AIDE 
 TO MILITARY INSTRUCTION, 
 
 PLANS AND DIAGRAMS. 
 
 L. DE T. PREVOST, F.G.S. 
 
 MAJOR ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS \ 
 FORMERLY 
 
 BRIGADE-MAJOR OF INFANTRY AT ALDERSIIOT. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 W. MITCHELL & CO., CHARING CROSS. 
 1884
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THIS little work makes no pretension to being an 
 exhaustive treatise. It consists rather of a series of notes 
 strung together for purposes of instruction, originating in 
 General Order 50 of last year, which introduced the 
 training of men under their own officers. 
 
 The object in view has been to make the contents of 
 practical value chiefly to young officers; who are recom- 
 mended, however, to seek further information on the 
 various subjects in standard works. 
 
 As it is somewhat difficult to determine where the 
 knowledge required of the soldier shall end and that of 
 his superiors commence, it has been deemed advisable to 
 mark with an asterisk such portions of the text as 
 more directly apply to the non-commissioned officers 
 and men. 
 
 MARTHILL BARRACKS, GLASGOW, 
 January, 1884. 
 
 2063396
 
 BOOKS CONSULTED. 
 
 The following works have been consulted : 
 
 The Soldier's Pocket-Book. General Lord Wolseley, G.C.B., &c., &c. 
 Operations of War. Lieut. -General Sir E. B. Hamley, K.C.B. 
 Precis of Modern Tactics. The late Colonel Home, B..E. 
 Franco-German War, 1870-71. Official Account. 
 
 Tactical Deductions from the War, 1870-71. Lieut.-Colonel 
 A, V. Boguslawski. 
 
 Les Manoeuvres de VInfanterie, 1881. 
 
 Defence and Attack of Positions. Colonel Schaw, R.E. 
 
 Field Artillery. Major Pratt, R.A. 
 
 What to Observe and How to Report It. Colonel Hale (H.P.), R.E. 
 
 Journals of the United Service Institution.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE v 
 
 LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED vii 
 
 LIST OF PLATES xi 
 
 INTRODUCTION xiii 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 ELEMENTARY TACTICS 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 ENCAMPMENTS, FIELD COOKING, SHELTER TRENCHES 8 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE THREE ARMS 24 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 INFANTRY IN ATTACK AND UNDER OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES 48 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 ADVANCE GUARDS, FLANKING PARTIES, REAR GUARDS 6d
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 OUTPOSTS 84 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 MARCHES 110 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 MINOR OPERATIONS 126 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 OBSTACLES, AND OTHER ACCESSORIES TO DEFENCE 161 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 WORKING PARTIES, ESCALADE, HASTY DEMOLITIONS 180 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 CROSSING RIVERS, AND BRIDGING 198 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 RECONNAISSANCE AND FIELD SKETCHING 220 
 
 INDEX .251
 
 LIST OE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE I. NATURAL COVER To face page 1 
 
 ,, II. CAMP OF AN INFANTRY BATTALION ,, 9 
 
 ,, III. ARTIFICIAL COVER ,, 18 
 
 ,, IV. IDEAL DISPOSITION OF OUTPOSTS ,, 84 
 
 ,, V. DISPOSITION OF A BRIGADE ON OUTPOST DUTY ,, 105 
 
 ,, VI. ORDER OF MARCH OF A DIVISION 121 
 
 ,, VII. DEFENCE OF VILLAGES ,, 139 
 
 ,, VIII. DEFENCE OF A WOOD 146 
 
 ,, IX. PASSAGE OF THE RIVER DOURO ,, 158 
 
 ,, X. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS ,, 244 
 
 FIGURES 1 TO 136 FACING PAGES THEY ILLUSTRATE.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IN the present condition of warfare the army 
 requires much careful training, high discipline, and 
 steady practice, if we are to hold our own with 
 the troops of other nations. In foreign armies 
 short service obtains, necessitating more time 
 and care in perfecting the material during the 
 period of service with the colours. We now, having 
 adopted a similar system, must follow in the same 
 direction, bearing in mind the greater amount the, 
 soldier has to learn in a shorter time than formerly 
 in order to become valuable in the field, and that 
 instruction limited to regimental routine within the 
 walls of a barrack square is insufficient for this 
 purpose. 
 
 The recent general order on the subject of military 
 instruction is a decided step in the right direction. 
 Although broad principles are necessary as a basis, 
 a company officer should be allowed every latitude 
 in carrying out the details, by which he will have 
 a greater incentive to study his profession, feeling 
 that the responsibility rests upon himself of making 
 his non-commissioned officers and men efficient.
 
 XIV 
 
 System of In order that the training bring forth good results, 
 
 training. . J . j j x A - 
 
 it ought to be as varied and as interesting as cir- 
 cumstances will permit. The instructor should 
 make himself thoroughly conversant beforehand 
 with the subject selected for each day ; and it has 
 been found by experience that men of little or no 
 education will evince an intelligent interest in the 
 work, if it is first patiently explained to them in 
 clear, simple language, with the assistance of a 
 blackboard and a few diagrams, and afterwards 
 executed practically on the ground. 
 
 In the education of the soldier there are three 
 elements : drill, field-training, and discipline. 
 Drill. Drill published by authority must not be deviated 
 
 from. By it men are taught to move with precision 
 and alacrity at word of command. Here discipline 
 first comes into play, laying the foundation for higher 
 training ; and there is danger in relaxing it for if 
 
 Discipline, men are unable to maintain distances, intervals, and 
 direction on a level parade, they can scarcely be 
 expected to do so over broken ground during 
 manoeuvres. Success in tactics depends upon the 
 proper application of drill ; and until a battalion 
 is pliable, and easily handled, it cannot be considered 
 fit to take the field. 
 
 The second element includes manoeuvres and 
 minor operations, which should be as faithful repre- 
 sentations as possible of what really would occur 
 in war; and also all duties incident on active 
 service, which subjects are treated in the following 
 pages. 
 
 Musketry. The time set apart for the annual course of 
 musketry must be entirely devoted to this most 
 
 Field 
 training.
 
 XV 
 
 important branch of training, and no pains should 
 be spared in perfecting the men's shooting by 
 careful supervision, encouraging emulation, and 
 organising shooting matches. 
 
 But the experiences of Majuba Hill, and the 
 great expenditure of ammunition in Egypt without 
 proportionate results, point to the necessity of 
 attaining physical superiority as well as proficiency 
 in using the rifle. The German infantry soldier in 
 1870-71 was armed with an infinitely inferior 
 weapon to the Frenchman's. His supremacy lay 
 rather in the individual man himself than in 
 handling his rifle. 
 
 For the preliminary instruction of the recruit, the Prelimi- 
 following distribution of time has been found to instruction 
 answer well : 
 
 of the 
 recruit. 
 
 In Summer. 
 
 Drill, 6. 30 to 7.30A.M. 
 
 Gymnasium, 9 ,,10 ,, 
 Drill, 11 ,,12 noon. 
 
 2 3 P M. 
 
 School, 3.30 ,, 5 ,, 
 
 In Winter. 
 8.15 to 9.15A.M. 
 9.45 10.45 
 11.30,, 12.30 P.M. 
 2 3 
 3.30,, 5 
 
 After two months he will have acquired sufficient 
 knowledge of marching, drill, and rifle exercises to be 
 prepared for a course of musketry instruction, which, 
 in moderate weather, can be easily finished in three 
 weeks, and at the end of the first two months he 
 should also have been dismissed the recruits' course 
 at the gymnasium. Musketry concluded, he should 
 revert to drill, and be exercised in the more advanced 
 stages, e.g., bayonet exercise in quick time, company 
 drill, skirmishing, the elements of the attack, and 
 duties on guard and sentry, which will occupy five
 
 XVI 
 
 Interior 
 economy. 
 
 Running 
 drill. 
 
 weeks. Drill being substituted for gymnasium, he 
 will then have four hours daily. 
 
 Concurrently with the above, the recruit must be 
 instructed in the interior economy of the barrack- 
 room. The first thing to teach a lad on joining is 
 how to dress, clean his arms and accoutrements, 
 make up his cot, arrange his kit on the shelf, and 
 lay it out for inspection, in strict conformity with 
 standing orders. The duty of this instruction 
 devolves on the senior N. C. officer of each room, 
 who must distribute the recruits among the older 
 soldiers; and the latter are required to show an 
 example of cleanliness and regularity. No man is to 
 mount guard or piquet, or leave the room for his 
 daily employment, without arranging his cot and kit 
 in proper order, and cleaning his arms. Without 
 insisting on needless minutiae, this system should 
 exist throughout the week, and not only for 
 periodical inspections. 
 
 Running drill is most essential, and should be 
 practised both during the recruits' course and fre- 
 quently at other times ; otherwise young soldiers will 
 be found unfitted for a day's march, as many of them 
 take but little exercise outside the barrack square. 
 
 Such, then, is an outline of the preliminary in- 
 struction, which will extend over sixteen weeks, or 
 four months, and at the expiration of this time, under 
 ordinary circumstances, the recruit will be able to 
 take his place in the ranks as a duty soldier, ready to 
 receive the further training, which now requires our 
 attention.
 
 AIDE TO MILITAEY INSTEUCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ELEMENTARY TACTICS. 
 
 THERE are a few definitions within the compre- 
 hension of every one, and should be learnt in order 
 to understand something of the art of war. 
 
 Defini- 
 tions. 
 
 The expression " tactics " must be distinguished * Tactics. 
 from "strategy." "Tactics" relates to the battle- 
 field ; it means the art of forming troops in " order 
 of battle" and effecting changes in their disposi- 
 tions according to the progress of events ; 
 
 Whereas "strategy" has reference to the whole 
 campaign, and all preliminary arrangements for 
 engaging the enemy. 
 
 By the " base of operations " is meant the frontier, 
 coast line, town, or district, upon which an army 
 relies for supplies and support during a campaign. 
 
 The "line of operations" is that by which an 
 army advances from its base to meet the enemy. 
 
 B 
 
 Strategy. 
 
 Base. 
 
 Line of 
 operations.
 
 Line of 
 
 commuui- 
 
 Theatre of 
 war. 
 
 Strategical 
 puiut. 
 
 Moral 
 agents. 
 
 Some 
 maxims. 
 
 The " line of communications " is that by which 
 an army receives reinforcements, supplies, and am- 
 munition from the base, and sends back the sick 
 and wounded to the rear. 
 
 The "theatre of war" is the whole area of 
 country, in any part of which the contending 
 armies can operate and come into collision with 
 each other. 
 
 A " strategical point " is one which will strengthen 
 a line of operations. A "tactical point" is one 
 which on the field of battle will facilitate attack, 
 or impede the enemy's advance. 
 
 There are certain moral agents in war, viz. : the 
 character and skill of commanders ; the elation, 
 emulation, or depression of soldiers ; stratagems ; 
 means of obtaining and distributing information. 
 It was a saying of Napoleon that the " moral was 
 to the physical force as 3 is to 1." 
 
 This great general laid down various maxims of 
 war, of which the chief are : 
 
 To place the several parts of an army in such 
 positions that they may be able to support each 
 other. 
 
 To be able to concentrate easily. 
 
 To be able to collect a larger force at a given 
 point than the enemy can oppose to it. 
 
 To operate on the enemy's communications with- 
 out exposing one's own. 
 
 Never to abandon a line of communication from 
 over confidence. 
 
 Always to operate on interior lines.
 
 The limit of random infantry fire may be taken * 
 as 1,400 yards ; that of aimed infantry fire at 800 
 yards. 
 
 There may be considered three zones of fire action, 
 viz. : 
 
 i. Between 2,500 and 1,600 yards from an 
 enemy's position. Good practice can be made with 
 shell at 2,500 yards. We have only to fear artillery 
 in this zone. This arm will chiefly direct its fire 
 against opposing batteries. It has the chief role of 
 action, and considerable choice of ground. 
 
 ii. Between 1,600 and 700 yards from the posi- 
 tion, when artillery fire is very destructive, and 
 unaimed infantry fire comes into play. Both artillery 
 and infantry fight together in this zone, the chief 
 object of the former being to aid the advance of 
 the infantry. 
 
 iii. From 700 yards onward. Here infantry fires 
 against infantry, and both these arms fire against 
 the enemy's guns. Artillery find it difficult to 
 change position owing to infantry fire. 
 
 Troops should be so arranged for attack as to * General 
 develop the most destructive fire compatible with ments*foi 
 facility of movement, and at the same time to offer attack, 
 the least possible target to the enemy. 
 
 Artillery, concentrated in front, prepares the way 
 for the other arms, and the general formation of 
 the force will greatly depend on the nature of the 
 ground. It will consist of a first and second line, 
 and a reserve, with cavalry and artillery on the 
 flanks, and between the intervals of the infantry, as 
 the requirements of the attack admit. 
 
 B 2
 
 Necessity * 
 for deploy- 
 ment. 
 
 Proportion 
 
 of the 
 three arms. 
 
 The 
 
 division as 
 a unit. 
 
 Infantry arrives on the field of battle in column 
 of route, or in mass, from which they are deployed 
 into these three lines of columns at deploying in- 
 terval. This arrangement allows the other arms to 
 pass through, and subsequent movements are more 
 easily adapted to the ground. It is evident that 
 the deployment should be effected, when opposed to 
 artillery, at from 2,000 to 2,500 yards from the 
 position. 
 
 The attacking force should be sufficiently sup- 
 ported in the event of being successful ; or if it is 
 repulsed, the retreat should be covered. The clear- 
 est instructions should be given to the several 
 officers as to the object of the attack and the 
 movements intended, so that the entire force may 
 be utilised. 
 
 The proportion of the three arms to each other 
 on active service is : Artillery, about 3 guns per 
 1,000 infantry; cavalry, about one fourth the in- 
 fantry. The tactical units are the battalion, the 
 battery, the squadron. 3 battalions form an infantry 
 brigade. 
 
 A division is the first important combined unit in 
 an army ; it is composed of the three arms, and is 
 sufficiently strong, say from 10,000 to 14,000, to be 
 capable of independent action. It is about the 
 largest number that one general officer can properly 
 superintend. 
 
 Our division is smaller than those of continental 
 armies. Its organisation is given in Part V. of the 
 Field Exercises. When the division has no tents 
 its composition is as under :
 
 55 officers and men. 
 
 2 infantry brigades (6 battalions) .... 6,706 
 
 1 battalion rifles 1,097 
 
 1 regiment cavalry 653 
 
 3 batteries of artillery (1 9-pounder, 2 16- 
 
 pounders) 573 
 
 1 field company, R.E 202 
 
 Infantry and artillery, ammunition, reserve. 
 
 columns 214 
 
 Supply and transport in addition to that 
 
 possessed by brigades 189 
 
 Medical, veterinary, chaplain's depart- 
 ments, post-office, military police . . 466 
 
 Total all ranks . . . .10,155 
 "With 2,450 horses, 18 guns, and 320 carriages. 
 
 There is in 1st line a transport company, which 
 carries, among other things, one day's provisions for 
 the men ; and in 2nd line, half a transport company, 
 carrying, among other things, a second day's pro- 
 vision for the men, and one day's forage for the 
 horses. 
 
 Two or more divisions form an army corps. The 
 established organisation in our service is : 
 3 divisions = 30, 462 all ranks. 
 Cavalry brigade (3 regiments with 1 battery 
 
 horse artillery) employed for special purposes, 
 
 2,342, 
 Corps artillery (3 batteries horse artillery, 2 
 
 batteries field artillery, and an ammunition 
 
 column). 
 Corps engineers (1 company and field park, 1 
 
 pontoon troop, and half a telegraph troop), 
 Commissariat, ordnance store department, 
 
 medical, &c., &c., comprising 8 transport 
 
 companies. 
 
 Personnel 
 of a 
 
 division. 
 
 An army 
 corps.
 
 Such a corps contains 21 battalions, 15 batteries, 
 and 6 regiments of cavalry, numbering of all 
 ranks : 
 
 37,045 men, with 12,939 horses, 90 guns, and 
 1,573 carriages. 
 
 Ground in relation to Tactics. 
 
 Ground * Ground should be suitable to the arms of the 
 QU the m service to be employed. Cavalry, if possible, should 
 different k e screenec l by some elevation, with firm and nearly 
 
 arms. 
 
 Cavalry. level ground for an advance. 
 
 Artillery. Artillery ought to have high positions with cover, 
 and soft or broken ground in the immediate front, 
 and a clear range with hard surface. 
 
 Infantry. * Infantry can cross any country. Undulations, 
 hedges, farmsteads, &c., protect them in an advance. 
 Non-commissioned officers and men must understand 
 how to make use of these, and many other accidents 
 of the surface ; as by such means they can approach 
 the enemy with precaution, find out his where- 
 abouts, and report his movements. What a soldier 
 has to learn is how to post himself so as to watch his 
 enemy, while he himself remains concealed. 
 
 Import- * Cover is of great importance in getting troops un- 
 
 of 'cover. seen into position before an action ; or, during a 
 fight, in transferring them from one part of the 
 field to another ; or to take the enemy by surprise. 
 Hedges, which are not shot-proof, should not be 
 greatly made use of, for, if men collect behind them, 
 they may suffer severely from artillery. Yet they 
 afford good concealment ; and often it is possible to 
 deceive an enemy as to the number of men behind a
 
 bank or wall, if one or two men show the tops of 
 their heads above it at different points. 
 
 The extent of front on which troops can move 
 depends upon the ground ; and the surface has 
 much influence in regulating the pace. Such 
 obstacles as streams, marshes, canals, &c., greatly 
 delay an advance. But as time is so important in 
 tactical operations, every effort should be made to 
 anticipate these difficulties by extemporising means 
 of crossing, and repairing bad places with materials 
 at hand. Dikes and fences, though unimportant 
 obstacles, give protection to infantry. The value 
 of such shelter in the attack is surprising (see 
 Plate I.). Thus men in extended order can take 
 advantage of manure heaps, or haycocks in a field ; 
 and a mass of troops may be hidden behind a com- 
 paratively insignificant slope. Hence for the attack 
 cultivated and accidented ground is best. But for best for 
 
 attack. 
 
 the defence the country in front cannot be too open. Open in 
 Houses and villages can generally be defended. few-defence.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ENCAMPMENTS, FIELD COOKING, SHELTER TRENCHES. 
 
 Encampments. 
 
 Site. * THE position of a camp depends first, on military, 
 secondly upon sanitary considerations ; the character, 
 movements, and proximity of the enemy deciding 
 which reasons weigh most in selecting the site. 
 
 Open ground is preferable. We should choose a 
 sandy soil rather than clay, and avoid wet or marshy 
 ground. The mounted services should have the most 
 level ground. Cavalry and artillery are placed either 
 in second line behind the infantry, or with infantry 
 on their flanks for protection. The commissariat 
 depot should be established near a road. 
 
 Formation * Camps are formed of huts or tents bivouacs of 
 
 brushwood, straw, branches, or anything else handy. 
 
 It is best to encamp in rear of a position to be occu- 
 
 Four * pied. Troops require these four necessities in the 
 
 requisites, following order of importance : (1), water ; (2), 
 
 wood ; (3), forage ; (4), straw. 
 Arrange- * If water is furnished from a stream, the stream 
 
 forwater should be divided into three portions ; the upper for 
 the men to drink ; the middle for horses and cattle ; 
 the lower for washing. Sentries from the nearest
 
 Plate 11. 
 
 
 CAMP OF AN INFANTRY BATTALION. 
 
 
 c 
 
 A ** 4* 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 w " w 
 
 QUARTER GUARD 
 
 
 
 Battalion Parade, 
 
 -? 
 
 
 
 $ 
 
 * 
 
 t * c c c e c c 
 
 
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 ; C C C C C 
 
 
 
 ^ "y v ^ "^ ^ % & *Q 
 
 
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 ': C ^ C -5, C v. C ^ C | C ^. C ..; 
 
 
 
 ^ ^-- e v > ^ ^ ^ S ^ 
 
 5s 
 
 i 
 
 i |c |c |c |c|c|c|c| 
 
 
 * 
 
 ^ c c c c c c 
 
 
 I 
 
 ^ K; STAFF ) SERGES ^ , 
 
 ( 
 
 
 | | | | MENS KITCHENS [ 
 
 * 
 
 
 \ I I \ OFFICERS' \\\\ 
 
 
 
 COMPANY OFFICERS 
 
 
 < 
 
 C C C C * C 
 
 : 
 
 
 ADJT C.O. 
 
 C C C C C 
 
 ; 
 
 t 
 
 REGIMENTAL STAFF OFF".* 
 
 n ^p\ ^^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^f -^^r - - ^^- - 
 WAGGONS, HORSES, DRIVERS & BATMEN. 
 
 ! 
 
 
 ASH PIT OFFICERS 
 
 , 
 
 
 LATRINE 
 
 
 
 
 LATRINES LATRINES 
 
 : 
 
 % 
 
 REAR GUARD 
 
 * 
 
 n 
 
 * % 
 
 S
 
 guard, or a special water-guard, must have strict 
 orders to enforce this arrangement. In peace time, 
 wood, like rations, is issued on the ground. 
 
 The usual form of camp for an infantry battalion * Camp of a 
 -m T> -rr battalion, 
 
 is that shown in riate 11., Regulations jor encamp- 
 ments, of which Plate II. is a copy. 10 paces is a 
 convenient and sufficient interval between tents and 
 companies. Each bell tent holds 15 men, but 12 is 
 the usual number. The colour-sergeant occupies the 
 rear tent, to be near his captain. 
 
 If the camp is to stand some time, tents should 
 be struck and repitched every 2 or 3 days, arms and 
 blankets removed, and the ground well brushed with 
 boughs. Tent-flys should be rolled up the first thing 
 in the morning, but in wet weather only on the lee- 
 ward side. As a rule the doors face the head of the 
 column. It may be ordered otherwise, but all must 
 face alike. Drains are cut the width of a shovel, and 
 a few inches deep, just outside the curtains ; from 
 which others are cut, leading into main drains 
 between every second row of tents, or in a different 
 direction, according to the natural slope of the sur- 
 face, which is best seen by watching the flow of water 
 after the first shower of rain. 
 
 The quarter-master and 4 camp colourmen march * Laying 
 
 IT i ou * th e 
 
 with the general advanced guard, or some distance in camp. 
 
 front of the -column. One of the party should know 
 the strength of the battalion. A staff-officer will 
 mark out the ground, and dress two camp colours 
 on the front line of the camp. 80 paces is sufficient 
 front, and 200 paces for depth, allowing 40 to 80 
 paces for parade ground. The quarter-master then 
 proceeds to lay out the camp, placing the rear camp
 
 10 
 
 colours at right angles to the fro at, by means of a 
 cross staff, aligning one pair of sights with the front 
 line, and then looking through the other pair to fix 
 the camp colour ; or a right angle may be laid out 
 with a tape held at 3 feet, 4 feet, and 5 feet, or any 
 multiples of these, and stretched on the ground 
 (vide Fig. 1), because 5 2 = 3 2 + 4 2 ; or by means of 
 a cord with the two ends held along the line, while 
 another man holding the centre stretches it on one 
 side, and then passes it over to the other (vide Fig. 2). 
 The position of the company and officers' tents are 
 quickly fixed by means of small iron pegs with yellow 
 vanes on them, attached to a cord at intervals of 10 
 paces. The front of each row is marked with a small 
 yellow flag, with the letter of each company. The 
 quarter-guard is fixed in the centre of the front line 
 of the parade, its doors turned to the front. The 
 rear guard is usually in the centre of the rear line of 
 the camp turned towards the rear. 
 
 Arrival of * A mounted officer, having ridden forward to find 
 battalion. 
 
 the camp, returns to conduct the battalion to the 
 
 ground. On arrival on the parade ground, it is 
 formed in column, with each company in prolonga- 
 tion of the line marked out for its tents. The band, 
 drummers, pioneers, and pipers join their companies; 
 arms are piled, and the accoutrements taken off and 
 hung on the piles of arms. The colour-sergeant tells 
 off the company into squads, according to the number 
 of tents, with a N. C. officer in charge of each. From 
 every squad, 1 N. C. officer and 6 men (1 file pole- 
 men, 1 file pegmen, 1 file packers) are told off ready 
 to pitch tents when the waggons arrive. The 
 adjutant details the following parties :
 
 BIVOUAC OF BRANCHES 
 
 SECTION OF BIVOUAC 
 
 42'
 
 11 
 
 i. Cooking party 2 men per company under the * Parties 
 sergeant cook, who lose no time in -making the 
 kitchens. 
 
 ii. Latrine party All pioneers with picks and 
 shovels, and 2 men per company. These dig latrines 
 in sheltered places when possible. 
 
 iii. Water party 1 N. C. officer and 2 men per 
 company, under a sergeant. 
 
 iv. Ration party 1 N. C. officer, and 2 or more 
 men per company, under the quarter-master-sergeant, 
 who go to the depot for rations. 
 
 v. Wood party 2 or more men and a N. C. 
 officer per company. These collect wood and bring 
 it to the kitchen, if no fuel is earned. 
 
 The rest of the men lie down by the arms. 
 
 A field officer mounts the quarter and rear 
 guards. 
 
 The baggage- waggons are conducted to the rear of * Arrival of 
 the camp by an officer, who takes care not to pass 
 over the camping-ground, but through the battalion 
 intervals. They are halted with the tail-boards to 
 the front along the rear line. A subaltern marches 
 5 men out of each tent party to the waggons, un- 
 packs, and brings up the tents. 
 
 The other men of the tent parties, viz. front rank * Extension 
 polemen, are paraded by the captains in rank entire polemen. 
 on the reverse flank of the companies, the nearest 
 men to the companies covering between the camp 
 colours. The captains extend the polemen to 10 
 paces, and dress them from front to rear. At the 
 same time a mounted officer dresses them from flank 
 to flank. 
 
 These men keep the exact spots for the tent poles.
 
 12 
 
 Tent * The parties bring up the tents, pegs, and poles. A 
 l " 8 P e o i g driven in at an angle at the heels of each pole- 
 man to assist in raising the pole, the two pieces of 
 which are put together and the top shipped into the 
 cap of the tent, which is stretched out flat with the 
 door hooked up. 4 men hold the storm guys if 
 there are no guys they hold the 4 red runners. 
 When all is ready the bugle sounds one G, and all 
 tents are raised together. The guy ropes are first 
 fixed, and the tent is pegged down, working round 
 from right to left, each rope being pulled out in pro- 
 longation of the seams of the canvas. The arms, 
 accoutrements, and blankets are then brought in 
 and drains cut. 
 
 The tent doors face the front as a rule, unless 
 they are turned in another direction on account of 
 weather. 
 
 The arms should be stacked round the pole. 
 Sometimes rough arm-racks are made. Articles 
 may be hung from the pole by cords attached with a 
 clove-hitch. 
 
 For instruction it is well to form up the parties 
 and change rounds, so that No. 1 becomes No. 2, 
 No. 2 becomes No. 3, and No. 3 becomes No. 1, for 
 striking and pitching tents again. 
 
 Striking * In striking camp the blankets are first rolled and 
 tents ' packed. After breakfast the trenches, ashpits, and 
 latrines are filled in, kitchens and their chimneys are 
 levelled, and all fires put out. Tent-pegs are care- 
 fully pulled out, and all spare ones placed in the bag. 
 Doors are hooked up, and everything made ready 
 for lowering when the G sounds. Then all the 
 tents are let down together, doors uppermost, each
 
 S ENTRY BOX 
 
 should- net be mere than 15 feet long. 
 
 13
 
 13 
 
 tent stretched out smooth and flat, folded neatly and 
 small three 'or four times, so as to be placed easily 
 in its bag. The mallets and remaining pegs are 
 collected and all stowed in the waggons. 
 
 A bivouac is formed with the same regularity as * Bivouac. 
 a camp. The arms are piled in quarter column, and 
 men lie down in line with them to one flank. 
 
 Hurdles, ferns, and dry leaves make a rough bed. 
 Something should be got to raise the head off the 
 ground ; and the hint to excavate a hollow for the 
 hip is not to be despised. 
 
 A row of bushes or branches helps to keep off the 
 wind. Figures 3 and 4 are examples of such 
 shelters. If earth is required to form a mound it 
 should be taken from the outside, and the interior 
 ground should not be disturbed. ' 
 
 A sentry-box can be improvised with a few poles, * Sentry 
 such as hop-poles, with straw, wicker-work, or 
 bushes interlaced (vide Fig. 5), or by means of two 
 pairs of waggon shafts leaning against each other, 
 and covered with a tarpaulin. Failing such ex- 
 pedients, sentries may use any natural shelter near 
 their posts. 
 
 Latrines are dug by the party told off under the * Latrines, 
 pioneer-sergeant without delay. Unless orders are 
 given to keep them within the limits of the camp, 
 they may be made in some convenient sheltered 
 place. The simplest form is a trench 15 feet long 
 and 1 foot 6 inches deep, sufficient for one night. 
 But if the camp is for a longer time, it must be 
 deeper; and, if spars are available, two cross poles 
 are firmly driven in at each end to support a back 
 rest, and a seat lashed to them (vide Figs. 6 and 7,
 
 14 
 
 Loading 
 waggons. 
 
 Baggage 
 
 Cavalry 
 camp. 
 
 Artillery 
 camp> 
 
 copied from the Regulations for Encampments). The 
 earth is heaped up on each side, covered with bushes 
 or small trees for shelter. Sometimes strips of 
 canvas are provided for shelter. Latrines must 
 never be dug near the water supply. A few inches 
 of earth should be thrown over the soil daily. 
 
 In order to load the baggage-waggons, one man 
 ets U P m * eacn waggon, takes off the cover, and 
 packs. The rule to remember is that the articles 
 required last are to be put in first. Thus, the 
 blankets are placed at the bottom, then the tents, 
 and, lastly, the tools and wood. 
 
 The driver stands to his horses' heads ; on no 
 account is a waggon to move until the cover is 
 replaced and properly secured. 
 
 The waggons should march in the order com- 
 panies stand on parade. The letters of the companies 
 should be chalked on the waggons, or else a small 
 flag with the letter carried on the front of each. 
 
 The baggage guard is usually formed of the 
 officers' servants, under a N. C. officer. Their duty 
 is to maintain order among the drivers, and to see 
 that nothing is lost or taken from the waggons. 
 They march with fixed bayonets a corporal and 
 two men in front, the rest distributed on both sides 
 of the convoy, the N. C. officer in charge following in 
 rear. On no account are they to ride, or place their 
 arms or valises on the waggons. 
 
 It is well to know that cavalry prefer the method 
 Q encam pi n g i n column of troops at half-order, as 
 shown in Plate VI., Regulations for Encampments. 
 
 And the plan recommended for a temporary 
 artillery camp is that shown in Plate X., Regulations
 
 TORRENS KETTLE 
 
 FLANDERS KETTLE 
 
 SUNKEN FLYING COLUMN TRENCH 
 
 WALL TRENCH 
 
 RAISED FLYING COLUMN TRENCH 
 
 __ii_.., in , '- r , ,.j -,>:' - i;_u'i^^ = , -HmJtgy
 
 15 
 
 for Encampments, in column of subdivisions, using 
 the carriages instead of picquet posts, and fastening 
 the picquet lines to the wheels. This is the quickest 
 and safest way of securing the horses. The carriages 
 are always kept limbered up, and the harness 
 buckled together in rear of the pair of horses to 
 which they belong. 
 
 Field Cooking. 
 There are two kinds of kettles in use (1), the Torrens 
 
 kettle 
 
 " Torrens," which is bean-shaped (vide Fig. 8). It 
 weighs 3 Ibs. and cooks for 5 men, or without vege- 
 tables for 8 men. 
 
 (2) The "Flanders," which is cylindrical (vide Flanders 
 Fig. 9). It weighs 8f Ibs., and cooks for 8 men, 
 or without vegetables for 15. 
 
 The following is a brief description of the trenches 
 generally employed : 
 
 i. The sunken flying-column trench (vide Fig. 10), Sunken 
 used when a battalion encamps for a day or two. column 
 The chimney, 2 feet high, is formed of sods cut off 
 the top of the trench. Time to make, 2 men in 
 15 minutes. Time to cook, 1 hour. It should be 
 made, if possible, on a gentle slope, the mouth 
 facing the wind. It holds 6 Flanders or 9 Torrens 
 kettles, and cooks for about 50 men. Therefore, 
 as a rule, one of these trenches is required per 
 company. 
 
 ii. The wall trench, suitable for wet or marshy Wall 
 ground (vide Fig. 11). For the Torrens kettle it 
 is 18 inches high, and 2 feet between the walls. 
 For the Flanders kettle it is 2 feet high, and 3 feet
 
 16 
 
 between the walls. It is built with sods, the largest 
 placed at the bottom. Time to erect, two men 30 
 minutes. Time to cook, 1 hour. The kettles are 
 slung across on bars of wood or iron. It holds 12 
 Flanders or 18 Torrens kettles. It will cook for 
 
 2 companies of 50 men each ; therefore, as a rule, 
 4 are required for a battalion. 
 
 Eaised *" The raised flying-column trench (vide Fig. 12), 
 
 fl y m S also adapted for wet or marshy ground. It is 
 column * 
 
 trench. built with sods, cut close by. Time to erect, 2 men 
 30 minutes. Time to cook, 1 hour. It will hold 
 6 Flanders or 9 Torrens kettles, and cooks for a 
 company of 50 men. 
 
 Broad i y> The broad-arrow kitchen (vide Fig. 13), adapted 
 
 arrow f or standing camps. The base of the chimney is 
 
 3 feet square; its height 5 feet; and at bottom it 
 is 1 foot square. Each trench holds 9 Flanders or 
 11 Torrens kettles. The kitchen cooks for 165 men 
 with the Torrens and 220 with the Flanders kettles. 
 Time to construct, 5 men 4 hours. Time to cook, 
 1 hour. Each trench is 18 inches deep at the mouth, 
 and for 18 inches inwards, then it slopes gradually up 
 to 6 inches where it enters the chimney. All trenches 
 should be cut, if possible, on a gentle slope, with 
 their mouths towards the wind. A stiff plaster is 
 made of clay, and a kettle used as a mould, round 
 which the clay is placed to cover the trenches. 
 When dried the cracks are filled in. One or two of 
 the handiest men should do this work. 
 
 Triple v - The triple-arrow kitchen is adapted for stand- 
 
 * n & cam P s e -9- a m ilitia regiment out for train- 
 ing (vide Fig. 14). It will cook for about 600 men. 
 Time to make, 12 men 10 hours. Time to cook,
 
 BROAD ARROW 
 
 K ITCHEN 
 
 SECTION OF ABOVE 
 
 TRIPLE ARROW 
 
 KITCHEN 
 
 SECTION ON A.B. 
 
 30 icfeet
 
 17 
 
 1 hour. The trenches are 18 inches deep at the 
 mouth, sloping upwards to 9 inches at the top, covered 
 with clay, with places moulded for the kettles. The 
 base of the chimney is 3 feet square ; its height 
 6 feet ; and the bottom 1 foot square and 1 foot deep. 
 
 The marking out of all these kitchens is much 
 facilitated by having a bundle of pegs, with twine 
 attached at the different dimensions. 
 
 vi. Lastly, the open-hole trench (vide Fig. 15), 
 used for men to cook separately in their canteens, is 
 made with sods or stones, or a hole may be dug in 
 the ground, according to circumstances. 
 
 Iron tripods, 2 feet high, supporting a rod from 
 which the kettles are suspended, have been used in 
 manoeuvres by some regiments. They are very port- 
 able, and the dinners require a shorter time to cook, 
 but more fuel is wanted than when trenches are dug. 
 
 These short notes should be borne in mind : 
 
 (1) Three pounds of fuel is allowed per man per 
 diem 1 cubic foot of wood makes 10 rations. 
 
 (2) Water should boil in 20 minutes after the fire 
 is kindled, and dinners should cook in an hour, 
 which is sufficient time under difficulties. If wood 
 is at hand and dry, they will be ready sooner. 
 
 (3) Meat should be cut into pieces of |- lb., placed 
 in the kettles, and simmered slowly until cooked. 
 Vegetables, such as onions, may be added. 
 
 (4) Potatoes may either be cooked separately or 
 with the meat; but if not pealed they must be 
 cooked separately. 
 
 Open hole 
 trench. 
 
 Tripods 
 
 Rules for 
 cooking.
 
 Shelter Trenches. 
 
 Descrip- 
 tion 
 of trench. 
 
 Necessity 
 
 for 
 
 intrench- 
 ments. 
 
 Working 
 
 parties and 
 
 laying out 
 
 tools. 
 
 Drill. 
 
 Shelter trenches are shallow excavations of ground, 
 sufficient, with a parapet, to cover troops in line 
 kneeling or lying down. The front -rank acts as a 
 covering party, and detains the enemy, if possible, 
 until the trench is completed, when they, with the 
 rear rank, man the trench, and open fire. 
 
 They are necessary, both in the attack and in 
 the defence, owing to the great range of infantry 
 and artillery fire, in situations where natural cover 
 cannot be utilised (vide Plate III). For this reason, 
 troops must have intrenching tools in the field, 
 whether carried as part of their equipment, or con- 
 veyed in carts. The drill is laid down in the 
 Field Exercises. Working parties are detailed of 
 complete companies, battalions, or brigades. Tools 
 are laid out, as in Fig. 16, at 1 pace interval, the 
 rows being in quarter column at 6 paces distance. 
 The companies for work are formed in quarter 
 column to one flank. 
 
 After opening the ranks and causing the slings to 
 be loosed and arms advanced, the captain orders 
 " For shelter trench exercise, sling arms," which is 
 done in two motions, as in Rifle Exercises, Page 48. 
 The rear rank is turned to the left (or right), and 
 the order given to " file on tools," upon which the 
 marker runs to the far flank of the tools. 
 
 After halting and fronting his rank, the left guide 
 orders the men to " take up tools," when each man 
 takes a short pace with the left foot, and, stooping 
 down, takes a pick in the left hand and a shovel in
 
 TOOLS LAID OUT IN PAIRS FOR SHELTER-TRENCH DRILL. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRENCH 
 
 U,W F Z:3--'~^ 
 
 ^VfytfT-yZ. 7Z? 
 
 _ _ _ 

 
 19 
 
 the right, coming to the trail without noise, and 
 carrying the iron to the front and vertical. 
 
 The guide turns the men to the right (or left), 
 and in turning they must drop the head of the pick 
 and raise the head of the shovel. When in file they 
 incline the handles outwards, to enable them to close 
 up. He marches the rear rank back, and they are 
 halted, fronted, and dressed. 
 
 In orJer that each rank may carry half the too's, 
 when the captain orders " Transfer tools," the rear 
 rank give the fiont rank the shovels ; the latter take 
 them with the right hand, and pass them in front of 
 the body into the left hand ; then both ranks carry 
 the tools in the left hand. 
 
 If the tools are in heaps, or in a cart, two non-.com. 
 officers issue them ; shovels to the tfron i ank and 
 pi ks to the rear rank, both ranks filing past the 
 tools (vide Fig. 17), and closing in again, the 
 leading men stepping short. 
 
 Approaching the ground, the front rank hand the 
 rear rank the shovels at the command " Transfer 
 tools." The right guide extends the front rank as a 
 covering'party. They lie down 150 paces in front ; 
 and if there is no natural cover available, and time 
 permit, they make shelter pits, i.e. shallow excava- 
 tions for the use of skirmishers for a short time; 
 each pit taking 5 minutes (vide Fig. 18). For 
 this 1 pick and 1 shovel are allowed to each group 
 of 4 n^en. They can be improved by making loop- 
 holes of sods. If necessary, and time permit, they 
 may be converted into rifle pits, which see 
 (Page 184). 
 
 The rear rank open to 2 paces interval, and halt 
 
 c 2 
 
 Marching 
 to the 
 ground. 
 
 Issuing 
 
 tools from 
 
 heaps or a 
 
 cart. 
 
 Extension 
 
 of covering 
 
 party.
 
 20 
 
 Extension 
 
 of working 
 
 party. 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 trench. 
 
 Guide to 
 measure- 
 ments. 
 
 Trace and 
 fitting the 
 trench to 
 
 the 
 ground. 
 
 12 paces in rear of the line selected for the trench. 
 They ground arms, butts to the front, so as to be 
 handy in a moment, and take off jackets and purses- 
 An officer steps along the line, giving 2 paces in 
 length to each man, who fixes his pick in the ground 
 on the left of his task, the shovel along the line, 
 blade to the left, and then lies down till the exten- 
 sion is completed. 
 
 Word is passed when all is ready, and all set to 
 work to cut and build up the surface sods along the 
 line, leaving a berm of 18 inches. Each man excavates 
 a hole of the required depth at the left corner of the 
 task, turning to the left in working (vide Fig. 19). 
 If the ground be hard, grooves must be cut to the 
 rear, and the ground undermined with the pick. 
 
 As a guide to measurements the handle of the 
 pick-axe is a little over, and the shovel is a little 
 under 2 feet 6 inches. The top stud of the shovel 
 is 1 foot 6 inches. But new pattern tools must be 
 proved. A sword blade is 3 feet. 
 
 The length of trench which can be made is twice 
 the number of files in paces. Thus 100 files will 
 make 200 paces. Intervals should be left for the 
 passage of cavalry and artillery. Roads ought not 
 to be cut up. As a rule, the shelter trench follows 
 the crest line of the hills, sufficiently near the brow 
 to sweep all the ground in front with fire. The 
 chief point to determine is how high up the slope, 
 or how low down, the crest of the parapet must be. 
 If too high, the slope is not " seen " ; and an enemy 
 can assemble in comparative safety to rush the 
 trench. If too low, the trench is seen into from 
 opposite heights, there is no protection, and if the
 
 21 
 
 defenders have to retire, they must run some yards 
 up the hill exposed to full view. 
 
 The practical way to fit the trench to the ground 
 is to place sword blades or cleaning rods at intervals 
 along the trace, while another person descends the 
 slope some distance, and, lying down, makes sure of 
 seeing the tops of the swords or rods. Fulfilling 
 these conditions, the shorter the trench the better, 
 to save labour ; and by making it as much as pos- 
 sible parallel to the general front, there is less 
 danger of suffering from enfilade fire (vide Figs. 
 20 and 21). 
 
 The first task in half an hour is 2 paces (5 feet) Tasks. 
 X 2 feet 6 inches X 1 foot 6 inches, and shelters one 
 rank kneeling in the trench and one rank lying 
 down behind. 
 
 The second task, in half an hour, 5 feet x 2 feet 
 6 inches X 1 foot 6 inches, shelters both ranks kneel- 
 ing in the trench. 
 
 The third task, in 1 hour, 5 feet x 3 feet x 1 foot 
 6 inches, shelters both ranks and the supernumeraries 
 lying down in the trench. 
 
 Thus the trench completed requires a task from 
 each man 5 feet long x 8 feet broad X 1 foot 6 inches 
 deep. The berm which is 1 foot 6 inches, is unavoid- 
 able. The parapet is 1 foot 6 inches high. At 200 
 yards a bullet penetrates 12 inches ; therefore, do the 
 utmost to raise a bullet-proof parapet quickly, cutting 
 the surface sods thick and square, and building them 
 along the berm ; then placing every shovelful of earth 
 just in front of them, and not scattering it. As the 
 work proceeds, the earth is thrown more forward, 
 taking care that the parapet is never more than
 
 22 
 
 Best 
 
 diggers in 
 rear rank. 
 
 With- 
 drawal 
 of covering 
 party. 
 
 The 
 charge. 
 
 Charger 
 pit. 
 
 1 foot 6 inches high, with the inner slope as steep as 
 possible, and the upper slope like a glacis, shovelled 
 down to coincide with the natural fall of the ground. 
 The men must throw the earth towards a salient 
 angle, where there will be a deficiency ; but at a re- 
 entering angle they must throw it outwards, for there 
 will always be a surplus. 
 
 Heather and bushes strewed over the parapet 
 greatly help to conceal the newly-made work (vide 
 Fig. 22). 
 
 The strongest and best diggers are placed in the 
 rear rank. They perform the first and third tasks, 
 the front rank the second. The whole work, in- 
 cluding the sending out and withdrawal of the 
 covering party, must be conducted in strictest 
 silence. At the completion of each task the men 
 lay their picks and shovels together behind their 
 work, handles to the front, and then dress. 
 
 The men of a covering party, when called in, 
 must retire straight back, jumping the parapet 
 without injuring it. 
 
 The exercise should be concluded by manning the 
 trench and firing a few volleys. The instant a volley 
 is fired the men must lower their heads behind the 
 parapet. 
 
 Bayonets are fixed in the trench, and all charge 
 over the parapet. 
 
 Tools must be returned to the cart, or deposited 
 in rows without noise, and according to the drill. 
 
 Sometimes shelter is required for officers' chargers, 
 as when no natural cover is near. A charger pit is 
 made in a convenient spot, in rear of the shelter 
 trench, concealed as much as possible. It takes 3
 
 TASKS 
 
 CHARGER PIT
 
 men 2 hours 1 man digs in the trench, 1 gets 
 earth from a ditch outside, 1 man builds up sods, 
 and picks when required. A N. C. officer super- 
 intends (vide Fig. 23). 
 
 The duty of filling in trenches should be per- Filling in 
 formed by a fatigue party, generally by defaulters. 
 The N. C. officer in charge of them must see the 
 work thoroughly done, and the earth well trodden 
 and beaten down, otherwise the ground will be 
 dangerous for horses.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Necessity 
 
 for some 
 
 knowledge 
 
 of the 
 
 other 
 
 Duties of 
 cavalry. 
 
 Detached. 
 
 On the 
 field of 
 battle. 
 
 THE THREE ARMS. 
 
 NOT only is it necessary to learn the characteristics 
 and functions of our own arm of the service, but 
 we must have some knowledge of the others, in 
 order to appreciate their assistance, to understand 
 how to co-operate with them, and the best way to 
 encounter them as foes. 
 
 The duties of cavalry are to screen and cover 
 the advance of an army, as also a force halted, or in 
 retreat; to reconnoitre, gaining information of the 
 country and of the enemy. If cavalry watches and 
 feels for the enemy thoroughly, is prompt in securing 
 information of his movements, and hangs constantly 
 on to his troops, a most important service will be 
 rendered to the army, and proportionately demoral- 
 ising to the enemy. 
 
 With this object independent parties move far 
 ahead of the main body. 
 
 Cavalry also furnish escorts and orderlies. 
 
 The above are termed detached duties. 
 
 On the field of battle cavalry must seize every 
 opportunity for an effective attack, following up and 
 confirming success, and, if needs be, it must sacrifice
 
 25 
 
 itself to avert disaster. Its leading principle is the 
 attack, and even in defence it must advance to 
 attack, being comparatively defenceless halted. 
 Hence it should be kept out of fire till the proper 
 moment. To be effective the advance must be rapid 
 and unexpected, the charge well timed and im- 
 petuous. Its great tactical value depends on 
 mobility and celerity combined. After a charge 
 cavalry pursues or rallies rapidly. 
 
 In covering a retreat the only way cavalry can 
 defend the other arms is by continuous and vigorous 
 offensive action, often suffering disadvantages as to 
 time and place, and even at the risk of complete 
 destruction. 
 
 A cavalry soldier mounted in attack or defence 
 depends upon his sword or lance, not on his carbine, 
 which should be used from the saddle for signalling 
 only. 
 
 The effective action of cavalry is of three natures 
 (1) Shock action in line, i.e. the charge ; (2) detached 
 action in small parties or singly ; (3) dismounted fire 
 action. The latter can be used advantageously under 
 certain circumstances, chiefly on the defensive, e.g. 
 to check an advance, or to hold a post, or sometimes 
 a party of cavalry is pushed well to the front to seize 
 and hold some point until the infantry come up. 
 
 During the recent war between the Russians and 
 Turks, and later in Egypt, mounted infantry were 
 useful when there was not sufficient cavalry. Very 
 similar was the cavalry raised during the American 
 Civil War, when it executed remarkable raids. But 
 there is this danger in employing a mounted force so 
 improvised against an army well supplied with cavalry, 
 
 Covering 
 retreat. 
 
 Arms. 
 
 Three 
 modes of 
 action. 
 
 Mounted 
 infantry.
 
 26 
 
 Tactical 
 unit. 
 
 Forma- 
 tions in 
 the field. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Frontage. 
 
 Regiment 
 in line. 
 
 Brigade in 
 line. 
 
 that it will be neither one thing nor the other in- 
 different infantry and indifferent cavalry. 
 
 The tactical unit is the squadron. Thq largest 
 tactical body is the division, composed usually of two 
 brigades with horse artillery attached. 
 
 A cavalry brigade consists of 3 regiments and 
 
 1 battery of horse artillery attached, Each regiment 
 has 4 squadrons. The right and left half of each 
 regiment are termed respectively right and left wings. 
 Two troops form a squadron. A regiment of cavalry 
 moves in the following formations : In line ; open, 
 quarter, and close column of squadrons ; open column 
 of troops ; column of fours, sections, half sections, files 
 and single files. 
 
 The speed is at a walk 4 miles, at a trot 8 miles, 
 at a gallop 12 miles an hour. 
 
 Column of fours is eight abreast, 4 front rank 
 and 4 rear rank. 
 
 Column of sections is 4 front rank, covered by 4 
 rear rank. 
 
 Column of half-sections is 2 front rank covered by 
 
 2 rear rank. 
 
 In calculating the frontage of cavalry in line, 
 allow one yard for every trooper in the front rank + 
 12 yards for each squadron interval + 12 yards for 
 each regimental or brigade interval, or more for the 
 band and staff if required. Thus a regiment in line 
 of 4 squadrons, each of 96 sabres, will require 228 
 yards ; for each squadron has 48 horses in the front 
 rank, and 48 X 4 + 12 X 3 = 228 yards. 
 
 Or, suppose a brigade, of 3 regiments, each of 400 
 sabres. Every squadron then has 50 in the front 
 rank ; the front of each regiment will be 50 X 4 +
 
 Fur 21 
 
 fry 2i, 
 fnn.afSqiiadrcTU ('column of Tr<\^i' 
 
 S(j " Leader 
 
 (K 
 
 Troop Leader , Troop l 
 
 Sf/"Q tiMr/eQ 
 
 _ 
 ff( 
 
 o ; . o 
 
 SerrefUes Q'To-Uann of Squadrons. 
 
 (^tujim of Squadrons 
 SO 
 
 cfFcur.v Cvlunvi cf Srcttr/i.v 
 
 c/
 
 27 
 
 12 x 3 - 236 ; and the front of the brigade 236 X 3 
 + 24 x 2 = 756 yards, (vide Fig. 24). 
 
 As a horse's length is 8 feet, the depth of a squadron 
 in line is readily seen to be 8 x 9 = 72 feet = 24 
 yards by reference to Fig. 25. 
 
 The depth of a regiment in open column of 
 squadrons, say each of 50 sabres = 50x4 + 12x3 
 50 -186 yards. 
 
 The depth of a regiment in column of troops = 
 50 X 4 + 12 x 3 - 25 = 211 yards (vide Fig. 26). 
 
 To find the depth of a regiment in quarter column 
 of squadrons, allow 6 horses' lengths for each 
 squadron, and add 1 horse's length. The depth will 
 
 then be 25 horses' lengths = = 67 yards. 
 
 o 
 
 To find the depth of a regiment in close column of 
 squadrons, allow 1 horse's length between the rear 
 rank and the front rank of successive squadrons, 
 and add 1 horse's length. The depth will then be 
 
 17 horses' lengths = 
 
 17x8 
 
 = 45 yards (vide Fig. 26). 
 
 In a column of fours, the squadron distances are 
 preserved (vide Fig. 27), the depth = the front in line + 
 squadron intervals = 200 + 36 = 236 yards. 
 
 If the same regiment were in column of sections, 
 the depth of the column in yards number of horses 
 in the ranks = 400 (vide Fig. 27). 
 
 Squadron distances are not maintained with a less 
 front than fours, for cavalry never manoeuvre with a 
 less front than this ; and on emerging on a plain 
 from column of route, they will assume fours, or 
 other formation, without delaying the rear. 
 
 It is obvious that the length of the regiment in 
 
 Squadron. 
 
 Depth in 
 
 open 
 
 column of 
 squadrons. 
 
 Column of 
 troops. 
 
 Quarter 
 column of 
 squadrons. 
 
 Close 
 column of 
 squadrons. 
 
 Four$. 
 
 Sections.
 
 28 
 
 Half 
 sections. 
 
 Interval 
 
 and 
 
 distance 
 between 
 cavalry 
 
 and 
 
 infantry. 
 War estab- 
 lishment 
 
 of a 
 squadron. 
 
 Tactical 
 division of 
 squadron, 
 
 and how 
 numbered. 
 
 War estab- 
 lishment of 
 regiment. 
 
 Formation 
 for attack. 
 
 column of half sections in yards = double the number 
 of horses in the ranks = 400 X 2 = 800 yards ; and in 
 single files it will be four times the number of horses 
 in the ranks = 1600 yards. 
 
 The interval, as well as the distance, between 
 cavalty and infantry is 25 yards. 
 
 The war establishment of a squadron is 6 officers, 
 2 troop sergeant-majors, 6 sergeants, 8 corporals, 4 
 artificers, 2 trumpeters, and 120 privates, with 2 
 drivers total 150 officers and men; 18 chargers, 
 120 troop horses, 4 draught horses total 142 horses. 
 If we deduct horses to mount sergeant-majors, ser- 
 geants, artificers, and trumpeters, and allow for a few 
 casualties, the squadron will consist of 48 to 50 files 
 or 96 to 100 troopers. 
 
 The squadron is divided tactically into 2 troops- 
 The senior of the two captains on parade is the 
 squadron leader. 
 
 Squadrons are numbered from the front in column, 
 and from the right in line. The two troops of each 
 squadron are termed " right " and " left " in line, and 
 " leading " and " rear " in column. 
 
 The war establishment of a cavalry regiment is 31 
 officers, 600 non.-com. officers and men, 22 drivers for 
 regimental transport total all ranks, 653 ; 91 
 chargers, 480 troop horses, 44 draught horses total 
 615 horses. 
 
 Cavalry manoeuvres in column with a front depend- 
 ing on the ground. Small columns are flexible and 
 mobile, offer a small mark to artillery, are more 
 easily sheltered, and able to turn obstacles. 
 
 Its formation for attack is in echelon, in successive 
 lines, with a reserve in rear of one flank, or both, to
 
 protect retreat in case of failure, or to follow up 
 victory if successful. The greatest care should be 
 taken to protect the flanks ; and before advancing to 
 the charge, scouts should reconnoitre the ground to 
 the front and flanks, to see that it is not marshy, or 
 intersected by dikes or other obstacles. 
 
 Cavalry ought to attack cavalry on flank, because 
 the flanks are its weak points ; or when in the act of 
 deploying. Favoured by such a chance of surprise, a 
 small body may attack a larger with every prospect 
 of success. 
 
 It can easily attack artillery in motion, or when 
 limbering or unlimbering. Guns in position should 
 be attacked in flank and in rear, a portion charging 
 the escort at the same moment. Sometimes a con- 
 verging attack may be made by skirmishers in front. 
 
 Cavalry will not usually attack steady infantry, 
 except by surprise. The best chance is when the 
 infantry is moving ; or has an exposed flank ; or is 
 demoralised or broken by artillery fire. 
 
 When acting in support of infantry, cavalry should 
 be so disposed as to prevent the most advanced 
 troops being scattered by the enemy's cavalry. 
 
 The general duties of artillery are to commence 
 and carry on an action at long range. During an 
 attack it covers the deployment of the advanced 
 guard, and assists in driving in the enemy's ad- 
 vanced troops. If provided with a sufficient escort, 
 it may surprise an enemy, and shell an unguarded 
 camp. On the defensive, it checks the enemy's 
 deployment, obliging him to form up at a distance, 
 and thus delays him. It is most useful in a recon- 
 
 Flanks 
 vulner- 
 able. 
 
 Scouts. 
 
 Cavalry 
 against 
 cavalry. 
 
 Against 
 artillery. 
 
 Against 
 infantry. 
 
 Support 
 
 ing 
 infantry. 
 
 Artillery. 
 Duties of 
 artillery.
 
 30 
 
 In the 
 attack. 
 
 In the 
 
 defence. 
 
 Principle 
 of employ- 
 ment. 
 
 naissance in force, causing the enemy to disclose 
 his strength. 
 
 During an engagement, it keeps down the fire of 
 the enemy's artillery and infaDtry, searching his 
 position, and bringing the guns to bear successively 
 on all approaches, woods, ravines, and all made or 
 natural cover. 
 
 Supporting an attacking force, guns will play 
 upon the point of attack, and change position as 
 their fire becomes masked, guarding against the 
 enemy's skirmishers. 
 
 In a defensive position, they keep down the 
 enemy's artillery fire, delay the advance of his 
 infantry, protect the flanks, and assist in any 
 counter-attack. 
 
 Artillery, also, co-operates with cavalry and 
 infantry in striking a final blow, following up a 
 retreating fire if victorious. In case of retreat it 
 covers the retirement. 
 
 The principle is to employ artillery against that 
 arm of the enemy which, for the time being, is 
 most prominent. During the different stages of a 
 battle, one arm acts as the principal, therefore 
 every effort must be directed to destroy it. 
 
 Artillery fire should rather be directed against 
 troops than guns. Great advantage is gained by 
 concentrating fire on the enemy's artillery at the 
 beginning of an engagement, and so clearing the 
 way for the infantry ; and before an assault, artillery 
 should direct its fire so as to disorganise and distract 
 the enemy. 
 
 In a position attacked, guns should be directed 
 against the supports, leaving the fighting line to
 
 31 
 
 the infantry ; for the supports offer a better target, 
 especially while in column ; and it is most important 
 to check and weaken them, for then they will be 
 less ready to push on ; while the fighting line, it 
 unsupported, will lose heart, and go no further ; or 
 should they press on, their weak attack will pro- 
 bably fail. Advantage must be taken of commanding 
 positions to destroy parapets, palisades, buildings, &c. 
 
 Artillery is that arm of the service which de- 
 teriorates least in action. It can be kept most 
 effectively in hand by a commander, and can move 
 rapidly. 
 
 It can be employed at ranges where infantry are 
 useless. It has the advantage of curved fire pos- 
 sessed by no other arm ; and is superior in physical 
 and moral effect. Artillery reserves can be kept 
 under cover till needed. Artillery is bulky and 
 expensive, difficult to train and equip, and powerless 
 in movement. It cannot be used alone, and is often 
 insufficient for its own protection. 
 
 It has " fire action " only ; and its weapons are : 
 
 Horse artillery, 9 and 13 ^ 
 
 pounders. 
 
 T-.-TI ^-11 n 10 T -./> /Rifle muzzle-loading. 
 Field artillery, 9, 13, and 16 f 
 
 pounders. j 
 
 Mountain guns, 7 pounders, 4 in each battery, 
 carried on pack animals, are used in a difficult 
 country, where there are no practicable roads. 
 Field guns are mounted on sledges in winter in 
 North America. Sometimes Hale's rockets are 
 added to the equipment. 
 
 The tactical unit of artillery is the battery of 
 
 Fires at 
 supporting 
 
 troops 
 when in 
 defensive 
 position. 
 
 Power of 
 artillery. 
 
 But often 
 
 helpless in 
 
 motion. 
 
 Weapons.
 
 32 
 
 Tactical 
 unit. 
 
 Subdivi- ' 
 sion of a 
 battery. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Limit of 
 opening 
 for guns. 
 
 Intervals 
 
 and 
 distances. 
 
