f)9i^fvov bvvai, /crA. we may take TOV with bos or as an Ace. with the Inf. bvvai. A Neuter Pronoun, too, may serve as a vague Object, ex- plained by an Infinitive; e.g. II. 5. 665-6 TO pev ov m eTre^pa- veKV(ai)\KaraTf6vr](^T(i)v yiyvtr 67ret /ce 6dv(acri 7rvpos ^e a>/ca 7. f. there is no grudging about the appeasing of the dead. Hence is developed an idiomatic use of the Genitive parallel to that of the Accusatives de quo: see Shilleto on Thuc. I. 61, i. 235.] With Relatives. It is remarkable that the use of the Infinitive with u>s, ws re, otos, oaos, &c. is rare in Homer. The familiar construction of d>s re only occurs twice : II. 9. 42 eWo-- crurat u>s re vttfrQai is eager to return, and Od. 17. 2O ov yap eTrt (TTa6[j.ol(n ns r' eTnreiAajueVw . . 7H0e'cr0ai. The other instances are: Od. 21. 173 rotoy olo'y re ep-evai *wcy5 owe a* fo; Od. 5. 484 oa-trov re . . epwrtfat so far as to shelter ; Od. 19. 160 avi]p olos re ^aAio-ra OIKOU K?]8ei\ before touching the white flesh. The tense is nearly always the Aorist : the exceptions are, Od. 19. 475 Trplv dp.(pa(pdaor0cu (a verb which has no Aorist), and II. 1 8. 245 irdpo? bopiToio jue'6ea-0ai. Perhaps however pie'8eo-0ai is an Aorist : see 31, 2. n-pic with the Indicative first appears in H. Apoll. 357 Trpiv ye ot Ibv e. For the use with the Subj. see 297. Jhe origin of this singularly isolated construction must evidently be sought in the period when the Infinitive was an abstract Noun ; so that (e. g.~) Trplv Supevai meant before the giving. The difficulty is that a word like irpCv would be construed with the Ablative, not the Dative : as in fact we find Ablatives used as Infinitives in Sanscrit with purd ' before ' ^Whitney, 983). It may be conjectured that the Dative Infinitive in Greek was substituted in this construction for an Ablative. Such a substitution might take place when the character of the Infinitive as a Case-form had become obscured. It is held by Sturm (Geschichlliche Entwickelung dr Construdionen mit irpiv, p. 15) that the Inf. has the force of limitation: e.g. npiv ovraaai 'before in respeot to wounding,' before the time of wounding. But on this view the sense would rather be 'too soon to wound.' It is better to say, with Mr. Goodwin ( 623^, that -npiv is 'quasi-prepositional' : and if so the Infinitive had ceased to be felt as a Dative when the use arose. The restriction to the Aor. Inf. may date from the time when Infinitives or Case-forms on the way to become Infinitives ( 242) were chiefly formed from the same Stem as the Aorist. Cp. the Aor. Participles which are with- out Tense-meaning ( 243, i). 237.] Accusative with the Infinitive. Along with the use of the Infinitive as an abstract Noun, we find in Homer the 202 INFINITIVE. [237? later use by which it is in sense the Verb of a dependent Clause, the Subject of the Clause being in the Accusative. In the examples of the Ace. with the Infinitive we may dis- tinguish the following- varieties or stages of the idiom : 1 . The Ace. has a grammatical construction with the govern- ing Verb : e.g. II. I. 313 \aovs 8' 'ArpetSj;? aTTO\vjj.aii'fcrOat avaiye Agamemnon ordered the people to purify themselves ( = that they should purify). 5. 601 olov bi] 9avfjLa.frij.ev "E/cropa blov atxW" 7 ^ r ' fytvcu KT\. (for being a warrior, how he was a warrior). This might be called the natural Ace. with the Infinitive. 2. The Ace. has not a sufficient construction with the Verb alone, but may be used if it is accompanied by an Infinitive of the thing or fact : e.g. /3ovXofjJ eyo> \adv v&v 1/x/xewu / wish the people to lie safe (the safety of the people). ovvfK a.Kov(T Ttipecrdcu Tpoms because he heard of the Trojans being hard pressed. ro) ov i/e/xecrt^o/x' 'Axcttov? arr-^a^aav wherefore I do not think it a shame in the Greeks to chafe. In this construction the logical Object is the fact or action given by the Infinitive, to which the Ace. furnishes a Subject or //gent, and thus turns it from an abstract Noun to a predication (so that e.g. reipe7}juu, eZTrov, O.K.OVO), 7riw#ayojuai. oT8a, duo, (fopoveo), e0e'A.a>, (3ov\0fj.ai, eATro/xai, re/^iecrt^b/jiat, <|)^oyeco, &c. Thus it is in principle a particular form of the Accusativus de quo (see 140, 3, b, also 234, 3). 3. The Ace. has no construction except as the Subject of the Infinitive. This Ace. is chiefly found in Homer (a) after Impersonal Verbs ( 162, 4) : as II. 1 8. 329 aju,0co yap TreTrpcoTat 6/xotrjy yalav epeScrai it is fated for both to tyc. 19. 182 ov [j.ev -yap TL ye/iecrcrTjToy f3as yripacrn^v (10. 533., 14. 193)- 238.] ACCUSATIVE WITH INFINITIVE. 203 This may be called the purely idiomatic Ace. with the Infini- tive. It has evidently been formed on the analogy of the older varieties. 238.] Tenses of the Infinitive. So long as the Infinitive is merely a Verbal Noun., it does not express anything about the time of the action as past, present, or future. But when it is virtually a predication, the idea of time comes in ; e.g. II. 5- 659 dAA' olov Tivd (fracn jBirjv 'HpaKXrjeirji; ejujueuat (' what they say he was ') : cp. Od. 8. 181 . 14. 454 ov nav aSr' duo . . aAioy Tfrfbrjrrat dAAd rts 'Apyeuoy KOjUicre XP'- The Future Infinitive is used with rertjizT;- cppeo-i ri^a-acrdai I see (understand] that I should honour thee ( = 1 purpose to honour thee) : 24. 5^ vo*<& 8e KCU avrbs "E/cropd roi ASo-cu : and so in a prophecy, Od. 2. 171 (prjjj.1 Te\tvTr)6i)vat. aTtavra I say that alljmist be accomplished : and II. 13. 665 o? p ev ei8o>s Kijp 1 6\oi]v firl VTJOS efiaive, TroAAoKi yap ol eenre yepoor ayadbs YloXmbos voixra VTT' dpyaAer; (frdivdai ols fv fj.ydpoi when it means to be likely : II. n. 364 o> fie'AAets evyjecrQai to whom it is like that you pray ; Od. 9. 475 VK op' 1/xeAAes di/aAKtSo? avbpbs eraipous {bjjievai he proves to be no helpless man whose comrades yon ate ; II. 21. 83 /xeAAaj TTOV cnr^OfffOai, it must be that I am become hateful ; II. 1 8. 362 /le'AAei /Sporos TeAeVcrai a man is likely to accomplish (i. e. it may be expected of him). .Qyt The instances in which a Pres. or Aor. Inf. appears to be used of future time may be variously accounted for. The Inf. ie'mi has a future sense in II. 17. 709 ovSe jutr oo vvv Uvai xrA. ; so II. 20. 365., Od. 15. 214. Again in Od. 9. 496 KOI 8?) <4^> avro'0' dAeV^ai the Aor. is used for the sake of vividness we thought 'we are lost' : cp. II. 9. 413 wAero \itv p.ot VOVTOS ( 78). Similarly II. 3. 112 eATro/xerot nava-ao-dai. may be hoping that they had ceased (by the fact of the proposed duel); cp. II. 7. 199., 16. 204 INFINITIVE. [239. 281. So Od. 13. 173 os f(fta(TKf rTorretSacoy' ayaTacrflat who saiil ihat Poseidon was moved to indignation ( = on -fiydfraaro). In several places tho reading is uncertain, the Fut. being of the same metrical value as the Aor. or tho Pres. (-o-0at and -ao-0ai, -i|iv and -ijeiv, &c.). In such cases the evidence of the ancient grammarians and the MSS. is usually indecisive, and we are justified in writing the Fut. throughout, ac- cording to the general rule. Thus II. 3. 28 aro yap riaeaOat (so Ven. A. : most MSS. TiaaaOai}. Hence \ve may read (f^dro -ya/j rifffffOat in Od. 20. 1 21. 22. 118 (aAA* diroSdfffffaOai (so Aristarchus : most MSS. -acr0ai). 22. 1 20 /i?7 TL KaraKpfyetv, dAA' avSixi iravra SdffeffGai (MSS. -acrOai). 23. 773 e/jcAAof iTrcufea&u (the best MSS. have -acrOai). 20. 85 (t/TTtcrxeo) tvavrifiiov 7TToAe//tw (so A. D. : other MSS. iTO\eiu(iv^. 1 6. 830 77 TTOV t(f>i]i76a TTohtv /cfpaiffift> (MSS. -i|iv). Od. 2. 373 opoaov pf) . . rdSe ftvOrjataOat (so Ar. : MSS. -aerOai). Two exceptions remain: Od. 2. 280 k\Ttcaprj rot e-neira Tf\evrr)ffai rdSt epya (rt- \evTrjfffti' in one of Ludwich's MSS.): II. 12. 407 kirei ol Ovpos ke \IKTO /cCSoy dpeaOai (some good authorities give te'ASero).* The only example of an Inf. representing an Optative is II. 9. 684 Kal 8' av rots aAAotcrti' e0rj Trapa^vQr\(ra(rQai which is the report of the speech (v. 417) Kai 8' av . . 7rapafzu0Tj- G>iv bos ayeiv, &c.) ; because the meaning is, not ' is shameful for future men/ but ' is shameful for (with a view to) the hearing of future men.' The principle is evidently the same as has been pointed out in the case of the Nominative and the Accusative ( 234). Because the action of the Infinitive stands in a Dative relation to the governing Verb, the agent or Subject of the action is put in the Dative. This construction is found in the ' double Dative ' of Latin (e. g. laaontvoioi irvOeffOai would be in Latin posteris auditui), and of Sanscrit (Delbruck, A, S. p. 149). It is usually classified as ' Attraction ' the Dat. of the person being regarded as following the Dat. of the thing or action. In Greek it evidently goes back to the time when the Inf. was still felt as a Dative. 240.] Predicative Nouns ' Attraction/ Corresponding to the Nominative in the Predicate ( 162), an Infinitival Clause * See Madvig, Bemerkungen iiber einige Purikte der griech. Wortfugungskhre, p. 34 : Cobet, Misc. Grit. p. 328. 240.] ATTRACTION. 205 may have a Predicative Accusative, in agreement with its (ex- pressed or understood) Subject : as II. 4. 341 a

'iv p-tv T eTre'oi/ce fj-tTa Ttp&TOKriv covras eora/xey it becomes you that you should stand among the foremost ; II. 8. 192 TT/S vvv KXeos ovpavov IKCI Ttacrav \pveu>. Here Trp6, means ( you like to decide apart from me/ i. e. ' you like, when you decide, to be apart from me ' : whereas with eorrt the sense would be ' when you are apart from me you like to decide/ So II. 15. 57 f'" 73 "?? " 1 rTocraSaau'i O.VO.K.TI "navra^vov iroAe'/zoto 6/ceV0cu ' shall bid Poseidon to cease from war and come' not 'when he has ceased, to come/ But with a Dat. II. 6. 41 fp-ol 8e K Ktpoiov euj cr^v cupafJiapTOvcrri yflova it were better for me, if (or when) I lose tkee, to fyc. II: 8. 2i8 ei jar) eTri (ppeai OTJK 'Aya/xejuroyt TTOTV ta avr(3 TTonrvvcravTi. do&s drpvvai 'A^atovs ' who had of himself made hot haste/ CUTW as in the phrase /jte/xawre /cal avru> (13. 46., 15. 604).* II. 15- 496 ov ol dei/ces afj.vvoiJ.fvw Tttpl 7rarp?j? TtOvd[j.fi> to die when fghting for his country. So II. 5. 253-, 13- 9 6 -> 20. 356., 21. 185., 22. 72. There are some exceptions, however, if our texts are to be trusted ; i. e. there are places where a word which belongs to the predication is put in the Dat. owing to a preceding Dat. : e.g. II. 15. 117 ei TTf'p ftoi KCU fjiolpa At6? TrArjyeWt Kepavvia ojuou vKVfs 3. 459 f^So'Tfj KOI Tip.r]v airoTivfJi.fV. Od. 4. 415 Kai TOT' e7rei0' vfj.lv jueXeTO) KapTOs Te /3uj re, avdi 8' exety KT\. (cp. v. 419, 422 ff.). Or after a Future, to express what the person addressed is to do as his part in a set of acts : II. 22. 259 I'fKpbv 'Axaiouriv 8weii> (answer to the question am I to remain here /) : 5. 1 24 Bapa-eav vvv . . (j.dxe<*6aL (in answer to a prayer) without fear now you may fight. The use for the Third Person is rare : in a command, II. 6. 8692 enre 8' e-eira ju?jrept ar/ KCU e/xr}' fj 8e . . deivai KT\. ; 7. 79 n&p-a 8e otKa5' efioy Sojue^ai TrdAiv (let him take my arms) but give back my body; so 17. 155., 23. 247, Od. 11. 443: in a prayer, with a Subject in the Accusative, 242.] ORIGIN OF THE INFINITIVE. 207 II. 2. 4 J 2 ZeO K.v$i(TT, jueytore, KeAaii^e?, aWtpi vaLutv, ju,7j Ttplv fir' r]e\Lov Swat KT\. (cp. 3. 285., 7- J 79)- Od. 17. 354 Zeu ava, T^Ae/xa^ov /xot ey az/Spaoriv oA/3ioz> drat. An Infinitive of wish is used with the Subject in the Norn., once of the Second Person, and once of the First Person : Od. 7. 311 at yap Zev re Trdrep /cat 'AOrjvair) Kal "AiroXkov TOIOS ecoy otos e irep, 7raia r t\M\v f^fj,v Kal e/xos ya/x/3po? /caAeecr#ai. . roios u>v . . The force of the Infinitive in all these uses seems to be that of an indirect Imperative. The command is given as something- following on an expressed or implied state of things. Thus we may connect the idiom with the use of the Infinitive to imply jitness, obligation, &c. ( 231); compare eio-l KO! ol'5e ra8' enre'/zez; these are here to say this with Kal 8e nv etTre/ixevat it is your part to say. There is a similar use of the Infinitive in Sanscrit, with ellipse of the verb to be (Delbriick, A. S. p. 15 : Whitney, 982, c,d). It should be noticed, however, that other languages have developed a use of the Infinitive in commands, to which this explanation does not apply : as Germ, schritt fahren ! In these cases we may recognise a general tendency towards the impersonal form. It is very probable that the ordinary 2 Sing. Imper. \eye represents an original use of the Tense-stem without any Person- ending (Paul, Principien, p. 108). 242.] Origin and history of the Infinitive. That the Greek Infinitive was originally the Dative of an abstract Noun is proved by comparison with Sanscrit. ' In the Veda and Brah- mana a number of verbal nouns, nomina actionis, in various of their cases, are used in constructions which assimilate them to the infinitive of other languages although, were it not for these other later and more developed and pronounced infinitives, the constructions in question might pass as ordinary case-construc- tions of a somewhat peculiar kind' (Whitney, 969). In the Veda these Infinitives, or Case-forms on the way to become Infinitives (werdende Infinitive, Delbr.), are mostly Datives, ex- pressing end or purpose, and several of them are identical in formation with Greek Infinitives ; as ddvane Soucai (boFevai), vidmane fiSp-evai, -d/iyai -aflat,* -ase -aat. In Greek, however, the Dative Ending -at is not otherwise preserved, and the ' true Dative ' construction is not applied to things ( 143) : conse- * So Delbriick and others ; but see Max Miiller's CJiips, Vol. IV. p. 58. 208 INFINITIVE. [242. quently these forms stand quite apart from the Case-system, and have ceased to be felt as real Case-forms. Thus the Greek Infinitive is a survival, both in form and in construction, from a period when the Dative of purpose or consequence was one of the ordinary idioms of the language. In Latin, again, this Dative is common enough, and often answers in meaning to the Greek Infinitive ; compare (e.ff.) u>j>t] to-rlv tiibtiv with munifioni tempus relinquere (Roby, 1156), afj.vveiv cirri KOL aAAoi with auxilio esse, &c. The retention of the construction in Latin is connected, on the one hand with the fact that the Latin Dative is a 'true Dative/ on the other hand with the comparatively small use that is made in Latin of the Infinitive of purpose. Similarly in classical Sanscrit the Dative of purpose &c. is ex- tremely common, but the Dative Infinitives have gone entirely out of use (Whitney, 287 and 986) a result of the ' struggle for existence' which precisely reverses the state of things in Greek. The growth of the Dative of purpose into a distinct subordinate Clause was favoured by the habit of placing it at the end of the sentence, after the Verb, so that it had the appearance of an addition or afterthought. This was the rule in Vedic Sanscrit (see Delbriick, A. S. p. 25). It may be traced in Greek, not merely in collocations like epi8i vver)K fta^eo-flai, &c v but eyen in such forms as II. 5. 639 aAA' oldv TLVO. I7-4I6. The development of the Infinitival Clause which we find in Greek and Latin may be traced chiefly under two heads ; (i) the construction of the ' Accusative with the Infinitive/ by which the predication of the Infinitive was provided with an expressed Subject ( 237) : and (2) the system of Tenses of the Infinitive, which was gradually completed by the creation of new forms, esp. the Future Infinitive, peculiar to Greek, and by the use of the Present Infinitive as equivalent in meaning to the Present and Imperfect Indicative. In the post- Homeric language the Infinitive came to be used" as an equivalent, not only for the Indicative, but also for other Moods. The use of the Infinitive as an indeclinable Noun is subsequent to Homer ; it became possible with the later use of the Article. Some of the conditions, however, out of which it grew may be traced in Homeric language. The first of these was the complete separation of the Infinitive from the Case-system ; so that it 243-] PARTICIPLE. 209 ceased to be felt as a Case-form, and could be used in parallel construction to the Nom. or Ace. : as II. 2. 453 7. 203 bos VIKTJV AlavTL /ecu dyAaoy eS^o? dpecrflai. Again, an Infinitive following a Neuter Pronoun, and expressing- thelogical Subject or Object, easily came to be regarded as in ' Apposition ' to the Pronoun : as Od. I. 370 cTret TO ye /caA6z> aK.ovtiJ.tv tvrlv aoibov. II. 358 /ecu /ce TO j3ov\oip,rjv, K.ai Ktv TroAv Ktpbiov eirj, TrAetOTepry avv X et P' (j>farjv es TrarpiS' iKecrdai. The only instance which really comes near the later ( Articular Infinitive' is Od. 20. 52 o.vit] /ecu TO fyvXacrcreiv ( 259). The use of the Infinitive with an Article in the Gen. or Dat. is wholly post-Homeric. The Participle. 243.] Uses of the Participle. Following out the view of the Participle as a Verbal Adjective, we may distinguish the follow- ing uses : i. The Participle is often used as an ordinary Adjective quali- fying a Noun ; as 0eol aiev eoVres, fiporol alrov eSovres, itiQoi TTOTI Tolxov dprjpoVes, craKos Ttrvyp-fvov, and the like. In one or two cases it is Substantival : as TO yap ye'pas eorl davovraov, i^D^ai A few Participles have lost their Verbal character altogether : esp. otiAo/xeuos miserable, o^/aevos happy, t/c/xevo? secundus, ao-/xeyoy glad, fKa>v willing, eOav (better 0<6v, since it is an Aor. in form, 31, i) according to wont, TrepiTrAo'jueyos (in the phrase TrepnrAo- [jifv(ov fviavr&v the revolving years) -, also the Substantival fj-ebovres rulers, TCVOVTCS muscles, d/xei/SoyTes rafters, atOov&a a portico, Spd/ccoz; a serpent, yepcoy, novva. The word K/OCIWV ruler retains a trace of the Verb in evpv KpeiW widely riding. Cp. also the compounds TroAv-TAas, d-Ka/xas, d-8d//,as, Xvud-fias. 2. Much more frequently, the Participle qualifies or forms part of the predication ( 162) : e.g. in such combinations as OLaar^Trjv epi(ravT parted having quarrelled fij(f)poi>t(t)v dyoprjo-aTo spoke with good thought the Participle has the same construction as the Adjective in TraAtVopo-os d^eWr/, or TTpotypav TerArjKas ( 162, 2). Thus it serves to express a predication which the speaker wishes to sub- ordinate in some way to that of the governing Verb. The Participle may express different relations : attendant cir- P 210 PARTICIPLE. [243. cvmstance or manner (as in the examples quoted) ; cause, as II. 1 1 . 313 rt TraOovTf XfXaa-jjLtOa dovpibos a\Krjs ', opposition, as often with KCU and irep, &c. (Goodwin, 832-846). 3. Finally, a Participle construed in ' Apposition ' to a Noun in an oblique Case may imply a predication ( 168); as KCLTTVOV a.TToQpuaro, rfjs b' O.VTOV AUTO yovvara /cat (piXov yrop armar drayyovcrr/s (when she recognised the token]. (6] Not unfrequently the word with which the Participle should be construed is understood : especially when it is a Partitive or quasi-Partitive Gen. ( 147, 151) : II. 2. 153 avTT) 8' ovpavbv t/cep oiKa.be Ifft^viov a, cry rose to heaven (of men) eager to return home : so II. 1 2. 339- J 3- 291, 498., 15- 68 9- 5. 162 TTo/anos ?je /3o6? v\.o-)(ov Kara fiovKOnevdtov a heifer or cow (of those) that are feeding in a thicket. 5. 665 TO i^v ov TIS f7f(f)pd(raT' ovb' evolve pripov ee/wcreu bopv (JiftXivov, otyp' e7ri/3ai//, crircvbovTcav no one . . . (of them} in their^ haste : cp. 15. 450 TO ot ov TLS epvKdKev lcp.i'(av Trcp. 1 8. 246 6p9>v 8' earaortor dyoprj ye'z>er' an assembly was held upstanding (of them standing up). Od. 17. 489 TrjAe/xaxos 8' tv ptez/ Kpabfy jueya -ntvQos aee ^Arj/ieVou (for his having been wounded}. So with the Dative; II. 12. 374 e7myo/ze'j>oie$e'i Kpoviowi aij^ari KOI Xv0pu> T!fita\ayy.ivov fv^eTaaarOai for one who is bespattered . . to pray. 13. 787 Tta-P bvvap.iv 8' OVK <[rTTt Kal ((Tavfjifvov 7roAe/xt'eiz>. So II. 2. 234., 14. 63, Od. 2. 311 : cp. the phrase oaov re yeycoi-e fiorio-as as fur as a man makes himself heard by shouting. (d) The Participle is sometimes found in a different Case from 244-] TENSES. 211 a preceding Pronoun with which it might have been construed. Thus we have II. 14- 25 Ad/ce 8e oxi Ttepl xpol \CL\KOS dreiprjs (construed with xpi instead of ai). 1 6. 53 * orri 01 &JK' (with T]KOUs T&V v?/8u/jtos VITVOS cnrb fi\e(f)dpouv 6\(a\fi. VVKTO, (f)vXa(rcro^VOLcrt. KCKTJV : SO II. 14. 1413. Od. 17. |])55 jueraAA.?70-ai rt e ^v/xos We need not consider these as instances of ' Anacoluthon ' or change of the construction. The Participle, as we saw, does not need a preceding Pronoun : it may therefore have a construction independent of such a Pronoun. And it is characteristic of Homer not to employ concord as a means of connecting distant words when other constructions are admissible. 244.] Tenses of the Participle. The distinction between the Present and Aorist Participle has already been touched upon in 76-77> an v, &c. The exceptions to this rule are (1) eo-o-o/ieros future, in II. I. 70 rd r epou e7n/3?](roju.ei>otcrii> cucrr/z>. But see 41 . (3) II. 1 8. 309 KCU re KTCLveovra /care'/cra, see 63. (4) Od. ii. 608 cue! ySaAe'orn eoixws like one about to cast. P 2 212 PARTICIPLE. [245. 245.] Implied Predication. Where the Participle is pre- dicative, we often find the Noun or Pronoun taking- the place in the construction of the whole Participial Clause : as II. 17. i ov8' H\a6' 'Arpf'oj viov IlarpoKAos Tpcoecrcn 8a/j,ets that Patroclus had fallen : Od. 5- 6 p.e'Ae yap 01 eeoz; fv Sweden irvpQrjs it troubled her that he was fyc. : II. 6. 191 yi'yraxr/ce Oeov yovov rjvv eovra knew him for the offspring of a god: Od. 10. 419 croi /xey voa-rrjcravTi e%dpri[j.ev we were gladdened by thy return: II. 13. 417 a^os yeVer' eua/xez>(Ho there icas vexation at his boasting : II. 5- 682., 14. 504., *7- 3 8 ; 564-, 1 8. 337, &c. We have here the idiom already observed in the use of the Infinitive ( 237) by which the weight of the meaning- is shifted from the grammatical Subject, Object, &c. to a limiting or qualifying word. Note especially that 1. The Aor. Participle may be used in this way to express a fact which coincides in time with the Verb of the sentence : as II. 6. 284 ei Kflvov ye i8oi/xt KareA0oW v Ai'8os et. So especially when the time of the fact is the important point, as es Tje'Aioj; KaraovvTa till sun-set: II. 13. 38 /xe^otey poorJjo'ajTa O.VO.K.TO. should await the master s return : 13. 545 0oWa /xtrao-rpe^^eVra ooneucras. 2. With Verbs of saying, hearing, knowing, &c., also of rejoicing and grieving, the Ace. with a Participle is used like the Ace* with the Inf. (both being evidently applications of the Accusativus de quo, 140, 3, b] : e.g. II. 7. 129 TOVS vvv ei TiTiixrcrovTas ixf) "Exropi iravTas anova-ai if he were to hear of their shrinking. Od. 4. 732 et yap eya> T^vdo^v ravrriv obbv bp^aivovra. 23. 2 beL\ov TTOCTLV evbbv kovra. II. I. 124 ouSe ri 77ou iOfj.ev wrj'ia Kei/ieya iroXXci. Od. 7- 211 ovs Tivas v/xets lore /laAtor' d^e'o^ray oi^vv- II. 8. 378 17 yon . . yrj^^o-et Trpo^ayeiVa w^ rejoice at our ap- pearing. 13. 353 ?/x^ eTO y^P P a Tpcocrty bapva^vovs he was vexed at their being subdued by the Trojans. A further extension, analogous to the Ace. with the Inf. after Impersonal Verbs, may perhaps be seen in Od. 6. 193 3>v eirtoix iKeY?7i> raAaTm'pioz/ avTLacravTa. which it is jit that a suppliant should meet with. 246.] Genitive Absolute. This is a form of implied predi- cation, in which the Noun or Pronoun has no regular construc- tion with the governing Verb. The Participial Clause expresses 246.] GENITIVE ABSOLUTE. 213 the time or circumstances in which the action of the Verb takes place : II. i. 88 ov Tts e/xeu S>vros KT\. no one, while lam living shall fyc. 2. 55 1 TreptreAAo/ieWy eviavT&v as years go round. 5. 203 avbpStv eiAo/xe'woj> where men are crowded ; so avbp&v AiK/.Kurrcoy, avftp&v Tpe&crdvTtov, 7roAA<3z> eA/coWcoy, &c. Od. I. 390 /cat Key TOUT' efle'Aoijui Atos ye 8t5oyros apt(rOai that too I would be witting to obtain if Zeus gave it. The Subject is understood in Od. 4. 19 p-o\irfjs f^dp-^ovros when the singer began the music. The Aorist Participle is less common in Homer than the Pre- sent, especially in the Odyssey : the instances are, II. 8. 164, 468., 9. 426., 10. 246, 356., ii. 509., 13. 409., 14. 522., 16. 306., 19. 62, 75., 21. 290, 437., 22. 47, 288, 383, Od. 14. 475., 24. 88, 535 (Classen, Beob. p. 180 ff.). The ' Genitive Absolute ' must have begun as an extension of one of the ordinary uses of the Gen. ; most probably of the Gen. of Time ( 150). For, iJeAiou aviovros within the time of the suns rising is a Gen. like 7701;? in the morning, VVKTOS by night, &c., and answers, as a phrase denoting time, to aju,' TjeAiw narabvim at sun- set, e? Tje'Atoz; KaraovvTa up to sun-set, &c. So we may compare TOV& aiirov Xvifd/Bavros eAevo-erat he will come within this year with 77 v TrpoTtpow erecoy in the former years. The transition may be seen in lapos vov lirraft/tvow in the spring when it is beginning. Compare also the phrases eTreiyo/xeMtiy avfp.di-Tos, &c. : and in other negative expressions, as OVK 6vo- fxaoros, oti/cer' oyocrra, ov/cer' aveKT&s, ov TL vfn.aret;, KepjSepov KT\. See the fine observations of Brugmann, Grundr. ii. 79, p. 207. 248.] PRONOUNS. 215 CHAPTER XI. USES OF THE PRONOUNS. Introductory. 247.] The preceding chapter has dealt with the two gram- matical forms under which a Noun, by acquiring a verbal or predicative character, is developed into a kind of subordinate Clause. We have now to consider the Subordinate Clause pro- perly so called : that is to say, the Clause which contains a true (finite) Verb, but stands to another Clause in the relation of a dependent word. E.g. in the Sentence Aevo-fa pvOov eenras ; The use of the Interrogative in Dependent Questions is rare : II. 5- 85 Tvbeib^v 8' OVK hv yvofys Trorepoicrt Od. 15. 423 etpwra 8^ tTreira rts etrj KOI irodev 17. 368 dAA^Aou? T flpovro TLS flrj Kal TtoOfv f\0oi. IJ. 373 avrbv 8' ov (rd(j)a otba Tr60fv yevos ev^erat etvat. With these it is usual to reckon the anomalous II. 1 8. 192 aXAou 8' ov rev oZ8a reu av /cXura rev^ea 8vco. But in this case we have the further difficulty that the form of the Principal clause leads us to expect a Relative, not an Interro- gative the Indefinite aAXou reu standing as Antecedent : cp. Od. 2. 42 ( 282). Hence there is probably some corruption in the text. The use of the Interrogative in a Dependent Question doubt- less grew out of the habit of announcing that a question is going to be asked. A formula, such as dAA' aye /not ro'8e etTre Kat drpe- xecos KaraAe^oy, or Kat JUCH rour' ayoptvcrov TrjTVfj.ov o0p' tv et8<3, though grammatically a distinct sentence, may be regarded as on the way to become a governing clause. It is a step to this when there is no Pronoun as object not ' tell me this/ but simply ' tell me' : as Od. 4. 642 i^epres /not J-VIa, TTWS KrA. ; 24. 474 etTre p.oi flpofj^vrj, rt vv rot voos HvboOi. KevOei ; It is to be observed that nearly all the passages of this kind are to be found in the Odyssey and in the loth and 24th books of the Iliad. The only instance in the rest of the Iliad is 6. 377 et 8' aye ^ot, 8/xwai, --* TTTJ l/3rj *rA. oSe, xeicos, OUTOS. 249.] The Pronoun 88e is almost purely Deictic. It marks an object as near the speaker, this here, this on my side, &c.; as val fxa ro'Se a-KijTrrpov by this sceptre (in my hand} ; "Exropos i^8e yvvij this 25 1.] 'OAE, KEINO2, O'YTO5. 217 is the wife of Hector ; Od. I. 76 ^jueTs 1 ot8e TrepKppa&fjifOa let us here consider ( 162, 2): I. 226 OVK Zpavos rdSe y eori what I see here is not a club-feast. It is especially applied to a person or thing to which the speaker turns for the first time, as II. 3. 192 enr' aye juot Kal roi>8e, i\ov re/cos, os ri? 08' ecrri. Hence the use to denote what is about to be mentioned the new as opposed to the known. This is an approach to an Anaphoric use, in so far as it expresses not local nearness, but the place of an object in the speaker's thought. So in II. 7- 35^ olcrOa Kal a\\ov fj.v9ov aptivova roSSe vorjvai the speech is the present one, opposed to a better one which should have been made. The derivatives Too-oaSe, -roiocrSe, o8e, ec0<8e, are similarly Deictic : as II. 6. 463 x 7 ? 7 "" TOLOV& avbpos from want of a man such as I am now. 250.] The Pronoun KCIVOS is sometimes used in the Deictic sense, pointing to an object as distant : II. 3. 391 Kfivos o y fv 0aAd/x(j> yonder he is in the chamber. 5- 604 Kat vvv ol irapa Kflvos "Aprjs there is Ares at his side. So of an absent object : as Od. 2. 351 K&VOV oiojue^rj TOV Kdfj.fj.opov thinking of that (absent] one, the unhappy. Hence in an Anaphoric use, nelvoes, ov8e' rt (re x/"J TO. 82 ris 8' OVTOS Kara vfjas ava orparoy /3oreip?7, avTos 8e /crA. 9. 301 avTos Kal TOV b&pa he and his gifts, 14. 47 Trplv Ttvpl vrjas evnrprjffai, KTtlvai 8e KCU O.VTOVS. 17. 152 os TOL Tro'AA' o(/>eAo5 yeVero TrroAet re KOI O.VTi> yap tX* i yepas O.VTOS airovpas, i. e. at his own will, without the usual sanction: cp. 17. 254., 23. 591. This meaning appears also in avTti>s = merely ', as Od. 14. 151 oAA' eyo) OVK avT(i)s fJ.v9r](rofJLai dAAa crvv opKi\fi where the use of the Art. is not Homeric we should probably read f[v aurou. 253-] ATTO2 REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 219 (2) To express without change, the same as before : II. 12. 225 ov Kocrjuft) irapa vavffriv eAeucro'juefl' avra Ke'Aeufla. Od. 8. 107 ?7PX ^ T< ? avTqv oobv i]V Trep ol aAAot /crA. Hence the use with a Dat., noticed in 144 ; as Od. 8. 186 avr<3 ojuep. (3) The unemphatic use, as it may be called, in which it is an ordinary Anaphoric Pronoun of the Third Person (Eng. he, she, it]. In this use the Pronoun cannot stand at the beginning- of a Clause (the emphatic position), or in the Nominative an unemphasised Subject being sufficiently expressed by the Person- Ending of the Verb. The use is derived from that of the emphatic auros in the same way that in old-fashioned English ' the same ' often denotes merely the person or thing just men- tioned : and as in German derselbe and cler namliche are used without any emphasis on the idea of sameness. (4) The Reflexive use of core's is very rare : Od. 4. 247 aAAo> 5* avrov (jbcori KaTaKpvKTav ijla-Ke, and perhaps II. 20. 55 * v 0> a ^ TO * s epi8a priyvvvTo /3apeiay (among them there, in heaven itself}. On II. 9. 342 TT]v avrov (pi\fi see above (i). In II. 12. 204 Ko'vp-e yap avrbv f-^ovra it is best to take avrov in agreement with (of the eagle). In II. 19. 355 read avToOi ( 157). The Reflexive Pronoun. 253.] The Pronoun eo (i.e. the Personal Pronoun declined from the Stems ee- or 4- and ae-) is sometimes Reflexive (i. e. denotes the Subject of the Sentence or Clause), sometimes a simple Anaphoric Pronoun. In the latter use it is always un- emphatic. (i) The Reflexive sense is chiefly found either (a) after a Pre- position, as d/x0i iraTTT^vas looking round him, and so GOTO eo, em ol, Trpori ol, juera cr^ifcrt, Kara o-cpe'as, &c. ; or (b} when it is rein- forced by auros, as II. 2O. 171 ee 8' avrov CTrorpwei juaxecracr^ai stirs himself up tojight. Other examples are few in number: II. 2. 239 os Kai vvv 'A^iATja, eo ;u,ey' ap-fiuova $ 8' 'OSwevj o ot ov TI re'Aos KaraKaipiov TJAflev. The strictly Reflexive use is commoner in the Iliad than in the Odyssey. Excluding Infinitival and Subordinate Clauses, there are 43 examples in the Iliad, against 1 8 in the Odyssey. Note that the use is mainly preserved in fixed combinations (diro Io, TTpOTl Ol, &C.). (2) The Anaphoric (non-Reflexive) use is very much commoner. In this use which is doubtless derived from the other by loss of the original emphasis the Pronoun is enclitic : whereas in the Reflexive use it is orthotone. Accentuation. According to the ancient grammarians this Pronoun is orthotone (i) when used in a reflexive sense, (2) when preceded by a Pre- position, and (3) when followed by a Case-form of ovros in agreement with it. The first and second rules, as we have seen, practically coincide : and the third is not borne out by the usage of Homer. In such places as Od. 2. 33 tide ol avry Zfvs dyaOov Tt\fafit, II. 6. 91 nai ol iroAii Ty, Od. 8. 396 Evpva\os S( f avrov ('OSvaffea) aptaaaaOto, add II. 24. 292, Od. 4. 66, 667., 6. 277 the Pronoun is evidently unemphatic, and is accordingly allowed to be enclitic by good ancient authorities. This is amply confirmed by the instances of |uv aurov (II. 21. 245, 318, Od. 3. 19, 237, &c.), and the parallel use of ovros with the enclitic jtoi, TOI, &c. In one instance, viz. Od. 4. 244 avrov fuv trtyyrjffiv atiKt\irjai San&ffffas it would seem that (uv has a reflexive sense. The reading, however, is not certain, some ancient authorities giving aurov p,v or avrov jxcv. 254.] The Possessive eos, os is nearly always Reflexive. Oc- casionally it refers to a prominent word in the same Sentence which is not grammatically the Subject : as II. 6. 5 cu \&v en fabv yoov "EnTOpa & evl OIKW. Od. 9. 369 OVTLV eye!) Trvparov e8o/iai /xera ots erapoiai8i/xos ^fpcos /3ao-iAev?, 50' eo? 80/^,0$ a fie voarfyragra (cp. 4. 74 1 )- II. IO. 256 Tu6ei5rj \ikv 8<3/ce ^eyeTrroAefi (fracryavov afj.(j)r]Kfs, TO 8' eoy irapa v$. Ae'XetTrro. 1 6. 753 e^ATjro -n-po? (TTrjOos, eTj re' \LIV aiAeo-e^ aXKrj. It will be seen that where los does not refer to the grammatical Subject it is generally emphatic : e.g. in the line last quoted, erj \ his own prowess, not that of an enemy. This indicates the 255-] "EOS. 221 original force of the Pronoun, which was to confine the reference emphatically to a person or thing just mentioned. 255.] Use of 46s, os as a general Beflexive Pronoun. It has been a matter of dispute with Homeric scholars, both ancient and modern, whether 16s (os) was confined to the Third Person Singular (his own) or could be used as a Reflexive of any Number and Person (own in general my own, thy own, their own, &c.).* The question is principally one of textual criticism, and depends in the last resort on the comparative weight to be assigned to the authority of the two great Alexandrian grammarians, Zenodotus and Aristarchus. It is connected with another question, of less importance for Homer, viz. whether the forms eo, ot, I are con- fined to the Singular, and those beginning with o-<|>- to the Plural. (1) In regard to the latter of these questions there is no room for doubt. The only instance in dispute is II. 2. 197, 198, where Zenodotus read dvfj.bs 8e jj-eyas eori Siorpecpeooy ^SacrtX^coy Ti/xr) 8' e/c Atos eari, res tAr/ tv irarpibi yair]' for (u> evl one MS.). Another instance of variation is detected by Brugmann in II. 9. 414 ct Se KCV otKa8' IKW/XI (f)ikt]v 9 7rarpt8a yaiav, where the MSS. (except A) have IKCO/ZCU, pointing to kr\v (my The existing text of the Odyssey contains three passages which Brugmann claims as instances of a general Reflexive sense, viz. Od. 4. 192 (as to which see Merry and RiddelFs note), * Brugmann carries his theory into other passages where he supposes Aristarchus to have corrected the text in order to get rid of the use of cos for the First or Second Person : but the examples quoted above will suffice to give an idea of the strength of his argument. 255-] "EOS. 223 Od. 13. 320 (where there is some reason to suspect an interpola- tion), and Od. 9. 28 ov TOL eyw ye ^s yauys bvvaiJ.at yXvuepatrepov aAAo IbecrOai. But there is no reason to take TJS otherwise than in v. 34 &s ovbtv yXviaov rjs Trarpibos ovSe TOKrjutv ylyvtrai nothing is sweeter than a man's own country, fyc. The reference of the Pronoun is to a typical or imaginary person, as in Od. i. 392 ai\j/a re ol 5<2 d$- vtiov Tre'Aerai a man's house (when he is a king) quickly grows rich. We have seen that post-Homeric poets use the substantival 2o, &c. in the sense in question. The corresponding use of the adjective eds, os is still more common, as Brugmann shows. It is found in Hesiod for the Third Person Plur. (Op. 58, Theog. 71), and in Callimachus, Apollonius Rhodius, and Quintus Smyrnaeus (Pro6l. pp. 28, 78-83). (4) In attempting to arrive at a conclusion on this matter we must begin by understanding that the issue does not lie between supposing on the one hand that Aristarchus was entirely right, and on the other hand that he introduced a strange form like erjos on his own authority, and merely to satisfy a theory. The latter is improbable, not only from the respect for manuscript authority which is expressly attributed to him, but also because the various readings are not all capable of being explained on this supposi- tion. Thus, (i) the word et]os is proved to exist by Od. 14. 505., 15. 450, and in the latter place coto, though excluded by the sense, is found as a variant. Also (2) efjos is found for eoto meaning his own in II. 14. 9., 18. 71, 138. It cannot therefore be regarded as certain that erjos was systematically introduced merely to get rid of koio = my own, thy own. Again, (3) the use of the Article in rov Trarpos, TTJS //rjrpo?, TOV Traibos, is not clearly un-Homeric (see 258). And if in II. u. 763 oto? rijs aperrjs airovria-eTai Bentley was right in reading ^s (cp. 17. 25), it follows that the Article might creep in for ou, TJS, &c. apart from the in- tention of carrying out a grammatical theory. On the other side it must be conceded that the generalised Reflexive use of ids, 05, if not of the substantival Io, &c. is of high antiquity, so that sporadic instances of it may have occurred in the genuine text of Homer. If so, the error of Aristarchus will consist in a somewhat undue purism. Brugmann holds that the general Reflexive sense is the primary one, belonging to the Stem sva in the original Indo-European language, and surviving in the Homeric use of 16s, os. But even if the readings of Zenodotus which give this sense are right, it does not follow that they represent the oldest use of the Pronoun. 224 PRONOUNS. [256. Bmgmann has himself given excellent instances of the extension to the First and Second Person of a Reflexive Pronoun originally confined to the Third (Prodi, pp. 1 19 ff.). In the present case it is significant that the generalised use of the substantival forms to, &c. is clearly post-Homeric. If cos (09) is sometimes used in Homer, as well as afterwards, of the First and Second Persons, it is natural to see in this the result of an extension of usage. The case is different with the use of the Stem sva for the Plural. That use, as we see from the Latin se and situs, was the original one. It is noteworthy that this undoubtedly primitive use is pre- cisely the one of which there is least trace in Homer. 6 r\ TO. 256.] The Article 6 TJ TO may be defined as a purely Ana- phoric Pronoun, conveying some degree of emphasis. It differs from oSe OVTOS and eKeivos in the absence of Deictic meaning : for while it usually marks some contrast between objects, it does not distinguish them as near or far, present or absent, &c. On the other hand it is distinguished from the non- Reflexive use of avros and eo by greater emphasis. Three chief uses of 6 TJ TO may be distinguished : 1. The use as an independent Pronoun; 6 rj To = he she it. This may be called the SUBSTANTIVAL use : it embraces the great majority of the instances in Homer. 2. The use as an ' Article ' in the later sense of the term, i. e. with a Noun following. This may be called the ATTRI- BUTIVE use. 3. The use as a Relative. 257.] The Substantival Article. This use of the Article is very much the commonest in Homer, and it is also the use from which the others may be easily derived. The Substantival Article either (i) is simply ' resumptive/ recalling a person or thing already mentioned, as 6 yap for he, TOV pa him I say, avTos KOL TOV b&pa the man and his gifts: or (2) marks a contrast, as 6 8e but the other. The following points of usage are to be noticed : I . The most frequent we may almost say the regular place of the Article is at the beginning of a Clause, followed by fieV, Be, yap, Spa, or preceded by auTdp, dXXd, TJ TOI, or an equivalent Particle. Hence the familiar combinations 6 p.fv, 6 Of. 6 yap, KCU yap 6, avrap 6, 77 TOI 6, TOV pa, dAAa TOV, &c. of which it is needless to give instances. The later Substantival use with \t.iv and 8 is a surviving frag- 257-] THE SUBSTANTIVAL ARTICLE. 225 ment of this group of uses. A few others are found in Attic poets, as 6 -yap (Aesch. Sept. 17, Soph. El. 45, O. T. 1082). The use to contrast indefinite persons or things (6 /^ez> 6 6"e = one another, ol yikv ol Se = some others) is not very common in Homer. The use of the Article with an adversative Particle (8e', avrdp, dAAd) generally marks a change of Subject : 6 8e but the other, &c. But this is not always the case: e.g. II. 4. 491 TOV jj.e.v a/zap0', 6 8e AtvKov . . . /3e/3A7jKei him he missed, but smote Leucus (so II. 8. 119, 126, 302., II. 80, &c.) ; II. I. 496 e'ri? S' ov Ar?0er' e^er/ie'coy TratSos eov, dAA' i] y d^eSiWro KrA. : cp. II. 5- 321., 6. 1 68, Od. i. 4, &c. The Article in all such cases evidently expresses a contrast : not however between two persons, but be- tween two characters in which the same person is thought of. This last use in which the Article is pleonastic, according to Attic notions occurs in Herodotus, as 5. 120 TO. fj.ev irporepov ol Rapes e/3oi>Aevoz>ro /xer^Kay, ot 5e CLVTIS 7roAep;eTi' e ap-^fjs aprtovro. We may compare it with the pleonastic use of the Pronoun in II. II. 131 iwypei 'Arpe'os we', cry 8' aia 8e'^at avowa, where the effect of inserting au is to oppose the two acts denoted by 2. The Article is frequent in Disjunctive sentences : II. 12. 240 et T firl 8e^i" IUKTI irpos 770) T' Tje'Aioy re, tl T eif dptorepa rot ye KrA. (or else to left]. Od. 2. 132 a>ei o y' r\ T&m\itv. Here also it serves to contrast the alternative things said about the same Subject. 3. The principle of contrast often leads to the placing of two Articles together : II. 21. 602 r/os 6 TOV TTCOLOIO Stw/cero, 10. 224 KCU re irpo 6 TOV evor) 8e roV. Note that when the second of the two is in the Nom., it usually takes ye : hence TOV o ye, rr) p" ol ye, &c. 4. The Article often stands for the object to be defined by a following Relative Clause, e.g. II. 9. 615 KaXov TOI crvv e/xot TOV KT/Seiv os K* e/xe KIJ^TJ. I. 272 rwy ot vvv fipOToi eto-i &c. The use is to be classed as Anaphoric ; the intention of saying something about the object is equivalent to a previous mention. So in Latin the Anaphoric is is used to introduce qui. Q 226 PRONOUNS. [258. The Neuter Article is similarly used to introduce Clauses be- ginning with ore, o>?, and the like : II. 15. 207 evOXov Kal TO re'ru/crat or' ayyeAos aurt/xa elbfj. Od. 9. 442 ro 8e znjTTtos OVK eVo'rjtrei; &s ol /crA. II. 3. 308 Zei>? ju.ev irou ro ye oT8e . . . oTTTrorepw KrA. So II. 14. 191., 20. 466., 23. 545. It may even introduce an independent sentence, as Od. 4. 655 dAAd ro Oavpafo' tbov ei>0a8e MeVropa blov. 5. The uses in which the Article is least emphatic (i. e. does not begin the Clause, or express a contrast) appear to be (a) after Prepositions : esp. in the Dat. Plur. after fierd, irapd, irpori, ow, ev, ajxa : as II. I. 348 ^ 5' deVoucr' ajua rottn yvvr] K(,(V. This is to be connected with the fact that the forms Io, ol, o-i an< ^ tn us the Art. is used instead of them. () when the Neuter Article is used for a fact or set of facts ; as II. 4. 353 otyecu r\v e6t\r]' aAa eAtrat ' Od. 15. 54 ro " y^p Te ^ei^os /it/A^o-Kerat rj^ara iravTa avbpbs ^eivoboKOV. So too with Proper Names, when a new person is about to be mentioned the Art. anticipates the Noun : e.g. II. 2. 42 avTap 6 (3ovv te'pevo-ei> az;a avbp&v ' 259-] THE ATTRIBUTIVE ARTICLE. 227 And where the Neut. TO is followed by an epexegetic Infinitive : Od. I. 370 fTTfl TO ye KaXbv aKOvepev ecrriz; dot8oO. II. 1 7- 406 eVei oi8e TO eA-n-ero Trap-nav, fKirepa-fiv TiroA LtOpov avtv i-dev. In all these cases the combination of Article and Noun is not sufficiently close to constitute an Attributive use ; but they serve to show how such a use is developed. The Attributive uses in Homer may be classified as follows : 1. Uses with connecting Particles, where some contrast is made in passing to the new sentence or clause. 2. Uses with certain Adjectives that imply contrast. 3. Uses to mark a person or thing as definite. 259.] Article of Contrast with, connecting Particles. The uses that fall under this head, though not very numerous, are characteristic of Homer. The following are the chief : (a) The Article with an adversative 8e, aurdp, &c. is not un- frequently used to bring out the contrast in which the Noun stands to something already mentioned : e. g. II. 2. 217 (f>o\Kos ITJU, \(j)X6s 8' erepoy iroba, ro> be ol w/u,co KT\. but then his shoulders ; so r&> 8e ol oWe (II. 13. 616), &c. II. 22. 4O5 &>S TOV fjiev KCKOVLTO KCLpf] (ITTav, f) Se' VV PJTTJP KT\. lut on the other hand his mother fyc. II. I. 382 rJK b' err' 'Apyetoicri KO.KOV /3eAos, 01 8e vv Xaol dvfja-Kov TTa(ro~vTpoL, TO, 8' eW^ro K^Aa ^eoio. 4. 399 Tolas ITJZ; TuSevs AirwAios* dAAa TOV vibv i\.r]v, ra 8' avowa 8e'xeo-^at release my daughter, and on the other side accept ransom. The usage is common in the Iliad, but perceptibly rarer in the Odyssey. () The use of the Art. with jieV in contrast with something that follows is rare : 11. II. 267 amap eiret TO fj.ev eA/cos ere'po-ero : cp. 8. 73., 9. i v 13. 640., 19. 21., 20. 75, Od. 3. 270 (seemingly the only instance in the Odyssey). There is a similar use with the Art. following the Noun in Od. i. 116 /AZ^OTT^KOZ; TU>V p.h> aKebacnv Kara 8w//,ara Oeirj, KrA. (c) The corresponding use with copulative and illative Par- ticles, KO.I, re, ?)8e', nal yap, is much less common : cp. II. I. 339 TTpos re QeStv fj,a.Kapa)v irpos re Qvr\rG>v ' Kal irpbs TOV /3aa-tA?jos ainqveos. 1 5- 36 tora> vvv ro8e yata Kal ovpavbs evpvs Kal TO Karet/So'/xevoy 2ruyos vbwp (cp. 18. 486). 228 PRONOUNS. [260. Od. 22. 103 Swcrco 8e o~vj3u>TT] | /cat T<3 /3ouKo'Aw aAAa. II. 14. 503 ovbe yap rj Flpojuaxoio bdp.ap KT\. The Article singles out its Noun as the special object intended, or turns to it with fresh emphasis. So with an Infinitive, Od. 20. 52 ai'Lr) KOL TO fyvXaavfiv, where we need not take TO A.ao-- o-e> closely together. So Hes. fr. 192 17811 8e xat TO irvOea-Oai KT\. also Op. 314 ro epyaeo-0ai These uses should be carefully distinguished from the later Definite Article. For instance, in II. i. 20 rcL airoiva, does not mean this or the ransom, in contra- distinction to other ransoms. It means the other, the ransom, in contrast to the person ransomed. Again, the 4th book of the Iliad begins ol Se Oeoi, which we naturally take to mean simply but the gods. But, taking in the last line >f the 3rd book, we have oiy I^XIT' 'ATpftSrjs, (nl 5' rjvfov oAAoi 'A\aioi' ol 5f 0(ol Trap Zijvl Ka6-qfj.fvoi rjyopowvTO. Clearly the Article marks the turning from the one scene to the other, from the battlefield to Olympus. Thus the Attic ol (0eo) distinguishes the gods from other beings : the Homeric of (8e 6foi) marks, not this permanent dis- tinction, but the contrast arising out of the particular context. The difference appears also in the use with Proper Names. In Attic the Article shows that a particular known person is spoken of ; in Homer it marks the turning of attention to a person ushers in the name, as it were. In short, the Homeric Article contrasts, the Attic Article defines. 