AIDE TO MILITARY INSTRUCTION, PLANS AND DIAGRAMS. L. DE T. PREVOST, F.G.S. MAJOR ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS \ FORMERLY BRIGADE-MAJOR OF INFANTRY AT ALDERSIIOT. LONDON : W. MITCHELL & CO., CHARING CROSS. 1884 PREFACE. THIS little work makes no pretension to being an exhaustive treatise. It consists rather of a series of notes strung together for purposes of instruction, originating in General Order 50 of last year, which introduced the training of men under their own officers. The object in view has been to make the contents of practical value chiefly to young officers; who are recom- mended, however, to seek further information on the various subjects in standard works. As it is somewhat difficult to determine where the knowledge required of the soldier shall end and that of his superiors commence, it has been deemed advisable to mark with an asterisk such portions of the text as more directly apply to the non-commissioned officers and men. MARTHILL BARRACKS, GLASGOW, January, 1884. 2063396 BOOKS CONSULTED. The following works have been consulted : The Soldier's Pocket-Book. General Lord Wolseley, G.C.B., &c., &c. Operations of War. Lieut. -General Sir E. B. Hamley, K.C.B. Precis of Modern Tactics. The late Colonel Home, B..E. Franco-German War, 1870-71. Official Account. Tactical Deductions from the War, 1870-71. Lieut.-Colonel A, V. Boguslawski. Les Manoeuvres de VInfanterie, 1881. Defence and Attack of Positions. Colonel Schaw, R.E. Field Artillery. Major Pratt, R.A. What to Observe and How to Report It. Colonel Hale (H.P.), R.E. Journals of the United Service Institution. CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE v LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED vii LIST OF PLATES xi INTRODUCTION xiii CHAPTER I. ELEMENTARY TACTICS 1 CHAPTER II. ENCAMPMENTS, FIELD COOKING, SHELTER TRENCHES 8 CHAPTER III. THE THREE ARMS 24 CHAPTER IV. INFANTRY IN ATTACK AND UNDER OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES 48 CHAPTER V. ADVANCE GUARDS, FLANKING PARTIES, REAR GUARDS 6d CHAPTER VI. PAGE OUTPOSTS 84 CHAPTER VII. MARCHES 110 CHAPTER VIII. MINOR OPERATIONS 126 CHAPTER IX. OBSTACLES, AND OTHER ACCESSORIES TO DEFENCE 161 CHAPTER X. WORKING PARTIES, ESCALADE, HASTY DEMOLITIONS 180 CHAPTER XI. CROSSING RIVERS, AND BRIDGING 198 CHAPTER XII. RECONNAISSANCE AND FIELD SKETCHING 220 INDEX .251 LIST OE PLATES. PLATE I. NATURAL COVER To face page 1 ,, II. CAMP OF AN INFANTRY BATTALION ,, 9 ,, III. ARTIFICIAL COVER ,, 18 ,, IV. IDEAL DISPOSITION OF OUTPOSTS ,, 84 ,, V. DISPOSITION OF A BRIGADE ON OUTPOST DUTY ,, 105 ,, VI. ORDER OF MARCH OF A DIVISION 121 ,, VII. DEFENCE OF VILLAGES ,, 139 ,, VIII. DEFENCE OF A WOOD 146 ,, IX. PASSAGE OF THE RIVER DOURO ,, 158 ,, X. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS ,, 244 FIGURES 1 TO 136 FACING PAGES THEY ILLUSTRATE. INTRODUCTION. IN the present condition of warfare the army requires much careful training, high discipline, and steady practice, if we are to hold our own with the troops of other nations. In foreign armies short service obtains, necessitating more time and care in perfecting the material during the period of service with the colours. We now, having adopted a similar system, must follow in the same direction, bearing in mind the greater amount the, soldier has to learn in a shorter time than formerly in order to become valuable in the field, and that instruction limited to regimental routine within the walls of a barrack square is insufficient for this purpose. The recent general order on the subject of military instruction is a decided step in the right direction. Although broad principles are necessary as a basis, a company officer should be allowed every latitude in carrying out the details, by which he will have a greater incentive to study his profession, feeling that the responsibility rests upon himself of making his non-commissioned officers and men efficient. XIV System of In order that the training bring forth good results, training. . J . j j x A - it ought to be as varied and as interesting as cir- cumstances will permit. The instructor should make himself thoroughly conversant beforehand with the subject selected for each day ; and it has been found by experience that men of little or no education will evince an intelligent interest in the work, if it is first patiently explained to them in clear, simple language, with the assistance of a blackboard and