 Front of 
 
 field 
 
 battery in 
 line. 
 
 Front of 
 horse 
 artillery 
 battery 
 in line. 
 
 6 guns, which is subdivided for tactical purposes 
 into : 
 
 i. A battery of 4 guns, and a division of 2 guns. 
 
 ii. Two half-batteries of 3 guns each. 
 
 iii. Three divisions of 2 guns each. 
 
 iv. Six subdivisions of 1 gun each. 
 But no smaller fraction than a division should be 
 detached from the battery. 
 
 The pace of artillery is, at a walk, 4 miles ; at a 
 trot, 8 miles; at a gallop, 12 miles an hour. Field 
 artillery will travel on fair roads 4 miles ; horse 
 artillery 5 miles an hour. 
 
 The narrowest space through which guns can pass 
 is 6^ feet. 
 
 Intervals and distances are measured in action 
 from muzzle to muzzle, and limbered up from No. 1 
 to No. 1. In action the distance between the trail- 
 plate eye and gun leaders'. heads =10 yards. 
 
 When the battery is in line at close interval there 
 are 4 yards between subdivisions. 
 
 When in line at full interval, with 6 horses, each 
 gun interval is 19 yards, and the battery or brigade 
 interval (1| gun intervals) = 28^ yards; with 8 
 horses, each gun interval is 23 yards, and each 
 battery or brigade interval 34^ yards. 
 
 Thus the front of a field battery in line with 
 6 horses = 5 subdivision intervals + 3 yards the 
 front of one subdivision = 5 X 19 + 3 = 98 yards 
 (vide Fig 28). 
 
 The front of a horse artillery battery in line = 5 
 subdivision intervals + 7 yards the front of the de- 
 tachment = 5 X 19 -f 7 = 102 yards. The distance 
 from one gun or waggon to the next is 4 yards.
 
 BATTERY IN LINE, FULL INTERVAL 
 
 43' 29' /3' /S 
 
 II 
 II 
 
 g 
 
 II 
 II 
 
 g 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 s 
 
 *ll !! 
 
 g 9 
 
 BATTERY IN ACTION WITHOUT WAGGONS. 
 
 4* 4* -4* *k 4 4* 
 
 n *n "11 n 'n "ii 
 
 n n n n n n 
 
 n n n n n n 
 
 ana ana 
 
 32
 
 Intervals between artillery and either cavalry or 
 infantry in line are each 1J subdivision intervals 
 = 22^, 28-g-, 34i yards, according as the number of 
 horses are 4, 6, or 8. 
 
 In selecting an artillery position we must endea- 
 vour to obtain as many as possible of the following 
 requisites : 
 
 The greatest available sweep of range both to the 
 front and flanks. Guns should command not only 
 the ground to the immediate front, but also the 
 roads along which the enemy must advance to 
 attack, and all exits from villages and denies. But 
 there is a limit to the range ; for even with a good 
 telescope the effect of shell cannot be seen beyond 
 3,000 yards. 
 
 The height should not be excessive, for the guns 
 cannot be depressed more than 10; and guns on 
 high ground are much exposed if placed forward on 
 the crest to depress the muzzles. A gentle slope 
 of 15 is best ; for if steeper, the fire will be too 
 plunging, especially at short ranges, and the enemy 
 will be completely sheltered on reaching the foot 
 of the hill. 
 
 There should be no cover within easy range from 
 which the enemy's infantry can pick off the gunners ; 
 as it is very difficult to shell troops out of a wood ; 
 and good rifle shots, posted under cover within say 
 800 to 1,000 yards of a battery, with unshaken 
 nerves, and fairly sheltered from danger, should 
 always silence the guns before the latter can silence 
 them. Infantry would be destroyed attacking in 
 the open, exposed to artillery fire ; but they will 
 avail themselves of woods, villages, and undulations 
 
 D 
 
 Intervals 
 
 between 
 
 artillery 
 
 and 
 cavalry 
 
 and 
 
 infantry. 
 A perfect 
 artillery 
 position. 
 
 "Wide 
 range. 
 
 Not too 
 
 high nor 
 
 steep. 
 
 No cover 
 for enemy.
 
 34 
 
 Able to 
 
 enfilade, 
 
 but safe 
 
 from that 
 
 fire. 
 
 Command. 
 
 Facility 
 for retreat. 
 
 of ground ; these, therefore, ought not to be within 
 1,000 yards of the position. 
 
 The position should be such that some of the guns 
 may enfilade part of the enemy's line, as a single 
 successful enfilading shot creates more mischief and 
 confusion than a dozen passing through the line 
 direct. 
 
 But it should not be liable to enfilade. If the 
 enemy takes advantage of this defect it will be 
 fatal, and the guns will have to withdraw. 
 
 The front slope of the position should not be too 
 gentle, as the effect of ricochet, shrapnel, and rifle 
 fire will be increased. A short, steep slope im- 
 mediately in front of the guns is preferable, affording 
 a better view ; the guns can fire safely over the 
 infantry in both attack and defence ; and when the 
 enemy's troops are temporarily checked, the guns 
 will gain time to retire. 
 
 To have slight command over the enemy's posi- 
 tion is an advantage. But if the guns are in a 
 lower position it will be difficult to shelter the 
 ammunition waggons and limbers. 
 
 There must be every facility for retreat, and no 
 probability of the guns . being cut off. Hence the 
 site should not be unduly detached from the main 
 position. There is risk in having the ground in 
 rear intersected with banks, hedges, streams, or 
 other obstacles. If these exist passages should be 
 prepared for the guns. 
 
 The fire will be most effective when the slope of 
 the distant ground is parallel to the trajectory. 
 But such ground is often hidden, and ammunition 
 cannot be wasted in firing at what is not seen.
 
 35 
 
 Guns must be under cover as much as possible, 
 and, to prevent the enemy observing the effects of 
 his shell, it is well to have some trees, hedges, a 
 field of corn, or even houses, 100 or 200 yards in 
 front of the battery, as a mask, concealing the guns 
 and yet not obstructing the view. ' Ground should 
 be chosen for shelter to the horses and limbers while 
 the guns are in action ; but the latter must not be 
 too far away for the supply of ammunition. 
 
 The guns should be posted a few yards from the 
 edge of the plateau, or a little down the reverse 
 slope, with the muzzles just pointing over the crest. 
 The recoil may be decreased by the drag-shoe. It 
 is possible to deceive the enemy as to the presence 
 of a gun before it opens fire, by posting a troop of 
 cavalry, or even the mounted detachment with 
 horse artillery, in front of it. 
 
 Failing natural cover, resort must be had to arti- 
 ficial. Trenches may be dug 2 feet 6 inches deep close 
 to the wheels and trails, in which the gunners stand 
 when not actually serving their pieces. Spades are 
 carried with the limbers, and sometimes gun-pits, 
 (vide Fig. 109, Page 183), or a slight epaulment 
 may be made. But as earth newly thrown up offers 
 a conspicuous mark, it is well to connect it with 
 shelter trenches for partial concealment. 
 
 A battery in action should not be immediately in 
 front or in rear of its own troops, because it would 
 impede their advance or retreat, offer a double mark 
 to the enemy, and our own troops in front might 
 be shaken. 
 
 A stony position is bad, for the enemy's shells will 
 burst with greatest effect, and fragments of stones 
 
 D 2 
 
 Cover for 
 guns. 
 
 Trenches 
 
 and 
 gun-pits. 
 
 Guns not 
 
 to be just 
 
 in front or 
 
 in rear of 
 
 other 
 
 troops ; 
 
 Nor on a 
 
 stony 
 position ;
 
 36 
 
 Nor near a 
 conspicu- 
 ous object. 
 
 Column 
 of half- 
 batteries 
 and of 
 divisions. 
 Of sub- 
 divisions. 
 
 Of route. * 
 
 Various 
 kinds of 
 of fire. 
 
 cause great annoyance. Marshy ground in front 
 destroys the effect of ricochet fire, and even a 
 ploughed field deadens it. 
 
 A battery should not be posted near any con- 
 spicuous land-mark, e.g. a prominent clump of trees, 
 as the distance will probably have been calculated ; 
 and the background should be such as will not give 
 the enemy a chance of seeing if his shells burst too 
 long, and of correcting his aim. 
 
 A wall or a bank will cover guns from rifle fire ; 
 but if artillery fire opens against them, it is well to 
 draw them back a short distance. 
 
 Besides line at full and close intervals, a battery 
 moves in the following formations : 
 
 * Column of half batteries, or of divisions, when each 
 half battery or division is followed by its waggons 
 (vide Fig. 29). 
 
 * Column of subdivisions, when the waggons are on 
 the right or left of the guns (vide Fig. 30). 
 
 Column of route, when each gun is followed in 
 succession by its waggon. 
 
 * There are various kinds of artillery fire, viz. with 
 reference to the horizontal plane. 
 
 1. Frontal directed perpendicularly or nearly so 
 1 to the general line fired at. 
 
 2. Oblique directed obliquely to the line fired at ; 
 it is more effective, because more searching than 
 frontal. 
 
 * 3. Enfilade raking the enemy's line, the guns 
 being posted in prolongation of that line ; it is most 
 demoralising, there being no possibility of reply. It 
 is usually offensive with reference to fortifications. 
 
 * 4. Flanking directed along the front of, and
 
 COLUMN OF DIVISIONS. 
 
 m === 
 
 === -{]=== 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 COLUMN OF SUBDIVISIONS. 
 
 tt 
 
 ]--= -^-- -{3=r= -4fl-r= -*{]== = -+{]-=- 
 
 -_9 nn o .^ _0 Q nn 9 nn - 
 
 i LrtJ ' LHJ ; yu wU ~ UTJ 
 
 : is '-4''- i i4'< if 
 
 Si tt 
 
 4[ 16 
 
 4\ tS j 
 
 
 \ \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 if JS 13 19 13 
 
 HOyards.
 
 37 
 
 nearly parallel to the line to be defended, taking an 
 enemy in flank, as he makes a direct attack. It has 
 similar advantages to enfilade. 
 
 5. Cross fire by which projectiles from guns posted 
 in different parts of a position cross at a particular 
 point of ground. It resembles flanking fire, and by 
 its distracting and disconcerting action produces 
 moral disorganisation. By means of this fire, rather 
 than frontal fire, the long range of modern artillery 
 is most effective. 
 
 And with reference to the vertical plane 
 
 6. Direct fire with service charges, at any angle 
 of elevation not exceeding 15. 
 
 7. Indirect or curved with reduced charges, at * 
 any angle of elevation not exceeding 15. It is used 
 when the object fired at is unseen, e.g. at troops 
 behind a hill or obstacle. 
 
 8. High angle fire directed at greater elevation 
 than 15, with any charges, and it includes what was 
 formerly known as vertical fire. It is so named 
 from the general direction of the projectile on impact. 
 
 The projectiles carried by a battery are common Projectiles. 
 shell, shrapnel shell, and case. 
 
 Common shell is employed against troops in mass * Common 
 or in column when shrapnel is not available ; also 
 against troops under cover, intrenchments, and 
 buildings. It is a good range-finder when fired with 
 a percussion fuze, for with a few trial shots, the 
 ranges can be best estimated by the distinct puff of 
 smoke on graze. 
 
 It contains a large quantity of powder as a bursting 
 charge, and therefore acts both as a missile and as a 
 mine. It is most useful against earthworks ; and its
 
 38 
 
 range is longer than the effective range of shrapnel. 
 It is generally carried loaded. It answers well to 
 shell troops out of villages, houses, woods, &c., and 
 to set fire to buildings ; but it is not to be compared 
 to shrapnel against troops in the open. 
 
 There is little choice between common and 
 shrapnel shell against men or guns under temporary 
 Plevna. cover. At Plevna the effect of each was inconsider- 
 able physically ; but it caused the enemy to lie close 
 while the infantry advanced to the attack. 
 
 Shrapnel * Shrapnel shell is employed against troops in the 
 open in any formation, and to enfilade defensive 
 lines. If used with skill at effective range, it gives 
 far better results than common shell. Success de- 
 pends on the striking velocity of the balls and 
 splinters at rupture, correct timing, and the point 
 ,of explosion. It is, therefore, usually fired with a 
 time fuze, especially if range-finders are employed ; 
 for if percussion fuzes are used the graze reduces 
 the velocity, and the balls fly upwards. But if the 
 range is not known, percussion fuzes are first used. 
 
 The shells should be made to burst from 200 yards 
 at short ranges, to 80 yards at long ranges short 
 against troops in column ; and from 100 yards to 50 
 yards short against troops in line ; and they are 
 most effective when they burst at 20 feet above plane 
 at short, to 50 feet above plane at extreme range. 
 The extreme range of shrapnel with the 16-pounder 
 is 4,200 yards ; with the 9-pounder 3,800 yards. 
 
 Effective * The effective fire of shrapnel shell at 
 
 range of 
 
 shrapnel. 
 
 1,000 yards covers 300 to 400 yards depth of ground. 
 
 2,000 150 ,, 200 ,, 
 
 2,500 100 150
 
 39 
 
 Employ- 
 ment 
 in Egypt. 
 
 Its fire cannot be too direct against a deep object, 
 but against a wide object with little depth, the more 
 oblique the angle of fire is to the front the greater 
 will be the area affected. 
 
 Time shrapnel is best against objects moving 
 towards or away from the guns, with fuzes bored 
 rather short against the former, and rather long 
 against the latter. 
 
 Percussion shrapnel may be fairly effective against 
 cavalry and artillery mounted, but the comparative 
 effect of the shell with time and with percussion 
 fuzes is as 7 : 1. 
 
 There are 63 bullets in the 9-pounder. The shell 
 is usually carried loaded, and is distinguished from 
 common shell by the head being painted red. In 
 the Egyptian campaign it was used with great effect. 
 But it is of little use when penetration is required. 
 A shell reversed in a gun acts like case at very short 
 ranges. 
 
 Case shot consist of a tin cylinder filled with bullets. * Case. 
 The 9-pounder contains 110. It is effective up to 
 350 yards, or with an extra charge, a little further, 
 and is most useful against infantry and cavalry at very 
 close quarters, to repel a sudden charge, as a parting- 
 discharge previous to a hand-to-hand fight with 
 infantry, or to check a rush across a bridge, or 
 through a gap or defile. At very close range, say 
 100 yards, double charges of case may be fired as a 
 final blow, and there is no fear of bursting the gun. 
 Case shot are kept handy for instant use, 2 in each 
 axle-tree box. ,, . 
 
 .Must never 
 
 Case must never be fired over the heads of one's be fired 
 own troops, though with care common shell and troops.
 
 40 
 
 shrapnel may be so fired, provided the troops are a 
 considerable distance in front. 
 
 The number of rounds carried by each gun with 
 
 Number of 
 rounds per . 
 gun in the 1*8 waggon is as lollows : 
 field. 
 
 9-pound er. 
 
 Common shell ... 32 
 Shrapnel shell ... 112 
 Case .. 4 
 
 16-pounder. 
 
 24 
 
 72 
 
 4 
 
 13 -pounder. 
 30 
 108 
 4 
 
 War estab- 
 lishment of 
 batteries. 
 
 Tactical 
 
 sub- 
 division of 
 a battery. 
 
 Gunners. 
 
 Drivers. 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 148 
 
 100 
 
 142 
 
 The war establishment of a 
 
 Horse Artillery R.M.L. Battery is 182 officers and men. 
 Field 16-pounder is 201 
 
 Field 9 -pounder is 175 ,, 
 
 A gun, with its waggon, men, horses, and stores, is 
 called a subdivision. There are six subdivisions in 
 a battery, numbered from 1 to 6 ; 2 subdivisions 
 form a division, and the three divisions are termed 
 right, centre, and left. 
 
 The gunners work and serve the gun, keep it, the 
 ammunition, and stores in good order, and perform 
 guard and escort duties and fatigues. They are 
 armed with a sword-bayonet. 
 
 A few carbines are strapped on the carriages for 
 use on guard, &c., but not for defence of the guns, 
 lest the men neglect the proper duty of serving the 
 guns. 
 
 The drivers ride, drive, and groom the horses, 
 keep the harness clean, and mount stable guard at 
 night. 
 
 The gun detachment of a field battery consists of 
 the No. 1 and 8 gunners, marching with the guns or 
 mounted on the carriages. In long marches they 
 get an occasional lift.
 
 41 
 
 Artillery cannot be moved about on its own 
 ground, and for this purpose must have room both 
 in front and on the flanks, which is the reason for 
 intervals when acting with cavalry or infantry. The 
 usual position of a battery is on the flank of a line. 
 When forming up with other troops it should halt 
 well in rear of the alignment, and as soon as the 
 
 O * 
 
 other arms are in position it will advance straight to 
 its place. 
 
 Occasions sometimes happen when a battery has 
 to pass through a line of infantry or cavalry. The 
 artillery officer should then send word in time to 
 their commander, who will make the necessary 
 arrangements for letting the guns through. 
 
 On principle, the battery, being the unit, should 
 not be broken up unless when absolutely necessary, 
 e.g. certain cases of an advanced guard, and it is then 
 recommended to break it up into divisions rather 
 than into half-batteries. 
 
 The present proportion of guns to men of the 
 other arms is from 3 to 4 guns per 1,000, and this 
 will probably be increased. Napoleon considered it 
 ought to be 4 guns per thousand infantry and cavalry. 
 In fighting a defensive battle, guns may be placed 
 closer together than the regulation intervals, and 
 sometimes there may be more than one tier of fire. 
 3 guns per 1,000, exclusive of the reserve troops, 
 would seem to be generally sufficient. For a force 
 encumbered with a numerous artillery is liable to 
 certain disadvantages, viz. there may not be room 
 on the position selected for all the guns ; artillery 
 cannot move quickly over broken ground, and can 
 effect little without the other arms ; and with long 
 
 Necessity 
 
 for 
 intervals. 
 
 Forming 
 
 up with 
 
 other 
 
 troops. 
 
 Guns 
 
 passing 
 
 through a 
 
 line. 
 
 Battery 
 rarely to 
 be broken 
 up. 
 
 Proportion 
 of guns 
 per 1000. 
 
 Limit to 
 
 strength in 
 
 artillery.
 
 42 
 
 columns of guns and waggons confined to roads the 
 infantry may be delayed, or some of the artillery will 
 not be able to get to the front in time. 
 * Artillery may be employed effectively, without 
 undue exposure to infantry fire, from 800 to 2,500 
 yards from the enemy ; and if the ground and atmo- 
 sphere are favourable, and range-finders available, 
 guns may be used beyond 2,500 yards. In a special 
 case, in order to gain some decisive advantage 
 thereby, they may approach nearer than 800 yards, 
 remaining exposed to infantry fire at the risk of 
 loss of men and guns. 
 
 No As a rule, no guns should remain in reserve 
 
 reserve in during an engagement ; for they are seldom dis- 
 actiou. a kled by the enemy's fire, and can remain in action 
 so long as there are supplies of men and ammuni- 
 tion to work them, and horses to change position 
 when required. 
 
 Infantry. * Now, as to infantry. It possesses this character- 
 Character- istic peculiar to itself, that it is the only arm which 
 can act independently at all times, whether on the 
 move or at rest, in attack or in defence. It can 
 fight on every description of ground on a plain, in 
 mountains ; in woods, villages, and towns ; in an 
 inclosed country and in the open. 
 
 Functions. * Its functions are to march, shoot, and fight well. 
 It has to bear the whole brunt of war both on the 
 march and in battle. It is self-protecting, and easy 
 to train and equip; can move over any country, 
 though much slower than the other arms. Infantry 
 can fire on the move. But this does not mean that 
 men may discharge their rifles while running. They
 
 43 
 
 must always halt to fire, although they may run 
 
 some yards between the rounds, as may be ordered 
 
 in the attack. Yet a body of infantry is incomplete * Incom- 
 
 alone, requiring engineers to make roads; cavalry P itself7 
 
 to watch and to complete success ; and artillery to 
 
 prepare the way for and cover its advance, or protect 
 
 its retreat. 
 
 Infantry is armed with a rifle and bayonet ; and * Arms, and 
 ii5) T two modes 
 
 can apply " fire and " shock action individually or of action. 
 
 collectively, in combination or separately. Now-a- 
 days its " fire action " is by far the most important, 
 owing to the moral effect of superior fire. Never- 
 theless the bayonet should not be laid aside, but its 
 
 use strongly inculcated. For this weapon gives the * Import- 
 J ance of the 
 
 soldier a long reach, and an independence, especially bayonet. 
 against cavalry. Every drill practising the attack 
 should conclude with the charge with fixed bayonets, 
 except when there are two opposing forces. 
 
 Against savage warriors, who protect themselves * Against 
 with targets or shields, men should not thrust with shields. 
 the bayonet straight to their front, but in a slanting 
 direction ; each soldier pointing, not against his 
 immediate opponent, but against the one opposite 
 his right-hand comrade, so as to wound the enemy 
 under the right arm before he can ward off the 
 thrust. 
 
 The tactical unit of infantry is the battalion. * Tactical 
 Some consider the half-battalion, or the double 
 company, as the fighting unit. But it is preferable 
 to take the company as the fighting unit because 
 once the battalion is disposed in extended order, * Reason for 
 
 . . . this being 
 
 causing loss of cohesion, owing to the superior fire- the > 
 arms of the present day, no one officer can control
 
 44 
 
 it ; and occasions arise for independent commands of 
 lesser units, the battalion remaining the centre of 
 action, and the general direction being maintained 
 by its commander. 
 
 Pace. * The pace of infantry in quick time is 120 paces = 
 100 yards per minute ; or 3 miles 720 yards an hour ; 
 in double time 165 paces = 151J yards per minute. 
 Frontage. * TO find the front of a battalion in line, allow 2 
 feet for each man in the front rank, 9 guides, and 
 3 colour party. 
 
 Reducing * TO reduce files to paces, multiply by 8 and cut off 
 paces. the last figure. 
 
 The depth of a battalion in fours is equal to its 
 front in line. 
 
 A battalion in column has the companies succes- 
 sively in rear of each other, and parallel at company 
 or wheeling distance. 
 
 The depth of a battalion in column = the front 
 in line the front of the leading company + the 
 depth of the rear company. 
 
 In a quarter column, the companies stand at 6 
 paces distance = 5 yards from guide to guide. 
 
 The depth of a battalion in quarter column = the 
 number of companies X 5 - 2 yards. Thus, for 8 
 companies it will be 8 X 5 - 2 = 38 yards ; for 6 
 companies, 6 x 5 - 2 -= 28 yards. 
 
 30 paces = 25 yards is the interval left between 
 battalions in line for elasticity and greater freedom 
 of movement. 
 Front of * Therefore the front of a battalion of 8 companies, 
 
 a battalion 
 in line. 
 
 _ 
 
 = 275 yards (mcU Fig. 31).
 
 BATTALION IN LINE 
 
 27-y \ards. 
 
 BATTALION IN COLUMN 
 
 BATTALION IN QUATER COLUMN 
 
 4-4-
 
 45 
 
 The front of a company of 50 files, extended at * Front of a 
 4 paces interval, will be 200 paces =167 yards. e TSS 
 
 The depth of this battalion in fours will be the * Fours, 
 same as the front, 275 yards. 
 
 The depth in column will be 824 - 102 + 9 = 708 * 
 
 o 
 
 = 234 yards (vide Fig. 32). 
 
 The depth of this battalion in quarter column will * Q uarter 
 
 column. 
 
 be 8 x 5 - 2 = 38 yards (vide Fig. 33). 
 
 The depth of infantry in line is about 3 yards from * Depth of a 
 the front of the front rank men to the captains. 
 
 The detail of a company on a war footing is : 
 
 Officers : 1 captain and 2 subalterns ; 1 colour- * War estab- 
 sergeant, 4 sergeants, 1 lance-sergeant, 4 corporals, O f a 
 3 lance-corporals, 110 privates, 1 piper, 2 buglers or com P an 7- 
 drummers, 1 driver; total all ranks, 130. 
 
 4 men should he instructed as stretcher-bearers, 
 and 2 in army-signalling. 
 
 A battalion on a war establishment consists of: 
 
 Officers 31 *Warestab- 
 
 N on. -com. officers and men . . 1,044 lishment 
 
 Drivers for regimental transport . 22 h tt T 
 
 Total officers and men . 1,097 
 
 Eiding horses 12 
 
 Draught horses . 44 
 
 Total horses . 56 
 
 Infantry, in its attack, endeavours to destroy, * ^Infantry 
 capture, or drive the enemy from his position. For 
 this, superior fire alone is rarely sufficient ; therefore, 
 to ensure success we must be ready at the proper 
 moment to deliver the charge, and the charge alone
 
 46 
 
 On the 
 defensive. 
 
 Waterloo. 
 
 Plevna. 
 
 Distinc- 
 tion 
 
 between 
 "extended 
 
 order" 
 and "skir- 
 mishing. " 
 
 A battalion 
 skirmish- 
 ing. 
 
 * will still more rarely enable infantry to gain its end ; 
 hence a combination of these two is necessary to 
 ensure victory. 
 
 * Infantry on the defensive, firing from behind cover, 
 must strive to demoralise and practically destroy the 
 enemy; and that done, full advantage must be 
 secured by delivering a counterstroke, as at Waterloo, 
 combining offensive fire with the charge. 
 
 Instances, however, occur when defensive fire alone 
 is permissible, as when supporting artillery. The 
 object then is to keep off the enemy's riflemen, and 
 save the guns from capture. Or when the defending 
 
 * troops are greatly outnumbered, as at Plevna. 
 
 * Infantry is extended for purposes of attack and 
 for skirmishing. But these must not be confounded. 
 Men are formed in " extended order," properly so- 
 called, to bring them up gradually with as little loss 
 as possible over the dangerous ground to a point 
 where the hottest fire can be directed against the 
 enemy's position, and then the line is reformed com- 
 pactly to deliver the final assault. Whereas the duty 
 of skirmishers is to cover a body of troops behind 
 them, and to feel for an enemy in an inclosed or 
 wooded country. When the enemy is discovered, 
 the skirmishers double round the flanks and through 
 the intervals, clearing the front, and reform. Or 
 else they lie down till the other troops pass over 
 
 * them. Sometimes a whole battalion is, employed to 
 skirmish in front of a division, and when the object 
 is accomplished, it will reform and join the rear 
 brigade. Greater latitude is allowed in skirmishing, 
 and the number of paces for the extension will be 
 named. But in " extended order," the interval
 
 tended " order requires of them more -self-confidence, 
 and the strictest discipline. They must, moreover, 
 
 47 
 
 between files is 4 paces or less, including the space 
 occupied by the men. 
 
 Although men in "extended order" are individu- * Self-confi- 
 
 . dence and 
 
 ally more independent than in close order, yet " ex- strictest 
 
 discipline 
 
 essential in 
 
 extended 
 
 order, 
 be alert and nimble of foot. The men of a company 
 
 should frequently look for the signals or direction 
 of the captain; those of a section must attend to 
 their section-leader. All words of command must 
 be passed by supernumeraries. Section commanders 
 should know the number of files in their respective 
 sections, and their right and left hand men. Their 
 post is a few paces in rear of the centre of their 
 sections, having their eyes on all the men.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INFANTRY IN ATTACK AND UNDER OTHER 
 CIRCUMSTANCES. 
 
 Necessity * BESIDES steady drill on the barrack square, and 
 developing the perfecting of the men's training, efforts must be 
 
 ** , made to secure a further advance in the province of 
 soldier s 
 
 warlike their intellect, and in developing their warlike 
 character. , . 
 
 character, especially in extended order; for close 
 formations are not so much employed in action, being 
 suitable only for bringing up troops for the fight, 
 although they may be used in a few cases by night ( 
 or in surprises, or against cavalry. And troops held 
 in 2nd and 3rd lines are in close formation. The 
 nearest formed body of troops behind the " fighting 
 Directing * line " is called the support. The company or file by 
 c ^g^ y which the others march is called the directing com- 
 pany or file. 
 
 Duties of * The duties of a section commander, moving to the 
 comman- attack, are : to see that the men use the best cover 
 der * for concealing their movements, and for inflicting 
 
 loss on the enemy ; to decide what object is to be 
 fired at, the distance and sighting of the rifles, and 
 the kind of fire ; to keep their men in correct forma- 
 tion, and to lead them properly to the front and
 
 49 
 
 rear; to control the expenditure of ammunition. 
 This last is most important, and a section commander 
 should name certain men to fire, or for drill purposes, 
 direct the front and rear ranks to fire alternately, 
 or right files and then left files. A better plan still 
 is to order the section to fire a certain number of 
 rounds say from 3 to 5 after the expenditure of 
 which there will be a pause in the firing, to allow 
 the smoke to clear off, to subdue any excitement or un- 
 steadiness in the men, and to give them fresh orders. 
 On a favourable opportunity occurring, he may 
 seize a position by the combined movement of his 
 section, provided he will not expose the men to 
 needless loss, and support is at hand. 
 
 A battalion is subdivided for attack into the * Sut >- 
 . division of 
 
 fighting line, supports, and main body. a battalion 
 
 About 4 marksmen per company, under an officer, attack 6 
 are selected as scouts, moving in advance of the * Scouts. 
 fighting line, until the enemy's strength is ascer- 
 tained, which will probably be about 400 to 500 
 yards from his position, when they should lie down, 
 and await the arrival of the fighting line. 
 
 Scouts, connecting files, and all others, make use * signals to 
 of the code of signals referred to under the head ot u ' 
 
 advanced guards, as occasion may require. (Vide 
 pp. 71, 72.) 
 
 Bugle sounds may disclose our intentions. The * In prefer- 
 commanding officer's bugle is generally sufficient. It C bugle 
 is only an extended line that moves by bugle sound ; sounds, 
 the supports and main body move by word of com- 
 mand. The advance must be made as quietly as 
 possible, captains and supernumeraries passing all 
 words of command.
 
 50 
 
 The com- * When a battalion is ordered to attack, the corn- 
 officer, manding officer points out to the captains of Nos. 1 
 and 3 companies the enemy's position, and selects 
 some conspicuous object for the centre file to march 
 on. "Whenever practicable, the extension should be 
 When * made and everything ready for the advance under 
 makes all cover ; then at a signal, or by word, the front line 
 
 disposi- moves on. followed by the others at the regular 
 tions under * 
 
 cover. distances. (Vide Fig. 34, representing the 1st stage.) 
 First stage * The men are to avail themselves of the slightest 
 inequality of ground, as cover, avoiding all needless 
 exposure. But they must not seek cover, if by so 
 doing they lose their intervals, and fail to move direct 
 to their front. Should artillery fire open upon them, 
 they must not seek cover except by word of com- 
 mand. About 800 to 1000 yards from the position, 
 according to what may be seen of the enemy, the 
 fighting line will open fire, the rear rank coming up 
 
 The two * on the left of the front rank, so as to form rank 
 men of . 
 
 each file to entire, but the two men of each file keeping together. 
 
 together If the bugle sounds " the fire," this is permissive only, 
 as it is useless to waste any rounds when there is no 
 good object seen, or the fire would not be effective. 
 
 Fighting * The fighting line and the supports are under the 
 officer second in command. He conducts the advance 
 either in a general line or by alternate companies 
 until within 600 yards of the position (vide Fig. 35, 
 
 The second * the 2nd stage), when the fire should begin to have 
 good effect ; the advance being continued by short 
 rushes of 30 or 40 yards from cover to cover, the men 
 lying down to fire, protecting their comrades on the 
 move. The greatest care is required in practising 
 this, so that the men do not close in or open out ;
 
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 o 
 
 ^ 
 
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 50 
 
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 KyX. 
 
 A BATTALION ATTACKING. 
 R.D STAGE. 
 
 frvm <.3ffl} fc> 4CW paces firm enemy'.* positicn . 
 
 About 4J>(' \pace* 
 
 MAIN BODY. 
 
 fighting hue- reinJnrcett fry supports 
 Strififf in. rccnk entire^ advasicing iy 
 tnhifi&d cornpanzes . 
 
 JV T .H STAGE. 
 
 7<5O&a/:es Jrom, ene?ny'<s position,. 
 
 MAIN BODY 
 
 COLOURS & ESCORT. 
 
 reinforced a^rcrdiny /f> cwcus 
 
 either hi rank, witij-e, or in, two ranks . 
 
 5 
 2
 
 51 
 
 that they double steadily, and do not mask the fire 
 of those lying down. As a rule, the alternate bodies, 
 
 J O 
 
 moving up. will not go beyond those in front, but lie 
 down in line with them. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 4 companies form the supports, fol- * Supports 
 lowing the extended companies at about 150 yards ; 
 but gradually decreasing that distance. They are 
 intended to make good losses in, and to reinforce the 
 fighting line when necessary, so that its fire may 
 never slacken ; also to protect its flanks, being ever 
 ready to pour a heavy fire upon any of the enemy's 
 cavalry or infantry that may be threatening ; and 
 supports give confidence to the fighting line by 
 having a compact body of men of the same battalion 
 close at hand. Every supporting company sends on 
 a connecting file to communicate with the company 
 in its front. 
 
 The supports adopt any formation suitable to the 
 ground. In the open they move at open files, at 
 1 pace interval. They may form column, for better 
 shelter, behind a house or hillock ; and if on an 
 exposed flank, echelon of sections is advisable. 
 
 When the fighting line experiences difficulty from * Reinforc- 
 the enemy's fire, it will be reinforced. This is at the cretional. 
 discretion of the field officer leading the advance, who 
 should remember that the nearer the attacking line 
 can push on without reinforcement, the greater will 
 be the effect when it does take place. 
 
 Each support should extend so as just to occupy * Extension 
 the front of the company reinforced. At drill the supports, 
 
 files should be directed on the left of the correspond- 
 
 Third 
 
 ing files in front. This is the 3rd stage (vide Fig. 36), 
 and the advance is continued by rushes by alternate 
 
 E 2
 
 52 
 
 combined companies of about 30 yards, at a smart, 
 but steady double, by word of command of the senior 
 officer of each combined company, the men lying 
 down keeping up the fire. When the men who 
 advanced are settled on the ground, they open fire, 
 and the rear combined company is brought up into 
 line, and so on. The utmost care must be taken to 
 preserve the direction and proper intervals. No 
 firing is permitted except when halted. 
 
 Reserve. * The main body or reserve is to reinforce, and other- 
 wise to assist the companies in front, so as to secure 
 the enemy's position by a final rush. It may be in 
 column by the left, or in any formation the com- 
 manding officer thinks best. When deployed, 
 intervals between companies may vary from 3 to 20 
 Use of * paces. In crossing rough ground, intersected with 
 rough obstacles, it is desirable to advance in fours from the 
 ground. flanks of companies, which will front form when 
 cleared. As a rule, under fire, the main body of a 
 central battalion will move in line with files at one 
 Echelon on * pace interval ; that of a flank battalion should move 
 
 a flank. . , , 
 
 in echelon. 
 
 About 200 yards from the enemy, the command- 
 ing officer, having resolved to force the position by 
 a front attack, reinforces with the reserve (vide 
 Fourth * Fig. 37), the 4th stage. The companies, advancing 
 in line, form rank entire, fix bayonets on the march, 
 Reinforce- * and slope arms. When halted they form a rear rank 
 reserve^ to the men in the fighting line, who will have fixed 
 bayonets, as soon as they see the main body coming 
 up. The line may be ordered to advance, and halt 
 to pour in the hottest fire for a few moments, then 
 to advance again. When within charging distance,
 
 53 
 
 the signal or order to charge will be given ; the 
 buglers, drummers and pipers sound the charge ; the 
 men quicken their pace and cheer. 
 
 If guns or cavalry are ordered to pass through 
 an extended line, in which there are no intervals, 
 sufficient files must close right and left to let them 
 through, and at once resume their places in line. 
 
 In practising the attack with a company, the 
 enemy's position should be marked, and some lateral 
 limits fixed, outside which the movements are not to 
 take place. For it is necessary that the men are 
 instructed as if they really formed part of a more 
 extended line. 
 
 A skeleton enemy is most useful. Thus four 
 drummer boys may be posted on the ground to be 
 advanced over ; two representing parties of infantry, 
 and the others, with camp colours, parties of cavalry, 
 who should endeavour to work round the flanks, and 
 raise the flags to show they are about to charge. 
 
 Although rarely the same troops, who have 
 stormed a position, will be able to continue a further 
 advance, pursuit being left to the second line passing 
 over them ; yet sometimes it may occur that the 
 enemy has withdrawn after the fighting line has 
 been reinforced, and it is required to continue the 
 advance in the original formation. In such a case, 
 the men last brought up will form the new front 
 line ; and on the order being given, the captains, or 
 section commanders, calling the attention of their 
 men, will direct their further advance ; the remainder, 
 having closed, follow at the proper distances as 
 supports, or reserve. 
 
 When the battalion is much mixed, the quickest 
 
 The 
 
 charge. 
 
 * Opening 
 for cavalry 
 and guns 
 to pass. 
 
 How to 
 
 practise 
 
 the attack, 
 
 Skeleton 
 enemy. 
 
 Conduct of 
 a further 
 advance.
 
 54 
 Keforming * way to re-form is to call out the markers and sound 
 
 the batta- , -, , , 
 
 lion. tne assembly. 
 
 To fix bayonets on the march, or lying down, the 
 method is the same as that laid down in page 56 
 Rifle Exercises. 
 Fixing and * To unfix bayonets on the march, the rifle should 
 
 unfixing 
 
 bayonets be carried in the left hand at the trail, barrel slant- 
 march 8 . m S upwards, the bayonet is unfixed with the right 
 hand, the rifle changed to the right side, and carried 
 below the right arm-pit, while returning the bayonet 
 to the scabbard. 
 
 Ammuni- * Every infantry soldier carries 70 rounds of ammu- 
 
 tion ... . , 
 
 carried by nition in action. 1 hree ammunition carts per bat- 
 
 the soldier, ^^ folloWj eacll carry i ng g^QO rounds. Of these 
 Ammuni- * one cart accompanies the battalion into action, about 
 20 yards in rear of the main body, until approach- 
 ing the fighting line, when it must be placed under 
 the nearest cover, ready to furnish the supply ; the 
 other two are parked in rear, with those of the other 
 battalions of the brigade, awaiting orders. Each 
 company of the fighting line should have its am- 
 munition served out to it previous to an advance ; 
 Eeplenisn- * and a careful system should be adopted for replenish- 
 pouches i n g t ne pouches from the regimental cart, 
 from the Pioneers or bandsmen are generally employed for 
 
 cart. this duty. They ought to be provided with a double 
 bag worn over the shoulders. They must know how 
 to get from their companies to the ammunition cart. 
 The ammunition on the dead and wounded should be 
 collected as far as possible. 
 
 Disposi- * When a battalion is ordered to occupy a defensive 
 
 tion of a 
 
 battalion position, the disposition is much the same as for 
 
 for 
 defence. attack. The fighting line is made as strong as a free
 
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 o o 
 
 Z O 
 
 o B 
 
 -i < 
 
 a < 
 < a: 
 
 oi 
 
 Z CO 
 
 2< 
 
 I 
 
 CD
 
 55 
 
 use of the rifle will admit. It is, therefore, usual to 
 place 3 companies in front line instead of 2 ; and 
 these open fire as soon as the enemy comes within 
 effective musketry range. Ranges of several objects 
 should be taken previously. The supports are posted 
 under cover, close by, to replace casualties in the 
 fighting line. The main body is placed centrally, so 
 that when the enemy's attack is developed, part of 
 it, or the whole, may be moved to a convenient spot 
 to deliver a counter attack. 
 
 The object of the defence being to hold the posi- 
 tion, the enemy must be kept at a distance by fire. 
 But should he, notwithstanding, attempt to charge, 
 the counter attack must repel him with fire and 
 the bayonet. 
 
 When a battalion is obliged to retire, the retreat 
 should be conducted by companies to positions chosen 
 for mutual support; or by alternate half-battalions, 
 each under its own field officer ; retires 100 or 150 
 yards, halts, fronts, and opens fire, covering the 
 retreat of the other. 
 
 In order to pass a defile, or advance across a 
 bridge in presence of an enemy, the principle is 
 understood by reference to figure 38, taken from 
 the Field Exercises. On reaching the defile, river, 
 or canal, the fighting line opens fire ; the supports 
 close on the one nearest the defile or bridge, and 
 with the main body, if necessary, force the passage 
 with the bayonet. This done, the supports extend. 
 The main body retains possession of the defile or 
 bridge. The old fighting line continues firing until 
 its front is masked, and then re-forms in rear of 
 the reserve, and the advance is continued. 
 
 * Ranges to 
 be taken. 
 
 Counter 
 attack. 
 
 * Battalion 
 in retreat. 
 
 Advancing 
 across a 
 bridge in 
 presence 
 of an 
 enemy.
 
 56 
 
 Retiring * To retire across a bridge, or through a defile 
 
 bridge in ( v ^ e ^& ^9), the plan is for the main body to 
 
 presence p ass fi TS t f an( j extend 2 companies, lining the river 
 
 enemy. bank on either side. These open fire when the front 
 
 is clear. The supports close, and halt in front of 
 
 the bridge until the withdrawal of the fighting line, 
 
 the men of which incline towards the bridge, run 
 
 quickly over, and form in rear of the reserve. The 
 
 supports cross last, and the whole will be prepared to 
 
 defend the passage or retire. 
 
 To practise these two movements on parade a 
 bridge may be marked with camp colours. 
 Separate * When a large force has to pass a river, separate 
 different 1 bridges should, if possible, be provided for infantry, 
 arms. cavalry, and artillery. The several arms should not 
 be mixed. 
 
 P- . * In crossing, infantry must break step, and the 
 cautions in J % 
 
 crossing band stop playing. Files and sections are not to 
 close up. Cavalry, as a rule, cross in file at a walk. 
 Artillery, with carriages up to guns of position, 
 40 pounders, must cross fully horsed. All halting 
 on the bridge should be avoided. 
 
 Conduct of* In action the soldier must move in a free and 
 in action, unconstrained manner, and at a smart pace. Silence 
 must be enforced. The whole attention must be 
 paid to the section commander, and that of the 
 latter to the captain. Arms are earned at the 
 " trail " ; in wet weather at the " secure." If re- 
 quired to double, he will be specially ordered to do 
 so by signal or word of command ; and then there 
 must be no running, but each file must never lose 
 connection with those on his right and left, specially 
 observing the direction of the advance and con-
 
 57 
 
 forming to it. Each rear-rank man must never 
 separate from his front-rank man. 
 
 Men or files, when extended, may be ordered to * Different 
 
 kinds of 
 execute independent firing so many rounds ; or to fire. 
 
 fire volleys in extended order ; or, if closed, volleys 
 in close formation ; and independent firing in close 
 formation. 
 
 In volley firing, every man firing before the 
 others should be punished. 
 
 There are short-range firing, viz. at 400 yards and 
 under, and long-range firing, viz. from 400 to 800 
 yards, beyond which distance firing is only ordered 
 under special circumstances. Every man must care- 
 fully husband his ammunition ; for it is very easy to 
 come to the end of it. 
 
 All firing must at once cease at the word " Cease * Signal for 
 
 cease 
 firing " ; or at a long-drawn whistle sound from the firing. 
 
 captain. This sound also means "Pay attention." 
 
 The "alert" is the only bugle sound to be used in * The 
 
 "alert" 
 action when cavalry threaten. the only 
 
 Each soldier must be posted in such a manner as S0 und 
 to have a clear field of fire. He must learn how to * Soldiers 
 make good use of ground both as cover and as a rest 
 
 for his rifle e.g., undulations of the surface, walls, use J 
 
 ground ; 
 
 hedges, large and small trees ; and further, how to 
 fire from loopholes, windows, shelter trenches, and 
 earthworks. The enemy must be " stalked," and his 
 position approached as close as possible by the 
 soldier unobserved under cover. In small engage- 
 ments this may sometimes be done by creeping 
 
 forward. He must be a good and rapid judger of * and judge 
 j. , distance. 
 
 distance. 
 
 Sometimes the fight is stationary, the men on
 
 58 
 
 When * 
 considered 
 properly 
 trained. 
 
 Three * 
 military 
 positions 
 for firing. 
 
 Adjusting 
 
 the sights 
 
 at close 
 
 range. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 against 
 
 infantry. 
 
 Never 
 
 fire at 
 
 random. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 against 
 
 artillery. 
 
 both sides remaining under cover, firing at each 
 
 o o 
 
 other for a considerable time. Lastly, we may con- 
 sider soldiers properly trained, when, in changing 
 position, they are able to take up their places in the 
 new position in such a manner as to be well under 
 cover, and favourably posted for firing with great 
 rapidity, yet with steadiness, and without crowding 
 or unduly opening out. 
 
 The three military positions authorised for firing 
 in the Rifle Exercises are standing, kneeling, and 
 lying down, which last is the most usual in action. 
 When the line approaches the enemy's position, and 
 the fight is raging, so that the section commanders 
 cannot name the range, it is well for the men to use 
 the 200 yards' sight from 300 yards and under, 
 aiming rather above the object up to 200 yards, and 
 a little below it beyond 200 yards. 
 
 In an engagement between infantry there is a con- 
 tinuous musketry fire. Each man must make every 
 effort to remain cool, notwithstanding the striking of 
 bullets and the noise. He should always take a 
 distinct aim, and never fire at random. In indepen- 
 dent firing aim must be taken quickly. 
 
 The object to fire at is the enemy's fighting line. 
 If nothing is visible but smoke then the thickest 
 layer should be aimed at. Always fire at the officers 
 and mounted men, and above all, at columns. At 
 night, companies will be in close formation, and must 
 be ready to fire volleys or deliver a bayonet charge. 
 
 In attacking artillery, infantry should fire long- 
 range volleys, or what is better still, gain, if possible, 
 a point within short range of a flank of the battery, 
 by means of such cover as folds of ground, bushes,
 
 59 
 
 standing corn, from which the men can open inde- # Fire at the 
 pendent firing. The battery should then be charged. mo^fog, 
 If it is moving, or about to limber up, fire at the ^ tne 
 horses ; if it is in action fire at the line of guns guns in 
 itself. Rapid advances and diagonal movements are 
 the best protection against artillery fire. If the 
 battery is captured and has to be abandoned, spike 
 the guns if they are muzzle-loaders, or take away the 
 removable part of the breech action if they are 
 breech-loaders. 
 
 Provided we remain cool, we possess a decided * . ? 
 
 infantry 
 
 superiority over cavalry in action, both in single invincible 
 
 V)V Civn,lrv. 
 
 combat and in bodies, cavalry charge in Echelon, i.e. 
 in detachments following each other in rapid suc- 
 cession. What has to be done is to fire steadily 
 at short ranges, with the sights of the rifles at * Mi ust - 
 
 ment 
 
 400 yards, aiming at the foot of the object, the of sights. 
 advancing cavalry will then be struck through- 
 out that distance. A fighting line favourably posted 
 
 should not close to receive cavalry, but the men * As a rule 
 
 avoid 
 should retain their position, directing their fire squares; 
 
 against the horsemen. But if the cavalry approach 
 within 50 yards the fighting line should stand up. 
 This will startle both man and horse, and it is easier 
 to aim standing at a mounted man than when lying 
 down. 
 
 Men extending, lying down in the open, unpro- * Unless un- 
 tected by any cover, if not under a heavy fire, should P j ^he 6 
 close and form sections or company. P en - 
 
 When cavalry appears on the flanks these must be 
 thrown back, when it appears in rear the rear rank 
 should be turned about. Volleys are best against 
 cavalry.
 
 60 
 
 In the event of all the ammunition being ex- 
 pended, squares and rallying squares must be formed 
 to resist with the bayonet. If cavalry really ride 
 the men down they should throw themselves on the 
 ground, but jump up again immediately, form either 
 in line or rallying square, and fire after the cavalry, 
 or at the Echelons coming up. No soldier should 
 surrender or allow himself to be taken prisoner. 
 Single * In single combat an infantry soldier may allow a 
 mounted man to come within 30 yards before he 
 fires. If he misses he should fire again. If he has 
 no more ammunition he should jump aside as the 
 cavalry soldier charges, and thrust at his horse. 
 Forma- * The chief formations to resist cavalry are squares 
 resist an d line. Steady, well- disciplined infantry have 
 cavalp y- little to fear. 
 
 The "thin* The " thin red line " receiving the masses of the 
 red line." 
 
 Russian cavalry at Balaklava is a conspicuous 
 
 instance. Company squares are formed by an ex- 
 tended line and the supports when threatened by a 
 very large body of cavalry. Care must be taken 
 that the squares are in echelon. 
 
 Rallying * Rallying squares are quickly made, when an 
 officer for each square holds up his sword, turning 
 towards the enemy as a rallying point, and the men 
 at the command run towards the officer, form round 
 him without crowding, fix bayonets or swords, and 
 turn outwards. 
 
 Closing on * An excellent plan, easy of application, is for the 
 flanks of , . ., , . , 
 
 section. men of each section to close rapidly on the right or 
 
 left file of that section, according to which flank is 
 threatened (vide Fig. 40), the flank file making a 
 half turn outwards ; or if both flanks are threatened
 
 Fig 40 
 SECTIONS RECEIVING CAVALRY. 
 
 Kg, 44. 
 
 ESCORTS FOR ARTILLERY.
 
 61 
 
 the two right sections of a company will close on 
 their rio-ht files and the two left sections on the left. 
 
 O 
 
 The word of command for drill will be " From the 
 right " (or left), or, " from both flanks prepare for 
 cavalry." The men fix bayonets, the front rank 
 drop on the knee, and the rear rank open fire by 
 command of the section leaders. Care must be 
 taken that the sections are not wheeled up too much. 
 
 As a rule they will be formed in echelon, and able * Echelon, 
 to fire clear of each other. If not, they must move 
 into Echelon. 
 
 A support, in open files, and hard pressed, may 
 close and form an oval round its captain, or the 
 usual company square, closing on the centre. The * Company 
 necessity for the main body to form square is 
 exceptional. 
 
 The great disadvantage of squares is the large mark * Disadvan- 
 they offer to artillery \. and often cavalry will charge squares, 
 the flanks of infantry with that very object. 
 
 A company extended, on the approach of cavalry, 
 may also form groups, each composed of a right and * Groups, 
 left file, or, if the company has been reinforced, the 
 two files next each other will run together, and 
 stand back to back. 
 
 In resisting cavalry, much depends upon the 
 nature of the ground on which the infantry are, and 
 of that over which the cavalry has to pass ; also the 
 quality of that cavalry, and the morale and cohesion 
 possessed by the infantry. 
 
 As before mentioned, a battalion may receive 
 cavalry in line. But there must be no inequalities 
 of ground to protect the cavalry, or enable it to form 
 unperceived anywhere near. Often a flank company
 
 62 
 
 Battalion * 
 square. 
 
 Infantry * 
 in a siege. 
 
 Conduct of * 
 an assault. 
 
 Instruc- * 
 tions to the 
 
 German 
 
 infantry 
 
 soldier in 
 
 attack. 
 
 is thrown back, and another forward ; or both may 
 be thrown back. 
 
 A battalion square is formed from line, column, 
 quarter-column, or column of double companies. 
 Whenever it is possible for cavalry to approach 
 unperceived, infantry must be ready to form square 
 two-deep, or four-deep, at any moment. 
 
 It may happen that infantry has to remain rifle 
 in hand in the trenches for days together in pre- 
 sence of an enemy. Each soldier should be pro- 
 vided with about 200 rounds, and special rations. 
 It may be required to search a particular work in 
 the enemy's lines with long range fire, aim must 
 then be taken at the crest of the parapet, which 
 usually stands out clearly, and particularly at the 
 embrasures. 
 
 If a work has to be taken by assault, precise 
 directions are issued beforehand as to the conduct 
 of the different portions of the attacking force, and 
 as to their direction. Success is insured only by 
 the most reckless bravery, and the most expeditious 
 crossing of the ditch. On reaching the berm, the 
 men halt for a moment to form, then mount the 
 parapet closed up as much as possible. 
 
 A small pamphlet has been published for \\d., by 
 a German officer of great experience in war, and a 
 well-known writer, containing invaluable rules for 
 the conduct of the men in action, and in the various 
 incidents of the same. The following are some 
 extracts therefrom : 
 
 When the whistling of bullets commences, the 
 men must constantly remember to show no signs of
 
 63 
 
 weakness, even in the most perilous moments of 
 the fight. 
 
 It is strictly prohibited to attend to the dead or * 
 wounded. It is better not to let the eyes rest on 
 them. Men who are slightly wounded are not 
 allowed to withdraw from the fight. 
 
 Wounded men coming out of the fight, and re- 
 turning to the rear, must not dare to dishearten the 
 reinforcing troops. They must, on the contrary, 
 put up with pain, and strive to groan as little as 
 possible. 
 
 Throwing packs away without orders will be 
 severely punished. 
 
 Every soldier must strive to remain with his com- 
 pany or section during the fight, as he cannot, single- 
 handed, effect anything of importance. His con- 
 centrated attention must, therefore, be fixed on his 
 leader. 
 
 Should a soldier, through no fault of his own, 
 become separated from his company he will join the 
 nearest fighting body of troops, and place himself 
 under the orders of the officer or N.C. officer in 
 command of it, to whom he will render the implicit 
 obedience due to his own immediate superiors. 
 
 Whenever bodies of troops become intermingled i! 
 in action (which frequently is unavoidable), the 
 superior officer who assumes command is to be 
 obeyed without hesitation. 
 
 The soldier must bear in mind that long-range 
 firing rarely does much execution, and that its em- 
 ployment remains as matter of uncertainty ; the 
 leaders are responsible for the results obtained 
 thereby. Consequently, during an attack, no firing 
 
 Not to 
 
 leave the 
 
 ranks to 
 
 attend the 
 
 wounded. 
 
 Duty of 
 the soldier 
 
 when 
 separated 
 from his 
 company. 
 
 When 
 
 troops are 
 
 mixed the 
 
 senior 
 
 officer 
 
 commands.
 
 64 
 
 must on any account take place at greater distances 
 than 400 yards, unless expressly ordered. 
 
 Each man * rp^ so ldier must, above all. remember to adiust 
 must J 
 
 adjust his his sights correctly. This is particularly necessary, 
 indepen- as the company and section leaders are frequently 
 put out of action, and the men are then thrown on 
 their own resources. 
 
 Should the soldier observe any movements or 
 changes in the enemy's fighting line that may appear 
 to him of importance, he must report them to his 
 superior. 
 
 Every soldier must be able to convey an order 
 clearly, and to make a clear report in the midst of 
 the fight. 
 
 During the advance no man is allowed to hesitate 
 or halt, no matter how heavy the enemy's fire may 
 be, or how severe the losses suffered. It is only 
 when the officer gives the command, "Halt," that 
 a halt is made, and a position is immediately taken up. 
 
 In closing on the enemy at the run, the advance 
 must be continued without a check right up to the 
 enemy's position. Should this not be done, and 
 should the assailants run back, they are as good as 
 dead, as they have to recross the ground under a 
 murderous fire. 
 
 Effect of * A determined charge really driven right home will 
 mined invariably be successful. 
 
 If, during the fight, the enemy makes a deter- 
 mined forward movement, the principal thing is not 
 to allow oneself to be intimidated. Should some men 
 lose courage and run away, they must be imme- 
 diately brought back and encouraged by their 
 comrades.
 
 65 
 
 In the moment of danger the soldier must look to * I" 
 
 i 111 difficulty 
 
 his leader, for he it is who orders what has to be look to the 
 
 leader ; 
 done. 
 
 The enemy's attack must either be met with a 
 withering fire, or he must be immediately charged. 
 
 Should the firing be so heavy that the orders of * and 
 
 attend to 
 the officers cannot be understood, attention must be signals. 
 
 paid to their signals with the sword, and to their 
 personal movements. 
 
 When the enemy has been driven out of a posi- 
 tion, the individual soldier must on no account rush 
 on in pursuit, but wait the orders of his leader, 
 and in the meantime continue firing on the 
 enemy. 
 
 The men must be able rapidly to re-assemble after 
 such an attack. 
 
 On the defensive the men must be determined not * n the 
 
 defensive. 
 to move from the position they are to hold. 
 
 The firing is commenced either by order or by 
 signal. The soldier should not allow himself to be 
 intimidated by the enemy's shouts and close ap- 
 proach. Every man should remain lying down, and 
 fire steadily. A position should not be evacuated 
 except by a distinct command. 
 
 The enemy will not usually be able to withstand 
 the firing of such a determined body of troops, but 
 will run back. Should he, however, really come to 
 close quarters, the men must be determined to 
 engage him even hand to hand. 
 
 With equally good arms victory will generally fall 
 to the combatant possessing the greatest courage and 
 coolness and the best discipline. ..... 
 
 F
 
 66 
 
 When * 
 
 casualties 
 
 occur, 
 
 lance 
 
 corporals 
 
 and best 
 
 soldiers 
 
 must 
 
 replace 
 
 their 
 
 seniors. 
 
 To be 
 
 humane 
 
 and not to 
 
 plunder. 
 
 When the officers and N. C. officers have fallen, 
 every honourable soldier must strive to replace them. 
 The lance corporals, the oldest and ablest men, take 
 command and lead their comrades. 
 
 Should unfortunate circumstances and the decided 
 superiority of the enemy compel a body of troops to 
 fall back, no soldier must appear discouraged, or 
 retire further than to the spot where the leader 
 orders a halt, or to the pre-arranged place of 
 assembly. 
 
 Should a soldier find himself separated from his 
 corps after an action, he will proceed in search of it 
 and join it without delay. All aimless roaming about 
 on the battle-field will be severely punished. 
 
 Should a soldier take part in the fight in the 
 ranks of another corps, he must carefully remember 
 which it was, for the purpose of producing witnesses 
 as to his conduct. 
 
 The soldier must behave in a noble and humane 
 manner towards the enemy or prisoners. Under no 
 circumstances whatever should their private property 
 be taken from them, and they should never be 
 ill-used without necessity. 
 
 The white flag with a red cross denotes dressing 
 stations and hospitals ; a white band with a red cross 
 worn on the arm denotes medical officers, bearers, 
 &c. These, in accordance with the Geneva conven- 
 tion, are not to be fired on. 
 
 Firing off a feu-de-joie after the battle, plundering 
 captured baggage, or any similar misdemeanour, is 
 strictly prohibited. 
 
 Furthermore, the soldier should be ready after an
 
 67 
 
 action, notwithstanding his exhaustion, to start off in * To be 
 
 . . ready for 
 
 pursuit of the enemy, should this be ordered, for it is pursuit. 
 
 only by a rapid and active pursuit that the victory is 
 completed, and further fighting avoided. 
 
 Escorts for Artillery. 
 
 Artillery is helpless on the move. Occasions 
 arise when a battery is sent forward to an advanced 
 position for a special purpose, or detached to a flank, 
 exposed to the enemy's infantry. Then if the fire 
 of the battery is diverted in self-defence, the object 
 for which it took position cannot be attained^ Hence 
 it requires other troops in support. 
 
 Guns in action havo to be guarded against a 
 sudden flank attack of cavalry, combined with a 
 converging attack in front by skirmishers ; and, 
 also, against the enemy's infantry stealthily advanc- 
 ing in extended order under cover in front, or on 
 a flank. 
 
 Cavalry or infantry cannot be taken from their 
 legitimate work to form a permanent escort, so the 
 proper course is for the battery commander to apply 
 for a squadron of cavalry to accompany his guns 
 when detached, as protection on the march, and 
 when first coming into action ; and for a company 
 of infantry to follow rapidly to replace the cavalry. 
 
 If the officer commanding the escort chance to be 
 senior to the artillery officer, he should in no way 
 interfere, but assist the latter in every way, by 
 defending the guns, and guarding against surprise. 
 