260.] With Adjectives. The Article is used before adjectival words that imply a contrast or distinction, especially between definite or well-known alternatives : in particular (a) aXXos and crepes, passim : also auros = same. (b) Comparatives and Superlatives ; ol TrAeoves, ol apto-Tot, &c. So in the adverbial expressions TO -rrpiv, TO irdpos, TO. -jrp&Ta, and the like, in which the Neut. Article is used adverbially (TO Trdpos = then formerly}. It is quite different when a Masc. or Fern. Article is used with an Adverb, as ol HvepOe Oeoi (II. 14. 274), avbpG>v T&V ToYe (II. 9. 559)> r " r> ^Sofli Kal TO. dvpr)(f>i.v (Od. 22. 220), a use which is extremely rare in Homer. (c) Ordinal Numerals : as TT; SCKOTTJ : so TO TJ/UOT;. Also Cardinal Numerals, when a division is made; as II. 5. 271 TOVS IJ.V Tffrarapas O.VTOS e\(^v aTiTaAA.' e?rt 6"e bv' Alveiq b&Kfv four he kept, and the (other) two he gave to Aeneas : II. 1 1 . 1 74 -nacrcis' Ty 8e r ifj KT\. (the lion chases) all, but to one Sfc. (fl) Possessives ; TOV tybv \6\ov, TO. era K^\a, &c. (e) A few words expressing the standing contrasts of great and small, many and few, good and evil, &c., esp. when the con- trast is brought out by the context : U. I. 106 fj.dvTL KCIK&V, ov 7i(a TtoTf fj.01 TO Kpr/yvov fiiras' alei TOI TO. xa/c' ea-Tt s dei TOV opolov ayet 0eos a>s Tor opoiov. (/) Patronymics and geographical epithets: e.^. II. 11. 613 Ma^doyt TravTd IOIKC TW 'Ao-KATj-TridS?? (cp. 13. 698., 14. 460., 23. 295, 303, 525) : II. 2. 595 afj.vpiv TOV 0p?/tKa : 11. 6. 2OI TreSt'or TO AXriiov, cp. 2. 68 1., i o. ii : and so perhaps II. 21. 252 alfTov . . TOV OrjprjTfjpos an, eagle, the hunting kind. This use is rare. (g) In a very few places, a Genitive : II. 20. 1 8 f Tt^s rfjs Upidfj.ov: Od. 24. 497 wet? ot AoAtoio : II. 9. 342., 10. 408., 23. 348, 376, Od. 3. 145- 261.] The defining Article. The few and somewhat isolated uses which fall under this description may be grouped as follows : i . The use before a Relative is combined with ' Apposition ' to a preceding Noun : as 11.5- 319 ^8' vibs Ka-navijos \rj9eTO crvvQecriatov Tawv as eTreVeAAe KTA. (cp. 5. 33 1 deduiv raaiv at ). This is the primitive order, the Article being ' resumptive ' the injunctions, those namely which, fyc. So ^juan TW ore , and com- monly in the Iliad. The later order that in which the Noun follows the Article appears in a few places of the Iliad : 5. 265 Trjs yap TOI yez>erjs rjs T/xot ire/a KTA. (cp. v. 268), also 6. 292., 8, 186., 19. 105. It is commoner in the Odyssey. 2. Occasionally the Article conveys a hostile or contemptuous tone: II. 2. 275 Tov Aw/S^TT/pa : 13-53 Auo-o-coSTjs : 21. 4 21 ?; Kwapvia : 22. 59 TOV ^VO-TTJVOV : Od. 2. 351 TOV Ka^opov : 12. 113 Tr)v oAorjy : 14. 235 Trjv ye crTuyepTjy 68oy : 18. 26 6 /ioAo/30o's : 18. 333 TOV dArjTTjz; : 19. 372 at KVVCS at8e. So in II. 3. 55 r\ Te Ko/jirj TO Te etSos. In Od. 1 8. 114 Tow-oy TOV ava\Tov does not mean (as it would in Attic) ' this avaXTos,' but ' this man cbaATo? that he is,' Cp. 230 PRONOUNS. [261. II. 13. 53 f] p' o -/ 6 Xvo-a-utbrjs KT\., where 6 \vcror]s the mad- man is used as a single term, in Apposition to o ye. This use which is characteristic of Homer may be regarded as a relic of the Deictic force of 6 ?; TO. It answers to the later use of euros, Latin iste. 3. The use of the Article to show that the Noun denotes a known person or thing the defining Article of later Greek is rare in Homer. It is found in the Iliad (a) with yepuiv, yepaio's, ava, T/pco? : where however the Pronoun is the important word, the Noun being subjoined as a kind of title : TOIO avaKTos = ' of his lordship ' (cp. the German allerhochst derselhe). Accordingly, when the name is added the Art. is generally not used ; as ye'pcoy i-TrTjAdYa n^Aevs (not 6 ye'pcoy). (U) with ZTTOS and pv6os, in certain phrases, as Trolov TOV pvOov eeiTres ; In these cases the Noun is of vague meaning, adding little to the Article : cp. ewei TOV pvOov aKovae with eirei TO y a/couo-e. So in the formula o^ocrev Te TeAevTTjo-e'i* Te TOV opKov, perhaps with a touch of ceremonial verbiage. In the Odyssey it occurs with several other Nouns : 6 eu f o? (passim); f) vrja-os Od. 5. 55., 9. 146., 12. 2OI, 276, 403, &c. ; Ta fjiijXa Od. 9. 464., 1 1. 4, 20 : 6 /xo'xAos Od. 9. 375, 378 : TO rogov Od. 21. 113, 305. The other examples in the Iliad are chiefly found in books x, xxiii, xxiv : see II. 10. 97, 277, 321, 322, 330, 408, 497-, 23. 75, 257, 465-, 24. 3 88 > 8o1 ; also 2 - 8 v 7- 412., 20. 147. We may perhaps add a few uses with words of relationship : II. II. 142 vvv p.V or) TOV TtaTpos dei/ce'a TurtTe Aw/3rjv. But here the Art. is resumptive with emphasis : (if ye are sons of Antimachus) ye shall now pay for his, your father's, outrage. II. 19. 322 0^6' et KV TOV TTdTpOS O.TTO(f)OllJ.VOlO TTU&H/iTJV not even if I heard of such a one as my father being dead : Od. 2. 134 e/c yap TOU iraTpbs KUKO. Treuro/xai for from my father (for one) I shall suffer (cp. II. 15. 641 TOU ye'reT J e*c miTpos KT\.) : Od. 16. 149, II. 21. 412. See however 255. It has been a question whether the Article is ever equivalent to a Possessive Pronoun. If so it would be a kind of defining Article defining a thing as belonging to a known person. In most of the instances, however, the reference to a person is given by a distinct Pronoun : II. 19. 331 o>s dv JJLOI rdy -nafba KT\. : Od. II. 492 dAA' aye JJ.OL TOV Traioos KTA. : Od. 8. 195 xat K aAaos TOI . . TO cnjfj.a: Od. 1 8. 380 0^8' dv /xoi T^Z; yao-Te'p' KTA.: Od. 19. 535 aAA' aye /xot TOJ; ovfipov KT\. : II. I. 167 o~oi TO ye'pas TTO\V Hfl&v. Hence the Art. in these places has much the same 262.] THE ARTICLE AS A RELATIVE. 23! function as with a Possessive (/xot TOV Traiba = Tov f^bv Tralba) ; it reinforces the Pronoun which conveys the idea of possession. This account does not apply to rrjs evvrjs (II. 9. 133, 275., 19. 176), and Try? dper^s (Od. 2. 206). But here the Art. is probably substantival : rr/s ewr/ her couch, TTJS apery her perfection. In 23. 75 Kat /xoi 86s TJ]V x*tya the Art. is quite anomalous. 262.] The Article as a Relative. The Article at the begin- ning of a clause may often be translated either as a Demonstra- tive or as a Relative. It has the character of a Relative when the clause which it introduces is distinctly subordinate or paren- thetical : as II. I. 36 'ATToAAow dWfcri, TOV rjVKO[j,os TZKC ATJTOJ Apollo son of the fair-haired, Leto. The use of 6 TJ TO as a Relative is less common in Homer than that of os r\ 6, and is restricted in general to clauses which refer to a definite antecedent. Thus in the line just quoted the clause TOV rivKop-os re/ce ATJT&> does not define Apollo, i. e. does not show who is meant by the name ; it assumes that a definite person is meant, and adds something further about him. From this principle it evidently follows that (1) The Art. when used as a Relative must follow the Noun or Pronoun to which it refers ; whereas a Relative Clause often precedes. The only exceptions are II. I. 1,25 dAAd ra fxey TroXiaiv ee7rpa0o/zey, ra 8e8a0rai. Od. 4. 349 (=17. 140) dAAd ra \i.tv /xot eeiTre . . r<3z> KrA. We may perhaps read aAAa & a /xey ( 332). (2) The Art. cannot stand as correlative to a Demonstrative (i.e. we must have TO o that which, not TO TO). Hence in II. 7. 45^ ToC 8' eTrtATjowTai, TO eya> Kat 4>oi/3os 'ATro'AAcou KTA. TOV TO are not meant as correlatives : the sense is and will forget the other (a wall} which fyc. But some MSS. have o T ty&. So Od. 13. 263 (T^S ATjiSos) Trjs etre/c' ey&> TiaOov aAyea ^u/x<3 my share of the spoil (spoil) for which I had suffered fyc. Exceptions are ; Od. 14. 227 avTap ejuot Ta 0iA' ecrKe Ta TTOV 9ebs ev (frpecrl 6rJKev r 19. 573 TOVS TreAeKeas TOVS KTA. (perhaps also Od. 9. 334). (3) The Art. is not used in epexegetic clauses, as II. 2. 33 8 " yrjTTtaxois, ots ov Tt /xe'Aei KTA., II. 5- 63 apxeKaKOW, at Train Kaifbv KTA., II. 15^ 52*5 AafjiTTTibr]s } ov Ad//,7Tos eyetvaTO. Instances at variance with the general principle are to be found in II. 5. 747 ^pwcoy TOICTII; Te KOTto-o-eTat (olviv T in some MSS.), II. 9. 592 Krfbf ov \aolcn rol 'IAi (Aaois ot fiAtw). Od. 1 6. 263 ecr^Aco roi rovrco y fTrajJ-vvropf roi/s dyopevets, (where ovs is not excluded by the hiatus, 382). As the Art. usually adds some new circumstance about a known antecedent, it sometimes has the effect of representing a fact as unexpected: as II. i. 392 TT\V \ioi bocrav vies 'A\aiG>r (Briseis] idiom the Greeks gave me ( = although the Greeks had given her to me) : Od. 16. 19 povvov rrjAwyeroy, rw CTT' dAyea TroAAa p-oyjjo-rj his only son, after he has endured many sorrows about him (cp. 19. 266., 23. 6) : II. I. 160 Trpos Tpcowr, rG>v ov TI /xera- rpeVet the Trojans while you pay no heed to them. So in II. I. 319 A??y' tpioos TT)V Ttp&Tov eTnjTm'ATji' 'AxiA^i, the meaning is not the same quarrel which he had declared, but his quarrel now that he had declared it. And so Od. 19. 393 OV\r]V, Tf]V 7TOre fJ.IV (TVS 7/Aara, rd re Trpoo-epevyercu amT\v. Od. 1 8. 273 ovAo/ze'inj? e/ie^er, r^s re Zei>? oA/3ov aTrrjVpa. It is especially used in similes (where a typical case is described), as II. 13. 390 TTLTVS /3Ato0/)T7 T-ffv T ovpecri /crA. : II. 5- 7^3^ 1I - 554., 12. 146., 13. 571., 15. 581., 23. 712, &c. 264.] Homeric and Attic Article. After the account given in the preceding of the Homeric uses of the Article it is hardly necessary to show in detail where they differ from the corresponding uses in Attic Greek. What we have chiefly to observe is that the difference is often greater in reality than it appears to be at first sight. Familiar as we are with the de- 264.] HOMERIC AND ATTIC ARTICLE. 233 fining 1 Article of modern languages, and of Attic Greek, we naturally import it into Homer whenever it is not made impos- sible by the context. But even when a Homeric use falls under the general head of the 'defining Article' ( 261), the effect is perceptibly different from that of the ' Definite Article ' properly so called. In Homer the Article indicates, not that a person or thing is a known or definite one, but that it is presented to us in an antithesis or contrast. Objects so contrasted are usually definite, in the sense that they are already known or suggested by the context : and hence the readiness with which the later defining sense can be applied to passages in Homer. Thus avrap o y rjpa>$ can usually be translated but the hero (before mentioned}, as though 6 distinguished him from other heroes. But when we find that au-r&p 6 in Homer constantly means but he, or but the other, and that it may be followed by an epexegetic Noun (as avrap 6 flow ttpevcrev dva avbp&v ' A-yaufj.vu>v ), we see that 6 is more important than a mere Article, is in fact a Substantival Pronoun, to which rjpws is added as a kind of epithet but he the hero. This point has been explained in connexion with the use of the Attributive Article, 259, a. It may be further illustrated from instances in which the Article marks contrast, but not definition, and consequently cannot be translated by the. Such are : II. 15. 66 iroAeas oAeVarr' al(r)oi>s TOVS aAAous, juera 8' vlbv fj.bv SapTnjSoW blov not the others, but others as well, certain others. II. 5- 672 77 TTpoTepco Aios vlbv epiy8ov7roto SKOKOI, ?f o ye rS>v TT\e6va>v AVKLUIV OTTO Qvubv eAoiro or should take the lives of more Lycians instead. Here 01 irXtoves does not mean ' the greater number/ but ' a greater number/ in contrast to the one person mentioned. II. 22. 162 &>? 8' or' de0Ao(/>opoi Trepi rep/xara fj.u>vv)(s fonrot pifj-fpa juaAa rpca^uxn' TO 8e jueya /ceirai ae0Aoy and there a great prize lies ready. So Od. 20. 242 avrap 6 . . 6pm but a bird. The same thing is shown by /XVTJOTTJPCOZ; T&V aw KT\. ( 259, 6). It is evident that TWC is used, not because the suitors are definite persons, but because a contrast is made by fieV. The same remark applies to the use with Adjectives ( 260), especially to the use by which they are turned into Substantives, as TO Kpriyvov, TO, Ka/ca. In Homer Ta Kaica is said because in the particular context /caica evils are opposed to good. In Attic TO KaKa or TO KUKOV implies that evils form a class of things, distinguished from all other things. This again is a difference, 234 PRONOUNS. [265. which does not come out in translating Homer, and is therefore apt to be overlooked. The use with Cardinal Numerals ( 260, c) is to be similarly explained. It is not peculiar to Homer, but is regular in Attic also, where it may be regarded as a survival of the Homeric use of the Article. The use of the Art. in Hesiod shows some advance. Thus the use to form a class is no longer confined to the case of a particular contrast given in the context: Op. 280 TO. O'IKCU' dyoptvrrai, Op. 353 TUV s even so, ov5' u>s not even so. So ovb' fvOa not even there (Od. I. 18). (2) With p,eV and 8e, to express a contrast between indefinite objects : as II. II. 64 As "EKTCO/J ore fiev re fxera irpwroio-i (frdvfcrKCv, aAAore 8' ef 7rv/xaroio-t KT\. (so 1 8. 599-j 2- 49)- 12. 141 oi 8' 77 rot ^os /xey /cr\. up to a certain time. 17. 178 ore 8' avrbs eirorpwei but sometimes Sfc. (3) In the Adverb <3s so ; especially as the second member of 2,66.] THE RELATIVE. 235 the Correlation u>s ws as so. A single 5s is often used where it may be either a Relative or a Demonstrative, as in the formula o>s 0aro, a>s d-nvv, &c. : cp. the Latin quae quum dixisset, &c. The other instances in which we have to translate o>s as a Demon- strative are rare : e.g. II. 3. 339 &s 8' CLVTOIS and in like manner. Among- Demonstrative uses of os it is usual to count the use with yap, as os yap, o>s yap, iva yap. This however is an error, arising from the occasional use of yap where it cannot be trans- lated/or.- see 348, 3. Some commentators find a Demonstrative os in Od. 4. 388 rov y' (i ircas tru Svvaio \oxriffdiJ.fvos \e\al3fffOai, os Ktv rot tirryaiv 65uv KT\. Here however the clause os eV roi KT\. is not the Apodosis, but a Relative Clause expressing purpose. The peculiarity of the passage is merely that the Apodosis is left to be understood : if you can seise him, (do so) , that he may tell you &c. : cp. Od. 5. 17., 10. 539. These idioms are usually regarded as the remains of an earlier use of os in the simple Anaphoric sense. The growth of a Relative out of a Demonstrative has been already exemplified in the Article ( 262). But the Relatival use of 05 is so ancient that any attempt to trace its growth from an earlier syntax must be of very uncertain value. 266.] 05 re, 5s TIS. The simple 05 may be used in any kind of Relative Clause, although in certain cases ( 262) the Article is preferred. Thus we ha ve- il. 4. 1 96 ov TIS oLcrTfvaas e/3aA; (a particular fact). i . 403 ov Bpidptctiv KoAeovcri (a constant, characteristic fact). In these two places the Art. might be put in place of os : but not in II. 2. 205 ets /3ao-iAevs, &> iScoxe (a characteristic fact, defining), i. 218 os Ke 0eoTs e-TrtTrei^rjrai (definition of a class). So os is used to convey a reason (which implies a general cause or tendency): as Od. I. 348 Zei/s amos os re 6"i'8coo-u> KrA.. ; cp. II. 2. 275., 5. 650., 8. 34. If the Relative is meant to refer to an indefinite number of individuals falling under a common description, os TIS is gene- rally used, = 20^0 being any one, whoever. If , again, the Relative Clause generalises by making us think, not so much of all possible individuals in a class, as of different times and circumstances, in other words, if it lays stress on the general and permanent element in facts os TC is used : e.g. II. i. 279 CTK^TTTOV^OS (3a(Tt.\vs, ep (such things as fyc.}. 5. 545 'AApovtr](n they to whom she is icell inclined. Thus 09 re is constantly used in comparisons: as II. 3. 61 (Tre'AeKvs) os r' et Sta Sovpos VTT' avtpos os pa re fkyjjr] vrfiov eKrd/AVTjcri. SO WS T, 001 T, oOeV T, OTC TC I f0O, T, IW TC ; OCTOS T, OlOS T. Od. 12. 22 8io-0aj;ees, ore r' aAAoi a.Tra OirfiffKOVff' av9p(t>Troi. 19. 179 Kraxro's, jueyaA.?) TroAis, ey^a re Mfrcas KrA. Thus Homer has ^ve Relatives, viz. os, Ss re, 05 TIS, 6, 3 TC, each with a distinct use : Attic retains only 05 and os TIS.* 267.] Correlative Clauses. I. We have first to distinguish between the simple structure in which the Relative Clause only qualifies a Noun or Pronoun in the Principal Clause, as T&V ot vvv Pporoi eiVi of those who are now living. fv TTfbis e^iArjo-a implies rws &>s e(pi- Ar/o-a : o(pp' av is equivalent to ro'o^pa ocpp' av, &c. In this way, then, it came about that &>s (lit. in which manner] means in the manner in which: and so o$pa to the time up to which, ft 6y the way by which, odi at the place where, ore at the time when, and so on.f The whole Relative Clause in fact serves as an Adverb (of manner, time, way, &c. as the ending may determine), construed with the Verb of the Principal Clause. Such clauses accordingly are called adverbial: while clauses which merely qualify a Noun or Pronoun are adjectival. * It is worth notice that os TVS in Attic has some of the uses of os T : see Jowett, Thucyd. ii. p. 372, Stein, Hdt. 4. 8. t In the corresponding sentences in English it is often the Relative that is wanting : thus TTJ lutv 77 tctv ^e/aoveuijj to go by t)ie way [by which] you lead. This forms a characteristic difference between Greek and English Syntax. 267.] RELATIVE CLAUSES. 237 2. The omission of the antecedent from the governing clause leads to various idiomatic uses : (a] The Relative Clause comes to be equivalent to a Noun or Pronoun in any Case which the governing clause may require : thus II. 5- 481 TO. T ee'A8erai os K' e7ri8eu?7s which (he) desires who is in need. I. 230 8<2/>' aTToaipeicrflai os rts crtOev avriov fiTrrj to take away gifts (from him, from any one] who fyc. 7. 401 yvutrov 8e KCU os jizdAa VTJTTIO'S CCTTIV. Od. 15. 281 avrap KeWi (/uA^a-eat otd K ex&>ju.ei> you will be entertained (with such things) as we have. II. 14. 8 1 jBeXrepov os (frevycav Trpoffrvyrj KUKOV it is better (for one) who ly flying escapes evil, i.e. it is better when a man fyc. : cp. Od. 15. 72, II. 3. 109. (b] The omission is especially characteristic of clauses with ore when (for TO ore the time when) : II. 15. 18 77 ov ^^vrj ore do you not remember (the time] when : II. 8. 229 TTJ/ e/3ay fi>\(a\ai } ore 817 /crA. where are gone the boastings (of the time] when fyc. : II. 19. 337 XvyprjV ayy\[rjv or' airQ^Bi^voio TrvdrjTai : and with Numerals, II. 2T. 80 i^cbs 8e juot eo-rtv 178^ 8uft>8cKaTJj ore KrA. this is the twelfth morn (from the time] when fyc. So in II. 2. 303 X#ta re /cat TT/HOI^' ore means a day or two (from the time] that. Hence too the forms ets ore to the time that, irpiv y ore before the time when. Similarly with 80i where, as IKQ.VQV odi they came (to the place] ii- here. (c] With a Verb of saying or knowing the Relative Clause has apparently the force of a dependent question : II. 2. 365 yv&crr) t-neiO' os 6' f]yefji.6v(ai> Kanos, os re vv Aawi', .778' os K' efr^Aos erjcrt you will recognise (yiyv&a-Kto, not ot8a) of the leaders him who is a weakling, and who of the people, and again him who shall be (found to be] brave. So II. 13. 278., 21. 609, Od. 3. 185., 17. 363 : compare the form with the antecedent expressed II. 23. 498 ro're 8e yvuxTtvOf exao-ros ITTTTOUS 'Apyeicoy, 01 bevTfpoi ot re TrdpoiOev. The construction is the same with a Verb which implies knowing, finding out, or the like : e.g. xArj/ao) vvv 7re7rdAao-0e 8ia/x7repes os Ke <.-a*t lots (tojind him] whose portion it shall be. 238 PRONOUNS. [267. 3. The suppressed antecedent, again, may have no clear or grammatical construction : (a) This is especially found when the Relative Clause ex- presses a reason, as Od. 4. 61 1 ai/xaros et? ayadolo, (j)i\ov WKO?, of ayopevet? lit. you are of good Hood (seeing the things] such as you speak, i.e. as I see by the manner of things that you speak. II. 14. 95 vvv 8e treu wroo-a/jiTjy irayxy typevas olov eeiTres / llame your thought, because of the hind of thing you have said. Od. 2. 239 vvv 8' aAAto 8?7p,<> i>ejueo-tb|uat, olov airavTcs rjcrd' av

dAoc^vpeai ws Od. 10. 326 0auju,a /A' Ixei rn = oTi OVTOS bibatcn). The peculiarity, how- ever, of the clauses now in question is that the Relative can have no grammatical Antecedent, that is to say, that the Correlative which it implies as an Antecedent has no regular construction in the Principal Clause. (V) This is also found after Verbs of knowing, &c. the Rela- tive Clause expressing the Object or thing known : as II. 2. 409 i7ee yap Kara Ov^ov abfXtycov &>s eTroveiro he knew of his brother (as to the manner) in which he laboured. 24. 419 6rjol6 Kfv . . olov eepo-yjeis Karat. Od. 7- 327 eiSrjo-eis . . otrcrov apiorai vrjes e//ai. This is evidently an extension of the form yv&a-ri os KCKO'S (supra, 2 c), with the difference that the suppressed Correlative in the Principal Clause is without a regular construction. (c) Sometimes the Relative Clause is used without any Principal Clause, as an exclamation : e.g. II. 7- 455 & KOTTOI, 'Ewocriyai' fvpvaOevts, olov cetTres. Od. I. 32 a> TTO'TTOI, otoy brj vv dtovs /3porol atnoooyrai. II. 5- 60 1 a> 0tAoi, otoy 8r/ 0av//,db/x,; "EKropa. The ellipse gives an expression of surprise : (to think} what a thing you have said ! (to see) how men blame the gods ! (to remember) 267.] RELATIVE CLAUSES. 239 how we wondered at Hector! The want of a construction has much the same effect as with the exclamatory use of the Nomin- ative ( 163). Similarly Od. 4. 240 TtavTa /uej; OVK av eyo> ^vdricro^ai ovb' 6vop.r]V(a, o(ros clffiv aedXoi' dAA.' olov Tob' epee KrA. I will not tell of all Ms feats : but (just to mention} what a feat this was that he did fyc. So Od. 4. 2^., II. 517; cp. also II. 5. 638 dAA' olov rivd (f)avp(ai, us o\eKovrai, where the construction is precisely the same. It is sometimes maintained that in all such cases we have a survival of the primitive ' parataxis ' that (e. g.) 6\vpeai us oXtKovrai was originally b\oq>v- peai, us o\(Kovrai you lament, they so perish, hence you lament how they perish, or that they thus perish. On the same view the exclamatory olov eenres is not elliptical, but represents the original independent what a thing you hate said ! (See Mr. Leaf on II. 2. 320 OaviM^o^ev olov ervx^rf). This hypothesis, however, is not borne out by the facts of language. In the first place, it is strange that the traces of parataxis should be found with the Relatives us, olos, oaos, &c. rather than with the corresponding Demonstrative forms. Again, if the Relative retained an original Demonstrative use, we should expect to find this, like other survivals, in some isolated group of uses : whereas the clauses now in question are very various in character. Again, the passages which favour the notion of parataxis are indistinguishable in structure from others to which it cannot be applied, such as most of the examples given under 2. Yet we cannot separate TO. r' eeXStrcu os K fmSevrjs from or that again from wi'otrd/i^v ofo^ eft-ires. In particular it will be found that the theory does not apply to clauses which are conditional so well as to those which give a reason. The exclamatory use olov feints and the like does not furnish a good argument, because the pronoun used in a simple exclamation would not be Demonstrative, but InteiTOgative (iroTov eetires, &c.). The most decisive consideration, however, is that the Relatival use of os and its de- rivatives is common to Greek and Sanscrit, and may be regarded therefore as Indo-European. Consequently there is a strong presumption against any hypothesis which explains the Homeric use of the Relative from a still earlier or pre-Indo- European stage of language. 4. Sometimes an Antecedent is not construed with the Govern- ing Clause, but follows the Case of the Relative. This is allowed if the Antecedent is separated from its own clause, as II. 14. 75 V *1 S O . . OVK H0e\ov KT\. Apollo causes sorrow for this reason, that I would not fyc. Here we cannot translate owe/ca for which reason : the reason does not precede, but is given by the Relative Clause. That is, the first eVeKa is rational ; the second is logically unmeaning. Hence the owe/cot can only be due to the correlation : as it is usually ex- pressed, ovvKa is attracted to the antecedent rowe/ca. Then since ovveKa comes to imply a correlative TOVVSKO. the antecedent TovvfKa is omitted, and the relatival ovvfKa by itself comes to me&nfor the reason that, because. The process may be traced more or less distinctly in all the Relatival Adverbs. Thus us (in which manner} comes to mean in xuch manner that : and so 54>pa for so long that, Ivo. (lit. where) to the end that. Also, as will be shown presently, o, on and o re are Adverbial Accusatives, meaning literally in which respect, hence in reject that, because : cp. tiTitlv o TL fy&a-aTO to say for what he was angered with ^UXTO-TO on he was angered for (the reason) that. The qualifying force of the Adverb is transferred from its own clause to the Verb of the Governing Clause. On the same principle e* TOV ore from the time when becomes e| o5 (for CK TOV ov ) : and ei's TO ore becomes eis o to the time that. 268.] ouVeKo. This Conjunction (which may be treated as a single word) is used in two ways : (#) to assign a cause or reason : (U) to connect the fact expressed in the Relative Clause with a Verb of saying , knowing, &c. The second of these uses is evidently derived from the first by a kind of degeneration, or loss of meaning. The fact told or known is originally given as the ground of the saying or know- ing. The transition may be seen in Od. 7. 2,99 elv\ TI TOI juez> TOVTO y fvaCcn^ov OVK fv6f](T irats e/x7j, ovvKa a-' ov n /^er' a/x vireKTrpoOcft Ate is strong and sound of foot, (as we know} because she fyc. 269.] o, on, o re. The Ace. Neut. of the Relative, when used adverbially ( 133), yields the three ' Conjunctions ' o, 8, o re, which mean properly in respect that, hence usually (a) became, or (b) that (after a Verb of saying, knowing, &c.). The antecedent r<5 is generally wanting, but is found in a few instances : as II. 19. 421 ro o?8a KCU avros, o rot KrA.: II. 5. 406 ov8e ro oi8e . . orrt />iaA' ov brjvaios KrA.: II. J. I2O Aevo-crere ro ye Travres, o juot KrA. ; also II. 15. 217., 19. 57., 20. 466, and Od. 13. 314 (seem- ingly the only instance in the Odyssey). These places, however, serve to show the origin of the idiom. We have here the phenomenon already noticed in 267, 5, viz. the^ Relative has no construction in its own Clause, but reflects the construction of the Demonstrative in the principal Clause. E.g. II. 20. 283 Tappr/a-as o ol ayxt -ndyrj /Se'Aos dreading because the dart stuck near him represents an older rap/Srjo-as (ro) 6 Trayr; /3e'Ao?. The adverbial Accusative with rap/3?yo-as would express the nature or ground of dread (as in ro' ye 8e$ii0i, ro'8e x^ e 5 & c -) 5 hence the meaning dreading in respect of (or because of) this, that the dart stuck. Accordingly we find 5 = because chiefly with Verbs of feeling, which regularly take a Neuter Pronoun of the ground of feeling.* * The Clauses of this type are the subject of Dr. Peter Schmitt's monograph, Ueber den Ursprung des Substanlivsatses mit Relativpartikeln im Griechischen (Wiirz- burg, 1889). He rightly takes o (on, &c.) to be an Ace. of the ' inner object ' ( J 33)' but he seems to have overlooked the real difficulty ; which is that o supplies an object to the Verb of the principal Clause, not to the Verb of its own Clause. Thus he says ' 6pa> b voaus war ursprunglich : ich weiss, was du krankst ; oIS 1 o at tvTJvtfft ich weiss, was er dich gelobt hat' (p. 21). But the K, 242 PRONOUNS. [269. (1) 5 in respect that, because may be exemplified by II. 1 6. 835 Tpojoi (^lAo-nToAe'/zoto-i fxeraTrpe'Tro), o crfyiv d/zwa> ?}p.ap avaynaiov (for that I keep off}. Od. I. 382 TrjAe'/xaxou Qav^a^ov o 0apv, o /xeu erX?]s avrios eA0ety ; who are you that you dare &c. The transition to the use of o = that may be seen in Od. 2. 44 ovT TL 8?j/zioi> dAAo 7Ti$ai; avrou xP e ^ 0? o /lot KaKoy e/x7recrez> OIKM ?0/m^ J fe/i? is 7^ ow case (which consists in the fact) that evil haft fallen on my house. It is common with oto"a, yiyywa-Kco (II. 5- 433? &c.) ; duo (II. 15. 248): and is found with Verbs of seeing, as II. I. 1 2O AeticnTere yap TO ye Trdyres o /xot yepas fp^erai dAArj y^ S^e ^zV, Ma^ ^ ^n>e ^oe* elsewhere (II. 19. 144., 22. 445, Od. 17. 545). (2) on lecause is common after the Verbs of feeling. We need only stop to notice some instances (parallel to those of 8 just quoted) in which ort is = as I know because: II. 16. 33 i'rjAee'?, OVK apa trot ye mm/p TJU iTTTrora ov8e eVts uriTrjp, yAau/cr) 8e o~e rtxre TreVpat T' 97At/3arot, ort roi i>oos eortf meaning- wo^ 7 /fozcw ^a^ ^OK are no child of Peleus fyc., lecause your mind is relentless. So II. 21. 410 vriiTVTi, oiibl vv TTW ?rep eTre^pdcra) ocrcrov dpeicor ev^oju.' eywv ejuewu, ort ^ot ju,eVos Od. 5- 339 Kajup-ope, rtirre rot <38e ITocretSdcoi' f a>8v(rar' e/cTrdyAcos, ort rot KaKa TroAAd Poseidon so enraged against you (as he seems to be) since he two meanings, J fcwow? t'w what respect you, are sick and I know that you are sick are quite distinct, and are given by essentially different constructions of the Relative. Let us take as example a Clause which follows a Verb of feeling : exwaaro on ol /3 Aos *Kvfe x f ip<->s- The construction with f-xuaaro is the Ace. of the ' inner object' (as roSe \uto, TO 7* StiStOi, &c.). But on is in a different Clause from (x&ffaTo : the full construction would be tx<*> ffaTO ( T ) rt - Schmitt would say that o n ttetyvyf also is an Ace. of the ' inner object,' that the sentence meant originally was angered in respect of this in respect of which it flew out. It is surely more probable that cxwcraro o TI was like If o\> from the time that, ?s o to the time that, oweicafor the reason that, &c. ( 267, 5), so that o TI was an Ace. by Attraction, and had no real construction with its own Verb. 369.] 'O, 'OTI, 'O TE. 243 causes you many evils? So II. 10. 142., 21. 488., 24. 240, Od. 14. 367., 22. 36. The transition to the meaning that may be seen in II. 2. 255 rjo-ai oveibifav on 01 ptdAa iroAAa 8i8oC ris o-' Tjye. The use of on = that is commoner in the Iliad than in the Odyssey (where us and oSveaa. partly supply the place, see 268). (3) The form o re (so written by Bekker to distinguish it from ore when) is found in Homer with the same varieties of meaning as o and on. Thus we have 5 TC = because in II. l. 244 \u>6p.vos o T apicrrov 'A^aiS^ ovbtv eri M 7 ? T fa M 01 vfpaivrjo-w 8o'Aov avre adavdrtov, o_re ju,e cr)(e8iTjs aTio/3rjvai dvwyei ' -^MJLM ^ i. e. there is a snare in this bidding me to get off the raft. So probably II. I. 518 77 877 Xoi'yia epy' o re p KT\. it is a pestilent thing that you fyc. ; II. 19. 57 ^7 &P TL T $ > a.p-4>oTpoi,(S 8e Kat 'Arpet8rj? evpu/cpeutiy 'Ayaju.e/Ai'coy 771; arTjy, o r' apicrrov ^A-^ai&v ovSer erio-ey his folly, in that he failed to honour fyc. Od. 14. 365 eya) 8' ev oT8a Kal avros VOaAKis erjv $eos, and generally by the complete correspondence of meaning thus obtained between o, on, and o re. On the other hand it is ex- tremely improbable that the i of on was ever capable of elision. In this respect on that stands on the same footing as n and on. Moreover, the adverbial use of these words, which gives them the character of Conjunctions, is only a slight extension of the ordinary Ace. of the Internal Object ( 133). Hence if the Neut. of os and os ns is used in this way, it is difficult to see any reason why the Neut. of the equally familiar os re should be excluded. The ancient authorities and the MSS. vary in some places between ore and on (as in II. 14. 71, 72., 16. 35, Od. 13. 129), and on such a point we have no good external authority. 270.] o, on, o re as Conjunctions. In a few instances it is impossible to explain these Relatives by supplying an Accusative TO in the principal Clause. Thus in Od. 2O. 333 vvv 6' tfbr] ro'Se 877X01;, o r' ovKe'ri vocrrifjios eort the Antecedent is a Pronoun in the Nona. Similarly in II. 5- 349 ?? vx. o(X*S orrt ywaiKas avdhKibas ^irepoTrevets ; the principal Clause is Impersonal, and the Antecedent might be a Nom. (is it not enough] or Gen. (is there not enough in this), but hardly an Accusative. Again in II. 8. 362 ov8e rt T>V /xe/ju^rai, o o! \j.aXa TroAAa/as KT\. 17. 207 T&V TTotvriv, o rot KrA. (as amends for the fact that] the Relative Clause serves as a Genitive : cp. Od. 1 1 . 540 yr\do- (Tvvp o ol KrA., 12. 374 ciyyeAos riXOev . . o ol KrA. Add II. 9. 493 ra (frpovtav o /xoi KrA., 23. 545 Ta pov4(i)V OTL ol KrA. : and also Od. 2. 1 16 ra fypovtovcf ava 6vfj.dv a ol KrA., where the v. 1. o for a has good MS. authority. In these instances, then, the forms o, &c. have ceased to be felt as Case-forms, and may properly be termed Conjunctions. The Mood in all Clauses of this kind is the Indie. not the Opt., as in some Attic uses (Goodwin, 714). 271.] RATIO OBLIQUA. 245 It may be worth while pointing out the parallel between this extension of the Relative Clause and the development which has been observed in the use of the Infinitive ( 234). In the first instance the Clause serves as epexegesis of an Ace. with a Verb of saying, knowing, feeling, &c. ( 237, 2) : /) SeidtOi nva otyeaOai fear not any one, for being likely to see ; rapPf/cras (r<5) & ayx i it&yi} &f &os fearing (this}, that the spear stuck near him. Then the Ace. is used without reference to the construction of the principal Verb and consequently the dependent Clause may stand to it as logical Subject : ov TI vfneaayrov fiamXfja arrapeaaaoQai for a king to make his peace is no shame ; oi>x (i\is on fiireponfteis is (the fact) that you deceive not enough ; where the Clause in both cases serves as a Nom. Finally the Clause is used as an indeclinable Noun of any Case : ruv Hf/j.vi)Tai o KT\. remembers this, that &c. ; to which corresponds the so-called ' articular Infinitive,' or Inf. with the Article as a Substantive. The three forms 5>, 5 T, 5-ri do not differ perceptibly in meaning. Hence the reduction in Attic to the single on is no real loss. 270*.] Indirect Discourse. Clauses introduced by o (o re, on), ws, ouyeica after Verbs of saying and knowing are evidently of the nature of oratio obliqua, or indirect quotation of the words of another person. The Homeric language has no forms of Syntax peculiar to Indirect Discourse (such as the use of the Opt. or Pres. Indie. after a Secondary Tense). Every assertion is made from the speaker's own point of view : consequently what was present to the person quoted must be treated as now past. Accordingly the Present Tense of the oratio directa becomes the Impf ., the Pf . becomes the Plpf . The Future is thrown into past time by the help of /xe'AAco, as in ovbe TO 77877 o ov TieicrecrOai e/zeAAez; he knew not that he would not be persuaded. The only exception to this is Od. 13.^340 TjoY o vo, * The figures are taken from Schmitt (Ursprung des Substantivsatses'), but in- clude instances of o re which he refers to OT6 when. 246 PRONOUNS. [271. and so ocrcroi 'Axatot, 01 ?rep api, in II. 21. 353 t^dvfs o*i Kara 8tvas. So with the Adverbs ; as Od. 10. 176 oKe. But there the Gen. is partitive : ' the brood from which Zeus gave ' ( 151 e). So II. 23. 649 ( 153). 2. Another effect of this omission may be found in the use of double Relatival forms, especially ws ore as (it is~] when ; which again may be used without any Verb following : e. g. II. 13. 471 ctAA' e//ei/ o>s ore rts (TVS ovpevw ctA/d TreTroiflcos, o? re ju.e'i'et KrA. So ws el and ws ci TC as (it would be) if, as in II. 5. 373 ris vv s et ri KO.KOV pefovo-av. A similar account is probably to be given of the peculiar double Relative II. 8. 229 TTT/ e/3av e^xcoAat, ore 877 etvai aptcrrot, as OTro'r' fv AT^/X^W Kveav\fes riyopdacrde when once (whenever it was] you made boast in Lemnos. 3. The want of a finite Verb also leads to the construction of otos, ws, &c. with the Infinitive. This is only beginning in Homer : see 235. It arises by a kind of mixture or ' contami- nation ' of two simple constructions, viz. (1) the ordinary Inf. with the Demonstratives rotos, -njAtKos, &c. ( 232) ; as roiot a^vv^v of the kind to defend (Od. 2. 60), ju,eVeiz> en rrjAtKos of the age for remaining (Od. 17. 20); (2) the Correlative form, such as II. 5. 483 rotor otoV K* i)e $e'poiei> 'Axatoi i] KW ayoitv: II. 7. 231 ^juets 8' dp.ev roiot ot av Thus (e.g.) Od. 21. 172 roiov . . oto'y re pur^pa /3to{) r' *cai oia-Tutv combines the forms rotoz> e/xe^at of the kind to be and olo's re (ecm) of the kind that (is). In other words, the con- 272.] FORMS OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 247 struction of roios is transferred to the Correlatives roTos otos. Then roios is omitted, and we get otos with the Inf. The same may be said of d>s re with the Inf., which is post-Home'ric. 272.] Double Relative Clauses. When a Relative introduces two or more Clauses connected by KCU or 8e, it need not be con- strued with any Clause after the first : e. g. II. I. 162 to em Tro'AA' e^oyrjo-a, bdcrav 6"e /xoi utes 'A-^ai&v for which 1 toiled, and which the sons of the Greeks gave me. Od. 2. 114 T<5 orea) re Trarrjp /ce'Aerai KCU avbavet, airy ,pfl and who is pleasing to herself. The Relative is not repeated in any Clause of this form ; but its place is often taken by another Pronoun (usually an enclitic, or an unemphatic euro's) : II. I. 78 TI yap oiojucu avbpa xoAcoo'e'/^ei', 6s /xe'ya TrdvToov 3 Apyeuoz> Kpareei xat ol vtlOovrai 'A)(atot. Od. 9. 19 e?// 'O8ucrei>s AaeprtaSrjs, 6? Tracn o"oAot] Zfvpos (3a9v Aa/3pos e7raiyi'(/oz>, e-7u r' ?y/xv 4. 483 rj pa T cv eta/xei'f? e'Aeos /^eyaAoto AeiTj, drop re' ol obt erf aKporarr; Successive Relative Clauses not connected by a Conjunction are frequent in Homer. The Relative may be repeated for the sake of emphasis: Od. 2. 130 So/xcoi; aeKovcrav a-nSxrai r\ p ere^' T/ p' fOp\l/. Or the second Clause is epexegetic of the first : as II. 5- 403 o-xerAios, o/3ptp,oepyo'?, 6s OVK o0er' aiauAa pe^coy, 6s TO^OHTIV e/crj8e Oeovs (so 6. 13 1 ._, 17. 674, &c.). Or it marks the return to the main thread of the narrative : as Od. 14. 288 8r) rore ^>oivi^ rjXQtv avr\p, aTrar^Aia et5wy, rpw/crrj?, 6s 8^ TroAAa K.CLK av9p(airoi(nv ewpyei, 6's p,' aye 7rap7rem0a>y KT\. (cp. II. 15. 461-3). Where different Pronouns are used as Relatives in successive Clauses, the reason of the variety may often be traced. Thus in II. 16. 157 t b* \VKOL As iA.a>i> irarpos Kal fj,r]Tpos OVTU>V avbpas, 60 i, o0ez;, ore, ecos, 6, Ss TOV A.co^3rjr^pa eVeo-/3oA.oi> fa~^ ayopacov. And clauses like II. 4. 157 cos o-' HfiaXov Tp<3es since the Trojans have thus shot at you ; 6. 166 olov ajcouo-e at hearing such a thing ( 267, 3) : as well as in the regular Causal use of o, on, o re ( 269), and ouyeica. (2) Clauses expressing the Object of Verbs of saying, knowing, thinking, &c. (i. e. tlaefact or thing said, &c.) : as II. 2. 365 yvuxrri e7rei0' os ff 1 Tjye^oVcoy KCIKOS, os re vv Aaah'. Od. 6. 141 6 8e /xep/x?7pt^ey 'O8uo-o-evs | T) . . ?] KrA. II. 1 8. 125 yvolfv 8' ws 8r) Srjpoy eya) TroAe'/ixoto Tre'Trau/xai. 6oi 7rei/)7j(rerai at Ke Otrjo-iv (tries if it will run), (3) Clauses expressing condition or limitation; which may be introduced By os : as T&V ot rw fiporoi flcn of the mortals now living : 6s K e-7ri8evi7s he who is in want: os Ke 0eoTs eTrnrei^TjTat he who shall obey the gods : o ri ot eta-airo whatever seemed to him. By a Relatival Adverb : of manner, as ws emre'AAa) as I bid, a>s av eywy et-n-co as I shall speak ; of time, eirei, ore, &c., also 4'us and 8<})pa when they mean so long as ; of place, as oTnrdOi TK.6ro.rov TICOLOV where is the richest of the plain. By el the common form of Conditional protasis. It will be convenient to term all these Clauses ' Conditional ' the word being taken in a wide sense, so as to include every Clause of the nature of a definition or limitation, as well as those in which actual priority in time is implied. (4) Final Clauses, expressing end or purpose : introduced By os ; as II. 4. 190 eTri^Tjo-et pa, when they mean till such time that. To these we may add els o until, which (like o{W/ca) is practically a single word. By ci or at : as II. i. 420 eiju.' O.VTT] . . at /ce Tn'flrjrai I go in the hope that he will listen. By fj.ri lest (=iva /XT/). It is important to observe that the several groups of Clauses now pointed out are generally indistinguishable in respect of grammatical form ; so that Clauses of the same form (introduced by the same Pronoun or Particle, and with a Verb of the same Tense and Mood) often bear entirely different meanings. This will be shown in detail in the course of the present chapter ; meanwhile a few instances may be noted as illustrations. 1. Final Clauses introduced by os are in the same form as the Conditional or limiting Clauses such as os e rvx7, OTTI KW enrfls, &c. 2. The regular Final Clauses with us and SITUS are in the same form as the limiting dis av f-fuv enow as I shall speak, OTTUS e&(\riaiv as he pleases, &c. 3. Clauses with Itos and 6<}>pa may either be Conditional (when the Con- junction means so long as), or Final (when it means unfit). 4. The Final Clause with l is indistinguishable in form from the ordinary Conditional Protasis : compare at ice mOrjrai to see if he mil listen with II. 24. 592 ^77 fj.oi ndrpoK\e ffKvSfj.aivf/Afv at Kf irvOtjai be not angry in case you hear. 5. Clauses with |XT| may either be Final (when fvfj = ii>a jtij), or Object- Clauses after a Verb of fearing (StiSca ^17). From these examples it is evident that in this as in so many parts of Greek grammar the most important differences of meaning are not expressed by corresponding distinctions of form. The Pronoun or Conjunction which connects the subordinate with the principal Clause generally leaves the real relation between the two Clauses to be gathered from the context. These different kinds of Sentence are distinguished to some extent by means of Particles, of which it will be enough to say here that (1) Strong Affirmation is expressed by rj, and the same Par- ticle is employed in Interrogation (especially with ironical force). (2) Negation is expressed by OUKI (OUK, ou), Prohibition by pr\. (3) The Particle el, in its ordinary use, marks a Conditional Protasis, i.e. a Clause stating a condition or supposition. (4) The Particles Ke(c) and oV mark a predication as being Conditional, or made in view of some limitation to particular conditions or circumstances. * It is often convenient to use the Attic form fo>s as the name of the Particle, but this cannot be the true Homeric form. The metre shows that it must be a trochee ; and the Doric &s (Ahrens, Dial. Dor. p. 200) represents contraction of aos : cp. the Cretan TCLUS for rtais (Hesych.). Hence we should have in Homer either jjos (the older Ionic form, cp. vnos) or aos, which would properly be Doric or JMic, like Xads &c. Of these ijos is evidently the more probable. t ^A JYU?, &. tf-JT* Y-'/i Q ' 275-] SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 251 The Subjunctive in Principal Clauses. 274.] The Subjunctive in a Simple Sentence, or in the Prin- cipal Clause of a Complex Sentence, may be said in general to express either the will of the speaker or his sense of the neces- sity of a future event. Like the English must and shall, by which it may usually be rendered, it is intermediate in meaning between an Imperative and a Future. Sometimes (as in lo/xev let us go, or in Prohibitions with nty it is virtually Imperative; sometimes it is an emphatic or passionate Future. These varieties of use will be best understood if treated with reference to the different kinds of sentence Affirmative, Interrogative, Negative, Prohibitive, &c. in which they occur. 275.] In Affirmative sentences the force of the Subj. depends in great measure on the Person used. (a) In the First Person the Subj. supplies the place of an ; Imperative, so far as such a thing is conceivable : that is, it expresses what the speaker resolves or insists upon doing ; e. g. II. 9. 121 Vfj.lv 8' fv iravTzacn Trepi/cAuTa 8<3p' OPO/A^ZKU (where the list of gifts immediately follows). Od. 2. 222 cr^jua re ot xeva> /cat eTTt /crepea /crepet (the Subj. expresses the decisive_action to be ^ taken by Telemachus, viz. to acknowledge his father's death : the Fut. 8o>o-co expresses what would follow as a matter of course). 12. 383 bvcrofJiaL fls 'At8ao /cat (V ve/cvecrcri tpaeivo) (said by way of a threat). Hence after a Clause containing an Imperative the Subj. is used to show what the speaker will do as his part of what he desires to be done : as II. 6. 340 dAA' aye vvv firfaeivov, apry'ia T*.v\ea 8ua> do you wait, and I will put on my armour. 22. 416 o-)(e'o-0e, 0tA.oi, Kai p olov eao-are KTjSo'juezxn Trep eeA.0oz>Ta TroArjos iKe'crfl' km vijas 'A^aL&v, Atcro-coju,' avfpa TOVTOV KT\. 450 Setire, bvu> //oi eirea-^oz/, tScoju,' OTIV epya reruKTai. So after the phrases d\X' aye, el 8' aye, as Od. 6. 126 dA\' ay' eywy avrbs TreipTjo-o/xai ^Se t8co/xat : 9. 37 et 8' aye rot /cat vovrov e/xoy TroAv/cjjSe" evto-TTco. On the phrase el 8' aye see 321. To show that a purpose is conditional upon something else being done, the Subj. may be qualified by the Particle Ke(y) : II. I. 137 et Se' /ce /XT) btaoxnv, eyo> be KCV avrbs eAcoftat if they do not give her, I will (in that case] fyc. 252 SUBJUNCTIVE. [275. II. 14- 235 irctOev, eyo> 8e Ke rot eiSeco ofoy, #f/ / will feel thankfulness. 16. 129 Svcreo revx ea dacrcrov, eya> Se Ke Xaof dyetpco. Od. 17. 417 T( ? " XP*? So'/^ieyai Kal \a>'iov rj4 Trep aAAot (TLTOV eya> 8e' KC* ere /cAeuo KrA.. So too II. T. 183 TTjy /xez; . . 7re'ju.\|fa>, ey&> 8e K' aya> B/nevyo>/xez> let us fly. (#) A Subj. of the Second and Third Person in an Affirmative sentence is usually an emphatic Future, sometimes approaching the force of an Imperative. The only example of a, pure Subj. (i. e. without icei/ or ay) in this use appears to be the phrase (cat Trore TIS eiTrrjo-i and men shall say (II. 6. 459, 479., 7. 