a few diagrams, and afterwards executed practically on the ground. In the education of the soldier there are three elements : drill, field-training, and discipline. Drill. Drill published by authority must not be deviated from. By it men are taught to move with precision and alacrity at word of command. Here discipline first comes into play, laying the foundation for higher training ; and there is danger in relaxing it for if Discipline, men are unable to maintain distances, intervals, and direction on a level parade, they can scarcely be expected to do so over broken ground during manoeuvres. Success in tactics depends upon the proper application of drill ; and until a battalion is pliable, and easily handled, it cannot be considered fit to take the field. The second element includes manoeuvres and minor operations, which should be as faithful repre- sentations as possible of what really would occur in war; and also all duties incident on active service, which subjects are treated in the following pages. Musketry. The time set apart for the annual course of musketry must be entirely devoted to this most Field training. XV important branch of training, and no pains should be spared in perfecting the men's shooting by careful supervision, encouraging emulation, and organising shooting matches. But the experiences of Majuba Hill, and the great expenditure of ammunition in Egypt without proportionate results, point to the necessity of attaining physical superiority as well as proficiency in using the rifle. The German infantry soldier in 1870-71 was armed with an infinitely inferior weapon to the Frenchman's. His supremacy lay rather in the individual man himself than in handling his rifle. For the preliminary instruction of the recruit, the Prelimi- following distribution of time has been found to instruction answer well : of the recruit. In Summer. Drill, 6. 30 to 7.30A.M. Gymnasium, 9 ,,10 ,, Drill, 11 ,,12 noon. 2 3 P M. School, 3.30 ,, 5 ,, In Winter. 8.15 to 9.15A.M. 9.45 10.45 11.30,, 12.30 P.M. 2 3 3.30,, 5 After two months he will have acquired sufficient knowledge of marching, drill, and rifle exercises to be prepared for a course of musketry instruction, which, in moderate weather, can be easily finished in three weeks, and at the end of the first two months he should also have been dismissed the recruits' course at the gymnasium. Musketry concluded, he should revert to drill, and be exercised in the more advanced stages, e.g., bayonet exercise in quick time, company drill, skirmishing, the elements of the attack, and duties on guard and sentry, which will occupy five XVI Interior economy. Running drill. weeks. Drill being substituted for gymnasium, he will then have four hours daily. Concurrently with the above, the recruit must be instructed in the interior economy of the barrack- room. The first thing to teach a lad on joining is how to dress, clean his arms and accoutrements, make up his cot, arrange his kit on the shelf, and lay it out for inspection, in strict conformity with standing orders. The duty of this instruction devolves on the senior N. C. officer of each room, who must distribute the recruits among the older soldiers; and the latter are required to show an example of cleanliness and regularity. No man is to mount guard or piquet, or leave the room for his daily employment, without arranging his cot and kit in proper order, and cleaning his arms. Without insisting on needless minutiae, this system should exist throughout the week, and not only for periodical inspections. Running drill is most essential, and should be practised both during the recruits' course and fre- quently at other times ; otherwise young soldiers will be found unfitted for a day's march, as many of them take but little exercise outside the barrack square. Such, then, is an outline of the preliminary in- struction, which will extend over sixteen weeks, or four months, and at the expiration of this time, under ordinary circumstances, the recruit will be able to take his place in the ranks as a duty soldier, ready to receive the further training, which now requires our attention. AIDE TO MILITAEY INSTEUCTION. CHAPTER I. ELEMENTARY TACTICS. THERE are a few definitions within the compre- hension of every one, and should be learnt in order to understand something of the art of war. Defini- tions. The expression " tactics " must be distinguished * Tactics. from "strategy." "Tactics" relates to