 The escort should be formed as an advanced guard 
 in a forward march, and as a rear guard during a 
 
 F 2 
 
 Necessity 
 for an 
 escort. 
 
 When 
 required 
 how to be 
 
 applied 
 for. 
 
 Duty of 
 the officer 
 command- 
 ing the 
 escort. 
 
 * Formation 
 on the 
 march.
 
 68 
 
 Disposi- * 
 tion oi an 
 escort of 
 
 Of an 
 escort. 
 
 Infantry 
 escort 
 
 conveyed 
 on artillery 
 waggons. 
 
 retreat, guarding specially an exposed flank, or part 
 may be at the head and part at the rear of the 
 battery. When marching by a road, all adjacent 
 roads must be patrolled. 
 
 When the cavalry escort arrives at the position, if 
 an attack by cavalry is expected, scouts must be 
 sent well on to the front and flanks for timely 
 warning, and the remainder take post some 200 
 yards on the exposed flank of the battery in echelon, 
 ready to charge. The best disposition against in- 
 fantry is to dismount and extend half the escort, 
 retaining the rest in support. But the infantry 
 should hurry up and relieve them. 
 
 On arrival, the infantry escort should extend half 
 the men at wide intervals to watch and give the 
 alarm, much like outposts. They should be so 
 posted as to keep the enemy's skirmishers at a dis- 
 tance of 1,000 yards at least, and to prevent anything 
 coming within a mile of the battery unseen. As 
 far as possible, the enemy must be prevented from 
 occupying any cover within range. The remainder 
 of the escort should form the support 150 or 200 
 yards from and in line with the battery on its 
 exposed flank, and 100 yards away from the waggons, 
 for fear of an accidental explosion. 
 
 The escort must move on the flanks of the guns 
 so as not to mask their fire, unless they are in action 
 on such high ground as to be able to fire over their 
 heads; and possibly, even the escort may retire 
 under the very guns themselves (vide Fig. 41). 
 
 jf. j g possible to mount infantry on the waggons. 
 A horse artillery battery can take a company, and 
 a field battery about halt a company.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ADVANCED GUARDS, FLANKING PARTIES, REAR 
 GUARDS. 
 
 A n Advanced Guard. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS are to be found in Part VI. Field * Necessity 
 Exercises. An advanced guard furnishes the "eyes advanced 
 and ears " of a force on the march ; an army unpro- 
 vided with one is liable to come unexpectedly in 
 contact with the enemy, and even if the opposing 
 force be small, the army must halt to disperse it. 
 Therefore, whether the advance be made on one or 
 more roads, each column must be preceded by an 
 advanced guard, to cover and conceal the march and 
 formation of the main body ; to feel the way through 
 the country, searching well in front and on the flanks 
 of the enemy's line of march ; to give timely notice 
 of his vicinity or approach, and keep him in check 
 until the main body has time to prepare for action ; 
 also, to remove obstacles, prevent delay, facilitate 
 the march, and guard against surprise. 
 
 In some cases it is sent far in advance to seize a * Sometimes 
 
 . . . sent far in 
 
 post, or to anticipate the enemy on some important advance, 
 point.
 
 General 
 duties. 
 
 Specially 
 organised, 
 usually of 
 the three 
 
 On what 
 depends r, 
 its compo- 
 sition and 
 strength. 
 
 When 
 
 cavalry 
 
 screen 
 
 precedes 
 
 the army. 
 
 When 
 
 there is no 
 
 cavalry 
 
 screen. 
 
 Infantry * 
 
 on the 
 
 flanks in 
 
 mountains. 
 
 Proportion 
 
 to the 
 
 army 
 
 covered. 
 
 An advanced guard should not compromise itself 
 with a superior force, but must not let the march be 
 delayed by insignificant demonstrations. It must 
 either attack promptly, or fall back slowly disputing 
 the ground. Occasionally its duty is to engage and 
 hold fast the enemy, and for this purpose it is 
 strengthened. 
 
 It is a specially organised force, consisting, as a 
 rule, of all arms ; having more cavalry in an open, 
 and more infantry in an inclosed or hilly country, 
 with artillery to shell the enemy out of farms and 
 sheltered ground. 
 
 The composition and strength depend upon the 
 distance in front of the main body, the object in 
 view, the nature of the country, and other circum- 
 stances, appreciated only on the spot. 
 
 If the army is preceded by the cavalry screen, and 
 the enemy is at a distance, the advanced guard need 
 only be of sufficient strength for observation. But, 
 approaching the enemy, the cavalry screen will 
 encounter his infantry, and the advanced guard must 
 be ready to furnish support. 
 
 If there is no cavalry screen, it must be tactically 
 complete a miniature army supplemented by 
 cavalry to obtain information, and protect the 
 column in rear, by extending the leading patrols 
 sufficiently on each side. 
 
 In a mountainous district parties of infantry 
 should move along the heights on each flank. 
 
 The larger the army the greater the number of 
 men which can be spared for the advanced guard. 
 In a forward march the effective strength of the 
 main body, or f the strength of all the detached
 
 71 
 
 parties surrounding the army is an average pro- 
 portion. 
 
 But in 1870 the Germans sometimes employed 
 ^ to J. A strong advanced guard is a temptation to 
 an engagement not previously contemplated. 
 
 An advanced guard is divided into 3 portions, 
 
 viz :- 
 
 i. The advanced party, always preceded by 1 or 2 
 files under a N". C. officer. Its duty is to explore 
 with cavalry patrols the roads in every direction, 
 and in an open country to spread out like a fan. 
 
 ii. The support, about twice the strength of the 
 advanced party. These two together are termed the 
 vanguard, under the orders of the officer command- 
 ing the support, who is responsible for the proper 
 road being followed ; and by means of scouts he must 
 ascertain that the country on each side is clear of 
 the enemy. He keeps up communication with the 
 advanced party by signals and connecting files, and 
 verifies reports before transmission. 
 
 iii. The reserve, about J to | the strength of the 
 whole advanced guard. 
 
 An advanced guard ought to be provided with 
 axes and intrenching tools. 
 
 If available, signallers should accompany, and a 
 party, when possible, proceed with any important 
 patrol, so as to give immediate information, and 
 spare the men fatigue. The leading files must be 
 carefully practised in, and made to repeat, the 
 recognised code, as follows : 
 
 By day : " Advance." Wave of the hand or 
 sword. 
 
 The 
 
 Germans 
 in 1870. 
 
 Division 
 into three 
 portions. 
 
 Advanced 
 party. 
 
 Support. 
 
 Duties of 
 
 officer 
 command- 
 ing the 
 
 vanguard. 
 
 Reserve. 
 
 Party with 
 axes and 
 intrench- 
 ing tools. 
 
 Signallers. 
 
 * Code of 
 signals.
 
 72 
 
 By day : " Reinforce." Bonnet waved, or held 
 
 above the head. 
 " Withdraw." Rifle reversed. ( Vide 
 
 Fig. 42.) 
 
 " No enemy in sight." Rifle or sword 
 held vertically, with bonnet on 
 muzzle or point. 
 
 " Small bodies of the enemy seen." 
 Rifle or sword held horizontally 
 steadily. 
 
 " Strong bodies of the enemy seen." 
 Rifle or sword horizontal, raised and 
 lowered. 
 "Halt all in rear." Hand held up high 
 
 over the shoulder. 
 
 By night, or in foggy weather, or in thick woods, 
 whistle sounds should be used. A prolonged whistle 
 sound calls " attention ; " and to men in extended 
 order it means " cease firing." 
 
 On outpost duty, the cry of some bird or animal 
 or other signals, may be pre-arranged. 
 
 Duties of * Connecting files between the different portions 
 
 ' n files. have the important duties of transmitting signals 
 
 from the front, and of showing the way to the troops 
 
 in rear, by dropping a man at cross roads or other 
 
 doubtful points. 
 
 Principle * One general principle applies to the formation of 
 formation, every advanced guard. Small parties of a few men 
 are in front, supported immediately by others of in- 
 creasing strength in rear. 
 
 The point. * The leading party is called the " point." Thus a 
 constantly increasing resistance is afforded, the seve- 
 ral parties marching at distances which are consistent
 
 u ' a: 
 
 z m 
 
 UJ 
 
 >- 05 
 
 S 
 
 z a: 
 
 HI LU
 
 ruf. 44. 
 
 FORMATION OF AN ADVANCED GUARD 
 ON A PLAIN. 
 
 FCg. 43. 
 FORMATION OF AN ADVANCED GUARD 
 
 ON A ROAD. * 
 
 O 
 
 Point 
 
 * 
 
 an 
 
 Advanced^ Party 
 
 Support 
 
 Support \ 
 
 in Yards 
 
 Kg. 46. 
 SMALL ADVANCED GUARD OF THE THREE ARMS. 
 
 TKetanci 
 
 600 
 
 half Sections 3l> 
 
 WO 
 
 tf Troops m }udt'$erti 
 j f'ompany 
 
 ] 1% Companies 
 
 I I 6'Compcmie& 
 
 ! 
 
 144- 
 
 WO 
 17 
 
 WO 
 60 
 
 -WO 
 W6 
 
 Body. 
 
 ' -Scale, 
 
 milt 
 
 73 
 
 2
 
 73 
 
 with connection and timely junction, and yet so far 
 disseminated as to delay an enemy until the main 
 body has time to form up for attack or defence. 
 
 The simplest case is that given in the Field * Advanced 
 Exercises, of the advanced guard of a battalion battalion 
 usually a company on a road. It is divided into a( ' 
 
 two parts ; one Tialf-company under its guide de- 
 taches parties of 2 files 100 yards to the front, and 
 100 yards to the right and left front, each under a 
 N. C. officer or selected soldier. If the company is 
 weak, these parties may consist of only one file each. 
 Any flanking party not required should join its half- 
 company. The remaining half-company follows 200 
 yards in rear as support, and 300 yards in front of 
 the battalion. It sends on a connecting file 100 
 yards, and drops another at the same distance. The 
 leading company of the column also sends out one 
 (vide Fig. 43). 
 
 When this advanced guard debouches from a road * On a plain, 
 on a plain, the leading half-company is formed in 
 extended order. The point halts, the flankers move 
 up abreast, and lie down at the 100 yards' interval; 
 the rest of the advanced party extend from the 
 centre, and complete the line. Intervals are cor- 
 rected from the centre on the march. The support 
 follows, and the connecting file still communicates 
 (vide Fig. 44). 
 
 When an advanced guard is composed of the three * Reason for 
 T -n employing 
 
 arms, cavalry will proceed to reconnoitre, as the cavalry. 
 
 fatigue and loss of time would be great if infantry 
 
 performed this duty. In case the cavalry are support of 
 
 checked, and to overcome obstacles, infantry and infantry, 
 
 engineers will form part of the support. engineers.
 
 74 
 
 When 
 guns may 
 accompany 
 
 and the 
 minimum 
 
 number. 
 
 Advanced 
 guards of 
 the three 
 
 Advanced 
 
 guard of a 
 
 cavalry 
 
 regiment. 
 
 Duties of 
 the officer 
 command- 
 ing the 
 support. 
 
 Distances 
 between 
 
 the 
 fractions. 
 
 Of the main body of the advanced guard, a small 
 part of the infantry will lead, followed by the guns, 
 then the rest of the infantry and cavalry. 
 
 When the road is hilly, and the troops must move 
 with a narrow front, 2 guns without waggons may 
 accompany the support, in order to contend with the 
 enemy's artillery. This number of guns is the least 
 that should be in position at the beginning of an 
 action. By these means delay is avoided in sending 
 back to the reserve for them ; and no risk is run, as 
 the enemy will not be able to extend his front more 
 than the support. 
 
 Fig. 45 shows an advanced guard composed of a 
 battalion of infantry, a squadron of, cavalry, and 2 
 guns. 
 
 Fig. 46 is one formed of an infantry brigade, a 
 regiment of cavalry, and a battery of artillery. 
 
 The strength of the advanced guard of a cavalry 
 regiment would be about 2 officers and 60 N. C. 
 officers and men, disposed in the open somewhat as 
 indicated in Fig. 47 ; on a confined road 2 men 
 precede as scouts. 
 
 The officer commanding the support, in the 
 absence of special orders, acts according to judg- 
 ment, providing individual supports for the separate 
 advanced groups, or keeping the whole together on 
 the main road. 
 
 The reserve and the main body each sends out a 
 group to either flank. Connecting files single or 
 double maintain communications between the 
 several portions. 
 
 The distance is about 500 yards between the ad- 
 vanced groups, support, reserve, and main body, or,
 
 ADVANCED GUARD OF AN INFANTRY BRIGADE 
 WITH A PROPORTION OF THE OTHER ARMS. 
 
 ; &7Utt&y Jlf.ttf ff fvir/fxrff. ' 
 
 . 
 
 I [ Instances . 
 
 I Bint 
 
 KK 500 
 
 Flan&ers 
 
 .. 36 
 
 SUPPORT 
 
 RESERVE / 
 
 I 6 Gymvanz&s.-.. 
 
 r 7J)iyi<sinn of\ 
 \ KeM Battery I 
 
 ncrmeers .- 
 
 200 
 67 
 
 300 
 
 205 
 28% 
 -72 
 
 n ff- 
 
 60 
 
 Commander ofAdvanced ffuard 
 
 I 
 
 600 ~ 
 
 ._ 276 
 28$ 
 
 I Rernamder oi"\ 
 \ field battery \ 
 
 I 
 
 28?* 
 276 
 
 ZS 
 
 26 
 
 ] 
 
 676 
 
 3 Sauacbvma 
 
 .Total len&ffi ?f JMean- tody //<f / -yds . 
 
 Scale ^TfuAes to 'fJtfUe^.
 
 Fry 77. 
 
 ADVANCED GUARD OF A CAVALRY REGIMENT. 
 
 tf 
 
 74-
 
 75 
 
 roughly, a mile from the point to the head of the 
 column. 
 
 Speaking generally, the head of an advanced guard * On what 
 
 should be so far in front, that the column, on first distance 
 
 receiving information of the enemy, may have time a dvlnced 
 
 to form for action before the enemy can reach it. g uard j. n 
 
 front of a 
 
 The distance, therefore, depends upon the time the force 
 rear will take to come into line of battle. Still, it 
 must not be so far to the front as to risk being cut 
 off. 
 
 Houses, inclosures, copses, and other objects, * Duties of 
 capable of concealing an enemy on either side of and 
 the line of march, must be examined by detached p s< 
 files, and by patrols, when the object is too distant 
 for examination by the flank files ; e.g. a subaltern's 
 party of 30 men, a sergeant and 12, a corporal 
 and 6. Each of these parties should have a small 
 advanced guard, and must never commit itself in 
 action if avoidable. Such a patrol will move with 
 a point, rear guard, and flankers on the most exposed 
 flank. 
 
 On coming to a defile, a small party of cavalry * Manner of 
 should generally lead, to gain the first intelligence ; ^d^file! 
 then part of the infantry follows, to explore and 
 secure the flanks. The same rule applies in case 
 of a road bounded by strong walls or fences, a 
 hollow way, a bridge in a deep valley, a wood, or 
 a village street. Either of these might be fatal to 
 cavalry or guns attacked therein by rifle fire, and 
 unaided by infantry. 
 
 The flanking parties must occupy the heights on * Flanking 
 both sides before entering. If this is impossible, or 
 there is no time, the N. C. officer at the head sends
 
 76 
 
 on a single man at the double, who keeps a sharp 
 look out, and the others of the party follow in 
 succession, keeping each other in view. The parties 
 on the high ground on each side march ahead of 
 the party in the centre throughout the length of 
 the defile, and then gradually fall back to their 
 original position. 
 Patrol * A small patrol should not enter a large village, 
 
 e ^Ulage & ^ut reconnoitre it from the best position. The 
 enemy must be felt for cautiously. The advanced 
 party halts on the road, while strong flanking parties 
 move round the outskirts to threaten the rear. The 
 N. C. officer's party at the head advances along the 
 road in single file at distances of a few yards, followed 
 by the rest of the advanced party, and then the support, 
 as soon as it is known that the place is not occupied. 
 If the village is small, the patrol may enter 
 cautiously, having first seized an inhabitant for 
 information. Two men should enter first, and 
 passing down the road, keep their eyes fixed on 
 the opposite houses. A third man remains at the 
 entrance and keeps them in sight. 
 
 At night a patrol should hide close by to listen, 
 and try to look in at the windows. 
 
 Examining * A house or farm should be reconnoitred first from 
 rm> c * a distance, one man always remaining concealed 
 close by for observation, while the others endeavour 
 to enter from the front and rear simultaneously. 
 
 Examining * The same precautions are necessary to examine a 
 
 a wood. W ood or other inclosure. If the wood is of any 
 
 extent, the borders only can be explored by a small 
 
 patrol. One man moves first along the outer edge, 
 
 whiJe the others search it strip by strip.
 
 77 
 A fixed rule is to turn the flanks, or threaten the * Always 
 
 11 r v turn the 
 
 rear ol any place capable ot concealing an enemy flanks and 
 
 before feeling in front. Therefore, woods, ravines, leTear 1 
 and morasses must be searched before being passed, 
 lest an enemy lying perdu succeed in cutting off 
 the advanced guard. By threatening the rear before 
 approaching the front, the enemy will usually be 
 discovered, and dislodged without loss. 
 
 So, before ascending a hill, the flank files on both * Ascending 
 sides go round the base, then a file from the point 
 ascends cautiously, creeping when very near the 
 top, so as not to show himself on the summit, but 
 observing from behind the brow. He signals to the 
 rear whether the enemy is in sight or not. 
 
 The advanced party and patrols should ascend all * Best view 
 heights, church towers, steeples, and high buildings, obtained, 
 so as to obtain the best view, while keeping 
 themselves concealed. 
 
 On coming to a bridge, they ought to examine it * Examining 
 well to see if it has been tampered with, and then 
 cross it as a defile. 
 
 To explore a branch road, one man, followed by * Exploring 
 another, goes quickly to the first turn in the general roa( j. 
 direction, and comes back if nothing is seen. But 
 if they discover anything suspicious, one of them 
 should remain to watch, and the other runs back 
 to stop the patrol on the main road. 
 
 The same principles apply to a cavalry patrol, but Cavalry 
 it can advance further, and explore a wider front 
 than an infantry patrol. The scouts work in pairs. *' . 
 Usually half the strength of a patrol is in support, 
 and the commander must keep the detached files
 
 78 
 
 Scouts and i n hand by word or signal. A message should be 
 support. 
 
 Touch of sen ^ back the instant the enemy is discovered ; but 
 
 the enemy the scouts should remain close to him for further 
 
 to be main- 
 tained, information. 
 
 Although reconnoitring is a special subject in 
 itself, the following concise instructions are applica- 
 ble to patrols. 
 
 Instruc- * A patrol leader should have a map, and if going 
 to patrols. f ar > a guide. He should be able to answer these 
 three questions: 
 
 (1.) How far and in what direction am I to re- 
 connoitre ? 
 
 (2.) Where am I to look for the enemy ? 
 (3.) What am I to do when I meet him ? 
 
 Manner of * All reports should be in writing, showing the 
 
 reports. name of the sender, the hour, and place of despatch. 
 
 On the * Regarding the enemy's position, a patrol ought to 
 
 position 3 . note the strength and composition of his piquets, 
 
 where they are posted, and if intrenched ; whether 
 
 the main body is close or at a distance ; if the 
 
 approaches are open or barricaded ; if the outposts 
 
 are vigilant, watching all points of passage ; if guns 
 
 enfilade special points ; the uniforms of any of the 
 
 enemy. 
 
 Avoid * Hasty conclusions are to be avoided, e.g. mistaking 
 hasty con- . 
 
 elusions. country waggons for artillery. 
 
 Eoads. * As to roads, the chief points are their nature, 
 width, gradients, and fences ; if fit for all arms ; 
 together with full information on bridges, defiles, &c. 
 Railway?. * Exploring a railway, notice the gauge, stations, 
 platforms, sidings, arrangements for watering, tunnels, 
 cuttings, embankments, bridges, rolling stock, &c.
 
 79 
 
 In a wood, notice if it is open, as with pine or 
 beech trees ; or thick with brushwood ; its extent ; 
 if traversed by roads or paths, and where they 
 intersect ; and if there are villages on the borders. 
 
 In the case of a river, note the width ; strength and 
 direction of the current ; the depth, whether constant 
 or variable ; tidal or not ; the nature of the banks 
 and country on each side ; particulars of bridges 
 with means of repair, ferries, and fords ; positions 
 commanding them. A canal is similar to a 
 river. 
 
 In a town or village the chief points are : its 
 situation, e.g. on level ground, on a height, in a 
 valley, on a river bank ; the prominent features of 
 the surrounding country ; if there is commanding 
 ground near ; the nature of approaches ; if the houses 
 are of wood, brick, or stone ; of one or more stories ; 
 thatched, tiled, or slated ; close together, or scattered ; 
 the principal buildings, as a church, town hall, manu- 
 factory ; accommodation for men and horses ; supplies 
 of provisions, corn, and forage. 
 
 There are no absolute rules for the commander of 
 an advanced guard, who must greatly depend on his 
 own intelligence, and allow nothing to escape his 
 observation. He marches with the reserve. His 
 paramount duty is to prevent the main body being 
 attacked or its march interrupted. For this reason, 
 he should attack and disperse small bodies, bearing 
 in mind a maxim of Frederick the Great, "never 
 to haggle with the enemy's light troops." But he 
 must not engage seriously, if this is not in accord- 
 ance with the plan of the general commanding. 
 
 Woods. 
 
 * Elvers. 
 
 * Canals. 
 
 * Town or 
 village. 
 
 Duties of 
 the com- 
 mander 
 
 of an 
 
 advanced 
 
 guard. 
 
 Frederick 
 
 the Great's 
 
 maxim.
 
 80 
 
 On first 
 
 sighting 
 
 the enemy. 
 
 Advanced 
 
 guard 
 
 must 
 
 protect 
 
 main 
 
 body at all 
 risks. 
 
 Should not 
 pursue, but 
 maintain 
 the touch. 
 
 When * 
 necessary. 
 
 Should he be opposed in force, he must select the 
 most favourable ground for resistance. 
 
 On first sighting the enemy, he should send back 
 intelligence ; and if the enemy appear weak, in the 
 absence of special orders, attack at once, to prevent 
 delay. 
 
 If the general purposes fighting on some position 
 in rear, the advanced guard will retire slowly to it ; 
 but if he intends or is obliged to fight on the ground 
 occupied by the advanced guard, the latter must hold 
 on till reinforced, calling up every available man and 
 gun to resist to the utmost. 
 
 In extreme cases the advanced guard must sacrifice 
 itself if necessary, rather than allow the enemy to 
 push it back and open artillery fire on the main 
 body unprepared. 
 
 Whether reinforcements are called up, or the 
 advanced party is ordered to fall back on the support, 
 will depend much on the ground, the enemy's 
 strength, and the distance from the main body ; the 
 object being to give the column time to prepare for 
 action without unnecessarily exposing the men. 
 
 Whenever the enemy is dislodged from any post 
 or place, the advanced guard must be properly 
 re-formed. It should not pursue, but simply maintain 
 the touch of the enemy. 
 
 Flanking Parties. 
 
 When a force on the march is exposed to attack 
 on a flank, it must be protected by parties detached 
 to that flank, moving parallel with the column, but 
 when halted they front towards the enemy.
 
 Pig. 48. 
 
 A BATTALION ON A ROAD RIGHT FLANK 
 THREATENED. 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 c * 
 
 4 AV ' ' 
 
 
 O ^ ' 
 
 + 
 
 o V* 
 
 34 1- 
 
 o 
 
 
 '=. * 
 
 
 
 a ' 
 
 B , 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 D : 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 81
 
 81 
 
 A simple example is that of a battalion advancing * Protecting 
 on a road with one flank threatened. It sends out a O f a 
 company to cover that flank ; half being extended 
 at wide intervals, and connecting with the advanced 
 guard, and half acting as support between the 
 flankers and the column (vide Fig. 48). 
 
 A Rear Guard 
 
 Is to be considered under two conditions : (a) to 
 an advancing force, (&) covering a force retreating 
 before the enemy. 
 
 The first is simplest, its duties being chiefly to act * TO an 
 as police, protect baggage from plunderers, watch the a ^ c ^ us 
 waggon drivers, collect stragglers, and guard the 
 rear of the column. 
 
 But the second is very different. A rear guard * Covering a 
 covering a retreating army should be composed of ie arn i y ln8 
 the freshest troops, and formed immediately after 
 the armies separate after an engagement. Its duties * Duties. 
 are to check and annoy the enemy, causing him to 
 deploy, and so gain time for the main body to fall 
 back in good order unmolested, or to re-form if in 
 disorder, so that retreat may not be converted into 
 a rout. This object should be effected, if possible, 
 without fighting. 
 
 It should be about to the whole force, a Proportion 
 miniature army, composed of the three arms, much army, 
 the same as an advanced guard in a forward march. 
 
 Its distance from the main body depends upon the Distance 
 ground, and if the enemy is pursuing. It should be a'rmy." 3 
 in constant communication with the column, to 
 which it is kept closer than is usual for an advanced 
 
 G
 
 82 
 
 Formation. * 
 
 The rear 
 guard of a 
 battalion. 
 
 To be ac- 
 companied 
 by a party 
 with axes, 
 tools, &c. 
 
 The 
 
 command 
 
 of a rear 
 
 guard a 
 
 post of 
 
 honour. 
 
 Marshal 
 
 Key. 
 
 Duties of 
 the com- 
 mander. 
 
 guard. It commences its march as soon as all the 
 waggons and baggage have moved off. 
 
 Its formation is that of an advanced guard turned 
 to the rear, and the proportions are reversed. The 
 actual rear should be a line of skirmishers ; and a 
 support and a reserve marches between them and 
 the column. 
 
 In the simple case of a company forming the rear 
 guard to a battalion, it should first be turned about ; 
 and when halted its front is to the rear. The dif- 
 ferent portions should then be told off, or dropped 
 in succession. 
 
 A rear guard ought to be accompanied by a party 
 carrying axes, intrenching tools, and explosives, to 
 enable defiles to be blocked, bridges broken, roads 
 cut up, or the enemy otherwise delayed. 
 
 If the retreat is on several parallel roads, each 
 column must have its own rear guard. 
 
 The commander is chosen for skill and bravery. 
 In a retreat he has the post of honour, and very 
 important duties. Marshal Ney was renowned as 
 a rear guard commander. 
 
 The men must be kept constantly on the alert ; 
 and when attacked, must defend obstinately every 
 hedgerow, copse, or defile. The commander should 
 occupy naturally strong positions across the line of 
 retreat, and make a show of strength, to make the 
 enemy believe his force to be greater than it really 
 is. He should be kept informed of such positions 
 as are suitable for defence, and of any obstacles the 
 main body may meet with on the march, in order to 
 be prepared to hold the enemy in check during the 
 delay caused in passing such obstacle. Flanking
 
 83 
 
 How a rear 
 guard 
 
 should be 
 with- 
 drawn. 
 
 parties must be instructed to be specially vigilant, * Flanking 
 
 , . parties 
 
 so as to anticipate the enemy stealing round, and to ^ e 
 obstructing the main body, e.g. by a neighbouring 
 ford, while the rear guard holds a bridge across 
 the stream. 
 
 As a rule the object is not to fight, but as soon as 
 the enemy has completed his dispositions to attack, 
 or when the flanks are threatened, the rear guard 
 should quickly withdraw to the next selected 
 position. 
 
 A rear guard retires under cover of an extended 
 line. Artillery should open fire at longest effective 
 ranges to delay the enemy. Horse artillery should 
 be employed in preference to field artillery ; and it 
 is well for some of the guns to remain in action to 
 the last moment. 
 
 The retreat is best carried out by alternate por- 
 tions falling back from one position to the next. 
 But touch with the enemy must never be lost, 
 lest the pursuing advanced guard, moving rapidly 
 by another road, overtake the rear guard, and cut 
 it off. 
 
 The troops must fall back deliberately, and not 
 allow themselves to be thrown into confusion. 
 
 The time for withdrawing from a rear guard 
 action requires judgment. Night may be well 
 chosen, and camp fires left burning to deceive the 
 enemy. 
 
 But, on the other hand, a rear guard may be 
 required to hold the ground at any cost for the 
 sake of the army it is protecting. 
 
 G 2
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OUTPOSTS. 
 
 * INSTRUCTIONS for outposts, advanced, and rear 
 guards are comprised in Part VI. Field Exercises for 
 Infantry. Every soldier should be fully acquainted 
 with this subject. 
 
 Meaningof Outposts are the " eyes and ears of an army," and 
 just as a sentry over the guard-room door keeps 
 watch while the guard sleeps, so an army can rest 
 securely in camp or bivouac while the outposts are 
 vigilant. 
 
 They have been aptly compared to the antennae 
 of an insect ; and in the Soldiers Pocket Book the 
 general form of the system is likened to a man's 
 hand with the fingers well opened, the nails being 
 the line of piquets, the middle joints the supports, 
 the knuckles the reserve, and the wrist representing 
 the army to be covered (vide Plate IV.). 
 
 Result of * One cause of the disasters suffered by the French 
 
 neglect; 1 " by ^ n their campaign against the Germans in 1870 was 
 
 the French their having neglected the use of outposts. Thus, 
 
 early on 4th August of that year, their troops were 
 
 cooking, and otherwise employed, when suddenly a 
 
 Gerrnan battery opened fire upon them.
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 o -g 
 
 Z fc 
 O &
 
 85 
 
 And a remarkable instance of a successful sur- 
 prise and night inarch took place in 1811, when, in 
 the Peninsula, General Hill, with 2 brigades of 
 infantry, 2 regiments of cavalry, and some guns, 
 surprised the French General Girard at Arroyo-des- Surprise at 
 Molinos. Hill marched at 2 A.M., and, though he des-Moli- 
 had but a league to move, only arrived a little ^i 
 before 7 A.M. The night was wet and stormy. The 
 French, having neither outposts nor patrols, were 
 completely surprised. One brigade marched down 
 the main street, with the pipes playing : " Hey ! 
 Johnny Cope, are ye waking noo ? " The other 
 brigade marched to the rear of the village, and the 
 whole French force was captured. 
 
 Outposts are detachments thrown forward in front # General 
 of a force that is halted, to protect it from surprise, disposL- 
 reconnoitre the enemy, and hold him in check if tion - 
 he advances, thus allowing time for the force to 
 prepare for action. 
 
 They are usually disposed in three lines, viz. 
 piquets, furnishing sentries and patrols; supports; 
 reserve. 
 
 Ours is a combination of the cordon system and * Object of 
 of patrols ; the former being a chain of double system ; 
 sentries, intended to prevent individuals from passing 
 through the lines ; the latter for keeping out small * and of 
 bodies of the enemy, and giving timely warning of pa 
 his movements. 
 
 Speaking generally, outposts must vigilantly 
 watch all approaches leading from the enemy, ob- 
 serve all his movements, and report them at once ; 
 if he advances, delay him to the utmost ; and prevent 
 the passage of spies and deserters.
 
 86 
 
 Composed * 
 
 of the 
 advanced 
 guard or 
 
 the 
 
 freshest 
 troops.- 
 
 On what * 
 
 the com- 
 position of 
 the outpost 
 force 
 
 depends ; 
 
 Usually * 
 of cavalry 
 
 and 
 infantry. 
 
 Signal * 
 stations. 
 
 Mounted 
 orderlies. 
 
 Field 
 
 Telegraph. 
 Guns. 
 
 Considera- * 
 
 tions de- 
 termining 
 the 
 
 strength. 
 
 As a rule, the troops composing the advanced 
 guard, being some distance ahead of the main 
 body, form the outposts ; but if these have been 
 engaged on the march, then the freshest troops 
 should be detailed. 
 
 It is usual for the three arms to be employed ; 
 but the composition of the outpost force depends 
 upon the nature of the country, and the proximity 
 of the enemy. If he is distant, and the country 
 open, cavalry are chiefly employed ; when the enemy 
 is near, and the country inclosed, the duty is best 
 performed by infantry. But for the front to be 
 thoroughly watched, both cavalry and infantry are 
 needed : the former are pushed well forward, espe- 
 cially on the roads; while the infantry secure their 
 retreat, and afford them time to rally. Signal and 
 look-out stations should be established, and a few 
 mounted orderlies distributed to communicate 
 rapidly between the outposts and the main body. 
 
 Sometimes the field telegraph may be employed. 
 Guns, as a rule, remain with the reserve. They are 
 useful to command bridges, defiles, or high roads. 
 
 In all cases, the most suitable ground should be 
 allotted to each arm. 
 
 Various considerations determine the strength of 
 the outposts. For instance, whether they are in- 
 tended merely to watch the enemy, and gradually 
 fall back when attacked; or to oppose his advance 
 on ground selected for defence ; or whether the 
 enemy can advance against the whole line, or any 
 part, or against the flanks, or is restricted to a few 
 approaches; what is the nature of the country, 
 broken or wooded, defensible, and affording available
 
 87 
 
 positions to observe the enemy ; the position and 
 enterprise of the enemy. A smaller force will suffice 
 if there are defensible positions. But this must be 
 increased to afford determined resistance to an 
 enemy close at hand and vigilant. 
 
 Outposts ought not to exceed i the effective Proportion 
 
 to the 
 
 strength of the main body. But the number a rmy. 
 employed should be as small as possible, consistently 
 with security, for the duty is most harassing. 
 
 The principle is for the piquets and supports to * Principle 
 
 IT n WlliCQ 
 
 belong to the same battalion, and to consist of the troops 
 complete units, e.g. companies or half-companies detailed. 
 under their own officers ; the supports and piquets 
 being of equal strength. 
 
 When a single battalion covers itself, the com- 
 panies not required for piquets and supports form 
 the reserve. 
 
 With a larger force the reserve is composed of 
 separate troops (vide Plate V. page 105). 
 
 Outposts must be sufficiently in front of the main * Distance 
 body to give the latter time to prepare for attack, the main 
 yet not so far as to risk being cut off. In some cases y * 
 
 they are pushed well forward to obtain a good view 
 of the country beyond ; but in an inclosed country 
 they are nearer. 
 
 The Germans, in their campaign against the * Number] 
 
 of men 
 
 French in 1870, employed from 300 to 800 men required 
 per mile on outpost duty. With us a strong battalion 
 is considered sufficient to watch effectually a front 
 of two miles, and this estimate tallies with the 
 strength of the Germans at the Battle of Worth, 
 viz., 400 men to a mile. 
 
 With a large force the general of division notifies
 
 88 
 
 Allotment 
 of ground 
 
 to be 
 watched. 
 
 Compo- 
 nent parts 
 of the 
 system. 
 
 Duties of 
 the com- 
 manding 
 officer. 
 
 The "line 
 of obser- 
 vation." 
 
 to brigadiers the ground to be occupied ; and 
 brigadiers point out to officers commanding battalions 
 the sections of the line to be watched by each. 
 
 The component parts of outposts are the chain 
 of double sentries, piquets, supports when required, 
 detached posts, patrols, and reserve, all under a 
 special commander; and if the length of front be 
 great, one such commander has charge of every 
 three miles. 
 
 In the case of a battalion detailed for outpost 
 duty, a staff officer points out to the commanding 
 officer the extent of front to be occupied, probably 
 indicating some conspicuous house, clump of trees, 
 or other object to mark each flank. 
 
 The commanding officer selects the companies to 
 furnish the piquets, and makes each captain take 
 down in writing the general line of outposts ; the 
 exact ground occupied by each piquet; what is 
 known of the enemy's position and his movements ; 
 the directions most requisite to patrol ; how to act 
 when attacked ; the extent to which a post should 
 be fortified ; how flags of truce, deserters, and others 
 are to be received ; the nature and frequency of 
 reports ; any changes that appear desirable at night, 
 so that these positions may be examined by day. 
 
 By the aid of a map, or, if possible, riding over 
 the ground before the arrival of the troops, he deter- 
 mines roughly the line to be occupied by the piquets 
 and their sentries, and then chooses positions for 
 the supports and reserve. 
 
 * The line of piquets, following a range of hills, 
 the edge of a wood, a river bank, or other natural 
 feature, is the " line of observation," selected so
 
 89 
 
 that the sentries may have the best continuous 
 view to the front, and the piquets may give timely 
 warning of danger, affording the army security and 
 rest. 
 
 On an average distance of 400 yards in rear of * The "line 
 
 o / / , 
 
 ,. i T r> i i ^ i resist- 
 
 the piquets is the line of supports, determined by ance." 
 
 the most defensible ground available, where the 
 first important stand is to be made. This is called 
 the " line of resistance." 
 
 The flanks, if possible, should rest on natural * Flanks 
 
 to be 
 
 obstacles, e.g. a river or swamp. If not, they must protected. 
 be thrown back, and supported by detached parties, 
 to anticipate a turning movement by the enemy; 
 and the exposed flank should be frequently patrolled. 
 
 The commanding officer further notices all roads 
 and paths leading from the enemy, inspects the 
 sentries and piquets when posted, altering their 
 positions if necessary. He sifts all information, 
 and reports it at once to the general commanding. 
 
 Each officer commanding a piquet, before moving * Duties of 
 off, inspects and takes nominal list of his men, command- 
 examines the arms, ammunition, and rations, and s & 
 
 piquet 
 
 sees that each N. C. officer has a pencil and paper or marching 
 rough note-book. He marches his piquet to the ground, 
 ground pointed out with great caution, sending 
 forward an advanced guard, with scouts and flankers 
 as the ground may permit, taking every precaution 
 for safety. On the way he should note all accidents 
 of ground likely to be useful to make a stand in 
 retreat, and the general features of the country. 
 Arriving in rear of the intended line of observation, * Qn arrival, 
 the piquet is halted, and a patrol or a small party of 
 skirmishers is pushed on to explore the ground in
 
 90 
 
 front. Under cover of these he posts the first relief 
 of double sentries, which, in advancing, open out by 
 files, so as to cover approximately in extended order 
 the whole ground allotted to the piquet to guard. 
 On arriving at the line of observation, if nothing is 
 seen of the enemy, patrols proceed still further, to 
 examine doubtful ground within easy rifle range, 
 and the officer places the sentries in the best 
 situations for seeing without being seen, and com- 
 municating with the sentries of the piquets on his 
 flanks. He should pass from flank to flank in so 
 doing, along the line of sentries, correcting their 
 positions, and, if possible, reducing the number of 
 posts. 
 
 Another * If the country be open, a piquet may advance to 
 
 AXay the CI ^8 ground with half the men extended, supported by 
 
 country is ^ e remainder, and on reaching the position, the 
 
 officer can withdraw all men not required as sentries 
 
 from the extended line. 
 
 Each piquet can watch from 800 to 1,000 yards, 
 or roughly, half a mile of front. 
 
 Outposts * All outposts must remain under arms and on the 
 under alert until the whole system is completed. 
 
 arms and ^^ e strength of a piquet depends much on the 
 
 alert till L ^ i 
 
 all posted. * nature of the ground. The sentries will be fewer in 
 determines an mc l se d country, and more men will be employed 
 
 the patrolling. The number of double sentries will 
 strength of 
 a piquet. rarely exceed 4, and these require 3 reliefs. A 
 
 single sentry is posted over the arms ; and a con- 
 necting sentry also single is sometimes necessary, 
 as when all the double sentries cannot see the 
 piquet. These are in 3 reliefs. The rest of the 
 men are detailed according to circumstances, e.g. to
 
 91 
 
 furnish an examining party, or a detached party, and 
 patrols. A piquet is about the strength of an or- 
 dinary company, or half that of a strong one ; usually 
 from 25 to 50 men, and rarely exceeds 60, for more 
 than this number is unmanageable. 
 
 In considering the distribution of a piquet in an 
 open country strength 1 captain, 2 subalterns, 
 4 sergeants, and 60 rank and file ; total, all ranks, 67 
 required to furnish 2 double sentries by day, and 
 3 more by night, a connecting sentry, a small 
 detached party, and 2 patrols, the men must be 
 selected for each duty according to their capabilities, 
 and the company will be divided somewhat as 
 follows : 
 
 Example 
 of the dis- 
 tribution 
 
 of a 
 piquet. 
 
 For 2 double sentries by day in 3 reliefs .... 12 
 
 ,, 3 ,, ,, night ,, ,, .... 18 
 
 ,, 1 single connecting sentry ,, ,, .... 3 
 
 ,, 1 ,, sentry over arms ,, ,, .... 3 
 
 Detached party, 1 subaltern, 1 sergeant, and 9 men . 11 
 
 Patrols, 2 sergeants and 7 men ...'.... 9 
 
 Remainder for duty, 2 officers, 1 sergeant, and 8 men 11 
 
 Total 
 
 67 
 
 A couple of men, with a field-glass if available, should 
 be posted on an eminence, in a high tree, or tower. 
 
 Sentries ought not to be too close to their piquet, * 
 lest the enemy attack them and the piquet at once, 
 and the latter will have no time to form for resist- 
 ance. The first posting is tentative, the object being 
 to have the whole front watched, and communication 
 from flank to flank rapidly established. Before 
 deciding whether a man is posted to the best ad- * 
 vantage or not, an officer should place himself 
 exactly in the position of a sentry. Piquet sentries 
 
 Sentries 
 
 ^xperi- 6 
 mentally. 
 
 The best
 
 92 
 
 should have a wide view to the front and flanks, and 
 * command all approaches. No ground between two 
 sentries should be unseen by both. Connection must 
 Sentries be maintained with the sentries of piquets on the 
 uomised." right and left. Their number may often be econo- 
 mised by taking advantage of features of ground. 
 All should be concealed from view of the enemy. 
 Questions * An officer must satisfy himself that his sentries 
 to\aiovr S understand and can answer the following questions : 
 
 how to j What is known of the enemy ? and. indeed, the 
 
 answer. 
 
 whole of the piquet cannot be too soon, or too well, 
 
 informed on this point. 
 
 ii. Where are the neighbouring piquets, any 
 detached or advanced parties, and the other 
 sentries ? 
 
 iii. Where do the roads in sight lead to ? 
 
 iv. Do they thoroughly understand the code of 
 signals fixed upon? 
 
 v. Are they sure as to the direction their attention 
 is to be devoted to ? This means the front of their 
 posts ; and that they should know this better a row 
 of stones may be placed in the direction, or a 
 pointed stick laid on two forked props. On a dark 
 night a white rag should be tied round the sight of 
 the rifle. 
 
 A sentry jnust further have pointed out to him 
 the position of his piquet, and means of access to 
 it, so that he may be able to rejoin it at night and in 
 all weathers. 
 
 Connect- * ^ ^ e canno * communicate with the piquet, a 
 ing connecting sentry is placed so as to see both. 
 
 86 D. tl'lGS 
 
 Such sentry must repeat all signals. Sometimes 
 a connecting sentry is requisite to maintain commu-
 
 93 
 
 nication between the chain of sentries and an 
 advanced or detached post beyond the line. 
 
 A piquet sentry has no fixed beat or patrol. His 
 duty is properly performed if he sees well to the 
 front and flanks, and can communicate to the flanks 
 and rear by signal in the open, or by word of mouth 
 in an inclosed country. 
 
 The front and rear rank men of each double * The two 
 sentry need not necessarily be together. The "double'* 
 ground may be better observed in front sometimes sent *y n . ot 
 
 necessarily 
 
 by placing them a few paces apart, as when a zigzag together. 
 path in a ravine, or a lower ridge of a hill, cannot be 
 well seen from the crest. 
 
 It must be explained clearly to a sentry what to 
 do in falling back. He must not fire unless 
 attacked. 
 
 If posted in a narrow way, or other place where * Sentry 
 he might be surprised, the post should be protected protected 
 by an obstacle, and he should fix bayonets in thick against 
 
 surprise. 
 
 weather, or on a dark night, but not by moonlight. 
 
 A sentry must take care not to be deceived by 
 parties approaching his post, even though precon- 
 certed signals have been arranged for the use of 
 visiting patrols. 
 
 As far as possible, the same men should mount * g ame men 
 
 constantly on the same posts, and men for patrolling to mount 
 
 same posts. 
 
 employed in the same direction as that in which 
 they were first sent out. 
 
 Sentries posted with valises on are not to take * Sentries 
 them off. Nor may they lie down except for con- 
 cealment. 
 
 The best postion for sentries posted in a wood 
 is just inside the outer edge. But if the wood is
 
 94 
 
 Where *' extensive, it is preferable not to occupy it. the sen- 
 sentries 
 should be tries being withdrawn a safe distance say 600 to 
 
 wood. n< 800 yards on the near side, under some made 
 cover. In this case the wood must be constantly 
 patrolled. 
 
 If it is imperative that the line pass through a 
 wood, the sentries are best posted along a high road, 
 a stream, or a ravine. 
 
 Usually * Sentries are usually relieved every 2 hours. In 
 every 2 severe weather they may be relieved every hour, 
 hours. Q n being relieved they should be questioned as to 
 
 what they have seen, and in answering they should 
 not conceal even the most trifling occurrences. 
 Duty of * When a sentry observes the enemy advancing, he 
 ' en the E must signal to the piquet. If it is plain that an at- 
 
 enemy's ^^ j s intended, he must fire at once, and use all 
 advance. 
 
 means to alarm the piquet. 
 
 Position of * By day the best positions for observation are on 
 
 sen ( j y by high ground, the sentries taking advantage of natural 
 
 cover, or lying down just behind the crest of hills. 
 
 As few changes as possible should be made at night, 
 
 and these determined on during the day. 
 
 By night. * -A-t night sentries must be advanced down the 
 slopes towards the enemy, in order to see him on the 
 sky line without giving up the advantage of the high 
 ground, while remaining concealed themselves. The 
 shadow of a tree or wall is a great advantage at 
 night. 
 Simple * Simple preconcerted signals should be arranged 
 
 Si b? al re- t0 ( vide the code under " Advanced Guards," Fig. 42, 
 
 arranged. p. 72) ; all the piquet must learn them, especially 
 
 sentries, connecting sentries, and patrols. It must 
 
 be impressed on every one on outpost duty that
 
 95 
 
 information is first obtained by observation, and 
 when so obtained it has to be transmitted. 
 
 Signalling by flags may often be made use of. A 
 few mounted orderlies are invaluable ; and generally 
 information is more reliable and more quickly 
 brought in by them. 
 
 On the approach of deserters, they must be ordered * Deserters. 
 to lay down their arms, and be conducted unarmed 
 to the piquet. 
 
 If one of the piquet deserts to the enemy, a report Precaution 
 of the fact must be at once made to the commander ot - t [ ie 
 of the outposts ; and the parole and countersign Deserts 
 should be at once changed. 
 
 A flag of truce must be kept at a distance in front * Flag of 
 of the line of sentries, while the piquet is communi- 
 cated with, so that the bearer can get no information 
 or reconnoitre. If he brings a letter, a receipt should 
 be given and the bearer forthwith ordered to depart. 
 In other cases the officer commanding the piquet 
 will detain the flag of truce until he reports to the 
 commander of the outposts, or he will forward the 
 party blindfold under escort to camp. 
 
 No one is allowed to pass the chain of sentries 
 except at the post of the examining party. Any 
 one who disregards a repeated challenge should 
 be shot. 
 
 An examining party, or, as it is sometimes called, * Examining 
 an examining guard, consists of 4 or 6 men under a 
 N. C. officer, posted on a main road, running cen- 
 trally through the position ; or, in case of more than 
 one such road,, there may be a party on each. Their 
 duty is to examine persons wishing to pass the chain 
 of sentries ; giving or withholding permission ; or
 
 96 
 
 reporting a particular case, awaiting instructions 
 from the commander of the outposts. 
 
 If there is no examining party, the officer of the 
 nearest piquet performs this duty. 
 
 It is to the examining party that piquet sentries 
 should direct all persons approaching the line. On 
 coming to the examining party, one man halts the 
 individuals before they can overlook the line of 
 piquets, while another sends word to the N. C. 
 officer. They should be questioned when halted, 
 or blindfolded before allowed to pass. Deserters 
 or suspected spies are sent on at once without 
 questioning to the commander of the outposts, or 
 dealt with specially as may be ordered in each case. 
 Detached * If a point is difficult of access from a piquet, or at 
 
 post, when . 
 
 necessary, some distance beyond the general line, and it is in- 
 cumbent to occupy it, or when it is necessary to 
 protect an exposed flank, a detached post is esta- 
 blished under an officer, or a N. C. officer, with 
 sufficient men to furnish the required sentries. The 
 post should be relieved every 6 hours. The com- 
 mander is responsible for the communication be- 
 tween his post and the piquet. His orders should 
 be carefully explained to him and the men before 
 starting, as also the object for which they are de- 
 tached. If such a post is composed of infantry, 
 the sentries should be posted close in front of the 
 party, the reliefs remaining equipped and having 
 their rifles close by them as they sit or lie on the 
 ground. No fires are allowed. If cavalry are em- 
 ployed, their vedettes may be 300 or 400 yards in 
 advance. Only one half should dismount at a time, 
 unless the enemy is known to be at a distance.
 
 97 
 
 Communication is kept up between cavalry de- 
 tached posts by means of patrols. 
 
 When a river or swamp extends along part of 
 the line sentries may be decreased, and observation 
 maintained by patrols, thus giving rest to as many 
 men as possible, consistently with safety. 
 
 An officer commanding a piquet, having completed 
 his arrangements for the sentries, returns to his 
 piquet, piles arms, and posts a bayonet sentry over 
 the arms, and connecting sentries if necessary. 
 These must keep their attention constantly fixed 
 on the advanced sentries. He should send a report 
 of preliminary dispositions to the commander of the 
 outposts, and direct his second in command with 
 reference to any intrenchment or temporary strength- 
 ening of the post which appears desirable, and as 
 to what patrols are to be sent out. If his piquet 
 furnish a detached post, he should now visit it, to 
 assure himself that it is in the best possible posi- 
 tion, connected with the main line, with reconnoitring 
 patrols in front, and strengthened against a sudden 
 rush upon the sentries. 
 
 Having written down his instructions, his gene- 
 ral duties are to learn all he can of the surrounding 
 country by means of a field-glass, and comparison 
 with a map; to reconnoitre all paths and roads, 
 noting their direction. But he should not go be- 
 yond reach of the piquet. If he has time and 
 means, it is well to make a rough sketch of the 
 post. He should examine all obstacles and places 
 likely to conceal an enemy, and find out where 
 marshes and streams in his front can be crossed. 
 Let everything be done quietly. No drum or bugle 
 
 H 
 
 Further 
 duties of 
 the officer 
 command- 
 ing 
 
 a piquet. 
 
 Sentry 
 
 over arms.
 
 98 
 
 No hard 
 and fast 
 rules on 
 outpost 
 
 duty ; but 
 
 certain 
 
 fixed 
 
 principles. 
 
 Piquets * 
 numbered. 
 
 Piquet 
 report. 
 
 Piquets * 
 generally 
 may not 
 light fires. 
 
 Precau- * 
 tions when 
 a fire is 
 allowed. 
 
 sound except the "alert" is permitted. The men 
 should not be allowed to stray from the piquet. 
 All first arrangements are subject to modification 
 by the commander of the outposts or by an officer 
 commanding the piquet himself after careful in- 
 spection. There are no hard and fast rules : an 
 arrangement applicable to one tract of country 
 might be quite unsuited to another. But the prin- 
 ciple to recollect is to watch the country thoroughly 
 in front, and economise sentries by taking advantage 
 of ground. And an officer must make up his mind 
 how to act whatever may happen. 
 
 An officer in command of a piquet should be 
 provided with a field-glass, a compass, a map, a 
 watch, a note-book with pencil, and a few simple 
 sketching materials. 
 
 Piquets are numbered from right to left, so that an 
 officer or N. C. officer, to whom a report is made, can 
 identify the exact place in the line of outposts whence 
 it comes. The men should be made acquainted with 
 the number of their piquet. 
 
 A piquet report should state the number of the 
 piquet it comes from; the hour of despatch; how 
 the information was obtained ; if considered true ; 
 and all particulars of the enemy's troops, if seen. 
 
 As a rule, piquets are not allowed to light fires, 
 for if they do not take cooked rations with them 
 these are sent them from the rear. If a fire is 
 permitted, it must be carefully screened behind a 
 wall, bank, or other cover, so that neither light nor 
 smoke is visible from the front. Wet sods or earth 
 should be handy, to extinguish the fire at a moment's 
 warning.
 
 99 
 
 An alarm post should always be fixed a short * Alarm 
 distance in rear of the fire, affording concealment, 
 so that the enemy will be exposed in advancing. 
 
 The men of each relief should pile arms together ; * Reliefs 
 and the reliefs be kept separate from the patrols and separate. 
 from each other, so as not to disturb the rest when 
 going out. All the men, or part only at a time, are 
 usually allowed to take off their valises. Every man 
 should keep his own close beside him. 
 
 If an attack is expected, part of the piquet must * When all 
 
 piquets 
 
 be kept under arms. The whole must invariably should be 
 
 be under arms before daylight. 
 
 With regard to its sentries, vedettes, or detached * Position of 
 parties, a piquet is an anchor or rallying point. It to its 
 should be posted centrally about 400 yards in rear of sentnes - 
 the sentries it furnishes. But it cannot always be so 
 placed, because it must command all approaches, and 
 be under cover if possible. Its best position, there- 
 fore, is near a road, concealed, but ready to move in 
 any direction, communicating with its sentries, the 
 piquets on its flanks, and the supports. Above all, 
 it must have a good line of retreat. 
 
 The general disposition of piquets depends on the 
 configuration of the ground, the atmosphere, the 
 vigilance and proximity of the enemy. Roughly, 
 piquets may be from 600 to 800 yards apart ; but in 
 an open country and in clear weather they may be 
 further. 
 
 Another consideration is, thev must be sufficiently * Pl 2 u ts , 
 
 J must afford 
 
 near to afford mutual aid to one another in retreat mutual 
 by an efficient flanking fire. They should not be 
 too close in front of the supports, for fear of demo- 
 ralising the latter, if driven in, nor too far distant to 
 
 H 2
 
 100 
 
 receive timely assistance if Lard pressed. By a 
 piquet being concealed near a road likely to be used 
 by the enemy in his advance, the enemy must attack 
 in order to discover it. 
 
 Should not * 
 
 occupy A piquet should not occupy a building or inclosed 
 
 without* vai> d or garden, unless ordered. 
 
 orders. j^ o fg cer commanding a piquet or support must 
 
 Posts to be * 
 
 strength- strengthen his post when practicable by a breastwork 
 or abattis. Some such means should be extemporised 
 
 At a bridge * to protect the men when defending a ford or a bridge, 
 or ford. . 
 
 the piquet being posted on the near side, while the 
 
 far side, if not too distant, is watched by sentries or 
 
 At a small * patrols. The same is true if the piquet is at a small 
 village or 
 defile. village or defile. If a piquet is posted in a defile, it 
 
 must be protected from a sudden rush by obstacles. 
 Bn t ^ e not * A bridge should not be broken, nor a main road 
 
 broken, blocked with material difficult to remove, as the army 
 nor main . 
 
 road may have to use such bridge or road. 
 
 Flank ' * ^ ^ an ^ pii ue t> unprotected by a natural obstacle, 
 
 piquet should be rather withdrawn, and supported by a 
 unpro- 
 tected detached party. 
 
 supported. & piquet may occupy a wood if thinly planted, 
 and there is a clear view of the front from the far 
 edge, along which the sentries are placed. The 
 piquet should be near the sentries, posted centrally. 
 
 Piquet in * If this is not possible, it is best to withdraw both 
 a wood. . -' 
 
 piquet and sentries to the near side to guard against 
 
 surprise, and explore the wood frequently by patrols. 
 Instances, however, may occur when it is necessary to 
 run the line through a thickly wooded district, and 
 then the piquets are best placed along a road, stream, 
 line of hills, &c., traversing the wood laterally. 
 Many and small piquets are here preferable to a few
 
 101 
 
 strong ones ; and the supports must be brought much 
 closer. 
 
 A point regarding roads deserves notice, viz. : 
 When roads from the front converge, they should 
 unite in advance of the piquets, and roads passing 
 round the flank to the rear should be carefully 
 watched." 
 
 The rule is for supports to be furnished by the 
 same corps as the piquets ; and the supports together 
 should be of equal strength to the piquets. Thus 
 4 companies on piquet will have 4 in support. The 
 number usually depends on the number of main 
 approaches to be watched. There need not be a 
 support to every piquet, but often there is one for 
 two or three piquets, placed centrally in rear of them, 
 on or near a main road. 
 
 Their distance in rear of the piquets varies from 
 400 to 600 yards. The principle is to have them near 
 enough to be useful, but not so near as to be involved 
 in the retreat if the piquets are driven in. But 
 the supports might in exceptional cases be much 
 nearer, or even on the very same ground as the 
 piquets, when this affords the best defensible position. 
 A suitable position for a support is a village or defile 
 on the line of retreat. 
 
 By means of patrols and connecting sentries a 
 support must communicate with the supports on its 
 right and left, the piquets in front, and the reserve ; 
 a bayonet sentry, mounted over the arms of a 
 support, keeps constant watch on the piquets in 
 front. 
 
 The strictness of routine insisted on with piquets 
 is somewhat relaxed with supports. But they must 
 
 ^ st P oillt 
 of con- 
 vergence 
 
 Supports 
 
 strength to 
 
 piquets. 
 
 Not 
 
 eo each 
 piquet. 
 
 * Principle 
 
 their 
 dlstance m 
 
 Strictness 
 
 of routine 
 
 relaxed 
 
 with 
 supports
 
 102 
 
 be ready to march at a moment's notice, by day or 
 night, to any required point, or to remain on the 
 defensive. They can generally light fires and cook. 
 In this case they prepare dinners for the piquets. 
 But if no fires are allowed, and no cooked rations 
 are carried, the food must be sent up from the 
 reserve. When practicable, hot food should be 
 provided for troops on outpost duty. 
 
 Changes * Changes in dispositions for night duty should be 
 for night J 
 
 to be determined during the day. All ranks must be 
 
 \^day. acquainted with the ground, so that sentries may 
 watch well, and be regularly relieved, and patrols 
 may move with confidence, and no unnecessary 
 fatigue. 
 
 Disposi- * At night the piquets occupy all obligatory points 
 of piquets of passage along which the enemy may attack. In 
 by night an i nc i ose ^ country instead of furnishing a con- 
 tinuous chain, the double sentries are posted to 
 watch all roads, paths, and avenues leading from the 
 front, with reliefs close by to signal the enemy's 
 advance; as in attacking he will confine himself 
 to the approaches. But the intervening ground must 
 nevertheless be constantly patrolled by small parties, 
 of a N. C. officer and a couple of men. 
 
 If the country is open, there must be more double 
 sentries, all pushed down to the low ground, and 
 then patrolling will not be so much needed. 
 
 In some cases it may be desirable to contract the 
 front at night, and bring the supports closer. The 
 original positions are resumed at daylight. 
 
 Reason for * Daybreak being the hour when attacks are gene- 
 being rally made, the utmost vigilance must be exercised 
 Daybreak! at ^ at time. For this reason outposts are relieved
 
 103 
 
 at daybreak, so that both the old and new piquets 
 may be available to resist. 
 
 On being relieved, the officer commanding the old * Duties of 
 
 officer 
 
 piquet accompanies the relieving officer round the command- 
 chain of sentries, points out the locality, and gives piquet on 
 him all information in his power. If everything relief, 
 is quiet in front, and the weather clear, the old 
 piquet falls back to the support, and then returns 
 to camp. But if on the way firing is heard, it must 
 instantly turn back, and assist .the new piquet. 
 