87). With aV we find II. I. 205 fjs VTre/DOTrXtrjcri ra^' civ Trore Ov^bv oArjrat (in effect a threat of what the speaker will do). 22. 55 v ^ v &' a ^ TroAAa TrdOpa-L iA.ou awo Trarpos but now he must suffer much fyc. With Key the examples are rather more numerous : Od. J. 396 T&V Key ns ro'8' ^ritnv, eTret Gave bios ' let one of them have this (emphatic assent). 4. 80 avbp&v 8' rj nev TLS juot epiVo-ercu r/e Kal OVK(. 4. 391 Kal 8e KC roi efarTjcri KrA.. IO. 57 ^"0 at J r V 8e KC TOI Tivoir] Bopeao (pepr^cn sit still, and her the breath of Boreas shall bear along (solemn prophetic assurance). II. 9. 701 d\X' 77 rot Ketvov juey eacro/zey, 17 Key ?r/ Ke (/uAofy a m^ wz?^ (w $w/ to) hate one, he may love another. A curious combination of Opt. and Subj. is found in II. 24. 654 avriK av e^eiiroi 'Aya^e/ivoin, Troi/xeri Aa<3z;, KCU Key avafiXrjcns Aver to? veKpolo yeVrjrai /^e would straightway tell Agamemnon, and then there must be a delay in the ransoming of the dead. The Subj. appears to express the certainty of the further consequence, as though the hypo- thetical case (avriY av eeiirot) had actually occurred. 276.] In Negative Clauses properly so called (i. e. distinguished from Prohibitions) the Subj. is an emphatic Future. We find (a) The pure Subj. (expressing a general denial): II. I. 262 ov yap mo TOIOVS Ibov avepas ovoe i8co/xat / have not seen I never shall see. 7. 197 ov yap TLS fj. (3irj ye fK&v ae/covra Stryrat no man shall chase me against my will. 15. 349 ovbf vv TOV ye yycoTot re yvoorcu re Ttvpbs AeX^coo-i davovra. Od. 1 6. 437 ^ K '0' OVTOS avrjp ovb' etro-erai ovSe yevrjrat there is not, there never will or can 6e, the man who, &c. (so 6. 201). 24. 29 nolp' 0X077, TT]V ov TLS dAeverai (cp. 14- 4 o )- (6) The Subj. with &v: II. 3. 54 OVK av TOI xpato"M?7 Kidapis KrA. be sure that then your lyre will not avail you. II. 386 et /xey 8r) avrifiiov crvv revx. e(rt irfiprjOffys, OVK av TOL \paicr\JiT]cn /3tos KrA. The reason for w in these places is obvious : in the following instances it seems to be used because there is a contrast : II. 2. 488 irXrjOvv 8' OVK av eyo> /jtufl^ao/xai ovb' ovoiurjvto but the multitude I cannot declare or tell by name. Od. 6. 221 avrt]v b' OVK &v eycoye AoeWojutai (avrrjv is emphatic : cp. Od. 4. 240., II. 328, 517). 277.] In Interrogative sentences the Subj. generally expresses necessity, submission to some command or power; as II. 10. 62 avOi ju,eVo> . . Tje 0eco KrA. am I to remain here, or am I to run fyc. ; Od. 15. .509 in; yap eyw, $i'Ae TCKVOV, l juera p. ; fyovcrL 8e how can I go into the battle ? They have my arms. II. I. I5O 77(2? ri? rot TTp6(f)p(i)V f-TTffTlV 7TfiOr]TaL ' One or two passages given by Delbriick under this head should perhaps be classed as Subordinate Clauses. A transitional instance may be seen in Od. 22. 166 o-v 8e /xot i^jxepre? fvi(nrs, i] i*iv cnroKTeivto . . 776 (rot tvdab' ayo> KrA. fe// me, am I to kill him, or bring him here ? Here the Clause may be a distinct sentence ; but not so II. 9. 618 a/xa 8' ?}ot (paivofj.vr](f)i.v ore'poto-i / do not want this to become a quarrel. Od. 22. 213 MeWop, ju?j (T 67reW? airier i Xivov a\6vTf iravdypov avbpacn 8uo-/xeveecro-iz; e'Awp /cat KVp^a ytvr] /xey ?KO)fiat icof, 6 8e JM' OVK eAe?jo-ei. Od. 5. 356 a) /iot eyw, jar; rt? /ixot v^aivycriv 8o'Aoy avre aOavdrav (I hope some god is not weaving fyc.). 1 8. 334 /ITJ rt? rot rd^a "Ipou apeivtov aAAo? avacnrj see that a better than Irus does not rise up. The construction is the same in principle when a Clause of this kind follows a Verb of fearing ; and it is sometimes a question whether the Clause is subordinate or not. Thus the older editors (including Wolf) punctuated II. n. 470 SdSoj, pi) TI iraOyfft as though SciSw were parenthetical. It is 280.] PROHIBITION SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 255 probable, however, that in such cases the Clause with JATJ has acquired a sub- ordinate character, serving as Object to the Verb (thing feared) ; see 281. On the other hand, the Clauses now in question are often explained by supposing an ellipse of a Verb of fearing : pr) pfrj for SeCSu fir) pegy. This is open to the objection that it separates Clauses which are essentially similar. For fir) perj 1 mil not have him do (hence I fear he may do") is identical in form with firj ptgr/s I will not have you do. In this case, then, we have the simple Sentence fir) perj, as well as the Compound SdSca fir) ptrj, into which it entered. Similar questions may arise regarding Final Clauses with (x-f|. Thus in II. I. 586-7 Ttr\aOi, fir}rep ffirj, . . firj \tkv Seuravre \io.rr\- O-CTOV ovb' 0f \TJTOV, and II. 16. 128 /UTJ 877 vrjas eAoxri Kal ov/cert (frvKTa TreAcoircu, the Particles are in distinct Clauses. It occurs in a Final Clause, II. I. 28/1x77 vv roi ov \paLa-^ri KT\., II. 24.569 : and after SeiSw in II. 10. 39 Set8pa- ep/xrjpi'cX &c., or an equivalent phrase : e. g. II. 4. 14. Tfjuas 8e ao)/Ae0' OTTCOS lorai rdSe epya, ?/ p O.VTI.S TToAejuoy re KdKov Kal ev^oj dpeo|uei>, 776 rts T/JUUP. 16. 243 ftcrercu ?) pa /cat oilos eTrtcrrrjrat 7roA.ejuieiz> 77/xerepos OepcnrtoV, 77 ol KT\. where eTrumrrai (is to know ,r= will prove to know) is used nearly as the Latin Subj. in Indirect Questions.* An example after a Past Tense is found in II. 16. 646 ff. ; see 298 fin. 281.] Clauses with ftrj. These are mainly of two kinds (i) Final Clauses : the Verb of the principal Clause being (a) an Imperative, or equivalent form : as II. 3. 414 JUT] //,' lpe#e, o-^erXirj, JUT) xcocra/uieyTi ere () a Present or Future in the First Person : as Od. 6. 273 T&V dXeetyo) (frrjijuv abtVKea, JUTJ ris In these places the governing Verb shows that the purpose ex- pressed is the speaker's own. The only instance of a different kind is II. 13. 648 a^ 8' kT&pu>v els fOvos ex^C ero K *? TrdvTocre Tia-nTaivav, JUTJ rts \poa \a\Ko> ^77 TI TidO-yon. I fear that he will suffer. Here the Clause with p.^, although of the same form as the indepen- dent Clauses given in 278, is practically subordinate, and serves as Object to the Verb. The Verb, it is to be observed, is always in a Present Tense, and in the First Person : i. e. it is the speaker's own present fear that is expressed. * It is impossible to agree with the scholars who explain tiriar^rai here as an Indicative ; see G. Meyer, G. G. 485. 282.] RELATIVE CLAUSES FINAL. 257 Such a Clause may be Object to a Verb of knowing, fyc., as II. IO. 100 bva"iJ.VS 8' oVSpes (r^fbbv rjfarai, ovSe ri iSp.ez> ju,?7 7ra>s KCU 8ia IWKTO. /xevoiz^oraxn ju,d)(eor0at. The fear expressed by HT) -n-ws KT\. is subordinated (or on the way to be subordinated) to iS/iey : we do not know (said apprehensively) whether they will not le eager fyc. So Od. 24. 491 te\Q So-i KioVres some one go out and look whether they are not near. And in the Prohibitive use II. 5- 41 1 KrA. fe /hV ,?cr' es K\i(TLr]v. 24. 119 b&pa b' 'A^tXA^ii (f)fpp:i> rd Ke Ovfj-ov lr\vr\. Od. 13. 399 a}jL(f)l be \al(f)o$ eo-(ra), o Ke crrvyeTjcrty i8oi)z/ avdpaiiros e^oyra. 19. 403 ovop.' evp0 OTTI Ke Orjai,. With ellipse of the antecedent, so that the Clause supplies an Object to the governing Verb II. 7- I7 1 KA?/py, os xev TOL eiTrrjcrt KrA. (so 4. 389, 75^v IJt I 35)- The prophetic tone prevails in these places: cp. II. 8. 33 dAA' e/jiTTJjs Aaj>a<2v o\o(f)vp6ij.ed' atx/xrjracoy, o? Key 8?) . . oAcoyrai, where the Subj. is used as in an independent sentence. The chief examples of a, pure Subj. in a Final Clause are II. 3. 286 TI/AT/I; 8' 'Apyeiots a7ronpe/xei> rjv nv eoiKez>, rjf re Kai (rcrop.fvot/>iaro S 258 SUBJUNCTIVE. [283. So II. 1 8. 467 irapeWerai ota TLS . . #au/xao-vy#). Otherwise we should have the Opt. ( 34, ) ' The Subj. is quite anomalous in Od. 2. 42 ovre nv' ayyeXtijp ffrparov l\vov (p\op.tvoio, ijv x f>l*iv "o" "' etfeArjcrfla (whatever you choose). 14. 8 1 /Se'Arepoz; os (pevyutv Tipo^vyy KO.KOV ije 0X0)77. Od. 8. 54*5 awl naaiyvriTov dvos 6' i avepi os T' oXiyov TTfp f In Similes this usage is extremely common ; as II. 5- 5 <*" r ^>' oTHapivto fvaXiyKiov, os re \ap.irpov Trafj.os KardAeoy yrnj.acrd' os TLS aptoros avyp KCU TrAcTora Forms of the 3 Sing. Plqpf. are sometimes given by the MSS. and older editions in Clauses of this kind : as irctjwicei (II. 4. 483), lvKT), ! rjTOp av&yr), avTis avpxo[ji.v(t> o6jj.vai (cp. Od. 6. 28). And after a Verbal in -TOS expressive of necessity : II. I. 527 ov8' dreAevrTjroi/ o TI KCV KT\. 3. 65 ov TOI d-TTO/SATjr' eort . . ovcra Kv xrA. The reference to a particular future occasion may be evident from the context : as : Od. 6. 158 Kflvos 8' av Trepl Krjpi fxafcapraros f^o-^ov a os Ke o" ee'SyoKn ^QptVas ot/coz>8' dydyrjrai. In the following places this rule appears to be violated by K(V) being used where the reference is general; II. I. 218., 3. 279., 6. 228, 229., 9. 313, 510, 615., ii. 409., 14. 416., 16. 621., 17. 99., 19. 167, 228, 260., 21. 24, 484., 23. 322., 24. 335, Od. 4. 196., 7. 33., 8. 32, 586., 10. 22, 74, 328., 14. 126., 15. 21, 55, 70,345, 422., 19. 564., 20. 295., 21. 313, 345. There is strong reason, however, to be- lieve that in most of these instances the appearance of the Particle is due to alteration of the original text. Of the three forms icev, K, K', the first is on the whole the most frequent in Homer. But out of the 35 places now in question the form KV only occurs in six (not counting II. 14. 416 os Ktv "Srjrai, where KV is more than doubtful on account of the f) ; and these six are all in the Odyssey (8. 586., 15. 21, 55, 345., 20. 295., 21. 313). This can hardly be mere accident, and the obvious explanation is that in most of these places, at least in the Iliad, 8s K and 6s K* have been substituted for os T and os T'. Thus we should probably read (e. g.~) II. I. 218 os re 0eofs firiirfiOrjTat, ftaXa r' fK\vov avrov. 9. 508 6s fJ-tv T' alSffftrat Kovpas At^s . . 510 &J 8e T' av-qvrirai Kai re KT\. (cp. 23. 322). (instead of the strange correlation jicv re 8 KC). The real exceptions are most commonly passages in which a Singular is used after a Plural antecedent : as S 2 260 SUBJUNCTIVE. [284. Od. 20. 294 ov 7 na\f>v artuflfiv Ob>8e 5'iKaiov ftvovs Trj\(fMxov, oy Ktv raSt 5/j.a0' tKrjrai. With the change of Number we seem to pass from a general description to a particular instance. So in Od. 15. 345, 422, and perhaps in II. 3. 279., 6. 228., 1 6. 621, Od. 7. 33 : see 362, 6. (c) The use of &v in the Clauses of this kind is very rare. In the two places II. 8. 10 and 19. 230 the reference to the future is plain. The remaining instance is Od. 2 r . 293 os re KCU aAAous /3Aairret, 6s av /crA., where there is the change from the Plural to the Singular just noticed. 284.] The Relatival Adverbs. The most important are : the Adverbs of manner, ws and oirws ; wo-, originally an Adverb of place ( = where) ; and the Adverbs of time, 3<|>pa, Iws (^09), eis o, OTE and It will be best to take these words separately. 285.] u (1) Final Clauses with us or oirus and the Subj. generally depend upon an Imperative, or some equivalent phrase, i. e. they express the aim or purpose of something which the speaker him- self does, or wills to be done : as II. I. 32 dAA.' Wi JU.TJ p epe0i{ie, trawrepo? c5s Ke z/er/cu. 7. 293 ayadbv Kal WKT\ TnOto-Qai, ws crv T V(f)pr/vr]S TTavTas KT\. The only instance in which the purpose expressed is not the speaker's own is Od. 14. 181 TOV 8e nvr]v\ov oA?jrai. (2) With Verbs that by their own meaning imply aim or pur- pose a Clause of this kind becomes an Object Clause : thus II. 4 66 ireipav 8' co? KC Tp<2es . . ap^uxri. KrA. (so Od. 2. 9-II2 paiJ,0a VOO-TOV, oircos lA^Tjcri (how he is to come). 3. 19 AiVcreo-0ai 8e /xiy avrbs OTTWS entreat him so that he shall speak (i. e. to speak). Here the Clause expresses the thing to be tried, thought about, &c., rather than a consequence of such action. The purpose is sometimes that of some other person, e.g. Od. i. 205 s 'A^iA^a s, oAecn/s 8e xrA. (^a.? nodded to the effect fyc.). 286.] 'G2, 'Oims, 'INA. Regarding KCK and 8.\> observe that in Final and Object Clauses after us the Subj. with KCV is the commonest, occurring 32 times, while the Subj. with av and the pure Subj. occur each 8 times. After OTTUS, which has a more indefinite meaning (in some suck manner that), the pure Subj. occurs 7 times, the Subj. with KCC twice (Od. i. 296., 4. 545, both Object clauses). (3) In Conditional or limiting Clauses : (a) After a Present the Subj. is pure in the phrase OTTO)? efleAr/o-t as he pleases (Od. I. 349., 6. 189). In II. 16. 83 Trettfeo b' &s rot eyo) pvQov re'Aos kv (ppevl 0efo> the pure Subj. indicates that 0euo is really an unconditional expression of will : ( listen to me I will tell you ' : cp. the independent sentences such as II. 6. 340 firiiJ.et.vov, aprjia rev^ea 8vco ( 275> #) The use of &s and ws re in similes belongs to this head : e. g. II. 5- J^i o>s 8e Ae'coy kv /3oucrt Qopuv e av\tva a^y KrA. II. 67 01 8' cos T a^rjrrjpfs tvavrioi. dAA?yAoi(ny 0-yjj.ov tXavv&criv KT\. In this use, as in the corresponding use of the Relative ( 283), the Subj. is pure, the case supposed being not a particular one actually expected, but a typical or recurring one. Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. I. p. 161) makes the curious observa- tion that if the simile begins (as in the second instance quoted) with a Demonstrative denoting the subject of the comparison, then the Adverb used is always etTrco 7m0o>/Ae0a, which refers to a speech about to follow. The use of t&v in II. 2O. 242 Zevs 8' apcrrjv &vbpcrpa is sometimes Final, sometimes Conditional. (1) In Final Clauses 5<|>pa either retains a distinctly temporal force meaning so long till, till the time when, or passes into the general meaning to the end that. Thus we have (a) o$pa. = until (as shall be], used with KCK or 3^ as II. I. 509 T0pa 8' CTTI Tpwe0-pa KCV (vpfl- With this meaning the pure Subj. is found in II. i. 82 lx et KOTOV o(ppa reAeo-cr?7 he keeps his anger until he accomplishes it a general reflexion : also in II. 12. 281 (in a simile). (b] 3pa=^o the end that, used with the pure Subj., rarely with KCK or o.v. The transition to this meaning may be seen in II. 6. 258 dA.A.a fxer', o(j)pa *ce TOI pieAtrj8ea olvov eyec/cco stay till I bring (= giving me time to bring]. (2) Clauses with opa may be classed as Conditional when it means so long as; e.g. II. 4. 345 ZvOa pa yap ovv fiiorov re Tfbv Ka\ /cr^/xa o(f)pa K Kfivr] TOVTOV ex.?! voov. The use of icer or ac in these Clauses is governed by the same rule as with os, viz. it is used when the reference is to the future, and is not expressly meant to be general (as II. 23. 47 o COXHCTI ptereico). As to the form o(f>p' av fj.v KCV, see 363, 4. In II. 6. 112 avepes lore, $tAoi, p-vricrao-Oe 8e Oovpibos d oQp' av eycb ^TJCO (cp. 8. 375., 17. 186, Od. 13. 412., 19. 17) the Clause seems to mean until I go, i. e. long enough for me to go. Delbruck however counts the uses of dtypa in II. 6. 112, &c. as Conditional (Synt. Forsch. i. p. 170). 288.] !o>s (TJOS) and els o, used with the Subj., always take K&V. The meaning until, with implied purpose, is the usual one : as 289.] J O*PA, "Ens, 'GTE, f onoTE. 263 II. 3. 290 avrap eyo> KCU e-Treira fxax^o-o/xai eive/ca Kovprjs avdi fj.v(tiv, rjos /ce re'Aos 1 iroAe/xoto Kt^eta). 9. 48 you 8' eya> 20eVeAo's re ^a^o-o^d' ds 6 *e The Conditional meaning is only found in the recurring- ex- pression ets o K avT^r] kv oTTjflecro-i /xeVrj KCU jixot c/u'Aa yowar' dpcopr; (II. 9. 609., 10. 89)^*0 fo^ a 7 289.] ore, oir^re : (1) Clauses with ore and oTnJre may be counted as Final in a few instances in which the governing Clause contains an expres- sion of time: (a) with the pure Subj. II. 21. Ill Icrcrerat r) 170)5 17 SetArj 17 /^ecroz; ?f/>iap, oirTTore rts Kai e/xeto "Apei CK Ov^bv e\]rat. So II. 19. 336 eju.Tji' TrortSey/xeroi' atet Auyprjy dyyeAiTjf, or' a-no^di- /xe'yoto TTv6t]TaL waiting for the message when he shall hear fyc., i. e. ' waiting for the time when the news shall come that &c.' Here the clause with ore becomes a kind of Object Clause. () with KCI/ or ac : II. 4. 164 eo-crercu ?7/xap or' av TTOT' dAcoATy KrA. (6. 448). The use of ac gives definiteness to the expectation, as though a particular time were contemplated. Cp. also II. 6. 454 6Vcroz> creu (jueAei), ore Ke'v ns . . baKpvofira-av ayrjrcu as I am concerned for you (in respect of the time) when Sfc., and 8. 373 eorcu /ACIV or' ay xrA. It is obvious that in these places the Clause is not strictly Final, since the Subj. expresses emphatic prediction ( 275, #) rather than purpose. But they have the essential characteristic of Final Clauses, viz. that the time of the Clause is fixed by that of the governing Verb. (2) Clauses with ore or OTTOTC which define the time of the principal Clause may be regarded as Conditional. In regard to the use of Key and o.v they follow the rules which hold in the case of Conditional Relative Clauses ( 283) : viz. (a] The pure Subj. indicates that the speaker is supposing a case which may occur repeatedly, or at any time : as Od. 7. 71 ol \t.(v pa 6ebv &s eicropocoires 8ei8e'xarcu iMvdounv, ore crretx?? "' ava aoru who look on him as a god, and salute him when he walks fyc. II. I. 163 ov \.v troi Trore Ivov ex 00 y^P a ^ OTTTTOT' Amatol Tpactiv eKTrepcnwcr' c5 vaio/jievov TTTo\if9pov whenever the Greeks sack a Trojan town. So in maxims, &c. : II. I. 80 Kpetcrcrcoy yap /3acriAeis ore -%&ea>v irrrjrai KT\. I 9- 375 & s ^' T ' av * K ""ovroio at\as vavryai (ftavfiy Od. 5. 394 wy 5' or' av dffndffios fltoros iraiSeaai fivos (f)i\os "Apyet ei/^,1, (TV 8' ey AUKITJ, ore Key rwy brj^ov 20. 166 TTpStrov jixey . . aAA.' ore Key rts KrA.. Od. 20. 83 dAAa ro pikv nal avturbv exei KaKov, OTTTTOTC Key rts KrA. 11.17 ^' OTror' ay o-retx^o-t . . ov^' or' ay ai/r KrA. (Here we should read oTro're o-ret'xrjo-i, 363, 4). ,So perhaps II. 2. 397 'ffayrouoy dye'/xcoy, or' &y ey^' ^ ey^a yeycoyrat : 9. IOI Kprj^yat 8e KOI dAAw, or' ay rtya KrA. and Od. 13. 100 ey- roa^ey 8e r' ayeu Se eAotytev), Od. I. 192., 17. 330, 333., 18. 194. The combination CUTE iceV is not found. The pure Subj. with tfpos occurs in one place Od. 4. 400 T//XOS 8' ije'Aios jue'croy ovpavov d/x^t^SejSTjKTj where the reference is general, ' each midday/ The Subjunctive with el, fyc. 291.] Clauses with. el. The use of the Particle el (or al), in the Clauses with which we have now to do, is to make an assump- tion or supposition. In most cases (i) this assumption is made in order to assert a consequence ( who knows suppose 1 shall rouse = who knows whether I shall rouse. We shall take these three groups of Clauses in order. 292.] Conditional Protasis with el. The chief point of in- terest under this head is the use of nev or w. The rules will be found to be essentially the same as those already laid down for the corresponding Clauses with the Relative ( 383, V) and the Relatival Adverbs (see esp. 389, I], and to be even more uni- form in their application. (a) The pure Subj. is used in general sayings, and in similes : II. I. 80 Kpfi(T(T(av yap j3a(n\cvs ore x^crercu avbpl ei irep yap re \6\ov ye KCU avTrjpap KaTai dAAd re Kai /^ero77i e^et Koroi>. 12. 238 TU>V ov rt /xerarpeVo// ovb' dA.eyia>, el r' em 8ei' LUXTL irpbs rjG> T Tje'AioV re, ei r' eir' dpto-repd ro^ ye KrA. Od. 1 6. 97 K.ao's rt . . vrj 1 e^e'Ar/ dAeVat xrA. The object of the speaker in these examples is to treat the supposed case as imaginary or un- practical. (#) The Subj. with iceo or av indicates that a particular future occasion is contemplated: 'hence II. 4. 353 otyeai r\v f6eXycr6a Kal at KCV rot ra p,ep,?7AT/. 1 1 . 404 p.eya fj,tv KCLKOV (sc. Icrrat) at Ke ^>e'/3cop.ai. 34. 592 p-?7 P-OL . . (r Instances of nev or ac in a sentence of general meaning are II. 3. 25 p.dAa yap re Kareo-^tet, et Trep ay avTov (revavTai KrA. (ey^w i the case when , 363, I, I}. 11. 391 77 r' aAAcos VTT' ep.eto, Kat et K' oXLyov Trep eTravp?j, d^u /Se'Aos TreAerat. 12. 302 et Trep yap x' evpTjcri Trap' avrd^>t KrA. 294-] CLAUSES WITH El. 267 Od. II. 158 TOV ov TTCO? ecrrt ireprjcrcu. TTfbv eovr , r\v JUTJ rts Xfl ffapyt& vrja. But with ei ice there is the same doubt as with os *e ( 283), and eirei KC ( 296). As to r\v, which occurs in a general saying in II. i. 1 66 and Od. u. 159, see 362. 293.] Final Clauses with ei. After a principal Verb expres- sive of the speaker's will (an Imperative, or First Person), a Final Clause may be introduced by ei Key or ^ : as II. 8. 282 /3dAA' ovrcos et Key rt CKOS Aavaolcri yevr]ai. II. 791 TO.VT enrols 'A-^iXfj'i battypovi ei Ke iri^r/rat. Od. 4. 34 bfvp" tKo'/xetf' at /ce 7ro0t Zeus . . irava-y KT\. The effect of using el (instead of o>? or tva) is to express some degree of uncertainty. The end aimed at is represented as a supposition, instead of being a direct purpose. In the existing text the pure Subj. occurs only in II. 14. 165 apicrrjj (fraivero /3ov\.r) eA.0eu; . . et TTCOS i/xeipatro . . r<5 8' . . x e % (where we should perhaps read ^euat ; or change \evri eirt to X^uete); and in Od. 5. 471 ei 8e KW . . Karabpaday, fl //e /^eflrjrj piyoy KOI Ka/xaros, yAuxepos 8e /xot vTrros eTre'A^r/, where the MSS. have the Opt. jueflefy, eTre'Atfot. But if ^ has sometimes crept in instead of ei, as is probable ( 362) there may be other examples : as II. 22. 4^8 A.iVs ore ris rpo^bv . . TieipTjo-erat ei /ce 0e'7/cri ' tries in respect to the supposition that it will run/ hence tries whether it will run : so II. 4. 249 o0pa i8rjr' ei K v^w uirepo-xf; X^P a Kpoi>ta)i>. 15. 32 o(j)pa 1877 172; rot \pai(r^r] /crA. that you may see whether it will avail. Note that the Subj. here has a distinctly future meaning, as in Final Clauses ; the same words taken as a Conditional Protasis would mean if it has availed. So after eiireu/, II. 7. 375 nal 8e ro'8' [leg. ro] etTre'/Aevat TTVKivbv ITTOS, al K etfe'Aaxrt say the word supposing that they shall be willing ( = ask if they will agree), II. 17. 692 etTretv, al /ce ra- \iy OTTO Ovp.bv e'Aco/jiai. 295.] The Subj. with ws el occurs in a single place only, viz. II. 9. 481 KCU jue (^uArjo-' ws et re Trarrjp bt> 7rcu8a (^lATjcnj. Here the assumption ei . . $1X170-77 is made for the purpose of comparison. Thus the meaning is nearly the same as with s ore ( 289, 2), and the Clause is essentially Conditional. 296.] e-rrei with the Subj. The use of e-n-ei implies that the action is prior in time to the action of the principal Clause; hence Clauses with eirei properly fall under the definition of the Conditional Clause. A pure Subj. after eirei is found in four places, one a gnomic passage, Od. 20. 86 eTret ap /3Ae' or ac is invariably used when the principal Verb is future. It is also found after a Present, and even in similes : e.g. II. 2. 474 TOVS 8' c3s T aiTroAia TrAare' aly>v aiTroAoi avopes peia biaKpivaxTiv, CTTCI Ke vop.

(instead of eTret *e Ka/aco), and so II. 7- 5 eirei KeKtijuaxri, and II. 17. 657 ^T*I ^p K^KCL^O-I. Regarding eirei Ke(k) in this use there is the same question as with os K ( 283). Out of 10 instances there is only one in which the form KCK appears, viz. II. 21. 575 eTrei KV vAay/jtov a/coTJo-Tj, and there Zenodotus read Kvvv\ayfj.bv, which is strongly supported by the metre ( 367, 2). Thus there is the same reason as before for supposing that ice is often merely a corrup- 297-] *EIIEI IIPIN. 269 tion of T. The use of e-irei re is sufficiently established in Homer ( 332)- The form *Trf\v is open to doubt on other grounds, which it will be better to discuss in connexion with other uses of the Particle S.v ( 363). 297.] irpiV with the Subj. In general, as we have seen ( 236), irpiV is construed with an Infinitive. If, however, the event is insisted upon as a condition, the principal Verb being an Im- perative or emphatic Future, the Subj. may be used ; as II. 1 8. 134 aAXa (TV p.ev JU.TJ TTCO Karabvcreo juwXoy "Aprjos Trpiv y e/xe 8eCp' eXOov&av ev 6(p9a\fj.ola'Lv iSrjcu do not enter the battle lief ore you see me coming hither. Od. IO. 174 i'Aoi, ov yap irplv Kara8i>o-ojue#' a^vvfjievoi irep fls 'Atbao bofj-ovs Trplv /^,op, dXA' OTTOT' av KT\. The use of irpiv av with the Subj. is post-Homeric. It is evident that a conditional Clause of this kind can only occur after a negative principal Clause. ' Do not do this before I come ' makes my coming into a condition, and a condition which may or may not be realised : but ' do this before I come ' is merely a way of fixing the time of doing. This construction is usually explained from Parataxis : thus it is held that in II. 24. 551 ovSt fjuv dvar'fjfffis irpiv ual KO.KOV d\\o irdQrjaOa stands for ovSe fiiv dvffTrjffdS' irpiv KOI KO.KOV aAXo vdOr/ffOa, you will not raise Mm, sooner shall you suffer passing into ' you will not raise him before you suffer.' So Sturm (p. 26), and Goodwin ( 624). But (i) this use of the Subj. in a Principal clause without KV or av, whether as a Future ( 275, 6) or as an Imperative, is not Homeric, and therefore cannot be used to explain a use which is only beginning in Homer. And (2) the change from you will not raise, you will suffer before you do to you will not raise before you suffer is not an easy one : it involves shifting irpiv as an Adverb from one clause to another. Above all (3) it is probable that the new construction of irpv with the Subj. was directly modelled on the existing use with the Inf. : that is to say, irpiv TrdQyaOa simply took the place of irpiv ira&tlv when a more definite conditional force was wanted. This is confirmed by the analogy of the later change to the Indie. : thus in Aesch. P. V. 479 irpiv y tyiii afyiaiv 5a is used instead of irpiv ipl Stiai because the poet wishes to make the assertion eSeifa. So with the transition from the Inf. to the Indie, after wart (Goodwin, 585): the finite mood is not a survival of parataxis, but is used when the Infinitive is not sufficiently positive. 270 SUBJUNCTIVE. [298. 298.] Subjunctive after a Secondary Tense. The rule in Homer is that the Subj. is not used in a Subordinate Clause to express a, past purpose, condition, &c. It may be used however (i) when the governing- Verb is a ' gnomic ' Aorist : II. I. 3l8 os K Oeols fTTiTrei^Tjrat //aXa T enXvov CLVTOV. Od. 2O. 85 o -yap T' eTtt\r]ap' Or an Aor. used to express a general denial, as Od. IO. 327 ovbf yap ovbt rts aXXos dvrjp rdbf (pdpp.aK wyei el-xelv ITTOS, at K' #eA.?jre KT\. 1 8. 189 fJ-rfTrjp b* ov pe (pi\r] irpiv y eta 6(tipi^(rpa OeG>v lx ot / would have a man not be lawless, but fyc. Note especially this use of the Second Person, as in Od. 4. 193 7u0oio juoi pray listen to me: so in the formal phrase 77 pd vv pot TI iridoio (II. 4. 93, &c.). II. ii. 791 TO.VT ftTtois 'AxiA??t suppose you say this to Achilles. Od. 15. 24 dAAa (TV y \\Q&v OVTOS tTrtrpev^eias e/cacrra. 11. 3. 406 rffro Trap' avrbv lovo-a, dt&v 8' aTro'et/ce KC \ev6ov, fiTjS' ert o-oicrt Trobfo-fnv vTrocrrpev/^eias "OX.vfJi.Trov. Hence in II. i. 20 we should read (with the best MSS.) iralba ' e/xot XuVaire (not AiSo-ai re, Wolf's conjecture). (c] Rhetorical wish, implying willingness, or indifference to the happening of some evil : as in imprecations II. 2. 340 ey Tivpi 8r/ /3ouAai re yezxnaro ju,7j8ea 8' 6. 164 TfOvairjs, ai rfpoir', ^ Kaxra ( = 1 care not if you were dead, unless you Od. 7- 224 Ibovra jue Kai AITTOI aia>z> KTrjcnv ejurjy KrA. ( = 1 am content to die when I have seen fyc.}. 272 OPTATIVE. [ 2 99- (d] Concession or acquiescence : II. 21. 359 AT}-/ eptSos, Tp<3as 8e KCU atriKa 8Tos 'A^iXXei/s acrreos eeXdcreie (cease strife, and I consent that fyc.J. Od. 1. 402 Krr/fxara 8' avrbs 6^01? KCU Stojuao-i (rouriz; dz>d ey^V eXwres err' dypoO vocr(f)i TroXrjo? ^ ev 68w ; piorov 8' airot *cat Kr?/ju,aT' ex^/xey 8aorcrti/xeyot /cara polpav (f) r^eas, otKia 8' aure Here what the Suitors are to do for themselves is put in the Subj., what they do or allow to be done for Penelope in the Opt. Compare Hdt. 7- 5- 4 TO n\v vvv ravra irprjffcrois ra irep iv \fpal. X (y > ' 5e Aiyvmov T^V fv@piffaffav arparrjKartt ITTI ras 'AOrivas, i. e. ' I rnnsent to your doing what you have in hand, but when it is done, march against Athens.' (e) Strong denial is sometimes implied, under the form of de- precation, by the Opt. with p^ : as Od. 7. 316 jj.r) TOVTO (pi'Xozj Ait Trarpi yeVorro let us not admit that this is the will of father Zeus. 22. 462 /AT) p\v 8r) Ka0ap<3 davaT airb Ov^ov IXotjUTjy. (/) Admission of possibility, i. e. willingness to suppose or believe that the thing will happen. This use is rarely found without Key or S.v : an instance is Od. 3. 231 peta 9eos y e0eXa>i> Kai rrj\o0v avbpa trawcrai. This is said as a concession : ' we men must allow that a god can save even from afar/ So perhaps II. 10. 247, 557 : also II. 15. 197 OvyarepecrcrLv yap re KOL uldcri /3eXrepoy fir] xrX. Here the Opt. is in contrast to the preceding Imper. \M\ ri JJL 8ei8icro-(:'o-0ft> : ' let him not threaten me : for his own children it may be well enough that he should scold/ Other instances are negative, viz. II. 19. 321 ov /xei> ydp n KCtKwrepoz; dXXo 300.] WITH KEN OR 'AN. 273 Od. 14. 122 yepov, ov rty Kelvov avyp a\aXr]fJ.vos e dyyeAAwy Tmcreie yvvaiKa. re KCII viov. So in the Relative clauses, II. 5. 303 (= 20. 286) o ov bvo y avbpe (f)pOLv, Od. 3. 319 66 ev OVK eATroiro ye Ovfj.> eA0e/xei>. And in one or two interrogative clauses, with implied negation : II. II. 838 77(3? r' ap' eoi rdbe tpya ; Od. 5- IO ri? b' av Kv bia- bpdp,oL (since we should probably read ris 8e F(K(bv). In such case the absence of KCV or av marks the negation as sweeping and unconditional. We should compare the corresponding Homeric use of ou with the pure Subj., which differs in the degree of confidence expressed : ovbe i8co/xcu / am sure I shall never see, ov Trafloi/xi / suppose I shall never suffer. 300.] With KV or av the Optative does not express wish (which is essentially unconditional), or even direct voillingness on the part of the speaker, but only willingness to admit a consequence : hence expectation in view of particular circumstances : e.g. II. I. IOO rore KV fj,iv tAcKroi 7re7ri0oi|uez> then we may expect to appease him and gain grace. The character of a Clause of this kind depends chiefly on the manner in which the condition is indicated. The following are the main points to be observed : (a) An Opt. with Ki> or ay often follows an independent Clause with a Future, Imperative, &c. : II. 22. 1 08 A? peov/ KrA. Od. 10. 269 (j)vy OVK e?/u, vffj.fo-crr]Tov 8e Ktv et?/. (^) Or the preceding Clause may contain a wish : II. 7- 157 e '^' & s ^/3coot//i, /3i?7 8e pot. eju,7re8os etrj' Ti> 6riT)(raiTo lbu>v. So II. 2. 8l7,"3. 220., 4. 223, 429, 539., 5- 85, 311, 388., 12. 58., 13- i37> 343-. 15- 697., 17. 70, 366, 398, Od. 7. 293., 13. 86. This use of the Optative is confined to Homer, and is chiefly . found in the Iliad. A somewhat similar idiom occurs in Herodotus ; e. g. Hdt. i . 2 firjffav 5' &v OVTOI KpfjTts 'these may have been Cretans' ( = probably were\ 7. 180 raxo 8' T 274 OPTATIVE. [300. av TI Kal rov owofMTos inavpotro. But there the meaning is different not would have happened ( = did not), but would be found to have happened (if we knew more). (pia irdvTa. It is natural that an admission that something may happen should generally be made more or less in view of circumstances, given or supposed. Hence the use of KCC or Q.V with an Opt. of this force became the prevailing use, and exceptions are rare, even in Homer. The principal clause or Apodosis of an ordinary Complex Con- ditional Sentence belongs to this head. It is erroneous, how- ever, to regard the varieties now explained as complex sentences with the Protasis understood. In this, as in some other cases, the complex is to be explained from the simple, not vice versa. In some instances the Opt. with nev appears to be concessive (expressing willingness). Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. I. p. 200) gives as examples II. 22. 252 vvv avTf /xe Ov/j-os avrJKe a-Ti]fj.fvaL avria velo' eAoi/u KCV ri KCV akoirjv. Od. 8. 57 ra &t xev 6eb$ rj reA.eWiei> i] K dre'Aeor' ei?j, w? ol $tAoz> eTrAero 6vp.S. To which may be added Od. 14. 183 ^ KCV aAoir; ?/ /ce Qvyoi KT\. (but II. 13. 486 is different). Possibly the use of *ev in these places is due to the opposition made between the two alterna- tives : cp. 285, 3, d, 286, and 289, 2, b. II. 24. 618 ciAA' aye 8r) KGU va>i /xe5w/ze0a, 8e yepate, (riTOV eireira Key avre tyiKov iralba /cAatotcr^a. Hes. Op. 33 TOV Ke KopecrcraiJLevos veiKea Kal brjpiv d^eAAots. Also Od. 1 6. 391., 21. 161. But these instances need not be separated from others in which expectation rather than conces- sion is recognised. We may notice as on the border between the two meanings (a) Uses of the First Person (esp. in the Odyssey) : e. g. Od. 15. .506 fi&dtv 8e Kfv vp.p.iv oboL-noptov iiapaOd^v. 22. 262 w $iA(H, ^877 \i.iv Ktv eycov etTroijui Kat a/x^iy KT\. 1 6. 304 dAA' oZoi (TV T' eyv yvwo/xef Wvv, Kat K reo 8fi OVK av /3ao-tA?/as ava oro//,' Zyjav ayopevois is to be understood as ironical courtesy (you will not if you are advised by me). This, again, when turned into a question yields another form of polite Imperative; as II. 3. 52 OVK av brj fxeiVetas will you not await? So II. 5. 32, 456., 10. 204, Od. 6. 57., 7. 22. The fact that ou is the negative Particle in all these instances shows that the Optative is grammatically more akin to a Future than to an expression of wish. So far as wish is intended, the use is a rhetorical one, implying what it does not directly express, like the similar use of the Future Indicative in Attic. It will be seen that, except in one or two rare Homeric uses of the pure Opt., the usage of the Opt. in independent Sen- tences is nearly the same in Homer as in later Greek. Optative in Subordinate Clauses. 301.1 The classification which has been followed in discussing the Siibordinate Clauses with the Subjunctive will also be the most convenient in the case of the Optative. Indeed there is so close a parallelism between the uses of these two Moods that little is now left to do except to take clauses of the several types already analysed, and show in each case the difference which determines the use of one Mood rather than the other. The reason for using an Optative will generally be found in the circumstance that the governing Verb is incompatible with a subordinate clause expressing either the will or the assured expectation of the speaker. If the> occasion to which the whole sentence refers is past, or is a mere possibility, or an imaginary case, these two meanings of the Subjunctive are generally out of place and we can only have the Mood which expresses a wish, or an admission of possibility. Hence it is a general rule to which however we have found important exceptions ( 298) that the Optative must be used when the principal Verb is an Optative, or one of the Secondary Tenses. 302.] Clauses with ^ rje. The Optative in the Homeric examples is generally to be explained as the translation of the Subjunctive into oratio obligua ; that is to say, it expresses a doubt or deliberation thrown back into the past. T 2 276 OPTATIVE. [303. Thus (a) we have past deliberation in II. 16. 713 >te yap ?}e jj.d\OLTO Kara xXovov avrts eAacnra?, ?'/ Aaovs es rel^os ouoK^afiev aA?/rat /a' debated should he fight 8fc., or should he call to the people fyc. : so II. i. 189., 5. 671, Od. 4. 117., 6. 141., 10. 50, &c. (b) Past doubt is less common : the examples are Od. 4. 789 6pfjiaivov(r ?/ 01 Qa.va.rov (pvyoL utos a TI o y VTrb fj.vr](TTrjp(nv virep(f)i.a.\OL(n 15. 304 crv/3(orecG TreipTjrtC/oz; ?/ /^,ii> er' eySuKeW t iJLevos tvda Kal Zv9a fjir) Kepa tTres eSotev a7rot)(o/^eroto a^axros ^o *ge that worms should not have eaten it. So in the common use with Verbs ot fearing: as II. 18. 34 oeiote yap /XT) Aaijuop eTra/xTjo-ete he feared lest 8fc. But in II. 9. 244 raCr' aivu>s 8ei8otKa Kara ptva ^rj ol aTmAas eKreAe'(ra)(n ^eot, ^/xiy 8c ST) atcrt^oy eir/ KrA. the Subj. is used for the immediate object of the fear (the gov- erning Verb being a Perfect), and the Opt. for the more remote event : see 304, a. The true reading however may be cirj, a Subj. like /xer-etco (II. 23. 47). These Object Clauses may be regarded as the negative forms answering to the Clauses expressing past deliberation. As in the corresponding uses of \>.r\ with the Subj. and Opt. in principal Clauses ( 278), the Mood is never qualified by nev or w. 304.] Relative Clauses Final and Object. Sometimes the Opt. in a Relative Clause is used precisely as in an independent sentence; the wish or supposition being expressed from the 304.] RELATIVE CLAUSES FINAL. 2/7 speaker's present point of view, not subordinated to the point of view fixed by the governing Verb. Thus in Od. 4. 698 dXAa 77oAv ncl6v re /cat dpyaAewrepoy aAAo /AznyoTTjpe? (j)paovTai, o JUT) reAeVete Kpoviav we have an independent parenthetical wish : and in II. 3. 234 vvv 8' aAAous {J.ev TTCLVTCIS 6p<3 . . ovs KCV ev yvofyv KT\. 5- 33 ( = 3O> 286) /xeya epyov, b ov bvo y avbpe (pepotey a parenthetical expectation ( zgg,f). In other places the Rela- tive Clause is connected, by implication at least, with the action of the principal Clause, and expresses an intended or expected consequence. We may distinguish the following cases : (i) In Final Clauses (a] The choice of the Opt. shows want of confident expectation of the result intended : II. 1. 62 dAA' aye 877 Tiva fj-avTiv fpeiOfJ-ev T) lepfja, . . os K eiTroL KT\. (with the view that he may tell : cp. 7. 342., 21. 336, Od. 5. 166). 7. 231 fifJ.cls 8' et/xey roiot ot av v K em/Sair/p. Od. I. 253 tf ^ KO^OV a r noi\o^vov ' SevT/, o K nvr). The pure Opt. occurs in II. 22. 348 OVK !o-0' o? . . (c) The Opt. is used if the governing Verb is an Optative, or a Secondary Tense : e.g. II. 14. 107 vvv 8' efy os T7yo-8e y' apelvova MTLV fvttnroi. Od. 6. 113 ws 'Obvo-fvs lypotro, ?8ot r' evwTTiSa Kovpr]v, 77 ot 4>at7jKO)j; avbp&v 278 OPTATIVE. [305. Od. 5- 240 ava TrciAai, TrepiKrjXa, ra 01 TrAwotey eAa 8' OVK av yvoirjs Trore/aoicri Od. 1 5- 4^3 eZpwra 8r) iTretra T^S e??; /cai itoOtv 17. 368 dAATjAous r' epeoz/ro rts etvj Kat TtoOev It is evidently akin to the Optatives with ij rj which express past doubt ( 302, V) : rs et?j w^o he should be comes to mean who he should prove to be. Cp. the Subj. in the corresponding Clauses relating to present time ( 280). 305.] Relative Clauses Conditional. When the event to which the condition attaches is matter of wish or mere expecta- tion, or is in past time, the condition is generally expressed by the Optative. Hence we find the Optative (a) With an Optative of wish in the principal Clause : II. 3. 299 oTTiroTepoi TtpoTtpoi vTiep opKia Ttrjfji^veiav, <38e cr0' eyKe'^aAos x.ajua8ts peoi a>s o8e olvos. Od. I. 47 &>s aTToAoiTO xai aAAos ons roiaura ye ptoi. (5) With an Optative of expectation : II. 9. 125 ov Kfv aXrj'ios elrj avrjp & rocrcra yivoiro he will not be poor to whom such things come. 12. 228 <38e x' vTTOKpivairo deoTrpoiros os z> xrA. Od. 22. 315 TTavetTKOv p.vri(TTrjpas OTIS roiavra ye peoi. In these uses, and generally, the Opt. is pure. Exceptions are Od. 4. 600 o&pov 8' orrt KC /AOI 8otr/9 /cei/xTyXtoy lorco (where the Opt. may be substituted for the Subj. for the sake of courtesy, to avoid assuming the certainty of the gift), Od. 21. 161 r] 8e' K eireiTa yr\\iaiff os Ke irXeiora Tropoi *cal /^opcrijoio? eXdot. Clauses formed by a Relative and the pwre Optative are strictly parallel to the Conditional Clauses formed by a Relative and the pure Subjunctive, such as x.aipti 5e piv os rts tGdpr/, or pt\T(pov 8s tv-fs, SITUS, ira and the Opt. are either Final or Object Clauses (not Conditional in Homer, see the note at the end of this section). (i) In Final Clauses the Opt. may be used either (a) to 2SO OPTATIVE. [306. indicate that the consequence is not immediate or certain (the governing- Verb having a present or future meaning), or (1} because the governing Verb is an Opt., or (c) a Secondary Tense. Thus we have the Opt. (a) After a Present, &c. in the principal Clause; especially when the Clause bears a negative meaning (so that the occasion is necessarily imaginary) : ,'Ai<; II. I. 343 ovSe TI ole vofjcrai. apa Trpocrcra) /cat omcro-co, OTTTTO)? 01 Trapa VT}V(rl (To'oi ^a^oLVTo 'Amatol. (\j.a\(.oivTo however is not a good Homeric form, and makes an intolerable hiatus : read probably ^a\iovrai, cp. 326, 3). Od. 2. 5 2 ^ KO-Tpbs ptv e? O?KOV aTreppLyacn veecrOai. 'iKapiov, a>s K' avrbs ftbvuxraiTO Ovyarpa. But also after an affirmative Clause : Od. 23. 134 f]yi(r6u> (pi\OTTaiyiJ.ovos op\it]Q^oio t cos Kef TIS v so that any one ivho happens to hear may think fyc. 12. 156 aXA' epe'co jj.ev fy&v iva etSo'res i] Ke Qav^ev i] Kfv aXfvd^fvoL Oduarov KOL Krjpa (pvyoipfv (the Opt. of the less emphatic alternative, 275, ). 17. 249 TOV TTOT eyutv fal vrjbs eiJcrcreA/Ltoio /xeAatV?]? a^to rijX.' 'IdaKrjs, Iva pot, fltoTov TTO\VV crA^oi (irore indicates a distant occasion). 13. 401 Kvva>cru> 8e rot ocr(re Trdpos TreptKaAAe* eoVre, w? av deiKeXtos TTCKTI, //,yrjor^p(7t (f>avfir]s (so 1 6. 297)- 24. 532 to-xecr#e . . cos KZV . . 5iaK/HZ>0etre (leg. biaKpivdrjTt ?). (5) After an Optative, either of wish or of expectation : espe- cially in the Odyssey, as Od. 14. 407 Ta\ivTa juot tvbov eraipot etey, IV kv KkicrLri \apbv reruKotjixe^a bopirov. 15* 537 r< ? Ke TX a yvofys &$&& TIS ere . . jaajcapt^bi. So Od. 1 8. 369., 20. 8 1 : and a fortiori after an implied prohibi- tion Od. 3. 346 Zev? ro y' aAe^Tjo-ete . . ws v/xei? . . Ktotre ^1??^ awr^ ^^ ^ow should go 8fc. (c) After a Past Tense a use of which it is needless to give examples. Regarding the use of KW and av, it is to be observed that 1 . The Opt. with Iva, and SITUS is always pure. 2. The Opt. with ws takes nev or av in a few places where there is clear reference to a single occasion, as in Od. 2. 52 307.] "iis, 'Oim2, f iNA, 'Ens, J O*PA. 281 (quoted above), II. 19. 331, Od. 17. 362; and in the combinations ds w TIS (Od. 15. 538), <3s KeV TIS (Od. 23. 135). (2) The corresponding Object Clause with ws and Sirws is found (a) after Verbs of trying, considering hoiv, &c. as II. 2. 3 AA' o ye /xep/xrjpi^e Kara s ' ' dAeVai 8e KtA. The reading Ti^o-ei' is supported by Ven. A, which has TIJATJOTTJI (VKTIKOV Schol. A. B.) : all other authorities have TIJITJOTJ, and all have oXIo-Q. II. 9. 181 TTipav ws TTfTTiOoLfv (bade them try how to persuade). 21. 137 wpfjirjvfv 8' ava dvpbv OTTCOS Travo-ete (so 24. 680). Od. 14. 329 OTTTTtoS VOi\i)v es irarpiSa yaiav. Cp. also Od. 9. 420., II. 479. In one place ws with the Opt. follows a Verb of saying, viz. in Od. 24. 237 (fj.fp/j.rjpige") fl-neiv ws t\0ot Kal IKOIT' (is irarpiSa ycuav to tett how he had come. This is the only Homeric instance of ws with the Opt. in oratio obliqua. The next is H. Ven. 215 etirev 5% fKaara, ws lot dOavaros KT\. An example of OTTCOS and the Opt. with iterative meaning (nearly = ore, 308, i, d) occurs in Hesiod, Theog. 156 ital TCVI/ fj.lv oirws TIS irpSira ytvotro Trdvras airoKpiinraaKf. This use is to be classed as Conditional, like the cor- responding uses of ws and omos with the Subj., 285, 3. 307.] Clauses with lus (rjos) and 3pa. These also are Final in character : i. e. the Conjunction has the meaning till the time that, hence (commonly) in order that, not while, so long as. The notion of time is distinct in Od. 12. 437 i'wA.eju.ecos k^jo^v op' ee/xe(rei> OTTto-o-co until it should vomit forth again($o 12.428., 20. 80). Od. 23. 151 flpvcrOai /ne'ya b&^a 8taju,7repes r}os IKOITO till he should come (so 5. 386., 9. 376). It is indistinct, or lost, in the ordinary use of 3<{>pa, as II. 6. 170 8etcu 8' Tjzxoyet w TrevflepcS oa/x,er/>?7 in Od. 4. 799 fiyan 8e \iiv . . rjos UrjveXoTTfiav 7rav(TL KXavd^olo, and other places in the Odyssey (5. 386., 6. 80., 19. 367). The corresponding form of Object Clause with these Conjunc- tions may be traced in one instance of each, viz. II. 4.^465 AeAitj- t E~tfO t Z fjievos otypa r^tora rev^ea crv\r}pa the Opt. is nearly always pure : but we have o4>p' &v in Od. 17. 298 (until], 24. 334 : and e'us nev in Od. 2. 77 ro'cppa yap av Kara acrrv TroriTrriKrcroijue^a fj.v9?/p,ar' &iraiT[ovTcs } ecos K' a-no Travra So^etrj, where there is a stress on the particular time contemplated. So II. 15- 69 eK TOV 8' av TOL eTretra Tra\iu>t.v Ttapa vi]G>v alfv eyw rei/^oijuit 8tap,7repes, ets o K 'A)(atot "JAioz; atTrv eAotey (the only instance with els o). The similar uses of eore, axpi, /xe'xpi are post-Homeric. The chief instance of opa with an Opt. following a Fut. or Subj. is II. 7. 339 TTv\as -noL-fjaofjifv . . 5 &C.). () An Optative of expectation : as Od. 13. 390 KCU K TpLrjKoo-iounv ty&v avbpea-o-i fj.axoLfj.rjv crvv croi, TIOTVOL 6ed, ore juoi Trpo^pacro-' e7rap?jyois. II. 14. 247 Zr]vos 8' OVK av eytoye Kpoviovos aa-aov iKoifj.-qv, ot>8e Karew?j(raip.' ore JUTJ avros ye /ceAevot. (c) A Future : in one place, viz. II. 13. 317 alirv ol ecrcretreu . . vfjas tvLTTpfjvai ore p,r/ aiiros ye Kpov[u>v ep./3dA.ot xrX., where the speaker does not wish to imply the fulfilment of the condition. In Od. 24. 343 ivQa. 5' dvcL ffra?7cr/coiTo, 17 p.ev be^vi,' avayev VTrooropeo-ai bfj-tofjai bade them spread the couch against the time when he should bethink him Sfc. In this group of uses the Opt. is pure, except in II. 9. 524 ovTO> KOI T&V Tipoa-Oev e7rev0o|u.e#a KAea avbp&v ypuKtiv, ore Kfv TIV eTuaeAos ^.0X05 TKOI, where the K&V may be accounted for by the change from the Plural to the Singular : cp. 283, I, c. (2) After a Past Tense of a Verb of waiting oTnSre with the Aorist Opt. forms a kind of Object Clause; as II. 7. 415 TrortSe'y- juez^ot oTTTroV ap } f\6oi waiting for (the time] when he should come j so II. 9. 191., 1 8. 524, and (after jueWres) 4. 334. Cp. 289 (i). 309.] Clauses with eirei. The few examples of this use show the same varieties as with ore. Thus, (a) after another Opt. II. 9. 304 vvv yap x? "EitTOp' eAois, eirel av /xaAa roi 24. 226 avTiKa y&p p. Kara/cre^eiey ' dy*cas kKovr e/xoy viov, kitT]V yoou e^ Zpov ftr)V. Od. 4. 222 os TO K.arapp6t;tifv, f-nrjv Kprjrijpi piytiri, KT\. (b] After a Present, in the statement of a supposed conse- quence Od. 24. 254 Toiovro) 8e eoiKas, eiret Xowairo evyeii> nplv 284 OPTATIVE. [311. The Optative with el, 8fc. 311.] Optative with el Conditional Protasis. The Clause with el expresses a supposition, made in order to lead up to the Clause which expresses the expected consequence : as Od. I. 163 ei Kflvov y 'I0d7jz;8e t8otaro voa-Trjcrai'Ta, TTavres K aprjaaiar' eAacpporepot Tiobas ctvai KT\. II. 7- 129 TOVS vvv ei TTTti>(T 6?; avrifiiov trvv Tevxccn TtfiprjOetrjs, OVK av roi -yjpaLcr^a-i KT\., where the Subj. is more peremptory than the Opt. : cp. Od. 17. 539 and (Fut.) II. 10. 222. So with the el-Clause following the other, as II. 9. 