the battle- field ; it means the art of forming troops in " order of battle" and effecting changes in their disposi- tions according to the progress of events ; Whereas "strategy" has reference to the whole campaign, and all preliminary arrangements for engaging the enemy. By the " base of operations " is meant the frontier, coast line, town, or district, upon which an army relies for supplies and support during a campaign. The "line of operations" is that by which an army advances from its base to meet the enemy. B Strategy. Base. Line of operations. Line of commuui- Theatre of war. Strategical puiut. Moral agents. Some maxims. The " line of communications " is that by which an army receives reinforcements, supplies, and am- munition from the base, and sends back the sick and wounded to the rear. The "theatre of war" is the whole area of country, in any part of which the contending armies can operate and come into collision with each other. A " strategical point " is one which will strengthen a line of operations. A "tactical point" is one which on the field of battle will facilitate attack, or impede the enemy's advance. There are certain moral agents in war, viz. : the character and skill of commanders ; the elation, emulation, or depression of soldiers ; stratagems ; means of obtaining and distributing information. It was a saying of Napoleon that the " moral was to the physical force as 3 is to 1." This great general laid down various maxims of war, of which the chief are : To place the several parts of an army in such positions that they may be able to support each other. To be able to concentrate easily. To be able to collect a larger force at a given point than the enemy can oppose to it. To operate on the enemy's communications with- out exposing one's own. Never to abandon a line of communication from over confidence. Always to operate on interior lines. The limit of random infantry fire may be taken * as 1,400 yards ; that of aimed infantry fire at 800 yards. There may be considered three zones of fire action, viz. : i. Between 2,500 and 1,600 yards from an enemy's position. Good practice can be made with shell at 2,500 yards. We have only to fear artillery in this zone. This arm will chiefly direct its fire against opposing batteries. It has the chief role of action, and considerable choice of ground. ii. Between 1,600 and 700 yards from the posi- tion, when artillery fire is very destructive, and unaimed infantry fire comes into play. Both artillery and infantry fight together in this zone, the chief object of the former being to aid the advance of the infantry. iii. From 700 yards onward. Here infantry fires against infantry, and both these arms fire against the enemy's guns. Artillery find it difficult to change position owing to infantry fire. Troops should be so arranged for attack as to * General develop the most destructive fire compatible with ments*foi facility of movement, and at the same time to offer attack, the least possible target to the enemy. Artillery, concentrated in front, prepares the way for the other arms, and the general formation of the force will greatly depend on the nature of the ground. It will consist of a first and second line, and a reserve, with cavalry and artillery on the flanks, and between the intervals of the infantry, as the requirements of the attack admit. B 2 Necessity * for deploy- ment. Proportion of the three arms. The division as a unit. Infantry arrives on the field of battle in column of route, or in mass, from which they are deployed into these three lines of columns at deploying in- terval. This arrangement allows the other arms to pass through, and subsequent movements are more easily adapted to the ground. It is evident that the deployment should be effected, when opposed to artillery, at from 2,000 to 2,500 yards from the position. The attacking force should be sufficiently sup- ported in the event of being successful ; or if it is repulsed, the retreat should be covered. The clear- est instructions should be given to the several officers as to the object of the attack and the movements intended, so that the entire force may be utilised. The proportion of the three arms to each other on active service is : Artillery, about 3 guns per 1,000 infantry; cavalry, about one fourth the in- fantry. The tactical units are the battalion, the battery, the squadron. 