 An officer commanding a piquet must make up * Conduct of 
 his mind definitely what to do if attacked, and choose when 
 a line of retreat that will not ma.sk the fire of the attacked. 
 supports any longer than necessary. On being first 
 attacked he will reinforce his line of sentries with 
 part of or all his men, and send word or signal to 
 the adjoining piquets and to the supports. The 
 sentries hold their ground till their flanks are 
 turned, then fall back, step by step, in extended 
 order, taking care to keep clear of the other piquets 
 and of the supports, so that the enemy may be met 
 by a direct and flanking fire. The piquets retire 
 slowly, in echelon, or alternately, on the supports, 
 who by this time should be judiciously extended on 
 the strongest available ground. 
 
 If the enemy is repulsed or withdraws, the piquets 
 advance and take up their old ground. They must 
 not pursue, but a cavalry patrol should follow him 
 up, see where he halts, and maintain the touch. 
 
 In the event of a night attack the sentries fall * During a 
 back on the piquets, who, being carefully posted attack, 
 beforehand, ought to be able to meet the enemy 
 advantageously.
 
 104 
 
 Position of * The reserve forma a general support to the whole 
 outpost line of piquets and supports, and should be 
 from ^ to ^ the strength of the troops employed, 
 posted from 500 to 1,000 yards in rear of the sup- 
 ports, centrally and out of sight ; not necessarily in 
 one body, but it may be subdivided to hold im- 
 portant points, e.g. two denies or bridges on different 
 lines of retreat. The men may bivouac, cook, eat, 
 smoke, and rest, but must be always ready to act at 
 a moment's notice. 
 
 The officer commanding the outposts remains with 
 the reserve. All reports should be sent in to him. 
 
 The reserve must be in constant communication 
 with the outposts by signallers, mounted orderlies, 
 and the field telegraph, which last usually conects it 
 with head-quarters. 
 
 Composed The reserve is usually composed of the three arms. 
 
 three arms. Artillery is useful when it can be posted within cannon 
 range, but beyond rifle range, of any place where the 
 enemy must advance in column before deploying. 
 Guns. Guns should be limbered up near a main road, 
 
 but never in an inclosure. For the defence of a 
 defile they should be unlimbered ready for action. 
 They are sometimes posted with the supports and 
 piquets, but if far advanced are liable to capture. 
 They ought to command effectually any bridge or 
 defile by which an enemy must advance, protected 
 if necessary by a small body of infantry extended in 
 front, or to one flank. 
 
 The general duty of the reserve is to assist the 
 supports and piquets, or to occupy a previously 
 selected position with a view to covering their 
 retreat.
 
 Plate V. 
 
 O i- 
 
 -r W 
 
 1 2 
 
 a. z 
 co o >. 
 
 Q ,UJ CO 
 
 i 
 
 Q OC 
 - CO
 
 105 
 
 Plate V. gives some idea of the disposition of a 
 brigade of the three arms on outpost duty hy day. 
 
 The outpost force should be as far in advance of 
 the army it has to cover as possible consistently with 
 safety. This distance depends upon the position of 
 the ground chosen for the " line of resistance." 
 There is no fixed rule, but the object to be kept in 
 view is the delay of the enemy beyond the effective 
 fire of artillery, which may be taken roughly at 
 2,000 yards, so that the camp may not be shelled by 
 the enemy. 
 
 Sentries on outpost duty pay no compliments. * Sentries 
 If a superior officer visits a piquet the officer in compli- 
 command of it reports to him, but the men take no 
 notice unless addressed. On the approach of the 
 commander of the outposts, the men stand to their 
 arms only when so ordered. 
 
 Three kinds of patrols are to be noticed as em- * Three 
 ployed on outpost duty : (1) visiting, (2) exploring patrols. 
 or reconnoitring these two are furnished by the 
 piquets, (3) strong patrols, of a strength exceeding 
 12 men, sometimes sent out from the supports or 
 reserve. Of these seriatim : 
 
 A visiting patrol goes round the sentries between * Visiting 
 reliefs to test their vigilance, ascertain if they are 
 alert, if they have anything to report, or require 
 assistance to examine doubtful objects, and to relieve 
 cases of sickness. It consists of an officer, or more 
 usually a N. C. officer or old soldier, and one or two 
 men. Such patrol encourages the sentries and 
 maintains communication between them and the 
 piquet. Its usual route, after communicating with 
 the nearest sentry of the piquet on one flank, is to
 
 106 
 
 proceed cautiously along the front to the nearest 
 sentry of the piquet on the other flank, returning to 
 its own piquet by the rear (vide Fig. 49). 
 
 Object of * In order that the sentries may distinguish the 
 signals. 
 
 patrol from foes a preconcerted signal should be 
 
 arranged to be given, e.g. a cough, a whistle, the cry 
 of a wild bird by night, or a handkerchief held in 
 the hand by day. The sentries will not then be 
 disturbed. The signal should be acknowledged by 
 the sentries. 
 
 When * Such patrolling is the chief guarantee of safety, 
 
 P fs T< mos^ an d is especially necessary in a close country, in bad 
 
 required. weather, and at night. In foggy or thick weather 
 
 sentries must be constantly visited, and all woods, 
 
 ravines, and places where an enemy could collect 
 
 must be examined, sometimes specially. Patrols 
 
 may be less frequent in an open country, and in clear 
 
 weather, or if the line of sentries can be overlooked 
 
 from some point near at hand, and reports are often 
 
 obtained from thence as to the state of things. 
 
 If the piquet is weak, reliefs must act as visiting 
 patrols. 
 
 Exploring * Exploring, or, as sometimes called, reconnoitring 
 
 or recon- patrols, are best adapted for examining ground not 
 
 patrols. visible to the sentries, and for giving timely notice 
 
 of the enemy's advance. They are sent along roads 
 
 for f to 1 mile towards the enemy, and consist of 
 
 the smallest number of men that will perform the 
 
 duty ; but they must be the smartest arid most 
 
 intelligent. Their duty is to reconnoitre, and not to 
 
 fight. 
 
 Mode of * Proceeding along roads they should listen from 
 time to time for sounds of men moving through
 
 O 
 
 PATROLS
 
 107 
 
 the fields or woods. On meeting the enemy, they 
 should avoid firing, but if he advances they must 
 fire to warn the piquet. They may not talk, smoke, 
 or allow their arms to clatter. They ought to notice 
 landmarks and other objects, and make marks with 
 stones, or by breaking a branch, &c., so as to find the 
 way back. If possible, .it is best to return by a 
 different way. Such a patrol moves like a small ad- 
 vanced guard. It should not be less than 3 men. 
 There are many formations, according to ground. A 
 point protects the front, and flankers the most ex- 
 posed flank, at from 50 to 100 paces distance, so as 
 to see best without showing themselves, supporting 
 and assisting each other, yet not being so close as to 
 risk all being cut off and captured (vide Fig. 50). 
 One man moves behind another along the hedge- 
 rows, by the sides of roads, and on soft ground in 
 preference to the centre. Their difficulty is to guard 
 against surprise in a close country, and against being 
 seen in the open. 
 
 When a small patrol reaches a hill, one man * Ascending 
 ascends the slope very cautiously and looks over the 
 brow ; another follows at a distance, and then the 
 rest, so that all may not be cut off. But when 
 
 possible the flanks of all objects should be turned * Flanks to 
 T-I t* e turned, 
 
 before venturing beyond. For further instructions 
 
 as to these patrols, vide " Advanced Guards. " 
 
 Whatever information is obtained must be trans- * Transmis- 
 mitted to the rear by means of the established oMn- 
 signals, without attracting the enemy's attention, telhgence. 
 and to be of any value it must be early, ample, and 
 accurate. 
 
 A strong patrol resembles a reconnoitring patrol,
 
 108 
 
 A strong * but is stronger, and not necessarily secret. It is 
 sent out when necessary from the supports or reserve, 
 and may be a troop or company. Its object is to 
 press back the enemy's reconnoitring patrols, and by 
 engaging a post to try to dislodge it, so as to 
 ascertain what is behind, and what the enemy is 
 doing. Although acting offensively, it ought not to 
 advance beyond a mile. A mounted man should 
 accompany, to bring back information. 
 
 A strong patrol is occasionally sent out before day- 
 break. Great caution is then needed so as not to 
 come unawares upon the enemy forming for attack 
 at daylight. 
 Reconnais- It may here be remarked that a reconnaissance in 
 
 iu force. force, composed of the three arms, is sometimes 
 pushed forward to find out the enemy's strength and 
 position, and is often followed by an engagement. 
 Patrols to * Patrols should avoid unnecessary firing, unless the 
 
 needless enemy is advancing in force, and the troops in rear 
 false must be aroused. Every one on outpost duty should 
 
 alarms. carefully avoid giving false alarms, which break the 
 rest of the main body, and cause inattention to 
 signals if really attacked. The most prudent course 
 for a strong patrol is to retire steadily unperceived, 
 after obtaining touch with the enemy, gaining the 
 requisite information ; and, if so ordered, taking a few 
 prisoners for further knowledge. 
 
 Cavalry As outposts are frequently composed of both 
 
 infantry and cavalry, it is well to know that a 
 cavalry piquet, consisting of from half a troop to a 
 troop, will watch about a mile of country, furnishing, 
 as a rule, not more than 3 pair of vedettes about 600 
 yards in front of it. Half only of a cavalry piquet
 
 Fry. 51. 
 
 2 rnchf-t ts> 1 milt . 
 
 K0.6Z.
 
 109 
 
 should be fed at one time. Saddles should be re- 
 moved only once in 12 hours, bridles only for water- 
 ing and feeding. A few horses only should be 
 watered at a time, if the water is at a distance. 
 
 Vedettes should be placed from 20 to 30 yards 
 apart, near enough to communicate when required, 
 but not to carry on conversation. They should 
 have their carbines drawn, loaded, and at the 
 "advance." Lancers should remove or furl their 
 lance flags. 
 
 A cavalry piquet should have ground in front of it 
 suitable for aggressive action if called upon. 
 
 Cavalry would only be employed in support when 
 the ground is very open, and suitable for their 
 action. Usually the main brunt of resistance falls 
 on the infantry. If there are cavalry supports, 
 there should be one to every two or three cavalry 
 piquets. A cavalry reserve is from 1,200 to 2,000 
 yards in rear of the supports. 
 
 The best time for practising outposts is in summer, 
 though in favourable weather instruction may be 
 combined with winter route-marching. If but few 
 men are on parade, they should represent a reason- 
 able part of the whole, the rest being imagined ; 
 and when limited to roads, the occupation of the 
 intervening country must be taken into account 
 (vide Fig. 51). 
 
 Officers and N. C. officers ought first to be allowed 
 to complete and explain their arrangements, and 
 afterwards such modifications as appear necessary 
 should be pointed out. 
 
 Vedettes. 
 
 When 
 
 cavalry 
 
 forms the 
 
 support. 
 
 Practice of 
 outpost 
 
 duty to be 
 as like 
 
 reality as 
 possible.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Adminis- 
 trative 
 
 considera- 
 tions 
 
 in peace. 
 
 Tactical 
 considera- 
 tions 
 at other 
 times. 
 
 Advantage 
 of a well 
 regulated 
 "order of 
 march." 
 
 MARCHES. 
 
 IN peace time, or when not near the enemy, 
 administrative considerations are allowed to prepon- 
 derate, and the comfort of the troops may be studied. 
 With several roads at disposal, we should give the 
 infantry the shortest, cavalry the softest, guns the 
 hardest and smoothest. Having only one road 
 available, cavalry and artillery should march an 
 hour or two before the infantry ; first, to avoid their 
 being fatigued by conforming to the slower pace of 
 the latter, and secondly, because they have much 
 more labour at the conclusion of the march. 
 
 But in the vicinity of the enemy tactical con- 
 siderations are paramount, and the "order of march" 
 must be such as can be rapidly converted into an 
 " order of battle." 
 
 A well regulated order of march greatly conduces 
 to the success of military operations. No obstacle, 
 short of sheer impossibility, should prevent a com- 
 mander arriving at the destination ordered at the 
 time appointed. 
 
 A march must be carried out with celerity, and 
 troops should be efficient at the end of it. This
 
 Ill 
 
 result can only be obtained by training, and re- 
 ducing the weight the soldier has to carry. The 
 pace of a long column is irregular, fatiguing, and 
 more tedious. Hence, when practicable, a large 
 force marches by several roads, communication 
 being maintained between them ; and the arrange- 
 ments must be such as to insure the different 
 columns reaching certain fixed positions simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 Approaching the enemy, the different arms march 
 in the order they will probably have to come into 
 action e.g. the guns near the head of the column, 
 and cavalry in rear, although it is so harassing for 
 them to regulate their pace by that of the infantry. 
 
 The following rules for arranging a march should 
 always be borne in mind, viz : 
 
 i. Never parade a moment sooner than neces- 
 sary ; and troops should be allowed to join the line 
 of march direct from their camps. 
 
 ii. When a column on the march has to retrace 
 its steps, " tarn about," and do not countermarch. 
 
 iii. If possible, avoid night marches. 
 
 iv. Take care that two columns do not cross each 
 other on the march. 
 
 The Field Exercises (Part vii.) give clear directions 
 for the conduct of route-marching. They are based 
 on the orders framed 'by General Crawfurd for his 
 celebrated Light Division in the Peninsula War. 
 
 As a rule, infantry for comfort and convenience 
 march in fours, and observe the " rule of the road." 
 But crossing open ground, or on very wide roads, 
 such as are common on the Continent, the front may 
 be increased to column of companies, half-companies, 
 
 Necessity 
 
 for 
 training 
 
 and 
 
 reducing 
 weight to 
 be carried. 
 Use several 
 roads when 
 
 possible 
 
 for a large 
 
 force. 
 
 Rules for 
 arranging 
 a march. 
 
 Route- 
 marching. 
 
 * Infantry 
 
 usually 
 
 march in 
 
 fours, 
 
 sometimes 
 
 on a wider 
 
 front.
 
 112 
 
 or sections. In certain circumstances infantry may 
 also move in mass of quarter columns, or in line. 
 * The baggage of a single battalion should follow 
 
 on the line . . . 
 
 of march, it; but in brigade the baggage of the different 
 battalions follows in rear of the brigade in the same 
 order as battalions stand in column. They must 
 never march in the intervals between battalions. 
 The only vehicles allowed immediately to accompany 
 the troops are a water-cart and ammunition-cart per 
 battalion, with perhaps an ambulance as may be 
 ordered. 
 
 Discipline * The "line of march" is the occasion, above all 
 
 to be 
 
 enforced. others, when strict discipline must be enforced ; 
 and it is in movements by rail, road, and water, 
 
 Falling out* that good conduct is most conspicuous. No man 
 no t be may fall out without permission ; and as halts are 
 
 necessary, ordered after the first half-hour, and every subse- 
 quent hour, there ought to be no reason for men 
 to leave the ranks. 
 
 Object of * Intervals are necessary between the different 
 units to absorb accidental checks, and to avoid 
 stepping out or closing up. But opening out, which 
 troops are liable to do especially in warm weather, 
 must not be allowed. With good discipline this 
 tailing off should not exceed more than | the length 
 of the column. But with indifferent troops, and care- 
 less officers, it will be much more perhaps doubling 
 
 Evil effects* that length. And this is a matter which may be 
 off. fraught with evil consequences ; for a division, 
 confined to a single road, should occupy 7 or 8 
 miles, and will require ordinarily about 2 hours to 
 form for action ; but if, owing to extreme opening 
 out, it takes an hour or two more to get the rear
 
 113 
 
 of the column into position, and the enemy mean- 
 while attacks in earnest, there is serious risk of 
 defeat in detail. 
 
 Each company must conform to any deviation of 
 the preceding company. When halted, the head of 
 each battalion stands fast, and the companies in 
 rear will close up when completely formed, unless 
 a movement to a flank is contemplated. 
 
 No battalion, company, or section is ever to defile, 
 diminish its front, or attempt to avoid a bad spot on 
 the road, unless the preceding battalion or company 
 has done so. On coming to a stream, or bad place, 
 the men are not to be allowed to deviate from the 
 direct course, although it may be convenient for 
 them individually to do so. Officers must be on 
 the alert to prevent this. Captains will go to the 
 heads of their companies, and field officers to the 
 heads of their respective half-battalions, and remain 
 till their commands have passed, to see orders 
 obeyed. 
 
 When absolutely necessary, defiling must be 
 executed with order and precision, by proper words 
 of command, preceded by " attention." 
 
 It is better to pass pools of water, ditches, and 
 other obstacles with a full front ; for by defiling or 
 picking the way a battalion is delayed ten minutes, 
 and consequently a 'brigade half an hour sufficient 
 to upset any previous calculation for the execution 
 of a time-march, and this might affect the plan 
 of operations. 
 
 If delay unavoidably occurs, the head of a com- 
 pany, after passing the bad place, must step short 
 till the rest close well up; it will then rejoin the 
 
 I 
 
 * Troops 
 conform 
 to the head 
 
 of the 
 column. 
 
 * Defiling, 
 
 &c., 
 forbidden 
 
 unless 
 preceding 
 
 troops 
 have done 
 
 * Delay 
 resulting 
 
 from 
 defiling.
 
 114 
 
 preceding company by an increase of pace, or on 
 
 arriving at the next check. 
 
 Connect- * When intervals are great, files should be sent 
 case of on to keep up connection between companies and 
 
 int^als. battalions. _ 
 
 If a certain company cannot keep up, word should 
 be passed by supernumeraries to the head of the 
 column, and the commanding officer will check the 
 pace. The rule to remember is to keep companies 
 intact. 
 
 Matters * The rate of marching is influenced by training, 
 
 ^atTof discipline, numbers, weather, and roads. A company 
 
 marching. can move a cer tain number of miles more easily 
 
 than a battalion, and a battalion than a brigade. 
 
 The dust of large bodies of troops is oppressive. 
 
 Fitting * Officers and N. C. officers must see that the men's 
 
 f shoes 1 shoes and socks fit well, and are in good repair. 
 
 and socks. Shoes with low heels and broad soles are the best. 
 
 The feet should be well washed, and the bottom of 
 
 Remedy * the socks soaped before marching. A good remedy 
 
 'feet* 6 f r sore ^ ee ^ mentioned in the Soldiers Pocket Book, 
 
 is to bathe them at night in tepid water, with a 
 
 little alum dissolved in it ; and to rub the tender 
 
 parts with soft soap, or any sort of grease. Spirits 
 
 and water applied to the feet is the best preventive 
 
 against blisters. If, however, blisters rise, they 
 
 should be pricked, but the skin must not be 
 
 torn off. 
 
 Breakfast * The men should breakfast before starting. But 
 startin^ the hour of starting depends on the season, climate, 
 Hour for * and distance to be got over. 5 or 6 A.M. is usual, 
 starting. But by the ofi g cial account o f sir F. Roberts's march 
 
 from Kabul to Kandahar, it appears that for the
 
 115 
 
 first few stages the troops turned out at 2.45 A.M., 
 and marched at 4.30. Later, when the thermometer 
 stood at 100 in the shade at 4 P.M., they started 
 earlier, at 2.30 A.M. 
 
 It is usual to halt for 10 minutes after the first * Periodical 
 
 halts. 
 
 half hour. A little longer halt may be made about 
 midway, when the march exceeds 10 miles. If the 
 column is long, a simultaneous halt should be 
 arranged by signal or otherwise. In an ordinary 
 march the advanced and rear guard calls are sounded 
 on the bugle, and then the halt. In order to give 
 the men the full benefit of the rest, there should be 
 no needless closing up or dressing. 
 
 Troops must not be halted in villages, nor in a village^or 
 defile, if in the vicinity of the enemy. defiles near 
 
 the enemy. 
 
 By column of route is meant a formation moving * Column of 
 on a road with a narrow front on the line of march. 
 
 With infantry it is column of fours, the length of * Length of 
 
 a battalion 
 which is equal to the front in line, or twice as many in fours. 
 
 feet as there are files. With a battalion of 8 com- 
 panies of 100 men each, this will be 275 yards. 
 
 Cavalry usually move in column of route by 
 sections, four abreast, the length of which is the 
 same number of yards as there are horses in the 
 ranks ; in the case of a regiment of 4 squadrons of 
 100 sabres each this will be 400 yards. Or, they * Of a 
 may be in columns of half-sections, two abreast, regiment 
 when the length of the regiment will be 800 yards. ^ c jjjj? 
 In neither sections nor half-sections are squadron sections. 
 intervals maintained. 
 
 The usual column of route for artillery has a * of a field 
 front of one carriage. The length of a field battery, b ^ y 
 with or without waggons, is calculated at 19 yards waggons. 
 
 I 2
 
 116 
 
 Of a field * 
 
 battery 
 
 without 
 waggons. 
 
 Of a horse 
 artillery 
 battery 
 without 
 
 Distances. 
 
 Ordinary * 
 rate of 
 infantry. 
 
 for each vehicle, less 4 yards, the last carriage being 
 taken as 15 yards. Thus the length of a field 
 battery with waggons will be 19x12 4 = 224 yards ; 
 without waggons, 19 x6 4 = 110 yards. 
 
 In a battery of horse artillery, each gun detach- 
 ment consists of 10 mounted men. Each horse's 
 length is 8 feet, and the distance between horses 
 4 yards = 12 feet. Therefore, each detachment, two 
 abreast, requires 5 x 4 = 20 yards. 
 
 The length of a battery without waggons will 
 then be 6 X 19 - 4 + 20 X 6 = 230 yards. 
 
 The distances on the march between battalions is 
 at least 30 paces to allow room for the bands, &c. 
 
 The distance maintained between cavalry and the 
 other arms is 25 yards. 
 
 The distances on the march between batteries 
 = half a subdivision, interval 9^ yards ; between 
 carriages, 4 yards; between files, 4 feet. The dis- 
 tance between artillery and the other arms is 1| 
 gun intervals, or as is usual with 6 horses, 28|- 
 yards. 
 
 These distances, however, may be relaxed ascend- 
 ing or descending hills : and if the width of the 
 road permit, carriages may move up alongside each 
 other to lock or unlock the wheels with the 
 dragshoe. 
 
 Infantry at the ordinary pace moving in small 
 bodies, including slight checks, but not halts, 
 marches at the rate of 3 miles an hour = 88 yards 
 a minute. 
 
 The paces of the mounted services are, at a walk, 
 4 miles; at a trot, 8 miles ; at a gallop, 12 miles an 
 hour.
 
 117 
 
 The rate of march of cavalry and horse artillery 
 on fair roads, alternately trotting and walking, is 
 5 miles an hour = 146 yards a minute. 
 
 The rate of field artillery may be taken, under the 
 same circumstances, at 4 miles an hour= 117 yards 
 a minute. 
 
 Small bodies of the three arms combined, if un- 
 encumbered and on good roads, may be depended 
 on to move at the ordinary infantry rate 3 miles 
 an hour. But a division of all arms complete, even 
 on fair roads, will not march faster than 2 to 2f 
 miles : and an 'army corps than 1|- to 2 miles an 
 hour. 
 
 If, for example, there is a small force consisting 
 of 
 
 2 companies of infantry, each 100 strong in fours ; 
 A field battery without waggons ; 
 2 companies of infantry, each 100 strong in fours ; 
 1 squadron, 96 horses, in sections, 
 the length of the column of route is found as 
 follows : 
 
 200' 
 2 companies in fours -5- = 67 yards. 
 
 Distance 28^ ,, 
 
 Battery, 19 x 6 - 4 =110 
 
 Distance 28J 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 rate of 
 
 cavalry 
 
 and horse 
 
 artillery. 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 rate of 
 
 field 
 
 artillery. 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 rate of a 
 
 division of 
 
 all arms. 
 
 Example 
 
 of a small 
 
 mixed 
 
 force in 
 
 column of 
 
 route. 
 
 f 200 ' 
 2 companies in fours -x- 
 
 = 67 
 
 3 
 
 Distance 25 
 1 squadron in sections 96 horses = 96 
 
 Total length of column 422 yards. 
 
 The front of this force drawn up in line will be * Its front 
 
 499 
 
 314 yards (mdi Fig. 52). It will take _ = 5 
 
 88 
 
 minutes to pass a certain point. And if it is ordered
 
 118 
 
 Time * to move to a place 12 miles and 1,080 yards distant, 
 on the an d then deploy by 10 A.M., assuming the pace 
 
 tarou g hout to be 3 miles an hour, when should it 
 ployraent. march off? 
 
 The distance, 12 miles and 1,080 yards, requires 4 hours, 12 min. 
 Add 5 minutes for the last section to move off \ - ~ 
 
 the ground, and 5 more for the rear to deploy J 
 
 4 hours, 22 min. 
 
 The troops should, therefore, start at 38 minutes 
 past 5 A.M. 
 
 Punctu- * Punctuality in concentrating a body of troops in 
 a certain position is most essential. It is equally 
 a mistake to arrive too soon as too late. Time- 
 marches should be practised, the arrangements being 
 left to the officers commanding the different units. 
 Time * Thus, suppose two battalions are ordered to arrive 
 ""Two a ^ a village by 12 noon by two different roads, found on 
 battalions. a map to j^ g m Q es ^QgQ yards, and 8 miles 700 yards 
 distant respectively, when should each march off ? 
 
 6 miles takes 2 hours, -^- =12 minutes; there- 
 
 88 
 
 fore the first battalion requires 2 hours 12 minutes, 
 and should move off at 9.48 A.M. 
 
 8 miles takes 2 hours 40 minutes, r = 8 min- 
 
 88 
 
 utes ; therefore the second battalion requires 2 hours 
 48 minutes, and should move at 9.12 A.M., or 36 
 minutes before the first battalion. 
 
 Time * A company is ordered to a cross road on a moor, 
 
 ma [^ distant by road 5 miles 540 yards ; a second company 
 
 companies. i s directed to the crest of a hill, distant 6 miles 450 
 
 yards, at what hour should each march, so as to 
 
 arrive simultaneously at 10 A.M. ?
 
 119 
 
 540 
 
 5 miles takes 1 hour 40 minutes, - - = 6 minutes, 
 
 88 
 
 therefore the first company requires 1 hour 46 
 minutes ; and should march at 8.14 A.M. 
 
 450 
 
 6 miles takes 2 hours, - - = 5 minutes, therefore 
 
 88 
 
 the second company requires 2 hours and 5 minutes, 
 and should march at 7.55 A.M. 
 
 Again, two troops of cavalry are ordered to 
 rendezvous by 10 A.M. by different roads, found on 
 the map to be 8 miles 1,600 yards, and 10 miles 
 730 yards long respectively, when should each start ? 
 The speed is taken at 5 miles an hour. 
 
 8 miles requires 1 hour 36 minutes, - ? ^=11 
 
 146 
 
 minutes, therefore the first troop requires 1 hour 47 
 minutes, and should march at 8.13 A.M. 
 
 730 
 
 10 miles requires 2 hours, - ' = 5 minutes, there- 
 fore the second troop requires 2 hours 5 minutes, 
 and should march at 7.55 A.M. 
 
 If an infantry brigade (3 battalions of 1,000 rank 
 and file each), 1 field battery, and 2 squadrons of 
 cavalry each 54 files, are ordered to a camping 
 ground 12 miles distant, and there are three avail- 
 able good roads, of which one is allotted to each 
 arm, when should the troops march off, so as to 
 arrive at noon ? 
 
 The infantry, at 3 miles an hour, requires 4 hours, 
 marches at 8 A.M. 
 
 The artillery, at 4 miles an hour, requires 3 hours, 
 marches at 9 A.M. 
 
 The cavalry, at 5 miles an hour, requires 2 hours 
 24 minutes, marches at 9.36 A.M. 
 
 Time 
 march of 
 two troops. 
 
 'Time 
 march of a 
 
 mixed 
 brigade by 
 
 three 
 
 roads.
 
 120 
 
 And by 
 one road. 
 
 Meaning 
 
 of a flank 
 
 march. 
 
 When 
 dangerous. 
 
 Disposi- 
 tions. 
 
 A night 
 march. 
 
 Guides 
 and land- 
 marks. 
 
 If the whole were limited to one road, the rate 
 will be governed by the infantry, making the time 
 4 hours, and the troops must march at 8 A.M. 
 
 * A flank march occurs when one flank is exposed 
 to attack, as when an army is marching in a certain 
 direction, and the enemy is moving perpendicularly 
 to the line of march. It is dangerous only when 
 the enemy is within striking distance. To be suc- 
 cessful the troops must be highly trained and well 
 led. The commander will doubtless have had ample 
 warning, and can arrange his order of march accord- 
 ingly. The march must be completed rapidly, and 
 yet the troops must be always on the alert to receive 
 an attack in front and in flank. Guns should be 
 distributed between the front and rear of the 
 column. The main body of the cavalry should be 
 on the side furthest from the enemy, lest, if on the 
 other side, they are driven in disorder upon the 
 column before it can form up. But part of the 
 cavalry must reconnoitre the whole exposed flank, 
 as well as the front, scouting further towards the 
 enemy if the country is open ; and a body of infantry 
 should always support them. Any defiles on the 
 exposed flank must be explored, and guarded if 
 possible. Every precaution should be taken to 
 conceal the march by keeping woods, marshes, 
 streams, ravines, and other features of the ground 
 on the side nearest the enemy. 
 
 * A night march should not be undertaken unless 
 
 O 
 
 absolutely necessary ; for the direction may be lost, 
 troops get into disorder, and are done up for the 
 
 * following day. Landmarks ought to be fixed before- 
 hand along the routes; a guide should lead every
 
 ORDER OF MARCH OF A DIVISION. 
 
 ivision 
 '2 Troop 
 
 ~ -. 
 
 Sf< 'K/.V 
 
 '? Trfop 
 
 400 
 
 \A /'z Troops 
 "t Company: Jtifles 
 3CC 
 
 I 
 
 . Guns 
 
 | Section, cf Engineers 
 u-itJt. pack her. 
 
 'jurn\ 
 ses ) 
 
 2". 1 * Brigcidf 
 
 rtuird i 
 
 IT 2-;r_Lutr ofslrti 
 / Companies ItifLcj ll'ayytmj 
 
 j. 
 
 4- Guns. Q SmalLArrr, 
 
 T M^//iv/M/^Ai 
 
 *st D 
 7 AaJtulion* 
 
 I 1^ryade ) 
 
 I ?i Squadrons- favcdry ^Ammunidcn } 
 
 H Column, 
 
 Compojaj of Enr/inters 
 
 + Artillery Waggons. 
 
 Co? from ? nft 2>rifffid 
 y Fvficf. 
 
 farts i 
 
 BH Ambulance 
 
 lOOOtolSOO 
 A / 
 
 H 
 
 ffl Fueld Hospitals 
 
 Advanced- G-uard t^bout 4,OO0 Yards 
 3fain,ody 7.MO 
 
 Total ti.cva
 
 121 
 
 column; and intelligent men should be left by the 
 advanced troops at cross-roads to indicate the way 
 to the rest. The bayonet alone should be used in 
 a night action, and no firing. The successful attack 
 on Tel-el-Kebir, before daylight, is fresh in memory. 
 The enemy's position was not shaken by artillery 
 fire, and the Egyptians were surprised, having no 
 outposts. How the late Commander Rawson, R.N., 
 guided the attacking columns by the stars, and the 
 wonderful discipline and steadiness of the troops on 
 that occasion, are matters of history. 
 
 Some idea of the composition, strength, and ex- 
 tent on one road of an infantry division may be 
 obtained by reference to Plate VI., which represents 
 the order of march recommended by the quarter- 
 master general. 
 
 Allowing for opening out half a mile between 
 the rear of the advanced guard and the head of 
 the column, and between the rear of the column 
 and the head of the baggage convoy, the whole 
 covers from 7 to 8 miles ; which is one basis of 
 rough calculation of the time required for the ad- 
 vanced guard to " contain " an enemy, to enable the 
 whole to take position in line of battle. 
 
 A day's march is usually from 1 2 to 15 miles, 
 with a halt every fourth or fifth day. From 15 to 
 20 miles a day can be done exceptionally. Beyond 
 20 miles a day would be considered forced march- 
 ing. But in 1813, for three days previous to the 
 battle of Leipsic, the French army marched 30 miles 
 a day. 
 
 Bad roads, however, make a vast difference. Thus, 
 
 Tel-el- 
 Kebir. 
 
 Order of 
 
 march of 
 
 an infantry 
 
 division. 
 
 An 
 ordinary 
 
 day's 
 march. 
 
 Often 
 
 exceeded. 
 
 * French in 
 
 1813 before 
 
 Leipsic.
 
 122 
 
 Effect of * 
 bad roads, 
 
 e.g. 
 
 Blucher, 
 
 "Wavre to 
 
 Waterloo, * 
 
 1815. 
 
 Road 
 
 blocked 
 
 with 
 
 Canrobert 
 
 at Magenta * 
 
 "1859. 
 
 Some. 
 
 notable 
 
 marches. 
 
 Napoleon * 
 
 from 
 Boulogne 
 
 to the 
 
 Rhine, 
 
 1809. 
 
 Sherman 
 
 from 
 
 Atlanta to * 
 Savannah, 
 1863. 
 
 Marshal Blucher, hurrying the Prussian army from 
 Wavre to our assistance at Waterloo in 1815, could 
 only move 1| miles an hour. 
 
 Again, when a good road was blocked with 
 baggage, Marshal Canrobert's corps advancing to 
 support the French guard at the battle of Magenta 
 in 1859, took 5 hours to accomplish 9 miles. 
 
 Some notable marches have taken place ; and, to 
 show what can be achieved, a few are briefly referred 
 to. They should be carefully read in history. 
 
 In September 1809, Napoleon marched from 
 Boulogne to the Rhine with 150,000 infantry. He 
 was joined by cavalry and artillery on the way. The 
 distance marched was 400 miles in 25 days, at the 
 rate of 20 miles a day, or, including halts, 16 miles. 
 His object was to surprise the Austrian army, and he 
 encountered no opposition. But this remarkable 
 march occurred before telegraphs were invented and 
 intelligence could be rapidly transmitted. 
 
 In Alison's History of Europe it is stated that the 
 instructions given by Napoleon to all the chiefs of 
 the grand army for the tracing of all their- routes and 
 the regulation of their movements were as perfect a 
 model of the combinations of the general as the 
 fidelity and accuracy with which they were followed 
 were of the discipline and efficiency of his soldiers. 
 The stages and places of rest, the daily marches of 
 every regiment, were pointed out with undeviating 
 accuracy over the immense distance from Cherbourg 
 to Homburg. 
 
 In November, 1863, the American General Sher- 
 man marched from Atlanta, the capital of the State
 
 123 
 
 of Georgia, to Savannah, a port on the Atlantic, 
 250 miles, with 60,000 infantry, 5,500 cavalry, and 
 60 guns, meeting constant opposition and obstruction, 
 in 27 days. " All the troops were provided with good 
 waggon trains, loaded with ammunition and supplies 
 about 20 days' bread, 40 days' sugar and coffee, a 
 double allowance of salt for 40 days, beef cattle for 
 40 days' supply. The waggons also carried 3 days' 
 forage and grain. All were instructed by a judicious 
 system of foraging to maintain this order of things as 
 long as possible, living chiefly, if not solely, on the 
 country." 
 
 In August, 1880, General Sir F. Roberts, with * Sir F. 
 7,500 infantry, 1,600 cavalry, and 18 mountain from 
 7-pounder guns, and 8,000 camp-followers total, Kandahar 
 18,000 men and nearly 9,000 animals marched from 188 - 
 Kabul to Kandahar, 321 miles, in 23 days, at an 
 actual rate of 15 J miles a day, or, including halts, 
 14 miles. No wheeled guns or transport accom- 
 panied, but everything was carried on pack animals. 
 There was no opposition. 
 
 Lastly, in Napier's History of the Peninsula we * Crawfurd's 
 read that on the 29th July, 1809, Brigadier R. division to 
 Crawfurd, with the 43rd, 52nd, and 95th, reached 
 Wellington's camp after the battle of Talavera, and 
 immediately took charge of the outposts. After a 
 march of 20 miles, Crawfurd, fearing for the army, 
 allowed only a few hours' rest, and then, withdrawing 
 about 50 of the weakest from the ranks, recom- 
 menced his march with a resolution not to halt until 
 the field of battle was reached. Leaving only 
 17 stragglers behind, the brigade crossed the field of
 
 124 
 
 battle in a close and compact body, having in that 
 time passed over 62 English miles in the hottest 
 season of the year, the men carrying from 50 to 
 60 Ibs. weight upon their shoulders. 
 
 Transport by Railway. 
 
 Notice to * The regulations are laid down in the last pages of 
 
 master. the Field Exercises. Sufficient notice should be given 
 
 Married * to the station-master. Women and children must be 
 
 at the station half an hour before the departure of 
 
 the train, conveyed in cabs, or army service waggons 
 
 if available, in charge of a N. C. officer provided with 
 
 a nominal roll. He will see them at once into the 
 
 Light * carriages. Officers' light baggage, with the servants 
 baggage. . 
 
 as a guard, should arrive at the same time. After 
 
 placing the baggage in the train, the servants enter 
 the carriages allotted to them. 
 
 An officer or N. C. officer will go before, and with 
 the station-master chalk the letters of the companies 
 Adjutant * on the footboards of the carriages. In the case of a 
 markers. battalion, the adjutant should precede by about ten 
 minutes, accompanied by a marker from each com- 
 pany, one for the band, and one for the guard, whom 
 he will place along the platform, standing beside the 
 train, abreast of the compartment where the head of 
 each company will rest. These N. C. officers should 
 have a note of the exact numbers proceeding. 
 Capacity of * As a rule, a compartment intended for 10 ordinary 
 ments. passengers will be allotted to 8 soldiers ; and one for 
 8 ordinary passengers to 6 soldiers. 
 
 Each company, arriving at its marker, will be
 
 125 
 
 halted, and ordered to face the train. Arms will be 
 
 grounded. The men nearest the train must be * Embarka- 
 tion, 
 careful that the muzzles of the rifles do not project 
 
 beyond the platform. At the command, " Take off 
 valises," one man of each compartment enters and 
 places his valise under the seat, and his rifle on the 
 seat ; then he takes, and places similarly, those of . 
 the other men in regular order, so that each man's 
 valise is under his own seat. Haversacks and water- 
 bottles are turned round to the front. The men take 
 up arms and enter the carriages. Each man retains 
 hold of his rifle, unless the commanding officer allows 
 them to be placed over the valises. But they are 
 never to be placed on the floor. 
 
 Perfect silence must be maintained. No man is 
 to put his head out of window, nor is he to leave his 
 carriage without permission. 
 
 On arrival at the destination, the men get out * Disem- 
 with their rifles, and fall in as when they embarked. 
 The last man in the compartment hands out the 
 valises. Arms are grounded, accoutrements and 
 haversacks adjusted, and the valises put on. Arms 
 are then taken up, and the companies marched out 
 of the station in their original order. Or the com- 
 manding officer may order the markers to be placed 
 in a convenient space.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MINOR OPERATIONS, 
 
 CERTAIN operations in war require some special 
 notice. These are the conduct and attack of con- 
 voys ; the defence and attack of houses, villages, and 
 woods ; the defence and passage of a defile, and of a 
 river. 
 Conduct * A convoy is an attendant force on the march, i.e. 
 
 of a 
 
 convoy. the escort required for the defence of transport other 
 than the train accompanying an army. But the term 
 is generally applied to the transport itself. It may 
 be either moving from the base, in the same direc- 
 tion as the army, carrying provisions and clothing ; 
 or from the front to the rear with sick, wounded, and 
 prisoners, no single line of waggons should cover 
 more than a mile of road. If there are more car- 
 riages, divide them into detachments, and send them 
 as different convoys. 
 
 The principle is on the march to afford the 
 greatest amount of safety to what is most valuable, 
 and to place the pack animals in front, for wheels cut 
 up the road. 
 
 If the road is wide enough for 3 carriages, and the 
 order of march is likely to be undisturbed for an
 
 127 
 
 hour, move two carriages abreast. But if the road 
 narrows frequently, passing villages, and crossing 
 streams, adhere to single file. The regulation 4 
 yards distance should be maintained between car- 
 riages, except when ascending hills. If the road is 
 steep, double-horse each carriage, and ascend in two 
 divisions. To avoid accidents and overloading in 
 consequence, a percentage of spare carriages, 
 wheels, poles, &c., should be provided. 
 
 Short halts should be made at regular intervals 
 to rest the horses, and close up the column. On a 
 long journey the convoy should be parked for feeding 
 in a spot convenient for moving on. The horses 
 must not be taken out of the shafts, but fed with 
 forage carried for them on the waggons. 
 
 The value of the convoy, the length of the 
 journey, and the friendliness or otherwise of the 
 country, determine the strength and composition 
 of the escort. 
 
 As a rule, it is chiefly infantry, with enough cavalry 
 to reconnoitre, and a party of engineers to remove 
 obstacles, and repair passages and bad parts of the 
 road. Guns are sometimes added. The escort is 
 necessarily disseminated, because of the length and 
 weakness of the convoy ; but it should not be need- 
 lessly divided, and a force must be kept ready to 
 meet the chief attack. 
 
 There should be an advanced and rear-guard and 
 flankers, and small parties detached from the main 
 body to the head and tail of the column. Cavalry 
 are best suited for the advanced guard, to explore the 
 country and discover ambuscades and the direction 
 of any impending attack. 
 
 Considera- 
 tions 
 
 determin- 
 ing 
 strength 
 
 and 
 
 composi- 
 tion of 
 escort. 
 
 Disposi- 
 tion of 
 escort.
 
 128 
 
 Escort of * 
 prisoners. 
 
 Duty of 
 escort of 
 prisoners 
 
 when 
 attacked. 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of a 
 mixed 
 convoy. 
 
 Informa- 
 tion before 
 starting. 
 
 Their patrols should reconnoitre at least 5 miles 
 to the front and flanks. This must be specially done 
 before starting after halting at night. 
 
 If the leading waggons are stopped there will be a 
 block ; therefore, some infantry should march at the 
 head to check a dash made by cavalry. A similar 
 party should be at the rear. The usual position for 
 the main body is central, when the convoy does not 
 exceed a mile in length. But in an inclosed country 
 it is better at the end which is most threatened, and it 
 may detach a small party to the centre (vide Fig. 53). 
 
 The usual strength for an escort of prisoners is 10 
 infantry and 1 cavalry soldier to every 100 prisoners, 
 occasionally with guns added. The escort is more 
 subdivided to suppress insubordination. When halted 
 for the night, guards must be mounted. 
 
 If a convoy of prisoners is attacked, the escort 
 should remain close to them, as the enemy will not 
 risk killing their own people by firing. To prevent 
 escape the prisoners should be ordered to lie down. 
 
 In the case of a mixed convoy, consisting of 
 ammunition, provisions, materiel and clothing, 
 wounded and prisoners, the arrangement on the 
 march should be first the ammunition, then the 
 provisions, last of all, the effects and clothing. 
 
 The officer commanding before starting should 
 obtain information of the road, places for halting 
 and billeting, where the enemy is, where he may 
 expect attack, and where he may take refuge in case 
 of retreat. 
 
 A 4-horse waggon occupies 12 yards in the 
 convoy. 
 
 The rate of travel may be taken on a good road
 
 Fi 
 
 iy 
 
 CONDUCT OFA CONVOY. 
 
 u
 
 129 
 
 at 2|- miles ; in a hilly country at 1 1 miles an 
 hour. 
 
 Every precaution must be taken against surprise. 
 Towns, villages, and defiles should be avoided. 
 
 On coming to a river or bridge, supposing the rear 
 to be secure, the reserve should cross first ; if it is 
 not, the reserve should follow. If both front and 
 rear are threatened, the main body may be 
 divided. 
 
 Detachments should be sent on from the reserve 
 to occupy a defile. The convoy must close up on the 
 widest front. Advanced and rear guards are with- 
 drawn. Then the defile is reconnoitred. The ad- 
 vanced guard first passes, and proceeds far enough to 
 admit of the convoy being parked in rear beyond 
 the defile. The reserve occupies the high ground in 
 the direction of the enemy. 
 
 If the convoy consists of powder and combustibles, 
 let nothing else be placed in the carriages, and no 
 one must ride on them. Forbid smoking. Do not 
 enter villages, and, unless specially ordered, move only 
 at a walk. 
 
 An intelligent soldier should be told off to each 
 carriage, or if the escort is weak, to every 2 or 3 
 carriages; or mounted men may be distributed to 
 superintend and see that the column is well closed 
 up and the drivers obey. Prompt obedience must 
 be insisted on from the drivers, but neither they nor 
 their horses should suffer ill-treatment. 
 
 About | hour after starting, halt for about 10 
 minutes, and afterwards at similar intervals. But 
 take care to halt clear of bridges and all obstacles. 
 
 If the drivers are civilians, and are specially 
 
 Rate of 
 
 march. 
 
 Pre- 
 cautions 
 against 
 
 surprise. 
 Crossing 
 
 a river or 
 bridge. 
 
 Passing a 
 defile. 
 
 Pre- 
 cautions 
 
 with 
 
 powder, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Duties of 
 
 men 
 accom- 
 panying 
 
 the 
 carriages. 
 
 Halts.
 
 130 
 
 As a rule 
 
 avoid 
 fighting. 
 
 How best 
 
 to meet a 
 
 superior 
 
 force. 
 
 Distin- 
 guish 
 between a 
 real and 
 a false 
 attack. 
 
 Conduct if 
 escort is 
 defeated. 
 
 requisitioned, they must be well watched, as in the 
 confusion of an attack they may cut the traces and 
 desert with their horses. 
 
 All needless fighting should be avoided. But if 
 the enemy has occupied defiles, or commanding 
 ground, endangering the march, he should be at- 
 tacked with all the force that can be spared to dis- 
 lodge him, detachments being left with the convoy, 
 which should continue to advance unless the road is 
 stopped. When the enemy is dispersed, he should 
 not be pursued. 
 
 If a superior force of the enemy is reported, it is 
 best to halt, and park the carriages, if possible, in 
 some inclosure near the road, forming an intrench- 
 ment, and to collect the escort. But if it is impos- 
 sible to quit the road, the carriages should be closed 
 up in double files, and part of the escort sent forward 
 to delay the enemy. 
 
 If the enemy makes two separate attacks, a real 
 attack should be distinguished from a false attack ; 
 and if the escort is not strong enough to meet both, 
 unite it, and first fall on one attack, then on the 
 other. On no account is a detachment posted to 
 defend one part of the convoy to quit its post and 
 assist another, without distinct orders. 
 
 If the attack succeeds, try to get away with part 
 of the convoy. But if none can be saved, endeavour 
 to save the horses. 
 
 When the head of the column is attacked, main- 
 tain order, and turn the carriages carefully, lest the 
 road be blocked. 
 
 If pursued closely, upset a couple of waggons. If 
 attacked by surprise by a strong force in flank,
 
 131 
 
 concentrate the escort, and do the best to save 
 part. 
 
 When the enemy is not reported in superior force, "When the 
 
 enemy is 
 it will not be necessary to park, nor even to halt. not 
 
 The escort should take up a position covering the 
 flank threatened, and move along with the convoy. 
 
 If the enemy is inferior in strength, part of the When he is 
 
 T inferior, 
 
 escort should advance, and disperse them. 
 
 When obliged to halt on the near side of a defile, 
 while it is being reconnoitred, it is well to park the 
 leading half of the convoy, which may feed and rest, 
 while the second half passes through and parks on 
 the other side. The other half will then follow. 
 
 The best way to park simply for a halt, is to form * Parking 
 the waggons in several lines, 25 yards apart, axle- for a halt- 
 tree to axle-tree, poles and shafts in the same direc- 
 tion ; the horses being picketed in front of their 
 respective waggons. 
 
 But in order to resist an attack, draw up the wag- * To resist 
 
 i i -i , attack, 
 
 gons in a square or oval, in one rank ; or better in 
 
 two ranks, if there is sufficient interior space. When 
 the waggons are placed axle-tree to axle-tree the 
 barrier will be stronger ; but when end to end, they 
 will give more space. The horses are picketed in- 
 side, opposite the waggons. The men of the escort 
 can fire from the corners, and between the waggons. 
 
 When ammunition is parked, the carriages should 
 be massed close together, and the escort should take 
 up a defensive position at a distance, to prevent the 
 enemy firing on the convoy. Ammunition must be 
 defended to the last ; and everything which cannot 
 be saved should be destroyed. 
 
 Should there be no time for parking when 
 
 K 2
 
 132 
 
 When * attacked, close up the waggons in double files, and 
 time. turn the horses inwards, to shelter from cavalry. 
 
 Disposi- * When halting for the night, choose a defensible 
 tions when .. . . . 
 
 halted. position, in an uninhabited place, with good water 
 
 near. Post piquets and send out patrols, and make 
 every disposition to prevent surprise. 
 
 Convoy by * When a convoy is in boats, one half the escort 
 should be in the boats ; the other half on land, by 
 the river or canal bank, disposed much in the same 
 way as for a convoy moving by land. They must 
 reconnoitre well, and protect the convoy. In case 
 of attack they will be reinforced by the men in the 
 boats. 
 
 Infantry * Infantry will generally be in the boats, while the 
 US boats l] cavalry on land reconnoitre ; and if this duty is 
 cavalry on efficiently performed, so that timely notice of an 
 
 l&QCL* 
 
 enemy is given, the infantry can be easily landed. 
 
 Whereas, if the infantry march along the banks, the 
 
 men are fatigued, and the convoy retarded. 
 
 Sometimes * But ascending streams, the progress is slower, and 
 
 on land. it is advisable for some infantry to march on land 
 
 to protect the horses and drivers. 
 Connect- * Connecting files should pass intelligence between 
 
 the farthest patrols and the river. 
 
 Conduct Should the convoy be attacked by water, if there 
 
 attacked are an y g uns > they should fire on the enemy's boats, 
 
 and the infantry fire on his men. 
 
 If the enemy is signalled approaching by land, 
 
 collect and draw the convoy to the opposite side. 
 
 If the attack be made, halt, and land the escort, 
 
 keeping the boats ready for re-embarkation. 
 
 Should the escort be defeated, part of the convoy
 
 133 
 
 should endeavour to escape at the best. The boats 
 should be sunk rather than surrender. When 
 possible, let the escort retire fighting, then take to 
 the boats, and rejoin the convoy. When attacked 
 on both banks, the escort must be divided. 
 
 The best way to attack a convoy by water is by 
 ambush, and at favourable points on the river. 
 Ascertain when it is likely to pass, and act secretly. 
 Fire with artillery on the leading boats, and with 
 musketry on the boatmen. If the convoy is not 
 brought to a standstill, bring all available men into 
 action, follow the convoy, and keep up the fire. If 
 the leading boats are disabled or surrender, the rest 
 will probably do the same. 
 
 An attack on a convoy on land will have greatest 
 chance of success if made while the convoy is moving 
 through difficult ground, or a defile ; when parking 
 after a march, or starting after a halt. It ought to 
 be a surprise, so as to give the column no time to 
 close up, or the escort to concentrate. It will be 
 more difficult if the convoy reconnoitres well. The 
 most disadvantageous spot to the convoy should be 
 chosen, or an ambush may be laid. The attack 
 should be vigorously made on the flanks in an 
 open country ; on the extremities in an inclosed 
 country ; or, let part of the convoy enter a defile, 
 or part issue from it, and then attack. Cavalry is 
 chiefly employed. Perhaps the attacking force 
 will be of this arm, with the remaining infantry, 
 and some guns added. 
 
 If the attacking force is superior, it may fall at 
 once on the head, rear, and centre ; or part may 
 
 In case of 
 defeat. 
 
 Attack of 
 a con% r oy 
 by water. 
 
 Attack of 
 a convoy 
 on land. 
 
 When 
 
 attacking 
 
 force is 
 
 superior.
 
 134 
 
 When it is 
 inferior. 
 
 Action if 
 
 attack is 
 
 successful. 
 
 head the convoy, while the main body defeats the 
 escort in detail. 
 
 But if the force is very inferior, it is best only to 
 make an attempt on the rear, and to hang on the 
 line of march to delay and harass the convoy. 
 
 Without guns an attack on a convoy, closed up or 
 parked, will not probably succeed, unless with a 
 superior force. 
 
 It is advisable to feint at many points in order to 
 disseminate the escort, and to hare a reserve. If 
 the attack succeeds, move off the carriages quickly ; 
 and in case there is danger of recapture, remove 
 what is most valuable. If nothing can be removed, 
 take away the horses, and burn the convoy. 
 
 Escort to * Sometimes foraging parties require an escort, and 
 parties? *' ts strength and composition depend on the nature of 
 the country, the distance to be proceeded, and the 
 proximity of the enemy. 
 
 After clearing the country of the- enemy, the 
 escort should be disposed in a chain of posts, with 
 at reserve- in front of the district to be foraged. 
 Piquets should be placed on the approaches, and 
 infantry and cavalry patrols pushed on in front. 
 
 The posts should be so far to the front as will 
 allow time for the foraging parties to mount, and 
 support the escort, or retire in good order. 
 
 In foraging a village, place a chain of sentries 
 round it, to prevent all but the parties detailed 
 from entering. If the inhabitants do not carry out 
 the forage, parties must be sent in to collect it. 
 An armed party should patrol round the village to 
 prevent straggling and disorder. 
 
 To forage * 
 a village.
 
 135 
 
 Defence of a Souse. 
 
 A well-built house, capable of holding at least 
 half a company, may be turned into a small fortifi- 
 cation, without much labour, so as to afford cover 
 and an obstacle. The selection is generally made in 
 reference to an extended position, a detached post, 
 a bridge, &c. (vide Fig. 54). 
 
 It should be sheltered from artillery fire when 
 possible. But this cannot always be, and a good 
 defence can still be made if precautions are taken 
 to put out fires caused by shells, and all inflammable 
 substances removed. 
 
 A brick house with slated or tiled roof is the best ; 
 for stone splinters under artillery fire ; and wooden 
 or thatched houses easily catch fire. A flat roof 
 enables the defenders to fire over the parapet wall 
 by means of loopholes or sand-bags. Parts of the 
 house should flank each other. For this object bay 
 windows and porches are useful. 
 
 Any cellars give some accommodation, or else 
 splinter-proofs may be built behind a second wall, 
 for shells burst at the first wall. These will render 
 men fairly safe, and protect them from falling 
 splinters during the cannonade which precedes the 
 advance of the enemy's infantry. 
 
 The defensive measures to be taken are the very 
 first thing to clear the field of fire. 
 
 To loophole the outer walls, providing, when pos- 
 sible, flanking fire, and making two rows on the 
 ground floor if not pressed for time. The loopholes 
 of the upper rooms should be sloped well down to 
 see as close to the foot of the Avail as possible. Some 
 
 Choice of 
 a house. 
 
 Shelter 
 
 from 
 artillery 
 
 when 
 possible. 
 
 Brick 
 
 better 
 
 than stone. 
 
 Cellars. 
 
 * Defensive 
 measures. 
 
 * Clear field 
 
 of fire.
 
 136 
 
 Barricade 
 doors and 
 windows. 
 
 Remove 
 glass. 
 
 * must be made at the salient angles. When walls 
 Loopholes, are very thick, loopholes are more easily made under 
 
 the eaves, where they are thinner. Low walls or 
 flat roofs should be prepared for men kneeling. If 
 the roof is high-pitched and tiled, the single tiles 
 just above the eaves should be removed. 
 
 * Strongly barricade the doors and windows on the 
 basement and ground floor to the height of about 
 6 feet, with boxes and casks filled with cinders, 
 earth, or anything else handy ; or by bullet-proof 
 timber fastened by struts. Loophole the upper part 
 of the doors and window-shutters. The men inside 
 
 * can use the furniture as a step. Remove all glass. 
 The up stairs windows need not be barricaded, but 
 sheets or blankets should be hung across the lower 
 parts to hide the men from view. Rolls of carpets, 
 mattrasses, sand-bags, &c., may be piled up 6 feet 
 high, as a protection, with openings left to fire 
 through. 
 
 * If there is no flank defence afforded by the 
 building itself, build out a tambour, at an angle, 
 on a projecting gallery, on the upper floor, from 
 which to fire down. 
 
 Ditches should be cut outside the lower windows 
 and doors, and obstacles strewed round them to 
 prevent the enemy from closing. 
 
 Cut communications through partition walls, and 
 leave one entrance on the least exposed side for 
 communication or retreat. Loophole the porch 
 inside the door (vide Fig. 55). 
 
 In preparing an obstinate defence, remove the 
 staircases, and loophole the upper floors, communi- 
 cating with the latter by ladders. 
 
 Provide 
 
 flank 
 defence. 
 
 Obstacle?. * 
 
 Communi- 
 cations.
 
 FO RTI Fl ED HOUSE. 
 
 
 DEFENCE OF A HOUSE 
 
 136
 
 137 
 
 If breaching is feared, support the upper floor 
 with beams, and have material ready to barricade 
 the breach. 
 
 Provide against fire by removing thatched roofs. * Pre ~ 
 
 cautions 
 
 Cover the floors with wet earth or dung. Place against 
 barrels of water and wet blankets in each room, 
 and detail a few men specially as firemen. 
 
 For the defence of a farm or a group of buildings, * Defence of 
 . . , a farm or 
 
 similar precautions must be taken on a larger scale. group of 
 
 Boundary walls should be occupied, to obtain a good 
 distribution of fire, attending to flank defences. 
 Open as far as possible in the rear any small out- 
 houses useless for defence. Loophole only the walls 
 commanding the enemy's line of attack. What 
 houses are occupied should flank each other, and 
 see into the boundaries. Make the best communi- 
 cations between them, and arrange one as a keep. 
 Such a farm or group of houses, holding 2 or 3 
 companies, often becomes a good tactical pivot. 
 
 Attack on a House. 
 
 Employ guns and rockets before the assault, to * Artillery. 
 clear the way for the infantry by destroying obstacles, 
 making a breach or setting a building on fire. If 
 we have no artillery, at least two different attacks * At least 
 should be arranged on different sides, and an attempt attacks. 
 made with ladders to get in by the roof. An ex- 
 tended line precedes the storming party, getting as * Extended 
 close to the houses as any cover will allow, for the 
 nearer they are the less will they be exposed to fire 
 from loopholes of unflanked buildings, because of 
 the difficulty of obliquing and depressing the rifles.
 
 138 
 
 party. 
 
 They aim at the loopholes, unbarricaded windows, 
 and other vulnerable parts. Under cover of this 
 Storming * fire the storming parties advance, generally on the 
 angles, and endeavour to blow in the doors or lower 
 windows, or to force them open with crowbars, or a 
 piece of heavy timber. An effort may be made to 
 undermine the walls, while a ladder party tries the 
 Any thatched or wooden outhouses should be 
 set on fire, and even a fire of straw or brushwood 
 close to the walls will shake the confidence of the 
 defenders. A reserve must be kept in hand to 
 follow up success, to cover retreat, and to prevent 
 aid being rendered to the defenders. 
 
 Burn what * roof. 
 is inflam- 
 mable. 
 
 Reserve. 
 
 When 
 
 villages 
 
 are useful. 
 
 Disad- 
 vantages. 
 
 Defence of Villages. 
 
 Villages are useful in a defensive line as sup- 
 porting points or pivots ; but we should compare the 
 number of men required to hold a similar front in 
 the open, and see if the garrison required for the 
 village will be more than its position is worth. 
 