388 Kovp-qv 8' ov ya/xe'co, ovb' et ept^bt / shall not wed the maiden (and would not) even if she rivalled fyc. ; cp. II. 2. 488, Od. 17. 539. The instances of the Opt. following a Present are nearly all in the Odyssey : I. 414 OVT ovv dyyeAtrj en TtdOo^ion fiirodev eA^oi, also 7. 52., 14. 56. In these cases the Present has the force of a general statement (see Goodwin, 409-501). So when the Verb is understood, as II. 9. 318 ttnj p.olpa pevovTi /cat et /xaAa rts iroA.e/it^bt. Od. 8. 138 ov yap eycoye Tt s el (or 6s ei re) expresses supposition for the purpose of comparison; the principal Clause being in a past Tense, as II. 2. 780 ot 8' op' Icrav &>s et re Trwpt \6(i)v Traa-a ve/xotro (cp. II. II. 467., 22. 410, Od. 9. 314., 10. 416, 420., 17. 366). Or else negative II. II. 389 OVK dXeyco &>y e? p:e yvvr] /3dA.ot ^ irais at jueydpoKriv tviitroi . . dAAa (rv TOV y eTreecrcrt Trapat^d/ieros Karepu/ces. 313-] CLAUSES WITH EL 285 312.] Optative with el Wish. The Conditional Protasis, when used without an Apodosis, becomes a form of expressing wish : II. 35- 569 'AyriAox', ov TIS treio vewrepos aAAos ' oijTf TTOcrlv 6dcrcra>v OVT' aAKt/xo? a>s ft Tivd 770V Tpaxoy f^dXpevos avbpa So II. 10. in., 1 6. 559., 34. 74. More frequently a wish is in- troduced by el yap or at yap, as in at yap, Zev re Trarep /cat 'AOrjvair] KOL v ATroAAoz>, KrA. Such a wish is sometimes used as a form of asseveration, as II. 1 8. 464 at yap piv Qavaroio bv8e bvvafariv i>6(T(f)iv aTTOKpvi/rcu, ore p-iv pdpps alvbs IKO.VOI, a>s ol re^x ea KaXa irapecroreTai i. e. fair arms shall be his as surely as I wish I could save him from death : so II. 8. 538, Od. 9. 533 : and ironically Od. 31. 403 at yap br] TOCTCTOVTOV 6vr](nos , &>s OVTOS Trore TOVTO bwiqaeTat. evravva-acrOai. Here also we must place the wishes expressed by ei0e or aifle, which have generally the character of hopeless regret : as ei0' ^>? ^/3woi/u xrA. It may be noted that in the Odyssey wish is not expressed by el except in the combinations el yap and e!0e. A wish is often followed by a Clause expressing an expected consequence of its fulfilment ; as II. 3. 371 at yap, Zei) re Trarep . . r<3 Ke rax' W^ " 616 TroAts Dpia^oio ayaxros. Od. 7. 331 ZeS Trarep, aW ocra eiire reAeur?yo-eiey anavTa 'AAKivoo?' TOV jueV Kfv eirl fetdcopov apovpav acr/3e(rrof KAeos eirj. So we should probably punctuate II. 13. 485 ei yap 6//T]AiKU7 ye yeroi/izefla r&)8' em au^a Kv ije ^epoiro p,e'ya Kparos Tje Or we may take aT\/>a Key KrA. closely with the preceding line, and then it becomes the Apodosis to a Conditional clause. Other examples of this ambiguity are given in 318. 313.] Optative with ti Kev Conditional Protasis. This is a comparatively rare form; it can generally be explained in accordance with the other uses of KCC : II. 5. 373 ei rovro) Ke Aa/3o6juei> apoip.fOd Ke KAe'os ccr9\6v wi if (as I propose) we take them, we should fyc. (But perhaps we should read rowrco ye.) 9. 141 et 8e Kfv "Apyos iKoifj-eO' 'A^auKov KrA. if (as a further step) we reach Argos fyc. 286 OPTATIVE. [314. II. 23. 59 ! ITTTTOV bf rot avrbs baxru), Ti]v ap6fj.r]v' el K.ai vv KCV olitodfv #\Ao fji(lov eTraiTTjo-etas, atyap Ke rot ai>TLKa bovvai ftov\oLfj.r]v if (after that] you demand more fyc. Od. 2. 76 et x' vpels ye dyotre, ra)(' #y Trore /cat rum etrj /*(#* I say is better, see v. 7 4) you devour, then fyc. See also II. 2. 123., 8. 196, 205., 13. 288., 23. 592, Od. 2. 246., 12. 345-, 13- 389., 19. 590. And with the Clause with el fol- lowing the other II. 6. 49 rcou Kev rot xapurairo TTarrjp aTrepeun' ct jeez; ejLte ^cooy TieirvQoiT e?rt So II. i. 60., 10. 381 ; cp. Od. 7. 315., 8. 353, and the use of ei Kc wo^ eye in case, II. 9. 445., 19. 322., 22. There is one instance of the Opt. with el Sc, viz. II. 2. 597 e ^ "RtP Q- v a ^ ra t Moucrat 314.1 Opt. with el Final and Object Clauses. These are generally found after a past Tense in the Principal Clause ; e.g. II. 2. 97 KTjpv/ce? (3o6\rj KT\. $pacro-o'|ui,e0' 776 veutfj-fO' e the meaning would not be altered by saying k-ni^ivov Iva bvs brj brjpov ey&> 7roA.ejuoto TreTrau/xcu : the last wish is evidently also the result hoped for from the fulfilment of the preceding wishes (so that yvoitv 8e = a>? yvoiev}. In Conditional Clauses, on the other hand, the condition or supposition is not subordinated to the time of the governing Verb, but is made from the present point of view of the speaker. The question arises : What is the original force of the Subj. and Opt. in this use ? In the case of the Subj. we naturally look to the quasi-Im- perative use. It is common to use the Imperative as a way of stating a supposition ; as when we say ' let it be so/ meaning ' if it is so ' (cp. Latin eras petito, dabitur}. This view is confirmed by the fact that negative Conditional Clauses take pi, not ou : that is to say, they are felt to be akin to prohibition rather than denial. Thus os /XTJ t\6rj literally means not ( who will not come ' {AacJviLnt.Aklaul C*y'. v IK Treyo-erat o^rjs. 24. 296 ei 8e roi ov Swcrei 46z> ayyeAoy KTA. Od. 2. 274 et 8' ov KCLVOV y efJir]v. II. 13. 55 ffa>i'v S' S>St 6twv ns ivl 7 *A*^ 8iW/MS ical X e fy fs firovrat. (5) Supposition, with el, followed by a Clause of expectation : II. 7. 129 TOVS vvv el irruffffovras v(p' "Eteropi iravras d/eovffai, TroAAci Kfv dOavarotffi Od. 12. 112., 22. 391., 23. 35. Or in the Apodosis of a Conditional sentence, as Od. 4. 831 (I fj.ev Si) Of 6s efffft, OeoTo re (icXves avofjs, tl 8' dye not KT\. : so II. 22. 379-381. Or to express an appeal which is consequent upon something just said : as II. I. 301 TUIV OVK dv n tyepois dve\&v dfKOvros l/xefo' ei 8' 0176 ^v ireiprjacu (ay, come now and try] : cp. II. 8. iS. * De formula Homerica el 8' aye commentatio, Lipsiae 1873. U 2, 292 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. [321. II. I. 523 i/jiol 8e ice ravra fieXrjfferai o/>a reKiaaca' (I 8' aye roi -e The analogy eira : :: s-ireira : iirtl makes it likely that el was originally temporal. The fact that itra is not Homeric takes something from the force of this argument. (3) The use of alternative forms of wish, and the use of some form of supposition to express wish, are phenomena which can be exemplified from many languages : cp. the Latin o si, German icenn, wenn nur, &c. And ellipse of the apodosis occurs with el-clauses of other kinds ; see 324.* (4) The el-clause, whether of supposition or of wish, is specifically Greek, whereas the chief meanings of the Optative wish, concession, supposition are much older, being common to Greek and Sanscrit. Hence the el-clause was formed at a time when the Opt. of wish had long been established in use. The presumption surely is that the el-clause, when it came to be used as a form of wish, was a new way of expressing wish. It would probably be adopted at first as a less direct form, suited for wishes couched in a different tone (as eWe is confined to hopeless wish). (5) The only use of el not obviously expressive of supposition is that which is seen in the isolated phrase ti 8' aye, of which Lange has given an exceed- ingly probable analysis. Possibly however the el of ei 8' dye is not the same word as el if, but an interjection, like eltv and Latin eia. We may go further, and point out that the 5e of et 6' dye has been shown by Lange himself to be out of place, hence the true form may be ?' dye, like Latin eia age. It may be observed, in conclusion, that the question of the el-clause is quite distinct from the question of the original meaning of the Optative. It is possible to combine Lange's theory of el with Delbruck's earlier view of the Optative as originally the Mood of wish,f but Lange himself does not do so. He regards the el-clause of supposition (Fallsetzung) as developed independently of the el-clause of wish. His main thesis is that el does not * This is also the conclusion maintained by Mr. Goodwin, who discusses the question very fully in the new edition of his Moods and Tenses (pp. 376 If.). f This view was proposed in Delbruck's Syntaktische Forschungen (vol. i. p. 13), but is withdrawn in his recent work (AUindische Syntax, 172). INDICATIVE. 293 imply a correlative particle, or an apodosis (xa\ws av ex 01 or the like), so that the two meanings of fl ytvoiro suppose it happened and would that it happened belong to originally distinct meanings of the Opt. ytvoiro. That is to say, the development of el if with various Moods Opt., Subj., Indie. was parallel to an entirely distinct development of interjectional el with the Opt. of wish. 322.] Homeric and Attic uses. The main difference between Homer and later writers in regard to the Moods may be said to be that the later uses are much more restricted. Thus the Subj. is used by Homer in Principal Clauses of every kind Affirmative and Negative, as well as Prohibitive, Interrogative, &c. In Attic it is confined to the Prohibitive use with HTJ, and the idiomatic ' Hortatory ' and ' Deliberative ' uses. Again, in Subordinate Clauses the important Homeric distinction between the 'pure' Subj. and the Subj. with dv or Kev is almost wholly lost in Attic. In Clauses of Conditional meaning, whether Relatival, Temporal, or intro- duced by el, the Subj. with dv has become the only generally allowable con- struction : the pure Subj. being confined to a few instances in poetry. With the Optative, on the other hand, an equal uniformity has been attained by the loss of the use with dv or Kev. In short, of the four distinct Homeric constructions 1. os X9fl (art i\6ri, fl t^Oy, &c.) 2. os &v (or os Kev) *X6i) (or' av IA0]?, tav t\6r/, &c.) 3. os IXOoi (art f\0oi, fl f\6ot, &c.) 4. os S.v (or os Kev) eXOoi (or av f\6oi, lav t\6oi, &c.) the language dropped the first and last : with the result that as av always accompanied the Subj. and was absent from the Opt., it ceased to convey a distinct meaning, independent of the meaning given by the Mood. In other words, the use became a mere idiom. The change, though apparently slight, is very significant as an evidence of linguistic progress. In regard to Final Clauses the most noticeable point is the use of the Relative with a Subjunctive. In this respect Homeric Greek agrees with Latin : while in later Greek the Subj. was replaced, generally speaking, by the Future Indicative. It is also worth observing here that in Homer, as has been said ( 316), the Final Clause in the great majority of instances expresses the speaker's own purpose, not a purpose which he attributes to a person spoken of : see 280, 281, 285, 286. In other words, the subordina- tion of the Clause to the governing Verb does not often go so far as to put the Third Person for the First (e. g. pafffftrat us e vfrjraihe will consider ' hvw am 1 to return'). The further license by which a past purpose is thought of as if still present so that the Subj. is used instead of the Opt. is not Homeric ( 298). Modal Uses of the Indicative. 323.] The Indicative is primarily the Mood of assertion: from which it is an easy step to the use in Negative and In- terrogative sentences. It is also used in Greek (as in other languages) to express mere supposition : thus we have ci in a Conditional Protasis with all Tenses (d yv, cl eari, lorcu), 294 INDICATIVE. [324. where there need be no implication either for or against the truth of the supposition thus made. Further, the Indicative may be used in certain cases in a Conditional Apodosis, expressing an imaginary consequence. Again, it may be used in Final and Object Clauses referring to the past or to the future. All such uses, in which the Indicative does not assert, may be called Modal Usea. The tendency of language appears to be to extend the Modal Uses of the Indicative, and consequently to diminish the range of the other Moods. It is found possible, and more convenient, to show the modal character of a Clause by means of Particles, or from the drift of the context, without a distinct Verbal form. It will be seen, on comparing the Homeric and Attic usage, that the Indicative has encroached in several points upon the other Moods. 324.] Conditional Clauses (Apodosis). The Secondary Tenses or Tenses of past time (Aor. Impf . and Plupf .), are used with KC^ or 6^ to express a supposed consequence : as II. 4. 420 beivbv ' e/Spa^e \U\KOS em ar^dea-aiv az/a/cros fear would have seized even the stout-hearted. This way of speaking of a conditional event ordinarily implies that the condition on which it depended was not fulfilled. For if (e.g.] the assertion tf\Qev he came is true, we can hardly ever have occasion to limit it by saying r\\Qtv av he came in that case. Hence a Past Tense with KCI/ or oV naturally came to be used where the event in question had not happened, owing to the non-fulfilment of the condition. The rule does not apply to events that occur repeatedly, or on no particular occasion ; for there is no contradiction in saying of such an event that it happened when a condition was fulfilled. Hence the use in the iterative sense (as Hdt. 3. 119 K\aieaict av KOI 68vptaicfTo, Thuc. 7. 71 et nvts i5oiti> . . avfOdparj- adv Tf av rX.). This use, however, is not Homeric. In Od. 2. 104 tvOa icev r/fiaTir) fj.(v ixpaivtaittv has slender authority, most MSS. reading fvOa KO.I. Another supposed instance is Od. 1 8. 263 iirifwv T" uiKviroScav (iri^TOpas, ot ice rdxtffra tKpivav fifya vtinos KT\., where the commentators (Fasi, Ameis, Merry) take ?Kpivav as a ' gnomic ' Aorist. The words as they stand can only mean ' who would most speedily have decided mighty strife' (so Goodwin, 244) : but this does not suit the context. The difficulty is best met by reading 01 re : cp. 283, b. An exceptional use of a different kind is Od. 4. 546 ^ yap piv faov 76 Ki\fio/*os (see Leaf's note a. I. ). This may be compared with the occasional use of KCV with i and an Opt. ( 313). The rarity of the use with an Indie, need not be felt as a difficulty : cp. the oracle in Hdt. i. 1 74 Ztvs yap K' (OrjKf vrjaov t? K' t/3ouA.To, also Erinna, fr. 4, 4, and Ar. Lys. 1098 (Hartung, ii. p. 240). In later Greek the Imperfect with ay may express either a continuous action which would have occurred at some past time, or an action (continuous or momentary) which would have been, occurring at the moment of speaking. The latter of these uses, as Mr. Goodwin points out ( 435), is not Homeric. He sees an approach to it in II. 24. 220 d //,; yap TLS ju' aAXos e/ce'Aeuev were it any one else who bade me. Another may be found in Od. 2O. 307 KCU Ke rot avrl ya/xoio Trarrjp rd(f)ov d/x^eTrofetro tvOabe (if you had struck the stranger] your father would have had to busy himself here with your burial in place of wedding : cp. also Od. 4. 178 KCLI KC dap fvOdb' (ovres e/xto-yo'//e0', owe Key ^jue'as a\Ae The Impf. without &v or KCC may express what ought to have been, if the meaning of fitness, obligation, &c. is given by the Verb or Predicate. Thus we have Od. 20. 331 Ktpbiov rjtv it would have been belter. So in Attic with exprj*', e8ei, and similar words. The Opt. with dV or KCK, as we have seen ( 300, c), is not un- frequently used in Homer with the same meaning as the Aor. or Impf. with oV has in later Greek. This is one of the points in which the use of the Indicative gained on that of the Optative. 324.*] Ellipse of the Apodosis. We may notice here the cases in which el with an Indie, or Subj. is not followed by a corresponding Clause expressing the consequence of the supposition made. This occurs (a] When two alternative suppositions are made, the second being the one upon which the speaker wishes to dwell : as II. i . 135 el l^v buxrova-L yepas . . ei 8e Ke JUT) Swcocrty, eya> 8e /cei> avros eA.a>juai if they give (there is nothing to be said), but if not, &c. (V) When the consequence is sufficiently implied in the el- Clause : as II. 6. 150 d 8' f0e'A.eis K ^e'praro's eorty //' ^ wishes (he will),/'w//t' / eVeiKeoras: II. 6. 382 "E/crop, eVei p.aA' aycoyas KrA. ; II. 13. 68, 77.5, Od. i. 231., 3. 103, 2ii. The full form appears in II. 6. 333 eVei p.e KUT' alcrav eVeiKeo-a? . . TOVVZK.O. TOL epeco. In such sentences as eA' ?//u,art TO) ore . . olyjEvdai Trpcx^e'poucra KOK?; av^oio 6vt\Xa } fvda fj. KVfJi divoepcre KrA. and so v. 350 avbpbs eimr' oicpeAAcn' . . os 7)877 KT\., and Od. i. 218: also the use with irpt^ Od. 4. l 78 ovbe Key 7}/xe'as aAAo bieitpivev . . Ttpiv y ore bi] davaTOLO /xe'Aay vf(j)os dju^eKaAuv^e^ nothing would have parted iis lefore the dark cloud of death had wrapped us round. This idiom is the same in principle as the use of Past Tenses in Final Clauses, which is common in Attic with Iva. and ws : as Soph. O. T. 1393 ri p.' ov Aa/3coy exretfas evOvs, ws !5eia /XTJ irore /crA. ^/m^ go I might never have shown fyc. When the context has once shown that we are dealing with a purely imaginary event, the Indicative serves to carry on the train of suppositions. The Indie, is similarly used in an Object Clause after a Verb of fearing, as Sei'Sco JUT) 877 uavra 0ea z'Tjp.epre'a 326.] Future Indicative. The following points have to be noticed : i. Homer not unfrequently uses KEK with the Future, the effect being (as with the Subj.) to indicate a limitation or con- dition : as II. i. 139 6 8e' Key Ke^oAwaerai and he (if I do so) will be angry. 326.] FUTURE. 397 II. I. 532 dAAa o-y /xezj vvv O.VTLS aTroort^e JMTJ rt vorja-ri "HpTj* e/xoi 8e /ce ravra ju,eA?/(rerai (to me, as my part}. 4. 76 /cat *e rts pa, as H. 8. no Tpuxrlv e0' urTroSdjuoi? I0vvofji,cv, oippa Kal "EKrcop eio-erai /crA. (so II. 16. 242, Od. 4. 163., 17. 6). So with pi, II. 2O. 301 /^ TTCOS /cat KpovCbys KexoAwo-erai, Od. 24. 544- The Future with KCK in Relative Clauses sometimes appears to express end, as in II. I. 174 Trap' e/xotye /cat aAAot ot /ce //e rt/xTjcrova-t : cp. 2. 229., 23. 675, Od. 8. 318., 16. 438. So without KW in II. 24. 154, Od. 14. 333. In all these places, however, as in the corresponding uses of the Subj. ( 282), and Opt. ( 304), it is difficult to say how far the notion of end is distinctly expressed : in other words, how far the future action is subordinated to that of the main Verb. 4. The use of the Future in Object Clauses (common in Attic after Verbs of striving, &c.) may perhaps be seen in II. 12. 59 et reAeoucrt, also Od. 5- 24., 13. 376. It is sometimes impossible to decide whether a form is a Future or an Aorist Subj. : e.g. in Od. I. 269 at 5% (f>pdeaOat avaiya OTTTTUS ice 298 IMPERATIVE. [327. dircoo-coi, where the Verb may be a Future, as in the places now quoted, or a Subj., according to the commoner Homeric construction. So in II. 10. 44, 282., 17. 144. The use of the Future in Final Clauses is probably later than that of the Subjunctive. In general, as we have seen, the Subj. is akin to the Imperative, and therefore expresses the speaker's purpose directly, by its own force ; whereas the Fut. Ind. properly expresses sequence. Thus Ot\y(t us \aOrjTai literally means ' charms so that he shall forget ' : OiXfti oircos \^afrai ' charms so that he will forget.' The same conclusion seems to follow from the rule that oirws and ctypa may be used with a Future, but not 3 or ivoj Good win, 324). For us in the manner that fits a direct purpose better than omos in some such manner that, or ocfipa till the time that. It would seem probable, then, that in Final Clauses the Future is a less emphatic and positive expression of end. Thus when Achilles prays (II. 16. 242), 'embolden him so that Hector will know,' the Future conveys a shade of indifference, as though Hector's knowledge Avere the natural consequence rather than the direct object. And so in II. I. 175 o'i K( /xe ri^ffovcri who will (I presume) honour me. 5. In Clauses with el the Future is chiefly used of events re- garded as necessary, or as determined by some power independent of the speaker : as II. 14. 6l finals 5e e'oju.ey 0eot aAAot. The forms aye and ayere are often combined with other Im- peratives for the sake of emphasis : and sometimes aye is treated as indeclinable, and used where the context requires a Plural ; as II. 2. 331 dAA' aye p-tjuij/ere irdirres /crA. (so I. 62., 6. 376, &c.). Similarly t0i is a kind of Interjection in II. 4. 362 dAA' Wi, TO.VTO. 8' oTTurdcv dpeo-o-o'/ie0' KrA. : and so we have fido-K Wi (like elir' aye). And SeOre hither ! is evidently an Imperative : cp. II. 14. 128 Seur' to/xei> Tro'Ae/zoVSe. The corresponding 2 Sing, doubtless enters into the formation of Seupo ; but it is not clear how that word is to be analysed. 329-] PARTICLES. 299 328.] Prohibition. The Aorist Imperative is very rarely used with JIT] : examples are II. 4. 410 TO) \ii\ \J.OL Trarepas Trod' o/ioi'rj ZvOeo TifirJ (so Od. 24. 248 av be JUT) \6\ov cvdeo 0u/i(j>). 1 8. 134 a~v juey /XTJ TTCO KaraStKreo putXov "Aprjos. Od. 1 6. 301 //,?] ris eTmr' 'OSucrr/os aKOixrara). II. 1 6. 200 pr) AeAa0e. For the rule which is the complement of this one, forbidding- the use of the Present Subj. with pfj, see Kegarding the origin of this curious idiom a very probable conjecture has been made by Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 120). lB_the_yeda it has been shown by Grassmann that the prohibitive Particle ma is never found with the forms of the Imperative proper, but only with the so-called -spurious Conjunctive ' or ' Injunctive.' Hence it may be inferred that he Imperative was only used originally in positive commands, not in prohibitions. Again, it appears that in Sanscrit the Imperative is nearly confined to the Present Tense : and in Greek the forms of the First Aor. Imper. (K\t\(/ov, Mid. K\tyaC) are certainly of late origin. The fine distinction which is made, in the Imperative as well as in other Moods, between the continuous action expressed by the Present Stem and the momentary action expressed by the Aorist belongs to the specific development of Greek. Accordingly Delbriick suggests that the extension of the Imperative to express prohibition took place at a time when the Aorist Imperative had not come into general use : and hence it was only carried into the Present Tense. In other words, the form p.T\ K\iTT6 came into use in pre-historic Greek as an extension of the positive KXtirre, and superseded \i-f[ KXt'iri-QS : but |Atj K\ei|/i)s kept its ground, because the form K\(\|/OV did not then exist. This account of the idiom seems much more probable than any attempt to explain it on psychological grounds. CHAPTER XIII. THE PARTICLES. 329.] Under the term Particles it is convenient to group together a number of words that are mainly used to show the relations between other words, and between Clauses. In respect of this office they are akin to the various syllables or letters used as Endings : and with them go to constitute what are called the 'formal elements 7 of the language, in contradistinction to the roots or stems which compose its ' matter/ The Particles which connect successive Clauses in any way form the Conjunctions. As such they may be distinguished, according to the nature of the connexion which they indicate, 300 PARTICLES. [330. as Copulative (icai, re, r|8^, &c.), Adversative (8e, dXXd, aurdp), Dis- junctive (r\ rj), Conditional (el, ay, Key), Illative (apa, ST), coy), Causal (yap), &e. Those Particles, again, which affect single Clauses may either serve to show the character of the whole Clause (as Affirmative, Interrogative, Conditional, &c.), or to influence particular words in it. We cannot, however, make a satisfactory classification of the Particles on the basis of these uses, because some of them are employed in several distinct ways : and moreover they enter into vaiious combinations in which they often acquire new meanings. It will be best therefore to take them separately, beginning with the most familiar. 330.] The uses of KCU are in the main the same in all periods of Greek. It is (i) a Copulative Conjunction, conveying the idea of addition to what has preceded : Zrjzn c/>o'cos epeoucra KCU aAAois to Zeus and the others besides : &s ap ec/>?7 KCU KrA. thus he spoke and thereupon fyc. : and (2) a strengthening or emphasising Particle meaning also, even, just : as II. i. 63 ?} KCU oveipoitokov or even a dream-prophet. 3. 176 ro KCU KAcu'oucra re'rjjKa which is the very reason that I am wasted with weeping. It is especially used with words that imply comparison, increase or diminution, extension of time or the reverse, &c. ; as KCU aAAoj another (not this only), KCU OVTOS himself (as well as others) : KCU TraAcu long ago (not merely now), KCU av6is another time (if not now), KCU /iaAa, KCU Atijy (in a high degree, not merely in an ordinary degree) : so with Comparatives, KCU /^cibp, Kai piyiov, &c. Both terms of a comparison may be strengthened in this way; as II. I. 8 1 ei TTfp yap re xoAoz> ye KCU avrrf^ap Kara7re'\//r7, ctAAa re KCU /^eroTricr^ei; KrA. Notice, too, the use at the beginning of an Apodosis, esp. with Adverbs of time, as II. i. 477 yp-os 5' rffny^vfta (fxivr] /5o6ocmKrt>Ao? ijcos, KCU ror' eTretr' KrA. di'$'3V,W KOI precedes the word which it emphasises, but is sometimes separated from it by other Particles, enclitic Pronouns, &c. : as II. i. 213 KCU Trore roi r/ns roVcra (not merely compensation but) three times as much: 2. 292 KCU yap ris 0' eVa i^ijva p.v(av a man who .stays even one month. So 7. 281 KCU lbp.fi> airavres ( = icr^ev KCU TravTfs). Kal el and el KOI. The combination Kal el indicates that the 332.] KAI, TE. 301 wlole condition is an extreme one : even on the supposition that . But with the order el KCU the K oia)yot(7t re TT&O-I to dogs and birds as well : al 7ra re, bijuos re TTO\LS re, jcAayy?/ r' tvo-ny re, &c. and the pairs of Clauses expressing simultaneous action, such as a\ls T' avextoprjo-ev, u>\pos re' \t.iv etAe Trapeia?. Hence re re sometimes marks that two things are mutually dependent: 6\iyov re tyiXov re= f not less dear because small/ XvcrofJievos re Qvyarpa (frepwv r' aTrepeioV cnroiva = ' bringing vast ransom for the deliverance of his daughter ' : II. 5. 359 KO'/XIO-CU re /ue bos re' JJ.OL nnrovs. The combinations re KeV r' ap' eTretra Kat & TreTrATjyero jurjpa). \\aivdv r' qbe \n5>va. As to the place of re the general rule is that it follows the first word in the Clause. Hence when standing first in the pair re re it does not always follow the word which it couples : e. g. II. 6. 317 eyyvfli re Ilptd/xoto /cat "E/cropos near loth Priam and Hector ; II. 5- 878 crot r' e7U7rei0oz>rai /cai 8e5ft?j/xeo-^a e/cacrros (cp. 2. 136, 198., 4. 505., 7. 294-5). The use of re as a Particle of transition (to begin a fresh sentence after a pause) is not Homeric, though common in later Greek. This may indicate that the use as a connecting Particle was originally confined to the Correlative T T (Delbriick, Synt. Farsch. iv. p. 145). 332.] (fj) In its other use which is distinctively Homeric re serves to mark an assertion asjjeneral or indefinite. Hence it is found in gnomic passages : as II. I. 218 os xe 0eo6j eTrnrefttyrai, /xaAa r' <-K\VOV avrov. 9. 59 TOV 8e jixe'y' &vr](rav /cat r' <-K\VOV eva/ieVoio. Od. 6. 185 fj.aXi.a-Ta 8e' r' e/cAvoz> 302 PARTICLES. [332. II. 1 6. 688 dAA' atet re Aio? Kpeurcrcov voos ?}e' ?rep avbpu>v. 19. 221 au/m re 0i>Ao7ri8os -Tre'Aerai Ko'pos (cp. Od. I. 392). Pics. Th. 87 au//d re Kat p,e'ya retKO? emora/ueVais KareVatxre. So in many short maxims, such as pe^Oev 8e' re VIJTTIOS eyz^co oTpeTrrot 8e' re Kat 0eot avrot. In similes it is very common, and is often repeated in the successive Clauses; e,g, II. 4.482 6 8' kv K.ovLr\o'L y^o-nai irevev, atyeipos u>s, fj pa r' kv eta/zerr) e'Aeos /xeydAoto irftyvKfl Aetr;, drdp re ot obt evr' aKpordrr; 7re7Jp at^covt o-t8?yp&) e^e'ra//,'j o *2. 64). II. 19. 86 Kat re /^te reiKetecrKoy (20. 28, Od. 5* SS 1 ^ &C.). So II. I. 521 yetKei Kat re' /xe' <^)rj(7t KrA. i- 33o., 17- 25. Hence it is used of names, as II. I. 403 avbpes 8e' re Trdvres (KaAe- ouo-t), 2. 814., 5. 306, &c. ; of characteristic attributes, as II. 2. 453 v$' o ye IlTjyetw cru/x/ito-yerat . . dAAd re' pttf Ka6virfp6ev e-Trippeei lyvr' eAaioy. 5. 340 t)(Gjp, old? Tre'p re peet juaKapeo- ^wfoowpot evet/iey : 15. 187 rpets yap r' eK KpoVou et^ey d8eA(/>eot (a fact of permanent significance) : 22. 116 T/ r' eTrAero vetVeos dpx??. It may be laid down as a general rule that T in the combinations /xeV re : 8e' re, KoT re, yap re, dAAd re. and the like, is not a Conjunction, and does not affect the meaning of the Conjunction which it follows. In a Conditional sentence of gnomic character the re is often used in both members, as II. I. 8 1 et Trep ydp re \6\ov ye Kat dAAd re Kat pteroTrtrrfley ex The use with the Article and the different forms of the Rela- tive has been already discussed in the chapter on the Pronouns (see 263, 266). It was there pointed out that re is used when the Clause serves to describe a class, as 332-] TE. 303 dyptct iravra, rd Te Tpeei ovpecriv vXrj. peia 8' dptyycoTos yoVos avepos cp re Kpovi&v KT\. or to express a permanent characteristic, as yrjpas /ecu 0drcm>s, rd r' eir' avOptoiroia-i -TreAoirai. XOAOS, OS T' efperjKe TTO\V(j)pOvd 776/3 X a ^- e7I '^ l ' at ' AcoTocpdycoi', 01 T' avOivov ei8ap iSova-iy. So cos re, ore re, u>a re, 2c9a re, ocros re, otos re, tus ei re, &c. Of these w? re (or wore) and 0165 re, with the adverbial are and e' w re, are the only forms in which this use of re has remained in Attic Greek, eirei re, which is regular in Herodotus, is rare in Homer: see II. n. 87, 563., 12. 393. Further, the Indefinite TIS is not unfrequently strengthened in its meaning (any one) by re (cp. Latin quisque] : II. 3. 12 TOdfTOV TLS T' e7TtAevo)Te/oo*> ?/ T' otcouoi. This is akin to the use in similes. So in II. 4. 277 /AeAcWepov ?7UTe Trio-era blacker than pitch. The true reading is probably fje re, as was suggested by Bekker (H. B. i. p. 312) : see however Buttmann, Lexil., s. v. Tjure. On T) re Y] re either or see 340. The two uses of re may sometimes be distinguished by its place in the sentence. Thus TC is a Conjunction in II. 2. 522 ot T apa and w/to (cp. ei T' apa, OVT apa), and in II. 23. 277 aOd- varoi Te ycip eio-t KTA. ; also in the combinations ovTe Tts, ^T TIS. With the indefinite re we should have the order apa Te, ydp Te, TIS Te. Both uses may even occur in the same clause ; as II. 5. 89 TOV 8' OVT dp Te ye'(/>upcu eepy/xeVcu lv /zrjSe T' epcoei. (Read ^778' IT' with four of La Roche's MSS.). II. 437 ov8e' T lao-e (Read ovb' IT' with the Lipsiensis, and so in II. 21. 596). * The account now given of the uses of T was suggested (in substance) by Dr. Wentzel, whose dissertation (Ueber den Gebrauch der Partikel -ri bei Homer, Glogau, 1847) appears to have been overlooked by subsequent writers. 304 r ARTICLES. [333. II. 23. 474 at 8e r' arevOev (Rend at 6' er' with the Townleianvs], Similarly we should read ouS' IT' in II. 15. 709., 17. 42., 21. 248., 22. 300., 23. 622, 730., 24. 52, Od. J2. 198. In such a matter manuscript authority is evidently of no weight, and it will be found that the MSS. often have Se T' where the editors have already corrected ' er' (e.g. in II. i. 573., 2. 344., 12. 106, Od. 2. 115., ii- 380., 21. 186., 24. 401). In II. n. 767 the editions have root 8e r' Zvbov, but all MSS. you e Hvbov : so perhaps we may correct II. 21. 456 v&'i 8e T' a\//oppoi Ktojuei'. Perhaps ITI should be restored in II. 16. 836 ere 8e r' et'0p' ayayoWes. ' ^? 6 Aao? aTrcoAAvro, &c. So 'ArriAo)(os 8e M^Scora /3aA', f]vo%ov Oepdirovra, ecr$Aoz> 'ATVfj.vidbr]v, 6 8' vTreorpecpe utovv^as ITTTTOVS, /. VTes 'A^atoi baiTpbv TTiVoxnv, crop 8e TrXelov bliras KrA. (so 1 2. 245)- 5- 260 ai Kv /xoi 77oAv^3ouAos 'A #77^77 Kvbos operi afjL(f)OTep(i) KTflvai, cry 8e . . kpVK.aK.eziv KrA. Od. 7. 108 ocrcrov ^airjKe? Trept TTCLVTUIV Ibpies avbp&v vfja OOTJV evi TToVrw eAauvepiey, a>s 8e yvvalKCs la-rbv rex^crcrai (cp. Od. 14. 178, 405., 18. 62). With oo and /u/j, giving ov8e, jU7;8e, as II. 5- 7^^ o(f>pa fj.ev fs TTO\IJ.OI> ircoAecrKero bios ' ovbe Trore Tpwes KrA. 6. 58 fA7]8' OP riva yacrrept Koupoy eoyra c^epot, /xrjS' 69 (pvyoi. Od. I. 1 6 aAA' ore 8^ eros 7]A0e . . ovS' ev^a KrA. 10. 17 aAA' ore 8?/ KCU eyw 686y T/reoy . . oi8e' rt Keivos KrA. This use, which was called by the ancient grammarians the 8e' aTroSortKoV, or ' 8e of the apodosis/ has been variously explained by scholars. i . In many places the Clause introduced by this 8^ stands in a double opposition, first to the immediate protasis, and then to a preceding sentence. Thus in II. 2. 716 ot 8' apa Mrj^wyrjy rS>v 8e 4>iAoKrrjr>]s X 3 C6 PARTICLES. [334- Philoctetes is opposed as commander to the people of Methone, arid the whole statement is opposed to the previously mentioned peoples with their commanders. So in a period composed of two pairs of correlated Clauses, as II. I. 135 aXX' ei fjiev baxrovo-i ye pas . . ei 8e /ce /AT) 5 8e Kev avrbs eAa)/xai. 9. 508 6s jjLev T aiSeVerat Kovpas Aios acrcrov TOV 8e /xey' &VT}(rav /cat r' e/cAuou os 8e' K' dvTjvrirai KO re ore/sews Airai 5' apa rai ye Ata KrA. Here the 8e of the last Clause appears to carry on the opposition of the second pair to the first, and so to repeat the 8e of its own protasis. This use of 8^ in apodosis to repeat or carry on the op- position of the whole sentence is regular in Attic; e.g. Xen. Anab. 5. 6, 20 et 8e /3ovAecr0e . . irXola 8' vp.lv Trdpeort : Isocr. 4. 98 & 8' eorty i8ia . . ravTa 8' (JJLOV epyoy ecrrlv dntiv (Kiihner, 533, 2). It has been regarded as the key to the Homeric usage now in question : * but this would compel us in many cases to give different explanations of uses to which the same explanation is evidently applicable. For instance, in the four lines last quoted, if we account for the 8^ of AtWoircu 8' apa *crA. as a repetition of the 8^ of its protasis os 8e' K' /crA., how do we treat the 8^ of the first apodosis (TOJ> 8e KrA.)? The two forms are essentially similar. 2. The 8e of the Apodosis is commonly regarded as a survival from a period in which the Relative Clause or Conditional Pro- tasis was not yet subordinate, so that the Apodosis, if it followed the other, still needed or at least admitted of a connecting Particle. Such an explanation is attractive because it presents us with a case of the general law according to which the complex sentence or period is formed by the welding together of originally distinct simple sentences. f It is to be observed, however, that the phenomenon in question is not necessarily more than a par- ticular use of 8. The survival may be, not of a paratactic form of sentence, but only of a use of 8e where it is not a Con- junction. Such a use has been already seen in the Particle KOI. In the correlation dAA.' ore 8rj KCII ro're 8?) we need find nothing * So in the first edition of this book, following the discussion of Nagelsbacli in his Anmerkungen zwr Ilias (p. 261 and p. 271, ed. 1834). The Excursus on the subject was omitted in later editions. For the view adopted in the text the author is indebted almost wholly to Dr. R. Nieberding, Ueber die paratak- tische Anknupfung des Nachsatses in hypotaktischen Satsgefugen, insbesondere bei Homer , Gross Glogau, 1882. \- On the danger of explaining the Syntax of complex sentences by recourse to a supposed survival of paratactic structure there is a timely warning given by Brugmann, Gr. Gr. 203. 335-] AE. 307 more than the ordinary use of K TOV 8' ayavols e7reW(rii> KT\. ov 8' av 8?7//ou T avbpa 1801 /crA. where the correspondence is not ov fjicv TOV 8e , but ov juev ov 8' aS . See also II. 9. 508, 550., 12. 10., 18. 257., 20. 41, Od. 9. 56., u. 147., 19. 339. It has been observed that when the Protasis is a Relative Clause, 8e of the Apodosis is generally found after a Demonstra- tive. The only exceptions to this rule are, II. 9. 51 os be K (ivr]vr\ro.(. . . Xi(rTO>v Trep . . avrap eyob /crA.. aurdp and drdp express a slighter opposition than a'XXd, and accordingly are often used as Particles of transition ; e.g. in such formulae as &s ol fj.ev . . avrap *crA. A similar use of dXXd may l>e seen with Imperatives ; as dAA' Wi, dAA' aye jxot ro'8e etTre, and the like. It is evident that the stronger Adversative is chosen where greater liveliness of tone is to be conveyed. 337.] aS and afire (again, on the contrary] have nearly the same force as aurdp, but do not begin the sentence : hence vvv av, rts 5' av, TL-rrr awe, &c. : and so in correspondence to pv or 77 rot, as II. 4. 237 T&V rj rot . . ^/xeis avre KT\. They also serve to mark the apodosis of a Relative or Conditional Clause, as II. 4. 321 et ro're Kovpos ea, vvv aSre' /ae y^pa? OTra^ei. Thus they have the two chief uses of 8e. Originally, doubtless, au meant backwards, but in Homer this sense is only found in the form auns : though perhaps it sur- vives in the sacrificial word avepva-av. The form OJAWS is later, the Homeric word being IJXTTTIS. o(juos is usually read in II. 12. 393 opus 8' ov \rj9ero x&PW, and Od. n. 565 ivOa \ ofuos Ttpoaffprjv. In both places however the Scholia indicate that the word was anciently circumflexed by some authorities. 338.] The Particle rf at the beginning 1 of a sentence gives it the character of a strong affirmation : II. i. 240 77 TTOT 'AxtXA^os TTodr) iferai be sure that one day fyc. So, with an ironical tone, II. I. 229 ?? TTO\V AcoioV eort Kara (rrparov cvpvv ' It is often used interrogatively, esp. in questions of surprise indignation, irony, &c. : as II. 2. 229 T] In Koi xpucrou eirio'eveai KT\. 3.39-] 'AAAA, ATTAP, 'ATAP, AT, 'H. 309 15. 54 3 eA.Treo-0' r\v vfjas eAr/ KOpvOatoXos "E/crcop (fj-pabbv ieo-0at KrA. (do you really hope fyc.}. Od. 3. 312 ?/ o^x. aAts a>s /crA. (is it not ?=.surely it is) : cp. 358, c. Occasionally, in short parenthetical sentences, if has a concessive force, it is true that, hence and yet, although : as II. 3. 314 TTO-vpa jjifv, dAAa /^dAa Atye'a)?, ettet ov T ov8' a^a^apTOfnrjs' ?y KOI yevei wrepos 7. 393 ov (f)r]uyes tfdmroy, KiW' ^ re rot ay^i ?|A0e KOKoV (so T8. 13). 32. 280 ?j rot !?7y ye ( = though I did think ; so 22. 280). The question whether $ (or i]) can be used to introduce a Dependent In- terrogative depends upon a few passages. Bekker favours rj in this use, and reads accordingly, e. g. II. I. 83 2), 11 pfr, &c. ( 343-5). *f T l ( or n-roi], ^8rj (for TI by), and the correlative rjfiei' -qSe. In these combinations if strengthens the other Particle. Note that fjfieV T|8e are used of slightly opposed things, especially when alternation is implied : as Od. 2. 68 Auro-o/x,ai r^ev Zrjvbs 'OAu/tATrtou 7]8e e/xtcrroy, rj T avbpS>v ayopas ri^v Avet ^8e Ka^t^et' i. e. l assembles and dissolves again in turn ' (Lat. turn turn). Cp. II. 8. 395 r\\J*v avaK\lvat, . . 178' einOelvat : and so II. 7- 3 OI > Od. i. 97., 8. 383, and probably II. 6. 149 i^ev $vei yb' a-no- A?jyei. The original emphasis may sometimes be traced, as in the formula II. 14. 234 7}/xez> 8?j -nor fj.bv ITTOS exAues ?}5' en Kai vvv TTfidfv surely you have heard, me before, and even so listen now. Tj8^ is also used ( = and) without a preceding T||uieV : but not to begin a fresh sentence. Cp. 331 Jin. for the similar use of re. 339.] T] after TI, firei. In most editions of Homer we find the } 10 PARTICLES. [340. forms TIII (or TIT/) and eTrct?/, which are evidently rt, ewei with a suffix -T] of an affirmative or emphasising kind. The ancient grammarians seem generally to have considered this T| as a distinct word. They lay down the rule that after 7rei it is circumflexed, after rt oxytone. The form CTTCI 77 is supported hy the fact that it is chiefly found in the combination tirel if iroXu KrA. (II. I. 169., 4. 56, 307, &c.) ; also w T ith /idXa (II. I. 156 cTret ?) /zdAa TroAAa /ierai/ KT\., Od. IO. 465 eVei 77 p.a\a -oAAa Kt-aa-de, cp. ?) y.aXa, II. 17. 34), and KCU (II. 2O. 437, Od. 1 6. 442). The case of rt is different. There is no ground for writing rt 77 (like eTret ?]). The form rt ?/, which is adopted by the most recent editors on the authority of the ancients, is not satisfactory. If this ?/ was originally the affirmative 77, the change of accent would indicate that it had lost its character as a separate word. And this is confirmed by the combination rt 77 8e (TV KrA. (II. 6. 55. &c.), which as now written is contrary to the general rule for the place of 8e. Moreover the ancients were not unanimous on the point, since Trypho wrote TIT? in one word (Apollonius, tie Couj. p. 523). It may be observed that the opinion of the grammarians as to ri?/ has more weight than in the case of eTrei %, since rt'rj and on?/ were Attic. We may suspect therefore that the accentuation eiret ?} rests on mere inference. "With riTj is to be placed the emphatic Nom. TU'C-TJ thou, a form which occurs in the Iliad only (cp. the Doric eycj^-r)). , T- 340.] T| and TJ are used in Homer as equivalent forms of the same Particle: which is (i) Disjunctive (or) and (2) used after Comparatives (t/ian). The use of the Correlative rje' (T)) TJC (T\) = either or is also common in Homer: as II. I. 504 rj eVei 17 !/>y&> : 3. 239 ij oty ecnrt&Orjv . . rj 8evpa> ptv fTtOvro KT\. When a question is asked in a disjunctive form, the accent of the Particle t|e_, rj is thrown back, i. e. it is written TJC or rf : II. 13. 251 ?}<:' rt /3e'/3ATjat, fieXeos 8e ere retpet d*cooK^, ?)e Tfv dyyeAiTjs juer' e/x' favOes ; Od. 4. 362 'AzmW, ?) pa TI Ibfj-fv hi (fipta-iv, ?/e KCU OVKI; So when the first part of the question is not introduced by a Particle ; II. 10. 534 \^evo-o/iai 77 erv/>ioy epeco ; shall I speak falsehood or the truth ? Od. I. 226 dXa-nlvr] r]e ya/ios; cp. 4. 314, 372. Indeed the first half of the sentence need not be inter- rogative; as Od. 21. 193 CTTOS rt /ce ^e^ai^v, r] avrbs 341 .] 'HE, "H. 311 1 would say a word ; or shall I keep it to myself? (so perhaps II. 14. 190). One of the members of a disjunctive question may be itself Disjunctive: e.g. II. 6. 377 TTT) l/3rj ' Avbpofj.d)^r] AeuKwAevo? e/c Tje irr\ S yaXoa>v 77 eivarepc 77 es 'Adrivafys efoi'^erai /crA. Here T} eu-arepcoy offers an alternative for yaAoW, but the main question is between these two alternatives on one side and es 'Adrjvairjs *rA. on the other. Most editors of Homer recognise an interrogative use of the form TJ, but erroneously.' 35 ' The questions in which rje is found are all disjunctive, so that we must write TJC ije (II. 6. 378., 13. 251-, 15- 735-i l6 - is, 13, 17, Od. i. 408., 2. 30., ii. 399). In Od. 13. 233 ris y?; ; ris STJ/ZOS ; rives avepes eyyeyaao-iz> ; 77 TTOTJ us vfiv (where it seems to be=^i& ^8e), H. 410 i] T } e/3Ai]r' ?) r' e^3aA' aAAov, and 17. 42 ^ r' dAK^j ^ re TpaW, ?) TLS cr(/Kde -nopev KT\., Od. 4. 643. The combination el ife (if) is often found in the MSS. of Homer; see II. 2. 367., 8. 532, Od. 4. 28, 712, 789., 16. 238,^ 260., 17. 308., 1 8. 265., 24. 217. La Roche (following Bekker) reads ij ife (if) in all these places. The common texts have in one place i T ?), II. 2. 349 ~fvw/j.fvai ei re ^e)Sos ijrd(7xe which occurs 10 times, is followed by a consonant in every place except II. 19. 45 ical firjv ot TOT* 7' fls dyoptjv law. These facts have not yet been satisfactorily explained. Bekker in his second edition (1858) wrote H.TJV throughout for jxav, and sought to distinguish \i-r\v and p.v as far as the metre allowed according to Attic usage (H. B. pp. 34. 62). Cobet on the contrary proposed to restore |iv for (x-qv (Misc. Crit. p. 365), and so far as these two forms are concerned his view is probable enough. But how are we to explain the peculiar facts as to |tdv ? We can hardly account for it except as a genuine Homeric form, and such a form must have been used before consonants as well as vowels. If so, we 345-] MAN > MHN . MEN- 313 can only suppose that an original [xdv was changed into fiev whenever it came before a consonant, and preserved when the metre made this corruption impossible. It is to be observed also that p,Av and JJI,T|V are almost confined to the Iliad, in which jidv occurs 22 times and JATJV 7 times. In the Odyssey jjwlv is found twice, viz. in u. 344., 17. 470, and |rf|v three times, in n. 582, 593., 16. 440 ( = 11. 23. 410). It appears then that [juv is the only form which really belongs to the language of the Odyssey. Consequently the substitution of jxev for [x.av in the Iliad may have taken place very early. The change of p,v to \LT\V probably belongs to the later period when \i-i\v had been established in Ionic and Attic prose. 343.] pav has an affirmative and generally a hortatory or interjectional force: as in aypei pav nay come! (II. 5. 765., 7. 459), and 77 pax, ov \i.av, used when a speech begins in a tone of surprise, triumph, or the like ; as II. 2. 370 77 fj.av avT ayoprf VIKO.S, yipov, vtas 'A^ai&v. 12. 318 ov pav d/cAr/eis AUKITJI; Kara Koipaveovcrtv ^erepot^ao-iA^es (cp.4. 512., 13. 414., 14.454, &c.). An approach to the force of an emphatic yet appears in II. 8. 373 eorai juay or' av avre $i\r}V yAavK()7na eurTj* and in dAA' ov pav (II. 5. 895., 17. 41, 418, &c.), ^ p.av (II. 8. 512., 15. 476., 22. 304). 344.] fir^ with a hortatory force occurs in II. i. 302 ei 8' aye fj,r)v Trtiprja-ai come, do but try. The combination TJ pp is affirma- tive (rather than merely concessive), not so much admitting as insisting upon an objection or reply : II. 2. 291 77 [M\V Kal TTOVOS eori' it is true enough that there is toil: 7. 393 77 fj.rjv T/)(3es ye KcXovrcu I assure you that the Trojans lid him: 9. 57 77 ^v Kal veos fa-o-i we must remember that you are young. In Kal \vf\v it empha- sises the fact introduced by KCU : II. 19. 45 /cat /AT)I> oi ToVe y els a-yoprjv Ivav observe that even these then tvent. 345.] fAeV is very common in Homer. The original simply affirmative force appears especially in the combinations if jAeV, Kal jieV, and the like, in which it is indistinguishable in sense from \>.-(\v* i] jieV is regularly used in oaths, and is even found with an Inf. in oratio obliqua, as II. i. 76 KOI pot. ofj,oa-(rov 77 /xe'v /xot . . dpr/feiy. So in a strong asseveration, as II. 7. 97 77 pev brj AW/STJ rcioe y eo-o-erai this will really be a foul shame, Od. 19. 235 77 i^v TioKXai y OVTOV kdr}r)(ravTo ywaixe? you may be sure that many women gazed with wonder at it. In these and similar passages jteV * On the uses of |*^v see the dissertation of Carl Mutzbauer, Der homerische Gebrauch der Partikel MEN, Kflln, 1884-86. 314 PARTICLES. [345- strengthens a purely affirmative if, and there is no sense of con- trast. The adversative use may be perceived, as with the simple TJ ( 338) and ?) y.i]v, when a speaker insists on his assertion as true along- with or in spite of other facts: e.g. in Od. 10. 64 TTWS ?]A0es, 'O8u(re9 ; rts rot KO.KOS c\P a 8atp,ooy 5 tf V^ v <* ^vbvKfms aTTTreiJ.~oiJ.v surely ice sent you on your icay with due provision : and in the common form of reproach, II. n. 765 3> TTZTTOV, 77 p.ey (rot ye Meromos c58' eTrereAAe (cp. 5. 