 They possess the advantages of being made 
 defensible in the shortest time, and of being de- 
 fended obstinately for a long time ; they shelter the 
 troops before an attack ; and conceal their disposi- 
 tion, and those of troops in rear. 
 
 On the other hand, the defenders are scattered, 
 and it is difficult to supervise them. Artillery fire 
 causes loss by splinters, &c., and shells may set 
 buildings on fire. 
 
 A village may be a pivot on the main line, an 
 advanced post or outpost, or a reserve post ; and the
 
 DEFENCE OF V I LLACES 
 
 SALIENT VILLAGE, 
 
 i f/ouse prepared^ for 
 dcfenw. Trrm .Abatis . 
 
 ntanaleJnent . 
 
 helter Trench . 
 Wall . 
 
 BROADSIDE VILLAGE 
 
 Jfouse prepared for defence. & 
 \Abatis waiiiEntangrlernertt' fvj 
 <STielterTreric?i ^Clearing. [^ ^^ 
 
 ^Igopholed' Wa72 Jfe ^ 
 
 y * 
 
 Scale 6 'to iMle. 
 
 .139
 
 Plate VII cont? 
 
 a, a /'** Lifte of Defe//ce 
 b,b,? n ? Jo. do 
 9* //ouse prepared for defen-ce 
 <y .s.s Support' Trenches. 
 mm Barricade 
 ^-- * Cvmsnuru cfUiofi . 
 4batis.
 
 13.9 
 
 following principles should be followed in strengthen- 
 ing it, viz. : 
 
 To make the front and flanks strong, and the rear 
 capable of resisting infantry, so that troops in reserve 
 outside may have time to act. The distance in front 
 of the general line will decide whether the defence 
 is to be obstinate or not, and what extent is to be 
 fortified. But if the village is in rear of the line, 
 it must be obstinately defended all round. 
 
 There should be no high ground within close 
 range, and the surrounding country should afford a 
 clear field of fire with the aid of a little labour, and 
 allow troops outside to advance unimpeded in support. 
 
 A village may be either broadside to the enemy, 
 salient, or circular (vide Plate VII. from the 
 Manual of Field Engineering). 
 
 Form affects the time for preparation, and thB 
 obstinacy of defence. Thus a hamlet, end on to the 
 enemy, may be made strong against flank attacks, 
 but will be easily raked, and will require shelter 
 trenches on each side to increase the front fire. A 
 village broadside on is strong in front, and safe from 
 fire, but the flanks must be seen to. A circular 
 village is suitable anywhere. 
 
 The increased range of artillery makes villages 
 untenable at a greater distance now. Shells will 
 set on fire hay ricks, thatched roofs, and wooden 
 houses, and troops cannot remain in houses during 
 a cannonade. Therefore, having regard to modern 
 artillery, the arrangement should be somewhat as 
 follows : The extended or shooting line is placed 
 outside the village, under cover of such inclosures, 
 walls, hedges, and fences as are selected as suitable 
 
 Principles 
 of defence. 
 
 Must not 
 be com- 
 manded. 
 
 Prepara- 
 tion and 
 defence 
 depend on 
 form. 
 
 * Arrange- 
 ments 
 to meet 
 artillery 
 fire. 
 
 * Extended 
 line.
 
 140 
 
 Guns best 
 behind 
 epaul- 
 ments. 
 
 Machine 
 guns. 
 
 Wire 
 entangle- 
 ment. 
 
 Fix outer * 
 line first, 
 then inner 
 defences. 
 
 in form to the general line of defence, supplemented 
 when needed by shelter trenches, and far enough 
 advanced, at least 40 yards, from the houses to be 
 clear of splinters ; but 150 to 200 yards in front 
 will be better unless the front be thereby too ex- 
 tended, so that if the enemy gain the first line, 
 the defenders can fire into it from the loophooled 
 houses. 
 
 Sometimes a field work may be made, and guns 
 placed in it. But guns are much better placed 
 behind epaulments giving a cross-fire in front ; and 
 machine guns will be very useful in defence, being- 
 light and easily moved. 
 
 As obstacles, though they oppose any advance of 
 the enemy, may prevent the defenders taking the 
 offensive, and afford shelter to the enemy, wire 
 entanglements are the best, giving no cover, not 
 affected by artillery fire, and entirely putting a stop 
 to the action of cavalry. 
 
 No village should be held situated in a valley ; 
 but those built on high ground, or near a river or 
 stream, become important and of great value to an 
 army deploying. 
 
 We must, on first examination of a village, find 
 out the nature of the surrounding country, cover 
 available for the enemy, and whether the banks, 
 fences, &c., can be defended ; then determine quickly 
 what is to be the outer line, and where shelter 
 trenches are required ; then choose the best houses 
 for the inner defence, avoiding wooden buildings 
 which cannot be pulled down. Also, examine the 
 roads traversing the village, fix places for barricades, 
 and make any openings required. No more should
 
 141 
 
 be undertaken than we have time and means for. 
 Begin the outer line first, and when this is nearly 
 completed, devote the rest of the time to the other 
 parts. 
 
 When a village is used as a detached post, it As a 
 
 detached 
 
 should be made secure all round. post. 
 
 When it is an advanced post, supported by a AS an 
 general line, it should be very strong on three sides. a p^ t cec 
 The rear should be open, and a line of shelter trench 
 thrown up 250 yards in rear. This trench will 
 prevent a flank attack of the enemy getting into 
 the rear, and with gun epaulments stop him from 
 using the village if captured. If the enemy takes 
 any part by surprise, the moment of capture is the 
 very time to drive him out before his men can get 
 
 into order again. For this reason a reserve must be * Necessity 
 
 for rcs6rvG 
 held in hand ready to act quickly. 
 
 The supports are best placed in small bodies clear * Best 
 of the village, and immediately in rear of the troops f or 
 they are to support, protected by shelter trenches, supports. 
 or prepared fences if there is time. The troops * Troops not 
 should not be put into the loopholed houses until the houses 
 the last moment ; the men told off to their places ; till the last 
 
 moment. 
 
 and as soon as the enemy attacks, they should be 
 brought into the village in small numbers, and 
 posted by the officers. By this time the cannonade 
 will have moderated. 
 
 When the greater part of the defenders are in the 
 village, troops of the 2nd line should line the shelter 
 trench,, and others may be conveniently extended in 
 intermediate positions, so as to feed the fight, and ^ e fen S c s e 1Te 
 
 gain the moral effect of moving forward. On no # but tne 
 
 fight to be 
 account should the defence be simply passive. fed.
 
 142 
 
 How the 
 
 troops 
 should be 
 told off. 
 
 A well-posted extended line should hold the outer 
 defences to the last, having supports and reserves 
 ready to re-inforce ; and easy communications should 
 be arranged for their advance, and also for an orderly 
 retreat. 
 
 Garrison. * A sufficient garrison would be of infantry, 2 men 
 to each pace of the circumference, allowing for 
 reserves ; 1 man to a pace is the least. A few field 
 guns and machine guns may be added, posted on 
 high ground in rear, or to command roads ; but the 
 guns must be able to withdraw safely. When 
 skilled labour and demolitions are necessary, a few 
 engineers should be included. 
 
 The troops should be told off by companies, half 
 battalions, or battalions to prepare and hold the 
 different parts of the village. The shooting line 
 and its supports will require f to the garrison. It 
 is desirable to prepare short walls or hedges perpen- 
 dicular to the front, to guard against the enemy 
 spreading right and left, should he succeed in break- 
 ing through ; and to divide the front into a series 
 of defensive sections, each to be manned by a 
 company or half a company. 
 
 During the cannonade the men should be kept 
 well under cover in trenches, or field casemates, or 
 behind walls. In ordinary houses they will not be 
 safe unless in cellars ; though they will be fairly so 
 behind houses, as shells will burst after passing 
 through one wall. 
 
 It is useless to prepare a keep unless a desperate 
 resistance is intended. In that case, one or a group 
 of substantial buildings should be chosen, with thick 
 walls, flank defence, and sheltered by other houses 
 
 A keep 
 prepared 
 
 when 
 desperate 
 resistance 
 intended.
 
 143 
 
 if possible. Its garrison may vary from 1 company 
 to half a battalion. There should be no communi- 
 cation made through this keep. 
 
 But a few sentries must be posted along the front 
 line to keep a sharp look-out, and good lateral com- 
 munications, as also from front to rear, provided. 
 Sign posts and orderlies should be placed at the 
 chief points. Some houses must be selected as guard 
 houses ; and a bomb-proof building, well sheltered, 
 fitted up, or else constructed for a hospital. 
 
 Machine guns should be kept under cover during 
 the enemy's preliminary cannonade ; and then placed 
 behind barricades, or to command broad streets. 
 
 The chief arrangements to be made are summarised 
 in order of importance, viz. : (1) clearing the field 
 of fire ; (2) concerning the shooting line, the sup- 
 ports, and the guns; (3) placing obstacles, and 
 beginning (4) communications ; lastly, some retrench- 
 ment or keep. 
 
 No 
 
 commu- 
 nication 
 through it. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Difficult, 
 and rarely 
 attempted. 
 
 Attack on a Village. 
 
 It is generally difficult and costly to attack a 
 village, and should only be attempted when the 
 object in view will justify the loss. If the village is 
 set on fire, this will often cause it to be evacuated, 
 but then it has to be considered whether the attack- 
 ing troops may not have to pass through the village, 
 and their advance be stopped by the fire. 
 
 The best plan is to concentrate a heavy artillery # Allow time 
 fire, not only to reduce the defender's fire, but to f r r ti h n e p a r vy 
 destroy buildings, and remove obstacles. Sufficient 
 time should be allowed for the cannonade before 
 
 fire.
 
 144 
 
 Storming 
 party with 
 engineers. 
 
 Working 
 parties. 
 
 German 
 attack 
 on Le 
 
 Bourget. 
 
 * sending on the infantry, who should be accompanied 
 by a few engineers with tools ; but the main body of 
 engineers must be held ready to push on when the 
 outer line is carried, to strengthen the village against 
 any counter attack by the reserve. 
 
 The attacking troops should try to get possession 
 of a detached building, which will screen their 
 advance, and enable them to keep a fire from under 
 
 * cover, before delivering the assault. Working parties 
 should follow to intrench any position won, and some 
 feints should be made at points not intended to be 
 forced, though they may be converted into real 
 attacks if opportunity serves. 
 
 * The attack by the Germans, in their war with 
 France, on the village of Le Bourget, may be quoted 
 as an example. It was made on three sides. The 
 two flanking columns sent out clouds of skirmishers, 
 who gained ground at the double and lay down. 
 The supports and reserves followed, also in extended 
 order and at the double. When these last threw 
 themselves down the attackers went on, bearing to 
 the flanks. Arriving within range they lay down 
 and opened fire. The gaps, occasioned by the ex- 
 tension of the front line to the flanks, were filled up, 
 and the flanks were prolonged by single companies 
 always in extended order, so that the attack was 
 concentric, becoming denser and more inclosing as 
 it approached the enemy. The characteristic to be 
 noticed is the " rapid change from open to close 
 order directly the most trifling cover admitted rally- 
 ing a section or a company ; and, on the other hand, 
 every advance over open ground took place in widely- 
 extended lines, moving like ants."
 
 Defence of a Wood. 
 
 Troops should be so posted as to be able to use * 
 their rifles freely without being seen. To hold a 
 wood defensively we must occupy the outskirts 
 nearest the enemy, and strive to prevent his pene- 
 trating, for if he gets in the fighting will be physically 
 on even terms, and morally in his favour. A wood 
 will always afford infantry a useful position and 
 shelter, and is most important when on a flank. 
 Disorder, loss of connection and control must be 
 guarded against. Cavalry and artillery will be 
 generally hampered. 
 
 There is risk in occupying a very extensive wood, 
 and it is then preferable to take up a position more 
 to the rear, but still near enough to fall upon the 
 enemy's columns attempting to debouch. 
 
 When a forest is traversed only by certain roads 
 it affords a defending army similar advantages to 
 mountains, for there will be long and difficult defiles, 
 through which an enemy must pass, and we cannot 
 only meet him coming out, but at the same time 
 send detachments through the wood to take him in 
 flank and rear. 
 
 In holding a wood obstacles must be opposed, 
 the defenders, well sheltered, should be able to direct 
 a strong fire on the assailants. The front line 
 should know where the supports are posted, and 
 good communication should be established between 
 these two bodies and between the supports and 
 reserve. 
 
 In some cases a wood is traversed by roads, in 
 others by only timber tracks. A commissioned officer 
 
 Enemy 
 must be 
 kept out 
 by occu- 
 pation 
 of the 
 outskirts. 
 
 Roads 
 through 
 forests 
 resemble 
 denies.
 
 Marking * should be specially detailed to mark the direction to 
 
 commuui- ,. 
 
 cations. dmerent places on trees with an axe and a paint- 
 pot, and connecting files must be carefully placed to 
 pass orders from the fighting line to the supports, 
 which are out of sight of the former. 
 Prelimin- The preliminary examination or reconnaissance 
 
 animation, should note the size, length, and breadth of the 
 wood, its nature, whether open or thick, whether 
 the edge is marked or indefinite, if there are under- 
 wood and straggling trees between the main wood 
 and the open, if there are any outlying clumps or 
 belts of trees, and their distance outside the wood ; 
 the roads and paths, houses, clearings, streams, and 
 wet places, whether the ground is broken or smooth, 
 and what positions are in rear or on the flanks. 
 
 Abattis at * The first thing to do is to commence at once to 
 construct abattis at all the salients, 100 to 200 
 yards at each place will be sufficient, leaving spaces 
 between them of about 500 yards, through which 
 offensive attacks may be made. Cross-cut saws 
 work fastest. The smallest trees will be felled, but 
 the largest left standing for cover, and to save 
 labour. The rough abattis should be about 12 yards 
 wide. The salients are usually on the spurs of hills, 
 and when the enemy sees the abattis he will pro- 
 bable try to get round the flanks, so that the abattis 
 at each salient should be prolonged into the wood on 
 both sides so as to take the assailants in flank (vide 
 Plate VIII.). 
 
 Rifle-pits. * Rifle-pits should be dug to shelter the men on the 
 flanks. Other obstacles may be placed in front, such 
 as will not screen from fire. Detached clumps 
 within 500 or 600 yards should be cut down or
 
 Plate Vffl
 
 147 
 
 occupied, otherwise the enemy will make use of them. * 
 As a rule, all cover should be cleared within that 
 distance, but if the edge of the wood is very irregular 
 we must decide how much to hold and how much to 
 give up. 
 
 Unless by special order it is best not to break * 
 up or block roads at the entrance of a wood, but 
 rather do so at a farm, or other point some 700 
 or 800 yards in front, where a small post might be 
 established to cover the barricade. 
 
 As to guns, very few should be in the wood, when 
 it is in front of, and flanked from the general line of 
 battle. But if the wood forms part of that line they 
 must not be on the roads, offering a mark, but places 
 for them should be specially prepared, a little to one 
 side of the roads, and some distance apart to avoid 
 splinters. If there is time, each gun should have two 
 or more such epaulments prepared beforehand, near 
 enough for it to be moved from one to another by 
 hand. But guns must have a ready means of retreat 
 by the road. They are best outside the wood on the 
 flanks. 
 
 In the American civil war, 1861-1864, there was * 
 much fighting in woods. Both armies threw up long 
 lines of breast-works, some a simple trench and 
 parapet, other parts felled trees laid lengthways, 
 with small epaulments for the field guns near the 
 paths. These works remained long after the war in 
 the Chickahominy Swamp near Richmond, and in 
 Georgia. 
 
 The chief point in the defence is to hold the edge 
 strongly, and to take steps to ensure prompt action 
 
 L 2 
 
 Clear field 
 of fire. 
 
 Where 
 
 roads 
 
 should lie 
 
 blocked. 
 
 Position 
 of guns. 
 
 Epaul- 
 ments. 
 
 Breast- 
 works in 
 American 
 civil war.
 
 148 
 
 of the supports and reserves, in case the front line is 
 forced. 
 
 Supports. * The line of supports may be brought nearer to the 
 front than in other situations. They may be of less 
 strength, and posted in smaller bodies near the most 
 vulnerable places. The reserve, also, must not be far 
 away. The commanding officer should watch events 
 from the front and send back his orders. 
 
 Second * A second line of defence should be provided at 
 defence. some clearing or open space, or along a watercourse 
 or stream, and it is advisable to make some lines of 
 abattis parallel to the line of retreat, which will take 
 the enemy in flank and prevent him extending, 
 should he penetrate. 
 
 There is often a spot where all roads converge, in 
 Position of * the woods ; it may be a farm or small village. This 
 might be placed in a state of defence, and the reserve 
 posted near. 
 
 The force to hold a wood may be estimated at 
 
 Telling off * from 1 to 2 men per pace of the boundary. They 
 
 garrison should be told off into different sections by tactical 
 
 units, and the greater part of the men placed in the 
 
 fighting line. 
 
 The supports and reserves may be considered safe 
 
 from fire if they cannot see the open through the 
 
 trunks of trees. But if the timber is not close they 
 
 should be in trenches or under other cover. 
 
 When The employment of cavalry is restricted. They 
 
 may have a space of favourable ground on a flank or 
 
 employed. j n rear> from which they may come round and take 
 
 the assailants in flank. In a few instances small 
 
 parties may be concealed in the wood if it admits of 
 
 their action.
 
 149 
 
 When possible, guns should be posted so as to bring 
 a heavy fire on a wood in front, without endangering 
 the defenders retiring, and the latter should have their 
 line of retreat clearly pointed out, so that they can 
 fall back by detachments, while the enemy's troops, 
 having attacked and gained the wood with loss, will 
 probably be in disorder and unwilling to quit cover, 
 especially in face of artillery fire. 
 
 If the wood be set on fire to any great extent we 
 should evacuate it, and take up a position in rear. 
 
 Heavy fire 
 
 of artillery 
 
 on wood. 
 
 Dangerous 
 operation. 
 
 Attack of a Wood. 
 
 A large wood is injurious to an army on the 
 offensive. But small woods may be very useful, 
 masking troops, concealing reserves, and sometimes 
 enabling cavalry to act opportunely on the flanks of 
 an attack. 
 
 Troops attacking a wood are in ignorance of what 
 force there is within, how it is disposed, and how it 
 may be sheltered. It is a dangerous and difficult 
 operation. Tactical formations cannot be carried 
 out, therefore an attack on a wood strongly held 
 would be only justifiable when the object in view 
 cannot be attained otherwise. 
 
 We must learn what we can of the interior from * Obtain all 
 maps and the inhabitants, and reconnoitre well the formation." 
 front and flanks, endeavouring to know how the wood 
 is held, and where the enemy has his infantry and 
 guns, and where are his weak points. A false attack 
 may make him show his position. 
 
 The defenders will probably have imperfect com- 
 munication, and the supports and reserves less under
 
 150 
 
 control than in the open, whereas the assailants will 
 Two or * have complete communication and supervision. It 
 attacks at is, therefore, best to make two or three distinct 
 though simultaneous attacks instead of one. 
 
 As an attack made in the open to be successful 
 generally presupposes superiority of force, much more 
 is this necessary when the enemy is sheltered behind 
 trees, walls, shelter trenches, &c. 
 
 Artillery must prepare the way with deliberation, 
 all the guns available being brought into position, 
 and divided into as many divisions as there are 
 Artillery * attacks. The fire should be rapid ; those guns sup- 
 porting all attacks may support each other for a time 
 in succession, firing at the points selected to be 
 forced. They may advance to within 1,500 yards, as 
 probably there will not be many guns in the wood, 
 lufantry. * Under this fire the infantry will make the actual 
 attack, the supports moving close up to the fighting 
 line, and they will try to force the breach and effect 
 a lodgment. If the edge of the wood is gained a 
 sufficiently strong body must be collected before 
 advancing further, and then the line must move 
 carefully and steadily, with supports on the flanks, 
 ready to meet any counter attack by the enemy. 
 Re-form # Before issuing from a wood troops must be 
 
 before 
 
 advancing re-formed, 
 further. 
 
 Defence of a Defile. 
 Meaning of* A defile is any ground over which troops must 
 
 a defile. ., ., , . 
 
 necessarily pass with a very narrow front in pro- 
 portion to their strength, so that the extent of front 
 limits the number of combatants, and enables a 
 weak force to contend successfully against one much
 
 151 
 
 stronger. But a defile may be turned, or possibly 
 avoided altogether, by the enemy discovering a 
 mountain path, or crossing a stream by a neigh- 
 bouring ford, the existence of which was unknown to 
 the defenders holding a bridge. Hence the latter 
 should look out well to anticipate these movements 
 and be ready to take the enemy in flank while he is 
 searching for another point of passage. 
 
 Although the term is usually applied to a moun- 
 tain pass, or a road traversing a forest, yet it also 
 includes railway cuttings, hollow roads, streets, 
 causeways, embankments over swampy ground, and 
 all bridges. 
 
 The road itself should not be cut up, nor obstacles 
 difficult of removal be constructed, unless it is known 
 that we shall not require the road ourselves, and it is 
 determined to deny the use of it to the enemy. 
 
 The most effectual defence is to be made by 
 occupying a position on our own side of the defile, 
 extending on both sides, so that every gun and rifle 
 can be brought to bear upon the head of the enemy's 
 column as he debouches. 
 
 Another way is by taking up a strong position 
 somewhere within the defile, blocking the road with 
 obstacles, and placing the men under the best 
 available cover. This is practicable if the flanks 
 are inaccessible, or made tolerably secure, but not 
 otherwise, nor should it be adopted if part of the 
 defending army has not yet passed through. 
 
 When this is the case the defile must be held on 
 the enemy's side, infantry being disposed according 
 to the ground in a chain of small posts guarding the 
 front and flanks, and the guns commanding the chief 
 
 As a rule, 
 
 the road 
 
 must not 
 
 be cut. 
 
 Defensive 
 
 position on 
 
 our own 
 
 side. 
 
 Position 
 
 within the 
 
 defile. 
 
 Position 
 
 on the 
 
 enemy's 
 
 side.
 
 152 
 
 approaches. The rest of the army will then pass to 
 the further side of the defile, and take up the best 
 position to protect the gradual withdrawal of the 
 defending troops. But a position on the enemy's side 
 should not be occupied under other circumstances, 
 unless there is no ground in rear suitable for defence, 
 Disadvan- or it is specially desired to prevent the enemy 
 Position. entering the defile, or part of a retreating army has 
 not got through. For if the defenders are driven 
 back into the defile in their rear, the retreat may be 
 converted into a rout, and great loss entailed. 
 Mountain * In the case of a mountain defile, traversing strong 
 ground, when the heights on each side are difficult 
 of access, a stand may safely be made at the entrance 
 nearest the enemy, infantry being extended along the 
 heights commanding the defile, to make sure of the 
 flanks, while the road is barricaded, and the infantry 
 must make a stubborn defence. But if the heights 
 have no command over the road, the stand must be 
 made further to the rear, either in the defile itself or 
 at the exit. 
 
 Attack on a Defile. 
 
 Duty of * Supposing it is required to make an attack on a 
 attacking defile like the last referred .to, so long as the de- 
 
 hold the heights, no advance is possible, 
 therefore, parties of infantry must precede, to ascend 
 the heights and clear them of defenders, while the 
 Artillery. guns destroy the obstacles and any cover in the 
 defile. This done, a party of infantry will seize the 
 Seizure of * passage, with the bayonet if necessary. The further 
 passage. advance must be made cautiously, flanking parties 
 always working along the heights, and an advanced
 
 i. 66, 
 
 TETE DE PONT. 
 
 Tig. ^7. 
 
 SALIENT BEND. 
 
 Tig. 59. 
 
 STRAIGHT REACH. 
 
 Ttg.60. 
 
 USUAL POSITION OF A FORD. 
 
 Shallow
 
 153 
 
 guard thrown out on the road itself, followed by some * Caution in 
 guns as near the front as is safe, ready to take advance, 
 position on the further side. Supports must be close 
 up, in case further opposition is experienced. 
 
 Defence of a Bridge. 
 
 The same principle obtains as in the case of other * Best 
 defiles, and the best position is on our own side of usually on 
 the bridge, due precaution being taken to watch the ^ide 
 roads on the other side. But sometimes a village is 
 built on a river, and on both banks ; then the houses, 
 hedges, and walls must be placed in a state of 
 defence and occupied, lest they are made use of by 
 the enemy. If, however, we are not strong enough 
 to do this, level the buildings on the enemy's side as 
 far as possible, and clear the field of fise. Again, if 
 the bridge is in rear of the village, the enemy's side 
 must be held. 
 
 The dispositions of both artillery and infantry * All 
 should be such as to bring the greatest amount of g re to bear 
 fire on the bridge itself and the ground beyond. on the 
 
 bridge. 
 
 If a field work is made by way of a tete-de-pont, * NO road 
 it must be closed, and no road leading to the bridge s le ^ 
 must pass through the work, but outside it, so that through a 
 
 tete-de- 
 
 the defenders of the work may not be affected by pont. 
 their friends retiring, or by the enemy in pursuit. 
 
 The troops retiring may assemble behind the 
 work, and file over the bridge, while the enemy 
 will be exposed to the fire of the tete-de-pont (vide position 
 
 F! S- 56 )' bridle 
 
 By a comparison of Figs. 57 and 58, it is evident * over a 
 
 winding 
 
 that a bridge situated in a bend of the river river.
 
 154 
 
 re-entering to the enemy is much more capable of 
 
 defence than one in a salient bend. But if a 
 
 When a * temporary floating bridge is constructed, a straight 
 
 reach is piece of the river will be more suitable (vide Fig. 59), 
 
 e> as the current runs more easily, there are fewer 
 
 eddies, and the approaches to the banks are likely 
 
 to be good. 
 
 Attack on a Bridge. 
 
 The general plan of attack may be understood 
 by reference to Fig. 38 representing a battalion 
 advancing across a bridge in contact with the enemy 
 (ante, p. 55). 
 
 Artillery * But artillery must first cannonade his position 
 
 previous to before the infantry advances. These will move on 
 
 infantry j n extended order, keeping up a continuous fire, 
 
 advance. 
 
 and making .the best use of cover. Should a single 
 building be occupied defensively, a party must be 
 told off to attack it, so as not to delay the general 
 advance ; but if the enemy is in force on our side, 
 the houses must be shelled, and cleared of defenders, 
 before the bridge itself can be stormed. 
 
 Defence of a Ford. 
 
 Limit of * A ford should not be deeper than 3 feet for 
 infantry, 4 feet for cavalry, and 2 feet 6 inches for 
 artillery and waggons. The best ways to find a 
 ford are to see where wheel tracks enter the river on 
 
 Discovery * one side and come out on the other ; by questioning 
 
 >r ' the people ; by finding out what communication 
 
 there is between houses on the banks facing each 
 
 other ; by taking the depths in a boat ; by noticing
 
 155 
 
 bends in the river where the current is strong and 
 broken. 
 
 It is well to know that when a river flows through 
 a bed which has not a homogeneous geological 
 structure throughout, the current will hollow out 
 the softer parts, the straight course will be deflected, 
 and the current will not continue straight, but will * 
 be again deflected. This is the origin of the serpen- 
 tine course of rivers. The deepest part follows the 
 strongest current, as indicated by the thick line 
 in Fig. 60, and is called by the Germans the 
 "thalweg" (or valley-way). Thus a ford is gene- 
 rally found in the direction from one convex part 
 to the next opposite, diagonally across the river, 
 while the opposite concave parts will be the deepest, 
 and the banks near them steep. 
 
 We must always defend a ford on our own side of * 
 the river. For if we defended it on the other, and 
 were forced back, the enemy would learn where it 
 was. As in the case of a bridge, fire must be 
 concentrated. A ford may be made impassable 
 by deepening it, or placing trunks of trees, stakes, 
 harrows, or other impediments. But if we require 
 to use the ford this should not be done. 
 
 General 
 direction 
 
 in a 
 winding 
 
 river. 
 
 Reasons 
 
 for 
 
 defending 
 
 a ford on 
 
 our own 
 
 side. 
 
 Attack of a Ford. 
 
 When troops approach the river bank they must 
 first find the ford, and the crossing will be slow and 
 on a small front. Therefore, artillery should first 
 commence fire, and endeavour to clear the other 
 side. Infantry should line the bank, on each side 
 
 Artillery 
 
 opens the 
 
 attack.
 
 156 
 
 Infantry * and under their fire some guns and cavalry, with 
 infantry in support, should cross quickly, and 
 establish themselves on the further side. 
 
 Hold in * 
 
 force 
 
 certain 
 
 points 
 
 only, but 
 
 carefully 
 
 watch the 
 
 whole line. 
 
 Post * 
 reserve 
 centrally. 
 
 Recon- * 
 noitre 
 frequently. 
 
 Defence of a River. 
 
 The enemy's object will be to pass over a part of 
 his troops and establish himself on our side of the 
 river, and under cover of these the rest of his men 
 will cross with comparative safety. The first party 
 over must naturally be weak, and should be easily 
 overwhelmed. But if reinforcements succeed in 
 following, troops should be ready to oppose them. 
 
 It is out of the question to hold a great length 
 of river, and the enemy will assuredly adopt ruses, 
 and feint at different points. Therefore, we should 
 only hold in force the weakest points, e.g. bridges 
 and fords, and dispose a series of advanced posts to 
 watch carefully the whole line, while the main body 
 is posted in one or two central positions, ready to 
 move to any point that may be threatened. Frequent 
 reconnaissances should be made, and a good system 
 of communication established, so that counter attacks 
 may be prepared ; for a mere passive defence will 
 avail little. 
 
 When the river is broad there will be greater 
 difficulty in throwing a bridge and in crossing by 
 boats. But when it is narrow, and the ground on 
 our side is suitable for defence, it may be better to 
 offer a weak resistance at the point of crossing, and 
 to make the chief stand at some previously selected 
 position across the enemy's probable line of advance.
 
 157 
 
 Passage of a River. 
 
 From what has been remarked under the head of * Selection 
 Bridges, it will be seen that when a bridge is well f or 
 
 held and defended, an attack upon it will most crossing. 
 likely entail loss. It is, therefore, best to choose 
 some point of crossing in a bend of the river concave 
 to the defenders, with firm ground on both sides, 
 and where the bank on our side is the highest. By 
 these means guns can be quickly brought up to 
 direct a converging fire on the enemy's position. 
 But they should not be brought into action until 
 the last moment. 
 
 A hamlet, wood, or some other shelter should be * Shelter on 
 looked for on the opposite side, which will cover the opposite 
 advanced party when first moved across, and enable bank - 
 them to hold their own till reinforced. Sometimes 
 confluent streams and islands may be made use of 
 in the passage. 
 
 All available boats, material for bridges, and other * Boats and 
 requisites should be collected under cover, and troops 
 massed in rear of neighbouring heights. Detach- 
 ments should also make feints to distract the 
 enemy. 
 
 When all is ready a cannonade should be opened * Under 
 
 , artillery 
 
 on the opposite bank, the guns being specially cannonade. 
 
 directed against the enemy's artillery. As soon as 
 
 the other side is cleared of defenders, the covering * Covering 
 
 party should be sent over as quickly as possible, and crosses 
 
 they, when once established, must strengthen their 
 
 post, and defend it obstinately against any counter 
 
 attack, pending the arrival of reinforcements. Besides 
 
 boats, rafts may be used, and even some of the men
 
 158 
 
 may swim across, their arms and accoutrements 
 being carried for them. 
 
 A feint It may happen that a party detached to make a 
 
 may 
 sometimes feint is unopposed, and an opportunity may offer to 
 
 act on the enemy's flank. But if the party is small, 
 no risk should be run of being overpowered on the 
 other side unless they can join hands with the 
 troops attacking at the main crossing. 
 
 Passage Perhaps the best instance of a successful passage 
 
 Douro, to refer to is that of the river Douro by Sir Arthur 
 
 Wellesley on the 12th May, 1809, in presence 
 
 of the French army under Marshal Soult (vide 
 
 Plate IX.). 
 
 Near Oporto the river takes a sharp bend round 
 the Serra rock on the left bank, opposite to which 
 was an isolated building called the Seminary. Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley observed that his guns from this 
 rock could sweep the opposite bank, and that its 
 position hid the passage of barges; also, that the 
 Seminary was a strong building, capable of holding 
 2 battalions, easy of access from the river, but sur- 
 rounded by a high wall on the other three sides. 
 He collected secretly his troops behind the Serra 
 rock, placed 18 guns on the summit, and detached 
 a brigade under General Murray to Avintas with 
 orders to send down more boats, and if possible to 
 cross there himself. 
 
 When Sir Arthur Wellesley heard that Murray 
 had found boats, he sent 1 officer and 25 men over 
 in a barge to the Seminary, and reinforcements 
 quickly followed. % boat-loads crossed before the 
 French were alarmed ; they then tried to storm 
 the Seminary, but our guns swept the left of the
 
 Plate IX.
 
 159 
 
 building, and confined the assault to one side, where 
 the musketry drove them back. Meanwhile, the in- 
 habitants brought over several great boats, by which 
 the Guards crossed, and passing through the town 
 took the French in rear, while Murray's brigade 
 appeared, coming from Avintas ; so the French, sur- 
 prised, and fearing to be cut off, abandoned their 
 sick and 50 guns, and retreated in great disorder 
 towards Amarante. 
 
 The panic was so great that a squadron of the 
 14th dragoons cut their way through 3 battalions 
 in a hollow road, and so complete was the surprise 
 that Sir Arthur Wellesley sat down in Soult's 
 quarters to the dinner prepared for that marshal. 
 
 Again, on the 7th October, 1813, Wellington * Passage 
 crossed, with the allied army, over the river Bidassoa, 
 Bidassoa into France with very little loss, that 
 river being held by Marshal Soult. Wellington 
 manoeuvred to distract Soult, and succeeded in 
 crossing at different points, partly by a bridge left 
 unbroken by the French, who were driven from a 
 strong intrenched position above it, and partly by 
 a ford near Irun, pointed out at low water by a 
 countryman. 
 
 The French, falsely secure from the strength of * Kesult of a 
 ground, neglected to watch the mouth of the river, a ut 
 and were surprised. 
 
 Barricades. 
 
 A barricade to block up a street or road is made * How im- 
 by cutting a ditch across it, throwing the earth into 
 a parapet at least 7 feet high, and facing it with
 
 160 
 
 paving stones. But if there is little time, bags, 
 boxes, baskets of coal, ashes, manure, sacks of corn, 
 casks, or other solid materials from the neighbour- 
 ing houses, may be formed into a parapet, while 
 planks laid on chairs, tables, or casks may serve as 
 the step for the defenders to stand on. Carts, 
 carriages, wheelbarrows, and furniture may be 
 strewed in front as obstacles (vide Figs. 61 and 62). 
 adjoining * Adjoining houses should be loopholed to afford a 
 flanking fire. To prevent a barricade in a main 
 street being turned, any streets leading to the rear 
 of it should be similarly blocked. 
 
 Attack of a* To attack a barricade, artillery should breach it. 
 
 barricade. -_ ., , . -,,-, 
 
 If guns are not available, some men should try to 
 enter neighbouring houses, and fire from the upper 
 rooms and roofs upon the defenders. A passage 
 may be forced from one house to another until the 
 rear of the barricade is reached, and a party should 
 try to turn it by passing down another street leading 
 behind it.
 
 STREET BARRICADE 
 
 BARRICADE
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OBSTACLES AND OTHER ACCESSORIES TO DEFENCE. 
 
 MORE than two hundred years ago, Sir William 
 Temple said : " In all sieges the hearts of men 
 defend the walls, and not the walls the men." 
 And this is as true now as then, with respect to 
 holding any post or other position which it is our 
 duty to defend. The defence of Rorke's Drift in * 
 
 J Drift, 
 
 South Africa in 1879 is a most brilliant example, 1879. 
 where two subalterns and about 130 men success- 
 fully withstood the attacks for hours of an enemy 
 flushed with victory, and in overwhelming numbers. 
 The officers had presence of mind, and applied their 
 knowledge of field fortification in the limited time 
 and means at their disposal. 
 
 The object of all defensive works is to enable a * Works 
 weaker to resist a stronger force. When it is 
 possible, engineers superintend troops of the line. 
 But they may not always be available, and there are 
 many instances where unskilled labour may be 
 turned to account, with a little knowledge on the 
 part of the officer?, who should remember not to 
 
 M
 
 162 
 
 rely on the works themselves, which are but 
 auxiliaries to the defending troops, and a passive 
 resistance is easily overcome. 
 
 Obstacles are most efficient when placed some 
 little distance in front of the parapet, say from 80 
 to 100 yards, in the case of a small work ; but in 
 front of a line of works, this distance may be 
 greater. Then the attacking troops, detained under 
 musketry fire, will have to overcome the obstacles, 
 and be thrown into disorder, and then have to assault 
 and get into the works. 
 
 Conditions * The conditions to be fulfilled by all obstacles, 
 fulfilled by are : They should be hidden from the enemy's 
 obstacles. distant view and fire, which is usually effected by 
 a glacis ; be defended by heavy fire ; and be strong 
 enough to form serious impediments. They should 
 be under close musketry fire, i.e. within 300 yards 
 of the defending line; but not too close, lest the 
 defenders be disadvantageously affected by the close 
 proximity of an attacking force. They must afford 
 no cover to the enemy, and they cannot do this if 
 within effective range. If possible, they should be 
 protected from the enemy's artillery fire, so as to 
 be intact when his infantry comes up to them ; and 
 be difficult to remove or surmount; and lastly 
 arranged with gaps sufficiently large to allow a 
 counter attack to be made ; e.g. 150 yards is enough 
 for half a battalion to extend for attack, and for 
 cavalry and artillery to pass. 
 
 Different * The chief obstacles are abattis, entanglements, 
 use. palisades, fraises, military pits, pickets, crowsfeet, 
 gabion band trip, hurdles, chevaux-de-frise, and an 
 inundation.
 
 ABATTIS. 
 
 64- 
 
 WIRE ENTANGLEMENT.
 
 163 
 
 Abattis are felled trees, the trunks and stoutest * Abattis. 
 limbs being cut 12 to 15 feet long, and laid as close 
 together as possible, with the branches towards the 
 enemy, and pointed, at least 5 feet high, with the 
 butts buried in the ground, secured by stout stakes, 
 or by logs laid across several butts. The smaller 
 branches and leaves are removed, so as not to give 
 cover. They are placed upright in the ditch, at 
 the foot of the counterscarp ; or more usually beyond 
 the ditch in a trench, 2| feet deep, protected from 
 artillery fire by an advanced glacis 2^- feet high 
 (vide Fig. 63). As an estimate of time, 6 men will 
 cut and fix 1 tree to cover 3 yards of ground in 1 
 hour. And 20 men will make 2 rows, 30 yards 
 long, in 6 hours, when the trees are small and close 
 at hand ; half the men felling, pointing the branches, 
 and dragging the trees into position ; the other half 
 fixing them, and picketing down the butts. 
 
 The tools required are 6 felling axes, 2 hand 
 axes, 6 bill-hooks, 2 hand saws, 2 mallets, and drag 
 ropes. 
 
 Hard, tough wood is best. Pine is worst, being 
 easily broken and burnt. 
 
 To fell trees men should work in gangs of 3 one 
 with a saw, one with an axe, the third with a rope to 
 haul the tree over on the required side, to be indi- 
 cated by a nick. 3 such men in a gang will fell a 
 moderately sized oak tree in 3 hours, and a fir tree in 
 10 minutes. Backwoodsmen, as in America, work 
 much quicker with axes. 
 
 Entanglements are excellent in a wooded country, * Entangle- 
 ments, 
 affording means of using a wood, which otherwise 
 
 would give cover to an enemy. They were much 
 
 M 2
 
 164 
 
 employed in the American Civil War/They are made 
 by half sawing the .trees through, and pegging them 
 down, so as to interlace- each other. 
 
 A wire entanglement is good both against infantry 
 and cavalry. It consists of wire stretched across stout 
 stakes, 4 feet to 7 feet apart, arranged in rows chequer- 
 wise, the wire crossing diagonally and twisted round 
 the heads of the stakes 1 or 2 inches above the 
 ground. No. 14 B.W. gauge is the most convenient 
 size 1 mile in length weighing 90 Ibs. This obstacle 
 is rapidly prepared, very portable, little injured 
 by artillery fire, and impassable by cavalry. It is 
 most effective when at least 10 yards deep, and 
 concealed with brushwood and small bushes (vide 
 Fig. 64). 
 
 5 men will make 50 yards of this entanglement in 
 length, by 10 yards in depth, in 10 hours, with 
 900 yards of wire. They require 3 bill-hooks, 
 1 mallet, 2 pairs of pincers, 150 pickets. 
 
 A wood, if felled for 20 or 30 yards, forms a good 
 obstacle alone. 
 
 Palisades. * Palisades are roughly squared timber about 
 6 inches square, cut through diagonally, so that the 
 longest sides are about 8 inches, making a stout 
 paling to guard against assault. Their usual height 
 is 10 feet, with 3 feet buried in the ground. They 
 are kept together by 2 ribands, one underground, the 
 other near the top, both being on the inside, and are 
 placed 4 inches apart, which spaces should be ac- 
 curately kept, to prevent a man putting his foot 
 through on to the riband, and so helping himself to 
 climb over. 
 
 When the trees are too small to cut across, as in a
 
 .165 
 
 country with much fir, palisades are made of round 
 timbers. 
 
 They must be covered from artillery fire ; their 
 usual position is, therefore, in the ditch, or to close 
 the rear of a small advanced work seen into from the 
 main line. 
 
 Fraises are simply palisades in a horizontal or * 
 inclined position, and their best place is on the 
 counterscarp, sloping slightly down to the ditch, for 
 then they are a formidable obstacle, and do not 
 interfere with projectiles thrown into the ditch. 
 Their position, when under the escarp, is not so good, 
 as there they may assist in the assault. 
 
 Military pits are employed in a country affording # Large 
 no wood. They are either made 6 feet or 2| feet m pits! ry 
 deep, i.e. either too shallow or too deep to be useful 
 as rifle pits. The large ones are traced on the ground 
 by forming equilateral triangles of 10 feet side, and 
 describing circles with a radius of 3 feet, which leaves 
 an interval of 2 feet between each 2 pits, on which the 
 earth is heaped. The smaller pits are placed chequer- * Small 
 wise, and the earth is spread about. It is usual to ^^^ 
 make 3 rows of each kind, and pickets are placed at 
 the bottom with sharpened points. It will take one 
 man a day to make a large pit, or 6 small ones. 
 They are effective against cavalry, and break the 
 formation of infantry (vide Figs. 65 and 66). 
 
 Pickets are sometimes used alone, as by the * pickets. 
 Chinese in the Peiho forts. They are simply 
 pointed stakes. 
 
 Crowsfeet are good against cavalry, but not much * Crows- 
 
 feet 
 use against infantry. Each is formed of 4 iron spikes 
 
 3 inches long, joined at the heads in such a way that
 
 166 
 
 Gabion 
 band trip. 
 
 Chevaux- 
 de-frise. 
 
 Inunda- 
 tions. 
 
 Dam. 
 
 when thrown on the ground, one point is always 
 upwards. They may also be placed in fords. 
 
 The gabion band trip is formed of the bands of 
 Jones's iron gabions buttoned and placed in lines 3 
 or 4 feet apart, connected with stout wire or rope, 
 passed through the bridging holes, and secured at 
 intervals to pickets. The rows are parallel and 
 chequerwise (vide Fig. 67). This is a useful obstacle 
 against cavalry, and even against infantry during a 
 night attack. 
 
 Chevaux-de-frise are made of cast-iron pipes in 
 lengths of 6 feet, about 5 inches in diameter, with 
 wrought-iron spears 4ft. 7-|in. long. The pipes fit 
 together, and the spears pack in them, so that they 
 are easily carried in the field. Sometimes they are 
 made of beams of wood, with spears 6ft. long, or sword 
 blades (vide Fig. 68). They are easily removed, and 
 are therefore useful to close a road. In such a 
 position they are chained together and fastened to 
 stakes, so as not to be dragged away. They are 
 often used to close the entrance of a field-work, in 
 which case one end has a wheel, and the other is 
 fastened to a hinge on a post. 
 
 ' Inundations may sometimes be made. But if a 
 stream runs parallel to our front, when inundated, 
 it will be as much an obstacle to ourselves as to 
 the enemy, preventing any advance to the attack. 
 It is, therefore, better to inundate by means of a 
 stream running perpendicularly to the front, for then 
 the enemy's attack will be divided. 
 * The dam must be strong enough to resist the 
 pressure of water and the enemy's attack, either by 
 night or by distant artillery (vide Fig. 69).
 
 Tig. 65. 
 LARGE MILITARY PITS. 
 
 Tig. 66. 
 SMALL MILITARY PITS. 
 
 GABION BAND TRIP. 
 
 CHEVAUX DE PRIZE 
 
 Tig. 69. 
 DAM. 
 
 166
 
 BRIDGE WITH ARCH BLOCKED UP. 
 
 Tig.11. 
 WEIR. 
 
 Fig. 7Z. 
 COMMON FOUGASS. 
 
 I66 
 2
 
 167 
 
 The slope next the water should be | ; the outside 
 slope, y ; and the thickness at top about 14 feet at 
 least. 
 
 By filling up an arch of a bridge with piles, an in- Arch 
 undation may often be made, the roadway being 
 generally raised on each side, and an overflow left 
 under the arch (vide Fig. 70). 
 
 Even when the water is only 2 or 3 feet deep, a 
 shallow inundation may be made by cutting trenches 
 and scattering the earth. 
 
 In an inundation there must be a waste weir, cut 
 at the level of the water, and protected from being 
 worn away by a revetment of fascines ; the outside 
 slope and the bottom should also be revetted. 
 
 The waste weir is made at the side of the natural Waste 
 course of the water. The dam must extend some 
 distance on each side of the stream (vide Fig. 71). 
 The parts beyond the stream are first made, and 
 the thickness increased gradually as it gets nearer 
 the water. The waste weir is made at one side with 
 a cut leading to it. The central part of the dam is 
 filled in as quickly as possible with bags of earth, 
 stones, &c., as many men working as close together 
 as possible without crowding. 
 
 In a hilly country, an escarpment may be made, * Escarp- 
 i.e. cutting the side of a hill or slope to make it 
 steep. But care must be taken to have it flanked, 
 otherwise it will shelter an enemy. It depends on the 
 soil, for some will not stand when cut away steeply. 
 
 Self-acting fougasses and torpedoes were much Fongasses. 
 used by the Americans. The quantity of powder 
 in each is about 2 or 3 Ibs., placed about 6 feet 
 below the surface. Some means must be adopted to
 
 168 
 
 explode them as they are passed over, e.g. a glass tube 
 laid on the ground, which, when trodden upon, will 
 allow sulphuric acid to run down into a composition, 
 and ignite the powder. 
 
 Small fougasses or land torpedoes are sometimes 
 used to defend lines and field-works. The usual 
 form is shown in Fig. 72. 
 
 The excavation is 6 feet deep ; the earth is banked 
 up behind and revetted to insure its acting in the 
 proper direction. Above the charge a shield of 
 wood is placed, and over this stones, but better 
 still, live shells. It is fired by electricity, the wires 
 leading to the rear. The best position is under the 
 salients. 
 
 In the defences of Richmond in 1864, the con- 
 federates buried live shells a little under ground, 
 and fired them by means of a sensitive fuse, which 
 ignited when trodden upon. 
 
 Stockades. * A stockade is a line of stout timbers, planted 
 close together, and loopholed. It not only serves as 
 an obstacle, but gives cover. The timbers are 
 roughly squared, and to be bullet-proof must be at 
 least 6 inches thick of oak, 18 inches of fir. The 
 loopholes are cut at intervals. They are planted 
 3 feet or 4 feet in the ground, and stand 7 feet or 
 8 feet above it (vide Fig. 73). 
 
 It is more quickly made by using round timbers 
 without squaring them, leaving spaces at intervals 
 for men to fire through (vide Fig. 74). 
 
 On the inside earth may be heaped up against 
 the bottom, backed by logs, laid lengthways, and 
 fastened down by stakes or planks to keep the earth 
 up. Loopholes may also be made with sand-bags.
 
 Fig. 73 
 STOCKADE WORK. 
 
 /Vl 
 
 Kg. 74-. 
 HASTY STOCKADE. 
 
 Tig. 76- 
 FORM OF LOOP HOLE. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 LOOPHOLES ON THE TOP OF A WALL.
 
 169 
 
 Stockades cannot withstand artillery fire, and it is 
 useless to make timber proof against it, as by heap- 
 ing earth against it on the outside. Also, by so 
 doing, the use of the stockade as an obstacle is done 
 away with, for the enemy can run up, and so climb 
 over. 
 
 When timber is on the ground, the wood being 
 cut, but not -fashioned, a 12 feet length of stockade 
 with double row of timbers, requiring no loopholes, 
 can be made by 8 men in 4-g- hours. 
 
 A single row of the same length, with a ditch in 
 front, and loopholed, took 8 men the same time. 
 
 The plan, shown in Fig. 74, required 6 men in 
 3 hours to make a length of 12 feet. 
 
 But in all these cases allowances must be made 
 for collecting the timber. 
 
 To board up windows against musketry requires a * Boarding 
 thickness of 6 inches of oak, 10 or 12 of Scotch fir, windows. 
 and 18 of common fir. 
 
 Men should be divided into squads of 8 or 10 to 
 collect various materials, while the rest are dis- 
 tributed at work. 
 
 , Loopholes have a height inside of 18 inches, this * Loopholes, 
 being as much as a man can elevate or depress his 
 rifle. The width depends upon the lateral range 
 required, and so varies with the thickness of the 
 wall. The usual width inside is 18 inches, so the 
 rule may be followed to make loopholes 18 inches 
 square on the inside. 
 
 Outside, the opening should be as narrow as pos- 
 sible, generally 3 inches. The height outside varies 
 from 18 inches to 30 inches depending on the thick- 
 ness of the wall, and the amount of elevation or
 
 170 
 
 depression required. Sometimes they are made wide 
 on the outside in order to crowd as many men together 
 as possible for firing behind a wall, as in an ordinary 
 sized loophole a man must change his position from 
 side to side to get lateral range, the outside opening 
 being so narrow. But long shallow loopholes allow 
 very little elevation or depression. 
 On the top * Fig. 75 shows a form which is sometimes adopted. 
 
 of walls. 
 
 And on the top of a wall they are often cut down ; 
 with a stone placed above them as in Fig. 76, or a 
 log is laid above it, as in Fig. 77. When loopholes 
 are made in buildings, they should be about 4 feet 
 apart on the ground floor, but not so numerous in 
 the upper rooms ; about 5 feet apart will do. Some 
 should be made with care obliquely at the angles, to 
 fire in the direction of the capital ; but the corner 
 must not be weakened. Loopholes must be made 
 either too high or too low for the enemy to make use 
 of them. For the defenders the inside floor may be 
 raised, or a step erected (vide Fig. 55, p. 136). 
 
 Two unskilled men will make 1 loophole in a brick 
 wall 2 feet thick in 25 minutes, using crowbars. If 
 the wall is 14 inches thick they can do it in 12 
 minutes. If the wall is of stone, the time will be 
 longer. No detail can be given. 
 
 Of sand- * Sand-bags and sods are much used to make loop- 
 bags and holes quickly on the top of a parapet or shelter 
 sods* 
 
 trench, in shelter pits, rifle pits, &c. The sods must 
 
 be cut thick and square, and placed as in Fig. 78, 
 with a splay to the inside. 
 
 Walls. * Walls of soft stone or brick are not much injured 
 by artillery fire, unless it is concentrated on a wall. 
 Single shots make a hole but will not bring the
 
 Fig. 77. 
 LOOPHOLED WALL. 
 
 SANDBAG LOOPHOLES.
 
 WALLS. 
 
 Hg 73 
 
 FigM { 
 
 170 
 2
 
 171 
 
 whole wall down, and soft stone does not splinter 
 much, therefore we may safely use such walls as a 
 screen, as an obstacle, and as protection against rifle 
 fire, but not against artillery. 
 
 Earth should not be heaped up outside the wall 
 unless it is very high. The best plan is to dig a 
 ditch at the foot of the wall, and throw the earth 
 forward into a glacis commanded by the fire from the 
 loopholes (vide Fig. 79). 
 
 If the wall is 6 feet high the loopholes should be 
 cut 4 feet 6 inches from the ground ; and the ditch 
 in front must be made, else the enemy will close 
 with the loopholes. Or a banquette may be used, 
 and the loopholes made higher. 
 
 When a double row of loopholes is required, the 
 best method is to dig a trench about 4 feet deep 
 inside, from which some men can fire through the 
 row made low down, while the earth from the trench 
 is formed into a mound in rear, from the top of which 
 the others can fire (vide Fig. 80). 
 
 If the wall is too high for men to fire over it 
 standing on the mound, we must erect scaffolding, but 
 this is likely to be knocked down by artillery, so it 
 is better to break down part of the wall. 
 
 When the height of the wall is 4 feet 6 inches, 
 trunks of trees supported by stones may be laid on 
 the top (vide Fig. 77), or loopholes may be made by 
 placing large stones or sods on the top. 
 
 In making use of hedges it is preferable to treat * Hedges, 
 them as obstacles, and to leave a hedge in front of a 
 work, having the ordinary parapet and ditch all 
 behind it (vide Fig. 81a). 
 
 In such a position the hedge forms a sort of
 
 172 
 
 Hougo- 
 mont. 
 
 Hollow 
 road. 
 
 Improving * 
 banks, &c. 
 
 Breast- 
 works. 
 
 Labour. * 
 
 entanglement, and a serious obstacle for men to 
 get through under fire. 
 
 A low parapet may be thrown up in rear of the 
 hedge, the earth being got from a trench (vide 
 Figs. 81 b, c.). This gives cover, while the hedge is 
 
 * still an obstacle and a screen. At Hougomont, on 
 the field of Waterloo, the hedge was about 20 
 yards in front of a loopholed wall, and the French 
 were shot down in great numbers trying to get 
 through it. 
 
 * In the case of a hollow road, the road should be 
 used as a ditch ; a trench being dug behind the 
 hedge on one side, while the hedge on the other 
 side is bent down to form a sort of abattis or 
 entanglement (vide Fig. 82). 
 
 In improving banks and hedges, a working party 
 may be extended at wide intervals ; for 1 man can 
 convert 20 to 30 feet of hedge into a good breast- 
 work in 3 hours. 
 
 Breastworks are the simplest and quickest para- 
 pets that are thrown up in the field. Figs. 83 
 to 92 are rough diagrams of some of their forms. 
 Fig. 83 shows how the line is broken for flanking 
 defence. The next three are sections of different 
 parts. Fig. 88 shows the advantage of availing 
 oneself of any undulation of ground, which is 
 apparently unimportant. Fig. 92 is a form for 
 rocky soil with 2 lines of workmen. 
 
 It is considered that 1 man excavates 1 cubic 
 yard per hour. The number of hours varies ac- 
 cording to the soil. Generally 6 cubic yards is the 
 work of a day of 8 hours. 
 
 The usual and convenient distance for workmen
 
 BREASTWORKS 
 
 fig 3 
 
 \ 
 
 17* 
 I
 
 BREASTWORKS 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 AMERICAN BREASTWORK 
 
 Jfy.fiS.
 
 173 
 
 to be apart is 6 feet. But this is not invariable, and 
 is sometimes reduced to 4 feet ; but time is not 
 gained in proportion. 
 
 Steps should always be made for easy communi- * Commum- 
 
 , , . cations, 
 
 cation over the parapet, and also in rear when there 
 
 is a trench, to enable the defenders, after firing their 
 last round, to retire,, and interpose a fresh obstacle 
 to the enemy. 
 
 The tools and stores required for strengthening * Tools and 
 posts are embraced under the following heads, 
 viz. : 
 
 i. Field-exercise tools i.e. shovels, picks, felling 
 axes, bill-hooks for digging trenches, making breast- 
 works, abattis, &c. 
 
 ii. For houses and walls sledge-hammers, hand- 
 borers, crowbars, saws, augurs, spike-nails. 
 
 iii. General service sand-bags, rockets, hand- 
 grenades, small shells. 
 
 Each man in the construction of a breastwork 
 has 1 pick and 1 shovel. 
 
 One man can carry 100 sand-bags, the weight 
 of which when empty is 60 Ibs. Each bag holds 
 1 bushel. 
 
 In the American Civil War troops always in- * American 
 trenched themselves, and with rare exceptions the 
 defenders repulsed the attack. The men worked 
 in squads, varying in number according to the 
 nature of the wood ; but it was generally pine. 
 Each squad felled 6 trees ; the branches were 
 lopped off, and the trunks laid as in Fig. 93, to 
 form a breastwork, giving about 3 feet of cover a 
 trench 3 feet was dug, and the earth thrown over. 
 The men then set to work to clear the field of fire
 
 174 
 
 by cutting down as many trees as possible in 
 front. This was their intrenchment when time 
 was short. 
 
 Peters- * But at Petersburg and Charleston, when more 
 
 burff 
 
 time was available, bomb-proof barracks were con- 
 structed, beams being placed in the ground, and 
 covered by a strong roof of timber and earth not 
 visible outside. Sometimes the casemate was in 
 the parapet. Thus the men were kept well under 
 cover from artillery fire, and always close at hand. 
 
 Bomb- * For the construction of bomb-proof barracks, a 
 barracks. trench is dug of a depth depending on the nature of 
 the soil, about 5 or 6 feet, and drained, its width 
 being 12 feet. The sides are lined with timber 6 
 feet long, and 1 foot thickness of timber placed on 
 top. The earth is kept up behind the timber by 
 planks, slabs, and hurdles ; and over the whole the 
 earth is piled. To get into this steps are made at 
 intervals, and lighting is obtained from windows 
 between the level of the ground and the roofing 
 timber. The men sleep with their heads to the 
 wall, and a little passage is left between them. In 
 case of a heavy fire, it may be necessary to roof it 
 over the edge, projecting beyond the steps (vide 
 Figs. 94 and 95). Similar bomb-proofs were made 
 in the last war between the Turks and Russians 
 
 Plevna * e.g. at Plevna. 
 
 As earth will not stand at a steeper slope naturally 
 than about J-, i.e. with a base equal to its height, 
 materials are used to support it at a higher angle. 
 
 Use of * These are called revetments ; and are gabions, 
 
 revet- fascines, hurdles, planks, sand-bags, sods, &c. 
 ments. . 
 
 As a rule, it is only the interior slope of a parapet
 
 ssi gs-sssasssssKT-J'iV. 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 * 1 
 
 fc 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1
 
 175 
 
 that must be revetted, so that men can stand close 
 up to it to fire. Brushwood will make gabions, 
 
 fascines, and hurdles. The Chatham calculation is * Chatham 
 
 calcula- 
 that 50 men can fell an acre of wood in 7 or 8 tion. 
 
 hours, about a day's work, including packing it in 
 waggons. Fourteen waggons are required to carry 
 the quantity cut by. them ; and if it is ordinary 
 brushwood, it will make 100 gabions, 40 fascines, 
 and 2,500 pickets. 
 