197., 9. 252). So with ironical emphasis, II. 3. 430 77 i^v brj -npiv y cv^f KT ^- w fy gure fy yon boasted fyc., cp. 9. 348. The corresponding- negative form pj jieV occurs in formal oaths ( 35^) b}> ant i with the Opt. in a sort of imprecation in Od. 22. 462 JUIT) [MV bi) Kadapia Oavaru OTTO dvfj.bv e\oip.fjv KT\. (cp. p.rj pav). Denial insisted upon in view of some state of things is expressed by ou fieV, as II. 4. 372 ov p.fv Tu8ei' y <38e tyi^ov Trrtoo-Ka^ejufy fyv (icfiy do you shrink ?j surely Tydeus did not. The form ical jieV answers closely to the Attic KCII fj.i]v, which is used to call attention to a fact, especially as the ground of an argument ; as II. 18. 362 /ecu juey 877 TTOV ris /^e'AAei (Spores KT\. fl mortal, remember, will accomplish his will: (much more a great (/odd ess) : II. i . 269 KOL ^tv rolo-iv eyw /xeflo/n'Aeoz; (these were the mightiest of men} : yes, and I icas of their fellowship. Sometimes the fact is first indicated, then dwelt upon in a fresh clause with Kal ficV ; II. 9. 497 orpeTrrot 8e re Kat 6tol avrot, . . KO.I \ikv rovs Ovtccrui KrA. even gods may be moved . . they are indeed turned from their anger by sacrifice fyc.: cp. 24. 488, Od. 7. 325., 14. 85. Similarly when a new point in the narrative is reached : as II. 6. 194 Kat fjitv ol AVKIOI re'/zevo? TCL^LOV yes and (besides what the king gave) the Lycian people made him a re'/xe^o? (cp. 6. 27., 23. 174., 24. 732). The adversative sense but yet, but surely is chiefly found after a negative, jieV being used either alone or in combination with an adversative Conjunction (dAAa, drap) : as II. I. 602 baivvvT, ovbe rt 6vfj.6s e8evero 8atros eto-rjs ov fj.ev $o'p/ityyos nor yet the phor minx. 2. 73 ^^^ V* v V Q ' 01 avapyoi Haav, Trodeov ye fj-fv ap^ov. Od. 15. 405 ov n 7repLTT\i]9r]s AtTjy roVoz;, dAA' aya6i] /xeV. II. 6. 123 ov [j.ev -ydp TTOT omoTra . . drop fj^v vvv ye icrA. Also after a question II. 15. 203 7) ri fierao-rpe'\|/-ets ; orpeurat \L*.V re (frpeves ((rOk&v. T\ ith the Article p.eV is sometimes used to bring in a parenthesis, which may be simply affirmative, or indicate some opposition : II. I. 234 val JJLO. ro'Se (TKijirTpov, TO fjitv ov irore v(Ti, ( = by this sceptre, even as it shall never fyc.). 5. 892 /XTJT-jOo's rot p.eVOS f(TTLV ad(T)(TOV, OVK fTTlClKTOV, "Hprjs, Tyv /u,eu eyw cnrovbfi bafj-vrj^ e7re'eo-)V ) T ^ v KT ^* C P' H- I ^ > ^4 I 3 I -> 23. 328, 808, Od. 9. 320, 321. Further, the interposed statement may have a double reference, a corresponding Clause with 8e or serving- to resume the narrative : as II. 8. 256 dAAa TroAv 7rp so then I will speak. It is generally used with the First Person, and has a kind of apologetic force (=/ will say, since 1 must speak}. In Attic it survives in the compounds rotydproi, rot- yapovv : and the same meaning is commonly expressed by roLvvv. 316 PARTICLES. [347- It has sometimes been thought that TOI is originally the same as the Dat. of Tv, moaning 'I tell you' or the like. The orthotone rot-yap (or TOI yap, as some MSS. read) is difficult to explain on this view. It has also been explained as the Locative of TO : cp. the Dat. TW = IH that case, therefore. Or it may be from the same stem as TIS and Te (as Kuhner holds, 507) : cp. vov (Srj irov) = somehow, thence surely. But the Loc. of this stem exists already in the form iroi whither. Spa, ya'p. 347.] The Adverb Spa properly means fittingly, accordingly (root ap- toft]. The forms Sp and pa seem to be varieties pro- duced by difference of stress, answering to the different values which the Particle may have in the sentence. Of these ap re- tains its accent, but pa, the shortest form, is enclitic. The ordinary place of Spa is at the beginning of a Clause which expresses what is consequent upon something already said. But occasionally it follows a Participle in the same Clause, as in the formula 77 TOI o y &s etTrwy K.Q.T ap eero (cp. II. 2. 310., 5. 748). It is to be observed, however, that Spa may indicate a reason (as well as a consequence) : that is to say, we may go back from a fact to the antecedent which falls in with and so explains it. E.g. II. I. 429 x^wojueroy Kara dvp.ov kv(ju>voio yvvaiKOS, Tr\v pa . . aTrqvpatv whom (and this was the reason of his anger] they had taken away. So in the combinations os pa, e-rrei pa, on pa, oSven' Spa = because (and this is the explanation] : also in yap pa, as II. i. 113 KOI yap pa KAuraifii'Tjcrrp^S' 7rpo/3e/3ouA.a. Spa is also found in the first of two correlative Clauses, as e T p o y evx8e ye pVfar iroAAot yap Kara aorv \iiyo. rTpta/xou ziriKovpoi, aAA?7 8' aAAcoi; yXSxra-a TroAuo-Trepecov avOput-rr&v' Toicriv tKaoros avrjp m)iuuv&m (II. 13. 73^-> 23. 890, Od. i. 337., 9. 319., 10. 174, 190, 226, 383., ii. 69., 12. 154, 208, 320, &c.). Here the speaker begins by stating something that leads up to his main point. Sometimes, especially when the reason is stated at some length, the main point is marked as an inference by TO? so, therefore: as II. 7. 328 TroAAot yap reOvatn K.apt] K0/u,oa>i>res r A\v vvv at/xa KeAatvoi' . . 331 T(3 orepo> fj,v /xaAAoy o ydp K o% apio-rov cnrdvTMv eirj (so II. 23. 9, Od. 24. 190). Od. I. 286 (Meve'Xaos) os yap bevraTos fj\dev (cp. 17. 172). So with ws ydp=for thus, and wo. ydp (II. 10. 127). These are generally regarded as instances of the original use of os as a Demonstrative ( 265). But it is only the use of ydp that is peculiar; or rather, this is only another case in which ydp is not translated \>yfor. It will be seen that os ydp may always be replaced by 85 Spa without changing the sense. 4. In abrupt questions, and expressions of surprise : as II. I. 123 7r<3s ydp rot Swo-owi yepas fj.fyfiOvfj.oi 'A^atoi ; why, how are the Greeks to give you a prize ? 1 8. 182 'Ipi 6f.d, TIS yap o-e de&v fj.oi dyyf\ov 77*6 ; I. 293 17 yap Kv SeiXo's re /cai ovTibavos KaAeot/xrjz; KT\. why, I should be a coward 8fc. So in the formulae of wish, el ydp, at ydp, &c. In all such cases the yap seems to be mainly inter jectional. Properly it implies that the speaker is taking up the thread of a previous speech ; and as it were continuing the construction : the new Clause being one that gives a reason, or affects to do so ironically. Particles so used easily acquire an irrational character. We may compare 350.] TAP, OTN, AH, NT, 0HN. 319 the use of 8e and r apa. in questions, &s GUI'. In these an approach to the illative force may perhaps be observed. 350.] 8^ is properly a temporal Particle, meaning now, at length (Lat. jam] : hence it implies arriving at a result, as e ov by TO -Tr/xSra OLaa-rriTrjv from the time that the point was reached when they quarrelled : ei 01] if it has come to this that, and so if finally, if really. With Superlatives it expresses that the highest stage has been reached, as II. I. 266 Kaprio-roi STJ Ktlvoi KT\. these were quite (finally] the mightiest. So in questions, -TTW? 877 how has it come to be that ; and prohibitions, JUTJ 817 do not go so far as to . 8rj may begin a sentence in Homer, as II. 15.437 Te5/cpe irt-nov, 8r) v&'iv oTre'/craro TTIOTOS eraipos : and often in the combinations 8t) TOTC (turn vero), and STJ ydip. The original meaning is best seen in these forms (where 877 is emphatic), and in rftr\ (for 77 8??), and ttrel r\. As 811 is one of the words which unite with a following vowel, 320 PARTICLES. [351. so as to form one syllable, it is sometimes written 8', and so is liable to be confused with 8 This occurs especially in the com- binations 8fj a5, 8fj auros, 8rj OU'TOJS : as II. I. 131 JUT) br) o#ro>s, 340 ct Trore br) avTf, IO. 385 TITJ br] oimos, 2O. 22O 6s 8r) a$z;eio'raros KtA. So in el 8' ctye the sense generally requires 8rj : see 321. Note that SrJTa, Sfj0ei> (cognate or derivative forms) are post- Homeric ; as also are the combinations STJTTOU, Kal 8^. 351.] vu is obviously a shortened form of vvv now. It is used as an affirmative Particle (like 8^, but somewhat less emphatic), especially in combinations such as r\ pd vu, KCU vu ice, ou vu, firj vu, eTrei w, and after Interrogatives, as TI'S vu who now, TI vu why now (see Od. i. 59-62). The form cu is exclusively Epic : vw (ii), which is used by Attic poets (Ellendt, Lex. Soph. ii. p. 183) appears in II. 10. 105 oaa -nov vvv 6e'A.7rerai, and II. 23. 485 ev/>o vvv, rj Tpi-rrobos KT\. : but it is probably not Homeric. In II. 10. 105 the sense is distinctly temporal, and accordingly we should probably read vw tK-ntrai. The temporal sense also suits II. 23. 485, where moreover there is a variant 5tvp6 76 vw rpiiroSos, found in the Scholia on Aristophanes (Ach. 771, Eq. 788). 352.] Qi\v is an affirmative enclitic, giving a mocking or ironical force, like the later SI^TTOU and StjOeK (which is perhaps originally 877 Qr]v] : as II. 2. 276 ov drjv JJ.LV naXiv aims av^a-fi 0viJ.bs ayrivutp his bold spirit will not I imagine impel him again: II. 13. 620 Aefyere' Orjv OVTCD -ye methinks in this fashion you will leave fyc. It is only Epic. irep. 353.] The enclitic Particle irep is evidently a shorter form of the Preposition irepi, which in its adverbial use has the meaning beyond , exceedingly ( 185). Accordingly irep is intensive, denoting that the word to which it is subjoined is true in a high degree, in its fullest sense, &c. : e.g. II. 23. 79 Aax e ytwoptvov itep was my fate even from my birth. Od. 1. 315 /XTJ jti' en vvv /care'puKe XtXat.6^v6v irep 68010. 8. 187 (TTifiapa>Tpov OVK oklyov Trep. II. 2. 236 oiKa8e TTcp s | (om6Xe'et?, &c. So with ou8^ wo^ even, as ov8e ^eot Trep not even the gods, ov5' ws Trep wo^ et?ew *o, ovbf vv crot Trep wo^ even to you. The combination KCU -rrep (or Kaiircp) occurs in Homer in one place only, viz. Od. 7- 224 Kai Trep TroXXa iradovra. When KOI precedes a word followed by irep, it is always = even (not and}. Hence in II. 5. 135 Kat Trpiv Trep p-e/xaws means even though formerly eager, and is to be taken with the preceding line, not with the succeeding STJ Tore fj.iv KT\. Thus there is no ana- coluthon, as is generally assumed. Y e - 354.] Y is used, like Trep, to emphasise a partumlar word or phrase. It does not however intensify the meaning, or insist on the fact as true, but only calls attention to the word or fact, distinguishing it from others : e. g. II. I. 8 1 ei Trep yap Te %6X.ov ye Kat atTTj/xap KaTaittyrj, dXXd Te Kat ^Toincrdev e\f t K.OTOV. Here y e shows that the word ^0X09 is chosen in order to be con- trasted with KOTO?. So too II. 2. 379 et Se' TTOT' es ye /utiay /3ouXevo-ojuef, ov/ceV eTretTa KTX. (if we could ever agree, instead of contending). Again, where an idea is repeated II. 5- 35O d 8e crv y es TroXejuoy moXTjo-eai, r\ Te' a' dfco pty?]o-ety TroXe/xdy ye. Cp. also II. i. 299 eTret p.' acpe'Xea-tfe' ye So'^Tes since you have but Y 322 PARTICLES. [355- taken away what you gave (where we should rather emphasise ooVres) : Od. 4. 193 ov rot lycoye re'pvro/x' obvpopfvos . . ye/xeo-oxaficu ye fj.v ovbfv KAcueiv KrA. I (lo not take pleasure in lamenting, but yet I do not #ay that 1 complain of a man weeping fyc. : 9. 393 TO yap avTf (nb-qpov ye Kpdros eort that is the strength of iron (in par- ticular] : IO. 93 ov p.V -yap TTOT' de'ero Kujud y kv avrw, ovre jue'y' OVT o\Lyov, AevKTj b' TJV dp.S eAiro/xai KT\, So in the phrase et TTOT' tr\v ye, which means if he lived at all, and thus is a form of asseveration; e.g. II. 3. 180 8a?/p OVT e/xos eo-xe KWU- Kibos et TTOT' lt\v ye he was my brother-in-laiv if he was anything, i. e. that he was so is as sure as that there was such a person. ye is common with the Article ( 257, 2) and the Personal Pronouns (so that it is usual to write oye, eycoye as one word), also with o8e, OUTOS, KCICOS, and the corresponding Adverbs w8e, Tore, &c. It serves chiefly to bring out the contrast which these Pronouns more or less distinctly imply. Similarly with words implying comparison, as uAAos and erepos, -npiv, irdpos, &c. When a special emphasis is intended, Homer usually employs irep, as Od. i. 59 ov8e vv Tpe'irerat (pi'Aoy ?)rop not even are you moved (who are especially bound to care for Ulysses). So too, as Nauck has pointed out (Mel. gr.-rom. iv. 501), Trdpos ye means before (not now), while Trdpos Trep means even before (not merely now]. Hence in II. 13. 465 os o-e irdpos ye ya/^3pos ewr eflpei/fe the ye of the MSS. is right; and so we should read (with A against other MSS.) II. 17. 587 bs TO -ndpos ye fjioXOaKos Tjs, but (again with A) in II. 15. 256 os ae Trdpos irep pvo/xat. In a Conditional Protasis (with os, ore, ei, &c.), ye emphasises the condition as such: hence el ye if only, always supposing that ; cp. Od. 2. 31 r\v x viuv o-ds ovbtv J\VKLOV no single thing is sweeter (cp. 18. 130., 22. 318). The adjectival use is found with CTTOS (Od. 4. 350., 17. 141), also in II. 10. 216 TT) p\v Krcpas ovbev opolov, and perhaps II. 22. 513 oiibtv eAos (where ouBeV may be adverbial). The Gen. Neut. appears in the Compound ovbev6o--apos worth nothing (II. 8. 178). The Masc. occurs only in the phrase TO ov /xeVos ovbevi el/ccoy (II. 22. 459, Od. n. 5 I 5) < The form u.T)86is is post-Homeric, except the form fxr]8cV, which occurs only in II. 18. 500 6 5' avaivero prjbev e 357.] Double negation. This characteristic feature of Greek is caused by the tendency to repeat the negative Particle with any word or phrase to which the negation especially applies : as II. I. 114 7ret ov eOev corn \fpei(av, ov Se'juas KT\. since she is not inferior not inform &c. The emphatic ouSe and pjS^ are chiefly used in this way : as ov pav ov8' 'A^iX^vs KT\. no, not even Achilles &c. : II. 2. 703 oi8e jj.lv ovb' ot avapyoi v (JLaKapcDV '. II. 6. $8 /jtrj8' ov TWO. yaore'pi MT/TTJP /coupon eoVra v \ TTrjfjiaivei. In this use HTJ denies by disclaiming (as it were) or protesting against a fact supposed to be within the speaker's power (=far be it from me that fyc.). We should probably add II. 19. 258 frrrco vvv Zei? Trpwra K.T\. pi] }j.fv eyco Kovprj Bpt(TT]t8t X e v' ^w6Kflj where the MSS. have eTrej^iKai. The Indie, form was restored conjecturally by Stephanus. (c) After TJ, to express incredulity. &c. : Od. 6. 2OO 77 JU.TJ TTOV nva bvcr^fVfMv (fxicrO' e/x/zeyai avbpQv (surely you do not suppose it is any enemy /) 9. 405 rj JUTJ TIS creu p.?}Aa (SpoT&v afKovros eAawei ; 17 p.ry rts cr' avrbv Kreivet 8oAw ?)e jSojcpi ; (surely no one is driving off your sheep ? $*<;.) This is the common type of ' question expecting a negative answer/ viz. a strong form of denial uttered in a hesitating or interrogative tone. Compare the quasi-interrogative use of TJ ( SS^) to indicate surprise or indignation. (d) After Verbs of fearing which relate to a past event : Od. 5. 300 8et'8o) /XT) 8r) Trdvra 0ea ^r/piepre'a eiTrev. Here, as with the Subj. ( 281, i), the Clause with JATJ passes into an Object-Clause. The difference is that the Indicative shows the event to be past. So perhaps Od. 13. 216/07 Tt ' A 40 ' oixovrai I fear they are gone : but the better reading is OIXUVTCU, the Subj. being understood as in II. i. 555 rf at 359-1 MH- 325 lest she hare persuaded thee (i. e. prove to have persuaded) ; cp. Od. 21. 395 fj.r) Kepa nres tSotev lest worms should (be found to) have eaten ( 303, i). Cp. Matth. xvi. 5 l-ne\a.9ovro aprovs Xa&ew they found that they had forgotten (Field's Otium Norc-icense, Pt. 3, p. 7)- The use of the Past Indicative after Verbs of fearing is closely parallel to the use in Final Clauses, noticed in 325. While the Clause, as an expression of the speaker's mind about an event his fear or his purpose should have a Subj. or Opt., the sense that the happening of the event is matter of past fact causes the Indicative to be preferred. Cp. the Modal uses noticed in 3 2 4~3 2 6, and the remark in 323 as to the tendency in favour of the Indicative. The essence of these idioms is the combination of the impera- tive tone shown in the use of /i^ with the Mood proper to a simple assertion. The tendency to resort to the form of pro- hibition in order to express strong or passionate denial may be seen in the use of /JM/) with the Optative in deprecating a sup- position ( 299, e), and of ^r\ with the Subj. in oaths, as Od. 1 2. 300., 18. 56. 359.] Conditional Clauses. The rule which prescribes P.TJ as the negative Particle to be used in every Clause of Conditional meaning does not hold universally. In Homer (a) When the Verb is a Subjunctive or Optative \L-t\ is used : the very few exceptions being confined to OVK etfe'Aco (II. 3. 289., 15. 492) and OVK eao> (II. 20. 139), which are treated almost as Compounds ( 355). Cp. the use of OVK e0eAa> in Final Clauses, as II. 5. 233 /ATJ . . jj.a,Tris re rev rj napa ua.^.'nav avdpovos Tje &> ov TI xAaiyai /crA. (a general description). II. 2. 338 vriTTia\ois, ot? ov TI /xe'Aei /crA. (so 7- 236., 1 8. 363). The only clear instance of P.TJ is II. 2. 301 core Se Trdvres jj-dprvpoi., ovs W KT/pes efiav Qa.va.roio (frepova-ai, where the speaker wishes to make an exception to what he has just said. In Od. 5. 489 o> /AT) Trdpa yfLTovfs aAAot we may supply either eio-i or IWi : the latter is found in the similar cases Od. 4. 164., 23. 118. But Hesiod uses pj with the Indie.; see Theog. 387, Op. 225. (c) With el and the Indicative oo is used when the Clause with el precedes the Principal Clause : as II. 4. 1 60 el Kcp y&p re KCU avTiK 'OAu/XTTtos OVK ere'Aeo-o-e, and similarly in II. 9. 435., 15. 213, Od. 19. 85, and the (eight) other places quoted in 316. But when the Clause with el fol- lows the other, j*VJ is used, as in the sentences of the form II. 2. 155 Hvda Kfv . . VOO-TOS TV^dri | et /XT) *rA. 326 PARTICLES. [360. The onlv instance in which this rule fails seems to be Od. 9. 410 d ptv 5?; jJ.i] TLS (re fiia&Tai olov fovra, rovvov y ov TTOJS eon Aios ^cyaXov aXta5' IT' tTo ffxrjfffffO' KT\. and (a few lines further) 1. 125 t(pai>To yap ovKtr' 'Axaiovs a\i\ata(f KT\. Occasionally the negative is used with the Verb and repeated with the Infinitive : II. 17. 641 end ov \u.v oio/iai ovS( ireirvffdat (cp. 12. 73). Od. 3. 27 ov yap otca \ ov o~e Ofwv atKrjTi ytvtffdai KT\. It may be conjectured that the use of ou with the governing Verb is the more ancient ; the use with the Infinitive is obviously the more logical. 361.] |iri with the Infinitive and Participle. The Homeric uses of this kind are few and simple in comparison with those of later Greek. The Infinitive when used for the Imperative ( 241) naturally takes fir) instead of ou : as II. 4. 42 /XTJ n biaTpififiv TOV ffj.bv xo'A.or, dAXa // eao-ai. An Infinitive which stands as Object of a Verb of saying, &c. takes fiVj when it expresses command or wish : as II. 3. 434 -nav- Kf\op.ai /urjSe KT\. I bid you stop and not fyc. (so 9. 12) : Od. 362.] MH, KEN, 'AN. 337 I. 37 e^ret npo ol enro/xey rjfj.ls JOI^T' KrA. we told kirn before not to fyc. So Od. 9. 530 bos pi] 'Qbvcra-rja . . iKeV0cu grant that Ulysses may not come. Again, a dependent Infinitive takes fx^ in oat/ts, as II. 19. 176 djixi'Derco . . \LT\ 77ore rrjs fvvrjs e7ri/3T7|ixez;ai KrA. let him swear that he never fyc. ; cp. Od. 5. 184 torco vvv ro8e yata . . \M\ ri crot avrai nijjjLa KO.KOV /3ouAeuoreju,ey aAAo, and II. 19. 258 (but see 358 b}. So generally after Verbs of promising, &c. as II. 14. 45 cos TTOT' Trr]TT^(Tv . . JUT) vplv KrA. threatened that he would not $ were also ancient readings, and eTnju is found in all our MSS. Similarly in II. 7. 5 Aristarchus read tirei KC /cci/zoo, and the MSS. are divided between cuei /ce and eTrryy KC (or firrjv KCK.). There is a similar variation between the forms r\v and ei ice (or at ice) in the phrases cu K' tQt\r\a-6a, al K c^eArjcri, &c. Thus in II. 4. 353 ( = 9. 359) the MSS. nearly all have o\l/a.L yv tdt\fl(r6a KCU at KV TOL ra but at K' t6fXr](T0a, which gives a better rhetorical effect, is found in II. 8. 471 otyeai al K' f6e\rj(rOa (so all MSS., rjv eU as a v. I. in A), also in II. 13. 260., i8.'457, Od. 3. 92, &c. Similarly in II. 1 6. 453 * w " fi*l v 7 M-nri the v. I. \irr\v is given by good MSS. (D, G, L, and as a variant in A). And the line II. u. 797 MvpfjubovtoV) at, Kfv TI $o'cos Aai>aoi may be required by the metre, or by the indefinite character of the sentence ( 283) : e.g. in II. 15. 209 OTTTTOT' av Icro^opov 0&7)rja : Od. 12. 288 i]v TTUIS e^aim'Tjs eA0?7 : II. 20. 172 ijv riva TTf(f)vri (in a simile). Similar arguments apply with even greater force to irf]v. Of the 48 instances there are 1 8 in general sentences, and several others (II. 4. 239., 16. 95, Od. 3. 45., 4. 412., 5. 348.^11. 119., i5 ; 3 6 -> 21. 159) in wnicl1 the reference to the future is so indefinite that eirei with a pure Subj. is admissible. It cannot be accidental that in these places, with one exception (Od. n. 192), eir^ is followed by a consonant, so that e-n-ei can be restored without any metrical difficulty. On the other hand, in 13 places in which eiri]i' is followed by a vowel the reference is to a definite future event, and accordingly we may read e-irei K'. In the combination firrjv 8ry, which occurs seven times, we should probably read e-Tret 877, or in some places firei KW (as in Od. 1 1. 221). The form eTrei8 occurs once, in a simile (II. 13. 285) : hence we should read eirel 811 (not eim' Ktv, as Bekker and Nauck, or at KW as Menrad). The distinction between general statements and those which refer to an actual future occurrence has hardly been sufficiently attended to in the con- jectures proposed by Van Leeuwen and others. Thus in Od. 5. 121 ijv ris re (f>i\ov iroirjatT aicoirrjv (in a general reflexion) Van Leeuwen would read at KCV ris re : and in Od. 1 2. 288 rjv rrws e^airivrjs e\0rj he proposes ai KC irov. So in II. 6. 489, Od. 8. 553 iirr)v ra -nptara yevrjrat (of the lot of man) he bids us read t'lret K. If any change is wanted beyond putting irt for tirqi', the most probable would be liret T : see 332. On the other hand he would put iret for e7TT[v in such places as Od. I. 293 aura/3 firi)v Sr) ravra r(\fVTr)ffris re ical 6prjs (cp. Od. 5. 363., 18. 269), where a definite future occasion is implied, and consequently t-rrei KV (which he reads in Od. 4. 414) would be more Homeric. In Od. 6. 262 avrap firrjv TTO\IOS em/J^o/iei/ we should perhaps read end TroAeoy (-) : see 94, 2. In a few places the true reading may be ! or tiret with the Opt. : as Od. 8. 511 alffa yap r\v a.Tro\ea8ai, tnfiv TTO\IS antyiitaXfyri (e-ntl . . a.fj.({>iKa\inf/at, as in II. 19. 208 we should read end Tiffai/teOa) : Od. 21. 237 ( = 383) fjv 5 TIS . . oucovarj (JO] TI 6vpaf TrpoP\waKiv (tl 8 TIS . . aicovffai) : II. 15. 504., 17. 245., 22. 55, 487. The form or' av occurs in our text in 29 places, and in 2 2 of these the metre admits ore K' (x')> which Van Leeuwen accordingly would restore. The mischief however must lie deeper. Of the 2 2 places there are 1 3 in which 2r' av appears in the leading clause of a simile (us 8' OT' av ), and in three 330 PARTICLES. [362. others (II. 2. 397. Od. u. 18., 13. ioi v the sense is general ; so that ore K' is admissible in six only (II. 7. 335, 459., 8. 373, 475, Od. 2. 374., 4. 477). It cannot be an accident that there are so many cases of or' av where Homeric usage requires the pure Subj., and no similar cases of ore Kfv : but for that very reason we cannot correct them by reading ort K'. Meanwhile no better solution has been proposed, and we must be content to note the 16 places as in all probability corrupt or spurious. It is one thing-, however, to find that av has encroached upon y in Homer, and another thing- to show that there are no uses of av which belong- to the primitive Homeric language. The restoration of Ke(y) is generally regarded as especially easy in the combination OUK av, for which ou Key can always be written without affecting either sense or metre. The change, however, is open to objections which have not been sufficiently considered. It will be found that OVK. av occurs 61 times in the ordinary text of Homer : while ou Key occurs 9 times, and ou KC 7 times. Now of the forms Key and KC the first occurs in the Iliad 272 times, the second 222 times. Hence, according to the general laws of probability, ou Key and ou KC may be expected to occur in the same proportion : and in the ordinary text this is the case (9 : 7). But if every OUK av were changed into ou Key, there would be 70 instances of ou Key against 7 of ou KC. This clearly could not be accidental : hence it follows that OUK av must be retained in all or nearly all the passages where it now stands.* And if OUK av is right, we may infer that the other instances of av with a negative 22 in number are equally unassailable. Another group of instances in which ay is evidently primitive consists of the dactylic combinations 5s irep ay, rf irep ay, ei irep av. Van Leeuwen would write os /ce vep, &c. ; but in Homer irep usually comes immediately after the Relative or el, and before Key ( 365)- Similarly ouSe yap ay (II. 24. 566) and To<|>pa yap av (Od. 2.77) cannot be changed into ovbf /ce -yap, rotypa /ce yap, since the order yap Key is invariable in Homer. In these uses, accordingly, ay may be defended by an argument which was inapplicable to OUK fiy, viz. the impossibility of making the change to KCK. The same may be said of the forms in which oV occurs under the ictus of the verse, preceded by a short monosyllable (w ), as II. I. 205 fjs V7repo~A.i77 6. 448., 9. 101). 8. 46 op' ei2?7 yAai>K<37Tis OT' Sy to Trarpi /^d^rai ( = 420). So Kal av and TOT' av (see the instances, 363, 2, c], aru 8' av (II. 6. 329), os av (Od. 21. 294, cp. Od. 4. 204., 18. 27, II. 7. 231). In this group, as in the last, we have to do with recurring forms, sufficiently numerous to constitute a type, with a fixed rhythm, as well as a certain tone and style. The combination of av and Rev in the same Clause is found in a very few places, and is probably not Homeric. In four places (II. ii. 187, 202, Od. 5. 361., 6. 259) we have o$p' av ptv KW KT\., where the place of av is anomalous ( 365). For OVT av K*V (II. 13. 127) we should probably read OVT dp KZV, and so in Od. 9. 334 TOVS dp Ke (or rather ovs ap /ce) KCU rjOeXov avrbs eAey, OTTO)?, Iva, o xapdov eA?7 (in the case of him who takes it greedily). So II. 6. 225., 9. 501, 524., 20. 166, Od. 15. 344., 19. 332 ( 289, 292, 296). In these places we see the tendency of the language to extend the use of KCC or oV beyond its original limits, in other words, to state indefinite cases as if they were definite a tendency which in later Greek made the use of S.v universal in such Clauses, whether the event intended was definite or not. The change is analogous to the use of the Indicative in a general Conditional protasis ; when, as Mr. Goodwin expresses it, ' the speaker refers to one of the cases in which an event may occur as if it were the only one that is, he states the general supposition as if it were particular ' (Moods and Tenses, 467). The loss of the Homeric use of re, and the New Ionic use of 6 T| TO as a Kelative with indefinite as well as definite antecedents, are examples of the same kind. 2. Up to this point the Particles Key and ek have been treated as practically equivalent. There are however some differences of usage which remain to be pointed out. (a) In Negative Clauses there is a marked preference for V In the ordinary text of the Iliad oV is found with a negative 53 times (nearly a third of the whole number of instances), KCK is similarly used 33 times (about one-twentieth). The difference is especially to be noticed in the Homeric use of the Subj. as a kind of Future ( 2/5, 276). In affirmative clauses of this type ice^ is frequent, &v very rare : in negative clauses oV only is found. (b) K.ZV is often used in two or more successive Clauses of a Sentence: e.g. in both protasis and apodosis, as II. I. 324 ei 8e' Ke fjt.ii Wijoiy, eyw K.CV O.VTOS In Disjunctive Sentences, as II. 1 8. 308 0r?;o-o/icu, '] K (freprjo-i p.eya Kpdros 17 Od. 4. 692 oAAoy K \daipr\(TL fipOT&v, aAAoy ice (f)i\oirj. And in parallel and correlative Clauses of all kinds : II. 3. 41 /cat Ke TO /JouAoi'/iTjy /ecu K(v TTO\V Kepbiov fir). 23. 855 os fieV Ke /SaAr/ . . 5s 8e' /ce p.r]pivdoio rvyri, KT\. Od. II. no ras ei \ikv K acru'e'as eaa? voarov re ^fbrjai, KCU KCV er' eis 'Wa.K7]v fca/ca Trep Trao^ovres ei 5e' Ke a-ivrai KT\. 363.] KEN, 'AN. 333 S.v, on the other hand, is especially used in the second of two parallel or connected Clauses : as II. 19. 328 dAAa \pr\ TOV ju,ey KaraflaTrreiy os K 6dvr)(n . . o'cro-oi 8' av TToAe/xoto Tre/jt oruyepoio Atmovrat KT\, Od. 19. 329 6s fj.fv cnrr]vr]S avrbs 07 KOL cnrrjvea fibfj . . 6s 8' OK auvfjitov avros frj KT\. So II. 21. 553 fZ \i.iv Kfv . . d 8' &v KrA.; II. 3. 288 ff. et fxev jeer a 8e Ke ei 8' &v (the last an alternative to the second). The only instance of oV in two parallel Clauses is Od. II. 17 ovO' 6-TTo'r' av tTTix.r)(n npos ovpavbv acTTepdevTa ovO' or' av a\}r tm yalav KT\. and there we ought to read oTidre orreixTjo-i, according 1 to the regular Homeric use of the Subj. in general statements ( 289, 2,4 (c) There are several indications of the use of o.v as a more emphatic Particle than Key. Thus the combination TJ T' oV surely in that case occurs 7 times in the Iliad, rj re icei> only twice. Compare the force of KCU a.v in II. 5- 362 ( = 457) os vvv ye Kat av Ait Trarpt Od. 6. 300 /aeia 8' apiyvu>T t&rL, Kal av Trdts So II. 14. 244 aAAov fxei' *cei> . . pe^a Kareui'?](rat/Ltt, KOI petdpa 'QKeavov I would put any other to sleep, even Oceauus, fyc. Cp. also TOT' oV (then indeed, then at length), in II. 1 8. 397 TOT av TtaOov aAyea dvfj,cuo-/x?7 Kitfapts the lyre will not avail yon (viz. in battle whatever it may do elseivhere). The accent of the Particles must not be overlooked as a con- firmation of the view now taken. Evidently ac is more likely to convey emphasis than the enclitic nee. We may find an analogy 334 PARTICLES. [364. in the orthotone and adversative 8e, which stands to re and the correlated re re somewhat as we have supposed Q.V to stand to 364.] Original meaning of dv and KV. The identity of the Greek dv with the Latin and Gothic an has been maintained with much force and ingenuity by Prof. Leo Meyer. The following are some of the chief points established by his dissertation.* 1. The Latin an is used by the older poets in the second member of a disjunctive question, either direct, as egone an ille injurie facimus? or indirect, as utrum scapulae plus an collus calli habeat nescio (both from Naevius % The use in single questions is a derivative one, and properly implies that the question is put as an alternative : as Plaut. Asin. 5. i, 10 credam istuc, si te esse hilarum videro. AR. An tu me tristem putas ? do you then think me (the opposite, via.} sad ? Amph. 3. 3, 8 derides qui scis haec dudum me dixisse per jocum. SO. an illut joculo dixisti ? equidem serio ac vero ratus. In these places t we see how an comes to mean then on the contrary, then in the other case, &c. So in Naevius, eho an vicimus ? what then, have we conquered ? 2. In Gothic, again, an is used in questions of an adversative character : as in Luke x. 29 an hvas ist mis nehvundja (' he willing to justify himself, said' : and who is my neighbour ? ' John xviii. 37 an nuh thiudans is thu ' art thou a king then ? ' 3. These instances exhibit a close similarity between the Latin and the Gothic an, and suggest the possibility of a Disjunctive Particle (or, or else] coming to express recourse to a second alternative (if not, then \ and so acquiring the uses of the Greek dv. This supposition, as Leo Meyer goes on to show, is confirmed by the Gothic aiththau and thau, which are employed (i) as Disjunctive Particles, or, or else, and (2) to render the Greek dv, chiefly in the use with the Past Indicative. Thus we have, as examples of aiththau Matth. v. 36 ni magt ain tagl hveit aiththau svart gataujan thou canst not make one hair white or black. Matth. ix. 1 7 aiththau distaurnand balgeis (neither do men put new wine into old bottks) else the bottles break. John xiv. 2 niba vfiseina, aiththau qvethjau if it were not so, I would have told you [= it is not so, else I would have told you], John xiv. 7 ith kunthedeith mik. aiththau kunthedeith &c. if ye had kmncit me, ye should have known &c. Similarly thau is used (i) to translate tj in double questions, as in Matth. xxvii. 17 whom will ye that I release unto you, Barabbas or (thau) Jesus? and after a Comparative ( = than) : frequently also (2) in a Conditional Apodosis, esp. to translate dv with Past Tenses, as Luke vii. 39 sa ith vesi praufetus ufkunthedi thau this man, if he were a prophet, would have known. * 'AN im Griechischen, Lateinischen und Gothischen, Berlin 1880. The parallel between the Greek dv and the Gothic thau and aiththau was pointed out by Hartung (Parlikeln, ii. p. 227). f Taken from Draeger's Historische Syntax, i. p. 321, where many other examples will be found. 365.] KEN, 'AN' ORDER OF PARTICLES. 335 Sometimes also with the Present (where there is no dv in the Greek), the meaning being that of a solemn or emphatic Future : Mark xi. 26 ith jabai jus ni afletith, ni thau . . afletith if ye do not forgive neither will . . forgive (ov5e . . a^ati), Matth. v. 20 ni thau qvimith (except your righteousness shall exceed &c.} ye shall in no case enter &c. (ov pr) flaf\0r)T}. This use evidently answers to the Homeric icev or dv with the Subj. and Fut. Ind. : ni thau qvimith = OVK av f^Orjre, ni thau afletith = ovS' av a^ati. 4. If now we suppose that dv, like aiththau and thau } had originally two main uses, (i) in the second member of a Disjunctive sentence ( = ehe, or else}, and (2) in the Conditional apodosis (=in that case rather), we can explain the Gothic and Latin an from the former, the Greek dv from the latter. The idiomatic ' ellipse ' in ?j jap av . . varara \wfiriffaio else you would outrage for the last time will represent an intermediate or transitional use. We can then understand why dv should often accompany negatives, and why it should be used in the latter Clause of a sentence. The main difference of the two uses evidently is that in the first the Clauses are co-ordinate, in the second the Clause with dv is the apodosis or principal Clause. Thus the two uses are related to each other as the two uses of 8 (i) as an adversative Conjunction, (2) in the apodosis. 5. The use of dv in Final Clauses may be illustrated by that of thau in Mark vi. 56 bedun ina ei thau . . attaitokeina irapeica\ovv avrov iva KOV . . (tycuvrai that they might touch if it were but Sfc. With iva, us, &c. dv may have had originally the same kind of emphasis as icdv in this passage : ' that in any case,' 'that if no more then at least &c.' The use in a Conditional Protasis following the Principal Clause may be compared with Luke ix. 13 niba thau . . bugjaima (we have no more} except we should buy ( = unless indeed we should buy). The Particle K(V) is found in JEolic, in the same form as in Homer (see Append. F), and in Doric, in the form ica. It is usually identified with the Sanscrit kam, which when accented means well (wohl, gut, bene\ and as an enclitic appears to be chiefly used with the Imperative, but with a force which can hardly be determined (Delbriick, A. S. pp. 150, 503). A parallel may possibly be found in the German wohl, but in any case the development of the use of Ke(v) is specifically Greek. Order of the Particles and Enclitic Pronouns. 365.] The place of a Particle in the Homeric sentence is generally determined by stricter rules than those which obtain in later Greek : and similar rules are found to govern the order of the enclitic Pronouns and Adverbs. i . The two enclitics irep and y e , when they belong to the first word in a clause, come before all other Particles. Hence we have the sequences ei Trep yap et Trep av TOV Trep 877 TioOfov ye fj.v, &c. Exceptions are to be found in II. Q. 46 eis o KC irep Tpoirjv 8ta7re'p eyo> 8e' KC' rot el 8' az> ov fxer yap ovre Ke ovr' apa, &c. ply may be placed later when it emphasises a particular word, or part of a clause, especially in view of a following clause with 8^, as II. 9. 300 el be rot 'ArpeiSijs fj.ev a.Trr\\deTO . . KrA., evfl' 77 rot rovs juez> KrA. Cp. also Od. 15. 405 ov TL 7repti7A770?7S AITJV TO TOI, &c. Among the other Particles note the sequences KCU vv nev f f apa by oiTTTOTe K.ev brj ?/ pa vv T(S rot w. But apa is sometimes put later in the clause, as ws elitav K.O.T ap' e^ero, cp. II. 5. 748 "Hp?j 8e /xaoriyi do&s ein^aLeT ap' "LTTTTOVS. re in its generalising use comes after other Particles : hence be re p.ev re yap re dAXd re b' apa re os pd re ovr' ap re ov vv re. 4. The Indefinite ns and the corresponding Adverbs, TTOU, -n-us, iru, iroTf, &c. follow the Particles. Hence we have ore Kev rts a! Kev TTCOS or' av ?rore ov pa rts 877 TTOV vv TTOV 77 TTOV ri (re, &c. But re follows TIS ( 332), as in /cai yap ris re, os ris re. And sometimes os TIS is treated as a single word, as in ov TWO. p.ev (II. 2. 188), os rts 8e' (II. 15. 743), os rts Ke (II. IO. 44, Od. 3. 355). Similarly we find ei irore in the combination et wore 877, as well as the more regular el 877 jrore. TIS sometimes comes later, as II. 4. 300 o(ppa KUL OVK eOthtov rts KrX., especially after a Gen. which it governs, as II. 13. 55 vfy&'iv 8' <58e Qe&v rts *cr\. ; cp. also II. 22. 494 TU>V b' eAeTjo-dVrcoy Korv- Xyv TIS rvTdov eire^ev, and Od. 21. 374. So iroTe, as in II. 4. 410 r o-(piv 77 TTOV ris a-fpiv, &c. Sometimes however an enclitic form follows the emphatic Pro- noun odros : as II. 5. 459

01! Trore, &c. Similarly Key and at' are attracted to the negation, as in TrXrjOvv b' ovusav eyco (for ov8' av eyo> irXrjdvv), and when the negative is repeated, as in ot>Se yap ot>8e' Ktv KT\. : cp. Od. 15. 321 OVK av [J.OL eptcr(reie /3poros aAAoy. 7. The place of the enclitic is perhaps explained by the pause of the verse in Od. 15. 118 66' eos So'juos djoi^eKdAv^e | KeW jixe vo(JTr\s cpfovcnv' e/j,oi 8e ror' av TroAv Kepbiov eir Od. I. 217 <*>s 87; eyw y' o(pf\ov juaKapo? vv reu e//juevat The second half of the line is treated as a fresh beginning of a sentence. Without assuming that the Homeric usage as to the place of Particles and Enclitics is invariable, we may point out that in several places where these rules are violated the text is doubtful on other grounds. Thus II- 3- J 73 & s o(f>e\(v Odvaros JJ.QI aSrfv. Read wy p wpe\tv 6a.va.Tos faSttiv : for the elision p(ci} cp. II. 6. 165 os /x' eOtXev <(>I\ | nai riaAAas 'AOrivrj. The division between an enclitic and the preceding word is not sufficient for the caesura in the third foot : hence in Od. 10. 58 we should read avTap ewei o-troto T' | fTTaa-a-dp-eO' ?}Se Trorrjros not o-iroto re Tracro-a/xe^' (as La Roche). The remaining exceptions to these rules are II. I. 179 otKao' Iwv ffiiv vrjvffi rt ays KCU cots frdpoiai, which is an adaptation of the (probably conventional) form avv vrjt T' e^ri ical (fjiois trapoiai (1. 183). We may help the rhythm by taking vrjvai re ays closely together, so as to avoid the break in the middle of the line. II. 3. 205 77877 fap KCU Sfvpo WOT' ffKv&t Sfos 'OSvffffevs. II. 10. 453 Oliver' eiretTa av irfjijA iror' efffftat 'Apffioiai. Where irorf, as an enclitic, is in an unusual place in the sentence ( 365, 4), but it is perhaps in reality an emphatic ' one day." Similarly, in II. 3. 220 $0177$ aOTOi/ Tf rtv' t/j./jifvai d(f>pova T' avrtus, viva, may be slightly emphatic. Or should we read rbv eppfvat ? II. 15. 1 8 ^ ou Htf-v-g ore T' (Kpefua inf/60fi', UK rt iroSouv. We may read ore re itpk^ca : but possibly the peculiar rhythm is intentional, as being adapted to the sense. * In this calculation no lines are reckoned twice, short monosyllables being taken either with the preceding or the following word, according to the sense. Z 2, 340 METRE. [368. 2. Trochaic caesura of the fourth foot is very rare, and is only found under certain conditions, viz. (1) when the caesura is preceded by an enclitic or short mono- syllable (such as fitV, Be, &c.) ; as Kat Kev TOVT ede'Aoifu Aio's ye 8i8o'rros dpe'crflai. (2) when the line ends with a word of four or five syllables; as K?I-- avrap 6 p.ovvos er]v p.era TreWe KacriypTjTTjcri. TroAAd 8' ap' evda /cat Hvd' Wvcre \ /max*; TreStoio. The commonest form of this kind of caesura (especially in the Iliad) is that in which these two alleviations are both present; as epcrtr' d/cptro/ivfle, Atyvs Trep ecou ayopTjnjs. The first fifteen books of the Iliad contain eleven instances of trochaic caesura in the fourth foot, of which seven are of this form. In II. 9. 394 the MSS. give n^Aevs drjv /mot eVetra ywauca | ya/xecro-erai avros. But we should doubtless read, with Aristarchus, yvrat/cd ye /macro-erai avroy. Similarly we should probably read rd Se'/x' ov/c opa /xe'AAoi; 6vrj \J\j ^ I ^ Worst diaeresis Jw >JO I Jw Jw i Again Best diaeresis JO vJO JO - JO | JO Worst caesura JO JO JO ^> I w JO It is also common to find a diaeresis with a slight pause after the first foot ; cp. the recurring &s pecrt. V v 368.] Spondaic verses. The use of a spondee in the fifth 369-] QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 341 place occurs most commonly in verses which end with a word of four or more syllables, as ore/A/^ar' e^cou tv \epcrlv Kr]/3oXov 'AiroAAoovos. "Apc'i 8e {(avrjv, (rrtpvov Se LToo-eiSaftm. It is also found with words of three long syllables, as T(5 8' -tjbi] bvo fjJkv -yevfal juepoTrcop avOptojratv. And once or twice when the last word is a monosyllable : as vtoprjarai fi&v (II. 7. 238), e0-r?7/cei /m's (II. 19. 117). A spondee in the fifth place ought not to end with a word. Hence we should correct the endings $> Slav &c. by reading t|6a, and 8?7/xou rjij.is (Od. 14. 239), by restoring the archaic 817^00. In Od. 1 2. 64 the words \ls Trerpr) at the end of the line are scanned together. Words of three long syllables are very seldom found before the Bucolic diaeresis. Examples are : II. 13. 7 J 3 ^ y&P cr ^ )t vTabLr] | va-fj.lvri \ i^ip-Vf vo-ei), or by Disposition (fleVei). The assumptions that all long syllables are equal, and that a long syllable is equal in quantity to two short syllables, are not strictly true of the natural quantity in ordinary pronunciation. Since every consonant takes some time to pronounce, it is evident that the first syllables of the words oT)v {II. 23. 84 but see the note on 42 in the Appendix, p. 390), rtrpcuniKKov (IL 24. 324), r)$6v, KpaScuvea, KpartvTaaiv, Kptiuv. Add II. II. 697 ei\tro npiva.ij.fvos; Od. 8. 92 Kara, xpara (KO.K upara?^, 12. 99 5 rf Kpdrl. Pp : in Pporos and its derivatives, as affponj, dfjupifiporos : also before Ppaxicuv. 8p : in anp : in ' A(ppo5iTt] : and Od. 15. 444 f^uv 5' fni-p, |3p, 8p, and with O-K and , it seems to be only ad- mitted for the sake of words which the poet was absolutely com- pelled to bring in : such as 'A(/>po8tVr/, SKa/xaySpo?, ZanvvOos, Pporos, with its compounds, &c. No exceptions are found before yp, y\, , should probably be written dBpoTrjs. As the original (ip offtporos becomes either p.pp (as a-^/3poTor, fyOiai-nfiporos), or 0p (as vv a-Pporrj, a/Mpt-Pporos') , so vp might become vSp (as dv$p6s}, or 8p. So perhaps 'Ewa\ia> avSpefyovT-ri should be 'EvvaA/au dSpupovTy ( ww ) : cp. dvSpe-Qovos (Hdn. ap. Eustath. 183, 6). 344 METRE. [371. The })k';i on which a short vowel is allowed before 2a//ai/8pos and axiirapvov may be extended, as Pick points out (Bezz. Beitr. xiv. 316), to some forms of OKL^vrjui now written without the , Atyvs, Aiapos, AiTrapos, Ais, Xairapr], Ao'0o9, and occasionally in a few others : but not (e.g.] in such frequently occurring words as AVKLOS, Ae'xos, Aenro>. ft, in jixeyas, //.e'yapov, juoipa, /xaAaKos, /xeAos, fj,e\ir], ju,aari, p.60os : but not (e.g.] ^.d\0fj,ai, fj,evos, /xe'Aas, /^.aKap, /j,{5^o?,/* (II. 20. 434), and once before o-v0eos (Od. 10. 238). 8, in Se'os, Seiko's, bei-cras &c. (Stem Sfei-), ^r\v, brjpov ( 394). This lengthening, it is to be observed, is almost wholly con- fined to the syllables which have the metrical ictus : the excep- tions are, TroAAa Ato-a-o/xeVrj (II. 5. 358, so II. 21. 368., 22. 91), TtVKva pcoyaAeT]^ (Od. 13. 438, &c.), TroAAa pWrafetncez; (II. 24. 755). Further, it is chiefly found where the sense requires the two words to be closely joined in pronunciation : in particular (1) In the final vowel of Prepositions followed by a Case-form : as 67Ti prjyfuvL, TTOTI Xofyov, VTTO At7rap(H(n, Kara juoipav, (vl jueyapw, Kara \i6Qov, 8ta ve(peu>v, airo v(vpfj, j , , tj. y / \ \ see in Compounds, as aTro-ppiTmo, fv-ppoos, a-pprjKros, rpi-AAto's &c. is for Sfei- (cp. bei-boiKa for be-bFoiKo.}. It is not indeed necessary to maintain that in these cases the lost consonant was pronounced at the time when the Homeric poems were composed. We have only to suppose that the particular combination in question had established itself in the usage of the language before the two consonants were reduced by phonetic decay to one. Thus we may either suppose (e.g.] that Kara poov in the time of Homer was still pronounced Kara apoof, or that certain combinations Kara-a-pew, eu-o-poos, Kara a-poov, &c. passed into Kara-ppe'o), eu-ppoos, Kara ppoov (or Kara poov). There are several instances in which a second form of a word appears in combinations of a fixed type. Thus we have * On this subject the chief sources of information are, La Roche, Homerische Untersuchutujen (pp. 49-65) ; Hartel, Homerische Studien (Pt. i. pp. 1-55) ; and Knos, De Digammo Homerico Quaestiones (Pt. iii. 225 ff.). 346 METRE. [373. the form TTTO'AI?, in TTOT! TrroAios, 'A)(iAA?}a TrroAiVopfloi;, &c. : -nro'Ae^o?, in /zeya TjroAe/xoio /ue/AT/Aws, aj/a TrroAe/xoio yetyvpas. Similarly a primitive ySoC-jros survives in epi-ybownos (also ept- SovTro?), 6-y8ov7rT] but $tAo- 07x6187}?, Srjv TJZ; at the beginning of a line, but fj.d\a Fr\v at the end : and so in other cases. It is true that the proportion of the words now in question which can be proved to have originally had an initial double consonant is not very great. Of the liquids, the method is most successful with initial p, which can nearly always be traced back to vr or sr. And among the words with initial v a fair propor- tion can be shown to have begun originally with or (vtvpri, vvos, vi(pas, veo), vv^rjj. The difficulty is partly met by the further supposition that the habit of lengthening before initial liquids was extended by analogy, from the stems in which it was originally due to a double consonant to others in which it had no such etymological ground. This supposition is certainly well founded in the case of p, before which lengthening became the rule. 373.] Final t of the Dat. Sing. The final i of the Dat. (Loc.) Sing, is so frequently long that it may be regarded as a ' doubtful vowel/ ' The examples are especially found in lines and phrases of a fixed or archaic type : 77 pa, Kal V 8eu>o> crd/cei ?Aacr' ofiptfjiov eyxos. o#ra> TTOV Ait /ze'AAet vTrep/xevet (pi\ov eZz^at (thrice in the II.). TO TpLTOV aW vbdTl (Od. 1O. 52O., II. 28). avrov Trap vrj't re pieVeiy (Od. 9. 194., IO. 444). jj\vdov etKooTo) lr es /crA. (6 times in the Od.). So in Alavn 8e /ndAiora, 'Obvcrarrj'i be //.aAicrra, &c. and the fixed epithet Ad $i'Aos. Considering also that this vowel is rarely elided ( 376), it becomes highly probable that i as well as t was originally in use.f sW5 It is an interesting question whether these traces of -i as the ending of the Homeric Dat. are to be connected with the occasional -I of the Locative in the Veda (Brugmann, Grundr. ii. 256, p. 6 10). The Vedic lengthening appears to be one of a group of similar changes of quantity which affect a short final vowel, and which are in their origin rhythmical, since they generally serve to prevent a succession of short syllables (Wackernagel, Das Dehnungsgesetz der griechischen Cvm.posita, p. 12 if., quoted by Brugmann I. c.). The same thing may evidently be said of the Homeric -i in many of the cases quoted, as t The priority in this as in so many inferences from Homeric usage belongs (as Hartel notices) to H. L. Ahrena (PhiMogus, iv. pp. 593 ff.). 375-] SHORT FINAL SYLLABLES. 347 nartpi, ffatcfi, trti. Hence it is probable that the lengthening dates from the Indo-European language, and is not due in the first instance to the require- ments of the hexameter. But in such a case as 'OSvffffrj'i it may be that the Greek poet treats it as a license, which he takes advantage of in order to avoid the impossible quantities w (cp. oi&purtpos for the unmetrical oi^vp6r(po^. 374.] Final a. The metrical considerations which lead us to recognise -t in the Dat. Sing-, might be urged, though with less force, in favour of an original -d as the ending of the Neut. Plur. We have II. 5- 745 ( = 8. 389) ej 8' o^ea er' dptTrpeTre'a, ore /crA. 11. 678 (Od. 14. 100) roVa Trwea ol>v (v.L 20. 255 Tro'AA' erect re /cat ovnL 21. 352 ra Trepl KaAa peeflpa. 23. 240 apipabea 8e re'ruxrai. 24. 7 OTToa-a roAvTretxre. Od. 9. 109 ao-Trapra Kat d IO. 353 7ropr/pe^>ea re (^aperpTjv, 5- 57^ riuAcufteWa eA^rTjy, 5- 827 "Apr/a ro ye, 14. 32^0 FTepo-TJa Ttavrav, Od. I. 40 ex yap 'OpeWao rtVu. As two suc- cessive vowels are often found to interchange their quantity (paankija, /3a aW oeAes ayovos T e)x,ez>ai /crA. \fp(rlv VTT' 'Apyetcoy <$>dly.tvos fv 7rarpt8t yat'rj. The circumstances under which this metrical lengthening is generally found differ remarkably, as has been recently 348 METRE. [375. shown,* from those which prevail where short final vowels are lengthened before an initial consonant. In those cases, as we saw ( 371), the rule is that the two words are closely connected, usually in a set phrase or piece of epic commonplace. In the examples now in question the words are often separated by the punctuation : and where this is not the case it will usually be found that there is a slight pause. In half of the instances the words are separated by the penthemimeral caesura, which always marks a pause in the rhythm. Further, this lengthening is only found in the syllable with the ictus. The explanation, therefore, must be sought either in the force of the ictus, or in the pause (which necessarily adds something to the time of a preceding syllable), or in the combination of these two causes. In some instances, however, a different account of the matter has to be given : in particular (1) "With <5s following the word to which it refers : as II. 2. 1 90 KdKov OK (^/ ), and so 0eos o>s, Kwes cy?, opviQfs Tris and ?}yts the final syllable is long before a vowel even in thesis. So the i may have been long in Oovpis (cp. the phrase Oovpiv e7riei/xeVos aXnr\v} : and traces of the same scansion may be seen in the phrases efpt? a^orov /xe^aiua, Ail piJTiv drdAayros, although epis, jurjris are more common. Final -us (Gen. -uos) is long in Feminine Substantives ( 116, 4), as Idvs aim (u in thesis, II. 6. 79., 21. 303), TrArjtfvs (II. n. 305), ax^vs (U. 20. 421), iAus (Gen. -uos), Pparvs (Od. 1 8. 407) and other Nouns in -TVS : also in the Masc. IxQvs, VCKVS, ftorpvs (Porpvbov), and perhaps ireAe/cus (II. 17. 520). tf/i'ruv'Z 77 4 (3) Where the vowel of the final syllable is preceded by another, especially by a long vowel ; as olitfjas aXo\6v re (II. 6. 366), 'A)(iAA?7os oAooy nijp (II. 14. 139), 6s Aaoz> 7/yetpa (Od. 2.41), 8/iwes fvi ot/co) (Od. II. 190), Tthtlov eAe'Aenjro (Od. 8. 475), XP ^ S u7raAvai (with v. 1. xpeicos, Od. 8. 355) : and so in in/as (a, II. 2. 165., 1 8. 260), VTJOS (Od. 12. 329), Tpwes (U. 17. 73o),(j3op's (U. i !. 776palso "Aprja, Ylfpo-ija. and the other examples given in 374. In such cases there is a tendency to lengthen the second * By Hartel, in the Homeric Studies already quoted, i. p. 10. 376.] ELISION. 349 vowel, as in the Attic forms /3ao-iA.a, 'AxtAAeW, &c. In Homer we may suppose that the second of the two vowels borrows some of the quantity of the other, so that with the help of the ictus it can form the arsis of a foot. Actual lengthening of the second vowel may be seen in Homer in the form air-ri'iv, airtovTfs (Od. 9. 413), KO! Kvvtov ayaira^6fj.(vot (Od. 17. 35, &c.\ &c. This is confined (curiously enough) to the Odyssey and the Catalogue of the Ships. In the latter it occurs seven times : in the Odyssey eleven times, in the rest of the Iliad once (7. 206). Elision, Crasis, fyc. 376.] A final vowel cut off before a word beginning with a vowel is said to suffer Elision (l/c0Ai\/us) : as pvpC 'Amatols aAye' e^rj/ce. Whether an elided vowel was entirely silent, or merely slurred over in such a way that it did not form a distinct syllable, is a question which can hardly be determined. The vowels that are generally liable to elision are a, e, o, i. But (1) The o of 6, TO, irp<5 is not elided. Final -o is not elided in the Gen. endings -oio, -do, and very rarely in the Pronouns e/xeTo, &c. This however may be merely because the later forms of these endings, viz. -ou, -ea>, -eu, took the place of -oi'(o), -6t'(o), -ei'(o) when a vowel followed. In the case of So this supposition is borne out by the fact that -eu is often found before a vowel, as YIr]\r]'idbf(a 'A^iXrjos (I. FI^A^'iaSa') : and by the rarity of the contraction of eo to 6u ( 378*). There is less to be said for elision of -o in the ending -oio. That ending in Homer is archaic ( 149), therefore the presumption is against emendations which increase the frequency of its occurrence. And the cases of -ou remaining long before hiatus are not exceptionally common (Hartel, H. S. ii. 6). (2) The i of TI, irept is not elided in Homer; regarding on see 269. But irepi is elided in Hesiod : as 7repoi)(erai, iifpia.^. (3) The -i of the Dat. Sing, is rarely elided; but see 105, i. Exceptions are to be seen in II. 4. 259 7)8' kv 8cu0' ore KT\. ; 5. 5 350 METRE. [377. do-rep' facopivw KT\.; II. 3. 349.; 10. 277., 12. 88., 16. 385., 17. 45, 324., 23. 693., 24. 26, 6d. 5. 62, 398., jo. 1 06., 13. 35., 15. 364., 19. 480. The i of the Dat. Plur. is often elided in the First and Second Declensions, and in the forms in -aai of the Third Declension. On the other hand, elision is very rare in the forms in -eo-i, -fieri, -o 9- ^73') *$. 544v 2 3- 310, 579, Od. i. 60, 347., 23. 21 (Cobet, Misc. Crit. p. 345). Other instances may be recovered by conjecture : thus in II. 3. 173 ws o Odvaros p.oi aoelv should probably be cos /u,' o OdvaTos abttiv ( 365) ; and in II. 24. 757 v ^ v ^ M ot *pa"nei-s Leeuwen reads vvv 8e p eepo^ei?. In the case of the enclitic ol ('foi) elision involved the disap- pearance of the Pronoun from the later text. In II. 6. 289 ( = Od. 15. 105^ fv6' ea-av ol TreTrXot the original was probably hOa T(ot) ta-av (cp. Od. 15. 556 evOa. ol tf) into one syllable in pronunciation. The Particle r\ unites with the initial vowel of a following vowel, especially with av, avros and OVTO>S ( 350) ; also with ' AvTip-d^oib (II. II. 138), aQveioTaros (II. 2O. 22o), dypr]v (Od. 12. 330). _ Synizesis is also found with tf, in the combination 77 ov\ (II. 5. 439, &c.), 77 els o Kfv (II. 5. 466), T] eiTre/xerat (Od. 4. 682) ; with cirei ou (Od. 4. 352, &c.) ; with pi aAAoi (Od. 4. 165); and in II. 17. 89 do-/3e'0T' ovb' vlbv Aa0ez> 'Arpeos: where we may perhaps read do-^eoro)' ovb' via Aa0' 'Arpe'os. 1 8. 458 tneT e/xw a>Ku/Mo'p< (one or two MSS. give vl' eju<3). Od. I. 226 eiAa7ru>?7 ?}e ya/xos /crA. In II. i. 277 nT/Aci'S?/ 20eA', and Od. 17. 375 aptyvwTe the case is different : a short vowel is absorbed in a preceding long one. Other examples of Synizesis are to be found in the mono- syllabic pronunciation of ea, eo, eu, both in Verbs ( 57) and Nouns ( 105, 3). It will be seen that in the cases now in question (apart from some doubtful forms) an E-sound (TJ, ei, e) merges in a following a or o. The term Synizesis may also be applied to the monosyllabic pronunciation of the vowels in Alyv-nrLr] (Od. 4. 229), &c. o-xerAirj (II. 3. 414), 'loriaia (II. 2. 537). It has been thought that in these cases the i was pronounced like our y : but this is not a necessary inference from the scansion. In Italian verse, for instance, such words as mio, mia count as monosyllables, but are not pronounced myo, mya. For 770X105 (^ in II. 2. 81 1., 21. 567) it is better to read Tro'Aeo? ( 107) ; and for Tro'Aias (Od. 8. 560, 574) TTO'AIJ. The corresponding Synizesis of o is generally recognised in the word 'EwaAuo (commonly scanned oa in the phrase 'EwaAua avSpei^oVrrj) : but see 370 ad fin. 378.*] Contraction. The question of the use of contracted forms has been already touched upon in connexion with the dif- ferent grammatical categories which it affects: see 56, 81, 105. It will be useful here to recapitulate the results, and to notice one or two attempts which have been made to recover the original usage of Homer in this respect.* * See especially J. van Leeuwen, Mnemosyne, Nov. Ser. xiii. p. 215, xiv. p. 335 : and Menrad, De contractionis et synizeseos usu Homerico (Monachii, 1886). 352 METRE. [37 8 *- 1. Contraction is most readily admitted between similar sounds, or when the second is of higher vowel pitch, i. e. higher in the scale o, o>, a, TJ, e. Thus we have many instances with the combinations , oo, ae, oe ; few with ea, aw, ao, still fewer with ew, o. 2. In most cases in which contraction is freely admitted we find that the sound which originally separated the vowels was the semi-vowel t or i/. In case of the loss of o- it is compara- tively rare ; with F it is probably not Homeric at all ( 396). Hence (e. (/.} although it is common with the combinations ee, eci in most Verbs in -eu ( 56), it is not found in yjiu> (X^-M) and is extremely rare in rpe'co (rpeV-co, see 29, 6). But it is admitted with loss of and - there is a concur- rence of three vowels, which in our text are always reduced to two syllables, either by contraction, as in aidtio, fj-vdaat, vtica, ia>aq, or by hyphaeresis ( 105), as nvOtai, a'tpeo, tK\fo, muAecu (Od. 4. 811). A single vowel appears in Tffipq. for iTfipa-fat, f^w for ^pd-to. The metre requires alStio, atpto, tK\fo, iruj\(ai ; for napa it allows irtipdat (becoming vdpa' in II. 24. 390, 433, Od. 4. 545). The isolated form oprjai (Od. 14. 343) for 6pd-eai should perhaps be opdai or upaa. If the ending is in its original form it belongs to the Non- Thematic conjugation ( 19) : another example may be found in opijro (or O/MJTO), read by Zenodotus in II. i. 56. (c) In the Future in -eto (for -taai) contraction is less frequent than in the Present of Verbs in -eco (-eica or -eatca}. Forms such as oAefrai, Kafjitirat, pa^tiTai, bfj.tiTa.1, KOfj.iS>, KTfpiat, KTeptovat, evidently could not otherwise come into the verse. In II. 17. 451 o-^wiV 5' tv yoweffffi /SaAw we may read @a\), aev, tv, -rtv. Here again, however, we are struck by the number of cases in which we can substitute the forms in -ao or -o, with elision of -o. In our MSS. the elision actually occurs in t/ief (II. 23. 789, Od. 8. 462) and i\ov jjrop. In the last passage it is needless to alter the Gen. O.KOVOVTOS ( 243, 3, d), and we may even read in II. i. 453 fjiol ndpos tK\vts (vcifji(voio (cp. II. 1 6. 531 orn ol UK fJKOvat /J.(yas Oeos tva- fievoio). The substitution of the Dat. seems the most probable correction in various places where Leeuwen proposes other changes : Od. 4. 746 /ieC 8" A.ero ptfav opKOv (cp. II. 22. 119 Tpaialv 8' av . . op/tov Aai^at N , II. 2. 388 ISpuffft ptv rev T\afiu}f a/jupl arfiOefftyt, II. 22. 454 at yap aw' ovaros eir) ep.tv tTtos (cp. 18. 272) ; also II. i. 273., 9. 377., 16. 497., 19. 185., 20. 464., 24. 293, 311, 750, 754, Od. 5. 311., 9. 20., 13. 231., 19. 108., 24. 257 ; and perhaps II. 19. 137 Kai ptv ipptvas ((\ero Zevs (unless the pf of some MSS. is right), so II. 9. 377 and II. 9. 335. In Od. 19. 215 vvv fj.lv Sri atv, (ive, otVTOS tcr\., where the contraction >VTO$ and the Dat. Plur. KO/ATJS before a consonant are also suspicious (Fick, Ilias, p. xvii). (/) The contraction of oa, oe (from oa-a, off-*) is doubtful in the Nouns in -to and -cos ( 105, 6), but appears in the forms of the Comparative, viz. afttiva}, dpfioj, dptiovs, Kan'iovs, Tr\eiovs, and peifa (Hesiod). The uncontracted forms in -oa, -oes do not occur, since the metre allows either -o>, -ows or else the later -ova, -ovs. But in such a phrase as d/ieiVw 8' aiatfia iravra (where Nauck reads aptivova} we may suspect that d/j.eivoa was the original form. Jil/tfo^W (g) Vowels originally separated by f are so rarely contracted that instances /7Z?/ *j } in our text must be regarded with suspicion. Thus OKCOV (d-f(ncav~) should r^-7 . A a 354 METRE. [378*. always bo aixuv : d-n] (afarrf) may be written aari) except in II. 19. 83 (pptfflv t/j.fla\ov dypiov drr/v (where the use of ajpiov as a Fern, is also anomalous, 119). In II. 3. TOO., 6. 356., 24. 28 (where cm;? comes at the end of the line) the better reading is apxv- KOI\OS may be /coi'Aos (cp. Lat. cavus\ except in Od. 22. 385. el8ov (e-f^tSov) may be tiSov, except in four places (II. n. 112., 19. 292, Od. 10. 194., ii. 162). iroXtas (Ace. Plur. of iro\vs) is not uncommon, but should probably be TTO\VS ( 100) : iro\(aii> occurs once (II. 16. 655). Other instances with Nouns in -vs and -vs are rare (Nauck, Mel. gr.-rom. iii. 219; Menrad, p. 60). The Fern, in -ta is not contracted from -efi'a, -ei'a but comes directly from -tfia. So oios, oltov for oft-os, ofi-aiv (cp. otaai for cu-ecrdi), and 8tos for S/yF-io?. ps and TSCOS, which occur several times in our text, are nearly always followed by a Particle (ntv, irtp, &c.), which has evidently been inserted for the sake of the metre (eoiy \nkv for rjos, &c.). For dAAoeiSta in Od. 13. 194 we should doubtless read a\Xo-'id(a. ( 125, 2\ e'lpvcra may be from t-fpvffa (but see Schulze in K.Z. xxix. 64) : as to faxov, which has been supposed to stand for tiaxov, from k-flfaxov, see 31, i. The most important example of contraction notwithstanding f is the word Tra'is (irafs, iraiSus, &c.). Other words which present the same difficulty are : acre (Od. n. 61), aaaro (II. 19. 95) in both places Nauck would read oWe dO\o(popos (11. 9. 266., ii. 699), aO\evcw (II. 24. 734), 3.6\ov (Od. 8. 160), ae'a (Od. 9. 347), \tio6ai (Od. 10. 518), Ti^ra (II. 18. 475), rexvfjffcrai (Od. 7. no), ij\ios (Od. 8. 271), faiff(p6pos (II. 23. 226), nXioiv (Od. I. 184), reOvewTi (Od. 19. 331), TreirreaiTa, -ras (II. 21. 503, Od. 22. 384), (Sffiuaa. (Od. 20. 14), voov (II. 24. 354), Kaipovaatav (Od. 7- i7)) the compounds of eiWa (yvrjfj.apj fweapos* fvvtopyvios and the proper names 'Evpv/c\eta 'A.vTiK\fia (-K\itia Nauck). Some of these may be disposed of by more or less probable emendation : others occur in interpolated passages (e. y. rj\ios in the Song of Demodocus) : others (as irXtoav, Te6veus} may be explained by the loss of f before to, o ( 393 ). On the whole they are too few and isolated to be of weight against the general usage of Homer. The general result of the enquiry seems to be that the harsh- ness of a synizesis or a contraction is a matter admitting of many degrees. "With some combinations of vowels contraction is hardly avoided, with others it is only resorted to in case of necessity. We have already seen that the rules as to lengthening by Position ( 370) are of the same elastic character. And as there is hardly any rule of Position that may not be overborne by the desire of bringing certain words into the verse, so there is no contraction that may not be excused by a sufficiently cogent metrical necessity. Thus the synizesis in such words as'Itrrftuo, AlyuTTTiovs, xpvtrtoun stands on the same footing as the neglect of Position with UKa/xa^Spos or (TKetrapvov : and again the syni- zesis in rt/xeVea, dtrtrea?, or the conti action in TrovfVfjifvos, /3aXe5/xat is like the shortening of a vowel before or the purely metrical lengthening of a short vowel ( 386). On the same principles harshness of metre may be tolerated for the sake of a familiar phrase : e.g. the hiatus a^Oira aid in 3 8 -] HIATUS. 355 II. 13. 22 (a(f)OiTov ad in II. 2. 46, 186., 14. 238). So when the formula /ecu fj.iv vri(ras eVea KrA. is used of a goddess (II. 15. 35, 89) it becomes /cat \iiv ^vrjcraa-a Hirea. Again the harsh lengthening in /xe'poTres avOpu-noi (II. 18. 288, at the end of the line) is due to the familiar jue/>omoz> dz;0p&>7rcoz>. Hiatus. 379.] Hiatus is a term which is used by writers on metre in more than one sense. It will be convenient here to apply it to every case in which a word ending with a vowel or diphthong is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, and the two vowel- sounds are not merged together (as by elision, crasis, &c.) so as to form one syllable for the metre. It would be more scientific, perhaps, to understand the word Hiatus as implying that the two vowels are separated by a break or stoppage of vocal sound, so that the second begins with either the rough or the smooth ' breathing/ Thus it would be opposed to every form of diphthong (including synizesis), the characteristic of which is that the two vowels are slurred together, by shifting the position of the organs without any perceptible interruption of the current of breath. This definition, however, might exclude the case of a long vowel or diphthong shortened before an initial vowel (as rrjv b' ey&> ov, where the final u seems to be partly merged in the following oo). Again when a final i or u comes before a vowel without suffering elision, it is probable that the corresponding ' semi- vowel ' ( = our y or w] is developed from the vowel-sound, and prevents com- plete hiatus. 380.] Long vowels before Hiatus. The general rule is that a long final vowel or diphthong coming before a vowel forms a short syllable in the metre. This shortening is very common in Homer : cp. II. 1 . 299 ot/re crot ovre ru aAAo>, e^ei /crA., where it occurs in three successive feet. But the natural quantity may be retained before hiatus when the vowel is in the arsis of the foot, as 'Arpet'Sr; 'Aya/xe'/xfozn, os K enrol on KrA. And in a few instances a long vowel or diphthong is allowed to remain long in thesis, as II. 1 . 39 S/ziytfeu' et wore' rot /crA. The readiness with which long syllables are allowed before hiatus varies with the several long vowels and diphthongs; partly also it depends on the pauses of the sense. The long diphthongs (as they may be called), viz. TJ and w, are the most capable of resisting the shortening influence of hiatus ; next to them are eu and ou, and the long vowels TJ and w : while ei, 01 and cu are at the other end of the scale. A A a 2 356 METRE. [381. measure of this may be gained by observing- how often each of these terminations is long before a vowel, and comparing the number with the total number of times that the same termina- tion occurs. Thus it appears that out of every 100 instances of final u, it is long before hiatus about 23 times. Similarly final -T] is long 19 times, -co 6-7 times, -oo 6 times, -TJ 5*7 times, -w 4 times, -ei 1-8 times, -01 i'6 times, and - and TJ is scarcely avoided, while after ei, 01 and ai it is very rare. In a large proportion of the instances in which a long vowel retains its quantity before hiatus it will be found that the hiatus coincides with a division either in the sense or the rhythm. Of the examples in the arsis of the foot, more than half occur before the penthemimeral caesura, where there is almost always a pause : while in thesis the same thing is chiefly found to occur either after the first foot, as II. 2. 209 fixfi> & s ore KrA.., Od. 1 1 . 1 88 dyp<5, ovbf KrA.. ; or after the fourth foot (in the Bucolic diaeresis). 381.] Shortening of diphthongs before Hiatus. Regarding the nature of the process by which a diphthong before hiatus was reduced to the time or metrical value of a short syllable two probable views have been maintained. i . Curtius holds that whenever long syllables are shortened by the effect of hiatus something of the nature of Elision takes place. Thus t\ and o> lose the second half of the vowel sound, while ai, ei, ot lose the t. In support of this he points to the facts of Crasis : thus KOI eyw in becoming /cdyw may be supposed to pass through the stage KCL eyo>. 2. According to an older view, which has been revived and defended with great ingenuity by Hartel,* the i or u in a diphthong is turned into the corresponding spirant ; so that KOL eyw becomes Ka-i-eyw, and ex HvXov k\6affKov we may read 178* f t(pa,ffKov : in 5. 257 kirtxtvaro vKrjv we may insert dp', on the model of II. 5. 748 lire/tat'ex" ap' iwirovs. But in II. 13. 22 &(pOira aid must stand because acpdtros aid is a fixed phrase. It is unlikely, then, that Hiatus was ever absolutely forbidden in Epic verse. Doubtful Syllables. 383.] Besides the cases in which the metrical value of a syllable may be made uncertain by its place in a particular verse i. e. by the circumstances of Position, Hiatus, Ictus, &c. there are many instances in which the ' natural ' quantity of the vowel appears to be indeterminate. * The use of o for tv in Ionic inscriptions shows, not indeed that v and o were identical in pronunciation, or that o was a true diphthong, but certainly that so was very like ev, and might be monosyllabic in scansion. Probably monosyllabic o (when it was not a mere error for v) stood to v as the Synizesis eo, ?, eoi, &c. to the contracted t\, er/ ( 80); TJUS and tvs, ATJIOTOI and Ae'iorr/ (II. 9. 408) ; perhaps also in pTjtKts, 617105, ij'ia, which shorten TJ when the case-ending is naturally long (Qpri'iKcov, 8r]iW, ?)tft>y, &c. scanned v ^ -, unless we suppose contraction or synizesis). ,/^/T^ h * n itpoS) Kovif], Xir\v\ Comparatives in -IMP: Patronymics, as Kpoviav : lopev, ITJJUI (d^fei, &c.), laiva), and Verbs in -iw, as TCO, oio) ( 51, i) : probably also in the abstract Nouns in -IT], the i being treated as long in vTrepoTrAtr/, Trpo^u/xir/, v7roei'T7, drtjuirj, d/co/uoTiVo.?// ( 0, in Verbs in -uu (51, 4). 0, in rjpoDos (- w ^ in Od. 6. 303) : 77/30), leg. rjpati (II. 7. 453). 01, in dei for aiet, IJUTTCUOS ( ^ w in Od. 20. 379), and the Com- pound yapauvvai, xafj.aitvva.bfs : also Verbs in -aiw, as ayai6fj.vos and dydao-0e, Ke'paie and /cepoao-tfe, valov and vdfi, vaovtri. 384-] DOUBTFUL VOWELS. ei, in coKca, (3adtr]s (for aiKeia, /3a$eu7?) : Adjectives in -eio?, as XaA/ceios and \d\Ktos : peta and pea : TrAeioz;, &c. and TrAeWes : /3eio/xcu and /3eo/xat ( 80), and many Verbs in - ( 5i, 3)- 01, in dAoo's and oAoto's ; also otos (^ ^), as in II. 13. 275 ^' apeTi]v olds e need (from XP 1 !^ XP<*-)- See Appendix C. Sometimes ei has taken the place of eu before another vowel, as in the Verbs 0e'o), Tryeco, irAe'co, \fo>, xAeco ( 29, 3). also in Aeioucrt, Dat. Plur. of AeW (\ev(av or AeTcoy), and perhaps in the Pf. etoofla (cp. eve'^coKe Hesych.), ei'ouanai (II. 18.418). Similarly a may stand for au, as ju,ei>, ^>^ecojaey for or?]o/xey, &c. ( 80) : ecos and re'o>? (if these forms are Homeric) for ^os and rrjos. So the Gen. ending -eu, for -do (-T)O). (2) By compensatory lengthening, of e to ei, in elvos (evFos) but >ii7, Keiz/o's and /cere's, Treipap and ire'pos (aTretpeVios), eivaros, etveKa. o to ou, jiowos (but iJLovu>9fi$ II. n. 470) ; ovpo? ( watcher] but op-da) : ovpea and opos (dpfos ?). a in Trape'xrj (-Trap-cre'xft)), Od. 19. 1 13 ; u in (rvvex*s> H- I2 - 3 ^- Under this head we should place double forms arising by Epen- thesis, as erapo? and eratpos (for erap-tos) : tvi, zv and eiV. But aTrepeio-tos boundless should be a-Repr/a-ios, from "^Tre'prj (Tre'prji'). Other variations, of which no general account can be given, are seen in "Aprjs, avr\p, d/xdco I reap (d generally in the simple Verb, a in the compounds) ; ^)iAos (t in . 385.] Double consonants, causing doubtful syllables: chiefly o-o-, in the First Aorist ( 39, i), and Dat. Plur. ( 102) ; also O(T(TOS, fie'0-o-oy, re//efro-do> (where acr TI), 'OStxnrevs. So for Ivacri ( w) we should write JWao-t (for iS-o-ao-t, 7, 3). XX, in 'AxiAAev?. KK, in TreAeKKw (KK = KF?), cp. ireAe/cus. As to inr and TT, in OTTTTCOS, orrt, &c. see 1 08, 2. 386.] Metrical licence. In a few cases the use of a vowel as long appears to be merely due to the necessities of the metre. Such are : a in adavaros, dKajuaro?, a7roz>ee & c ) u in 6vya.Tpes (II. 2. 492, &c.), bwafMtvoio (Od. I. 276, &c.). In these cases there is every reason to believe that the vowel was naturally short, and the lengthening must therefore be regarded as a necessary licence, to be compared with the neglect of Position before ^Ka^avbpos, &c. ( 370), or the synizesis of AlyvTiTir] and 'loriaia ( 378^.). The diphthong of dapivos (cap), dpfcrir], ovAo'/xevos, ovvofj.a, OvAv/A-Troio, is of the same nature. The ou of irovXvs perhaps began in compounds in which it was required by the metre, as irovAu/So'reipa, &c., and was extended to the simple word. It is apparently a poetical form only (but see H. W. Smyth, Vowel System, p. 98). Similarly a short vowel between two long syllables is some- times treated as long: as in T^ydoo-^e (Od. 5. 122), 'Hpa/cA^efy (properly -/cAeei?]), 'OiKAaV (Od. 15. 244). So rer/jaKu/cAos is scanned - - w in Od. 9. 242, but ^ w - ^ in II. 24. 324. Vocatives. 387.] The short final syllable of the Vocative appears in several places as a metrically long syllable : as II. 4. 155 $tAe K.a.(Tiyvr]T(, Odvarov xrA. and so 5- 359 : also II. 19. 400 s,avde re Kai BdAie, 21. 474 vrjiwTif, ^ Od. 3. 230 TTjAe'fiaxe. 4. 338 a> ule IleTewo KT\.Od.\}-fj3 18. 385 o/xro eVt TawTreTrAe: so Od. 24. 192 Aaeprao Trai. 14. 357 no, Folba, &c. by /Yoropes on inscriptions, yolba and yoCbrjfjn in Hesychius (erroneously so written, as Ahrens showed, for Folfta and foi'Srj/xi), and also by Latin video, Sanscrit vedmi, veda, Engl. wit, &c. We do not, however, propose to discuss the external evidence, as it may be called, by which the loss of an initial F is proved, but only to consider the degree and manner in which the former existence of such a letter can be shown to have affected the versification of Homer. For this purpose it will be enough to give a list of the chief words in question, and in a few cases a statement, by way of specimen, of some of the attempts made to restore the F to the text.* aycuju. The initial F is to be traced by the hiatus in II. 5. 161 e av%eva a^p, II. 8. 403 Kcmi 0' ap^ara cico (similar phrases in 8. 417., 23. 341, 467); less decisively by the lengthening of the final -iv of the preceding word in II. 4. 214 vaXiv ayev 6ees oy/coi. The evidence against an initial consonant is very slight. In Od. 1 9. 539 Tiacri /car' av^evas rjfe we should read avyev eae (Bekk.), understanding the Singular distributively ( 170). In II. 23. 392 for nnmoi> 8e 01 ^e may be read linteiov ol eae. * The first systematic attempt to restore the digamma was made by Heyne in his edition of the Iliad (1802). It was based upon Bentley's manuscript annotations, of which Heyne had the use. The first text with restored f was published by Payne Knight (1820). Much was done by the thorough and methodical Quaestiones Homericae of C. A. J. Hoffmann (Clausthal, 1842-48). The f was again printed in the text of Bekker's second edition (Bonn, 1858). The light of the comparative method was brought to bear upon it by Leskien (Rationem quam I. Bekker in restituendo digammo secutus est examinavit Dr. A. Leskien, Lipsiae, 1866). The most complete treatise on the subject is that of KnOs (Upsaliae, 1872). The most important contributions, in addition to those mentioned, have been made by Leo Meyer (K. Z. xviii. 49), and by W. Hartel (Horn. Stud. iii). Most of the conjectures given in this chapter come from one or other of these sources. 364 METRE. [390. aya (amenta. ava.a. 438 Kv8aiv 6 6v(tov avaicTos. 24. 30 %s -nfp avaffcres. apm (apves, &C.). The F is supported by three instances of hiatus, viz. II. 4. 158 al[j.a r apvG>v, 4. 435 ^Tra apv&v, 8. 131 7/ure apvcs : and by the metrical length given to the preceding syllable in II. 3. 103 ts bitypov apvas, 1 6. 352 \VKOI dpv(r(ri. The passages which need correction are II. 3. 103 otfftTt 5' dpv' (the 8t is better omitted). 1 19 ijS' apv (K(\evfv (read 18J dpv')- 22. 263 ovSt KVKOI Tf icai dpvts (omit TC). Od. 4. 86 Iva. T apves dovs T /col apvas. * For a complete analysis of the examples in the Iliad see Dawes, Miscel- lanea Critica, Sect. IV. 390.] INITIAL DIGAMMA. 365 Note, however, that the evidence for f is confined to the Iliad, and that the derivative dpveios shows no trace of it. aoru. The presence of an initial consonant is shown by hiatus in nearly 80 places. In two places the text is uncertain : II. 24. 320 vTTp aoreos (but 8ta ao-reoy in the Bankes papyrus, and several MSS.), Od. 3. 260 e/cas ao-reos (e/cas "Apyeos in most MSS.). Two passages admit of the easiest correction : II. 3. 140 avdpos re -nportpoio KOI dffreos (read irportpov). 15. 455 roiis piv o 7" 'Aorvvofup (omit yf or n*v}. Two remain, viz. II. II. 733 afjupiaravfo 8% dffrv (dp.V, Kcipret Two places may be easily corrected : II. 4. 509 nqS' (t/ttrf (read ^ eiKtrf, with asyndeton, as Od. 24. 54 taxeaO' 'Apyeiot, /i^ ((xvytre}, and 12. 48 TTJ r' tiKovffi (omit re). In Od. 12. 117 for Oeoiatv virdfeai read 0eoTs virofifai (Bekk.) There remains II. i. 294 el Si) act rrac tpyov inrfi^ofjiai. The F of eoiKa appears from hiatus in 46 instances (not counting- the numerous places in which it follows a Dative in -i). The adverse instances are II in number, besides the form cTr-eoiKe (which occurs n times). The corresponding Present CIKW is generally recognised in II. 18. 520 oQi vfyiviv eice Xoyf) (cp. Od. 2. 133, where both these forms are found in good MSS.). In Od. 17. 478 io6i' ZKT)\OS two MSS. have taQ' (i. e. hiatus is found in four places, and the recur- ring phrases KOL e'Aixas [Bovs and etAi-rroSa? eAt/ca? fiovs point in the same direction. The only exceptions are Od. 12. 355 /3od(i. In II. 18. 522 'iovr' d\vn(voi it is easy to read Ifov (as Bekker). The Aor. Part. IXvcrteis has no f : but it may be from a different Verb-stem (see Buttm. Lexil. s. v. eXircj The initial F of this word is proved by 10 instances of hiatus (including- KCU eAm'So?, Od. 1 6. 101., 19. 84). The Perfect loAira also shows traces of F in the reduplicated syllable, viz. in Od. 2. 275-, 3- 375v 5- 379- In II. 8. 526 tvxofnai e\ir6/j.fvos should be evxop? leArro/xej/oj (Hoffm.) or perhaps (as Zenodotus read) IXirojxai euxo^evos. In four places f cAiru can be restored by very slight corrections : II. 15. 701 Ipaialf 5' i\TTTo (Tpcoorl Be Heyne). 1 8. 194 oAXd at avros 08', eATro/x' (avros teXirofJi Heyne). Od. 2. 91 (=13. 380) iravras /iV p e\irei (omit f>'). Two others are less easy ; II. 15. 539 7ro\/t'C V-tvtav, tn fr tXirero (pfvcav 8' tn (\Trero Bentl.), and II. 24. 491 tiri r' f\.irerai (ical f^nerai Bentl.). The passages which tell against f'fo\ira are II. 20. 186 xa^nws 8e a' ioK-na TO pfeiv (read o-J loXiro), 21. 583 /tdA.' eoXway (jj.a\a f\Tre Hoffm.), 22. 216 vSii y' fo\na (omit Y')> Od. 8. 315., 24. 313. tiros, . The F of liros is supported by about 26 instances of hiatus, and a much larger number in which preceding syllables are length- ened (as in the common line aaL piv aju.ei/So'jiiei'os ITTCO KrA.). Of the apparent exceptions, about 35 are removed by reading Jfireoxri for tir(Tffi (as in II. 5. 40 x f 'P s lAoucr' eirtfffffi irpofftjvSa, read Aoti the F is proved by about 80 instances of hiatus, be- sides lengthening such as we have in the forms 55e 8e rts w5 apa ol dvovTi, &c. The exceptions number about 35. 368 METRE. [390. Of these exceptions 10 are found in the recurring line otpp fluu ra / (vi ffTT)Ots (read oo Tt ^ cp. 356). The Noun epyov, with its derivative epyab//cu, occurs in Homer about 250 times, and the F is required to prevent hiatus in about 1 65 places. There are about 1 8 instances against F. etpcu. epe'w. The F of eipw is required by hiatus in the three places where it occurs, viz. Od. 2. 162., n. 137., 13. 7; that of ^pc'w by about 50 instances of lengthening (such as dAX' IK roi epew, &>s T>OT TIS epe'ei, and the like), against which are to be set three instances of elision (II. 4. 176., 23. 787, Od. 12. 156). . ei, (t$ta), tfs. These words, with the derived proper names 'I^iayao-o-a, tf liros, &c., show F in about 27 places, while seven or eight places need slight emendation, r^flijuo?, which shows no trace of F, is probably from a different root. tcros. The F is traced in about 30 instances of hiatus ; the adverse passages being 8 or 9 in number. In three of these, containing the phrase aTep.j36p.evos KLOL ttrrj? (II. II. 705, Od. 9. 42, 549) ^ e form icrrjs should perhaps be changed to aunjs share. Or we may recognise the ^Eolic form of the word, viz. Wo (Fick, Odyssee, p. 20). The other places are easily corrected. B b 370 METRE. [391. iTUSj iWrj. The F is shown by hiatus (II. 4. 486, Od. 10. 510). The Particle re may be left out before /cat treat in II. 21. 350. OIKOS. The F is required in 105 places by hiatus, in 14 by the length- ening- of a short syllable. About 25 places are adverse. The F is required by hiatus in nearly 100 places. The adverse places are about 20 (including the names OtVews and OtVo'/Aaos). 391.] Words with initial of ('F). Since the change of initial o- into the rough breathing must have been much earlier than the loss of F, it may be presumed that words which originally began with of were pronounced at one time with the sound F ( = our wli}. The following are the chief examples in Homer : to, ot, t, os, &c. The F is proved by hiatus in upwards of 600 instances, by lengthening of a preceding short syllable in 136 instances. There are also about 27 places in which a short vowel in arsis is lengthened before it : as OTTO e'o, Trporl ol (<~> ), dvyarepa ijv, Trarept co, &c. About 43 places do not admit F without some change ; of these 30 are instances of the Possessive 85. This Pronoun is noticeable as the only word in which the original F is recognised in the spelling of our texts. The move- able -v is not used before the forms ot, e: thus we have 8ate ot, cos /ce ot, &c. ; and, similarly, ov ot, ov %0(v (not oux. ot, ov% eOtv). This rule is observed not only in Homer but also in the later Elegiac and Lyric poets, and even the lyrical parts of Tragedy (Soph. EL 195, Trach. 650). It does not apply, how- ever, to the fofms of the Possessive os. When the forms 'fe, foi suffer elision ( 376), the word is reduced to ' F ' and consequently disappears from our texts. Thus in II. 24. 154 6s aet KT\. it is plain from the parallel 3g L 183 os (T afet that the original was os ' F' afei (Bekker, Horn. Bl. i. 318). Other corrections of the kind are : II. I. 195 vpb yap ^*ce, read 71730 8e ' F,' as in 1. 208 77/30 8e p ?)KC. 4. 315 &>s o^>\4v rts avbp&v aAAos tyjEiv, read cos ' F.' 1 6. 545 p.i] airb Ttv\t eAcoirat, read \ij\ ' F ' (Cobet, Misc. Grit. 265). Od. 5. 135 ribf (pas otpeXev OavaTos /xot a8eiz> (read ws fi' oc^eXey floVaros abf-fiv, see 365) and 6 places with 7781;?, two of which (II. 4. 131, Od. 19. 510) may be easily emended. The Substantive rjSos occurs chiefly in the phrase tWercti 1780?, where eorai may perhaps be read. IOCS, TJ0OS. The F is indicated by the hiatus Kara ijOfa (Od. 14. 411). In /xera T ijdea /cat vopov ITTTTOW (II. 6. $11., 15. 268) the re is better omitted. The Pf. euofla or eu0a probably had no initial F, since (where eueppee is better, see 172). epuca, e'ppu. Hiatus is found before epuu to draw in 14 places (not counting those which are indecisive, such as uos ov epuo-o-ajuezjo?, or CTT' ?77reipoto pv. The Verb Ippw (probably Lat. verro) shows hiatus in the phrase v (II. 8. 239., 9. 364) ; cp. aTro-eptre, aTr B b 2, 372 METRE. [393. The word occurs six times (counting the proper name * and except in one place (where it begins the line) always requires an initial consonant. rjpa. In the phrase em fjpa (pfpeiv : referred to the root far meaning to choose or wish. TJplOf. The only instance of this word (II. 23. 126 ptya ripLov) is in favour of initial F . An initial consonant is shown by hiatus in 23 places (6 5e Zero, ouca8e lfjj.fva)v, &c.) : there are four adverse places, viz. II. 18. 501, Od. 2. 327., 10. 246., 14. 142. It is not connected with ITJ/U, but is to be referred to root vi, meaning to aim at, wish (L. Meyer, Bezz. Beitr. i. 301). "1X105. An initial consonant is indicated in about 50 places ; the number of adverse instances is 14. The derivation of this im- portant word is unknown. These words may be connected with eipo) to tell. If so, the F of *lpis is to be traced in wKe'a *Ipts (19 times), &s e, &c. opos mountain (cp. Bo/ocas), and 6p06s upright, which may be from the same root (cp. the Laconian "Aprejuis BatpOta). There is only one instance of hiatus (viz. Od. 3. 290 to-a opecrcriv). opru (Sanscr. vartakas a quail] appears in the name ' which does not admit F (Od. 5. 123). * See an article by Leo Meyer, K. Z. xxiii. pp. 49 ff. 393'] LOSS OF DIGAMMA. 373 chariot (Lat. veho); oxXos (lit. movement, tossing), o^Ae'co to disturb (cp. d^X^vs and Lat. vectis] ; dxOe'w (Lat. vehe-mens). A trace of F appears in the form, a-vvfo^os (II. 14. 465). oij/, oo-ou, 6ji4>T] voice. The traces of f are, one instance of hiatus before o-na (Od. n. 421), two of lengthening of a short syllable (II. 18. 222, Od. 12. 52), and one or two phrases such as d/zei/3o/xei>at OTTI KaArj, &c. ; while there are three undoubtedly adverse places (II. u. 137., 21. 98, Od. 5. 61). In the case of ofii7 the evidence is clear against F ; in So-o-a it is indecisive. oupacos (Sanscr. vanmas). ouXcu coarsely ground barley, connected with the root feX-, meaning to roll, &c. Neither this word nor the derivative ovAo^vrai admits F. ouXa p^s crowd, press of battle, shows traces of initial F in II. 20. 379 tbvvfTo ov\ap.bv avbp&v and the phrase ava ovXa^ov avbpStv (II. 4. 251, 273., 20. 113). It does not occur except in these places. ouTciu, wreiXi] wound: cp. &-OVTOS unwounded, and the form yardAcu in Hesychius. wOew (ecofleoy, eaxra), root vadh to beat. wvos price, Impf. Itovov^v (Sanscr. vasnas, Lat. venum). Other words which may have originally had initial F are, (cp. eTU-opKOs), 6vivr}^i (epi-ovvios), dtyvvfU (ava-oiyfcrKOv, avtuye, &c.), OTTUICD, OKVOS, ovpri, &c. (L. Meyer, /?. c.). However this may be, none of them show traces of F in Homer. There remain the forms of the Possessive o/ce'ri grj/ooV, &c.). The instances of br/dd do not show anything. It is to be observed that except in e3et, ptyeco, peta : thus we have eppea and lpea (in 27 places); Imroi 8e pea (II. 8. 179), but tvda /ce paa /crA. ; eppiyr](rav, but w? $aro piyrja-ev 8e /crA. As to p- standing for an older o-p-, and the other letters (X, p-, K) which lengthen a preceding short vowel, see 371. 396.] F not initial. The metrical tests by which initial F is discovered generally fail us when the sound occurs in the middle of a word. Loss of F may be shown either (i) by the contraction or synizesis of two vowels originally separated by it, or (2) by the shortening of the first of two such vowels. We have seen that the instances of contraction and synizesis are too rare or doubtful to prove much ( 378*, 4). The cases in which hiatus is indicated by the shortening of a vowel are some- what more important. In the declension of nrjus the forms veos, vees, ve&v, veeora-i, veas ( 94, i) cannot be derived phonetically from vrjFos, &c., unless we suppose loss of F to have taken place. The same applies to the double forms of Nouns in -cus, as Hr)\ijos and II^Aeo?, &c. Unless the short vowel is explained on some other hypothesis (e.g. by variation in the stem, as in Zevs and fiovs, 106, 2), we must suppose that F had ceased to be sounded in the middle of a word. The loss of F would also explain the metathesis of quantity in Iws for T)OS in Od. 2. 79 (see 171, i), re'ws for TTJOS in II. 19. 189 aWi rews (7rei.-y6iJ.evos (where G. Her- mann read avrov TTJOS), II. 24. 658, Od. 18. 190 : but this, as these instances show, is even rarer than synizesis in these words, and is almost certainly post-Homeric. Compound Verbs usually recognize f, as ano-tiiruv, ha-ctW/icr, also with apocope irap-diTujv (a), &c. Exceptions are: dir-enre/^v (Od. i. 91), dir-fiir6vTos (II. 19. 75), 81-fnre (II. 10. 425), irSf-tivij (II. I. 555) : Kar-flpvarai (Od. 8. 151., 14. 332., 19. 289) : tff-iSeaK } ka-ifitaOrjv, ia-iSovaa, fKKar-tSuy, eir-i56vTa : iir-eoiKt (u places) : irftSfofiat (II. i. 294, Od. j2, 117). In some of these forms metrical necessity may be pleaded ; thus km-ftfoiKt and tTr-fifotKt, teara- fiSiiiv and Kar-fiSujv (- w -) are alike impossible in the hexameter. Hence we may suppose a licence by which (as in the case of p, Pp, &c. 370) the com- binations vf, -rf, ttf, did not ' make Position.' The instances to which this excuse does not apply are very few. On the other hand there are several examples of words in which F between two vowels, or between a vowel and a liquid (p or X), is vocalised as u ; avia\oi, (a-FiFa\oi), avepvov, ayavos, 3/6 METRE. [397. aTTovpas ( 13), cLKovij. It is very possible that many more such forms were to be found in the original text: cp. 384, i. 397.] Loss of initial o- and i (//). The traces of these sounds in the metre of Homer are chiefly of interest for the purpose of comparison with the facts relating to F. The effects of initial a may be seen in a few cases of the non-elision of prepositions : in-d\^fvos (Lat. salio), a^l-aXos (Lat. ftalj, aju^H-e7roi> (Lat. sequor), Kara-tcr^eTat (io^co for (TiV^a)), and the lengthening in Ttaptyj] (Od. 19. 113) and avvtyjis (Od. 9. 74). Hiatus is also found twice before v\r\ (II. 14. 285, Od. 5. 257), once before v-nvos (Od. 10. 68), and 18 times before eo's (mostly in the principal caesura). These instances however are too few to prove anything. Initial t or y is chiefly traced in the Adverb ws, which when used after the Noun to which it refers is allowed to lengthen the final syllable : as 0eos u>$, opviOes u>$, &c. (so in 36 places). On the other hand there are nearly as many places which do not admit an initial consonant : as KTI'AOS u>s (II. 3. 196), XtovO' a>s (II. ii. 383., 12. 293., 16. 756), 6ebs 8' us KrA. Probably there- fore no spirant was heard, and the lengthening of the syllable before <3s was a mere ( survival ' or traditional rule ( 375, i). 398.] Summary. According to the computation of Prof. Hartel there are 3354 places in which the effect of the Digamma can be traced on the metre of Homer. In 2324 places its presence is shown by hiatus after a short vowel (i. e. it prevents elision); in 359 places it justifies the lengthening of a short syllable ending in a consonant, in other words, it helps to make 'Position;' in 164 places it follows a long vowel or diphthong which is without ictus : in 507 places it follows a long vowel or diphthong with ictus. It is further to be noticed that in many places a short final vowel in arsis is lengthened before the F : see especially the instances given under to ( 390), and Icixw ( 389).* On the other hand there are 617 places where the F is neglected. Short vowels suffer Elision before it in 324 places : it fails to lengthen by Position after another consonant in 215 places : and Jong vowels or diphthongs, are shortened before it in 78 places. Also the power to lengthen by Position is confined, except in the case of the enclitic lo, ol, to length- ening of syllables which have the ictus. 399.] Theories of the F. The main question which arises on these facts evidently is : How can the great number of passages * A short vowel is also lengthened with ictus before tiros (Od. 10. 246", trfav (Od. 14. 411), and in the Compounds awo-eiv&v (II. 19. 35) and dvo- tpari, diTo-tpadf (II. 21. 283, 329). 401-] THEORIES OF THE DIGAMMA. 377 in which the F affects the metre o Homer be reconciled with the not inconsiderable number of passages in which it is neglected? The scholars who first became aware of the traces of a lost letter in Homer assumed that in the original form of the poems this letter, or at least the consonantal sound for which it after- wards stood, was consistently used that it was in fact one of the ordinary sounds of the language ; and accordingly they directed their efforts to restoring it to the text. This was the principle on which Bentley made his famous series of emen- dations: and which was carried out by Bekker in his edition of 1858. Of late years, however, different views of the matter have been taken. Leskien seems to have been the first to maintain that the passages which do not admit F are not necessarily corrupt or spurious, but are to be regarded as evi- dence of an original fluctuation in the use of the sound. His view is adopted and defended by Curtius ( Grundz. p. 560, 5th ed.). Prof. Hartel has more recently put forward a theory which agrees with that of Curtius in treating the apparent neglect of the F as part of the original condition of the text. But he ascribes this neglect, not to irregularity in the use of the sound, but to the intermediate half -vowel character of the sound itself. 