 A gabion is a strong cylindrical basket without * Gabions 
 top or bottom, 2 feet in diameter, and 3 feet high. 
 To make one, describe a circle with a piece of cord 
 and two pegs 11 inches apart as radius, and divide 
 the circumference with the cord into 6 parts. Place 
 6 pickets with the thick ends downwards at these 
 points, and other 6 pickets in the intermediate 
 parts of the circle, with the thin ends down. This 
 'will make the basket of uniform size. Flexible 
 twigs or rods are then interwoven with the upright 
 pickets, commencing with 3 rods at the bottom, and 
 weaving each in succession outside of 2 pickets and 
 inside one. As they are expended, others are added, 
 and the basket-work or web is continued to the 
 height of 2 feet 9 inches. It is then sewn in 3 or 
 4 places from top to bottom with withies called gads, 
 or spun yarn, to prevent it coming off the pickets. 
 The ends of the pickets are cut off about 1 inches 
 beyond the web, and pointed. The best wood for the 
 web, and particularly for the gads, is willow or hazel. 
 A gabion when made stands 3 feet high in revet- 
 ment, weighs 36 to 40 lb., and is made by 3 men in 
 2 hours. It is the most durable revetment, resisting 
 the shock of the discharge of guns in embrasures
 
 176 
 
 J 
 
 better than fascines. They stand in position by 
 themselves, and can be formed into a revetment by 
 ordinary labourers. 
 
 3 practised men will make 4 gabions in a day of 
 8 hours. 2 gabions and an 18-foot fascine make 
 nearly the same amount of revetment. 
 
 The division of labour in making a gabion is for 
 1 man to weave, 1 man to keep the pickets upright, 
 and 1 man to prepare gads, by treading on one end, 
 and twisting them well till they are supple. 
 
 Figs. 96 and 97 show the method of making, and 
 Fig. 98 the way they are built up in revetment, a 
 layer of fascines forming the foundation, and another 
 layer between two courses. 
 
 When the parapet is only 4 feet 6 inches high, 
 there will be 1 foot 6 inches height remaining above 
 a single gabion. It is better to revet this with sods 
 or sand-bags than with fascines, for a single shot 
 will knock away a whole fascine. 
 
 Jones's * Jones's gabions (vide Fig. 99) require each 10 
 gabions. pickets and 10 bands of galvanised iron, each about 
 6 feet long. 2 men put a gabion together in from 
 10 to 15 minutes, as follows : One band is fastened 
 and laid on the ground, and 4 pickets are placed 
 (2 inside, and 2 outside), dividing the circle equally. 
 Then the rest of the pickets are fixed alternately 
 inside and outside. The bands are placed one by 
 one over the pickets, inside and outside alternately, 
 the slots and buttons being all kept to one side. 
 Each band must remain half way down the pickets 
 until the next one is put on; this will ensure the 
 pickets continuing in their places. The dimensions 
 of a gabion are 3 feet by 2 feet. These gabions are
 
 Fig. 
 
 GABIONS 
 
 Fig. $7. 
 
 176 
 I
 
 F<jr. 98 
 GABION REVETMENT. 
 
 . 99 
 .JONES GABIONS 
 
 Fig. 1OO 
 CARRYING GABIONS 
 
 1 76 
 2
 
 (fi 
 u 
 
 z 
 
 o
 
 176 
 4-
 
 177 
 
 placed along the line of the 2nd parallel, a berm 
 being left of 3 feet, in a siege. The slots must be 
 placed on the front side of the parapet, to lessen the 
 danger of splinters. 
 
 Fig. 100 shows the jnanner of carrying gabions to * Mode 
 the line traced out for the parallel. Here the men gabions! 8 
 are extended 4 feet apart. The picks are laid with 
 the iron between the gabions in the ground, the 
 shovels parallel to the tape. When half full the 
 gabions should be slightly tilted outwards to a 
 slope of f-. Cover should be obtained in from 10 to 
 20 minutes. 
 
 A fascine, or military faggot (vide Fig. 101), is * Fascines, 
 made 18 feet long, and 9 inches in diameter. It 
 is sawed into convenient lengths of 9 feet, 6 feet, 
 and even 3 feet, the last being to strengthen the 
 space between 2 gabions. The best way to make 
 a fascine is to trace with string and pegs a 
 rectangle on the ground 16 feet by 4 feet, and to 
 set up at equal distances 3 to 5 trestles, according 
 to the strength of the brushwood. Care must be 
 taken to have the trestles cross at the same height ; 
 this can be done by stretching a string between the 
 end trestles. The brushwood is laid on, the smallest 
 inside, the longest and straightest outside, and pro- 
 jecting at each end 18 inches. It is then com- 
 pressed to a diameter of 9 inches by a choker, i.e. 
 a 4-foot chain with a wooden lever at each end ; 
 and on the chain are 2 rings marking a length of 
 28 inches. The brushwood is bound with tough, 
 much twisted gads, or wire at 6 inches beyond 
 the end trestles, and at intermediate distances of 
 15 inches, before the choker is relaxed : and the 
 
 N
 
 ends of the fascine are sawed off square beyond the 
 extreme trestles (vide Fig. 102). 
 
 A squad of 5 men will make a fascine in 1 hour. 
 If the brushwood is dry it will weigh about 150 Ibs., 
 if thick and green 200 Ibs. 
 
 Picketing * TO f orm a revetment they are laid horizontally in 
 fascines. 
 
 the direction of the parapet, the first row having a 
 
 groove cut for it, and being fastened down with 
 stakes ; and each fascine above is similarly fastened 
 by a picket driven into the parapet. These pickets 
 are from 3 feet to 4 feet long, and there should be 
 1 per yard or 7 to each fascine. They are driven 
 obliquely downwards through the fascine at an angle 
 of 45 with the slope, and two of them are driven 
 vertically to fasten each row to the next underneath 
 (vide Figs. 103, 104). Fascines support earth at , 
 but are heavy, and require trained men to build 
 them up. But though inferior to gabions they are 
 more manageable, and are often used for the cheeks 
 of embrasures. If brushwood is cut ready, 4 
 ordinary men will make 3 fascines in 1 day. 
 
 Hurdles. * Hurdles are quickly made of rough stakes driven 
 into the ground, with brushwood intertwined. Com- 
 mon hurdles can be fastened by anchoring pickets, 
 but are not so strong. 
 
 Planks. * Planks are easily procurable from houses, and 
 
 make a tolerable revetment. 
 
 Sods. * Sods only support earth at y : a revetment requires 
 much labour and time, but they are easily procur- 
 able. The usual dimensions of sods are 1 foot 
 6 inches long, by 1 foot wide by 4| inches thick. 
 They are generally laid grass downwards, headers 
 and stretchers, like bricks in a wall. They can be
 
 179 
 
 economised by laying them all stretchers, or cutting 
 them diagonally across, and placing the front inside ; 
 but this is not so strong. Heather, straw, rushes, 
 and clay, moistened and well rammed, may be used ; 
 also stones, but there is risk from splinters. Barrels 
 are not good, because of the space left where they 
 bulge out. 
 
 24 sand-bags will revet 10 feet of surface. Their * Sand-bags, 
 dimensions are empty, 2 feet 8 inches by 1 foot 
 2 inches; filled, 2 feet by 9 inches. They are 
 portable, and often carried on board ship, when a 
 battery can be quickly formed on shore, When 
 filled they are bullet-proof, and very useful for 
 loopholes. If used in embrasures they ought to 
 be covered with raw hides as protection from the 
 discharge of the gun. Sand-bags are perishable 
 unless tarred, which adds to their weight. They 
 support earth at f. 
 
 x 2
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 WOEKING PARTIES, ESCALADE, HASTY DEMOLITIONS, 
 ETC. 
 
 Working Parties. 
 
 Tracing a * ^ o trace a field-work the angles are marked by 
 field work. 
 
 stout pickets, and joined by tapes or cords. 
 
 Profiles are set up by tracing perpendiculars to 
 the line of parapet where required, and setting up 
 laths according to the shape (vide Fig. 105). 
 Profiling * In each face there should be 2 sets of profiles ; or 
 
 IfltllS 
 
 on a long face 3 or more. To make an oblique 
 profile, first set up 2 sets on one face forming the 
 angle, and another set on the line bisecting the 
 angle, dressed with those on the face. When the 
 salient angle is 60 the profile will be twice as wide 
 as one on the face. 
 
 Two ways * There are two ways of forming working parties : 
 wS g (*) The ordinar y method, when the greatest 
 parties. amount of work is required from each man irre- 
 spective of time. 
 
 (2) When time is the great object, and it matters 
 not how many men are employed to do the work in 
 a fixed period.
 
 PROFILING 
 
 XAND DIGGING DITCH 
 
 X 
 
 EXCAVATION OF DITCH 
 
 ZIGZAG OR APPROACH
 
 181 
 
 In the first case, the men must not be crowded, 
 especially at night. The distance of 6 feet apart is 
 fixed to let them use the shovel well; and the 
 simplest distribution is to make all the front rank 
 diggers, f the rear rank shovellers, and the re- 
 maining ^ rammers,' which has this advantage, 
 that as the shovellers and rammers together are 
 equal to the diggers, they may relieve the latter. 
 
 The men are extended along the work at the rate 
 of a file for eveiy six feet ; and if we consider the 
 men divided into squads of 6, each will consist of 
 3 diggers, 2 shovellers, and 1 rammer. 
 
 It is usual to dig the ditch in steps with a base * Object of 
 and height in proportion to the slopes ; and it is tl^ditch. 
 divided into 2 terraces, or if very deep into 3. The 
 men dig vertically down one step, then leaving the 
 width of the step they dig the rest (vide Fig. 106). 
 The steps thus serve as spaces to throw the earth 
 upon, and afterwards may easily be cut away and 
 the slopes smoothed. 
 
 The diggers throw the earth as far as they can, 
 and the shovellers pass it on to the part furthest 
 from the ditch ; the rammers walk about over the 
 parapet, consolidating the mass by treading as well 
 as ramming. 
 
 Men can throw earth 6 feet vertically or 12 feet * Relays, 
 horizontally ; and each of these distances is a " relay." 
 The number required is found with sufficient ac- 
 curacy by measuring the distance between the 
 middle point of the top of the parapet and the 
 middle point of the bottom of the ditch ; e.g. suppose 
 the ditch to be 12 feet deep, and the parapet 12 feet 
 thick, there will be 24 feet from centre to centre = 4
 
 182 
 
 relays ; and besides the diggers who are 1 relay, we 
 must have 3 relays of shovellers to pass the earth 
 along. 
 
 This calculation is only requisite in a work of 
 some size, and the ordinary distribution serves in 
 most cases. 
 
 If wheelbarrows chance to be procured, much 
 labour and time would be saved. 
 
 A certain number of the men must be told off 
 for revetting. 
 
 Parallels. * An example of the second case, when time presses, 
 is the construction of the 2nd parallel, each man 
 filling 2 gabions, only 4 feet, and another in shelter 
 trenches, when men are extended at 2 paces = 5 feet. 
 
 The 1st parallel in a siege is always executed by 
 infantry, as also are the zigzags and approaches (vide 
 Figs. 107, 108). The working parties are in 3 reliefs 
 of 8 hours each. The ground is reconnoitred, and the 
 direction of the parallel, whether curved or straight, 
 is predetermined, and traced by tapes. The pickets 
 are white, to be seen at night, and each tape of 
 50 yards is coiled diagonally (as for string to fly a 
 kite). 25 workmen and 1 sapper are detailed to 
 each tape, each man having 2 yards of trench. The 
 sapper superintends with a 6-foot measuring rod. A 
 berm of 3 feet is left, which is afterwards cut into a 
 step. The trench when completed is 15 feet wide 
 at top and 10 feet at bottom. 
 
 Extension * Suppose the working parties drawn up in rear of 
 of working 
 parties. the right flank of the parallel. The command is 
 
 given " By successive companies, right turn, left 
 wheel," when 1 pace in rear of the tape, " Left wheel 
 right form in extended order."
 
 Fig. 109. 
 TRACING A GUN PIT. 
 
 iaa
 
 183 
 
 ' The sapper, taking the measuring-rod hand over 
 hand, marks off the 6 feet length of task for each man. 
 Every man places the point of his pick in the ground 
 on the left of his task in line with the tape, and the 
 shovel with the blade .touching the pick along and 
 inside the tape, and lies down till the extension is 
 completed. Word is then quietly passed to begin. 
 
 The proper way to excavate, and to avoid-accidents 
 at night, is to pick a hole on the left of the task, and 
 gradually in grooves from front to rear, working 
 to the right. Thus the men will keep always the 
 proper interval. Arms are grounded or piled in 
 rear ; tunics taken off, and laid folded in regularity 
 before commencing work. 
 
 To trace a gun pit (vide Fig. 109), the first thing * Gun pit. 
 to do is to mark off the line of fire, and the general 
 shape of the embrasure, which is 2 feet wide at the 
 neck, and 3 feet wide at a distance of 5 feet to the front. 
 
 A party of 7 men are required, distributed as in 
 the figure 
 
 Nos. I. II. III. IV. excavate 2 feet deep, and throw 
 the earth to the front and round the shoulders. 
 
 Nos. V. and VI. make a ramp from depth in 
 rear to 2 feet. No. VII. leaves a berm of 2 feet at 
 each shoulder, cut into a step, if time permits, for the 
 gunners to sit upon. When the earth is 1 foot 6 inches 
 high begin the embrasure, for the depth of the pit 
 2 feet + 1 foot 6 inches = 3 feet 6 inches, the height 
 at which a field gun fires. It may be revetted with 
 sand-bags, &c., subsequently. The time required is 1 
 hour. 
 
 The hasty field-work represented in Fig. 110
 
 184 
 
 Hasty * W as made by 4 companies at the North Front, 
 field-work. 
 
 Gibraltar. Each face and each flank was 40 yards 
 
 40 X 3' 
 
 in length ; and as = 24 men, that number was 
 5 
 
 extended along each at 2 paces. The salient angle 
 was 150 ; the shoulder angles 120. One company 
 was told off to each face or flank. The remaining 
 men constructed a trench for the reserve, with 2 
 faces parallel to the faces of the work, so traced that 
 their prolongation cut the inner ends of the flanks. 
 
 The work was traced with 3 tapes, two of them 
 being 3 feet apart marking the berm, the third 10 
 feet in rear, to mark the rear cutting line of the 
 trench, which was 2 feet deep. When the trench 
 was nearly excavated pickets were placed at intervals 
 along the crestline, and a tape stretched 2 feet high. 
 The earth, brought close to the tape, was levelled 
 and made as firm as its lightness would allow to 
 form a base for the gabions, which were carefully 
 placed, touching each other, with the slots to the 
 front, and filled. The extremities of the flanks, and 
 the tops of the gabions were crowned with sand-bags, 
 for which purpose the gabion pickets were hammered 
 level with a shovel. 
 
 Rifle pits. * Rifle pits are much used in sieges, in advanced 
 positions, and for protection of a covering party, as 
 when men are extended in front of a line being 
 intrenched, and in the absence of a natural cover 
 they first make shelter pits in a few minutes (vide 
 p. 19, Fig. 18), and if they have more time, these 
 are improved to hold 2 men, or a group of men 
 (vide Fig. 111).
 
 LUNETTE 
 
 RIFLE PITS 
 
 Scr/o/v ON A B.
 
 185 
 
 For each rifle pit 1 pick, 1 shovel, and 4 sand-bags 
 are required, and the time required is 1| hours. 
 Sometimes a trench is dug 3 or 4 feet deep con- 
 necting two or three together. 
 
 Escalading and Assaults. 
 
 Previous to the assault, whether by escalade or 
 otherwise, of any fortified place, the exact obstacles 
 to be overcome ought to be discovered, as far as 
 possible, by personal observation. They will gene- 
 rally consist of escarps, counterscarps, palisades, 
 abattis, and quickset hedges on the berm. The 
 depth of the ditch gives the height of the scarps, 
 and is most important in escalade, determining 
 beforehand the length of the ladders. These should 
 be long enough to allow an inclination of y, and 3 
 feet above the top of the wall. With greater incli- 
 nation there is risk of the ladders breaking down 
 with the men's weight. 28 feet is the x greatest 
 height considered possible to escalade ; 30 feet is 
 beyond it. 
 
 Unless the enemy be very contemptible, to be 
 successful, an escalade must be more or less of 
 a surprise. For this reason the men should be 
 thoroughly instructed in what they have to do, and 
 taught the drill beforehand, thereby avoiding con- 
 fusion, and no words of command will be necessary 
 before discovery. 
 
 Midnight is the best time when the work is to 
 be destroyed ; but an hour and a half before day- 
 light, when it is intended to hold it, since more 
 time is required to destroy a work than to effect a 
 lodgment in it. It is desirable to make several 
 
 Previous 
 reconnais- 
 sance. 
 
 Limit of 
 escalade. 
 
 Time.
 
 186 
 
 Division of * 
 assaulting 
 column. 
 
 Covering 
 party. 
 
 Engineers 
 
 and 
 pioneers. 
 
 attacks ; and false attacks should be strong enough 
 to be converted into real ones, if opportunity offers. 
 The officers must know individually where they 
 ought to lead their parties so as to concentrate. 
 By neglecting this precaution our assault failed on 
 Bergen-of-Zoom, when the French defeated the 
 parties in detail. A party should be told off to 
 open the gates. 
 
 An assaulting column consists of four parts; the 
 covering party, the party of engineers and pioneers 
 with tools to overcome obstacles, the ladder party, 
 and the storming party, comprising the advance of 
 the main party, and the reserve. The ladder party 
 should not mount. 
 
 i. The covering party advances in extended order 
 in two divisions, sufficiently apart to allow the ladder 
 party to pass between them. They advance silently 
 to the edge of the ditch, and lie down, and must not 
 fire till the assault is discovered, but then they keep 
 an incessant fire on the defenders, and remain in 
 their places to cover retreat in case of failure. Firing 
 must cease when their comrades have mounted the 
 ladders. 
 
 ii. The duties of the pioneers and engineers with 
 tools depend upon the obstructions to be overcome. 
 They must remove palisades and fraises below the 
 counterscarp before the ladders can be placed. They 
 follow the covering party, or else move in rear of the 
 first division of ladders to clear away any obstructions 
 in the ditch or on the berm. But if none of 
 these exist, they should be in rear of the advance 
 of the storming party to destroy any obstruction 
 within the work.
 
 They should be accompanied by a party of artil- 
 lery with nails and hammers to spike any guns 
 flanking the ditch. 
 
 This party will be about 20 to 60 men, provided 
 with crowbars, hammers, axes, picks and shovels, 
 bags of powder, or boxes of gun-cotton, to blow in 
 gates and stockades. 
 
 iii. The ladder party consists of as many divisions * Ladder 
 as there are walls to be ascended or descended, the 
 principle being to have a continuous road by means 
 of ladders. 
 
 Some narrow ditches may be filled up, as at 
 Sevastopol, with bags of wool, or a portable bridge 
 may be used such as the French had at the Mamelon. 
 This is preferable to using ladders. 
 
 iv. The advance of the storming party is com- * Storming 
 manded by an infantry officer, who should be accom- 
 panied by an engineer officer understanding the in- 
 terior of works. This party follows about 30 paces in 
 rear, with the arms slung butt downwards. The drill 
 is to get up and down the ladders with unfixed 
 bayonets, to fix them on the berm, and when a 
 party of 6 or more have collected, to advance to- 
 gether. If there is no berm the men must scramble 
 up as best they can, assisting each other by the grip, 
 called " the butcher's hook." 
 
 An engineer is told off to hold the top of the 
 ladder to the exterior slope by a sap-fork, and the 
 men pass down by the right of the ladder. 30 paces 
 more to the rear the main body follows, under the 
 officer, who has charge of the whole operation. 
 
 A separate reserve is held ready about 100 paces 
 in rear of the main body, or conveniently posted to
 
 188 
 
 assist any one column, when there are several, as 
 may be necessary. 
 
 Working * A working party follows to destroy the work, or 
 to effect a lodgment. They do this work under 
 protection of the storming party, and may or may 
 not be armed, at the option of the general. 
 
 It is well to supply the ladder party with revolvers 
 and cutlasses to give them confidence. Sailors are 
 most serviceable. But their arms must not interfere 
 with their special duties. 
 
 Sometimes bamboo ladders are prepared on the 
 spot, as in China. They are much lighter than 
 those used in drill. 
 
 The latter are 24 feet long; each weighs 133 Ibs., 
 and requires 6 men to carry it ; an 18-foot ladder 
 weighs 100 Ibs., and requires 4 men. 
 
 Old sand- bags should be tied round the points of 
 the ladders to muffle them, and also to allow them 
 to slip down the counterscarp quietly, and be placed 
 against the opposite wall without noise. 
 
 Four companies are practised at the drill as 
 follows : 
 
 Escalading * No. 1, told off as covering party, on the command 
 " The escalade will commence," advances, extending 
 half a company right and left, and lies down along the 
 counterscarp, keeping clear of the front of the ladders. 
 
 No. 4, the storming party, retires to a position 
 under cover. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 3, told off into sections of 6 files, form 
 the ladder divisions. The sections are sized from 
 right to left. After breaking into column of sections 
 the N. C. officers commanding in rear tell off from 
 the front.
 
 Tig.112. 
 ESCALADE. 
 
 /7\ 1 (?) 
 
 tapper _ Commander 
 
 Butt Q 
 
 Centre Q\ J 
 
 
 Arms.
 
 189 
 
 In each section Nos. 1 and 2 are spare men, 
 No. 3 tipmen, Nos. 4 and 5 centre men, No. 6 
 buttrnen. The numbers are proved and arms 
 piled. 
 
 The sections are turned to the left in column, 
 the spare men remain, the rest march to the park 
 and fetch the ladders, which are laid in three pieces, 
 butts to the front, in front of the sections. 
 
 At the commands, " Shoulder Ladders " and 
 " Ground Ladders" there must be no noise. The 
 commanders of sections alone speak, in a low tone. 
 The front rank are on the left of the ladders, the rear 
 rank on the right. They move off in succession from 
 the right into position in front of the spare men. 
 
 At " Commanders to the Front" commanders of 
 sections double out 12 paces, turn about, and cover 
 on the ladders. 
 
 At " Join Ladders," No. 6 runs out with the base 
 section of the ladder, places the butt at the N. C. 
 officer's foot, and runs back to raise the other end 
 18 inches above the ground by the rear rung. 
 
 At " Two " the centre man runs out with the 
 middle section and joins it. 
 
 At " Three" the tipman runs out and joins the 
 upper portion, all being assisted by the sapper allotted 
 to each ladder. 
 
 The ladders are in lengths of 12 feet, 1 foot clear 
 at the tip, 1 foot 3 inches at the base. 
 
 The positions of the sapper, commander, and men 
 are shown in Fig. 112, annexed. 
 
 At " Lashings," each man takes a lashing, holding 
 the point in his right hand, and turning inwards 
 looses the lashing.
 
 190 
 
 At " Prepare to Lash " " Lash'' he stoops on the 
 inner knee, kneeling on the side of the ladder, pulls 
 the eye-splice towards the tip of the ladder, takes 
 one round over all on the flat rung, one round under 
 all, and makes fast with two half-hitches. 
 
 The commanders inspect the ladders. 
 
 On "File on Arms," the sections countermarch 
 outwards and fall in by the arms, which are unpiled, 
 and all the sections are turned to the head of the 
 column. 
 
 Arms are slung from the "advance," the front 
 rank on the left shoulder, the rear rank on the right, 
 having the inner shoulders available for carrying the 
 ladders. 
 
 Divisions. * The odd numbers of sections 1, 3, 5, form the 
 right division, the even numbers the left. The 
 ladders are shouldered and the rear rank men are 1 
 pace behind the front rank men to avoid clashing of 
 rifles. The right division advances, and the ladders 
 are rested just beyond the counterscarp. The 
 sections form in file behind the ladders. 
 
 "When the ladders are lowered into the ditch the 
 base will not be more than 18 inches from the base 
 of the wall. 
 
 At the command " Form in the 'bottom of the Ditch" 
 the commander is the first to descend, followed by 
 front and rear rank men alternately, all by the right 
 of the ladder. 
 
 At " Cross the Ditch" the buttmen lay hold of the 
 2nd rung, and raising it 6 inches, move the ladder 
 very steadily across the ditch, placing the butt 
 against the foot of the escarp; the centre men 
 receive the centre as it descends, the tipmen the
 
 191 
 
 tip, which they carry on their shoulders, the spare 
 men assisting. 
 
 At " Turn Over" the ladders are turned by the 
 centre and tipmen, and laid lightly against the 
 escarp, not leaning to either side. 
 
 At the word " Form on the Berm" the men mount 
 the ladders, ascend, carrying the rifles at the " short 
 trail " ; they fix bayonets on the berm, and form 
 there, or make their way to the superior slope. The 
 officers lead, and when provided with sword-knots 
 these are twisted round the wrist. 
 
 Hasty Demolitions. 
 
 The explosive materials available in the field are : * Materials. 
 gunpowder, guncotton, and in mining districts 
 occasionally dynamite. 
 
 Guncotton and dynamite may be considered twice 
 as powerful as gunpowder when not tamped, and 
 four times when tamped. 
 
 Dynamite can be safely and easily used to destroy * D yna mite 
 a bridge by laying a train of cartridges of No. 1 
 dynamite along the crown, or to remove an obstruc- 
 tion, or blow up a wall, by placing the train along 
 the base, and firing it by a piece of Bickford's 
 ordinary fuse, compressed with pincers into a 
 smaller cartridge called a primer, placed in contact. 
 The velocity of the explosion and pressure per 
 square foot is very great, and no tamping is re- 
 quired ; but if there is time and opportunity to bore 
 holes, dynamite may be economised, as a single
 
 192 
 
 Destruc- 
 tion of 
 palisades 
 
 with 
 powder. 
 
 Destruc- 
 tion of 
 stockade, 
 
 New 
 Zealand 
 
 cartridge in a bore hole will do as much work as 
 half a dozen laid outside. 1 
 
 To destroy palisades with axes is tedious. 30 to 
 40 Ibs. of powder laid at the foot of the palisades will 
 blow in about 4 or 5, making a breach 5 feet wide. 
 Or a bag containing 20 Ibs. of powder may be placed 
 in a hole 18 inches deep outside the palisade, and 
 the hole filled up. But this takes time, and cannot 
 be done by a man under fire. Another plan is to 
 connect two bags of powder, each containing 16 
 to 20 Ibs., with powder hose, attached to a board 
 resting against the palisades, and 4 feet apart. Each 
 bag of powder should be covered with 4 sand-bags. 
 The force of the explosion will then be greater, and 
 none of it will be lost through the intervals of the 
 palisades. 
 
 In the demolition of stockades it has been found 
 that when there was a single row of timbers 1 foot 
 square, well spiked together, 30 Ibs. of powder made 
 a hole large enough for a man to creep through, but 
 100 Ibs. made a breach 15 feet wide. In both cases 
 a few sand-bags were laid outside. A sand-bag holds 
 40 or 50 Ibs., so the charge should be in 2 or 3. But 
 leather bags are better for the purpose. 
 
 The pahs in New Zealand were made of double 
 rows of stockade, consisting of stout oak timbers, 
 4 feet being between the rows. 200 Ibs. of powder 
 
 1 "At Chatham, in 1882, 2 Ibs. of dynamite were exploded by 
 Sir F. Abel against an iron plate \ inch thick, with the result that 
 a ragged hole \ yard long, and several inches in width, was torn 
 through the metal. When 8 Ibs. of gunpowder was used instead 
 of \ that quantity of dynamite no effect was produced, the plate 
 being not so much as bulged." Extract from the "Standard," 
 November 1, 1883.
 
 193 
 
 * Gate at 
 Ghuznee. 
 
 * Gun- 
 cotton. 
 
 employed against these created a breach of 9 feet 
 6 inches in the outer, and 5 feet 6 inches in the 
 inner row. 
 
 At Ghuznee a gate was blown in with 300 Ibs., and 
 in China 160 Ibs. destroyed a gate in one of the forts. 
 
 But guncotton is more usually employed, being 
 very portable. It is carried in discs or slabs, which 
 may be safely cut smaller with a sharp knife if 
 pressed together between boards, to keep them from 
 coming to pieces. They are issued on service to 
 cavalry, who can use them to advantage in raids. 
 
 Guncotton is uninflammable when steeped with 
 water. But when a detonator, in immediate contact 
 with a slab, explodes, the slab and all touching it, 
 though wet, explode. A little dry guncotton, however, 
 is necessary as a primer. 
 
 Dry guncotton should be used for small charges 
 and in blast-holes. The ordinary Bickford's fuse 
 usually burns at the rate of 3 feet a minute, and is 
 best lighted with a vesuvian. But if kept long in 
 store it burns more quickly, and should therefore be 
 tested. It may also be lighted with portfire or a 
 
 percussion-cap. The instantaneous Bickford's fuse * Bickford's 
 
 fuse. 
 burns at the rate of 30 yards a second, and should be 
 
 used with a piece of the ordinary fuse, to allow time 
 for the man lighting it to get away. It is dis- 
 tinguished by having orange-coloured worsted twisted 
 round it. This fuse is quite waterproof. 
 
 To ensure an explosion the primer should be quite 
 dry, the charge closely touching the object to be 
 destroyed, and the Bickford's fuse well home in the 
 tube of the detonator and secured. 
 
 The leather bags, or tarred sandbags, containing a 
 

 
 194 
 
 charge of powder, should be placed within other 
 tarred bags, to guard against a premature explosion 
 from a spark. The fuse should be fixed in the middle 
 of the bag. 
 
 Blowing in * A good way to blow in a gate is to hang 50 Ibs. of 
 a gate. 
 
 guncotton against it by means of a sharp pickaxe, or 
 
 by attaching it to the end of a ladder, which a man 
 crosses to ignite it (vide Fig. 113). The charge may 
 also be laid on the ground. 
 
 Destruc- * 5 or 6 ounces of guncotton is sufficient to blow 
 
 tion 
 .of trees, down a tree 1 foot in diameter. For larger trees 
 
 the number of ounces varies with the square of the 
 diameter. Thus, a tree 2 feet in diameter will require 
 2 2 x 6 = 24 ounces, placed in one or more holes, 
 bored horizontally at the required height. Or the 
 discs may be hung round the tree like a necklace, 
 but then 8 times the quantity is required. The tree 
 can be made to fall in any direction by attaching a 
 rope to the branches and hauling. 
 Destruc- * A stockade can be destroyed by 3 Ibs. per foot run 
 
 tion of 
 stockade. of guncotton slabs placed in contact on a deal board 
 
 laid against it. Similarly, upright supports of wooden 
 bridges, iron telegraph-poles, arches, and walls can be 
 destroyed with guncotton. 
 
 Destruc- * To destroy an iron girder bridge the charge should 
 iron girder be placed beneath the supports. 
 
 bridge. # From 40 to 50 Ibs. of powder, or less of guncotton, 
 tion of will destroy houses if placed under stairs, or between 
 two thick walls. That quantity of powder destroyed 
 stone houses in Montreal during a fire. 
 
 Destruc- * The best way to destroy a railway temporarily is 
 
 railway* 1 * reraove a couple of rails at a curve when possible. 
 But if time presses, a 2 Ib. slab of guncotton, cut
 
 LADDER BRIDGE TO CROSS A DITCH OR 
 BLOW IN A GATE. 
 
 Piq. 113. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 FINDING DISCHARGE OF SMALL STREAM. 
 
 STILLWATER 
 
 fiy.11.5. 
 BRIDGE OF CASKS. 
 
 Fig.116. 
 TRESTLES.
 
 195 
 
 into three parts, and placed close against a rail 
 between two sleepers, will destroy any rail. 
 
 It must be remembered that no railway or line of * Express 
 telegraph is to be injured except by express order. required 
 
 In further damaging a railway, the rolling stock 
 should be removed ; rails taken up and thrown into railway or 
 a deep river or pond ; or heated over a fire made of 
 the sleepers ; they will then bend by their weight ; 
 but if a pick be inserted at each end, and be borne 
 down upon in opposite directions, the rails can be 
 so twisted as to be rendered useless until rolled 
 again. The station should be burnt ; stacks of fuel 
 set fire to or removed ; water-tanks and water- 
 supply rendered useless ; tunnels blown in, &c. 
 
 For the destruction of a line of telegraphs the * Destruc- 
 tion of 
 wires should be scraped bright and clean, and telegraphs. 
 
 bound together with fine wire; instruments and 
 batteries may be removed ; insulators broken ; wires 
 cut ; poles cut down or destroyed with guncotton ; 
 or they may be pulled down by a rope thrown over 
 the wires, and cutting the stays with pincers. 
 
 When the wires run underground we must search 
 for the test boxes, or cut a trench some 4 feet deep 
 across the probable direction of the line, dig out the 
 pipes, destroy or bend them ; pull out and cut to 
 pieces the wires. 
 
 A field gun may be destroyed by i Ib. guncotton * Destruc- 
 
 J tionofa 
 
 being exploded outside near the muzzle. field gun. 
 
 Directions for Packing Mules with the Otago 
 Pack Saddle. 
 
 There are 2 mules to each company, with pack * Load on 
 _ -0111 ea h nmle. 
 
 saddles complete. The 1st mule carries 3 bell-tents, 
 
 o 2
 
 196 
 
 3 peg-bags, 6 poles, 12 storm-pegs, 6 storm or guy- 
 ropes, 2 picks with handles, 1 spade, and 1 shovel. 
 
 The 2nd mule carries 2 bell-tents, 2 peg-bags, 4 
 poles, 8 storm-pegs, 4 guy-ropes, 2 picks, 1 spade, 1 
 shovel, 1 felling-axe, 1 hand-axe, 1 bill-hook, 6 
 camp-kettles and lids, 6 leathern buckets. 
 Mode of * To pack a mule Take the straps off the saddles, 
 and place them on the ground, and proceed as 
 follows : No. 1 tent, with peg-bag on top, and 
 storm lines between tent and bag. Outside these 
 place the two poles of No. 1 tent, and one pole of 
 No. 3 tent, taking care that the iron and pointed 
 parts of the poles are to the rear of the package. 
 Outside all place the spade, pick (handle taken out), 
 and storm-pegs. Strap the package, and place it 
 on the off side of the mule on the ground. 
 
 No. 2 tent, and one pole of No. 3 tent, is packed 
 in exactly the same way. Each package is then lifted 
 at the same time. The one on the off side is hooked 
 on first, and supported until the other on the near 
 side is hooked. Then place No. 3 tent in the centre, 
 with peg-bag and storm-ropes, and pass the leather 
 surcingle over all. The buckle of the surcingle to 
 be on the near side, in the centre of the package. 
 
 The 2nd mule is packed just the same, except 
 
 that the felling-axe is placed on the off-side package, 
 
 and the hand-axe and bill-hook on the near side. 
 
 The 6 camp-kettles and 6 leathern buckets ride in 
 
 the centre in place of the 3rd tent on the 1st mule. 
 
 Un nek- * ^ un P ac k The mules are drawn up in line at 
 
 "4i- 8 paces interval. Undo the surcingle, double it, and 
 
 place it on the mule's neck. Take off No. 3 tent 
 
 and bag, and place them 4 paces on the proper left
 
 197 
 
 of the mules take off the packages, and place them 
 on the ground close to the mules. Unstrap the 
 packages ; take off the straps, and put them on the 
 saddle ; move the mules to the front, and the tents 
 are ready for distribution. The poles of No. 3 tent 
 are returned to that tent. 
 
 With this equipment there are 4 tents for each 
 company 3 for the men and 1 for the officers; and 
 No. 1 company carries a tent for the quarter guard ; 
 No. 2 carries one for the field officers ; No. 3 one 
 for the staff; No. 4 one for the rear guard.
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 CROSSING RIVERS, AND BRIDGING. 
 
 Fords. * THE methods of judging approximately the position 
 of a ford have already been noticed under that head 
 (vide Fig. 60 p. 155). A gravelly bottom is best, 
 for sand or mud get stirred up, and the depth is 
 increased. A ford should be marked by long pickets 
 driven into the river bed above and below, and 
 connected by a strong rope. 
 
 A bridge constructed across a river will dam it up 
 more or less and alter the current, the velocity of 
 which must be observed on this account, as also to 
 provide for the security of a bridge, making inunda- 
 tions, calculations for supplying them with water, 
 and for the supply of camps. 
 
 Velocity of The velocity of a stream is greatest in a straight 
 part of its course near the surface, and near the 
 centre. It is least near the banks and near the 
 bottom. A rough estimate, true for surface velocities 
 up to about 4 miles an hour, is that the mean 
 velocity = 4 the surface velocity, and the velocity at 
 bottom = f surface velocity. 
 
 To find the surface velocity we may use a patent 
 log. But a simple way is to float some body, e.g, a
 
 199 
 
 piece of stick, which nearly sinks and is not affected 
 by wind, and see the time it takes to float past two 
 marks on each bank, or, if the river is too wide to 
 see this, then we must anchor two boats. 
 
 A good plan is to float a light rod weighted at 
 one end, with its tip above water, and note the 
 distances floated in a certain number of seconds, 
 then T 7 (j- the mean number of feet a second gives 
 the number of miles an hour. 
 
 A sluggish stream runs 1 mile an hour, an 
 ordinary stream 2 miles, a rapid one 3 miles, very 
 rapid 4 to 5 miles, and a torrent 6 miles an hour. 
 These are surface velocities. 
 
 A convenient way to ascertain the discharge of TO find 
 a small stream is to dam it across with sods and O f Ismail 
 insert a board with a notch in it, without overflowing stream. 
 the sides of the dam (vide Fig. 114). 
 
 While the water is flowing through this measure 
 the height of the still water above the bottom of the 
 notch, stooping down to look through the notch. 
 Then if h be that height in inches the discharge per 
 minute =10 \/10A 3 in gallons for each foot the notch 
 is wide ; i.e. double this amount in the instance 
 shown in Fig. 114, the notch being 2 feet wide. 
 
 The allowance of water in a standing camp is 5 * Allowance 
 gallons a day per man, and 8 to 12 per horse for all of water - 
 purposes. 
 
 Different kinds of bridges are used on different * Different 
 rivers 
 
 Pontoons, boats, and casks make good floating 
 bridges, when the depth is not less than 2 feet and 
 the banks are not too high, otherwise it would be 
 difficult to get on the bridge. If the boats are good
 
 200 
 
 the velocity of the current does not matter much, 
 but casks offer more obstruction. 
 
 Rafts can be used to cross the same sort of river, 
 but not in a swift current. A trestle bridge can be 
 conveniently made in a river not exceeding 7 feet in 
 depth, and the current not more than 3 miles an 
 hour, with a good bottom. Piles are suitable for a 
 depth even of 10 or 12 feet, if the bottom will do for 
 driving them, and is not rocky nor very soft. 
 
 Suspension bridges, or rope, or wire, are difficult to 
 make, but are sometimes convenient for crossing 
 deep chasms where there is no support from the 
 bottom. Spar bridges are available for openings up 
 to 40 or 45 feet, with sound, high banks. A bridge 
 can be made over a shallow slow river with firm 
 bottom with carriages, also with fascines and gabions. 
 When there are not enough boats to form a whole 
 bridge over a large rapid river recourse is had to 
 flying bridges, e.g. those over the Rhine. 
 
 Casks are easily procured and are a good material 
 for rafts. They support infantry four deep, and 
 field-guns of cavalry in file. The bearings should 
 be 18 feet 9 inches (vide Fig. 115). 
 
 Piers of * The method of forming a pier with casks is as 
 follows :- 
 
 The party for each pier consists of 2 N. C. officers 
 and 16 men, drawn up two deep with their right 
 resting on the water. They are numbered from 1 to 
 8 by files. Two piers when launched are formed 
 into a raft. 
 
 The stores required for each pier are : 
 
 Seven casks, 2 gunwale pieces, 2 slings, 2 braces, 
 2 painters. 1 boat-hook. The men bring the stores
 
 201 
 
 down to the place selected Nos. 1 and 8 bring the 
 gunwales ; Nos. 2, 3, and 4, the front rank man of 
 No. 5 bring each a cask ; the rear rank man of No. 5 
 brings two slings ; Nos. 6 and 7 the braces, painters, 
 and boat-hook. 
 
 The casks are laid out in one row side by side, 
 bungs up and touching at the swell. If there should 
 be any perceptible difference they should be sized 
 from flank to flank. The slings with their loops to the 
 front are laid down close to the ends of the casks. 
 Each man takes a brace, except the gunwale man. 
 
 At the command " Form Pier " the men take post * Drill, 
 facing inwards, front rank on the left, rear rank on 
 the right of the casks. 
 
 At " Line Casks " the N. C. officer superintending 
 causes the men to arrange the casks with greater 
 care, and numbers them, the nearest to himself 
 being 1. If the casks are of unequal length they 
 are dressed by the centre, so that the larger ones 
 project equally on both sides. When properly 
 arranged, all the men hold the casks steady except 
 the gunwale men, Nos. 1 and 8, who give up the 
 end casks to Nos. 2 and 7, and step back a little. 
 
 At " Gunwales," the gunwale men lift the gun- 
 wales over the heads of the other men, and place 
 them along the line of casks on each side, not more 
 than 6 inches from their ends, and with the centre 
 of each gunwale corresponding to the centre of the 
 middle cask, in respect to which they must take 
 their direction from the man opposite to that cask. 
 
 At " Slings," No. 1 takes up the loop ends of the 
 slings, and passes them over the ends of the gunwales. 
 The cask numbers pass the slings under the casks,
 
 202 
 
 No. 8 at the other end, setting one foot against the 
 end cask and hauling taut. 
 
 No. 8 then brings up the ends of the sling inside 
 the gunwales, takes 1 or 2 turns round, and makes 
 fast with a clove hitch. Meanwhile the men steady 
 the casks, and keep the slings in their proper places 
 immediately under the gunwales. 
 
 At "Braces" the gunwale men steady the piers. 
 Each of the others, with the eye of a brace in his 
 hand, passes it round the gunwale. If there are no 
 eyes to the gunwale, he makes fast with a timber 
 hitch, and passes the brace outside downwards, and 
 under the sling, exactly at the centre of the interval 
 between 2 casks. The whole then mount upon the 
 gunwales and haul taut. 
 
 At " Taut" each man dismounts, still holding taut, 
 takes a round turn round the gunwale on the left of 
 the standing part (which should be quite perpen- 
 dicular), and holds on. 
 
 At " Gross" each man holding the brace in his 
 left hand close up to the round turn passes over the 
 end round the standing part with his right hand to 
 the opposite man by his own left, and lays it down 
 in the interval between the casks. He then takes 
 his comrade's rope, passing it round the standing 
 part of his own brace on the left side, while the 
 opposite man does the same. They again change 
 ends, but by their own right. 
 
 At "Rock and Heave" the men place their left 
 feet against the gunwales, and rock the casks, hauling 
 on the braces with both hands. 
 
 At " Frap and make Fast" they take another turn 
 round the gunwales by the outside, and on the left
 
 203 
 
 of the standing part of their brace. They then frap 
 the parts of the rope which embraced the gunwale, 
 and make fast with a clove hitch round half the 
 returns. 
 
 When properly done, two round turns lie evenly 
 on the gunwales without riding, and the braces pass 
 each other diagonally without crossing, each man's 
 brace being on his own left of the brace opposite at 
 the part where they cross. 
 
 Whilst the men are employed making fast the 
 braces, 2 gunwale men stand by the end casks, while 
 the other 2 get ready the painters. 
 
 At " Painters" one is fixed at each end to the 
 opposite gunwales, or to the slings immediately 
 below the gunwales. 
 
 It may here be remarked that when men first * Repetition 
 commence this work, instead of launching the pier, perfect. 
 which is the next thing to be done, they should be 
 practised in taking it to pieces, and putting it to- 
 gether again, until perfect, when the piers are 
 formed in the shortest possible time. 
 
 At "Dismantle Pier" each man undoes, clears 
 away, and coils down what he has done or brought up. 
 
 For launching, at the command " Bring up the * Launch - 
 Ways" the gunwale men bring them up, attaching 
 the 4 way-ropes if necessary which -are fixed to the 
 end eyes, and should be about 3^ fathoms long, 
 according to the side the ways may be on. 
 
 At " Prepare to raise the Pier right " (or left), the 
 gunwale men stand by the ways, the others raise 
 the pier as directed. The gunwale men place the 
 ways so that the bulge of the casks shall be in the 
 centre of the ways.
 
 204 
 
 At " Lower" the men lower the piers onto the 
 ways. 
 
 At "Man the Ways," the whole of the numbers 
 man the ways, and launch the pier. If formed on 
 the ways it will be ready for launching as soon as 
 completed. All man the way ropes ; No. 1 holding 
 on to the painter ; No. 8 to the way rope. 
 
 At " Form Raft" each rank of the pier party falls 
 in two deep, and Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7 front rank, 2, 4, 6, 8 
 rear rank. The commander and No. 7 bring a pier 
 close to the shore, and make fast the painters to 
 pickets fixed for the purpose. Nos. 2 and 8 bring 
 each a transom and 4 lashings, and with Nos. 1 and 7 
 lash the transoms to the gunwales near their ends. 
 
 If the bungholes of the end casks should be covered 
 by the transoms when the casks are upright, they 
 must be turned a little inwards, so as just to clear 
 the hole, and allow a hand pump being inserted to 
 pump out any water there may be in the casks. 
 
 The command " Baulks " follows immediately, and 
 all available men lay the ends of the baulks, 6 in 
 number, on the gunwales, the distance between the 
 two outer depending on the length of the chesses. 
 
 At " Boom out" the pier is pushed out by means 
 of the transoms, and when at a convenient distance, 
 the order is "Hold on." 
 
 At " Second Pier" the commander and 7 men bring 
 up another pier parallel to the first, the transoms 
 and baulks being raised up, so that they may pass 
 under them. Nos. 2 and 8 lash the transoms to the 
 near pier, and the outer baulks to the gunwales. 
 
 At " Chesses" the commander and 2 men place 
 them, the remainder hand them on board, together
 
 205 
 
 with rack lashings, anchors, boat-hooks, &c. If neces- 
 sary, the transoms, baulks, chesses, and ribands for 
 the bay are also handed on board ; the chesses 
 being piled up ; the baulks laid outside on the gun- 
 wales, transoms outside the baulks. 
 
 After the chesses are laid down, the ribands are 
 lashed down, and a turn of the lashing taken round 
 the outer baulks. 
 
 To form bridge from a raft in smooth water, the * Forming 
 rafts are alongside the beach in order, 1, 2, 3, &c., 
 below the point where the bridge is to be formed. 
 A boat party and a shore party are required to 
 carry over the sheer line, to lay out anchors, and to 
 complete communication with the shore. 
 
 At " Form Bridge" the shore party haul up No. 1 
 raft to its place, make fast painters, hand on board 
 the shore transoms, baulks, and chesses. The com- 
 mander of the raft lays hold of the shore line. Nos. 
 1 and 7 lash transoms. 
 
 At "Haul out," the commander makes fast the 
 shore line. No. 2 raft is warped up alongside, and 
 hauled into its place close to No. 1. All the crew of 
 No. 1 hand baulks and transoms to No. 2. Nos. 2 
 and 8 of No. 1 raft lash transoms. Nos. 1 and 7 of 
 No. 2 raft lash transoms. 
 
 The commander of No. 2 raft makes fast to the 
 shore line, and all the numbers of No. 1 pass 
 chesses and then rack down. Nos. 3 and 4 rafts 
 follow in order. 
 
 The boat party place the off-shore baulks and 
 transoms, and make fast painters, &c. As soon as 
 each raft is ready, the crew sit down on the edges of 
 the roadway, with their feet over the sides even
 
 206 
 
 Dis- 
 mantling. 
 
 Pontoons. 
 
 Pressure of 
 infantry, 
 cavalry, 
 artillery. 
 
 Cylindri- 
 cal 
 pontoons. 
 
 numbers on the starboard side, odd numbers on tbe 
 port side. A second sheer line may be added if 
 necessary. If the bank is very shelving, a temporary 
 wharf may be required on each side. 
 
 To take the bridge to pieces, at the commands 
 "Attention," "Prepare to Dismantle," the crew of 
 each raft and the shore party withdraw the chesses 
 off the bays. 
 
 At " Dismantle," Nos. 2 and 8 and 1 and 7 unlash 
 transoms and hand them in. The other numbers 
 withdraw baulks. The commanders cast off sheer- 
 line lashings ; and the rafts, by warping or otherwise, 
 regain their original positions down stream. 
 
 Metal cylindrical pontoons are used in our service ; 
 all other nations employ bateaux. Pontoons should 
 satisfy the following conditions : 
 
 They should form a stable bridge at all times ; and 
 their equipment should be simple, easily transported 
 and repaired. 
 
 The bearing power of a bridge is reckoned at so 
 many foot-pounds per linear foot. 
 
 A bridge, calculated to carry infantry four deep, 
 will carry cavalry in file and field artillery. 
 
 Infantry marching four deep produce a pressure 
 on the bridge of about 200 Ibs. per linear foot ; if 
 crowded, 560 Ibs. ; cavalry, 233 Ibs. ; crowded, 350 
 Ibs. ; an Armstrong, 12-pounder, 462 Ibs.; a 
 40-pounder, 888 Ibs. 
 
 The bearing power of a cylindrical pontoon de- 
 creases after it is immersed half its depth, whereas 
 in boats the bearing power increases until the whole 
 is submerged. 
 
 These pontoons have baulks 14 feet long, 6 of
 
 207 
 
 which support the flooring. The roadway is formed 
 of chesses 11 feet 5 inches long. One waggon carries 
 2 pontoons and stores for 1 raft. Its weight is 3,425 
 Ibs. Cylindrical pontoons are difficult to repair inside, 
 are unmanageable in rough water, and it is not easy 
 to remove water out of them. 
 
 The Belgians use an open boat 24 feet 6 inches 
 long, square at one end, of sheet iron. 2 such boats, 
 keyed stern to stern, form one bateau, and can support 
 584 Ibs. per running foot. Bridges are made of 
 single or double bateaux. The roadway is formed 
 of single planks 9 feet 6 inches long. A waggon 
 carries one boat and the superstructure for one 
 bay. Total weight, 3,582 Ibs. 
 
 The Austrians use an open boat of wood, in 3 
 parts, which can be used 2 or 3 together. The 
 baulks are 23 feet long. The roadway is formed 
 of single planks 9 feet 6 inches long. Weight of 
 waggon load, 2,356 Ibs. 
 
 The Belgians and Austrians approve of long bear- 
 ings, and employ heavy baulks carried by 2 men. 
 With them additions are made outside to form 
 bridge. With us a pontoon bridge is formed by 
 booming out from the shore. 
 
 The French have a boat of wood, weighing 150 
 cwt., with a roadway 11 feet wide, and bearing of 
 baulks 19 feet. 
 
 When anchors cannot be cast, a sheer line is 
 necessary, and 3 boats are required to place it. One 
 boat attends to the line in the centre, which is 
 attached to a buoy ; the other two carry the ends 
 to the shore. 
 
 To protect a bridge from fire-ships, or other 
 
 Belgian 
 bateaux. 
 
 Austrian 
 bateaux. 
 
 French 
 bateaux. 
 
 Sheer line.
 
 208 
 
 Protection 
 of bridge. 
 
 Advantage 
 of con- 
 tinental 
 system. 
 
 Belgian 
 trestles for 
 getting 
 onto a 
 bridge. 
 
 Bridge * 
 boats over 
 the Adour, 
 
 1814. 
 
 dangerous floating bodies, a boom of timbers or 
 chains must be made strong enough across the 
 river above the bridge, or a boat-guard established 
 to prevent the approach of anything dangerous. 
 
 This shows one advantage of the continental 
 boat system, for the boats are available for this 
 purpose as well as for supporting the bridge. In 
 passing military bridges, troops should not keep 
 time. 
 
 It is sometimes difficult to get onto a bridge, 
 owing to the steepness of the banks, or the uncertain 
 level of tidal rivers. The Belgian trestles allow the 
 roadway to be raised or lowered by screws, and are 
 useful in such a case, or cask rafts may be 
 employed. 
 
 Wellington constructed a remarkable bridge across 
 tne river Adour in 1814, previous to his attack on 
 Bayonne. The difficulties to be overcome were 
 the river was large, tidal, and subject to heavy swells. 
 The bridge, therefore, had to be flexible to allow for 
 the rise and fall of the tide ; 48 large coasting vessels 
 were got over the bar with difficulty, and moored 
 40 feet from centre to centre. Five 13 inch cables 
 were stretched from shore to shore, resting in notches 
 cut in sleepers. One end of each cable was fastened to 
 an 18-pounder, thrown over a 14-foot wall bounding 
 the river on one side ; the other ends were stretched 
 taut by capstans and guy tackles, fixed to a frame of 
 timber laid on the sand behind the other wall. 
 
 A boom of 2 rows of masts was constructed to 
 protect this bridge from fire-ships. It remained 
 uninjured till the close of the war. The success of 
 this operation was partly owing to the uncertainty
 
 209 
 
 into which the French were thrown by the posting 
 of a battery of six 18-pounders higher up the 
 river. 
 
 From this instance, and many other passages of * 
 rivers in presence of an enemy, it will be seen that deceived, 
 to deceive the opponent as to the point of passage is 
 of the highest importance. In this case a few troops 
 with a battery of rockets were pushed over to clear 
 the opposite bank. 
 
 In 1809 Napoleon crossed the Danube by a number * Passage 
 of bridges, some of Austrian pontoons, some of rafts, Danube 
 some of piles one remarkable bridge was formed in 
 a narrow channel, towed down stream into its place, 
 and allowed to swing with the current. Its total 
 length was 141 yards ; but to allow of its moving 
 in a winding channel, it was constructed in 4 parts, 
 loosely lashed together, which the pontoneers secured, 
 when they got it into position. The swinging took 3 
 or 4 minutes. 
 
 Some waggons made of galvanised sheet iron, first * American 
 used in America, have been adopted. They are waggon, 
 easily repairable, and can be employed as waggons 
 or pontoons. 4 make a raft. The weight of each is 
 5 cwt., and of the waggon complete 17 cwt. If 16 
 men are in one body it will sink 1 foot. They do 
 not answer in a current. 
 
 Rafts are easily constructed of any floating bodies, * Rafts. 
 and cannot be sunk by artillery. When made of 
 trees the ends should be tarred, if they are to re- 
 main long in the water. Rafts of 2 tiers of trees 
 are secured together by boring through the upper 
 tier, and partly through the lower, and driving in 
 wedges. They are frequently used on the Rhine.
 
 210 
 
 flafts can be made of hides. Untanned hides are 
 used in India over a framework of bamboo. 
 Wooden * The simplest support for a bridge over a shallow 
 river is trestles. The bottom must be firm, and the 
 current not rapid. Julius Caesar crossed the Khine 
 by their means. The early form of trestle consisted 
 of 4 legs, supporting a ridge-piece ; the legs spread 
 out in two directions, and are secured together by 
 diagonal braces of wood, as shown in Fig. 116. If 
 carried with an army they may be keyed together ; 
 if made on the spot they may be fastened with 
 wooden pins or tree-nails. 
 
 Crib-work. * In 1811, in the Peninsula, trestles were made to 
 contain between their legs a considerable weight of 
 well-packed stones, secured by strong planks in 
 narrow-pointed cases, to increase as little as possible 
 the breadth and section, and the resistance to the 
 current. 
 
 Sloping piles supported the trestles, and horizontal 
 
 chains lying at the bottom were made fast to strong 
 
 piles driven above the trestles. The river crossed 
 
 was 396 feet wide. 
 
 Bridge * A bridge of crib-work was made in 1872 to cross 
 
 Prah. S i872 *^ e r i ver Prah in Ashanti, timber being plentiful 
 and nothing else at hand. A tray at the bottom 
 can be filled with stones, and sunk, when towed into 
 position (vide Fig. 117). 
 
 Crossing On the retreat from Moscow in 1813, Napoleon, 
 
 Beresina, w ^ n the wreck of his army, crossed the river Bera- 
 
 1813< sina on two trestle bridges at a point where the river 
 
 was 100 yards wide and 7 feet deep, with a muddy 
 
 bottom and moderate current, but much loose ice 
 
 drifted down.
 
 CRIB. 
 
 Tig. 118. 
 FLYING BRIDGE. 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 RAFT FOR FLYING BRIDGE 
 
 H I 
 
 Pig.JZO. 
 
 TRAIL BRIDGE.
 
 211 
 
 The trestles were 3 feet to 9 feet high ; and the 
 length of the ridge beam was 14 feet. 23 trestles 
 were used, making 24 bays of about 13 feet each. 
 
 Trees about 16 feet or 17 feet long were used for 
 beams in the round, there being no time to square 
 them. Kound timber 16 feet long, and 3 inches or 4 
 inches in diameter, formed the roadway of one bridge 
 for carriages, which jolted greatly on so rough a surface, 
 and shook the bridge violently. Old planks formed the 
 roadway of the other bridge for infantry and cavalry. 
 No' small boats were at hand to assist, and it was 
 difficult to keep the trestles steady ; they sank 
 unequally in the muddy bottom, and several were 
 broken. The planks of the other bridge were un- 
 sound, could not be properly fixed, and were 
 constantly being deranged : they split under the 
 horses' hoofs or got into holes. When the Russians 
 advanced four days afterwards, the bridges were 
 destroyed by fire, and vast quantities of ammunition, 
 artillery, and baggage were abandoned. " Thousands 
 of men and many women and children were left 
 to the mercy of the enemy and rigours of the 
 climate." 
 
 The Belgian three-legged trestle is now chiefly Belgian 
 employed. It consists of 2 cheeks, 14 feet long by 5 j^^ 
 inches wide, by 3 inches deep, and a pry pole, con- trestle, 
 nected at their heads by a pin, and kept asunder at 
 their feet by bars 4 feet 6 inches long. A saddle or 
 chapeau slides up and down the cheeks, and is sup- 
 ported at any required height by pins passing through 
 the cheeks. Two such trestles are placed opposite, and 
 a heavy cross-beam is laid on the saddles to receive 
 the roadway. These trestles can be set on the bottom 
 
 P 2
 
 212 
 
 of a stream, or upon boats, and by their means a 
 descent can be made from a high bank. They answer 
 in a stream 12 feet deep. The cheeks of these trestles 
 may be used for pile driving. 
 Lengthen- A bridge may be lengthened by the aid of a 
 
 mg bridge 
 
 by trestles, temporary trestle, consisting of 2 legs and a cross 
 piece, in the absence of boats. The length of road- 
 way between 2 sets of trestles is laid upon this and 
 boomed out on rollers: The permanent trestles are 
 then dropped and the temporary released. 
 
 Boats are used for crossing rivers as row-boats 
 and flying bridges, besides forming bridges of boats 
 proper. 
 
 Rowing- * Their employment as row-boats individually applies 
 boats. only to passages in face of the enemy, and for de- 
 sultory operations. The difficulty is to get sufficient 
 boats to pass the men over, and to return for 
 supports; they are, also, liable to be sunk, thus 
 causing confusion. The men ferried over must sit 
 down. As few rowers as possible should be employed. 
 The heads of the boats should be slightly up stream, 
 so as to cross diagonally, aided by the current, and 
 the best points for embarking and landing should be 
 chosen. 
 
 Flying # Flying bridges are common in many rapid rivers, 
 bridges. ^ e curren t being utilised to swing a boat carrying 
 a load from side to side. The raft is sometimes 
 attached to a boat anchored in the middle of the 
 stream, and its side is then kept at an angle of 55 
 with the current (vide Fig. 118). 
 
 Communication was established across the Thames 
 between Tilbury and Gravesend in 1778 and 1795, 
 when invasion was threatened.
 
 213 
 
 It is not easy to arrange such a bridge in a slow 
 stream. 
 