400.] If we are not satisfied that the F had the value of an ordinary consonant at the time when the Homeric poems were produced (or when they received their present form), we may explain the influence which it has on the metre in several ways. Hypothesis of alternative forms. We may suppose that each word that originally had initial F was known to Homeric times in two forms, an older form with the F confined perhaps to the archaic or poetical style and a later in which F was no longer heard. Just as the poet could say either o-Cs or 5s, either iroXis or TrroXis, either reXeaaai or reXeaai, so he may have had the choice between fdi/a^ and tra, 'frjSds and t)8u's, &c. In order to test the probability of this hypothesis, let us take a few common words of different metrical form, and which show no trace of F, the words "Apt]s, apun-os, eyxSj ^H^P* OJAI^OS, 60aXjji,6g, u'Sup, uircos. These words, with their immediate derivatives, occur in the Iliad 1022 times; and the places that would not admit an initial consonant number 684, or just two-thirds of the whole. Again, take some of the commonest words with F, amf, curru, CPYOC, OIKOS, and the Aorist ISeiK. These occur in the Iliad 685 times, and the exceptions are hardly 50, or about one- fourteenth. Compared with the other proportion this surely proves that the recognition of the F in these words was not arbitrary, but was the rule in Homeric verse. 401.] Explanation from fixed phrases, &c. The traces of F 378 METRE. [402. may also be ascribed to the conventional phrases of the early epic style. The word aoru, for example, is found very frequently in the combinations irporl aoru, dm doru, Kara aoru, &c. ; but these do not prove the pronunciation Fdarv for Homeric times any more than (v, Eez/fdpeos, opFos, TAacriafo, &c.). With these may be placed the Argive inscriptions (in one of which occurs Aifi), and the few Laconian inscriptions. In the older monuments of these dialects initial F is never wanting; but omission in the body of the word is occasionally found, as in AatyojSos and IIoAveW (on the same Corinthian vase), and several names ending in -K\i)$ (for -KAe'frjs), and -Aas (for -Aafos). The scanty Phocian inscriptions yield the important forms f e, alFfi, K\fFos, with no early examples of omission ; and the little known Pamphylian dialect is equally constant, so far as it has been made out. The Locrian dialect shows more decided indica- tions of falling off in the use of the digamma. On the inscrip- tions of that dialect (discussed by Prof. Allen in Curt. Stud. iii. 207 ff.) we find it in Fao-ros, fe/caoros, FtKvv, Feros, feo-Trdpios, FOIKOS and its compounds (e-TriToi/cos, &c.), also in Karcufei, FeFabr/Kora : but not in Sa/xuopyos, eVos, fvvea, 'Q-nvvTios (for original 'Owof&rios). The only initial F which is wanting is in the word IOTICU (we may compare the Laconian and Homeric ecpecrTio?). Similarly in the older Elean inscriptions initial F is regular (Fdpyov, Feiros, Fparpa, &c.) ; and we have also 'EpfaoToi (people of Heraea /"), efe'pey (prob. an Infinitive), but eVos, Aios without F. In the great inscription of Gortyn initial F appears in F6$ (sum), Fiv ( = 'foi), fe'/caoros, fefcdrepos, Ffpai, Ffpyatria, FrjfM (etjua), feiirai, FOLKWS, Fowos, FIKO.TI, FfftfjKOVTa, and is only lost in o>z>d, wvdco (before w, 393)- The F is also found in Compounds, as evFoiKfj, TrpofeiTrdrco, bvobeKaFerUs, and in the body of the word fio/o'^oipo?, but disappears between vowels, as in Adco (Gen. of ASos a stone), aiei, Tiaibiov, the oblique Cases of Nouns in -us and -eus (vices, foiKe'a, 8po/xe'es, &c.), and the con- tracted words ara (aFarr}} and as (for afos, = ecos). It is also lost before p, as in a.Ttoppr]6tvT<.* A somew T hat later stage in the use of F is well exemplified by the numerous Boeotian inscriptions. In these the general rule is that initial F is retained : the only word from which it is regu- larly absent is ocaaros. On the other hand the only instances of * Baunack, Die Inschrift ron Gortyn, pp. 37-39, 68. 404.] DIGAMMA IN THE DIALECTS. 381 F in the body of a word are, the compound F i/carifeVies (ei/cocri- ere'e?), and a group of derivatives of dei'Soj (avXaFvbds, rpaya- Fvbos, &c.). The same rule applies to the Arcadian inscriptions, which however are too few to be of importance. The further progress of decay may be seen in the Doric dialect of Heraclea, of which a specimen remains in the well known Tabulae Hera- cleenses (of the 4th cent.). We there find Ff, Feros, Fibios, fucan and the compound Zy-FrjXrjOiuvTi ( = e-eiAT70<3s, 8et>o/xai, tvbevrjs ( = ej>8e?js'). In these forms the F is vocalised ; cp. Homeric avia^os ( = d-/ r iaxos), It is necessary here to notice a group of uses of the F in which it seems to have been developed from a neighbouring vowel (u or o). The vowel usually precedes, as in Laconian cbijboFas, eSrjSofe, Corcyrean dpiorevfoyra, Boeotian EvFapa, fiaKevFai, Cyprian ~EvFf\6(av, Etifaydpco, KarecrKevfao-e : but we also find T\a, exea, e>(ee, &c. At the same time we occasionally find a partial survival of f in a vocalised form, making a diphthong with the preceding vowel ( 396). * As the Vau is written V on *^ e Moabite Stone, it has been suggested that it was the source of the Greek T. It seems not improbable that the letters f and T were at first only two forms of Vau, appropriated in course of time to the consonant f and vowel v, just as our u and v come from the two uses of Latin V. If this is so, the place of T at the end of the then alphabet is significant, as showing the importance attached to the original order of the letters. See Eoberts, Greek Epigraphy, n : Taylor, The Alphabet, ii. p. 82. APPENDIX.* C. On t\ and et in Homer. THIS seems the most convenient place for a short statement of the question as to the spelling of the Subjunctives formed from Stems in -TJ, and of some other forms about which similar doubts have arisen. 1. In the case of Stems in which -TJ represents an older -a the MSS. usually have ei before o, u, but TJ before e, TJ. Thus in the Subj. of fftriv, (TTT)V we find j3cio>, arclaxrt, &C., but fifigs, orjjeroi/, &c. There are one or two exceptions: KaTa@fjop.ev once in A (II. 10. 97), tniprjonev in good MSS. of the Odyssey (6. 262., 10. 334). Aristarchus however wrote TreptorTj&xr' in II. 17. 95 (where all the MSS. have ), and ftrjofjiai in II. 22. 431 (where the MSS. have either or /3c'o/iai) : from which it may be inferred that he wrote TJ in all similar forms. 2. In the Subjunctives from Stems in -TJ (the short Stem ending in -e), the MSS. always have ei before o, u, and usually before e, TJ. Thus we find 6ela>, faifls, deiy, and less commonly <%s, $1517, &c. But Aristarchus wrote dr^s, %, &c., and so in all similar cases, 80^77/7, 0-071-7777, &c. As to 6(i, &c., no express statement of his opinion has been preserved. If we may argue from this silence, we should infer that the question had not arisen, and therefore that with these Stems the spelling -etw, -o/uei>, &c. was anciently universal. 3. The spelling with ei appears in some forms of the Aor. 6*770 (for (Kr)va, see 1 5), esp. Kfiopev, Kfiavres, Ktiavro, Kfiapevoi, KaK-Kflm ; also in the Pf. Part, re^cfiwy, and the 3 Plur. forms flarai, elaro, oKa^fiaTo. Aristarchus certainly wrote eKtja, Tfdvrjws : and the form r/urai (for fjs, 'H/x^A^i', 'Hpa/cXr/a, sometimes TJ before et and t, but ei before a, o, w : as a<\r]f'is, {axprjds, but ancXetwy, fvxXftar, fvppelos, fa^petwv. So 8eiovs, X*P eta (Aristarchus and most MSS.) the origin of the long vowel is not quite certain ( 121). * The matter contained in the Appendix to the first edition under the headings A, B, D and E has now been incorporated with the body of the work. H AND El IN HOMER. 385 5. The Attic -6W- in Tr\ea>s, Kpfo>-(f)dyos, xpewKorreco points to original TT\T)OS, Kprjas, xprjos, instead of the usual TrXeloy, Kpftas, xpeios. And eW, rew? are for ^os, TJ)OS (not fta>s, as in the MSS.). 6. So Attic -ca points to -rja, and accordingly we should have , OT^J/S ; Beita, $1777? ; wai, fiarai : and so on. This rule, however, is purely empirical. On the other hand the scholars who look at the question as an etymological one are inclined to prefer t] in all the instances in question. They hold that if (e. g.) we find the strong Stem 6rj- in ridrj- p,i, 6f]-(ra>, (drjica, &c., it must also be found in the Subjunctive. And they point out that in this and similar cases there is a special reason for distrusting, not only the extant MSS. (which are admittedly liable to error from itacism), but also the statements of the ancient gram- marians, so far at least as they may be regarded as founded upon MSS. of the 4th century B.C. The older alphabet, which was used in Athens down to 400 B.C., employed the same character E for three distinct sounds, viz. the short e, the long TJ, and (in many words) the diphthong ei. This would not lead to practical difficulty with a living language, but in the case of Homeric forms there was nothing to prevent confusion except the metre, and (it may be) the traditional pronunciation of the rhapsodists. There is therefore no good ground for believing that the spelling even of the 4th century B.C. could be trusted to decide between rj and ei in any form which was then obsolete. The substitution of et for t], however, is not a matter of chance, but depends on the circumstance that in later Greek ei represented a single long vowel of the same quality as the short e (probably a close e, such as French e), while tj was of different quality (a more open e, French e). Accordingly when Homeric TJ passed into e in Attic, as in redvijas, T(6i>f, Gym, trnjo^Mv, &c. would be liable to change their rj to et under the influence of the New Ionic OTO, orew/iei', &c. ; and so too rjos, rrjos became es, retos. We may even suppose that TJ first became e, and this e was afterwards lengthened to fit the metre, just as Wackernagel supposes 6pda> to have been changed to through the intermediate form 6p> ( 55). C C 386 APPENDIX. A similar account is to be given of the forms which exhibit ei for eo or ef, as wfifi breathes, faieiv to run, x f ^H (Subj.) shall pour, irXtiovrts sailing, K\dov, like ./Eolic nodf]o>, ddiKfja. It is probable that in the same way the a of (pdea (Plur. of , &c. first found their way into the text. F. Pick's theory of the Homeric dialect. The theory put forward by Aug. Fick in his two works on Homer (Die homensche Odyssee in der urspriinglicken Sprachform wieder- hergestellt, 1883 : Die homerische Ilias nach ihrer Entstehung betrachtet und in der urspriinglicJien Sprachform wiederhergestellt, 1886) admits of being stated in a very few words. He holds that the poems (with certain exceptions) were originally composed in an ^Eolic dialect ; that some three centuries later (about 540 B.C.) they were translated into Ionic ; and that in this process every JEolic word for which there was no metrically equivalent form in Ionic was simply left unchanged. Thus, in his view, was formed the Epic dialect of literature, a dialect mainly Ionic, but with a considerable admixture of -Solic forms. The arguments which Fick advances in favour of this theory are not entirely linguistic. The scene of the Iliad, he reminds us, is PICK'S THEORY. 387 laid in J^olis ; the heroes and legends are largely those of the JEolic race ; the parts of Ionia which tradition connects with Homer adjoin ^frolic settlements ; and Smyrna, which figures in some of the oldest traditions as his birthplace, was for a time an ^Eolic city. Now if the poems were first composed in some .^Eolic district of the north- west of Asia Minor, and passed thence to Ionia, they would take an Ionic form ; and, as the result of the supremacy of Ionia in art and literature, that form, though full of anomalies and half-understood archaisms, would naturally hold its ground as the accepted text of Homer, and hecome the standard to which later poets, both of the Homeric and the Hesiodic school, would be obliged to conform. The linguistic arguments upon which Fick chiefly relies are as follows : 1 . The f or ' digamma,' which is required by the metre of Homer, is an yEolic letter, unknown to the earliest extant Ionic. Moreover the vocalisation of the f seen in a number of Homeric words (awaxos and the like, 396) is characteristically ^Eolic : cp. the ^Eolic evde (for e-fiSe), avrjp (for dfijp), aiiara ( = arr}), &c. The prothetic I- of eeoVa (e-feoVa), ce/KOOY, tepyto, &C. is also ^Eolic. In order to prove that f never existed in Ionic Fick appeals to the Ionic inscriptions, and the early Ionic poets. This evidence, however, does not go back beyond the 7th century B.C., and therefore proves nothing for the original language of Homer. As we have seen ( 405)5 there is reason to believe that the loss of F in the Ionic dialect was subsequent to the first settlements of lonians in Asia. 2. The ^Eolic accent and breathing are found in a number of Homeric words. Thus the barytone accent appears in the Nomina- tives in -d (as ju^riera, &c.), in the Perfect forms aKax^frdai, aKaxfipevos, aXaX7(r$ai, dXaXij/zei/os, eypfjyopdai, also in dnovpas, dr)s, oXXuSty, TTOTTOI ; the Smooth breathing in U\TO (eir-ahpevos), MMP f > v/3/3aXXv, rjp.fi porov, rffJ-ap, a/uaa, ap.v8is, dp66fv, rjp-os, or-iOTtoi/, avr-68toi> (6Sdr) ; and both peculiarities in the Pronouns ap.p.fs and fyi/nes. The answer is suggested by Fick himself, though he makes it apply to a small part only of these forms.* It is that the accent and breathing of the ^Eolic words in Homer was determined by the * ' Fur vnfits, vfif^iv, ti/i/Mf und v@&a\\eiv mag die psilose aus dem aolischen dialect erschlossen sein, in den ubrigen fallen liegt wohl achte iiberlieferung vor ' (Odyssee, p. 1 2). Where is the evidence of any such tradition ? When- ever the grammarians have to do with a form which was obsolete or archaic in their time, they are evidently quite at a loss. c c a 388 APPENDIX. living yEolic dialect. Lot us take the form afx|ii(c) as a typical instance. Fick holds that the ^Eolic "^(v) was adopted by the Ionic reciters and preserved with all its yEolic features the double /A, the smooth breathing, the barytone accent for several generations, because the Ionic ^Iv is metrically different ( instead of - -J). The alternative is to suppose that the original Homeric language had a form with short i as in Doric ap.iv and that in later times, when this form had gone out of use, the yEolic Sfj.fu(v) took its place in the text. Such a substitution is eminently natural. The rhap- sodists were doubtless familiar with the ^Eolic Pronouns, and their adoption of the form n^M") was s i m pty putting the known in place of the unknown. In the case of tw"^) and v/3/3aAXeti/ Fick himself takes this view. But if the form #/i/ii(j>) was maintained by the influence of contemporary .ZEolic, we need go no further for an explanation of the whole group of forms of which it is the type. 3. Several of the inflexional forms of ^Eolic are more or less fre- quent in Homer, and their occurrence, according to Fick, is subject to a law which holds almost without exception, viz. that the ^Eolic form is used (i) whenever the corresponding Ionic form is different in quantity, and therefore is not admitted by the metre, and (2) when the word itself is wanting in Ionic. In either case the simple sub- stitution of Ionic for ^Eolic was impossible. On the other hand the Ionic of Homer can be translated back into ^Eolic without encountering any difficulty of the kind. The forms to which Fick applies his argument are : the Fern. Voc. in -a (vvfi(p&), the Gen. in -oio (-00), -ao, -auv : the Dat. Plur. in y) : the Gen. of Pronouns in -Qev : the forms Sfifxes, afifuy, up.jj.65, ujjijjie : the Pres. in -au. -rju (-eiw), -a>w : the Inf. in -jiemi and -fxei/ : the Pf. Part, in -uc (as KtKXijycav for KfK\r)yas) : the Nouns in -aos, -aw (Xaos, ondav, Siftvpdav, and many proper names) ; Std, Nauo-tKtm, and some proper names in -eia, -eias (in Ionic -CTJS). Other words in Homer are yXor (ye'Awy), 7rA? (n^eoves), ir'urvpes (Ion. rjfjftpoTov (fjpapTov) all metrically different from the Ionic form. In several instances the corresponding Ionic form would have suited the metre, but was not in use ; so 6ed (Ionic only &o'y), TroXu- irap.a>v (jEol. 7TfVa/zai=:/ceKT7//zat), e/x/iope (in Ionic only Middle ftpappai), iwfjpap, cwatrlyaiog, dpyewos, fptfievvos. So OTTTTCO? was retained because the Ionic form was o*u>s, never OKK&S: and omrus again led to the retention of onus. In order to determine how far these forms are proofs of an ^Eolic PICK'S THEORY. 389 Homer, it is necessary to distinguish between those which are specifically ^Eolic, i.e. ^Eolic modifications of a common original, and those which are simply the older forms, which Ionic and other dialects modified each in its own way. To the latter class belong the Gen. endings -oio (Indo-Eur. -osyo), -5o, -aw (New Ion. -eu, -ewi'), the Voc. in -a, the Inf. in -fiei/ai, -fAei'. These are forms which would be found everywhere in Greece, if we could trace the different dialects far enough back. They are 'jEolic ' only because they were retained in ^Eolic (among other dialects), but were altered or lost in Attic and Ionic. The same may be said of the endings of the Pronouns ap.fj.fs, &c. They appear also in the corresponding Doric forms apes, v^s, Dat. autv, vu.iv, Ace. a//e, v/xe. In these cases, then, we only know that a form is archaic, not that it belongs to any one dialect.* On the other hand there are some forms to which this account does not apply. The Dat. Plur. in -com is not proved to be ' Pan- hellenic,' and is certainly less primitive than the form in -ou ( 102). The case stands thus : Ionic has only -v ( 27). The argument here has greater weight than in the case of Pan-hellenic inflexions, but it is not conclusive. The forms now in question are not confined to ^Eolic : they appear occasionally in Doric, and in the dialects of northern Greece. There was therefore a general tendency towards these forms, and the dialect of Homer may have shared in this tendency without being thereby proved to be non-Ionic. In the case of the Genitives in -oio and the Voc. in -& the argu- ment may be pressed somewhat further. The forms -oio and -ou, which are found together in Homer, represent different steps of a phonetic process (-010, -oio, -oo, -ou) : therefore they cannot have subsisted together in any spoken dialect, and -oio in Homer must be an archaism, preserved by literary tradition. This conclusion is * Undue stress has been laid upon the variety of forms of the Infinitive in Homer : e. g. Oepivai, Qtptv, Otivat. Originally there were as many Infinitive endings as there were different ways of forming an abstract Substantive. In Vedic Sanscrit, where the Infinitive is less developed than in Greek, the variety of formation is much greater (Whitney, 970). 390 APPENDIX. confirmed by the Homeric use of the ending ( 149, 3). If then Fick is right in regarding -oio in Alcaeus as taken from the living yKolic of Lesbos (Odt/ssee, p. 14), it follows that Lesbian retained a form which had died out of the supposed old vEolic of Homer's time. Again, the Fern. Voc. in -a appears to be regular in Lesbian ^Eolic : whereas in Homer it is found only in the isolated vvpfya. This is therefore another point in which historical ^Eolic is more primitive than Homer. The argument would apply also to the Gen. in -So and -due, if it were certain that -eu and -cue belong to the original Homeric language. 4. Among the forms now in question there are many instances of 5 for which Ionic must have had TJ, and which therefore Fick argues cannot have conie to Homer from Ionic. Such are, the Gen. in -So, -Sue, which must have appeared in Old Ionic as -TJO, -irjue, whence New Ionic -eu, -cue : the Participles ireivduv, dn//-acoi> : the Nouns in -do?, -aa>v : the word fed, and some proper names, 'Eppcias, Alveias, 'Peia, $eia, NavcrtKaa : the words Xaar, drjp (Gen. ^t'poy), Sarjp ( 106, l), TfTp-dopos (Od. 13. 81), perhaps also the Perfects eadd>s, eaya ( 22, i). The normal change to TJ appears in vrjvs (vrj6s for vr)p6s, &c.), wyos temple, r]idpaos, for which 'Apfc <*&*/#.- <*MJ?t& ^.J/./P/-/^.- i I The a of Genitives in -ao and -aav (for -ao-cov) stands on a some- what different footing, since the loss of the intervening spirant is much more ancient. Hence it is possible that the change to an j-sound took place after the a in these endings had been shortened, * The occurrence of Aaox in Callinus (i. 18) and Xenophanes (ii. 15) shows that it became the usual Epic form from a very early time. f- Note however that Zenodotus sometimes gave TJ for a where the true Ionic form had d : thus he read opfjro for oparo (II. i. 198), Kpr)r6s for Kpar6s (II. i. 530). Perhaps Povyfiios and 'Apir;5vr) fall under this head: and oprjai, which stands in our text (Od. 14. 343), is to be placed with 6pfjro. The most probable account of these forms surely is that they are ' hyper-Ionic,' t. e. are produced by the habit of regarding TJ as in every case the Ionic equivalent of Attic d. On this view they are parallel to the hyper-Doric forms which are produced by indiscriminately turning Attic TJ into d. 392 APPENDIX. in other words, that the steps were -ao, -aw, -ew and -a,v) in Homer, against 306 in -awf (Menrad, pp. 36, 38). Considering the strength of tradition in such matters we may infer that the vowel was doubtful in quantity, if not actually short, in the spoken language of the time. As to -ao see 376, i. Now if the forms in -ao and -aw were then archaic, they might be exempted, by the force of a poetical tradition, from the general pho- netic law or tendency which turned a into rj in the Ionic dialect. And the influence of Old Attic and other literary dialects which retained the a would operate the more decisively. However this may be, it is clear that the causes which retained the a of Xaos, vaos, irapdopos, vvdopos, 8aos, nads, ntnafiai in the Old Attic of tragedy, may have operated at an earlier time in favour of -ao and -atav. The question between d and e in the later form of these endings would naturally be settled by the example of Ionic in favour of -cw, -ewf : but it is worth noticing that the result has not been the same in the Gen. of Neuters in -ds ( 107, 3). Here the Ionic e appears in Homer in the declension of ov8as, Kiout, Krepas, but not in yf)pa-os, 8crrd-(av, Ttpd-uiv. The tendency to uniformity works much more powerfully on a large class of words, such as the Nouns in -a (-TJ), than on a small group, like the Neuters in -ds. But the survival of -dos, -dwK in the latter makes it probable that -dw, -dwk were at one time the Homeric forms, anterior to -<>, -euv* A singular problem is presented by the 5 in the two forms irwdatv (Ace. ittivdovra) and Si-^dtov, as to which see 55, 8. As these verbs belong to the small group in which contraction gives r\ instead of a, it seems at first sight strange that they should be the only examples of -awK in the Participle. But the connexion between the two phenomena appears when we consider that the contraction in Treats, &c. implies the steps ac>T]>ifj, consequently that the exceptional feature in it is precisely the retention of the long vowel. Thus it remains only to explain the combination aw, ao, which in Ionic should become TJW, tjo. * The fact that -tu> and -ewv are scanned with synizesis, except in Ovpecw and irv\(v, opwiae? were introduced into the recension of Pisistratus, and that these were afterwards made into 6p6w, opoavres to fit the metre. This view is doubtless in the main correct. Setting aside the mythical ' recension of Pisistratus,' and putting in its place the long insensible influence of Attic recitation upon the Homeric text, we obtain a probable account of opoco, and of much besides. But it can hardly be reconciled with a translation into New Ionic about 540 B.C. It is uncertain, indeed, whether the New Ionic form was 6pe or 6pS) (see H. Weir Smyth, Vowel-system &c. p. HI) ; but the argument holds in either case. If the form was op/a (as is made probable by the Homeric 6fj.6K\fov, &c. 55, 10), that form is metrically equivalent to the original, and on Fick's theory would have been adopted. If it was 6p>, which is metrically different, then on Fick's theory the original ^Eolic would have been retained. (e) The forms eW and 7-eW, as has been already noticed, have crept into the text in spite of the metre; on Fick's theory the original aos and raos must have been preserved. PICK'S THEORY. 395 ( /) Many Attic peculiarities may be noted : olv for &v (which Aristarchus counted among the proofs that Homer was an Athenian) : TTCOJ, TroVf, &c. for K&S, KOTf, &c. i the two Genitives Set'ov? and a-nfiovs (for Se'eoy, a-TTfeos) : Neuters in -as, Gen. -aos (instead of -eos) : (for ^Eolic and Ionic fpayv) : Tfo-a-apes for Ionic recra-fpfs', Kpf fieifav for Kpecr(ra>v } fufav. Cp. also eaya (Ionic eqya), and eaSo'ra (22, i), for which Ionic analogy would require e'^Sora. (g) The ^Eolic forms *W"(") are n t use d quite consistently : thus we find the form a^iuv in three places (II. 13. 379., 14. 85, Od. 12. 275), but wlv in three others (Od. 8. 569., u. 344., 17. 376). On Fick's theory rjfi.iv, if it was an Ionic form, would have been adopted. Again fyptv is occasionally used where vplv is admitted by the metre (II. 10. 380, Od. 4. 94., 20. 367). Several of these arguments may be met by admitting an Atticising tendency, subsequent to the lonicising which Fick supposes. Some such Attic influence clearly was exerted, and also an ^Eolic influence (as Fick allows in the case of fyt/ur). But if the Ionic Homer only dates from 540 B.C., what room is there for these other processes ? And if we suppose a modernising process, as wide in place and time as the knowledge of Homer, but in which Attic and Ionic naturally predominated, what ground is left for an original ^Eolic element ? (h) The Iterative forms in -CO-KOC ( 48) appear to be characteristic of Homer and also of later Ionic. This is one of the points in the nature of the case not numerous in which the Ionic character of Homer is guaranteed by the metre. Another point of this kind is the use of p^c in 9 p.ev, KOI pep, and other combinations where Attic would have pjv ( 345). On the other side it may be said that the retention of pdv (see 342) was due to the want of the form \ir\v in Ionic. But if p-dv were an original JEolic form we should expect on Tick's theory to find it in the older parts of the Odyssey as well as in the Iliad. Other words which show a difference of quantity between the Homeric and the JEolic forms are : Upla^os (JEol. Xleppa/xos), rpiros (Mol. repros), KaXo's (^Eol. KO\OS, see Meyer, G. G. 65). The ancients supposed that Homer of set purpose employed a mixture of dialects. Modern scholars have condemned this notion as uncritical, but have generally held that his language is a poetical and conventional one, a Sdngersprache, never used in actual speech. It may be allowed that there is a measure of truth in both these views, 396 APPENDIX. provided that we distinguish between the dialect of the time of Homer and the ' Epic ' of our texts. For 1. Even in the time of Homer there was doubtless an element of conventionality in the style and vocabulary, and even in the gram- matical forms of poetry. Such phrases as ^epdrrav di'tipdmav, vfj8v/jLos (or ijfiufxos) vnvos, ava TrroAe'/xoio yf(pvpas, are uted with little or no sense of their original meaning, but evidently as part of a common poetical stock. Doubtless the Gen. in -oio was already poetical, perhaps also the Gen. in -ao and in -aw. These forms then were genuinely Homeric, but not part of the living speech of the time. 2. Many primitive Homeric forms were lost in Ionic and Attic, but survived elsewhere in Greece. These seemed to the ancients to be borrowed from the dialects in which they were known in historical times, and thus gave support to the notion of a mixture of dialects. 3. The poems suffered a gradual and unsystematic because generally unconscious process of modernising, the chief agents in which were the rhapsodists, who wandered over all parts of Greece and were likely to be influenced by all the chief forms of literature. In this way forms crept in from various dialects, from Ionic, from Lesbian ^Eolic, and from Attic. The latter stages of this process may be traced in the various readings of the ancient critics, and even in our MSS., in which a primitive word or form is often only partially displaced by that of a later equivalent. The number of instances of this kind may be materially increased as the MSS. of Homer become better known. Other Notes and Corrections. 2 3> 5 (p- 2 7)- With the instances here given we may place the Cretan KarafeX/neVot, which occurs in the inscription of Gortyn with the meaning gathered together, assembled (cp. Homeric eekpevoi crowded}. Baunack however takes it for /cara/^X/xeVot, supposing loss of f and Contraction from KarafefeX/ieVot. 2 7 (p. 30). The Present dKouco I hear appears to 'be originally a Perfect which has gone through the process here exemplified. The true Present form is ava>, which survived in Cyprus (d/cevet 1 rrfpel KuTrpiot) and Crete (Law of Gortyn, ii. 1 7). Hence the Attic 0*07*001 (for OK-TIKOVO), and presumably also an earlier form *aova, formed like , and passing into aKova> as avaya passed into dv. This NOTES AND CORRECTIONS. 397 explains the use of UKOUW with the Perfect meaning (72, 4), which accordingly is not quite parallel to the similar use of Trwddimfiat, fiav- 6dvw, &c. Other Homeric examples are SICOKW ( 29), in which the want of reduplication may be original ( 23, 5), and iX^Ku ( 22, 9, &.). The form TJKU, which is probably of this nature, occurs in our MSS. of Homer (II. 5. 473., 18^06, Od. 13. 325., 15^29), but Bekker/ 1 " substituted the undoubtedly Homeric 5xo> (La Roche, //. T. 287). The form evevare rebuked, which occurs several times in Homer (usually with the variants eVewrre and eWwtnre), should perhaps be placed here. It is usually classed as a Reduplicated Aorist (so Curt. Verb. ii. 26), but there is no analogy for this, and the Homeric passages do not prove that it is an Aorist. The I of the stem may be due to the influence of the Pres. eviirroa and the Noun eViWij (cp. 25, 3). Buttmann acutely compared it with e'TreVX^yoi/, which is evidently related to TrXijo-o-o) and jrXifyfj as frmnw to cvtirrco (mWo>) and evinr). The reduplication is of the type of epepwrro. 42 (p. 44). The Aor. fTpdtprjv, which occurs four times in our texts of the Iliad, is probably post-Homeric. In II. 2. 66 1 for the vulgate rpd(pT] tv (p,eyn'ps (rpd(pr)v nep, with the v. I. eVpd : the quotation in ^Eschines (Timarch. 149) gives a>s 6/uoC eYpd(pep.ej> ntp, from which Buttmann (Ausf. SpracTil. ii. 307) restored a>s 5' o/^ov Ypa occurs with intransitive or passive meaning in II. 5. 555., 21. 279 (where eVpmp' is the only possible reading), and in the recurring phrase yeve'trdm re rpafonev re. The variation in the MSS. (including the vox nihili erpa^f/nev) is sufficient evidence of the comparative lateness of the forms of eVpa. Butt- niann's reading (adopted by Nauck) is supported by the apodosis in 1. 91 &s Se KGU oo-re'a *rX. See Christ (Proll. p. 115) to whom I am indebted for the reference to Buttmann. 62 (p. 56). The derivative verbs in -au are often frequentative or intensive, but with a tone of contempt : e. g. fjupi'dfa I loiter, dXvo-icdfa I shirk, 7rra>o-Kaa> / cower (stronger than jmaa-a-a, cp. H. 4. 371 Tt TTTOHTO-fis, Ti 8' oninfvds TroXe^oio yf^vpas ,* ou p.ei> Tv8fi y o)8e (piXov irTao-Ka&'fifv rjev) : dcovafo/iat I please myself with hearing (II. 4. 343 bairos aKovdf and (II. 2O. 162), piyw^u and ^lyd^ofjLat (Od. 8. 271), ptVro) and and pvcrrdfo), etXvo) and 398 APPENDIX. 67 (p. 61). With fT)vbavov compare the Aor. form eyga (for eaa), preserved in the text of Zenodotus in II. 13. 166 (^w^e for iWae) and 257 (/carejja/iet> for Kareda/xei/). In this case the change to i\ did not make its way into the vulgate perhaps because the form qa, which suggested it, was a rarer word than fjvdavov. 71 (p. 63). The use of the Present stem to express relative time is well exemplified by the following sentence from an early Attic inscription : flairpu^avr^v avroiis ol rjprjp.fvoi, crvveicrnpaTTOvruv 8e avrols Kal ol a-rparriyoi (Meisterhans, 48 a.). 72, 2, n. 2 (p. 64). In the Law of Gortyn aya> and (pepa> are employed where the Aor. is the usual tense : see especially i. 1 2 at 8' aw'ioiTo p.f] ayev if he deny that lie has taken away (Baunack, Die Insclirift von Gortyn, p. 79). 77 (p. 66). Some valuable remarks on this and similar uses of the Aor. Part, are to be found in an article by Mr. Frank Carter in the Classical Review (Feb. 1891, p. 4). He observes that it is really a timeless use, i.e. that the speaker does not wish to indicate a relation in time between the action of the Participle and that of the finite verb. The Participle expresses a predication, but one which is only a part or essential circumstance of that which the verb expresses. See below, on 245, i. 80 (p. 68). As to the MS. authority for some forms of the Pf. Subj. see 283, a. 92 (p. 79). The Nominative is used for the Vocative in the case of oxytones in -w, and all Nouns in -r\v (Brugmann, Grundr. ii. 206, P- 544)- 99* (P- 84)- To the examples of metaplastic Neut. Plur. used with collective meaning add eo-wfpa evening-time (Od. 17. 191), vtvpa sinews (used in II. 16. 316 of one bowstring), n-Xeupa side (II. 4. 468), jrapfid clieeks (Neut. Plur. in II. 22. 491 according to Aristarchus). It may be suspected that eperpa. oars belongs to this group, since the Sing, in later Greek is always fperp-os, and a Neut. fperpov is contrary to analogy, and only rests on the phrase evrjpfi fperp-ov (Od.), for which we can read fv-fjpe' epfrpov. 102 (p. 86). It appears that the stems in -a originally formed a Loc. Plur. in -as (as well as -asu and -asi) : hence Lat./oras, alias, devds (Inscr.). Hence it is possible that the few Homeric forms in -Tfpos, &c. has lately been dis- cussed by J. Wackernagel (Das Dehnungsgesetz der griech. Composita, pp. 5 ff.). He treats it along with the o which we find in frepcodi, fTfpaxrf, dfjKpoTepcodfv, &c., also in ifpaxrvvr), and shows that if we derive it from a Case-form in -u (as /carwrepw from Kara, &c.), we have still to explain the rhythmical law according to which u and o interchange : for a law which governed common speech in all periods cannot have arisen merely from the needs of the hexameter. Accordingly he connects the phenomenon with a rhythmical lengthening of final short vowels (among others of the final i of the Locative, see 378), which is found in Vedic Sanscrit. XaparaTos (Od. 2. 350) points to a Homeric form Xaepo's, which we can always substitute for Xapoy. It is probably for Xcw-epos from Xao-- desire: see Curtius, Grundz, p. 361 (sth edit). 125, 8 (p. 121). This peculiar lengthening in the second member of a Compound has been explained by Wackernagel (Dehnungsgesetz, 400 APPENDIX. pp. 2 1 ff.) as the result of a primitive contraction, or Crasis, with the final vowel of the first part : e. g. opvvvpos for 6po-owpos. The chief argument for this view is that the lengthening is only found in stems beginning with a vowel a fact which can hardly be accounted for on any other supposition. Such cases as Suo-wi/t^oy, in which no con- traction can have taken place, may be extensions by analogy of the original type. It is to be understood of course that the contraction was governed by different laws from those which obtain in the Greek which we know. The chief rule is that the resulting long vowel is fixed by the second of the two concurrent vowels : opr/yvpis for 6/*o- ayvpts, Trf/iTTco/SoXov for 77f/u7re-o/3oXoj>, &c. Whether this was a primitive phonetic rule, or partly due to the working of analogy, it finds an exact parallel in the Temporal Augment, which must have been due to the influence of a prefix I- upon the initial vowel of the verb-stem. We may compare also the Subjunctive forms bvva^ai, rt'^irt, &c. ( 81). Thus the later contraction, as in O-ACIJTJTOV^OJ, \vitovpyos, stands in the same relation to the older forms now in question as tl\ov, &c. (with ei for ee) to fjXaaa, a>/jiocra, &C. The primitive Indo-European ' sandhi,' crasis of the final vowel of one word with the initial vowel of the next, was generally given up in Greek, and the system of elision took its place. In Compounds we constantly find elision of a short final vowel along with the lengthening (which is then a mere survival) : as eV-ifcaTos, d/jLtp-rlpiaros, p (cp. (pditri-uPpoToi). But lengthening does not take place if the vowel is long by position (e. g. erep-aAmfc, 'AAe-avfy)oy, avails), which seems to indicate that the preservation though not the origin of the lengthened stem, was a matter of rhythm (as in KOI nevnJKovTa. 198 (p. 1 80). Notice under this head the use of em with a Comparative, Od. 7- 2l6 oi> yap TI o-Tvyepfj em yaoTf'pt Kvvrepov aXXo nought else is more shameless with (when you have to do with) a hungry belly, =more shameless than the belly. So Hdt. 4. 118 oi>SeV tirl Touro) fcrrai fXafpporepov. 241 (p. 206). In II. 17. 155 it is better to take otxaS' Ififv with eVtireto-trat, leaving the apodosis to be understood : ' if any one will be persuaded to go home (let him do so), &c.' Thus the sentence is of the type exemplified in 324* b. 245, i (p. 212). The Aor. Part, in such a sentence as et I'SotM* KareXduvTo. seems to be ' timeless,' meaning if I were to see him go down (Goodwin, 148). Mr. Carter, in the article quoted above, ranks eV rf4\iov Karadvvra as an instance of timeless use in an attributive sense. It should be observed, however, that there is a distinction between a Participle which expresses a single action or event (however timeless), and one which has become a mere adjective, as in jrepm\ofjievov eviavTov, &c. ( 243, i). Thus es rjfXiov KaraftvvTa means to the setting of the sun (not to the setting sun*) : and so with the other examples given in 245, i. It is otherwise perhaps with Od. i. 24 of p.tv dva-ofifvov 'Yrrfpiovos ol 8* dnovros, where the place of sun-set not of a particular sun-set is intended. 297 (p. 269). In the Law of Gortyn npiv Ka with the Subj. is repeatedly used after an affirmative principal clause : see Baunack, Die Inscrift von Gortyn, p. 82. 324*, b, c. The omission of the principal Verb in passages of this kind (especially when it is suggested by an Infinitive in the protasis) finds a perfect parallel in the Law of Gortyn : iii. 37 Kopurrpa at *a Ai? bdfjifv dvijp TI yvvd, i) ffjfJta fj SucoSf/ca (TTaTTJpavs rj SvcoSfKu (TTaTijpcov XP*1 OS > Dd 402 APPENDIX. ir\lov 8 M (sc. 8oVw) if man or wife choose to give payment for nurture, let him or her give a garment or twelve staters or something of the value of twelve staters, but not more: cp. the other places quoted by Baunack, Die Inschrift von Gortyn, p. 77. This shows that the usage must have heen well established in Greek prose from an early period. S3 8 (P- 3 O 9)' I D !! 3- 2I 5 moe t MSS. have el >cai ytvti vo? 117. Alytiis 129. ddcr0i7 \ 44, 384 (l). dy^ou IIO. otyt- 124$. a&kris 125 (4), 128 (3). ayes 30, 70, 72, App. p. Aiyicrtfor 129. dfipOTdop.(v App. p. 398. Atywrrt'ij 378 . 402. dytoyij 114. a<8*To 5. dftpoTT) 37- dya>j> 114. a"5f o 32. dydao-0e 51 (2), 55 ft, dSd/za? 114, 243 (l). atSetrerai 63. 384(1). dSSfe's 371. aK*ro 31 (3), 32. 'Ayddcov 129. dSeXcpedo 98. 'AiSqs 107, 116 (2), 384 dyatdpei/o? 5! (2). dS^Kcbj 22 (9) 2 6, 28. (l). dyaK\f]os 105 (5). a6> HO, IJ6 ,2). al86fj.fvos 32. ayapai II. dfipjj? 125 4). atdcbp 114. dydvvKpos 371- a' 384 (I). diets 30. dydcrorfcrdai 63. ae/So) 384 (l). atVv 99. dyauds 396. deiKio) 63, 64. aldtjp 114. dyyf\ir]s Il6 (2). det'pa) 32. Aldionfias 107 (5), 124^. dyflpofifv 80. a fieri. 12. aldofjifvos 31 (3), 32. dyeXei/; 124 ^> dfKTJTl 11 0. aWovcra 243 (l). dyepovro 33. d.(KO>V (aKO>v) 378. aidoty 1 24 v 1 1 8. So" 31 (3), 32, 384 (I). dyp6fj.evoi 31 (5)j 33- a//zi II, 12. a?peo 5, 105 (4), 378 b. dypdrepos 122. ur/vai 85* alos | 25, 89, dXtaij? 384 (l). dp,(pi 1 80, 181-184. aKaxTjo-dai \ App. F(2). aXts HO, 390. dfj. (3 PI. Opt.) 83. dj/dcrtrw.(c. Gen.) 1$!^ AKTO>P 129. aX 42, dj/av/^x"!' 29. d/cwKij 114. dXoii/at J 390. di/8d/cD 47, 391. aKwc II 4. CtX&)Ci) 8O. avSpaicaf 109. dXdX7|uai 22 (9), 23 (3). ap.a HO. di/Span-dSeo-o-i 107 (l), dXdXrjadai, 2$, 89, App. a/xa^a App. F (2). 1 24 a. , F (2). 5 M apr f 3 I (5), 3 2. dvSpttyovTrjs 370. <*XaXce 36 (4). afiaproen^s 126. di>8poKTaa-irj 125 (7). dXaXiiKTijuai 22 (9). duarpoxir) 12$ (7). dvdpoTTjs 370. dXaoffKOTTir) 125 (7)' ap.axr)Ti HO. dvSpo(povof 124 a. aXyiov j a / le^^e 29 (2), 32. dvfKpayov 31 (l). aXyiffros ) dp.ei,3ovres 243 (l). dvenaXro 40. dXeairo, dXeacr^aj, 15, afifXye 29 (4), 32. aj/erat 47. ^ 384 (I)- * di/e^tdo 98. aXfytivos II 8. a/i/xe 97, 100. dvemyov 6j. SXtt(pap 107 (2). anni(v) 102, App. F (2). avrjij 80. SXfKpt 29 (2). d/xoy^Ti HO. dj/ijKcerrof 125 (8). dXe^dye^os' 124 */. dp66ev App. F (2). dOJ/ifXKTOf 125 (8). dXe|t'icaKoy 1 24 b. dfioi^r]8is I IO. dvfjvodf 22 (8), 27, 68. aXeo-o-a" 39 (2). d^iTreTraXcbj/ 36 (l). dfjjporo? 125 (8). aXerai 80. a/iiTrj/i/e 31 (4), 32. di>i8pa>Ti I IO. dXfvacrdai 396. dfjinvvvdr) 44. amis 1 8. dXeverai 80. SfinvvTo 13, 32. dinqpeorepos 121. INDEX. 405 dtiOVTTJTl IIO. diroppa> 128. ap^ei 30. at>Tfff8ai 32. dnovpas 13, 396. App. acra/xei/ 378 ". ai>TT)v IIO. F (2). Serf, acraro 378 ^". avri 1 80, 226. aTTOvpiVtrovcrt 63. 'AovcX^TTt'oo 98, 243 (l). dvTidvftpa App. p. 400. diro(f>di/j.r]v 83 (l). acrptvos 40, 86. dcridcreiff 63. airpidTT)v IIO. aoxra 1 08 (2). dvTid(rr)Tov 82. anro) 46. Straw 121. 'Aj/Ti'icXeta 378 ". 3pa 110, (use) 347. dcra-orepci) IIO, 121. dvriKpv HO. dpaios 392. darpdnret 46. dj/ndeu 63. dpdpicrKe 48. atrri; 390. dvTt(rx f o'Qf 226. dpaputa 22 (l), 23. (KTTVpOdHTTJS 55' ' AvTi(f)aTTJa 107 (5). dpyaXcoy 1 1 8. aTO\a(ppa)V I24/ aVTOfJifVOS 31 (l)} 32. apyewds 1 1 8, App. F drdp (use) 336. dvva>yei \ p. 400. aTTa 92. dvcoyot/Ltt > 27, 68. dpdav 121. aw (use) 337. fivatyov *Ap 107. Avyeiar95, "6(2), 129. di/auoTi IIO. dpeo-o-d/xf^a 63. ^ 31 (4), 32. dj/eoto-TO? 125 (8). apero 31 (l). avepvov 396. J/{OYc9l 28. dpijyei 29 (l). avj? 31 (4), 32. dgfufvai ) dp?t- 124/125 (6). aviaxoi 396, App. F. 3f T e i 4I< dp^fj/ai 19. aurdp (use) 336. aop 114. / ^ ^ /^.x aprjfjLevos 2O (5J- aure (use) 337. docro-JjTijp 114. 'Apijj/ 97, 107 (5). avrtf 109. a7ra IIO. apijpf 22 (l), 23, 28. dvTiiriv 114, App. p. 399. dncupicrKfi 48. apfjpi] 80. avro'Sioj/ App. F (2). aTreiX^Tjjj' 19. dpqpofjifvos 23. avrovvxfi I IO. dneiTTffJifv 396. dprjpas 26. aurdf (use) 252. aTTfipatv 114. aptorepos 121. avTOv IIO. dnepfiffios 384 (2). dpKecret 63. airrofa 157- aTTtx^dveat 47. ap/jLaroTrrjyos 124 ;pa? 2O, 42. 3ap5t(TTo? 121. Bopeai 1 1 6 (2). yfypas 114. 3a(7(co) 48. 8(8da(Ti 7. dovyaios App. F (4). yXauKowrt? 128 (3). 8e8apr)6ra 22 (9), 28. 3ovXfUflfJL(v 8 1. ptpacoTQ 2D (l). 3ovXuTOS 125. yvoxri 8l. 8f3r)Ka 22 (9). &OVTT\r] 125, 128. yi/wTTji/ 13. 8e3r]Kl 68. 3ous IOO. yvwu), yvwofjitv 80. 3(3ir)K.e 22 (9). 3oownr Il6 (3), 128 (3). yodotej/ 55 (6). 3 32. p'ep'XijKoi, 27, 83. 3WV 97, 106 (2). youvatrop-at 63. 3e3X;rai 22 (9). pGJfTl 8l. ypd(pa> 30, 70. pVtfoXijaro 28. 3o)Tidi'tpa 124 f, App. ypi?? 107 (5). 3e'3vXa 22 (3). p. 400. pV3pi#e 22 (6). 8a8av III. 3(3pi6via 26 (3). yati^oxot 1 24 a. 8aepa>v 106 (l). 8(8pvxf 28. yaio)i/ 51 ( 2 ). Saijp App. F (4). 3f3pvOois 22(1 0)527,83. yap-ecrererai 63, 367 (2)- Sa^o-eai 65. 8*3pa>Kpo>i/ 1 24 ^. 3>;a> 80. yfya>vf 22 (l), 28. Sat'o) 51 (2). Btdi/wp App. F (4). yeyoweiv ) daKefiit 31 (6). o o ' _ vra, BtBSxra 1 8. yeXos App. F (3). 8aKpv6(pt 154. 3vat 13, 42. yeXo>f 107 #. Sa/cpv^eo)!/ 125 (6). 3ia)To>v 55- Sn^ia 63. 8\d8trat 30. yfvta-dai 31 (6). Sdpj/acrat, bapvq 5, 1 8. o\ ' /r yfirro 40. 8dfjiVT)p.i 17. 3X^trat 80, 326 (l). ytworcri 1 02. Sap,do> 63. 3X777-0 13, 14. yepa 105 (4). Sdo-oin-at 63. 3Xo 109, 159. 8e8tifv 36 (5). 8e' X arai 23 (5). SiWo 31 (3), 83. 8f8dr)Ke 22 (9). ftfydai 40- w 31 (3). 8t8arjKev ) 397. 8eSe'opu 65. t ^ [ / 8lO)KTOV (3 DU.) 5. 8e8^6 22 (i), 28. A??t0OpO9 I24^. 8iup.cn 31 (3). 8(8fjei 68. 8jjX^crj;Tai 82. Sprjros 14. 8(8iacri 7- Ar)p.r)TT)p 129. 8fj.6i. 5> 1 6. 8pvp.d 99*. 8ftv6s 372, 394. SiSwo-Ojiiei/ 63. Spwaxrt 55 ^. Sfiov? 105 (5), App. C. * 31 (3), 32 (I). 81)17 (Opt.) 83 (i). 8fi(TT]T( 82. 8Uiir( 396- 8C0i 13. 8fKTO 4O. 8ifKpi6ev 43. 8vfifi>ai, 8vvai 13, 85. 88i\\a>v 6l. 8ifacrai 5, II, 386. BttTprifj.a 1 8. Wavt 3 I (6). 8u(* 51 (4), (Subj.) 80. (8d, 8iff, &C. 8l. 371, 394- fdffifv, t6fo~av 15. 8a>g, Scogcn 80, 82. e'Se'y/i'Ji' 23 (5), 40. e(9e^ 109, App. F (3). 8s 22 (2), 25, 28. e(9opoj/ 31 (5). ea 12. I5t8oj/ 5. (dos 391. eaye22 (l), App. F (4). e'Si'Souy, -ou 1 8. e^coi/ 3 I (2), 243 (I). eayq 42, 67. eS/ierai II. f (use) 291-295,311- e'afidra 22 (l), 26 (2), eSo/iat 80. ^314,318-321,324*. App. F (4). ?8pa*cov 31 (5). eta 67. eaX-j 42, 67, 390. t8pafiov 31 (5). dapivos 386, 390, 396. ?ae 6 7 . e8u, e8ure 13. etarat II, App. C (3). eap 390. e8v> ( 3 PL) 5 . eiaro (feo-) 23 (5). eacri 5- e8viTTO 41* e^et 2 9 (2). fd(pdi] 46 W. f8a>8r] 114. e?8ap 107 (2), 114. e/SaXov 31 (5). !8a>Ka, eScoKav 7, 15. '.; 83 (I). e/3ai/ 5. ffiKOo-dfioios 130. erSerai 29 (2). f@86fj.aros 121. eWa 37. etSe'co, fl8ijs, &c. 80. e/3i;i/ 13. retTroj/ 36 (6), 67, 72. etfio/j.ei', eiSere 80. e'^(reTo4I. f(is 26 (2). e'yyuy IIO. e'epyei 29 (4), App. F etxeXoy 390. fy8ovnr) 29 (2), 390. fyvtav 13, 14. e'eWaro 67. ftKUtS 26 (2). fyp(Kv8oi/jios 124 53, 390. eft/at 12. >7a 15, App. C (3). f\Kfo-iirf7r\os 124 C, 126. 6vfs 124 d, 126. flVCKO. 384 (2). K7Tl IIO, 390. fXKVVTdfa 60. efo 98. fKiSvaro 370. IXfcco 29 (4), 393. fiWma 26 (3), 384 (l). ?KIOJ> 31 (3), 32. eXXa/3e 31 (l), 67. find 37. fKipva 1 8. 'EXXTja-Troi/Tor I24/ Ve 87 (4). fKKandatv 396 . f'\\i(Tdp,r)v 39 (l), 371. flTTfllf 39O. eKXeXa^oj/ 36 (l). ^o" 3 1 (5)> 393- etTTerO 67. e/cXeo 5. eXos 393. (nrgcrda 5. eVXWij ) e'Xow 63. eipeer/ij 386. ( ,1 ^ (KkivQri ) ^ 5> eXrro/zat 29 (4), 390. flpr)i> 5I elpvarai 5, 23, 28. fKopfcrcraTO 39 (2). fXwp 114* (8) 390. eVpe'/za) 5, II. e>e 97. $ 222. 6KTO, fKTap,fV, fKTUV 5j ffifdfv 109, App. F (3). ety, e?y, ecrcrt 5, 12. 15. e'p.to 98. fivav 67. fK.TO.6tV 43. > / _ s o fp.fp.T]KOV 27> OO. fi&avidtav 396 . fKTdVOV 31 (6). e/x/, ffj-evdi 12, 85. f?p 129. (p-io-yfo-Kovro 69. 610-0) IIO, 228. fKVpOS 391. fp.ix6r) 44. flrai 23 (5). a/ 243 (I), 390. fp.p,a0f 67. ftxov 67. eXaav 63. tp.p.fv, ffjLfitvdi 12, 85. 6?a>& 22 (2), 23 (2), 384 f\ay X avov 47. ep/iiope 22 (6), 23, 28, (O- f'Xacra-a)!' 121. ^ 371, App. F (2), (3). fKaiwro 17. eXawa) 47' ffjuraios 384 (l) fKUfJLOV 31 (6). f\d(f>rj^6\os 1 24 a. fp,Trin\r)6i 5, 1 6. fKUTTvarcrf 39 (2). eXa^ov 31 (6). fp,nvpi[3f)TT]s \1\f. eVcas IIO, 390. f \fy\f ft 1 1 6. fvdros 130 (5). eKaoTf'peo j t\fy%fi 29 (5). fvolfcrav II, 3! (3), 32. f . J IIO. >\ ' / / * 6Afy / ^ta'ros' 121. eyetKai, ^ rei/ca/xe^ tvftwii' fKCKTTOS 39O. eXe/CTO 40. IS, 37- (KarrjpoXos 1 24 a. e'Xe'XtKTO 40, 53, 390. fVflKtp.fV 37. 4io INDEX. fvevrjKovra 130 (5). eVaXleai IO2. eVto-xoiV 83. (vevinf App. p. 397. erraXro, (TrdXpevos 40- eWerpa^arat 24. eVepot 121, firapoi&abis log. firirovos 386. eWpTfpoy 121. f'nacrcrvTepoi 121. errXe, IVX-o 31 (5), 33, fvfjKapfv 15. (Travptiv 31 (4). 