 When the cable is fastened to an anchor, it is 
 liable to be caught in the bottom. It is, therefore, 
 necessary to support the cable on intermediate floats, 
 and attach it to a mast. But for fear the raft is 
 pulled over by the strain, it is better to form a raft 
 of 2 boats together, with a traveller running on or 
 in a crosspiece between the two masts ; the cable is 
 not permanently attached to the traveller, but placed 
 on a capstan on deck to be taken in or let out as 
 required. A greater load can be transported in this 
 way than with a single boat (vide Fig. 119). 
 
 The two following points should be considered in 
 all flying bridges : 
 
 i. The cable should never be less than one and a 
 half times the chord of the arc swung across, which 
 is generally the width of the stream. 
 
 ii. It should be moored by two anchors, as when 
 one only is used it is liable to be gradually worked 
 out of its hold in the bottom. 
 
 A trail bridge is made by tightly stretching a * Trail 
 
 bridge. 
 
 hawser across a stream, with a traveller on it, to 
 which the boat is attached. By means of two ropes 
 attached to the bow and stern and the traveller, the 
 current can be utilised to assist in sending the boat 
 across, the bows being kept in the required direction 
 by hauling on or loosing the ropes (vide Fig. 120). The 
 boat should be shaped like a whale boat, to go both 
 ways. A flat-bottomed boat, with a traveller on a rope 
 drawn by four negroes, conveyed foot passengers and 
 carriages between George's Island and Hamilton in 
 Bermuda before the construction of the causeway.
 
 214 
 
 Crossing * Marshal Massena. in his retreat from Portugal in 
 the Alva 
 by 1811, established a rough and ready communication 
 
 across the river Alva. Ney had previously destroyed 
 the bridge. No materials suitable to make good the 
 broken arch could be obtained, therefore the passage 
 was made at an adjoining part of the river where it 
 was narrower and more rapid. For this reason, and 
 because of the great depth, no supports could be 
 fixed in the bottom. The right bank was bounded 
 by a stone wall 5 feet above the surface of the 
 current ; the left was rocky, and nearly level with the 
 water. The arrangement is indicated in Fig. 121. 
 
 Two ring-bolts were let into the rock at D and c. 
 Six pine-trees 60 feet long were procured, and the 
 raft G made ready near c, under which beams were 
 placed on which to launch it. One of the pine-trees 
 was then secured to the raft, the other end being 
 fastened by a heel-rope to the ring-bolt D. A strong 
 party held the rope E F, and the raft was let down 
 into the water and eased off until it assumed the 
 position at G, the end of the rope being made fast 
 to the ring-bolt at c. 
 
 A firm footing being thus established in mid 
 stream, the end of another tree was slipped along 
 the first tree to G, and made fast to the raft. The 
 other end was secured to a large cask. This was 
 launched, and pushed out from I to K, whence, being 
 caught by the stream, it was gently eased off by the 
 rope L M to the wall at o. 30 men were then sent 
 across, who hauled the cask and end of the tree on 
 to the wall. Two other trees were then laid parallel 
 to the former, and the whole planked with doors, 
 chests, &c.
 
 Tig. 121. 
 MASSENA'S BRIDGE. 
 
 BRIDGE OVER THE COA.
 
 215 
 
 Another form of bridge was used at Almeida * Bridge 
 across the river Coa, the French having destroyed Coa, 1810. 
 the stone bridge there in their retreat. Notches were 
 made in the masonry on both sides to receive the 
 lower extremities of two frames, which were eased 
 down onto them from the edges of the gap in a 
 vertical position. 2 tackles, applied to each frame, led 
 to ring-bolts, set in the masonry, about 30 feet from 
 the gap. 50 men being put on to each tackle, the 
 frames were lowered down so that their upper ex- 
 tremities crossed each other. Gangboards were then 
 shoved out, and men sent across to put in the key- 
 bolts previously prepared. A ridge-piece being 
 fixed in the fork, and beams laid across, the com- 
 munication was complete (vide Fig. 122). 
 
 Lever bridges are of rude construction, made by * Lever 
 
 L)rid.c r cs 
 
 cutting down trees and sinking the butts in the 
 banks sufficiently deep that the buried parts may 
 exceed in weight those out of the ground (vide 
 Fig. 123). 
 
 Beams or trunks of trees should be laid over the 
 butts, and secured by pickets, as in fixing abattis, 
 then the earth well rammed above them. If the 
 trees are not long enough to meet, so that their 
 ends may be secured to those opposite, thinner 
 trunks must be fastened to the ends out of the 
 ground on one side, and bent down to meet the 
 corresponding ends of the trees sunk in the opposite 
 bank, to which ends they are lashed. 
 
 If a river is narrow, deep, and rapid, a tree may * Crossing 
 be felled on each side, and the branch ends gradu- by trees> 
 ally launched into the current, so as to join in 
 mid stream. Men can then cross one by one. Often
 
 216 
 
 Ladder 
 bridge. 
 
 Frame * 
 
 a single tree will be long enough to reach to the 
 opposite bank, over which a party may cross to 
 assist in preparing a bridge of one kind or other, 
 according to circumstances. 
 
 Fig. 124 shows how a ladder bridge may be 
 formed by running a trench-cart or gun limber into 
 the stream, and securing it there, with the shafts 
 vertical, by ropes on both sides. Ladders are laid 
 on the body of the cart or limber from both banks, 
 and covered with planks. A similar bridge can be 
 made by waggons placed lengthways in a shallow 
 rapid stream. Such bridges support infantry. 
 
 Frame bridges are used generally to restore exist- 
 ing bridges which have been damaged or destroyed. 
 They are of various kinds, made of frames such as 
 shown by Fig. 125. The following is a description 
 of a single lock bridge, of which the other kinds 
 are modifications : 
 
 Construe- * The section of the river or chasm must be accu- 
 
 tion of 
 single-lock rately taken and marked on the ground with a cord 
 
 and pegs, and the distance between the footings on 
 one side must be 18 inches wider than on the other, 
 otherwise the frames will not lock. The standards 
 (vide Fig. 125) are laid out on the section, and 
 marked with chalk at the places for lashing the 
 ledgers and transoms. The whole are lashed to- 
 gether on both banks. The ledgers should be above 
 the standards, about 2 feet from the butts, the tran- 
 soms beneath. The frames are carefully squared, 
 and the broader must be 18 inches wider throughout 
 than the other. A ledger should be about 1 foot 
 longer than a transom. The braces are then lashed. 
 
 O 
 
 The transom of the narrow frame should be about
 
 . /26 
 SINGLE LOCK BRIDGE 
 
 NETWORK OF ROPE BRIDGE AT ALCANTARA. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF BEAMS. 
 
 . J23 
 PILE DRIVING 
 
 216 
 7.
 
 217 
 
 18 inches wider than the width of roadway between 
 the ribands. 
 
 Pickets are driven in for the guys and foot ropes. 
 Foot ropes are fastened round the butts of the stand- 
 ards, below the ledgers, with a timber hitch. Fore 
 and back guys are attached to the tops of each frame. 
 The fore guys are crossed, those of the narrow frame 
 passing between the horns of the broad frame. 
 
 The frames are launched and locked. Two tem- 
 porary roadbearers are sent out, and 2 men working 
 on the crutch of the bridge place the fork transom 
 in position. The rest of the roadbearers are sent 
 out resting on this transom. Chesses are laid and 
 racked down, and a handrail rigged up. 
 
 The roadway is 9 feet wide, and will support 
 infantry in fours. 
 
 The height m n should not be less than ^ of a b, 
 the span (vide Fig. 126). 
 
 The slope of the standards for these frames should 
 be 2 T , and for trestles . 
 
 There are two sorts of suspension bridges. In one, Suspension 
 the roadway passes over the suspending chains ; in 
 the other, it is hung from them. The former is the 
 simplest, and one example, the iron gabion bridge, 
 may here be noticed. 
 
 The iron bands of Jones's abions are connected * Ir n 
 
 
 gabion 
 
 together by bolts and nuts. The bolts are 1| inches bridge. 
 long and ^ in diameter. The bands are looped round 
 beams; one beam is held by tackle to the bank, 
 and the bridge is stretched taut. The bands of 4 
 gabions, with the pickets woven between the bands, 
 alternately over and under, will make a bridge 
 of 40 feet to 50 feet span for infantry in file.
 
 218 
 
 A stronger bridge has been made of 6 chains, 
 each chain formed of the bands of 4 gabions, 18 
 inches to 2 feet apart, over a span of 60 feet, able to 
 support a field gun. 
 
 Rope * A very celebrated bridge was made of ropes bv 
 
 bridge over J 
 
 Tagus at Colonel Sturgeon of the staff corps in the Peninsula 
 
 war to restore the communication across Trajan's 
 bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, to bring up 
 stores from Badajos for the attack on the forts at 
 Salamanca. The French had blown up the principal 
 arch. The gap was 100 feet wide, and large enough 
 timber could not be procured. 
 
 18 lengths of 6|- inches cable, stretched across, were 
 fastened by tackle. The cables were formed into a 
 network by strong lashings, as shown in Fig. 127, 
 and over this 8 cross beams were laid, having notches 
 in their under sides to receive the rope. Other 
 beams rested on the cross beams to support the 
 planks, and were constructed as in the figure. The 
 single beams were twice the width of each of the 
 double ones. The junction was made by screw-bolts, 
 allowing elasticity, and for the whole bridge to be 
 rolled up and transported ; for it was secretly made 
 at a distance ; and on llth June, 1812, the siege 
 train crossed by it. 
 
 Piles. * Piles are often useful for making piers, and to 
 strengthen parts of a bridge. A convenient way of 
 driving them by hand is shown in Fig. 128 two 
 spars being lashed to the head of a pile, and a plank 
 laid across them for the men using mauls to stand 
 upon. 
 
 For temporary bridges, the Handbook for Field Ser- 
 vice gives these rules as to strength of materials :
 
 219 
 
 5 deal battens 7 inches x 3 inches, supported at in- * Strength 
 tervals of 15 feet, will carry infantry in fours crowded, materials. 
 
 5 larch spars 6^ inches in diameter, free from large 
 knots and defects, will carry infantry crowded, or a 
 16 -pounder. 
 
 Transoms should not be less than 9 inches in 
 diameter, to resist the greatest strain to which a 
 bridge is likely to be exposed, viz. that caused by 
 infantry in fours. 
 
 The planks for a roadway to carry horses should 
 not be less than 1J inches thick. 
 
 To measure the breadth of a stream by the peak * Measuring 
 of a cap, stand on one bank and lower the peak ^ealTc^ 
 until its edge cuts the other bank. Steady the head ca P- 
 by placing the hand under the chin, turn gently 
 round towards the most level part on your side, and 
 notice where the eyes and edge of the peak again 
 cut the ground. Measure this. It will be nearly 
 the breadth of the stream.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 RECONNAISSANCE AND FIELD-SKETCHING. 
 Necessity " ON fait d'autant mieux la guerre que Ton 
 
 for 
 
 knowledge connalt mieux le pays." So thought Napoleon. 
 
 country ^ or tne P r P er conduct of all operations in the field, 
 
 a knowledge of the country is essential, as on it 
 
 depend greatly the character of the movements and 
 
 composition of the force. And it is truly said that 
 
 "Every manoeuvre which is not founded upon the 
 
 nature of the ground is absurd and ridiculous." 
 
 Meaning * A reconnaissance may be described as the ex- 
 
 reconnais- animation of part of a country, or of an occupied 
 
 sance. position, or a fortress, in order to obtain information 
 
 as to its resources for supplies, and for movement 
 
 of troops and carriages ; also, as to the strength, 
 
 position, and intentions of an enemy for purposes of 
 
 attack or otherwise. If the object is specially to 
 
 discover his strength, and make him develop his 
 
 troops, we require an armed force. But if secret 
 
 information of the enemy is sought, an officer of 
 
 intelligence is usually selected, who approaches as 
 
 near as possible to the position, and notes down all 
 
 he can see and discover. 
 
 It is desirable that all N. C. officers should under-
 
 221 
 
 stand the rudiments of reconnoitring, for there are * 
 many occasions when information procured by a 
 scout or a patrol may prove invaluable. There are 
 some in every corps fully competent to furnish a 
 reconnaissance of a road, river, c., after a little 
 instruction. But the duty generally devolves upon 
 officers, who, either mounted or on foot, apply their 
 knowledge of field-sketching to the best advantage 
 usually with limited time at disposal. Hence, 
 needless detail should be avoided, and great accu- 
 racy cannot be expected. Among the officers, also, 
 there will be some quicker of eye, and more handy 
 with the pencil than others, and they should be 
 employed in preference. 
 
 For field-sketching the reconnoitrer should have * 
 with him a prismatic compass, protractor, sketch- 
 book about 9 inches square, with ruled paper, pencil, 
 india-rubber, and a small box of colours. 
 
 Field-sketching or surveying is the art of ascer- 
 taining by measurement the shape and size of any 
 part of the country, and representing it on a reduced 
 scale in a conventional manner, so as to bring the 
 whole under the eye at once. 
 
 It is only the objects of tactical importance to 
 which attention should be directed. These are hills, 
 their steepness, relative height, the form of each 
 feature ; roads ; all lines of communication ; rivers ; 
 fords ; marshes ; woods ; fences ; and all other objects 
 likely to affect the movements of the three arms. 
 
 A survey or plan is made with good instruments ; 
 the measurements being laid down at leisure, and 
 the drawing executed with minute finish, when 
 accuracy is more important than time. 
 
 Who 
 
 should re- 
 connoitre. 
 
 Articles 
 required. 
 
 Field- 
 sketching. 
 
 Survey dis- 
 tinguished 
 
 from 
 military 
 sketch.
 
 222 
 
 Whereas a military sketch is performed hurriedly, 
 with simplest instruments, entirely in the field ; and 
 to become a good sketcher, practice in applying the 
 principles of regular surveying is required, combined 
 with rapidity and fair accuracy. 
 
 * ^ * s P oss ibl e to m ake a hasty sketch without any 
 instruments at all, thus : Having a sheet of paper 
 or sketch-book, select the most convenient and level 
 part of the ground as a base line, and step a few 
 hundred yards along it, noting a tree, bush, or other 
 object at its extremities. Draw a straight line on 
 the paper corresponding with this, and mark off its 
 length on the scale. Note from each end of the base 
 the most prominent parts of the ground e.g. hills, 
 roads, churches, houses, &c. Place the paper on the 
 ground, with the line drawn for the base, in the 
 direction of the base, and without moving it mark 
 off the angle each object makes with the base line 
 and the approximate distance. 
 
 Meaning of * The scale is the proportion the sketch is to bear 
 to the ground represented. Scales are usually drawn 
 to represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands of feet, 
 yards, &c. The left division shows smaller quantities 
 than are given in the other divisions, and these latter 
 are numbered from the left division but one to the 
 right. 
 
 A scale so divided is drawn with two straight 
 lines, the under being thick, as shown in Fig. 129. 
 
 But when the divisions represent greater dis- 
 tances, as in scales of 1 inch or 2 inches to a mile, 
 suitable for road sketches, &c., the scale is drawn 
 with one line only. 
 
 The representative fraction of a scale shows the
 
 223 
 
 number of real inches represented by one inch on 
 the scale. It is also the proportion between a 
 drawing made on the particular scale and the real 
 object represented e.g. in a scale of 1 inch to 
 10 feet the fraction is T 2u 5 for 6 inches to 1 
 mile jjgjkji = ~ w \ for 3 inches to 1 mile ^ho- 
 If a line a mile long be represented by a yard, the 
 representative fraction is TT V^ ; if the same line be 
 represented by a foot it will be -g^g^. 
 
 The representative fraction should always be 
 stated on a plan or sketch for this reason. An 
 inch and a mile are measures applicable only to 
 English operations, and do not convey any idea of 
 the relative proportions between English and foreign 
 plans, in which the same standards of measure are 
 not used. 
 
 The scales usually adopted in field-sketches are 
 8, 6, 4, 2, 1 inch to the mile. The size depends on 
 the nature of the ground, and the amount of detail 
 required. Thus, for the sketch of a position, the 
 scale may be from 6 inches to 12 inches; for road 
 sketches, 1 inch to 4 inches. 
 
 The following are a few examples of simple 
 scales : 
 
 To make a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile to show 
 furlongs Divide a straight line 6 inches long into 
 8 equal parts, each of which represents a furlong. 
 Divide the left division into 11 equal parts, each 
 of which represents 20 yards ; number the left, 
 division 220 yards on the left, and on the right, 
 and number the rest 1, 2, 3 .... &c., furlongs 
 successively to the right. 
 
 To construct a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile to 
 
 Represen- 
 tative 
 fraction. 
 
 Examples 
 
 of simple 
 
 scales.
 
 224 
 
 read yards, we must calculate what length will 
 represent 100 yards, thus : As 1,760 yards are 
 represented by 6 inches, 1,000 yards will be repre- 
 sented by -^ = = 3'4 inches. Divide a straight 
 1760 
 
 line A B of this length into 10 equal parts, each of 
 which will represent 100 yards. To do this, from 
 A draw a straight line A C, making any convenient 
 angle with A B. Set off 10 equal parts on A c, join 
 the last with B, and draw parallels intersecting A B 
 these will divide it into the 10 equal parts required. 
 Produce B A, a distance equal to 100 yards; from A 
 draw A D at any convenient angle, and divide the 
 100 yards into 10 equal parts in a similar manner. 
 
 If the scale to be made were larger, e.g. 24 inches 
 to 1 mile, a straight line representing 1,000 yards 
 would be of inconvenient length ; and it would be 
 better to take a less number, say 200. Then 200 
 
 200 x 24 
 
 will be represented by r- = 2' 72 inches. 
 
 1760 
 
 Divide a straight line of that length into 2 equal 
 parts, to show hundreds. Take one of these parts on 
 the left and subdivide it into 10 equal parts, to 
 show tens of yards. 
 
 To make a scale of 1 inch to 8 feet. Here, 10 
 feet is represented by 1| inches. Divide a straight 
 line of this length into 10 equal parts, each of which 
 will represent 1 foot. 
 
 Suppose that a length known to be 2 miles is 
 represented on a plan by 4'4 inches, construct the 
 scale to read yards.
 
 225 
 
 21 x 1760 : 1000 : : 4'4 : x 
 
 44 x 1,000 x 2 88,000 
 x = - ' - = ' - =r 1 inch. 
 10 x 5 x 1,760 88,000 
 
 i.e. 1,000 yards are represented by 1 inch. Divide 
 an inch into 10 equal parts for hundreds of yards. 
 Add one of these parts on the left for further sub- 
 division. The representative fraction is 
 
 To construct a scale of 8 inches to 1 mile to read 
 feet. Here such small divisions of 10 feet cannot 
 conveniently be shown. So, since 8 inches represent 
 1,760x3 = 5,280 feet, 2,000 feet are represented 
 
 by ' = 3'03 inches. Divide a straight line 
 
 of this length into 2 equal parts, each to show 1,000 
 feet, and add another part on the left for further 
 subdivision. The representative fraction is y 9 T 2 . 
 
 To draw two plain scales, one to measure yards, 
 the other paces of 30 inches, when the representa- 
 tive fraction of a plan is 
 
 m 12 )6,000 _! . 
 
 (1) ' : 600 : : 1 : x x = 1| inches. 
 
 oOO 
 
 Divide a straight line of this length into 2 equal 
 parts for hundreds of yards, and subdivide the left 
 part to show tens of yards. 
 
 (2) 1 inch represents 500 feet = 200 paces. Divide 
 an inch into 2 equal parts for hundreds of paces, and 
 subdivide the left part to show tens. 
 
 If on a plan 3 miles are represented by 4 
 inches, to draw a plain scale of miles and furlongs 
 long enough to measure 5 miles. Divide 4| inches 
 into 13 equal parts, each of which will represent 
 
 Q
 
 226 
 
 ^ mile. Adding 7 such parts gives a length of 
 5 miles. Bisecting each of the 4 left parts will 
 show furlongs. 
 
 To draw a plain scale of to measure feet and 
 inches up to 5 feet 9' : 5' :: 1' : ' = 6 " = 6f 
 inches. Divide a straight line of this length into 5 
 equal parts to show feet, and the left part into 12 
 to show inches. 
 
 To draw a scale of ^^ to show single paces, the 
 maximum length being 60 paces, assuming the pace 
 to be 30 inches. Here, 250 paces : 60 paces :: 30 
 inches : \\ = 7-| inches. Divide a straight line of 
 this length into 6 equal parts to show tens of paces, 
 and the left part into ten to show single paces. 
 
 If a plan has no scale attached, but some of the 
 distances are noted on it, one marked 3 miles 
 measures 6 inches. In order to make the scale, 
 it is evident 2 inches represent 1 mile. Divide 2 
 inches into ?, \, to show fractions of a mile, and 
 add another 2 inches on the right for a complete 
 mile. 
 
 To draw a scale showing miles and furlongs for a 
 map on which the distance between 2 places, 35 
 miles apart, is represented by 8'75 inches. 
 
 As 8'75 inches represent 35 miles, 9 inches repre- 
 sent 36, and 10 inches represent 40 miles ; therefore 
 2| inches 10 miles. 
 
 Divide 2^ inches into 10 equal parts for miles, 
 and the left division into 8 equal parts for furlongs.
 
 227 
 
 Comparative, diagonal, and other scales should be 
 studied in text books. 
 
 Distances in military operations must not only be * Measure- 
 measured by length, but also by the time taken in ^ y t j me as 
 traversing them. This varies greatly in mountain- 
 
 i oi 
 
 Enlnrging 
 
 orreducing 
 
 a map. 
 
 ous districts, so that a scale of time, founded on 
 experience, will be a most useful addition. Such a 
 scale should show the hours over mountain passes as 
 compared with the hours marching on level roads. 
 
 A map is easily copied on a larger or a smaller 
 scale by drawing a series of squares on it, and 
 another series on the paper for the copy, each square 
 in the latter to be proportionately larger or smaller 
 than the former. The detail of the map is then 
 filled in. Thus, suppose a drawing with a repre- 
 sentative fraction TITS^ is to be copied on a scale 
 of 3 inches to 1 mile. The scale corresponding to 
 TITTSTF is 6 inches to 1 mile. Then, if we draw 
 squares of 1 inch side on the original, the squares 
 on the copy must be -| inch a side. 
 
 Again, if a drawing on a scale of 3 inches to a 
 mile, having \ inch squares marked on it, has to be 
 copied so that 880 yards will occupy 3 inches on the 
 copy. As 3 inches represent | mile on the copy, 
 6 inches will represent 1 mile, and for copying the 
 original, the squares must have sides of 1 inch. 
 
 The use of the prismatic compass can be under- * The 
 
 (Compass 
 
 stood in a few minutes. Every circle is divided into 
 360. So the compass card under which the needle 
 swings is graduated into 360 and half degrees ; and 
 
 Q 2
 
 228 
 
 an angle can be taken to by estimation if the 
 instrument is perfectly steady. 
 
 To take a * To take a bearing, remove the cover, raise the 
 sight vane, and uncover the prismatic glass. Keeping 
 the compass level, so that the rim of the card does 
 not touch the glass, raise it steadily to one eye, and 
 bring the hair of the vane in line with the object. 
 The number reflected up is the bearing, i.e. the 
 angle a straight line drawn from the observer's eye 
 to the object makes with the magnetic meridian. 
 A reference to Fig. 130 will readily show the bear- 
 ings of the four cardinal points, and the quadrant 
 within which any intermediate angle falls, e.g. 45 
 is north-east. On windy days it is advisable to 
 kneel, and the oscillations of the card may be 
 checked by touching the spring under the vane. 
 Errors. * The compass is liable to error if near iron ore, or 
 an iron gate, and is affected by magnetic disturb- 
 ances. No two instruments read exactly alike, and 
 accuracy can only be obtained to about half a 
 degree. 
 
 Use of the * j n field-sketching, we determine the positions of 
 
 compass in 
 
 field- objects by compass in four ways, viz. : 
 slcc telling* 
 
 i. By triangulation, which means fixing a certain 
 
 number of conspicuous stations within the required 
 area, by means of a carefully-measured base line, and 
 the observations of the various stations from the 
 two extremities of the base, or from stations pre- 
 viously fixed. Where the bearings intersect is the 
 position of the object. 
 
 ii. By interpolation, standing at the object, taking 
 the bearings of two or more fixed points from it, 
 and laying these bearings off backwards from the
 
 COM PASS 
 
 POLE STAR 
 
 FtgJSI 
 
 * t k * 
 
 NORTH POINT 
 
 SCALES. 
 
 Sca2e> cf 6 inches tc> 1 mile 
 
 100 200 300 WO 500 
 
 1000 YARDS 
 
 Seals, of Z -inches to iTnilf.
 
 229 
 
 respective fixed points. The intersection of these 
 bearings fixes the object. 
 
 iii. By taking the bearing of the object, and pacing 
 to it along that bearing, laying the distance down to 
 scale. 
 
 iv. By pacing from one fixed point towards an- 
 other fixed point, and then pacing the length of the 
 off-set. 
 
 The chief consideration in triangulation is the Base, 
 measurement of the original base, which should be 
 as long as possible in proportion to the ground, and 
 central from 600 to 1,200 yards for a square mile ; 
 from f mile to 2 miles for 10 square miles. It 
 must also be level, or nearly so, to avoid reducing 
 the measurement to the true horizontal length ; and 
 the ends chosen should have an unobscured view. 
 The stations should be selected so as to afford good 
 intersections, not too acute or too obtuse. An angle 
 of 60 is best, so as to form equilateral triangles. 
 The stations can then be determined with fair ac- * stations. 
 curacy ; and the base is not shortened for subsequent 
 triangles. 
 
 Interpolation comes into play when a certain * interpola- 
 object, e.g. a tower, is thought to be wrongly placed. 
 Then, in order to correct its position, select any two 
 points, the distance between which is known to be 
 correct, and which are placed conveniently with re- 
 gard to the tower, making the intersection of the 
 bearings from 60 to 90. This intersection fixes the 
 correct position of the tower, which can be checked 
 by the bearing from a third point. 
 
 The " magnetic meridian " is the north and south * Magnetic 
 ,. . meridian, 
 
 line as shown by compass, deviating from the true
 
 230 
 
 north and south line by a variation depending on 
 the place, the year, and even slightly the time of 
 day or night. 
 
 Variation * The variation is found by ascertaining the angle 
 
 north. between the magnetic north and the true north, as 
 
 laid down in the neighbourhood of an observatory, or 
 
 from the bearing of the Pole star, when it is vertically 
 
 over the star e of the Great Bear (vide Fig. 131). 
 
 The variation changes constantly. In England in 
 1838 it was 24 6' W., since which date it has been 
 going north 'again at the rate of about 7' a year. 
 From 1838 to 1884, the difference has been 46 x 7 
 = 322' = 5 22' ; so that we may take the present 
 variation to be 18 44'. 
 
 Scale and * No sketch is complete without a scale and a north 
 point. point ; the latter should be drawn as in Fig. 132, the 
 magnetic north being at right angles to the hori- 
 zontal lines on the paper, which run east and west. 
 
 Forward By the " forward angle " is meant with the theo- 
 
 1 
 
 dolite the horizontal angle between the zero line 
 selected, and the direction we are about to proceed 
 * in. With the compass it is the bearing of the line 
 of direction in which we are pacing from the last 
 station. The rule is to observe it last. 
 
 Back * The " back angle " is the horizontal angle be- 
 tween the bearing of the forward station and the 
 station just quitted. 
 
 Closing The " closing angle " is the bearing taken of 
 
 another station at the conclusion of a traverse 
 begun from a previous station, to test the work. 
 
 Check A "check angle " is the bearing taken from one or 
 
 angle. 
 
 more subsequent stations in a traverse of some con- 
 spicuous object, not more than about mile distant.
 
 231 
 
 If the work is correct the bearings should converge 
 at the point marking the position of the object fixed 
 from previous stations. 
 
 An " offset " is a measurement taken perpendicular * Offset, 
 to the " forward angle." 
 
 The traverse of a road, river, &c., is proceeding * Traverse, 
 along it, taking bearings of different objects on 
 either side at the starting point, and, last of all, the 
 " forward angle " ; then stepping the distance as far 
 as the road is straight, where a halt must be made 
 to take another round of angles, fixing distant points. 
 All intermediate objects may be fixed by the eye. 
 The distances of any buildings, bridges, hills, &c., 
 met with on the road are noted in a field-book, 
 which is often more convenient than the sketching- 
 block itself, especially in bad weather. 
 
 This book should open lengthways, and have two * Field book. 
 parallel lines about \ inch apart ruled through the 
 centre of every page. The work commences at the 
 bottom, and proceeds upwards. The parallel lines 
 represent the right and left of the road ; and all 
 detail on or near the road should be entered neatly, 
 and in conformity with the conventional signs. 
 Other information is written. A clear system should 
 be adopted, so that the work may be intelligible, if 
 required to be transferred to paper later on. The 
 distances along the road are entered within the lines. 
 They are not noted from place to place, but in one 
 count so long as the direction continues the same. 
 As soon as the direction changes, as at a bend of the 
 road, the total distance is closed with a circle for a 
 new station, and a new count commences. Care 
 must be taken not to confuse distances with angles,
 
 232 
 
 which should be written with the symbol for angles 
 along a line right or left, with the name of the object 
 or place to which a side road may lead ; and the " for- 
 ward " angle should be distinguished thus /./ 89. 
 
 Plotting. * rj^e p rocess O f laying down on the plan the work 
 entered in the field-book is called " Plotting." For 
 this purpose an ivory protractor is used, having 
 parallel lines cut across it, and the whole of the 
 angles of a semicircle marked on one edge, running 
 into a point in the centre of the opposite edge, which 
 is the centre of the circle. The manner of proceeding 
 is very simple. Having fixed a point .on the paper 
 as a starting-point, in order to lay down a bearing, 
 
 Protractor. * first place the protractor to the right of the point if 
 the angle is not greater than 180, i.e. when it is in 
 the eastern half of the circle, and to the left of the 
 point when it is greater than 180, i.e. when it is in 
 the western half of the circle. Second, place the 
 centre of the edge marked by a star exactly at the 
 point. Third, make the parallel lines on the pro- 
 tractor coincide with the east and west lines of the 
 paper. Then, holding the protractor steady, mark 
 the angle on the outer edge with a point on the 
 paper, and draw the bearing to it from the starting- 
 point. The angles between 180 and 360 are 
 marked on the protractor inside those from to 
 180, and every angle of each pair is the supplement 
 of the other, i.e. the difference between them is 180. 
 
 Laying off # This is useful, enabling an ungle to be laid down 
 
 backwards, backwards, as explained under the head of " Inter- 
 polation." Thus, if standing at a certain point we 
 find an object already fixed on the paper bearing 
 55, to lay it off backwards we take the angle 235,
 
 233 
 
 and vice versd. It has also another advantage, for 
 when a point is so near the edge of the paper that 
 the actual bearing cannot be laid down, marking the 
 angle backwards and producing it from the first 
 point gives the bearing required. 
 
 In pacing, precaution must be taken not to lose * Pacing, 
 count. A good plan is to close a finger in the hand 
 
 O J. O 
 
 for every 100 up to 500, then to open the hand, 
 mark down 500, and begin afresh. Although the 
 regulation pace is 30 inches, yet most men step 
 longer, especially when walking fast. Measurements 
 are more likely to be accurate if we step yards and 
 not paces ; we thus avoid the trouble of reduction to 
 yards to suit most scales, and we get over the ground 
 quicker. Going up or down hill the distance will be 
 longer than it is in reality ; so we must step out. 
 Other means for measuring may be used, such as a * other 
 horse ; but his paces at a walk and a steady trot ^ents? 
 must be carefully tested. And the circumference of 
 a carriage wheel may be measured, and a rag tied to 
 one of the spokes, so that the revolutions can be 
 counted. It is always desirable to check the pacing 
 by noting milestones or points, the distances be- 
 tween which are already known ; and telegraph 
 posts will be of assistance, when fixed at uniform 
 intervals. 
 
 In the representation of slopes, a slope is con- Slopes. 
 sidered the hypotheneuse of a right-angled triangle, 
 and is represented by a fraction, the numerator of 
 which contains the number of units in the perpen- 
 dicular, and the denominator the number of the same 
 units in the base, e.g. a slope of J is one where the 
 perpendicular is one-third the length of the base,
 
 234 
 
 while in a slope of f the perpendicular is three times 
 the length of the base. 
 
 Clino- A clinometer is an instrument for measuring 
 
 meter. 
 
 slopes and vertical angles. It can be made with a 
 
 piece of cardboard about 6 inches long, on which a 
 semicircle is described. From the centre a line is 
 drawn perpendicular to the diameter, and is num- 
 bered at the edge. Radii are drawn to cut the 
 semicircle, reading units and tens of degrees. A 
 plumb bob, suspended from the centre, shows the 
 angle of elevation or depression at which the 
 diameter is held. 
 
 Represen- # Hills are represented on the system of contouring. 
 
 of VnL Contours are imaginary lines drawn round a hill at 
 equal vertical intervals. An idea of them is best 
 obtained by considering the hill surrounded by water, 
 the level of which rises first 10 feet, and the mark 
 up to which it reaches on the different slopes will 
 form the first contour. Suppose the water to rise 
 another 10 feet, and the mark again traced, this will 
 be a second contour, and so on. 
 
 Contours. In order to determine the number of contours on 
 
 a slope, we must measure the inclination, and pace 
 its length, stepping out so as to approximate the 
 horizontal measurement ; then mark on a fixed 
 straight line as many contours as there is space for 
 horizontal equivalents, the scale of which is indicated 
 on the protractor corresponding to certain slopes and 
 scales. 
 
 Contours are usually shown at the vertical interval 
 of 25 feet on a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile ; of 12| 
 feet on a scale of 12 inches ; and of 50 feet on a 
 scale of 3 inches to 1 mile.
 
 CONTOURS 
 
 Fit? ffl 
 
 THE SKETCH 
 
 M 
 
 Tl 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 o 
 o 
 
 V) 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 TJ 
 o 
 
 THE SKETCH 
 
 X
 
 235 
 
 The horizontal equivalent of a contour is the base Horizontal 
 of a right-angled triangle, of which the perpendicular 
 is the vertical interval between two contours, and 
 the hypotheneuse is the measured slope. 
 
 For 1 for a 25 foot contour it is about 480 yards. 
 121 240 
 
 50 960 
 
 and for 2, 3, 4 ... &c., we may assume it to be 
 I-, J, J . . . &c. ; these distances, e.g. if the contours 
 are 25 feet apart, the slope 8, and the measure- 
 ment 600 yards, the horizontal equivalent will be 
 i| = 60 yards, and 10 such contours can be marked 
 on the line up or down. 
 
 Horizontal equivalents may also be described as 
 the horizontal distances between contours running 
 at equal vertical intervals, being shorter as the slope 
 of the hill is steeper. Thus, if a and b are two points 
 immediately above one another on two contours, 
 a c the horizontal equivalent = b c (the vertical interval) 
 x co-tangent ^_bac. 
 
 Suppose it is required to find the difference of 
 level between A, the highest, and B, the lowest, point 
 on a plan contoured with 25 feet vertical intervals, 
 and there are 8 of these contours between these 
 points, of which 6 show descending ground, and 2 
 show a rise, then a reference to Fig. 133 shows 
 that the difference of level is 100 feet. 
 
 Time, however, will rarely admit of contours being 
 run in detail ; but the principle of them must be * Principle 
 remembered in all field-sketching. The shading of shading 
 hills may be in the vertical or horizontal styles, or in 
 brushwork, which last is rapid and simple ; but in 
 every case the steeper the slope the more intense
 
 236 
 
 must be the shading, and the lines thicker and closer 
 together, while in a gentler slope they will be 
 thinner and farther apart. The brows or salients will 
 usually be found steeper than the valleys and re- 
 entering parts. To represent slopes greater than 
 about 35, we must resort to vertical, broken strokes, 
 such as are employed for rocks and precipices. 
 
 There is one disadvantage in a contoured plan, 
 even when shaded, and that is, it requires often a 
 practised eye to read the features correctly, for there 
 is much similarity between the summits and the 
 valleys ; and this is specially so, when the surface 
 has been gradually denuded, e.g. the chalk downs 
 near Dover. Therefore, to make the drawing clearer, 
 arrowheads should indicate whether the slopes run 
 up or down ; and the heights in feet of certain points 
 should be noted. 
 
 Relative * When a sketch is completed, the simplest way is 
 to estimate two or three of the highest points, then 
 of intermediate points, and of the lowest points, 
 which last will be usually water ; mark them 1, 2, 3, 
 respectively, and state in the references their relative 
 heights. 
 
 Aneroid. A pocket aneroid is very useful in determining 
 
 heights ; there is generally a small table in the case, 
 and when the readings are taken at the base and 
 summit of a hill, the height is found by deducting 
 the former from the latter. 
 
 Or with a barometer, the difference between the 
 readings at the base and summit multiplied by * T T 
 gives the height in feet ; T | T5 - of this result must be 
 added or subtracted for every degree of temperature 
 above or below 55 Fahr.
 
 237 
 
 The greatest practicable slope for horses is f ; for * Practicable 
 
 IIP AT> i slopes. 
 
 mules i ; for men f . Baggage waggons ascend a 
 
 slope of Y-- with difficulty. A slope of y is impassable 
 for them. Infantry can ascend | or 20 ; but for 
 single soldiers steeper ground is practicable. Cavalry 
 are at a disadvantage on a greater slope than 5 ; 
 and are useless on a steeper slope than 10. Artillery 
 finds 10 difficult, and is quite inefficient for action on 
 a greater slope than 12. 
 
 The following is the authorised method to be * Authorised 
 adopted for all reconnaissance sketches and written s kt and 
 reports : re P rt - 
 
 The sketch is to contain all necessary information, 
 which can be put in without confusion and without 
 unduly increasing its size. 
 
 The written report is to be supplementary to, 
 and explanatory of, the sketch, to convey necessary 
 information with the utmost conciseness, and to be 
 written on the form shown in Fig. 134. The form 
 is folded so that the marginal headings may be 
 seen in their proper places when the report is 
 turned over for the perusal of the third column. 
 
 Before writing the report, every place referred to 
 in the sketch should be marked with a red numeral, 
 surrounded by a circle, consecutively upwards from 
 the bottom. But places named on the sketch need 
 not be numbered. 
 
 Remarks on a sketch should be made in the 
 margin, clear of the drawing, connected with the 
 points referred to by light lines. 
 
 The lower edges of both sketch and report are 
 to be in line, and the sketch attached to the left 
 margin.
 
 238 
 
 Report. * In Figs. A, B, c, D, is an ordinary double sheet of 
 foolscap open ; a a is the original fold down the 
 centre, and it is refolded along b b, a line parallel to 
 a a, but a little to the right of it : thus A, E, D, F, 
 form a margin visible when the report is turned for 
 the perusal of the 3rd column. This margin con- 
 tains the headings of the report in Roman numerals, 
 I, II., III., &c. 
 
 Horizontal lines are drawn opposite each marginal 
 heading to contain information concerning that 
 heading, and these are continued over the page so 
 as to form a 3rd column if necessary, and drawn so 
 as to fall in their proper places exactly over the lines 
 in the 1st and 2nd -columns, when the page is 
 turned down. First fill in the spaces in the 1st 
 column, and then, when necessary, use the others. 
 
 The report is headed and signed at the back of 
 the page containing the 1st column. 
 Reeonnais- * The various points to be noticed in reconnoitring 
 
 sance j 
 
 of a road. a road are :- 
 
 i. The road itself general direction ; nature as 
 hilly or otherwise ; gradients over 5 should be clearly 
 shown. Heavy waggons can scarcely pass slopes 
 greater than 8, unless with extra horses. Such a 
 place, or any bad part of a road, may seriously delay 
 a march, and should, if possible, be avoided. 
 
 Its construction and present condition ; whether 
 metalled or not ; where materials for repair are to be 
 obtained. 
 
 Whether sandy and heavy in dry weather, or of 
 stiff clay and deep in wet weather ; if drained or 
 not. Quarries near at hand, gravel pits, and stone 
 walls, furnish means for repair ; fencing, timber, logs.
 
 CROSSINGS OF ROADS 
 
 Fi s J35. 
 
 RICK OF HAY 
 
 fiy 136 
 
 RICK OF STRAW
 
 239 
 
 hurdles, small trees, brushwood, heath, planks, &c., 
 should be mentioned if likely to be needed. 
 
 Width which should be 20 feet for convenient 
 passage of troops. Any narrow part should be 
 specially noted. Guns in column of route require 
 at least 3 yards, but more if there are sharp turns in 
 the road. 
 
 ii. Bridges and fords. A rough hand sketch should * Bridges 
 be made of any bridge showing dimensions, number, 
 and size of piers ; width and number of spans ; 
 thickness of arches at crown and haunches. We 
 should mention, also, the material the bridge is 
 built of, the length and width of roadway, the 
 quickest way to destroy and repair it, if materials 
 for repair are close at hand, and the nearest point of 
 crossing if it is destroyed. 
 
 The nature of the river crossed ; what fords exist, 
 to be used either in conjunction with the bridge, or 
 instead of it if destroyed. 
 
 The position of the bridge, whether in a straight 
 reach of the river, or at a bend, salient, or re- 
 entering to the enemy. The approaches; adjoining 
 country; means of defending it. (For fords, see 
 ante, p. 155.) 
 
 When a bridge passes over a road, notice the 
 height above the road, and if loaded waggons can 
 pass under it. 
 
 It is particular to indicate clearly on a sketch 
 when a road crosses another, or a railway, which of 
 the two is uppermost (vide Fig. 135). 
 
 iii. Kate of marching, specifying whatever is likely * Rate of 
 to delay it. Length of denies and hollow ways ; marc 1Dg<
 
 240 
 
 Towns and * 
 villages. 
 
 Water 
 supply. 
 
 where danger chiefly exists. Note everything that 
 will enable an officer to take defensive measures, and 
 to guard against surprise. 
 
 iv. Towns and villages. State the situation as 
 regards the road ; if adapted for fighting purposes, 
 or for billeting troops; if inclosed by walls, fences, 
 hedges, banks ; built of stone, brick, or wood ; tiled 
 or slated roofs, or thatched ; the position and number 
 of entrances ; chief substantial buildings ; the 
 character of the country surrounding ; the streets, 
 whether narrow and winding. 
 
 Count or estimate the number of houses, and 
 allowing half for the inhabitants ; the remainder 
 will serve for accommodation. 
 
 We can allow 1 man per yard in a room 15 feet 
 wide, and 2 men per yard in wider rooms. A rough 
 estimate of the population can be obtained by 
 multiplying the number of houses by 5. Ascertain 
 their trade and occupation. If agricultural people, 
 they will be better with the -use of pick and shovel 
 than if manufacturing. Inquire the market days, 
 and where are the chief stores, bakeries, factories, 
 butchers' and provisions shops, wheelwrights, forges, 
 mills, telegraph office, &c. 
 
 v. Water supply, whether from rivers, ponds, 
 wells, pumps. To water horses from the edge of a 
 stream, the level of the water should not be more 
 than about 4 inches lower than the bank. One well 
 of ordinary depth will supply a battalion ; but if 
 the depth is very great it will take some hours -to 
 draw water. The number of horses which can be 
 watered at a time at a certain part of a stream is
 
 241 
 
 the same as the width of that part in yards. A * Watering 
 horse requires about 3 minutes to drink. It is 
 advisable to dam up a small stream. 
 
 vi. The nature of the country, hilly or level ; open * Country, 
 or wooded ; pasture or cultivated ; what trees form 
 the woods, if with tall stems, comparatively open, or 
 thick with brushwood and low branches. Notice if 
 the fences are large or small, what walls and ditches 
 exist affording cover or obstacles any high places 
 near the road suitable for signal stations any dry 
 spaces of grass or heath suitable as halting-places, 
 clear of a village, with water convenient ; or shady 
 places in warm weather. 
 
 vii. Rivers. Note the following points, which * Rivers, 
 apply more fully when the reconnaissance is of the 
 river itself : The force of the current and its direc- 
 tion, shown on the sketch by an arrow-head ; all 
 bridges, ferries, and fords, with roads leading up to 
 them, crossing or running parallel to the river : its 
 breadth and depth ; whether liable to floods, and the 
 extent of country flooded ; the character of the banks, 
 their height, and which commands the other. The 
 number of arches, span, and height of bridges ; depth 
 of water under the bridge ; any commanding ground 
 within range of field guns ; boats and barges avail- 
 able ; islands ; towns, villages, or detached houses oa 
 the banks ; whether the river is navigable with 
 facility or not ; whether tidal ; how high up the tide 
 extends, and its average rise and fall (vide Crossing 
 Eivers, p. 198). 
 
 viii. Camping ground, whether desirable, on gravel * Camping 
 or on clay, or if the country is low and marshy; 
 affording sufficient supply of good water 5 gallons 
 
 grounds.
 
 242 
 
 Hallways. * 
 
 per man and 10 per horse a day is ample ; if fuel is 
 procurable (vide Encampments, p. 8). 
 
 Positions. * ix. Positions, such as would be advantageous to 
 an advanced or a rear guard, should be particularly 
 noticed, e.g. cross roads, a ridge of hills commanding 
 the road, villages, woods, and broken ground, keeping 
 constantly in view the object of covering our own 
 troops, and of causing the enemy to traverse an 
 open space under fire. 
 
 x. Railways, where they lead to, the gauge, single 
 or double track ; whether on an embankment, in a 
 cutting, or on level ground ; position of stations, size, 
 length of platforms, convenience for transport of 
 troops; rolling stock and stores: tunnels, bridges, 
 viaducts ; whether it is possible to march troops 
 along the line. Further particulars would be 
 obtained by a special examination of the railway. 
 
 When a reconnoitrer is directed to obtain informa- 
 tion of supplies and accommodation in a district or 
 a separate place, it is desirable to tabulate it in 
 some such form as the annexed : 
 
 Supplies 
 and accom- 
 modation. 
 
 Name or 
 reference 
 number 
 of pi are. 
 
 Distance in 
 miles and 
 furlongs. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Accommodation 
 on a march. 
 
 Supplies. 
 
 Trans- 
 port. 
 
 Water. 
 
 
 Inter- 
 mediate 
 
 Total: 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Crops. * Regarding crops, an acre yields about 25 bushels 
 of corn, 45 of oats, 35 of barley, 25 of peas, 30 tons 
 of turnips, 15 tons of carrots, and 8 tons of potatoes. 
 
 Bricks. * A brick is 9 inches long, 44 inches broad, 3 inches 
 thick, and weighs 9 Ibs. An unskilled man can lay
 
 243 
 
 300 to 500 in a day ; a very good workman 1,000. 
 A man can wheel 30 bricks in a barrow. 
 
 Men extended 5 paces apart can clear 30 paces 
 forward of brushwood 5 or 6 years old in 8 hours. 
 
 Sometimes tall grass, corn, and reeds, impeding 
 the view, should be cut or trampled down or burnt. 
 Men 2 paces apart can cut down hedges in from 6 
 to 18 minutes, pulling down the top branches with 
 a pole and rope, and if necessary cutting the lower 
 branches with an axe. 
 
 There is no better little work on reconnoitring 
 than that entitled What to Observe and How to Report * 
 It, by Colonel Hale, Royal Engineers. Every ser- 
 geant should possess a copy. That officer classifies 
 reports in three kinds 1st, verbal ; 2nd, written ; 
 3rd, drawn. Sometimes they are of two or all 
 combined. 
 
 1st. A verbal report is one made by word of * 
 mouth. The soldier making it is advised not to. be, 
 and not to speak in, a hurry ; to settle exactly what 
 he is going to say ; and if he has made a mistake to 
 say so at once. 
 
 2nd. And because it is difficult to give a verbal * 
 message accurately, the soldier is recommended, 
 when possible, to write it down on a piece of paper, 
 no matter how small or untidy. He should write 
 clearly, read aloud what has been written to detect 
 mistakes, sign his name, rank, and regiment, and 
 put down the minute, hour, and date ; for what is 
 true in one month may be incorrect in another, or 
 even what s true in one hour may not be so in 
 another e.g. a river may > be fordable in June and a 
 
 * Clearances. 
 
 What to 
 
 Observe 
 
 and How to 
 
 Report It. 
 
 Verbal 
 report. 
 
 Written 
 report.
 
 244 
 
 Report 
 
 drawn and 
 
 written. 
 
 Conven- 
 tional 
 signs. 
 
 Reconnais- 
 sance of a 
 position. 
 
 Principles. 
 
 torrent in January ; at 6 A.M. it was crossed on foot, 
 but at noon the tide has risen, and it cannot be 
 crossed on horseback. 
 
 3rd. The third kind of report is a drawing, without 
 which it is often difficult to explain the position of 
 roads, houses, woods, troops, &c. Certain marks, 
 called conventional signs, are made use of to denote 
 different objects. They are, as it were, the alphabet 
 of the reconnoitrer. All employed in reconnoitring 
 should use the same signs. Plate X. shows the 
 conventional signs authorised to be employed. 
 
 Avoid repeating information. What is clearly 
 shown in a sketch need not again be described in 
 a report. 
 
 If an officer is directed to reconnoitre a position 
 his attention should be given to the advantages and 
 disadvantages it offers, the neighbouring country, the 
 communications, rivers and bridges, crossing them, 
 woods and fences, obstacles, demolitions, intrench- 
 ments, and other works. 
 
 When made of a position occupied by, or near an 
 enemy, it will necessarily be hurried. But for defence 
 there is usually sufficient time, and although it is not 
 the duty of the reconnoitring officers on service to offer 
 suggestions as to the best way of occupying a position, 
 unless specially ordered to do so, certain principles 
 should be borne in mind, viz. there should be depth 
 to the rear for the circulation of troops, the position 
 should not be too extensive for the force to occupy it, 
 and the flanks if possible secured, with safe and easy 
 communication between them, and suitable ground 
 for manoeuvring in rear. The greatest number of
 
 Plate 
 
 CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 
 DETAILS &c 
 
 a a-iOL L(L SL-. . 
 
 Woods or single trees *W>i tY^t&fiS 
 
 Different (Icxeri/'dt'tts f>f tre*-,* li'be indirittetl in ii'rituig tv/ifti necessary 
 
 Fields having hedge TOWS with c-md without, trees 
 
 f err if ! 
 1 . Bridge Y7tr rna-teriaJ, to be inriictutfd Iri/ tfie- words "tron., ft one, ' brick, "wof>A, " , 
 
 'Z.Fh'in^ Bi'idge "boats Act 
 
 \\\itfr tfheulUL ~iru'tarmj7ly be-represent'ed, eJttwr by a-ii'osh (TfbhiK 
 or by bZne chalk pencil lines 
 
 Sanies of import ant cities.litles of plai\s &c SHEFFIELD. 
 All other- printing Brarknell. 
 
 LINES OF COMMUNICATION AND RIVERS 
 
 Road enclosed &// f'cncf-.iJiJftf p,,rrm 4 
 
 . ' rrom *rt 
 
 or ob.ftttclt>of any kind* 
 
 Road ivithaut, fence. c- 
 
 Footpatli .......................... ...... ._---- 
 
 7Ji, nature- of fhfrvaAs whether metalled, i tmnetcULeA- tfo, 
 
 Railroads 
 
 ecessary. 
 
 sL ~by 
 ine,- 
 
 J^TTLbCitiftfTt^Tlt- (^tlttino 
 
 Untble 
 
 Tina?, the- trans- 
 verse-lznes -which- dirtuiyiush' flvujyle. fratn sinyle.-lntf.'i; m black 
 
 Canal Jj>&i., Electric txjlegrapli *-
 
 t'hitr X.con? 
 
 CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 
 Fence, bank or'YNall 
 
 Nullahs (India' 
 Church or Cliapel 
 
 Other buildings ) 
 and Sai-dens / 
 
 &f to 1 MUe 
 
 JtEtiiL 
 
 TTpp-^' 
 
 3 i/ic'iiAr ff / AfiJe, 
 
 THE FOLLOWING TINTS SHOULD BE USED WHEN POSSIBLE 
 Woods Light shade- ff/' ffrcesi./ fiooh -fe's >V? ?'i.) 
 
 Cultivation J.ig'ht shad*, cfyamboyc- 
 
 Maill lX>ads ////?/ sienrieu 
 
 Masonry Crimson. Jahe 
 
 Wooden Imildinj* JilticK. 
 
 Br i tish tl'OOpS Ci-imslan.. // 
 
 Opposing force Blue 
 
 When tSije..ffime trvops lire shewn isi su.ccesswe positions, different StiadfA 
 of the. santC'Coifrr shoitLcL be used 
 
 J~'or -rvtiyh- tfiffcfies colntired cJiaiti penci is ( frh+f . brown, r^.d- and, tpreen,) 
 rriaju t>e used 
 
 Field Artillery 
 Infantry | 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 TROOPS &C 
 
 Sen le. 6 inches tt> 7 Mile-. 
 
 Battery 'ji'l"! 11 ! 11 !"! 1 
 
 3. inc/u-s tv / J/ile 
 
 tW0 . 
 
 5(Xf-rnen- in / 
 
 
 
 mm 
 
 Direction of a Patrol 
 
 Picxjiuu a 
 
 Support r~ i 
 
 Senti-v' 6 Double Sentry 
 
 tte 6 Double Vedette 
 
 Sentries, Vedettes, a/id Ritrols, coloured red. 
 djo i/i' . dc 11 1 ICP loured 
 
 6 6 
 (56 
 
 Clearances or demolitions 
 ETI angjemeuts or abattis 
 
 Rifle pits 
 
 Battery 
 
 Site of battle 
 
 MV Yds 
 
 Scale- t! inches to a. mi If li, /:" itwai' (i'tUi>irr.r tJl J't i'i.v.'.' iilh-i 
 
 ---- - - 
 
 2*4 
 2
 
 245 
 
 troops should be devoted for the defence of vital 
 points. The position should command a good view 
 to the front, with gentle slopes for effective action of 
 artillery. The requisites for a good position for 
 that arm have already been noticed in detail (vide 
 p. 33). A reserve must be in hand to support any 
 part attacked. The three arms should be distributed 
 on the ground best suited to their action, and certain 
 points should be chosen well to the front as advanced 
 posts. 
 
 Retreat should be easy, and another position 
 selected to be taken up if necessary a little further to 
 the rear, also arrangements made for pursuit in the 
 event of success. 
 
 A danger has to be guarded against of extending 
 too far in order to seize a vital point, and of occupy- 
 ing too much ground for the available troops. 
 
 It is better to keep a small force concentrated and 
 well under observation. 
 
 There are no rules as to the strength to occupy a Strength 
 certain extent of ground in line f battle. Two per 
 examples may be quoted: At Alma the Russians Alma, 
 occupied 4 miles with 40,000 men and 110 guns, 
 which gave about 12,000 men and 36 guns per mile. 
 At Waterloo, the British, with their Dutch-Belgian Waterloo. 
 allies, numbering 75,000, held a front of 2 miles. 
 
 The points to notice on a canal resemble those * Canal, 
 relating to a river, and include the position and 
 dimensions of locks and what means they afford of 
 crossing. The space between two locks may be run 
 dry by opening the gates of the lower lock. 
 
 The places between which the canal communicates,
 
 the tonnage of the craft navigating it and the 
 condition of the tow-path, should be stated. 
 Marshes. * With regard to morasses and marshes we should 
 observe their extent, and if it is possible to pass 
 them by any paths, or if not to make a corduroy 
 road of rough felled timbers or by laying faggots of 
 brushood, furze, &c. 
 
 l e - * Small parties of infantry can cross ice 3 inches 
 thick, cavalry and field-guns 4 to 8 inches thick. In 
 1881 rails were laid across the St. Lawrence at 
 Montreal, and trains ran over the ice for some weeks 
 in winter. 
 
 Questions * Inhabitants should be questioned as to the popula- 
 habitants. tion, the name of the mayor and principal persons at 
 a certain place, the number of horses and vehicles, 
 the strength and position of the enemy's troops, his 
 outposts and patrols. It is well to note the answers 
 given to use when questioning others. 
 
 Questions * Prisoners should be questioned as to their bat- 
 prisoners, talions or corps, the names of their commanders, the 
 position of other corps, the places where they 
 marched : from, the condition of the soldiers, if they 
 are well fed, the position of any intrenchments. 
 Observa- * A reconnoitring party, observing an enemy on the 
 tionsofthe maj-Q^ ma y ascertain his numbers by noting the 
 time occupied by the different arms in passing a 
 certain point, their breadth of front, and rate of 
 marching. Thus if a spy reports that a column, 
 consisting of 9 battalions (1,000 strong) in fours, pre- 
 ceded by a cavalry regiment (384 sabres) in sections, 
 and followed by 2 batteries of field artillery in 
 column of route, passed through a village, taking 47
 
 minutes to pass his house, and that he observed the 
 usual intervals between the corps, we can prove that 
 his statement is accurate as under : 
 
 Cavalry, 384, in sections = 384 yards. 
 
 Infantry, in fours, X 9 = 3,072 ,, 
 
 o 
 
 9 intervals of 25 + 1 of 2S = 253^ 
 
 2 field batteries @ 224 + 1 battery interval 9 457^ ,, 
 
 j -t & <j 
 At 3 miles an hour - = '47 minutes. 
 
 4,167 yards. 
 
 In the Peninsular War a Captain Grant concealed 
 himself in a tree, counted the entire French army 
 passing under it, and reported its strength to the 
 Duke of Wellington. 
 
 The simplest plan to estimate a force of artillery 
 is to count the guns. But when this cannot be done, 
 we may take all the guns and carriages to occupy 
 20 yards each on the march, and so allow for 
 intervals. 
 
 We can recognise masses of troops at a mile * i n( ji ca 
 distant, and tell infantry from cavalry, and see f^ ns 
 troops moving at 1,300 yards, but the cavalry horses 
 are not distinct. A single man is seen at 1,100 
 yards, but his head is not a distinct ball till 700 
 yards. We can make out white cross-belts at 600 ; 
 and the face as a light spot, the uniform, head, arms, 
 &c., and their movements, at 500 yards ; buttons at 
 250 yards, and officers are distinguishable from the 
 men. Bright scabbards and fixed bayonets are visible 
 on a clear day about 1,500 yards. 
 
 Judging distance by eye rapidly is of great as- * Judging 
 sistance, especially when it is remembered that in dlstance -
 
 248 
 
 making a road sketch, with sufficient information 
 on either side, the rate of a mile an hour is thought 
 good. On fine clear days large objects on high 
 ground are visible at considerable distances e.g. a 
 tower or church spire about 10 miles ; a windmill 
 5 or 6 miles, &c. Window panes can be made out 
 about 500 yards. 
 
 Sound. * As sound travels about 350 yards a second, by 
 multiplying the time in seconds between the flash 
 of a gun and its report by 350 gives the distance of 
 the gun. Thus, if the time is 5 minutes, the distance 
 will be about a mile. 
 
 The voice is heard about 150 yards; musketry 
 and a band of music on a still day 2 to 3 miles ; 
 heavy guns about 20 miles e.g. naval practice at 
 Portsmouth is frequently heard at Southampton. 
 
 Forage. * It is desirable to be a good judge of forage. We 
 can recognise oats to be of good quality when they 
 Oats. * are clean, hard, dry, sweet, plump, full of flour, and 
 rattle like shot ; and they have a clean and almost 
 metallic lustre. Those in a sample vary very little 
 in size ; they are entirely free from smell, and the 
 pressure of the nail ought to leave little or no mark 
 on them. The value depends mainly on the weight 
 per bushel. Dirty oats will weigh heavier than 
 clean. 
 