78. evi 1 80, 1 80*, 220. ' ' 1C /I 5? fn\f]yrf 42. fvin\t]a>ptv 82. e'rm' (use) 296, 309. enopov 31 (5)- fVlTTTf 46. fTTfVTjVodf 22 (8), 68. IVros 136 (3), 390. (VKTTTf) fVlOTTfS 5> 88. eneoiKf 396. tnpddopev 31 (5). fvianfjo-u 14. firemdfi.(v 22 (4), 68. fTrpeire 29 (4). (vicrcrat 46. eTrejrXijyoi' 27, 68. en-rape 31 (5). fweo? 29 (3), 67, 371. tirfir\a>s 13? 20. en-raro 13. fvvtne 29 (6). eVepo-f 39 (3), 4- eyrra^a 109. e'lWwpos 130 (5). fntafioXiT) 125 (7)- eVixaro 22 (2), 23. eWJjp-ap 1 30 (5), App. F fTTfcrov 41. epdao-df 51 (3). (3). eirfrai 29 (6). papai II. tvvoviyaios 124^, App. ffftreiXa 39 (3). epyoj/ 136 (3), 390. F (3). firt(pvf 36 (5). fpffifwosi 1 8, App.F(3). evwpi 17, 39- iTt(ppa8f 36 (2). 'Epe'/3evs 105 (3). f'voffixdav 124 C. fnfCppdcrd) 5. epeiSe 29 (2). finavdoi 109. > > j /ro 7T(pVKO1/ Do. (peiKoptvos 29 (2). eWeo-iepyo's 124^". n}if (use) 363 (4). epfioptv 80. fvrvirds IIO. 7TJ/^a 40. epfiire 29 (2). tvcoira 107 (2). eirrjparos 125 (8). e'petVia 1 14* e' 222. 7Tt 1 80, App. p. 401. epficrdr) 44. 4 391. fTTld\/J.VOS 397- e'pe'ptTTTO 23, 25. e'aTes 130. fTn.^j](r6pfvos 4I> 244. e'pe'o-0at 31 (5). (i-(TTTr) 13. fniffirov 8l. fperpov 114, App. p. fgtvvQri 43. (iri@\f]S 125 (4). 398. e^ijXaTos 125 (8). emdedpope 22 (6). epevyerai 29 (3). fripoi$6s 125 (8). eVtfidwa 396. fpevdasv 29 (3). ejj7ra(pe 36 (l). firidvpfda 8l. e'pe'a) 309. ea> IIO. fniKibvaTai 37- epripedarai 23, 24. eo, &c. 98, 253, 391. en'iQovro 31 (3)- e'pijptTre 23. eot, eois 29 (6), 83. fTriK\r], eot 29 (6). eVtTrXws 13, 2O. epos 107. eopya 22 (6), 23, 28. firiirTep 125 (8). epptya 22 (6), 28. ecrrddr] 43. evt](pei>Tjs 125 (8). epplyrjo-e 67, 395. ea-Tadres 26 (l). ev/cXeiay, -ais 105. > / O Q^ fppiyrjai CO, 62. eorai 23 (5). fVKTlfJievOS 125 (6). e'ppia>Ta(. 23. ecrrav, eorrjcrav $, 13. eiift/xfAta) 98, 371. eppcnya 22 (l). fVTacrav (l Aor.) 72 (2) frawTaai' 125 (6). eppaw 29 (4), 392. w. I. eifdo-w 63. fpvKavoaxri 60. efTTavi^arracrav 7, 68, 72. * * * ^ fVVIS IIO. epvKei 29. eore 12, 87 (l). (v6(j.fi>oi 29 (3). 'EpuXaoy 124 df. e, (TTO>V 12. J / /O\ evavv/jios 125 (oj. eVay, ecravBai 39 (l). (6i 109. f(pr)(rda 5, II. eWepa App. p. 398. ereraXro 22 (6). e(pdr)v 13. ecnrepos 390. er(Tp,{ 36 (6). f(p6iaro 23. eWero 31 (7). (Tfvx*TOv (3 Du.) 5. ecp&e 51 (l). eo-TTWi/Tat, eWoi/ui;!/, eriyy Il6 (2), 391. e(pdidfv 43. e(nr6p,evos 36 (6). ITI 1 80. f(pdtTO 13. w /o\ ecrcrat 22 (oj. fTldfl 1 8. f(pi\aro 39 (3). e 13. e(T(rt 5, 12. Irpa0f 31 (5). e0vv 5. ?rcro 12. Tpd eo-er^rai 22 (5), 23. va8e 31 (l). '**-> fX (jrfVK * s I2 4- 412 INDEX. *EX fTOS 129- fjyayov 36 (l). ^Mw 290, App. F (2). fyfUQ, VfvciTO 15* TjydcrvaTo 39 (2). vv (3 Sing.) 12. YD(Ju(Zl (Yp(7pai). ?ypa 39 (2). ^ (3 PL) 5, 12. f)(Q6p.fvos 31 (7)- riyepfdovrai 125 (8). vy (use) 292 dt] 44. ^Se 338. 362. ?Xpaf 31 (I), 32. flfaa, r)8t) 68. Arnica 15, 37- expato-fit 31 (3), 32. T)8rj(rda 5, 68. T)vtp6fis 125 (8). XVTO 15. ^Sw 114, 116 (4), 391. fivioxfja 107 (5). f^w 29 (6). ^e, ^ (^e, ^) 340, 341. TjviiraTTf 36 (7). e 80. fjfidrjs, T)fi8ei 67, 68. ^j/iy Il6 (3). eo>$a 23. ^pe 67. Tjvoper] 125 (8). eutdfov 67. ^feis, ^ei 12, 67. ^l/O^ 1 392. e'a>K 67. ytv, fjriv, r/p.V 12. ^fi/reov 55 (lo). e a>X7T6i 67. fjtpios 114* (8). ^in-ero 31 (l). vX" 6 7- V^oy 391. T)V(ayea 68. i&pyei 67. ft'a 12, 67. i]va>yov 27. to)? 265 (2), 273, 288, ^i'*CTo 23. ?5 390 (P- 363)- 307, App. F (*). rfiov, rj'icrav 5, 12, 30. ^oy 273. ijftncf 67. ?7rap 107 (2), 114* (8). ai)i> 97. ^Ka IIO. ryirvTa 96. ZaKvvdos 370. fjxaxe 36 (l). fjtrva) 51 (4). faxpeiwv JJIKO) App. p. 397. ?pa 392. fuxp^Iy ) I0 5' Tj\dpoy 124. fjXevaro 15. r)pa(rdfj.r}v 39 (2). evyvvp.(v IJ, 85 (l) ij\T)\crro 67> 68. nparo 39 (3). /r */x \*// ftvywov 1 8. TjXipaTos 124* ripfipeia-To 23 (3), 25, 28. f(f)VplTI 386. 'HXw 393. fr 31 (3). zfji' 97, 106 (2). fWe? 31 (3). ^ptW 392. rjTfu> 60. T]\lT6fJLT)VOS 125 (8). fjplTTC 31 (3). fwi/iwrat 8l. ^Xoy 393. fjpiragf, ypiraa-t 39 (l), fcOWUTO 17. ^X 1/^01/31 (4). ^6 3 . feooy 14. JJX^oF 31 (l), 32. ^puyc 31 (4). rj\a> 67 /00tn. TjpVKdKf 36 (7). V, see ije'. rjfjMp 107 (2), App. F rjpuos, i7p<, 384 (l). ? 338, 339- (2). V? 1 14, Tjoi 368. ^v (use) 352. "y 29 (l). tivfjlTKOV 48. I0vs IIO, Il6 (4). 0a\ira>pr] I2O. Qovpiv 97- I0va> 51 (4). 0a/xa IIO. ^oOpts 116 (3). (Kafa> 47. 0dp.fifvs 105 (3). Goal/ 129. tWo-dai 31 (3). dafjtfiai III. dpaavs 114. "iKfjLfvos 40, 86, 243 (l). 0avef(r0ai 66. Oprjvvs 114- ixpiofpiv 154. $a7rre 46- Opcao-Kovcri 48 (l). 39 (2), 393- ddpcrfvs 105 (3). dv-ydrrjp III, 115 (6). IXdovTcii 51. ddpcros 114. Qvea-ra 96, 129. tXao? App. F (4). $at>/xacr 51 (4). 'lAi'oo 98. 0e/ai 85. 0a>pT](r 10, App. C (2). $a>a>!.' III. i'/iei/, i/jifvat 85. 0ep.fv } dffjifvai 15, 85. ijufpo? 114. 6evTO>v 15. ta 130 (l). iva (use) 284, 286, 306. &'o 5. ta 99*. ivetrt I O2. ^ed^ei/ 159. taTTTi; 46. ll-ov 41. QeoK\vfji,fvos 125 (3). ?acrt 5> H 101 30, 83. 6eov8ea ) cava> 35* lop.ei' 80, 384. 0tov8v \ IO S (4)- ?X " 3i (i), 35. 39, lav 390. 6(6(f)iv 155. 396. t7rn->;Adra 96, 125 (8). 6fpf 48. 6ea>Tfpat 122. tet'jj 83. itroy 390. tfijat 8l. lev 5. tora 1 8. % 29 (l). lev 12. ta-r>; (Imper.) 5, 20. 0]fo 80. If vat 85. 'lort'am 378. drjKaro 15. ItpcvTO 23 (5) tOT' 1 ? 393- ^IJKI; 22 (cftfootn. tepos 384. IffXdvfi 47. INDEX. i(Ti 60. Kar^Kttrrai 23. Ktovrai 29 (6). ? 35. KaTT]p((pr)s 125 (8). pa 105 (4). IrfTf 390- K.aricr\eai (Subj.) 82. /ce'pa, Kepat 99. ITT)V 12. cdro) IIO. Kepdif 51 (2). tru? 390. (favoreip^f III. Kfpao6os 124 a. i(pi IIO. Kauroff 377. Kipdcrtrf 39 (l). 'Itpt'roo 98, 129. Kfbaadfv 370. KtpSiov, Kepdicrros 121. TX^OS 114. iceiavrer App. C (3). Ke'po)n-a t 8 7 ( 3 ). tXf 22 (?)> 2 5 ( 2 ) 40) 130 (l). *eHx$r 114,384(2). iccxap^ora 22 (9), 28. ('uxa 107 (l). Kfiop-fv App. C (3). Kfxapr]cr(iJiv 65. la>v 12, 30. Keirai II, 8l. Kcxdpovro 36 (l). '' 51 (3). Kfx^vdra 22 (l), 28. Kai (use) 259 (3), 265 KKa8r]cr6iJ.f6a 65. KexoXaWTOi 65. (i) 330, 353- KfKa8a>i> 36 (l). Ke'Xvi'Tat 5. Kaiwpdl 17. KfKap.0) 35, 296. /ce'xurat 22 (5). Kai'a, 51 (2). ' / \ KfKdCTfJifVOS 22 (I). K^Set 29 (l). KdKKflOVTfS 59' KfKafprjoTa 2*2 (9), 28. KTjp(crcns 22 (l), 27, 28. KlX*ll}, KixflTTJV II, 12. Kop^e 47. KeKXjj-yairf? 26 (l). Kixdo), Kixf.iop.fv 80. *ap; 107 (5). K(K\7)fjiai 22 (9). KiXTjpffcu 12. KdprjKOfjLoatvres 125 (6). /ce/cXijo-j 65. " 3i (3), 89. KapKdipe 6l. KfK\V0l 22 (5), 28. KXdfiof 114. (cdpra IIO. KeKprjKas 22 (9), 28. KXalourGa 5. KaprurTOS 121. KfKfJLT]S)Ta 26 (l). ;Xaio> 51 (2). xdpros 114. Ac^oVcov 27, App. F (3). icXe'a 105 (4). KaS 22 (8), 26 (5), KXei'o) 51 (3). Kaartdveipa 1 24 " 28. K\fopai 29 (3)- Kara 180. KeKopijoTa 22 (9), 28. *cXe7TTe 46- KaraiVxe7"ai 397. KfKOTTjore 22 (9), 28. (cX^ros 14. KdrdKprjs 107. KfKpdairrai 55- KXiVa) 54. KaraiaWovcri 63. KfKvdoHTl 36 (3). K\i(rirj(f)i 1 57. xaraKrdr 13. ice'XaSof 114. 53. KaraXey/zevoi 4 KeXeuda 99*. KXCtft 13, 32. KaTanT^rrjv 13. Xfurio&)j/ 60. KXu/xfi^; 13, 129. KaT(8pa6ov 31 (5). Ke'X^f 114. KVTI ig. KdTfipvffrai 396. KtXofiai 29 (4). KOIXO? 378* -. KareKTadev 43. KeXo-ai 39 (3). KopiBrj 1 14. KaTeTnjKTO 40. Kfv, see aj/. KO/zia> 63, 64. KarfO-Kiaov 55 (lo). KeVerat 39 (3). Koviovres 51 (l). INDEX. 415 KOTTTf 46- Ka? 107 (3), 114. X^yft 29 (l). Kopeeis 63. \T)6dvti 47. Kopetrdrjii 44. Xaaj, Xaaj/ 107 (5). X^o/xat 29 (l). KOpVV 97- \apcadt 87 (4). Xj7r 63. AaoSa/xa 92. Xovffdat II, 29. Kp^i/ai 39 (3), 55. Xad? App. F (4). Xu 121. Kp/I/CO 29 (4), 54. Xe^ijs 114. Kptds 29 (4). Xe-ye 29 (6). p-d^oi; 31 (6). KpUTTTCO 46. \fifieiv 29 (2). p.a1a 92. KTctfievos 13. XeiTm 29 (2). paifo-dai 51 (2). KTaveovra 63, 244. Xelo-Toy, XjjiVro'y 384. naifju'i fi 55 (6), 61. KTacrdai 13. Aei 31 (l). Krepea 107 (3). XeKro 40. /.iu\a IIO. KTfpiovtrt 63, 64. \f\afiea6ai 36 (l). /idi/ (use) 342, 343. Kreatfj-cv 80. XeXaKina 22 (l). judirif Il6 (3). KTlfJLfVOS 13. XeXaorai 22 (l). p.apfJtaipovTes 6l. Kvavo^atra 96. XeXdx7T 36 (5). fjidpvao 5, 17. KuSafet 47- Xe'XetTrrai 25 (2). pM 7> 22 (7)- /ia^)/cro/Liai ) * Krdp.via 1 24 ^. Xe|o 40. He8ovro 31 (2). KvTrptSa, Kwrpii/ 97. \eovTfvs 129. fifdif'is, fj.(6ifl 1 8. Kvptra? 39 (3). XeTTTaXeos 1 1 8. fjifOiyo'i. 8 1. *cva)j' IO6 (2). \e^fTToir) 124 [J,ev 8 1. 416 INDEX. fj.(\cis 114. M l 7 r '?p iii> 115 (6)- NfOTTToXf/lOff 126. MeXtaypoj 124. p.r]rifTa 96. d f , &c., 94 (i), 384(1). /xe'Xi 107 (2). fj.r)Tpo- 124 fl. Co* 29 (3). /ie'XXw (use) 238. /il'a, /ii^f III. vevpa App. p. 398. fjLf\n(crdai 29 (4)- fiiaKpovos 124 ^. revorafo) App. p. 397. /zf/xdao-i ) fjidvffrjv 5, 40. ve(pf\T)ytpfTa 96. ' / 7* Do. LLfLUCKTClV 1 fuydofj.ai App. p. 397. i/ijiSa 125 (l). fj.tfjiaKv'ia 22 (l). | /xiyewcri 80. j^Xe'a j p.ffMOT, fj.(fJ.ao)Tf 26 (l). /uy-jo-ecr&u 65. % /. [ 105 (4). jT/Xft ) * v ^' fJ,ffJLOTf 22 (7), 28. /JlKT-O 4O. w;i!f 94 (l). pe/u/3Xerai, pep/SXera 27. fjifj.vdfa App. p. 397. ri'jjto 46. /*e'/ij3Xa>Ke 22 (9). pipvrjvKfTai 48. viirrfvdai 46. fj.ffj.T)Ka>s 22 (l), 26 (2), /ii'/zvci) 35. vi'tro/im 35- 28. fjucrydyKfia 12^ d. j/i'cpw 29 (2). fj(fj,T)\f 22 (2), 28. fii(ryov 48. vo/idy 115 (l). U6Ll^O)TO 27. /xyaa, p.vdacrdf 55 a> rdoxpi 109. U.(UVT](TOLJifH 64. fJ-VTlfTUTlVCll 44* vv, law 35I fj.ffjLVuiJ.fda 8l. JLlV77CT'COLl6t/Cl O2. VVKTU>P 114*. fj.ffj.ov a 22 (7). /ij/ad/iei'oi 55 a. vvficpa 92, App. F (3). /ne/iixce 22 (9), 28. p.6yis IIO. raw/ 103. /*> (use) 257 (i), 259 p,oipr)yfvf]S 124 a. (2), 265 (2), 342, 345. fj.ovvos 384 (2). t'ivos 384 (2). /tei/e- 124 fJ.fi\T)VTO 5 fjLfvoeiKrjs 124. fivdfai, fj,v6fiai 5. {-vfj./i\T]Tai 88. H(i>oivr)r)(ri 55- /iC^or 136 (3). vfij3\T)Tl]V 13, 14. (ttvoivata 55 a< /iv^oiVarof 121. MeVrijf, MeWap 129. oySoaros 121. /xeo 29 (5). vaierato 55 (6)> 60. oySoos 130. fj.epifj.va 114- j/aieracotra 55> 60. o8a no. /iccrcraro; 121. vai'co 51 (2). o 133, o8e 249. fj.e(T}XvSef 125. oi'Sa? 5; 24. /xij8o< 356. V(T)VIT)S Il6 (2). oieo-i I O2. MrjSeo-Kcao-n; I24/. Vt^dTOS 124 / ol#a> 51 (4). /iijSfrai 29 (l). l/etcu 5. oixoi 99. M 1 ?" 342, 344. m* 5 I (3). OIKOf 39' p;we 51 (l). veKva-ffi I O2. oi/xai II. /irjpa 99*. W/xei 29 (5). Olvevs 129. prjTfpi, prjTfpos IO6 (l). VfOfuu 29 (6). olvofiapfiav 51 (3)- INDEX. 417 olvonordfrv 60. oTroYe 289, 308. ovftei, 105 (l). oii/o? 390. OTTTT- IO8 (2). ouSeV 133, 356. olov (Adv.) 267 (3). onraXeoy 1 1 8. ovo'evoa'aipos I24_/! o('o'r, ol5>v 378*^". ftrew 51 (4), 393. Ov/caXe'yeoj' 125 (3). ol(T(fj.( vai, oivfTf 41, 326 oTTcoTra 22 (3), 23, 28. ou$ap 107 (2). (a). OTTdtTTT) 114. ovKif see ov. oto-0a 5. on-wptj/dy 117. ovXofifvos 86, 243 (l). 5/cm'o) 51 (3), 393. OTTCOf 285, 306, 326 (3). ov\os 114. oiepvoeis 98. opyvta 114. o^ 349. OKraKvrjfios 130 (5). opeyvvs IJ. ovvfKa 268. OKI-*. I 3 (4). opeairpoQos I24/ ous 107 (2). oXctrai 63. 6pev I24_/! ' - 378 I IO. oXXupt 17. opvvdi 17. o0fi'Xa> 53. oXoot'rpo^os I24/ opvvov 1 8. 6(p\\eie 39 (3). oXcaXe 22 (3), 28. OpOJ/TOl 30, 393. o^>pa 273, 287, 307. OfjLaprt'iTrjv 19. 6pda) 55 & fyfafa 154, 158 (5)- OflVVfTOi I 8. OpO-0 41. QvflfM ^Q 7 /V *J 7 +J o/j.vvfj.1 17. opa-rjre 82. 5 x \os 393. OfJLOlOO 98. opo-o 40. o^os 114, 393. o/ido-at 39 (2). opo-ovo-a 63. *f 393- 6fj.ovfj.ai 63, 66. opo-co/ifi/ 82. 0^64 5. o/^ 7 ? 393- 6p(paviKos 117. fyftoVTtS 59. 6Wo 87 (3). opwpe 22 (3), 28. oi/eiap 107 (2), 114. optopei 22 (3). 7iaiSo(pdi/oy 124 a. ovtipara 107 (2). opwpeTcti 27. Trai8a>v III. 6vTJfj.(i>os 13, 1 6, 86, optopjjTat 27. irai(f>dcr(Tis 125 (7). OO, ODD 98. ore 289, 308. TrdXro 40. OTHlO-O-O/ifJ/ 63. 6roio~i 1 08. TrapxpaiVcdi/ 6l. onarpas 125 (2). on 133, 269, 270. Trdi/rfl IIO, App. p. 398. OTTtSa, OTTtf 97' oVi^a 1 08. Trdiroae 109. orn'oxra) IIO. ov 276, 300, 316, 355- TraTTTra 92. OTrXea^at 32. 357, 360. iranraivcov 6l. on^Xdrfpoi 122. ovdtis 107 (3), 114. ?rdpa 1 80. E e 4i8 INDEX. 7rapa/3Xcorres 128 (3). 7rfp7TW(3oXoj/ 125 (8). Hepo-^of/fta 1244129. napanhriyas 128 (3). nep.\l/to[jLfv 82. Trecreoirai 64, 66. Trapa 397- TreWnxa 109. Trefparai 22 (7). irap0viK.i] 117. 7re77a^?a 22 (7). TTt(f)fvyfi 27, 68. Trapoirfpoi 121. 7re7roppVor 22 (6). irfcfxvyoi 27, 83. Trdpo? 236. Trenaa-de 22 (7), 28. 7Tt(f)(vya>s 22 (5), 28. 7rap(pxi Kei ' 22 (9). Ufiraa-p-riv 22 (l). TTtfprjcreai 65. Trdcrats IO2. TreTrrjye 22 (l). TTffbijo'fTai 65. Tracrdp-rjv 39 (l). TTfrrt^a-a) 65. irc(f)i8fcrdai 36 (2). Ilacri&'f; I2^f. ireTri6oip.ev 36 (2). 7Tf(f>i8ri(T(Tai 65. iracnp,f\ovaa 12$ (6). TTfTrXrjyov 27, 68. Tre(f)pa8e 36 (4). n-n'o-o-cov 121. TTfTrXqyina 26 (3), 28. ntcppiKvla 22 (6), 26 (3). Trda-xw 48. Tren-X^ycor 22 (l), 27, 28. 7T(f)Va(Tl 7) 22 (9) vKa 22 (9) a, 28. Ilarpo/cX^a > 105 (5) 7rciroida 82. Trenocrdf 22 (5). Trtap, rrifipa 114. 7rn0Xiioi/ra 6l. TmrorTjaTai 28. mtjcrda 82. TTf^o's 114. ' /<-,\ TreTrpco/zevos 22 (9J- TTl6((r0f (iTlatO'Ot) 87 (4)' TTfl^O) 29 (2). mfTrravTat 23. TTtXparm 17. TreiWe 29 (2). ireTTTTjv'ia 26 (3). nifj.TT\avfTcii 47 7ri/twvi9,5s(8),App. TreTrrqw? 14, 26 (l), 28. TTt^iTrXatri 1 6. F(4). TTfTTvdoiTO 36 (3). niofifva 59. Trei^pei/at 19. jrenvo-p-ai 22 (5). TTlTfTfu 35' -rre'ipap 107 (2). P 353, 365 (i). irla-vpfs 130 (3), App. TTflpTjdtJTOV 8l. nepdav 63. F( 3 ). Heipidoos 124. Trtpaov 55 (10). ' T 5? lie lerurrpnros 1 24 ^. TTtpaVTjTf 82. TTlTVO'a'l I O2. TreiVop-ai 63. iripdai 40. TTKpavO-KO) 48. TrAas IIO. TTfpdfTO 29 (4). TTtCOV 114. neXaaytKos 117. jrepi 1 80. TrXeaj, ir\(fs 121, App. TT(\d(TtTTOV 41. rrepi8d>p.6ov 5, 8l, 188. F(3). Tre'Xe. 29 (4), 33. 7Tfpiir\o[ji(i>a>v 33, 243(1). irXi/ 29 (3), 51 (3). TreXeWo-i 102. Trepwk 17. TrXevpd App. p. 398. rre'Xcop 114*. Ilfpcreys 129. TrXeW 29 (3), 396. TrX^lTTTTOS 124*:. irpoTidev 5. p'ti/df 395. TrXTjfrurrtos 124 C, rrpofppao-o-a 114* (5). p'lTmifa) App. p. 397. ir\ri(TTio~TOs } puTrdtoj/ra 55 ". TToddvlTTTpOV \"2.fyf. TrpuTOS J I21 ' pva-dat 12, 14. TTo8t]VfK^S 125 (8). TTTijrat 8l. pv 19. TrnXecrcri IO2. TTvdoflTJV 31 (4). crj3evvvp.i 17. noXrjos, &C., 94 (2). Trv/ca IIO. ff/SeWai 39 (l). TrdXt 94 (2), 99. TTVKl/Jir)8^S 1 24 ^. o-e 97. TrdXtas i TrilXai 171. o~eOfv 109. TToXtOS J *' nt/Xotyeyi/f \1^f. orya I IO. TToXuTTQ/iCBJ/ App. F (3). TTVplKavffTOS 1246. ^Kdp.av8pos 37O- TroXvj ioo. Ilvpi(p\fyed 8l, 83,285. 7rd(ret 94 (2). OTrao-aro 39 (l). TTOuXl/ff 1 1 6. pd/38os 114* OTrei'ovr, O-TT^I 105 (5), 7rpe'or/3a IIO. paiTTfiv 46. App. C. irpTJcro-a) 53. pda-a-are 39 (l). (TTreVScoj/ 29 (5). Trpiaro 13. pea, peta IIO, 395. (rirepxovcri 29 (4). TrpiV 236, 297, 310, 354, p'e'ei 29 (3). (TTreVfft, cnrf)fcr 2g - p'eVe 29 (4). oreap 107 (2). Trpo^Xoxrfcejuei/ 48. pepwrco/LieVa 23 (2). OTfl^ov 29 (2). Trpo'e? 5. prjyp.lv 114. crT(i\(iv 29 (2). TTpoift, npotfiv 1 8. prjyvva-i 17, 395. crrfvet 29 (5). 7rpdp.os 121. prj^r/vap 124 C. (TTfponrjytpfTa 96. Trpoo-aprjperai. 80. faros 395. oreOrai II. Trpo\T)K.t 22 (9). (TTpoxpaco 55 (9)* Ttdrjrra 22 (l), 28. TfTVX 7 7 K '' ) f 26 (4). (rv\rjTTJV 19. Tf6va(Ti, TtQvacrav 7, 68. Tf 5, TfV 378 ft wv/xjSXiyo-eai 326 (l). T(difr)Kdcri 22 (9), 24. Trj\fd6(t)(Td 6O, 125 (8). o-vi'aJTTjTT/j/ 19. Tfdvrjvia 26 (3). TIjXou I IO. , (T(p(f, ' , r , * TfKp.(i)p 114 . Tidrjtrdd 5, 1 6. 101. TeXetoi' 51 (3)- Tl'0IJ<7l 1 6. cnpe'Xa 105 (4). TfXea 63, 378 C. TIKTCO 35- (T), (r 29 (5). TtVa, &C., 108 (2). (, crcpoHi' 103. rtfuvoe 1 14. TIVVVTCU 47. er TWVII4, 243 (l). TlVtO 17. 103. /> /i /r^r Tc(Tufll DO. rts 108 (2), 248. 5i (i), 384(1). trX7cra> 14. Tepirfiv 29 (4). TX7TrdXe^ios 126. crxi'Ca 114. TfpiriKepavvos 124, 126. rX^Te, TXjjVco 13. crwoiTf? 55. TeprrtoXjj I2O. TO 133, 262. TfpcrrjfjifVdi 19, 42- Toiyap 346- Tadr) 43. TtpWuPpOTOS I24v 36 (l). Tpdirr)op.fv 42, 80. TnXa? 114. TrraprreTo 36 (4). Tpafpr) 42. TaXao'Kppwi' I24t". TeraTai 22 (7). Tpd(p6rjvai 43- Td\avpivos 124 rf. Tere^fTai 65. Tpel 29 (6). Taprixpa>s \2.^C. To-cvxarai 7, 22 (5). TpeVe 29 (4). Tapir), rap.ir)s 114, Il6 TfTTJKO. 22 (l), 28. TpeWat 39 (l). (2). TfTtrjoTfs 22 (9), 28. Tpe0ei 29 (4). Ta/iW 47. reVX^Ka 22 (9), 28. Tpi|3e>f vai 29 (4). Tai/v- I24p.eda 31 (5). TfTpnxvtn 26 (3). Tpv(pd\tia 130. Tap(piat III. TfTprywa 22 (6), 26 (3). rpuxouo-t 29. Tapcp^ij 43. TfTplyStTdS 26 (l), 28. Tpuyftv 29. Ta^a IIO. TCTpo 55 (9)' III. y 55 (io)footn. TVTCTf 46. $ai/>7 8 1. (popns Il6 (3). rvrdd, rvrQov 134. (pavrJT] 80. (ppa8fos Il6 (5). x 31 (4). (pdvrjdi 5. $pao-i 1 06 (3). vyov 31 (4). {ISwp 107 (2), 114*. &(p(K\os 124, 129. (pvyoTTToXepos 126. vios 107 (5). (pepevfitos 124 ''. 0uCII4- vXaei 55 (6). (pf'prf II. $vXaoi;s 107. vXaov 55 (lo). (peprepos 121. 51 (4). vp.fif 97, loo, App. F (p7/w II, 12, 70, 87 (l). (2). (pr}p.is 114. XaXeVrei 46. vnai 1 80. $r/'y 12, 87 (l). XaXtypw 1246. UTraTos 121. (prjcrda, 5. Xdpiv 136 (4). W7re^ 227. (Pddvfi 47. ^apiff 107 (2). UTTfp 1 80. (pdeyyeo 29 (5). ^acrtraTo 39 (l)- VTrepPao-av 13. 5 1 (3). U7TO 1 8O. 3>$tJ/0l 157- Xfpf-OTfpOS 121. V7ro\iovfs 121. (pdivci 47. Xep 1 ? 121. vndapfta 12$ (8). djdto'rji'up 124^'. Xpori8a'/xay I24/ vTra>p6(pios 125 (8). (pdia-i^pOTOS 124^. xypfis 377' ua-p.tJ/1 107 (l), 114. $^ro 83 (l). X>)paro 39 (3). ii^ayopr] 92. $^t'a) 51 (l). X#'s no. v\l/-r]\6s 1 2O. (pi\r)ij.(vai. 19. XopoiTvirirj 124 /. v^t, ti^ou IIO. (piXf/'peTyxoy 125 (8). Xp'iov 29 (4). $(Xoi7/ 83. Xpop.a8os 1 14. (padvdr) 55- CplXoTTToXe/iOS' 126. Xpws 107 (2). (pdyov 31 (l). (plXrfpos 121. ^vro 13. $ae 31 (l), 32. (pOlTTJTTJV 19. Xwpis IIO. 422 INDEX. \l/(v$ayye\os 124 d. 6oXf<7t*caprroy 124^, 125. wpro 40. ^(v8fo-o-i Il6 (5). wXero 31 (5). toy (Demonstr.) 265. ^/(i/Sovrai 29 (3)- OtjJiVVf I 8. f 375 (0 397 5 (use) &VO.TO II. 235, 267, 285, 306. &Sf 1 08, IIO. 2>i/oy ^Q'?. ^ x*^ wy ft 295, 312. u8v(Taro 39 (l) - oofoo-a^v 78. cocracrKe 49. 0)6(0} 393. &7ra 107 (2). corn 8 1. (ityiwro 17. 'Qpeidvia 125 (8). wo-i 107 (2). *? fitj wpeTO 31 (4)' &s re 235, 285 (3) a. fOKTC'n 44* &PHTTOS 377. OVTOS 377. wcca IIO. 60pp7#>7 44. a5(peXoi/ ) aw? 114. ^Pr 39 (3), 40. *AX. POST-HOMERIC FORMS (including Hesiodic, Ionic and Attic forms quoted.) aivrjp.1 12. eK6i 109. fJifVTOl 34^' aiadfaGai 32 (2), 34. eoiy/jitv 25 (l). /xqSei'y 356. alS> (Acc.) 107. firf(f)VKOV 68 (l). o[8a[jLfv, ol8acri 24 (l). Apaprivoos 126. firicrxt 88. ofiwy 337. av8pdno8ov 107 (l). epqpHTTai 23 (3). otrcroiai 107 (l). avuyfjifv 25 (l). eppcoya 22 (l). ane(paTO 13. fpo-^v App. F (/). TTQuOy 1 14 Spa 347. epcoTa (ACC.) 107. TTl^ 32 (I). apTjperai (Subj.) 80. fTevxjBrjV 43. 7TITJXO 17. aprjpvla 26 (3). fX&o^ai 31 (7). TrXewy 384. iroXevs 94 (2). ^jdt/OS 1 1^' P(0pS>TS 26 (4). $XaoTeii' 34. ^v (l Sing.) 12. ^y, ^ore 12. TavvrrTfpos 126. yeyoi'a)? 26 (4). your 349- Qiytiv 34. i-f&jXvm 26 (3). TfdvijKcos 26 (4). IKTO 40. Tep^ixopr) 1 24 8f8oiyfitv 25 (l). iXa/zai 16. nfrojta 22 (8). Sijdev, 8r)Ta 350. ' < ^ rideaa-i 7. 8iSda(rt 7- *cairoi 340. Toivvv 346. <\ - Kaj/eii/ 34- OtKetv 34. KaXdy App. F (^ . v/zyet'o) 51 (3). aur,^ 1 08. KfKO(j)a 24 (2). (pfpeoiKos 124. d- eSov (2 Aor.) 7, 15. Kfiepaya 28, 31 (l). (bepeo-o-aicrjs 124 / W f v (2 Aor.) 7, 15. KfKpiXparai 24 (2). (ppacri 106 (3). *? (2 Sing.) 5. Baenpuu 23 (2). e1\r)(pa 23 (2). KXva) 31 (4). Xpea 105 (4). *tfr 7 (3). Kpvi(v) 154 : avipvaav 337 : false archaism 82, 83, 158 fin., 216. 424 INDEX. Aristarchus : 2 Dual in --n\v 5 : Voc. of KaAxas, &c. 92 : Dual 173 : Ac- cent of Prepositions 180 : Aor. and Fut. Inf. 238 : Reflexive Pronoun 255 : Subj. after a past tense 298 : readings due to loss of f 389 : npuTiOtv 5 : ija0a(s\ oiff0a(s) 5 : t^TjfftTo, tSvfffTo 41 : yt fj.a.aatrat (yafitaatrai') 63 : tSfiaa 67, 394 : 0tP\r!KOi 83 : 'Ptia 95, App. F (4) : (pv\aicovs 107 (i) : "Biavcap App. F (4) : vapaa App. p. 398. Aristophanes (Gramm.) 298, 389. Article, 6 -q TO, 256-264 : Articular Infinitive 24.2 fin. Attraction 239 : in Infinitival Clauses 240 : of the Relative 267 (4), (5), 271 (i). Augment 9, 67 (cp. 371), 68, 69, App. p. 402. Cases 90-112 : in Compounds I24/. Causative or Transitive meaning : the Non- Thematic Present 21 : Reduplicated Aorist 36 : Verbs in - 58 : Future Active 66. Cause or Reason : Dat. of 144 : vtro c. Gen. 204 (3) : Sia c. Ace. 215: US = OTI OVTCUS, &c. 267 (3) a: Causal Conjunctions 268, 270 : Clauses 270*, 273 (i) : Particles, apa 347, yap 348. Comitative sense of the Dative 144: of forms in -<}>i(v) 155 : see Instru- mental. Comparison of Adjectives 121, 122, A PP- P- 399 : Gen. with Compara- tives 152. Concession : Opt. of 299 d, 300 d. Condition 273 (3) : Conditional Purpose 275 : Expectation 300 : Protasis, with the Relative 283, 305 : with us, OTTOS 285 (3), 306 (i) : %>a 287 (2) : ore 289 (2), 308 (i) : (iTfi 296, 309 : Trpiv 297, 310: ci 292, 311, 313, 317, 318, 326 (4) : with a Past Indie. 324 : with the Future 326 (i) : with 7* 354 : ov and fir} 316, 359. Conditional Particles, K(V) and dv : in Principal Clauses, with the Subj. 275, 276 b, the Opt. 300, Secondary Tenses 324, the Fut. Ind. 326 (i). Final Clauses, with os and the Subj. 282, os and the Opt. 304 (i) 6, os and the Fut. Ind. 326 (3) : ois, OTTQJS and the Subj. 285 (2), us, orrtas and the Opt. 306 (i) : Iva and the Subj. 286 : 5 56 : Future 64 : Subjunctive 81 : In- finitive 85 : Nouns 105 : Compara- tives 107 (4), 378* /: words with original f 378* g, 396. Correlation 262, 267. Crasis 377, App. p. 399. Dative : Singular 99 : quantity of -i 373 : Plural 102 : Dual 103 : accent in: in Compounds 124/1 uses 142-5 : forms in -<|>i(v) 158 : with Prepositions 178, 229 (3) : with ajjia., piySa, o/tpa, fa>s 287, 288, 307 : el 293, 314, 319 : Past Tenses 325 : Put. Indie. 326 (3). Final, see End. Frequentative Verbs 60. Future in -aa> 63 : in -ffu 64 : from Perfect and Aorist Stems 65 : Mid- dle 66 : with itev 326 (i) : for the Imperative 326 (2): in Final Clauses 326 (3) : in Object Clauses 326 (4) : with (I 326 (5). Gender : of Primary Nouns 116 : De- nominative Nouns 119 : Adjectives 166 : Pronouns 167. Genitive : Singular 98 : Gen. in -oo 98 : Plural 101 : Dual 103 : accent in: in Compounds 124/1 uses 146-153 ; forms in -<|>v(v) 158 : with Prepositions 178., 179 : Double Pre- positions 227 : Improper Preposi- tions 228 : Gen. Absolute 246: see Ablative. Herodian : kma\oit^ 83 : 0j;s 87 (i) : lardat, &c. 87 (2) : SVVCO/MU 87 (3) : Siddu^at 88 : tvlants, &c. 88 : d/cd- \rjaOai, &c. 89 : -ay, Dat. -qt, 99 : iitaicovaai (after a past tense) 298 : rap 332 (i). Hiatus 379-382 : proof of loss of f 39-393, 4 OI -43 ' of er 397. Homeric and later Greek : A. Differences of form : corerC, t 5 : 2 Sing, -erfla 5 : 3 Plur. -tun, -own, -vo-v 5 : 3 Plur. Pf. -Son, 5 : 3 Plur. -v, -crav 5 : 3 Plur. Mid. -arai, -arc, 5 : 3 Du. Impf. -TOV 5 : Aorists in -KO. 15 : Present with -vrj, -vv 17 : Non-Thematic Contracted Pres. 19 : Variation in Perfect Stem 22 : Pf. of Verbs in -aco, -w, -oa>, -va> 22 (9): aspiration in the Pf. 24 (2) : Pf. Part. 26 : Thematic Aorists 34 : Redu- plicated Aorists 36 : Aorists in -crcra 39 : Aorists in -cr- 40 : Aorists in -o- (-0-0) 41 : Aorists in -Otjv 43 : Itera- tive forms 49 : Verbs in -wo, -auo, -uo,-vto> 51 : Assimilation 55 : Con- traction 56, 105, 378* : Synizesis 57> IO 5 (3) 378 : Frequentatives 60 : Intensives 6 1 : Future in -o-cro) 63 : Future Passive 65 : Pluperfect 68 : Loss of Augment 69 : Subj. of Non-Thematic Tenses 80, 8 1 : -w(ii, -flat in the Subj. 82 : Inf. in -jxevai, -JMV 85 : Masc.-Nouns in -r& 96 : Ace. in -tv, -vv 97 : Gen. in -oo, -oio 98 : Dat. Sing, in -i 99, 373 : Ace. Plur. in -is, -vs 100 : Dat. Plur. in -eercri 102 : Instrum. in -<|>H,v) 104 : Hyphaeresis 105 (4) ; variation of the Stem 106 : Heterocjite Nouns 107: -8e 109: Adverbs in -& no : Nouns in -TVS 114: Fern. 6i\Xvs, f|8us, irovXvs 1 16 (4) : Adjectives in -^s (-t(v) 154-158: uses of -0v 159; inter- jectional Nom. 1 63 : Plural of single objects 171 : Neut. Plur. with Sing- ular Verb 172 : Prepositions 175, 176, 178, 229: Anastrophe 180: dni c. Dat. 182 : irtpi beyond 185 : vepi c. Dat. 186 : c. Gen. 188 (i) : nil i a c. Dat. 190 : c. Gen. 192 : /itrd c. Dat. 194 : c. Gen. 196 : vtro c. Gen. 204 (3) : -npori c. Ace. 207 : ova c. Dat. 209 : Sia c. Ace. of space 215 : avv c. Dat. 221 : irp6 of time 225 : dvri 226 : Double Prepositions 227 : Infinitive 231 : Inf. as Subject 234 : after ws, olos, oaos 235 : as an Imperative 241 : as an inde- clinable Noun 242 : Future Parti- ciple 244 : OVTOS 251 : lo, ol, ?, 46s (6s) as a 'general' Reflexive 255 : the Article 257-264, esp. 257 (i), 259, 260 b, e, f, g, 261 (2), (3) : 5s, ws, &c. Demonstrative 265 : 5 re, os T, 266, 272 : ovvtKo. 268 : 5 269 (i), 370: 5 T 269 (3), 270 : the Subj. with Ktv or av in Principal Clauses 275 a, b, 276, 279: p,i\ ou 278: 5s with Subj. of purpose 282 : pure Subj. with os 283 a : with ore, &iri>Tt 289 (i) a, (2) a : with tvre and jj/xos 290 : with ti 292 a : with ws el 295 : with tirti 296 : trplv av 297, App. p. 400 : the Subj. after a Past Tense 298 : the Opt. of sup- position used without KCV or av 299/1 with tew or av of an event which has not occurred 300 c : Opt. and Ktv or av with ws 306 (i) : with ?cos and 6<{>pa 307 : with ore 308 (i) : with el 313 : i ou 316 fin., 359 : l 8' a-ye 320 : Moods 322 : Indica- tive 323 : Past Tense with icev ovav in the iterative use 324 : Impf. with Ktv or &v referring to the present 324 : Fut. Ind. with Kev or av 326 (i), (2) : T as a Particle of transi- tion 331 n. : T in general statements 332 : T' apa, TJ T 332 : enclitic 8c 335 : ainap, a-rap 336 : av, avre 337 : &H.ws, fynrns 337 : ^Av, jju'v ( (AT|V) 345 : roi-ydp, TOIVVV 346 : pa, apa. 347 : Y A P 34 8 (3) ' ^ v . "V* o5v 349 : 8tj beginning the Clause 350 : BTJ-TO, StjOev, STITTOV, Kai 8-q 350 : vv 351 : 0t)v 352 : iTp, Kal irep 353 : oviBtv 35 6 = H-T 35 8 a , b > 359> Z 61 K v > dv 362, 363 : Order of Particles 365. Hyphaeresis 5 (2 Sing, of Verbs in -ew), 105(4), 37 8 * & - Iliad and Odyssey, differences : I0v 109: dp.<|>t c. Gen. with Verbs of saying, &c. 182 : irepi 188 (3) : pe-rd c. gen. 196 : t-iri c. Ace. of persons 199 (2) : of extent 199 (4) : with forms in -<|>i(v) 157 : irpori c. Dat. in addition to 206 : avd c. Gen. 209 : dva with Collec- tives 210 : Kara with Collectives 212 (i) : Kara irpi)tv, &c. 212 (3) : Sia vvKra 215 : m of persons 220 : l in consequence 0/223 : Inf. after a Rel. (ws, &c.) 235 : Ace. c. Inf. 237 (3) : Gen. Absolute 246 : -rCs 248 : Re- flexive use of ?o 253 : Art. with 5, avrap, &c. 259 a : with p.tv 259 (2) : INDEX. 427 Defining Art. 261 (i, 3) : r6 where- fore 262 (3) : 5s as a Demonstr. 265 : ovvfxa that 268 : on that 269 (2) : Indirect Discourse 270*: Attraction of Rel. 271 (i) : Final Rel. Clauses 282 fin. : Ke(v) in general sentences 283 b : Opt. with Kev of unfulfilled condition 300 c : of concession 300 d (a) : el and Opt. after a Present 311 : el yap, eiOe 312 : Object- Clauses with el and Opt. 314 : TVVT] 339 : jidv, p,T|v, JASV 342 : jiev ovv 349 : TJ JIT) 358 c : neglect of Posi- tion 370 fin. : Hiatus 382 : f of apva, epSca 35)0. Iliad, characteristics of particular books (esp. ix. x. xxiii. xxiv): Pf. in -Ka 22 (8) : x/w-os 107 (2) : eirC c. Ace. of extent 199 (4) : Sid VVKTO. 215 : fvi with persons 220 (i) : with abstract words 220 (2) : I* yfvffjs, e/c Bvfjiov 223 : Attributive Art. 260 /, g : defining Art. 261 (3) : Art. in book x 264 n. : Opt. with xtv or dv in First Person 300 n. (a) : Opt. in iterative sense 3 i 2 : 8 of the Apo- dosis 334 fin. : vBv 351 : ovSev 356 : Inf. with av 362 (8) : neglect of Position 370 n. : Hiatus 382. Imperative 327, 328 : Imperative use of the Inf. 241 : Subj. 274, 275, 278 : Opt. 299 b, 300 n. (|8). Imperfect 9, 71, 73, 74, see Present. Impersonal Verbs 161, 162 (5) : with an Inf. 233, 234 (2). Indicative 323-6. Indirect Discourse, introduced by 5, o rf, on, ws, ovv t no. 270* : Impf. in 71 (2) : Indirect or Dependent Question 248, 267 (2) c : Subj. in 280 : Opt. in, with f/ fj 302 : Opt. with us 306 (2). Infinitive 84 : form 85 : accent 89 : uses 231-241 : origin and history 242 : with the Article 2^ fin. : ov 360 : (iT| 361 : with dv 238. Instrumental in -t(v) 104 : uses of -i(v) 154-8 : Instrumental Dat. 144. Intensive Verbs 61. Interrogative Pronouns 108 (2), 248. Interrogative Clauses 273 : Subj. 277, 280 : Opt. 302 : Particles (fj) 338 : Disjunctive question (176, TJ) 340 : Dependent question 341 : expecting a negative answer 358 c. Intransitive uses of the Middle Voice 8 (3) : Non-Thematic Tenses 21 : the Perfect Active 28 : Aorists in -TJV and -0K]v 44 : Verbs in -ecu 58. Iterative Verbs 48 : Tenses 49 : Opt. with onus 306 (2) : with ore 308 (i) d : with 311. Locative: Dative 145 : -0i 109 : -<-(v) 157 : in Compounds 124 e : with irpo 225. Manner, Adverbs of 109, no : Dat. of 144 : -s 1 60 : Adj. in the Predicate 162 (2). Metathesis 14 : of Quantity 55 (i), 98. Metre 366-405 : affecting forms, Dual in -TT)V 5, ffXfOttiv 31 (7), ffTopttrai, Kpen&acu 39 (2) : affecting syntax, Gender 119, forms in -i(v) 154, pera 195, liri 199 (i},vir6 202, oia 216. Negative Clauses 273 : Subj. 276 : Opt. 299 e, 300 n. (/3) : ov, |AT| 355-361 : av 363 (2) a. Neuter: Pronouns 133, 161 : Adjec- tives 134, 162 (5) a, 166 (3) : Neut. Plur. 99* : of things 166 (2): with a Singular Verb 172 : Article 257 (4), (5) b, 260 b : Relative 269, 270 : quantity of -o 374. Nominative : Sing. 96 : use in the Predicate 162, 245 : interjectional Nom. 163. Number 169-173. Object: Ace. of (External and In- ternal) 132-140 : Gen. of 147 (i) : ' Objective' Compounds 126 : Object Clauses 273 (2) : with ovvtxa 268 : o, ori, o re 269, 270, 270*: /XT; 281 (2), 303 (2) : Relative 282, 304 (2) : us, oiri(v" J 55-7.i58 (5) : forms in -0v 159 : with to, 01, f 253 : with the Art. 257 (5) a. Present 9, 10 : Simple Non-Thematic ii : Reduplicated Non-Thematic 1 6 : in -vr) (-va) and -w 17 : The- matic forms 1 8 : Non-Thematic contracted forms 19 : Simple The- matic 29 : id. with weak Stem 30 : Reduplicated Thematic 35 : with Suffix 45-57 : collateral forms 62 : meaning 70-74 : meaning of the /-Class 58-61. Price: Gen. of 153: Dat. (Instr.) 144. Prohibition 273, 355 : \L-I\ with the Subj. 278, 281 : denial under the form of prohibition 299 e, 358 b. Pronouns 90 : Declension 93, 97- 103 ; uses 247-272 : Heteroclite 108 : forms in -0v 109, 159 : in -Tpos 122 : Neuter used adverbially 1 33 : Subject of a quasi-Impersonal Verb 161, 162 (5) a, 234 (2) : Gen- der 167 : Interrogative 248 : Re- flexive 253-255 : Article 256-264 : Relative 265-272 : see Anaphoric, Deictic, Demonstrative, Relative. Pseudo-archaic, see Archaic. Purpose, see End. Reason, see Cause. Reduplication : Non-Thematic Pre- sent 1 6 : Perfect 22, 23 : Thematic Present 35 : Aorist 36 : T-Class 46 : Nasal Class 47 : Iterative Class 48 : 7-Class 52, 53 : Intensives 61 : Future 65 : Primitive Nouns 114. Reflexive, to. &c. 253 : 16s, os 254 : use as a general Reflexive Pronoun 255- INDEX. 429 Relative, os ?\ o 265-272 : o TVS, os re 108 (2), 266, 272, 332 : 5, o re (Neut.) 269, 270 : the Art. (o T| r6) as a Relative 262 : o re (Masc.) 263 : Correlative Clauses 267 : Omission of the Verb to be in Relative Clauses 271 : Attraction 271 : Double Rela- tive Clauses 271 : Final Clauses 282, 304 : Object-Clauses 282, 304 : Con- ditional Clauses 283, 305. Similes : use of the Aorist 78 (2) : Subj. in Relative Clauses 283 a : with us and 5s re 285 (3) a : with ebs ore, us oirore 289 (2) a. Space . Ace. of 138 : Gen. of 149 : In- strum. of 158: Ace. of, with Pre- positions 183, 187, 191 (3), 199 (3), (4), 203 (2), 210, 213, 215, 218. Stem 2, 9 : Nominal 90, 106, 113, 120 : Pronominal 90, 108 : Varia- tion 6, 12, 22, 25, 31, 32, 106, 114*. Subject i : expressed by the Person Ending 2 : by a Noun or Pronoun 131 (2) : unexpressed (vague) 161 : attracted to the Gender of the Pre- dicate 167 : Infinitive as Subject 234 : Ace. with Inf. 237. Subjunctive : form 80-82 : uses 274- 298, 362 : history 315-322 : forms in -euo, -TJCO App. C. Substantive (opp. to Adjective) 165 : the substantival Art. 257. Suffix : in Verb-stems 14 : -ica in the Aor. 15 : in the Pf. 22 (9) : -VTJ, -vv 17 : Nominal 113 : Primary 114- 116: Variation 114*: Secondary 1 1 7-1 20 : of Comparison 121: de- rived from the second part of a Compound 126 fin. Superlative 121, 122 : Art. with 260 b : with ST| 350. Supposition: Opt. of 2997: Opt. with Ktv or av 300 : in Relative Clauses 304 : Clauses with l 311 : Indica- tive 323. Swearing, Verbs of, with Fut. Inf. 238 : with \a] and the Indie. 358 b : with ia\ and the Inf. 361. Synizesis 378 : in Verbs 57 : Case- forms 105 (2), (3) : 8-f| 350. Tenses 9, 10 : meaning 28, 62, 66, 70-78. Thematic Vowel (, o) 4 : forms 4, 10, 18, 27, 41, 80, 82, 83 (2), 85 (2). Time, not expressed by the Tense-stem 28, 70 : relative (Impf.) 71, 73, (Aor.) 77, 78 : Ace. of 138 : Dat. of 145 (4) : Gen. of 150 : Adj. of Time in Predicate 165 : Prepositions ex- pressing, fjifra 195 (3) : friro 203 : Sid 215 : (h 222 : f 223 : irp6 225. Transitive, see Causative. Trypho 339. Tyrannic 32 (2), 80, 87 (i). Vocative 92 : Vocatives turned into Nominatives 96, 111(2): accent 112: use 164 : metrical anomaly 387. Way: Adverbs of, in -\i 109, in -$ no : Dat. of 144 : Instrum. 158. Wish : Opt. 299 : in a Relative Clause 304 : with cl, el y&p, eiQe 312, 318 : Negative 358. Zenodotus : 2 Dual in -TTJV 5 : Voc. of KaXxs, &c. 92 : woXus (Ace. PI.) 100 : Dual 173 (2) : Reflexive Pro- noun 255 : readings due to loss of f 389 : TJ for a App. p. 391 footn. : readings, dtyiKeaOov (3 Dual) 5, &va- PfPpoxf 23 (5), low (eo) 98, xa*-KV (6Va) 119, KwvKaf/Jtov 296, oprjro 378* b, 'A/jupidprjos, Pov^'ie, 'AptrjSvr), Kpqrfa (KP&TOS) App. F (p. 391) : tt)a App. p. 398. INDEX III. CHIEF PASSAGES REFERRED TO. Iliad. 2. 4 ... 100 59 ... 3240 1. 18 ... 105 (2) 81 ... H (3) &, 98 ... 238 20 ... 259 a, 2996 300 c 100 -. 3789 3 1 ... I36(0,i5i& 119 ... 244(1) 112 ... 238 67 ... 82 148 ... 144 138 ... 260 e 89 ... 378*e 153 ... 243(3)6 '73 ... 365, 39 1 103 ... 181 179 ... 332 205 ... 367(0 106 ... 260 e 196 ... 255(0 215 ... 338, App. in ... 153 228 ... 290, 362 p. 402 125 ... 262 (i) 229 ... 326 (3) 235 ... 170 167 ... 261(3) 2.34 ... 243 (3) c 244 ... 255 (3) 168 ... 296, 362 250 ... 2 10,300 d(/3) 277 ... 164 179 ... 367(0 275 ... 261 (2) 278 - 173(0 184 ... 275 a 285 J 45 (7) c 287 ... 282 203 ... 378 a 291 ... 233.,243 301 ... 243 (3) d 205 ... 275^,365 (7) (3)c 407 ... 299 b 218 ... 298(i),332 302 ... 359 b 4*5 ... 78 231 ... 163 33 ... 267 (2) b 4. 18 ... 2996 244 ... 269 (3) 323 ... 76 32 ... 269 (3) 250 ... 143 34 ... 2990 i5 ... 147 257 ... 151 d 349 ... 341 142 ... 170 262 ... 276 a 353 ... 163 160 ... 3 1( 5 263 ... 271(1) 35 6 ... H7 (0 164 ... 289 (0 b 277 ... 378 363 ... 158 207 ... 136(4) 288 ... 390 (p. 364) 367 ... 378* a 243 ... 76 294 ... 136(3) 384 ... 184 247 ... 234 (3) 319 ... 262 397 ... 289(2) b (i) 263 ... 308 (i) e 322 ... 140 (4) 409 ... 140 (3) b, 264 ... 378 344 ... 306 (i) a, 267 (3) 6 277 ... 332 326 (3) 4 J 3 ... 241 295 ... 183 393 ... 255 (3) 488 ... 276 b, 311 3i8 ... 299 d 406 ... S3 2 59 ... 147(0 353 ... 362 410 ... 151 e 669 ... 145 (7) 357 ... 151 d 412 ... 269(3) 686 ... 151 d 382 ... 225 453 ... 378*e 775 ... 170 410 - 328,365(4) 470 ... 151 e 811 ... 378 43i ... 182 484 ... 212 (4) 873 ... 167 465 ; 307 518 ... 269(3) 3. 25 ... 292 b, 363 500 ... 192 54i ... 240 28 ... 238 59 ... 39 (P- 365) 559 ... 100,285(2) 49 ... 170 5. 33 ... 282 580 ... 324*C 55 ... 261 (2) 46 ... 4 1 * 244 (2) INDEX. 43 i 85 ... 3000,304(2) 29 ... 82 413 78(i) 135 ... 353 73 - H5(6) 414 255 (3) 140 ... 166 (2) 79 ... 241 433 ... 186 (i) 162 ... 243 (3) b 87 ... 275 6 481 ... 295 253 . . . 240 197 ... 2760 493 ... 270 258 ... 2920,349 239 ... 233, 262 501 ... 289, 363 265-8 ... 1516,271(1) 247 .. 216 (1)6 271 ... 260 c 290 ... 82 503 ... 170 273 ... 313, 365 35 ... 7iW 55 ... 268 303 ... 2997, 304 342 ... 304 (i) a 525 ... 38 (i) d 331 ... 269 (3) 358 ... 249 527 ... 140 (3) a 349 ... 270 363 ... 72 (2) 2 54 ... 141, 390 406 ... 163 375 ... 294, 324*6 (p. 368) 407 ... 305 c 401 ... 267 (2) a 559 - 260 6 487 ... 170 409 - 234 (5) 580 ... 151 e 523 ... 15 452 ... 262 (2) 59 2 ... 262 (3) 566 ... 186 (i) 8. 24 ... 144 608 ... 238 582 ... I5 1 c no 326 (3) 647 ... 141 604 ... 162 (3) in ... 338 664 ... 72 (2) n. 2 638 ... 267 (3) c 163 ... 226 684 ... 238 682 ... 144 186 - 173 CO 701 ... 2756 702 ... 140 (3) b 219 ... 77, 240 10. 82 ... 162 (3) 715 - 136(3) 223 ... 232 IOI 281 (2) 750 ... 234 (0 229 ... 267 (2) b 142 ... 269 (2) 757 ... 136(3) 230 ... 271 (i) 185 ... 158 (5), 216 6. 50 ... 140 (3) b 251 ... 269 (3) 188 ... 243 (3) <* 70 ... 141,326(2) 378 ... 245 (2) 216 ... 356 87 - 72(2) 470 ... 150 240 ... 186 (i) 88 ... 140 (4) 526 ... 39 (P- 367) 247 ... 299/ 92 ... 241 535 ... 140(3)6, 2 59 -. 170 117 ... 181 294 330 ... 358& 126 105(0,369 9. 42 ... 235 353 H9 (3) (3) 54 ... 195 361 ... 82 15 ... 140 (3) a, 73 ... 389 398 ... 255 (2) 324*6 88 ... 389 408 ... 260 g 164 ... 299 c US ... 136(2) 416 ... 267 (4) 222 ... 140 (3) a 121 ... 2750 437 .- 163 225 ... 289,363(1)5 133 ... 261(3) A 3 ( 365 (4) 236 ... 153 I 4 I ... 313 4oo " \ 367 (i) 284 ... 2 4 5(i),App. 2I 4 ... 151 e 545 ... 341 p. 401 219 ... 149 (2) 547 ... 163 292 ... 136(1) 225 ... 378 d 557 ... 299 / 34 ... 275 a 230 ... 231 11. <;8 ... H5 (7) c 348 ... 325 245 ... 33 (2) 69 ... 370 (p. 342) 356 ... 378fif 275 ... 261(3) 100 ... 144 382 ... 324* c 276 34 106 ... 153 396 ... 267(4) 304 ... 309 a 142 ... 255 (3), 411 ... 240 320 ... 2606 261 (3) 459 ... 2756 342 ... 252(1), 2605? 174 - 260 c 477 ... 145 (7) d 389 ... 3" 187, 202 ... 362y?n. 500 ... 254 394 ... 367 (2) 244 ... 166 (2) 7- 5 ... 362 399 ... 240 350 ... 158 (4) 432 INDEX. 391 ... 292 b 95 ... 78 (I), 267 265 ... 170 410 34 (3) <* 281 ... 156,169,238 433 ... 275 b 108 ... M3 343 ... 2 44 (2) 437 ... 332 121 ... 151 e 3?i .-. 170, 390 482 ... i?8 141 ... 243 (3) d 433 ... 269 (3) 535 ... 271 '54 ... 223 59 269 (3) 557 ... 186 (i) 165 ... 293, 298 516 ... 143 (3) 657 ... 151 d 190 ... 340 523 ... 390 (p. 364) 691 ... 15 221 ... 255 (3) 53i -. 243 (3) d 697 ... 166 (2) 235 ..- 2 75 , 389 559 312 705 ... 390 (p. 369) 274 ... 260 b 628 ... 144 761 ... 147 (2) 33* ... 324* c 650 ... 298 791 ... 299 b 403 ... 365 667 ... 141, 225 838 ... 162 (5) a, 437 390 (p. 368) 688 ... 332 299/ 484 -. 82 753,8oo ... 254 12. 28 ... 144 15. 18 ... 267 (2) b, 830 ... 238 4i ... 82 367(1) 835 ... 269 (i) 59 ... 326 (4) 23 ... 298 836 ... 332 213 ... 116(2) 33 ... 136(1) 17. 42 ... 332, 34 223 ... 292 a 41 ... 358 & 54 390 (p. 366) 302 ... 157, 292 b 45 ... 299 d 89 ... 378 3r6 ... 82 58 ... 240 H5 ..- 262 (3) 374 ... 143, 246 70 ... 307 155 ... App. p. 401 407 ... 238 87 ... 143 (2) 207 ... 270 410 ... 240 117 ... 240 242 ... 186 (i) 13. 38 ... 245 (i) 138 ... 255 (3) 260 ... 170 53 261 (2) 162 ... 316 S? 2 ... H9 (0 68 ... 324*0 197 .- 299/ 406 ... 258 96 ... 240 209 ... 362 45i 378* c 107 ... 389 256 ... 354 587 .- 354 127 ... 362 282 ... 144 647 ... is (0 217 ... 145 (7) a 349 276 a 655 .- 270* 263 ... 231 (2), 238 453 ... 390 (p. 364) 658 ... 296 275 ... 14 GO b 4158 ... 269 (3) 692 ... 294 278 ... 394 496 ... 240 710 ... 338 285 ... 362 539 390 (p. 367) 18.134 ... 328 308 ... 158(5) 5/1 ... 312 191 ... 180 (2) 3i7 ... 240 642 ... 139 (2) 192 ... 248 353 ... 245 (2) 709 ... 332 194 ... 390 (p. 367) 465 ... 354 716 ... 159 244 ... 2O2 485 ... 116(2), 312 744 ... 136 (4) 245 .- 236 545 245 (i) 16. 17 ... 267 (3) a. 308 ... 275 b 622 ... 378* d 34 309 63, 244 (3) 649 ... 281(1), 298 31 ... 151 e 345 ... 141 667 ... 238 35 ..- 269 (2) 362 ... 238 700 ... 156, 196 39 ... 362 385 .- 164 732 ... 78(2) 53 ... 260 c 458 ... 378 775 ... 3 2 4* c 83 ... 285 (3) a 467 ... 282 14. 26 8, 243 (s)d 129 ... 275 50 35 6 , 36i 71, 72- ... 269 (3) 200 ... 328 506 . . . 144 75 ... 267(4) 242 ... 326 (3) 515 ... 166 (2) 81 ... 267 (2) a 243 .- 280 522 ... 39 (P- 367) INDEX. 433 574 ... IS* 252 . . . a6o/ 413 173(0 60 1 ... 140 (3) b, 294 295 ... 158(1) 474 ... 332 604 ... 169 323 ... 289(2X376 493 ... 164, 387 19. 22 ... 361 336 ... 304 (i) a 515 ... 105 (i) 57 ... 269 (3) 353 ... 271 526 ... 324 73 ... 170 360 ... 143, 151 e 529 ... 138 88 ... 119, 378 fir 367 ... 158(2) 545 ... 270 124 39 (P- 3 6 4) 399 ... 390 (p. 368) 556 ... 144 137 ... 378 e 411 ... 269 (2) 592 ... 313 139 ... 378a 412 ... 26l(3) 622 ... 332 47 ... 324*b 421 ... 26l (2) 639 ... 105 CO 148 ... 340 456 ... 332 649 ... 153,271(1) 174 ... 255 (3) 458 ... 196 675 ... 326(3) 176 ... 261(3), 361 467 ... 82 73 ... 33 2 221 ... 332 487 ... 324*6 735 ... 8(4) 254 ... 224 488 ... 269(2) 773 ... 238 255 ... 157, 2 52 (4) 499 ... I?! 24. 14 ... 3<>9 c 26l ... 358 &, 361 562 ... 76 28 ... 3789 321 147, 299/ 567 ... 324C,378 52 ... 332 322, 331 ... 261 (3) 575 ... 296 53 ... 365 337 ... 267 (2) 6, 576 ... 365 74 ... 312 289 (i) 596 332 154 ... 326(3),39 X 342 ... 255 (3) 22. 27 ... 150 227 ... 39 354 298 59 ... 26l (2) 239 ... 6( 5 ) 20. 55 ... 262 (4) 72 ... 2 4 240 ... 269 (2) 77 ... 3<>5 no ... 324 296 ... 316 85 ... 238 118, 120 ... 2 3 8 320 ... 39 (P- 365) 129 ... 316 122 ... 7 6 400 ... 196 131 ... 378* d 235 ... 2 3 8 434 ... 378* 139 ... 316 253 ... 300 d 491 ... 39(P-3 6 7) 1 66 ... 289 (2) b, 300 ... 332 55 ... 255(3) 363 (I) & 347 ... 390 (p. 368) 560 ... 238 178 ... 76 404 ... 254 586 ... 298 181 ... I5I/, 26ogf 418 ... 2750,293 655 ... 2756 213 ... 324* & 439 ... 7I(2),270* 768 ... 3" 243 ... 285(3)6 450 ... 2750 301 ... 326(3) 459 ... 356 Odyssey. 306 ... 78(0 55 ... 2756 1. 9 ... 143 335 ... 326(1) 513 ... 356 24 ... i49( 2 ),App. 365 ... 2 3 8 23. 49 ... 390 (p. 364) p. 401 436 ... 294 75 ... 261(3) 37 ... 365 500 ... 271 151 ... 299 d 5i ... 163 21. 40 ... MO (4) 247 ... 241 7i ... H5 (7) 45 ... 144 319 ... 334 (4) no ... 389 81 ... 267 (2) 6 325 ... 260 e 140 ... I5 1 83 ... 238 345 ... 282 164 ... 122 103 ... 282 348 ... 260 g 192 ... 290 112 ... 289(1)0,363 361 ... 140 (3) a 204 ... 292 a 122 ... 141, 194 362 ... 170 226 ... 167, 378 150 ... 269 (l) 376 ... 260 g 231 ... 324* 236 ... 39(P-366) 379 ... 4 244 (2) 270 ... 326 (4) 2 4 8 ... 332 392 ... 39 (P- 363) 273 ... 173 Ff 434 INDEX. 396 ... 2756 211 ... 237 (3) 221 ... 276 b 4 02 ... 355 (3), 222 ... 309 <* 224 ... 141 299 d 240 ... 276 & 259 ... 136(0,362 4 i4 ... 3" 242 ... 267(3)0 262 ... 362 2. 43 ... 282 244 ... 253 276 ... 162(3) 45 ... 269 (i) 247 ... 252 (4) 286 ... 272 46 ... 133 269 ... 267 (3) c 7. 52 ... 3" 53 ... 36 (0 a 300 ... 17 77 ... 255 (3) 6o ... 232,271 (3) 349 ... 262(0 2OI ... 378* d 76 ... 313 388 ... 324* & 211 ... 245(2) 78 ... 173, 307 389 ... 265, 282 224 ... 353 105 ... 3090 39 1 ... 2756 26l ... 365 116 ... 270 406 ... ii6(i) 397 ... 136(2) 134 ... 261 478 ... 140(4) 300 ... 268 171 ... 238 546 ... 324 3" ... 241 206 ... 261 600 ... 305 d 316 ... 2996 222 ... 275 a 643 ... 341 8. 23 ... 136(1), 151 227 ... 231 646 ... 243 (3) d 351 ;^73> -^-PP. 274 ... 316 649 39 (P-366) 48 p. 401 3" 343 (3) c, 672 ... 82 63 ... 71 (i) 390 678 ... 149 (2) 78 ... 269 (3) 327 ... 365". 684 ... 361 139 ... 3" 351 ... 261(0,314 692 ... 170,275?* 172 ... 144 373 ... 238, 361 735 ... 299 b 174 ... 389 404 ... H9 (3) 746 ... 378* e 186 ... 252(2) 416 ... 209 789 ... 302 b 267 ... 184 3. 18 ... 2750 837 ... 341 332 ... 262 103 ... 324* 5. 24 ... 326(4) 408 ... 164 125 ... 238 34 ... 389 435 ... 72 (2) . i 171 ... 200 (3) 68 ... 188 (2) 5" ... 362 182 ... 72 (2) n. i 73 ... 3000 526 ... 389 211 ... 324* 100 ... 299 /, 390 57 ... sood 231 ... 2 99 / 130 ... 188 (2) 9. 19 ... 144 243 ... 136(3) 187 ... 361 28 ... 255(3) 251 ... H9 (0 206 ... 255 (3) 42 ... MS* 390 270 ... 2596 216 ... 268 68 ... 144 319 ... 299/ 221 ... 292 a 102 ... 151 e 321 ... 365(0 22 4 ... 194 177 ... 209 327 ... 286 300 ... 358 d 209 ... 2IO 363 ... 144 340 ... 269 (2) 225 ... 151 e, 240 408 ... 151 e 356 ... 269(3) 239 ... H9 (2) 445 ... 140 (i) 36l ... 362 257 ... 243 (3) d 476 - H9 (3) 47* ... 293 334 ... 262 (2) 4. 19 ... 246 484 ... 235 45 ... 358 c 41 ... 2IO 489 ... 359 b 458 ... 243 (3) d 80 ... 275 & 6.126 ... 2750 475 ... 238 no ... 341 157 ... 243 (3) d 496 ... 238 163 .- 326(3) 159 ... 2836 10. 24 ... 298 1 80 ... 325 165 ... 136(0 64 ... 76 192 255 (3) 1 80 ... 255 (3) 65 ... 298 193 . . . 299 b 200 ... 358 c 75 ... 133 206 ... 269 (i) 201 ... 282 113 ... 271 (i) INDEX. 435 140 ... 144 263 ... 262 (2) 268 ... 289 (2) a 167 ... 271 (i) 320 255 (3) 393 ... 82 202 ... 348(2) 340 ... 270* 397 .- 306 a 320 ... 196 362 ... 255(3) 3I ... 328 434 ... 34(i) 376 ... 326(4) 369 ... 82, 298 495 ... 240 402 ... 306 a 386 ... 299 d 507 ... 2756 415 ... 338 437 ... 276 a 517 ... 271 (i) 435 ... 166 (2) 447 159 539 ... 282 14. 56 ... 3" 17. 6 ... 3 2 6 (3) 11. 17 ... 289(2)6, 61 ... 260 e 20 ... 235,271(3) 363 (2) 6 77 ... 144 60 ... 298 25 ... 271(1) 90 ... 269 (3) 140 ... 262 (i) 61 ... 378*<7 '97 ... 149 (0 189 ... 390 (p. 364) 9i ... 166 1 20 ... 3H 218 ... 228, 261 e 161 ... 144 122 ... 299/ 250 ... 306 (r) a 218 ... 289(2)6, 147 ... 96 320) 365". 161 ... 150 323 i " 290 327 ... 153 183 ... 300 d 354 ... 241 328 ... 276$ 206 ... 144 368 ... 248,304(2) 443 ... 241 227 ... 262 (2) 373 ... 248 453 ... 151 e 235 ... 261 (2) 375 378 464 - 34i 245 ... 144 418 ... 275 a 519 267 (3) c, 287 ... 365 . 4 2 3 .- 144 276 b 299 ... 144 454 198 (3) 54 ... 270 328, 329 ... 298, 306 ym. 478 ... 390 (p. 366) 608 ... 244 366 ... 269(3) 489 ... 243 (3) b 12. 27 - 149 (2) 367 ... 269 (2) 539 ... 3" 64 ... 151 e 422 ... 224 555 ... 243 (3) ^ 75 ... 167 15. 23 ... 151 d 18. 26 ... 261 (2) "3 ... 26l (2) 24 ... 2996 107 ... 378* 156 ... 286,306(1)0 80 ... 324* & 114 ... 261 (2) 198 ... 332 98 ... 151 e 141 ... 299 b 243 ... 144 in - 255 (3) 194 ... 290 252 . . . 260 e 214 ... 238 263 ... 324 331 ... 166 (2) 227 ... 145 37 ... 72 (2) n. i 348 ... 292 a 300 ... 298 3i8 ... 362 fin. 369 ... App. p. 399 35 ... 302 b 333 ... 261 (2) 375 ... 270 345 ... 283 b, 363 335 -. 282 382 ... 3i6 (i)& 392 ... 269 (i) 383 ... 375a 422 ... 2836 19. 12 ... 82 388 ... 134 423 ... 248,304(2) 139 -. 240 428 37 428 ... 332 150 ... 3090 13. 61 .- 255 (3) 436 ... 365 n. 160 ... 235 78 ... App. p.4oi 453 ... 82 215 ... 378* e 86 ... 300 c 16. 70 ... M4 233 " 271 (i) 101 ... 289 (2) 6 74 ... 277, 280 284 ... 240 125 ... 389 92 ... 378* e 297 298 129 ... 269 (3) 138 ... 338 325 338 143 ... 316 140 ... 196 332 ... 363 (i) & !73 ... 238 216 ... 332, 34 367 37 216 ... 358 <* 234 ... 82 372 ... 261 (2) 234 ... 34 263 ... 262(3) 393 -. 136(1X262 F f 2 43 6 INDEX. 444 170 "5 - .. M3, 246 462 ... 2996,345 475 .- 236 162 . . 305 'l 467 ... 298 5ii .. 35 c 173 .. 235 23. 2 245 539 .- 390. p. 363, 254 .. 152, 269 '3) 135 ... 306 (i) a 573 - 262 (2) 260 . .. 324* b 257 ... 289(2)0 "2(1. ^2 242, 259 294 .. 283 c, 363 24. 29 ... 2760 83 289 (2) b (1)6 89 ... 81 138 ... 308 (I) d 395 33 (2), 140 ... 309 <= 22 4 - iM 358 f* 238 ... 341 ./fM. 2 4 2 .. 264 22. 6 . .. 2 94 248 ... 328 295 .- 2836 36 . .. 269 (2) 344 ... 308 (i) c 333 270 98 - .. 298 357 ... 255(3) 348 .. 170 166 . .. 277 380 ... 241 383 - 82, 304 (i)a 176 . 2IO 49 ... 281 (3) 21. 20 .. 136 (0 220 . 260 b 497 ... 260 g 56 ... 390 (p. 364) 318 . .. 390 (p. 368; 532 ... 306 a 108 ... M9 367 - .. 281 (2) 544 .- 326(3) THE END. Clavenbon press, yfor