 There are four possible defects in oats, viz. being 
 kiln-dried, foxy, damp, or dirty. New oats are 
 known from old by having a fresh, earthy smell, 
 and a milky taste, while the taste of the latter is 
 slightly bitter. Oats run from about 38 to 42 Ibs. 
 the bushel.
 
 249 
 
 Best hay contains a large proportion of good * Hay. 
 grasses e.g. rye grass, foxtail, timothy, sweet vernal, 
 &c., together with clover, and other good herbage, 
 and but a small proportion of bad grasses; while 
 in inferior hay good herbage is almost entirely 
 wanting, and bad, rank grasses predominate. 
 
 We can distinguish good hay by its green colour 
 combined with a delicate taste and smell, a presence 
 of flowers in their natural colours, a variety of grasses, 
 good herbage (not weeds), and clover. It should be 
 moderately fine, crisp, and hard ; musty and newly- 
 mown hay are bad. Green fodder is preferable to 
 new hay. 
 
 An acre of good meadow yields 2 to 3 tons of hay, 
 while an acre of poor land will scarcely yield 1 ton. 
 
 A truss of hay weighs 56 Ibs., a truss of straw 
 36 Ibs., a load of either hay or straw is 36 trusses. 
 Old and well-pressed hay weighs nearly three times 
 new hay. 
 
 Straw should be either wheat, oat, or rye. Barley * Straw. 
 induces skin diseases. Straw should be strong and 
 long. Some horses are inclined to eat wheat straw. 
 Rye straw is generally too expensive. 
 
 A daily ration for a horse is 10 Ibs. oats, 12 Ibs. * Kations. 
 hay ; and in quarters 8 Ibs. straw, with 7 gallons of 
 water at least a day. If no oats are procurable he 
 should have 32 Ibs. hay instead. 
 
 An ordinary ox will give 300 rations of meat, a 
 sheep 45, a pig 110. 
 
 The volume of a hayrick of ordinary shape is 
 
 found to be equal to (a + -) x c x d (vide Fig. 136).
 
 250 
 
 Contents 
 of a rick of 
 
 hay or 
 straw -(vide 
 
 General 
 Order 130 
 
 of 1880). 
 
 And the volume of the usual form of a rick of 
 straw is found by treating it as a cylinder on the 
 same base, and of the same height. Then if h is 
 the height, and r the radius equal to half the base, 
 roughly the volume = TT r h. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The foregoing pages comprise the most essential 
 elements of field-training. But as there is no limit 
 to knowledge, it rests with each individual, not only 
 to retain what he has already acquired, but also to 
 progress with the age, and so be ready at any time 
 to prove his ability when occasion offers for active 
 service in the field. 
 
 An officer will do well to exert himself fully in 
 this training, and infuse his own personal energy 
 among his subordinates, exacting from them evi- 
 dence of capacity in their respective positions. 
 Some he will find inferior in power of thought and 
 enterprise to others. But in spite of difficulties, he 
 should induce the belief that his men belong to the 
 best regiment in the Service, and compose the best 
 company in that regiment. Thus, all being bound 
 together by the same esprit-de-corps, the weak points 
 of the few are merged in the efficiency of the 
 majority, and success is certain.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ABATTIS, 162 
 
 in defence of a wood, 146 
 Accommodation, 240 
 
 to be tabulated, 242 
 Acre, yield of crops in, 242 
 
 yield of hay in, 249 
 Action, conduct of soldier after, 66 
 
 conduct of soldier in, 56, 62 
 
 employment of artillery in, 30 
 
 employment of cavalry in, 24 
 
 employment of infantry in, 45 
 
 no artillery reserve in, 42 
 
 three modes of cavalry, 25 
 
 two modes of infantry, 43 
 Adjusting sights, 59, 64 
 
 at close range, 58 
 
 Advance across bridge in presence of enemy, 
 55 
 
 of infantry, 50 
 
 to attack, 4 
 
 Advanced guard, composition and strength 
 of, 70 
 
 distance in front of army, 75 
 
 division of, 71 
 
 duties of commander of, 79 
 
 duties of commander of support of, 79 
 
 entering a defile, 75 
 
 forms the outposts, 86 
 
 general duties of, 70 
 
 must protect main body at all risks, 80 
 
 necessity for, 69 
 
 of a battalion on a road, on a plain, 
 73 
 
 of a cavalry regiment. 74 
 
 of infantry in mountains, 70 
 
 of the three arms, 74 
 
 on first sighting the enemy, 80 
 
 principle of formation of, 72 
 
 proportion of, to army, 70 
 
 reason for cavalry with, 73 
 
 should not pursue, but maintain touch, 
 80 
 
 specially organised, 70 
 
 support of, 73 
 
 to be accompanied by signallers, 71 
 
 to be furnished with axes and tools, 71 
 
 when accompanied by guns, 74 
 
 Advanced guard, with and without cavalry 
 
 screen, 70 
 
 Advanced post, village as, 111 
 Agents, moral, 2 
 Alarm post for piquet, 99 
 Alcantara, bridge over Tagus at, 218 
 Alert, outposts to remain ou till all posted , 
 90 
 
 the only bugle sound, 5 
 Allotment or ground to outposts, 88 
 Allowance of forage and rations, 249 
 
 of fuel, 17 
 
 of water in camp, 199 
 Alma, strength per mile at, 245 
 Alva, crossing of the, by Massena, 214 
 Ambulance follows regiment on the march, 
 
 112 
 Ammunition, artillery, 40 
 
 carried by the soldier, 54, 62 
 
 carts, 54 
 
 replenishing, 54 
 Anchoring flying bridges, 212 
 Aneroid barometer, 236 
 Angle, excess . of earth at salient, deficit at 
 re-entering, 22 
 
 forward, back, closing, check, 230 
 
 salient, abattis at, 146 
 
 to lay off backwards, 232 
 
 to lay out a right, 10 
 Animals, rations for, 249 
 
 time taken by, drinking, 241 
 Arch blocked for inundation, 167 
 Arms, how carried in action, 56 
 
 how slung for escalade, 190 
 
 how slung for shelter trench exercise, 
 18 
 
 how stacked in camp, 12 
 
 not to be placed on baggage waggons, 
 14 
 
 of artillery, 31 
 
 of cavalry, 25 
 
 of infantry, 43 
 
 the three, necessity for a knowledge of, 
 24 
 
 the three, on outpost duty, 104 
 
 the three, proportion of, 4 
 Arm racks extemporised, 12 
 Army corps, composition and organisation 
 of, 8
 
 252 
 
 Army Corps, strength of, 6_ 
 Arrangements against artillery fire in vil- 
 lages, 139 
 for a convoy, 128 
 for a march, 111 
 for assault and escalade, 185 
 for attack, 3 
 for loading baggage waggons, 14 
 
 for teut pitching, 12 
 
 for water in camp, 8 
 for water supply, 240 
 Articles for reconnoitring, 221 
 Artillery, attacking a bridge, 154 
 
 attacking a ford, 155 
 
 cover for, 35, 183 
 
 crossing a river, 157 
 
 duties in attack, 30 
 
 duties in attack of a house, 137 
 
 duties in attack of a village, 143 
 
 duties in attack of a wood, 150 
 
 duties in defence, 30 
 
 duties in defence of a village, 140 
 
 duties in defence of a wood, 147 
 
 duties in defending a bridge, 153 
 
 duties in flank march, 120 
 
 duties in forcing a defile, 152 
 
 duties of, 29 
 
 duties with advanced guard, 74 
 
 duties with outposts, 86, 104 
 
 duties with rear guard, 83 
 
 effective range of, 3, 38, 42 
 
 escort, conveyed on waggons of, 68 
 
 escort, duty of officer eommandiug, 67 
 
 escort, formation on the march of, 67, 
 68 
 
 escort, how applied for, 67 
 
 escort, necessity for, 67 
 
 fire, effect of, 37, 38 
 
 fire, object of, 30 
 
 helpless in motion, 31 
 
 in action, 3 
 
 limit of strength in, 41 
 
 organisation of, 40 
 
 passing through a line, 41 
 
 position, 6, 33 
 
 power of, 31 
 
 projectiles, 37 
 
 proportion of, 41 
 
 rate of marching, 117 
 
 space occupied by, in line, 32 
 
 space occupied by, on the march, 116 
 
 tactical unit, 32 
 
 various kinds of fire, 36 
 Assault, conduct of, 62, 185 
 
 time for, 185 
 
 Assaulting column, division of, 186 
 Attack, arrangements for, 3 
 
 artillery in, 30 
 
 broken ground best for, 7 
 
 conduct of piquet against. 103 
 
 false to be distinguished from real, 130 
 
 formations of cavalry for, 28 
 
 hour for, 102 
 
 how to practise the, 53 
 
 of a barricade, 160 
 
 of a convoy, 133 
 
 of a position, 49 53 
 
 of a village, 143 
 
 of a wood, 149 
 
 on a house, 137 
 
 on Le Bourget by the Germans, 14 1 
 
 stages of infantry, 50 
 
 B. 
 
 BAD roads, effect of, 122 
 Baggage, arrival of, in camp, 11 
 
 convoy of, 126 
 
 guard, duties of, 14, 129 
 
 laagering convoy of, 131 
 
 light, by rail, 124 
 
 loading pack animals with, 195 
 
 on the march, 112 
 
 parking convoy of, 127 
 
 waggons, loading of, 14 
 Balaklava, the "Thin Red Line" at, 60 
 Barracks, interior economy in, xvi 
 Barrel bridge, 200 
 Barricade, attack on a, 160 
 
 how improvised, 159 
 
 of doors and windows, 136 
 Barrows save labour in field works, 1S2 
 Base of operations, 1 
 Bateaux of foreign armies, 207 
 Battalion, advanced guard of, 73 
 
 advancing across a bridge, 55 
 
 arriving on camping ground, 10 
 
 attack of a, 50 
 
 camp of, 9 
 
 front of, in line, 44 
 
 flanking parties of, 81 
 
 in retreat, 55 
 
 length in column of fours, 115 
 
 rear guard of, 82 
 
 re-forming, 54 , 
 
 retiring across a bridge, 56 
 
 skirmishing, 46 
 
 squares, 62 
 
 transport by rail of, 124 
 
 war establishment of, 45 
 Battery, camp of, 14 
 
 front of, 32 
 
 length in column of route of, 116 
 
 number of guns in, 32 
 
 rarely broken up, 41 
 
 tactical subdivision of, 40 
 
 war establishment of, 40 
 Battle of Tel-el-Kebir, 121 
 
 of Waterloo, 45, 245 
 Bayonet against men with shields, 43 
 
 charge, 22, 53 
 
 fixing and unfixing on the march, 54 
 
 importance of, 43 
 Berm, 20, 187 
 Bickford's fuse, 193 
 Bivouac, 13 
 
 Blankets packed first in waggons, 14 
 Blowing in a gate, 194 
 Boarding up windows, 169 
 Boats, rowing, 212 
 Boil, time water takes to, 17 
 Bombproof barracks, 174 
 Book-field, 281 
 Branch roads, to explore, 77 
 Breakfast before starting on the march, 114 
 Breastworks, different forms of, 172 
 
 in American Civil War, 147, 173 
 Bricks, 243 
 
 houses of, better than stone for defence, 
 
 135 
 Bridges, American sheet-iron waggon, 209 
 
 anchoring flying, 213 
 
 attack on, 154 
 
 best position for, 153
 
 253 
 
 Bridges, collecting materials for, 157 
 
 cribwork, 210 
 
 defence of, 153 
 
 different kinds of, 199 
 
 examination of, 77 
 
 flying, 212 
 
 frame, 217 
 
 iron gabion, 217 
 
 ladder, 216 
 
 lever, 215 
 
 not to be broken -without orders, 100 
 
 of Belgian trestles, 208, 211 
 
 of boats, 207 
 
 of rope at Alcantara over Tagus, 218 
 
 of wooden trestles, 210 
 
 on line of march, 239 
 
 over Adour, 208 ; over Prah, 210 ; over 
 Beresina, 210; overCoa, 215 
 
 picket at, 100 
 
 pontoon, 206 
 
 protection of, 208 
 
 raft, 209 
 
 separate for different arms, 56 
 
 suspension, 217 
 
 trail, 213 
 
 weights on, 206 
 Brigade, composition of cavalry, 5 
 
 composition of infantry, 4 
 
 disposition of, on outpost duty, 105 
 Bugle sounds disclose intentions, 49 
 
 the only, allowed, the "Alert," 57 
 Bullet, penetration of, 21 
 
 C. 
 
 CABLES for flying bridges, 213 
 
 in bridge over Tagus at Alcantara, 218 
 Calculation at Chatham for cutting brush- 
 wood, 175 
 
 of discharge of a small stream, 199 
 
 of volume of rick of hay or straw, 249 
 Camp, arriving in, 10 
 
 colourmen, 9 
 
 formation of, 11 
 
 internal arrangements of, 10 
 
 laying out a, 9 
 
 of a battalion, 9 
 
 of artillery, of cavalry, 14 
 
 reports on ground for, 241 
 
 sanitary arrangements in, 9 
 
 selection of a site for a, 8 
 
 striking, 12 
 
 Canal, reconnaissance of, 79, 245 
 Cap, peak of, to measure stream with, 219 
 Carriages, least width to pass for, 32 
 
 railway, capacity of, 124 
 Carts, ammunition, 54 
 
 issuing tools from, 19 
 Case, never fired over other troops, 39 
 
 range of, 39 
 
 rounds per gun, 40 
 
 when employed, 39 
 Casks, bridge of, drill to make, 201 
 
 piers of, 200 
 
 Cattle, rations furnished by, 249 
 Cavalry, action of, 25 
 
 camp, 14 
 
 charges, 28 
 
 chiefly used to attack a convoy, 133 
 
 columns, depth of, 27 
 
 distance at which distinguishable, 247 
 
 Cavalry, escort, disposal of, 68 
 
 flanks of vulnerable, 29 
 
 frontage of, 26 
 
 in advanced guard, 73 
 
 in defence of a wood, 148 
 
 infantry opening for, 53 
 
 patrol, 77 
 
 piquet, 108 
 
 rate of march of. 117 
 
 regiment, advanced guard of, 74 
 
 scouts, 29 
 
 screen, 24, 70 
 
 space occupied by, 26 
 
 space on the march of, 27 
 
 speed of, 26 
 
 tactical unit of, 26 
 
 use of, 24, 29 
 
 war establishment of regiment, 28 
 
 when in support on outpost duty, 109 
 Cease firing, signal for, 57 
 Cellars as protection, 135 
 Charge from trenches, 22 
 
 of cavalry, 25 
 
 of infantry, 64 
 
 to capture guns, 29 
 Charger pit, 22 
 
 Chatham calculation of brushwood, 175 
 Chesses, 205 
 Chevaux-de-frise. 166 
 Circle, graduation of compass card, 227 
 Cities, accommodation in, 240 
 
 reconnaissance of, 240 
 Clearances, 243 
 Clear field of fire, 135, 147 
 Clinometer, how made, 234 
 Code of signals, 71, 94, 106 
 Column of half-batteries and divisions, 36 
 
 of infantry, cavalry, artillery, 115 
 
 of mixed force, 117 
 
 of route, meaning of, 115 
 
 of squadrons, of troops, 27 
 
 opening out, bad effects of, 112 
 
 space occupied by, 44, 45 
 Combat, single, 60 
 Commander of advanced guard, 79 
 
 of escort, duties of, 67 
 
 of outposts, 88 
 
 of piquet, 89, 97 
 
 of rear guard, 82 
 
 of vanguard, 71 
 
 section duties of, 48 
 Commanding officer's dispositions for 
 
 attack, 50 
 
 Command over enemy's position, 34, 139 
 Common shell, 37 
 Communications, line of, 2 
 
 marking, in woods, 146 
 
 none through keep, 143 
 
 none through tfrte-de-pont, 153 
 
 over parapet, 173 
 
 through walls, 136 
 Company, directing, 48 
 
 front of, extended, 44 
 
 officers, how to train their men, xiv, 250 
 
 squares, 61 
 
 the fighting unit, 43 
 
 war establishment of, 45 
 Compass, errors of, 228 
 
 measurements by, 228 
 
 prismatic, 227 
 
 use of, 228 
 
 variation of, 230
 
 254 
 
 Compliments, none from outposts, 105 
 Conduct of assault, 62 
 
 of convoy, 126 
 
 of march, 110 
 
 of piquet when attacked, 103 
 
 of soldier in action, 56, 62 
 Connecting flies, 72, 92, 114, 132, 146 
 Construction of charger pit, 22 
 
 of embrasures, 183 
 
 of field kitchens, 15 
 
 of hasty field-work, 183 
 
 of loopholes, 169 
 
 of obstacles and revetments, 161, 174 
 
 of rifle pits, 184 
 
 of shelter pits, 19 
 
 of shelter trenches, 20 
 
 of single lock bridge, 216 
 Contents of hay or straw rick, 249 
 Contours, 234 
 Conventional signs, 244 
 Convergence of roads, best place for, 101 
 Convoy, attack of, 133 
 
 conduct of, 126 
 
 escort of, 127 
 
 of prisoners, 128 
 
 rate of march of, 129 
 Cooking in the field, 15 
 
 on piquet, 102 
 
 party in camp, 11 
 
 rules for, 15 
 
 Coolness in action, 59, 63 
 Corn, 248 
 Corps, army, 6 
 Counter attack, 45, 55 
 Counting distances, 233 
 Cover, artificial, 18, 172, 173 
 
 denied to enemy, 33 
 
 for guns, 35, 183 
 
 from view, 6 
 
 natural, 7, 50 
 tCribwork, 210 
 
 <Crops, information regarding, 242 
 Crossing rivers, 198 
 
 selection of point for, 157 
 
 the Alva, 214 
 
 the Beresina, 210 
 
 the Douro, 158 
 Crowsfeet, obstacles, 165 
 
 I). 
 
 DAM, for inundation, 166 
 
 Daybreak, hour for relief of outposts, 102 
 
 usual hour for attack, 102 
 Defence, artillery in, 30 
 
 flank, 99, 136, 167 
 
 infantry in, 65 
 
 of a bridge, 153 
 
 of a ford, 154 
 
 of a position, 244 
 
 of a wood, 145 
 
 of houses, 135 
 
 of posts, 161 
 
 of rivers, 156 
 
 of villages, 138 
 
 open ground in front, best for, 7 
 
 works auxiliary to, 161 
 Defile, advanced guard entering a, 75 
 
 convoy passing a, 129 
 
 meaning of a, 150 
 
 Defile, mountain, 152 
 
 passing on the march, 113 
 
 rear guard holding a, 83, 152 
 
 retreat through a, 152 
 Defiling, delay resulting from, 113 
 
 forbidden, unless by preceding troops, 
 
 113 
 
 Definitions, 1 
 Demolitions, hasty, 191 
 
 of a bridge, 191, 194 
 
 of a gate, 193, 194 
 
 of a stockade, 192 
 
 of a railway, 194 
 
 of guns, 195 
 
 of houses, 194 
 
 of palisades, 192 
 
 of telegraphs, 195 
 
 of trees, 194 
 
 of walls, 191 
 Deployment, necessity for, 4 
 
 time required for, 118 
 Depth for, fords, 154 
 
 for positions. 244 
 
 of cavalry columns, 27 
 
 of infantry columns, 44 
 Deserter, from piquet, precautions to be 
 taken in case of, 95 
 
 how to be received by outposts, 95 
 Detached duties of cavalry, 24 
 
 post, house as, 135 
 
 post, village as. 141 
 
 post, when necessary, 96 
 Detonator, Bickford's fuse to be well fixed 
 
 in, when firing charges, 193 
 Detraining infantry, 125 
 Diggers, best to be in rear rank for shelter 
 trenches, 22 
 
 proportion of, to rammers and shovel- 
 lers, 181 
 
 Directing company or file, 48 
 Discharge of a small stream, how to find, 
 
 199 
 Discipline, danger in relaxing, xiv. 
 
 strict, essential in "extended order," 46 
 
 to be enforced on the line of march, 112 
 Disembarkation from a train, 125 
 Disks of guncotton, 193 
 Dismantling a bridge of casks, 206 
 Distance between artillery and other arms, 
 116 
 
 between battalions, 116 
 
 between cavalry and infantry, 28 
 
 judging, 57, 247 
 
 measured by sound, 248 
 
 measured by time as well as length, 227 
 
 measurements of, 233 
 
 of advanced guard in front of an army, 
 75 
 
 of outposts in front of the main body, 87 
 
 of rear guard from an army, 81 
 Distribution of battalions into brigades and 
 divisions, 5 
 
 of working parties, 181 
 Ditch, crossing the, in escalade, 190 
 
 cut outside a lower door or window in 
 defending a house, 136 
 
 object of steps in excavating the, 181 
 Division, as a unit, 4 
 
 of guns, 32 
 
 order of march of an infantry, 121 
 
 personnel of, 5 
 
 rate of march of a, 117
 
 255 
 
 Division, the Light, under General Craw- 
 
 furd, 123 
 
 Doors, barricading, 136 
 Doubling to be practised in running drill, xvi 
 
 to be steady in " extended order," 51 
 Douro, passage of the, 158 
 Drains cut in camps, 9 
 Drill, escalading, 188 
 
 for making bridge of casks, 201 
 
 not to be deviated from without 
 authority, xiv 
 
 object of, xiv 
 
 recruits, distribution of time for, xv 
 
 running, object of, xvi 
 
 shelter trench, 18 
 
 Drinking, time taken by horses, 241 
 Drivers, artillery, 40 
 
 to be watched in convoy, 129 
 Dynamite, 191 
 
 experiment at Chatham with, 192 
 
 K. 
 
 EARTH, how far thrown by workmen, 181 
 
 more required at salients than re-enter- 
 ing angles, 22 
 
 not to be heaped outside walls as ob- 
 stacles, 171 
 
 Echelon, flank battalion attacking to be in, 
 52 
 
 squares to move into, 61 
 Effective range of common shell, 38 
 
 of case, 39 
 
 of shrapnel, 38 
 Effects of a determined charge, 64 
 
 of artillery and infantry fire, 3 
 
 of bad roads, 122 
 
 of roads blocked with baggage, 122 
 
 of tailing off on the march, 112 
 Embrasures, construction of, 183 
 
 infantry in a siege to fire at, 62 
 Employment of artillery in action, 30, 42 
 
 of cavalry in action, 24 
 
 of infantry in action, 42 
 
 of shrapnel in Egypt, 39 
 Encampments, 8, 241 
 Enemy, observations of the, 246 
 
 position of, to be reported on, 78 
 
 skeleton to be used for exercise, 53 
 
 to be deceived, 209 
 
 to be kept out of a wood, 145 
 
 to be stalked in the attack, 57 
 
 touch of, to be maintained, 78, 80 
 
 when first sighted by advanced guard, 80 
 Engineers, duties of, 186 
 
 necessity for, 43, 142 
 
 to accompany advanced guard, 73 
 
 to accompany rear guard, 82 
 
 with storming party, 144 
 Enlarging a map, 227 
 Entanglements, wire, 140 
 
 wood, 163 
 
 Entraining infantry battalion, 125 
 Entrenching tools, how carried, 18 
 
 how issued from heaps or a cart, 19 
 
 how laid out, 18 
 Entrenchments, 18, 20, 35 
 
 in villages, 140, 141 
 
 in woods, 147 
 Epaulments for guns in a village, 140 
 
 for guns in a wood, 147 
 
 Escalading, 185 
 
 drill, 188 
 Escarpment, 167 
 Escorts for artillery, 67 
 to foraging parties, 134 
 
 for prisoners, 128 
 Esprit-de-corps, 250 
 Establishment, war, of a battalion, 45 
 
 war, of a cavalry regiment, 28 
 
 war, of a company, 45 
 
 war, of a squadron, 28 
 
 war, of batteries, 40 
 Examination by patrol of a bridge, 77 
 
 by patrol o'f a farm, 76 
 
 by patrol of a wood, 76, 146 
 
 of inhabitants and prisoners, 246 
 Examining party, 95 
 Example, advanced guard of brigade, 74 
 
 advanced guard of small mixed force, 74 
 
 breastworks, 147, 172 
 
 brigade on outpost duty, 105 
 
 exploring patrols, 107 
 
 night march, 121 
 
 notable marches, 122 
 
 of distribution of a piquet, 91 
 
 order of march of a division, 121 
 
 simple scales, 223 
 
 small force in column of route, 117 
 
 time marches, 118 
 
 use of hedges, 170 
 Expenditure of ammunition to be controlled, 
 
 49 
 Exploring a branch road, 77 
 
 patrols, 107 
 Extended line in attack on a house, 137 
 
 line in defence of a village, 139 
 
 order distinguished from skirmishing, 
 46 
 
 order, object of, 46 
 Extension of battalion for attack, 50 
 
 of covering party, 19, 186 
 
 of polemen, 11 
 
 of supports, 51 
 
 of working party, 20, 182 
 
 F. 
 
 PALLING out unnecessary on the march, 11J 
 
 False attack to be distinguished from real, 
 130 
 
 Farmhouses, reconnaissance of, 76 
 
 Fascines, 177 
 
 picketing in revetment, 178 
 
 Feeding horses of cavalry piquet, 108 
 
 Feet, treatment of sore, 114 
 
 Ferries, 213, 241 
 
 Field battery, column of route of, 115 
 battery, rate of march of, 117 
 book, 281 
 cooking, 15 
 
 fortification, accessory to defence, 161 
 guns, cover for, 35, 140, 147 
 guns, epaulments for, 140, 147 
 guns, how destroyed, 195 
 guns, how made unserviceable, 59 
 guns, limit of opening for, 32, 239 
 guns, passing through a line, 41 
 guns with advanced guard, 74 
 guns with outposts, 104 
 guns with rear guard, S3 
 officer of the day on outpost duty, 88
 
 256 
 
 Field of fire to be cleared, 135, 147 
 
 sketching, 228 
 
 telegraph with outposts, 86 
 
 training, xiv, 111, 250 
 
 works, trace of, 180 
 
 works, construction of, 181 
 Fighting line, 50 
 Files to reduce to paces, 44 
 Filling in trenches, 23 
 Finger posts, 143, 146 
 Fire, artillery and infantry, 3 
 
 cease, signal for, 57 
 
 precautions against, 137 
 
 three zones of, 3 
 
 time to be allowed for artillery, 143 
 
 various kinds of artillery, 36 
 
 various kinds of infantry, 57 
 
 with outposts, 98 
 
 wood ration of. 17 
 Firing, in attack, 52 
 
 on the defensive, 65 
 
 three military positions for, 58 
 Fitting shoes, 114 
 Fixing and unfixing bayonets on the move, 
 
 54 
 Flags of truce, 95 
 
 signal parties with, 95 
 Flank defence, 136 
 
 march, meaning of, 120 
 Flanks, infantry on, in mountains, 70 
 
 protection of, 29, 89, 100 
 
 to be turned, 77, 187 
 
 troops on, to be in echelon, 62 
 Flanking parties, duties of. 75, 80 
 
 to be vigilant with rear guard, 82 
 Flying bridges, 212 
 Forage, 248 
 
 rations of, 249 
 
 to, a village, 134 
 Foraging parties, escorts to, 134 
 Ford, attack of, 155 
 
 defence of, 154 
 
 depth for, 154 
 
 piquet at, 100 
 
 reconnaissance of, 154, 198, 239 
 Forest fighting, 145 
 
 reconnaissance of, 146, 149, 241 
 
 roads through, resemble defiles, 145 
 Form of reconnaissance, sketch and report, 
 
 237 
 Formation, defensive, 54 
 
 for attack, 50 
 
 of advanced guard, 72 
 
 of artillery with other troops, 41 
 
 of camps, 8 
 
 of cavalry, 26, 28 
 
 of escort for artillery, 67 
 
 of rear guard, 82 
 
 of working parties, 180 
 
 to resist cavalry, 60 
 Forming bridge of casks, 205 
 Forward angle, 230 
 Fougasses, 167 
 Fours, column of, in cavalry, 27 
 
 length of battalion in, 115 
 
 use of, in rough ground, 52 
 Fraises, 165 
 Frame bridges, 216 
 Frederick the Great's maxim as to advanced 
 
 guards, 79 
 French bateaux, 207 
 
 inarches before Leipsic, 121 
 
 French neglect of outposts, 85, 159 
 Frontage of troops in position, 26, 32, 44 
 Fuel, party to collect, 11 
 
 G. 
 
 GABION, 175 
 
 iron band trip, 166 
 
 iron bridge. 217 
 
 Jones's iron, 176 
 
 mode of carrying, 177 
 Gallop, rate of, 26 
 Garrison of farm or group of houses, 137 
 
 of house, 135 
 
 of village, 142 
 
 of wood, telling off of, 148 
 Gates, blowing in, 193, 194 
 Gatling gun, 140, 143 
 German advanced guards in 1870, 71 
 
 attack on Le Bourget, 144 
 
 instructions to infantry in action, 62 
 
 proportion per mile on outpost duty in 
 
 1870, 87 
 Glass, remove from windows in defence of 
 
 houses, 137 
 Gradients, practicable, 237 
 
 practicable, of roads, 238 
 Grain, inspection of, 248 
 Ground, fitting shelter trenches to, 20 
 
 for camping, 9 
 
 in relation to tactics, 6 
 
 most suitable to each arm, 6 
 
 piquet marching to, 89 
 
 soldiers to learn use of, 57 
 
 working party marching to, 19 
 Groups, 61 
 Guard, advanced, 69 
 
 baggage, 14 
 
 examining, 95 
 
 house in village, 143 
 
 over prisoners, 128 
 
 rear, 81 
 Guide to measurements in shelter trenches, 
 
 20 
 
 Guides, 120 
 Guncotton, 193 
 Gunners, 40 
 Gunpit, 183 
 Guns, ammunition for, 40 
 
 cover for, 35 
 
 in attack of a ford, 156 
 
 in attack of a house, 137 
 
 in attack of a wood, 150 
 
 in defence of a village, 140 
 
 in defence of a wood, 147 
 
 in passage of a river, 157 
 
 not to be in front or in rear of other 
 troops, 35 
 
 number per battery, 32 
 
 passing through a line, 41 
 
 proportion of, 41 
 
 range of field, 3, 38, 39, 42 
 
 with advanced guards, 74 
 
 with outposts, 104 
 
 with rear guards, 83 
 
 H. 
 
 HALF-BATTERIES, column of, 36 
 
 sections of cavalry, 28 
 Halts on the march, 115, 129
 
 1257 
 
 Hasty conclusions to be avoided, 78 
 
 demolitions, 191 
 
 field work, construction of, 183 
 
 sketch, how to make, 222 
 Hay, inspection of, 249 
 
 rick, volume of, 249 
 
 yield of, per acre, 249 
 Heat, effect of, in marches, 112, 115 
 Hedges, treatment of, 171 
 Heights, relative, to be marked, 236 
 Helplessness of artillery in motion. 34 
 Horizontal equivalent, meaning of, 235 
 Horse, allowance of water to, 199 
 
 artillery, battery front of, 32 
 
 artillery, column of route, 116 
 
 artillery employed with rear guard, S3 
 
 artillery, pace of, 117 
 
 drinking, time required for, 241 
 
 length in ranks of, 27 
 
 rations for, 249 
 
 watering, 240 
 
 Hospital, how known in the field, 66 
 Hot meals when possible on outposts. 102 
 Hougomont, value of hedges at, 172 
 Hour for attack, 99, 102 
 Houses, accommodation in, 240 
 
 attack of, 137 
 
 defence of, 135 
 
 reconnaissance of, 76 
 Hurdles as revetments, 178 
 
 I. 
 
 ICE, bearing power of, 246 
 Improving banks, 173 
 Indications of troops, 247 
 Individuality of the soldier, 46, 48, 64 
 Infantry, advanced guard of, 73 
 
 ammunition, 54 
 
 arms, 43 
 
 as working parties, 181 
 
 attack, 49, 144, 150, 152, 154 
 
 brigade, 5 
 
 camp, 9 
 
 charges, 53. 64 
 
 crossing bridges, 56 
 
 deployment of, 4 
 
 distances at which distinguishable, 24 
 
 division, 4, 121 
 
 entraining, 124 
 
 escorting a convoy, 127 
 
 escorting artillery, 67 
 
 establishment in war, 45 
 
 fighting line, 50 
 
 lire, 3, 57, 58 
 
 flanking parties of, 70, 75, 80, 83 
 
 functions of, 6, 42 
 
 in action, 56, 62 
 
 in assault, 185 
 
 in a siege, 62 
 
 in defence, 45. 65, 140, 145 
 
 in extended order, 46, 140, 145 
 
 mounted, 25 
 
 on outpost duty, 84 
 
 on the march, length of, 111 
 
 organisation of, 4, 43 
 
 pace of, 43, 116 
 
 rear guard of, 82 
 
 receiving cavalry in line, 60 
 
 scouts, 49 
 
 Infantry, single combat of, 69 
 
 skirmishing, 46 
 
 space occupied by, 44 
 
 squares, 60, 62 
 
 tactical unit of, 43. 
 
 transport of, by rail, 124 
 
 versus artillery, 59 
 
 versus cavalry, 59 
 
 versus infantry, 58 
 
 Information, nature of. Vide Reconnais- 
 sance. 
 
 tabulated, 242 
 
 to be obtained, 12S, 149, 1S5 
 
 to be transmitted, 107 
 Inhabitants, agricultural, useful for in- 
 trenchments, 240 
 
 questions to, 246 
 
 Instruction of German infantry soldier in 
 action, 62 
 
 of recruit, xv 
 
 to patrols, 78 
 
 Instruments for surveying, 221, 227 
 Interior economy in barracks, xvi 
 Interpolation, 229 
 Interrogating inhabitants, 246 
 
 prisoners, 246 
 
 sentries, 92 
 
 Intervals between artillery and other arms , 
 33 
 
 between cavalry and infantry, 28 
 
 necessity for, 41 
 Intrenching tools, how carried, 19 
 
 issue of, 19 
 
 laying out of, 18 
 Intrenchments, 18 
 Inundations, 166 
 Iron gabion bridge, 217 
 
 gabions, 176 
 
 girder bridge, destruction of, 194 
 Issue of tools from heaps or a cart, 19 
 
 JONES'S iron gabions, 17f>, 217 
 Judging distances, 57, 247 
 
 K. 
 
 KETTLES, camp, 15 
 Kinds of bridges, 199 
 
 of cooking trenches, 15 
 
 of fire, 36, 57 
 
 of obstacles, 162 
 
 of patrols, 105 
 
 of revetments, 174 
 Kitchens for field cooking, 15 
 Knowledge of ground essential, 6, 57 
 
 of country essential, 220 
 
 L. 
 
 LAAGER to resist attack, 131 
 Labour in excavating earth, 172 
 Labourers, agricultural people as, 240 
 Ladders, bridge of, 216 
 
 for escalade, 188 
 
 in defence of a house, 136 
 
 S
 
 258 
 
 Ladders, party for in, escalade, 187 
 Landmarks to be fixed in a night march, 120 
 Laths, profiling, ISO 
 Latrines, 13 
 
 party to make, 11 
 Laying off an angle backwards, 232 
 
 out a camp, 9 
 
 Le Bourget, German attack on, 144 
 Length, horse's, 27 
 
 of artillery teams, 32 
 
 of columns on the march, 115, 116, 121 
 Lengthening bridge by trestles, 212 
 Lever bridge, 215 
 
 Light baggage at railway station, 124 
 Limbers and artillery waggons to be shel- 
 tered, 34 
 Limit to depth for fords, 154 
 
 to escalade, 185 
 
 to strength in artillery, 41 
 Line, fighting, 50 
 
 front of troops in, 26, 32, 44, 117 
 
 of communications, 2 
 
 of observation, 88 
 
 of operations, 1 
 
 of resistance, 89 
 Loading baggage waggons, 14 
 
 pack animals, 195 
 Load on bridges, 206 
 Lock bridge, 216 
 
 on canal, 245 
 
 Logs on the top of walls, 170 
 Loopholes, dimensions of, 169 
 
 for defence of barricades, 160 
 
 in houses, 136 
 
 of sand-bags and sods, 170 
 
 on the tops of walls, 170 
 
 Marching, route, to be practised, 111, 239 
 
 t6 the ground to entrench, 19 
 Marking communications, 146 
 Marshes, report on, 246 
 Materials for hasty demolitions, 191 
 
 collected for bridges, 157 
 
 strength of, 219 
 Maxims of Frederick the Great, 79 
 
 of Napoleon, 2 
 Measuring distances, 233 
 
 distances by sound, 248 
 
 distances by time, 217 
 
 distances by triangulation, 228 
 
 guide to, in shelter trenches, 20 
 
 width of stream by peak of cap, 219 
 Meat, how to cook, 17 
 Military, bridging, 199 
 
 considerations prevail near the enemy, 
 110 
 
 indications, 247 
 
 pits, 165 
 
 spirit and discipline, xiv, 112, 250 
 Moral agents, 2 
 Mountains, defile in, 152 
 
 infantry employed in, 70 
 Mounted infantry, 25 
 
 orderlies with infantry outposts, 86 
 
 orderlies with strong patrol, 108 
 Movement of battalion by rail, 124 
 Mules loading with Otago pack-saddle, 195 
 Music, band of, how far heard, 248 
 Musketry fire, 3, 57 
 
 proficiency in, how stimulated, xv 
 
 N. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACHINE guns, 140 
 
 Magnetic meridian, 229 
 
 Manoeuvres, gradients admitting of, 237 
 
 to represent reality, xiv 
 Map, enlarging or reducing a, 227 
 
 scales for a, 222 
 Marauding forbidden, 66 
 March, arrangements for the, 111 
 
 attack when on the, 80 
 
 baggage on the line of, 112 
 
 discipline on the, 112 
 
 flank, 120 
 
 forced, 121 
 
 halts on the, 115 
 
 hour of starting on the, 114 
 
 length of a, 121 
 
 night, 120 
 
 opening out on the, 112 
 
 order of, for a division, 121 
 
 punctuality on the, 118 
 
 space occupied on the, 115, 116 
 
 time occupied on the, 118 
 
 to attack, 4 
 
 weight to be reduced on the, 111 
 Marches, 110 
 
 instances of notable, 121 
 
 time, examples of, 118 
 Marching a battalion into camp, 10 
 
 of a piquet to its ground, 89 
 
 rate of, 116 
 
 rate of, how influenced, 114 
 
 NECESSITY for advanced guard, 69 
 
 for deployment, 4 
 
 for developing warlike character, 48 
 
 for intrenchments, 18 
 
 for escorts to artillery, 67 
 
 for intervals, 41 
 
 for knowledge of country, 220 
 
 for outposts, 84 
 
 Night, changes for, made by day on out- 
 post duty, 94, 102 
 
 disposition of piquets by, 102 
 
 march, 120 
 
 precaution against surprise at, 93, 103 
 North point, how drawn on a sketch, 230 
 
 variation of magnetic, 230 
 Notice to station-master of troops moving, 
 
 124 
 Number of casks to make a pier, 200 
 
 of paces hi so many files, 44 
 
 of rounds per gun, 40 
 
 of telegraph poles per mile to count, 233 
 
 of troops, to estimate, 246 
 
 of men per mile on outpost duty, 87 
 
 of men per mile in positions, 245 
 
 piquet to have a, 98 
 
 O. 
 
 OATR, 248 
 
 Observation, line of, 88 
 Observations of the enemy, 246 
 Obstacles, 161
 
 259 
 
 Obstacles, abattis, 162 
 
 at salients, 146 
 
 chevaux-de-frise, 166 
 
 conditions to be fulfilled by, 162 
 
 crowsfeet, 165 
 
 engineers and pioneers to remove, 43, 73, 
 186 
 
 entanglements, 163 
 
 escarpment; '167 
 
 fougasses,'167 
 
 fraises, 165 
 
 gabion band trip, 166 
 
 inundations, 166 
 
 military pits, 166 
 
 palisades, 164 
 
 to guard against surprise at night, 161 
 
 use of, 161 
 
 value in positions, 161 
 Occupation of a village, 138 
 
 of a wood, 145 
 
 of ground by outposts, 88 
 Offensive to be taken when opportunity 
 
 occurs, 45, 141 
 Officer, company, in camp, 11 
 
 field, of the day, 88 
 
 mounted, to conduct battalion to camp, 
 10 
 
 on outpost duty, 89, 96, 97, 103 
 Offset in sketching, 231 
 Open ground in front best for defence, 7 
 Open hole trench, 17 
 Opening in obstacles, 162 
 
 of infantry to let cavalry and guns 
 through, 53 
 
 out on the march, 112 
 Operations, base of, 1 
 
 line of, 1 
 Order of battle, 4 
 
 of march, 110 
 
 of march of a division, 121 
 Orderlies mounted with outposts, 86 
 
 with strong patrol, 108 
 Organisation of a corps, 5 
 
 of a division, 4 
 
 of artillery, 32 
 
 of cavalry, 26 
 
 of infantry, 43 
 Outposts, artillery with, 86, 104 
 
 changes for night made by day, 102 
 
 component parts of, 88 
 
 composed of cavalry and infantry, 86 
 
 cordon system and patrols in, 85 
 
 detached post, when necessary in, 96 
 
 distance in front of main body of, 87 
 
 duties and disposition of, 85 
 
 flanks to be protected of, 89 
 
 formed of advanced guard or freshest 
 troops, 86 
 
 how to practise, 109 
 
 instances of neglect of, 84 
 
 meaning of, 84 
 
 mounted orderlies with, 86 
 
 no compliments paid by, 105 
 
 no hard and fast rules for, 98 
 
 not to shut themselves up, 100 
 
 of a brigade, 105 
 
 principle of detailing troops for, 87 
 
 proportion of, to army, 87 
 
 relief of, 102 
 
 remain alert till all are posted, 90 
 
 sentries of, 91 
 
 signals arranged for, 94 
 
 Outposts, signal stations with, 86 
 
 to be under arms before daylight, 102 
 Ox, rations furnished by an, 249 
 
 P. 
 
 PACE of cavalry, 26 
 
 of convoy, 129 
 
 of field artillery, 32 
 
 of horse artillery, 32 
 
 of infantry, 43 
 
 of large bodies of troops, 117 
 Paces, to reduce files to, 44 
 Pacing, 233 
 
 Pack animals, loading of, 195 
 Pahs, New Zealand, 192 
 Palisades as obstacles, 164 
 
 destruction of, 192 
 Parade, never, sooner than necessary for a 
 
 march, 110 
 
 Parallels made by infantry, 177, 182 
 Parapet of breastworks, 172, 173 
 
 of parallels, 177, 182 
 
 of shelter trench, 21 
 Parking convoy, 131 
 Parties detailed on arriving in camp, 11 
 
 working, 144, 180 
 Passage of Beresina, 210 
 
 of Bidassoa, 159 
 
 of Danube, 209 
 
 of Douro, 158 
 
 of rivers, 157 
 Paths in woods, 146 
 Patrols ascending a hill, 77, 107 
 
 examining farm, 76 
 
 examining wood, 76 
 
 exploring, 106 
 
 exploring a branch road, 77 
 
 instructions to, 78 
 
 object of, 85, 166 
 
 of cavalry, 77 
 
 strong, 108 
 
 to turn flanks, 77, 107 
 
 visiting, 105 
 
 Penetration of bullet, 21 
 Petersburg, bombproof barracks at, 174 
 Pickaxe in shelter trenches, 20 
 
 used for blowing in a gate, 194 
 Pickets as obstacles, 165 
 
 fascine, 178 
 Piers of casks, 200 
 
 of cribwork, 210 
 
 to form, 200 
 
 to launch, 203 
 
 Pig, rations furnished by, 249 
 Piles, 218 
 
 Pioneers to clear obstacles, 43, 73, 176 
 Piquets, cavalry, 108 
 
 may not generally light fires, 98 
 
 numbered, 98 
 
 position of, 99, 102 
 
 relief of, 102 
 
 report, 98 
 
 to afford mutual aid, 99 
 
 when attacked, 103 
 
 when to be under arms, 99 
 Pitching tents, 12 
 Pits, charger, 22 
 
 gun, 35, 183 
 
 military, 165 
 
 rifle, 19, 184
 
 260 
 
 Pits, shelter, 19 
 
 Plain, advanced guard crossin , 74 
 
 Planks as revetment, 178 
 
 Plans, how made, 221 
 
 scales for, 223 
 
 Plevna, bombproof barracks at, 174 
 defenders outnumbered at, 46 
 effect of shell at, 38 
 Plotting, 232 
 
 Point for crossing a river, 157 
 north. 230 
 
 of advanced guard, 72 
 Pontoons, boat, 207 
 
 cylindrical, bridge of, 206 
 Population, estimate of, 240 
 Position for bridge over a winding river, 
 
 153 
 
 observations on enemy's, 78 
 occupation of a, 244 
 of piquets, 99 
 of reserve, 104 
 
 of sentries on outpost duty, 94 
 of supports, 101 
 reconnaissance of. 242, 244 
 to hold a defile, 151 
 Post, detached, 96 
 
 to be strengthened, 100 
 of honour, command of rear guard, 82 
 Potatoes, how to cook, 17 
 
 yield per acre, 242 
 Powder compared to guncotton, 191 
 Power of artillery. 31 
 Practicable slopes, 237 
 Practice in marching, 111, 118 
 
 in outpost duty, 109 
 Precautions against fire in defence of a 
 
 house. 137 
 
 against surprise of a convoy, 129 
 against surprise of a piquet, 100 
 against surprise of a sentry, 93 
 In choosing a camping ground, 8 
 when one of a piquet deserts, 95 
 when fires are allowed on outpost duty, 
 
 98 
 
 Preliminary instruction of recruit, rv 
 Principles deciding distance between 
 
 piquets and supports. 101 
 of defence of villages, 139 
 of detailing outposts, 87 
 of employing artillery, 30 
 of forming an advanced guard, 72 
 of hill shading, 235 
 of occupying a position, 244 
 Prismatic compass, measurements by, 228 
 
 use of, 227 
 Prisoners, escorts for, 128 
 
 questioning, 246 
 Profiling laths, to erect, 180 
 Projectiles, artillery, 37 
 Proportion between the three arms, 4 
 of advanced guard to army, 70 
 of guns to men, 4, 41 
 of men to front line of defence, 140, 
 
 148 
 
 of men to shelter trench, 20 
 of outposts to army, 87 
 of rear guard to army. SI 
 of reserve of advanced guard, 71 
 of reserve of battalion in attack, 51 
 of reserve of outposts, 104 
 of supports to fighting line. 51 
 of supports to piquets, 101 
 
 Protection of bridges, 208 
 Protractor, use of, 232 
 Pursue, advanced guard not to, 80 
 cavalry to, 24 
 
 Q 
 
 QUARTER GUARD, mounted by field officer in 
 camp, 11 
 
 master in camp, 9 
 Questioning inhabitants, 246 
 
 prisoners, 246 
 
 sentries, 92 
 Quick time, rate of, 43, 116 
 
 R. 
 
 RACKS, arm, extemporised, 12 
 
 Rafts, bridge of, 209 
 
 Rails, to twist, 195 
 
 Railway, capacity of, carriages, 124 
 
 destruction of, 194 
 
 report on, 78, 242 
 
 transport by, 124 
 Rammers, 181 
 Range, effective, of artillery, 3 
 
 of case, 39 
 
 of common shell. 37 
 
 of musketry, 3, 57 
 
 of shrapnel, 38 
 
 to be taken, 55 
 
 to be wide for artillery, 33 
 Rate of marching, 26, 32, 116, 117, 129 
 Rations from pig. ox, sheep, 249 
 
 of forage, 249 
 
 of wood, 17 
 
 party to draw, in camp, 11 
 Rear guard, duties of, 81 
 
 how withdrawn, 83 
 Reconnaissance, articles for making, 221 
 
 meaning of a, 220 
 
 of bridges and fords, 239 
 
 of camping ground, 241 
 
 of canal. 245 
 
 of country, 241 
 
 of positions, 78, 244 
 
 of railway, 242 
 
 of river, 79, 241 
 
 of road, 78, 238 
 
 of town or village, 79, 240 
 
 of wood, 79 
 Reducing a map, 227 
 Reforming battalion after attack, 54 
 
 after taking a wood, 150 
 Regimental reserve ammunition, 54 
 Reinforcing by reserve, 52 
 
 discretionary, 51 
 
 Relative heights" to be shown, 236 
 Relays in working parties, 181 
 Relief of outposts, 103 
 
 of sentries, 94 
 
 to be kept separate, 99 
 Repair of roads, means for, 238 
 Replenishing pouches from ammunition 
 
 cart, 54 
 Report, on bridges and fords, 239 
 
 on canal, 245 
 
 on camping ground, 241 
 
 on positions, 78, 244 
 
 on'piquet, 98
 
 261 
 
 Report, on railway, -78 
 
 on reconnaissance, 237 
 
 on river, 79, 241 
 
 on road, 78, 238 
 
 on town or village, 78, 24 
 
 on various kinds of, 2i3 
 
 on woeds, 79 
 
 Representative fraction of a scale, 223 
 Reserve, advanced guard, 71 
 
 ammunition, 54 
 
 cavalry, 28 
 
 employment of, 52, 55, 138, 148, 156 
 
 in assaults, 138, 187 
 
 necessity for, 52, 55, 138, 141, 148, 156 
 
 none of artillery, 42 
 
 of battalion attacking, 52 
 
 of outposts, 87, 104 
 
 reinforcing with, in attack, 52 
 Resistance, line of, with outposts, 89 
 Retiring battalion across a bridge, 56 
 Retreat, battalion in, 55 
 
 cavalry in, 25 
 
 facility for artillery, 34 
 
 of beaten army, 81 
 
 rear guard covers, 81 
 
 through a defile, 151 
 Revetments, 174 
 
 fascines as, 177 
 
 gabions as, 175 
 
 hurdles as, 178 
 
 planks as, 178 
 
 sand-bags as, 179 
 
 sods as, 178 
 Rifle pits, 146, 184 
 
 range of, 3, . r >7 
 River, defence of, 156 
 
 passage of. 157 
 
 reconnaissance of, 241 
 
 velocity of, 198 
 Roads, length of columns on, 111, 115 
 
 rail, report on, 78, 242 
 
 reconnaissance of, 78, 238 
 
 where, should converge, 101 
 Rope bridge over the Tagus, 218 
 Rorke's Drift, 161 
 Rounds carried by infantry soldier, 50, 62 
 
 per gun of artillery, 40 
 Route, column of artillery, 115 
 
 column of cavalry, 115 
 
 column of infantry, 111 
 
 marching, to be practised, 111 
 Rowing boats, 212 
 
 S. 
 
 SADDLE, Otago pack, 195 
 Salients, abattis at, 146 
 Sand-bags as revetments, 179 
 
 loopholes of, 170 
 
 to hold powder, 193 
 
 to muffle ladders, -188 
 Sanitary consideration of camping ground, 
 Scale, plain, to construct, 222, 223 
 
 representative fraction of, 223 
 
 to be shown on sketch, 230 
 Scouts, cavalry, 29, 74, 78 
 
 infantry, 49 
 Screen cavalry, 70 
 Section commander, duties of, 47, 48 
 
 of cavalry, 27, 115 
 
 in escalade, 188 
 
 Security of prisoners, 12S 
 
 rendered by outposts, 84 
 Selection of site for camp, 8 
 Sentries, connecting, 92 
 
 double, how posted, 91, 92 
 
 outposts not to take off valises, 93 
 
 over arms, 97 
 
 pay no compliments on outpost duty, 
 105 
 
 position of piquet in regard to, 99 
 
 posted in a wood, 94 
 
 protected' from surprise, 93 
 
 questions to be answered by, 92, 94 
 
 relief of, 94 
 
 same to mount same posts, 93 
 
 to be economised, 92 
 Sheep, rations furnished by, 249 
 Shell, common, 37 
 
 shrapnel, 38 
 Shelter on enemy's side of river, 157 
 
 pits, 19 
 
 trenches, 18, 141 
 Shooting line, 139, 145 
 Shovellers, proportion of, 181, 182 
 Shovels in shelter trenches, 20 
 Shrapnel shell, 38 
 Siege, infantry in a, 62 
 Sights to be adjusted in action, 58, 59, 64 
 Signal code, 65, 71, 94, 106 
 
 preferred to bugle sounds, 49 
 
 stations with outposts, 86 
 
 to cease firing, 57 
 Single combat, 60 
 Site for camp, selection of, 8 
 Skeleton enemy for instruction, 53 
 Sketching field, 221, 222, 235 
 
 scales for, 222 
 Skirmishing, 46 
 Slabs of guncotton, 193 
 Slinging arms for shelter trench drill, 18 
 
 for escalade, 190 
 Slopes, how represented, 233 
 
 practicable for manoeuvres, 237 
 
 practicable on roads, 238 
 all 
 
 Small arm ammunition cart, 54 
 Socks, examination of, 114 
 Sods, loopholes of, 170 
 
 revetment of, 178 
 Soldier in action, 56, 57, 62, 66 
 
 weight carried by, to be reduced, 111 
 Sore feet, treatment of, 114 
 Sound, velocity of, 248 
 Space for troops in position, 26, 32, 44, 117 
 
 on the march, 111, 115, 117' 
 Speed of artillery, 32 
 
 of cavalry, 26 
 
 of infantry, 43 
 Squadron, cavalry unit, 26 
 Squares, formation of, 60, 61, 62 
 
 to be avoided, 61 
 Stages of attack, 50 
 Starting, hour of, on the march, 114 
 Stations in field sketching, 229 
 Stockades, construction of, 168 
 
 demolition of, 192 
 Stores, classification of, 163, 173 
 
 collected for passage of river, 157 
 
 for escalade, 187 
 Storming party, 138, 144, 187 
 Strategical point, definition of, 2 
 
 village as, 141 
 Strategy denned, 1
 
 262 
 
 Straw in camp, 8 
 
 contents of rick of, 250 
 
 inspection of, 249 
 Stream, arrangements for watering at, 8 
 
 measuring with a cap, 219 
 
 reconnaissance of, 79, 241 t 
 
 to find discharge of, 199 
 Street, a defile, 151 
 
 patrol passing down a, 76 
 Strength in artillery, 41 
 
 of advanced guard, 70 
 
 of escorts, 127 
 
 of garrison in village, 142 
 
 of garrison in wood, 148 
 
 of materials, 219 
 
 of outposts, 86 
 
 per mile in positions, 245 
 Striking tents, 12 
 Subdivisions, column of, 36 
 Sunken flying column trench, 15 
 Supplies of ammunition, 54 
 
 to be tabulated, 242 
 Support, cavalry in, 29, 78, 109 
 
 extension of, 51 
 
 in a village, 141 
 
 in a wood, 148 
 
 In attack, 51 
 
 of advanced guard, 73 
 
 on outpost duty, 101 
 Surprise, instances of, 84, 85 
 
 to guard against, 84, 93, 100, 107 
 Surveying, 221 
 Suspension bridge, 217 
 Swamp, report on a, 246 
 Sword, the arm of cavalry, 25 
 System of training soldiers, xiv 
 
 T. 
 
 TACTICAL point, 2 
 
 unit of artillery, 32 
 
 unit of cavalry, 26 
 
 unit of infantry, 43 
 Tactics defined, 1 
 Tailing off, evil effects of, 112 
 Tasks in shelter trenches, 21 
 Telegraph, destruction of, 195 
 
 poles, to count, 233 
 
 with outposts, 86 
 Tel-el-Kebir, 121 
 Tents, circular, capacity of, 10 
 
 drainage for, 12 
 
 parties for pitching, 12 
 
 striking, 12 
 
 Theatre of war defined, 2 
 Timber, to fell, 163, 194 
 Time marches, 118 
 
 for escalade, 185 
 
 required on the march, 118, 239 
 
 to attack, 102 
 
 to start on the march, 114 
 Tools for escalade, 187 
 
 for strengthening posts, 173 
 
 issuing, 19 
 
 laying out, 18 
 Torpedoes, land, 168 
 Torrens kettles, 15 
 Touch of the enemy to be maintained, 24, 
 
 78, 103 
 Towns, accommodation in, 240 
 
 reconnaissance of, 79, 240 
 
 Trace of field-work, 180 
 
 of gun-pit, 183 
 
 of parallel, 182 
 
 of shelter trenches, 20 
 Tracks, searching for a ford, 154 
 Trail bridge, 213 
 Train, a battalion moving by, 124 
 
 baggage, oa the line of march, 112 
 Training of troops, xiv 
 Transport company with division, 5 
 Traverse in field-sketching, 281 
 Trees, for crossing a stream, 215 
 
 to fell, 163, 194 
 Trenches, cooking, 15 
 
 shelter, 18, 35, 140, 141 
 
 shelter, filling in, 23 
 
 siege, 182 
 Trestles, Belgian, 208, 211 
 
 lengthening bridge by, 212 
 
 wooden, 210 
 
 Triple arrow kitchen, 16 
 Tripods for cooking, 17 
 Troops, disembarking from a train, 125 
 
 in action, space for, 26, 32, 44, 117 
 
 indications of, 247 
 
 moving by rail, 124 
 
 number of, per mile in positions, 245 
 
 on the march, space for, 111, 115, 117 
 
 to conform to the head of the column, 
 
 113 
 
 Trot, pace at a, 26, 32 
 Truce, flag of, 95 
 
 U. 
 
 UNLOADING baggage waggons, 11 
 Unpacking mules, 196 
 
 V. 
 
 VALISES, outpost sentries not to take off, 93 
 Valley-way of a river, 155 
 Vanguard of advanced guard, 74 
 Variation of the compass, 230 
 Vedettes, 96, 109 
 
 how posted, 109 
 Velocity of rivers, 198 
 
 of sound, 248 
 Verbal report, 243 
 Village, accommodation in, 240 
 
 as advanced or detached post, 141 
 
 attack of, 143 
 
 defence of, 138 
 
 intrenching, 140 
 
 patrol entering, 76 
 
 reconnaissance of, 79, 240 
 Vision, extent of, 247 
 
 W. 
 
 WAGOONS, American sheet iron, 209 
 ammunition, shelter for, 34 
 loading baggage, 14 
 
 rarking, 131 
 trench, 15 
 Walls, destruction of, 191 
 
 treatment of, for defence, 170 
 War establishment of battalion, 45 
 of battery, 40
 
 263 
 
 War establishment of cavalry regiment, 28 
 
 Waste weir, 167 
 
 Water, allowance of, 199 
 
 arrangement for supply in camp, 8 
 
 convoy by, 133 
 
 depth in fords, 154 
 
 supply, 240 
 Watering places, 241 
 Weapons of artillery, 31 
 
 of cavalry, 25 
 
 of infantry,. 43 
 Wheat, yield per acre of, 242 
 Wheel for measuring distances, 233 
 
 tracks leading to fords, 154 
 Wickerwork for sentry boxes, 13 
 
 gabions, 175 
 Wood, attack of, 149 
 
 defence of, 145 
 
 Wood, felling, 162 
 
 party in camp, 11 
 
 patrol examining, 76 
 
 piquet in, 100 
 
 reconnaissance of, "9 
 
 roads through, 145 
 
 sentries in, 94 
 Working parties, 181 
 
 along parallels, extension of, 1S3 
 
 in attack, 144, 188 
 
 in shelter trenches, extension of. 20 
 
 telling off, 181 
 Written report, 243 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZONES of fire, three, 3 
 
 THE END.
 
 LONDON : MACLURE AND MACDONALD, 
 
 Lithographer! to the Queen, 
 97, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.G.
 
 Ji?so,