3 battalions form an infantry brigade. A division is the first important combined unit in an army ; it is composed of the three arms, and is sufficiently strong, say from 10,000 to 14,000, to be capable of independent action. It is about the largest number that one general officer can properly superintend. Our division is smaller than those of continental armies. Its organisation is given in Part V. of the Field Exercises. When the division has no tents its composition is as under : 55 officers and men. 2 infantry brigades (6 battalions) .... 6,706 1 battalion rifles 1,097 1 regiment cavalry 653 3 batteries of artillery (1 9-pounder, 2 16- pounders) 573 1 field company, R.E 202 Infantry and artillery, ammunition, reserve. columns 214 Supply and transport in addition to that possessed by brigades 189 Medical, veterinary, chaplain's depart- ments, post-office, military police . . 466 Total all ranks . . . .10,155 "With 2,450 horses, 18 guns, and 320 carriages. There is in 1st line a transport company, which carries, among other things, one day's provisions for the men ; and in 2nd line, half a transport company, carrying, among other things, a second day's pro- vision for the men, and one day's forage for the horses. Two or more divisions form an army corps. The established organisation in our service is : 3 divisions = 30, 462 all ranks. Cavalry brigade (3 regiments with 1 battery horse artillery) employed for special purposes, 2,342, Corps artillery (3 batteries horse artillery, 2 batteries field artillery, and an ammunition column). Corps engineers (1 company and field park, 1 pontoon troop, and half a telegraph troop), Commissariat, ordnance store department, medical, &c., &c., comprising 8 transport companies. Personnel of a division. An army corps. Such a corps contains 21 battalions, 15 batteries, and 6 regiments of cavalry, numbering of all ranks : 37,045 men, with 12,939 horses, 90 guns, and 1,573 carriages. Ground in relation to Tactics. Ground * Ground should be suitable to the arms of the QU the m service to be employed. Cavalry, if possible, should different k e screenec l by some elevation, with firm and nearly arms. Cavalry. level ground for an advance. Artillery. Artillery ought to have high positions with cover, and soft or broken ground in the immediate front, and a clear range with hard surface. Infantry. * Infantry can cross any country. Undulations, hedges, farmsteads, &c., protect them in an advance. Non-commissioned officers and men must understand how to make use of these, and many other accidents of the surface ; as by such means they can approach the enemy with precaution, find out his where- abouts, and report his movements. What a soldier has to learn is how to post himself so as to watch his enemy, while he himself remains concealed. Import- * Cover is of great importance in getting troops un- of 'cover. seen into position before an action ; or, during a fight, in transferring them from one part of the field to another ; or to take the enemy by surprise. Hedges, which are not shot-proof, should not be greatly made use of, for, if men collect behind them, they may suffer severely from artillery. Yet they afford good concealment ; and often it is possible to deceive an enemy as to the number of men behind a bank or wall, if one or two men show the tops of their heads above it at different points. The extent of front on which troops can move depends upon the ground ; and the surface has much influence in regulating the pace. Such obstacles as streams, marshes, canals, &c., greatly delay an advance. But as time is so important in tactical operations, every effort should be made to anticipate these difficulties by extemporising means of crossing, and repairing bad places with materials at hand. Dikes and fences, though unimportant obstacles, give protection to infantry. The value of such shelter in the attack is surprising (see Plate I.). Thus men in extended order can take advantage of manure heaps, or haycocks in a field ; and a mass of troops may be hidden behind a com- paratively insignificant slope. Hence for the attack cultivated and accidented ground is best. But for best for attack. the defence the country in front cannot be too open. Open in Houses and villages can generally be defended. few-defence. CHAPTER II. ENCAMPMENTS, FIELD COOKING, SHELTER TRENCHES. Encampments. Site. * THE position of a camp depends first, on military, secondly upon sanitary considerations ; the character, movements, and proximity of the enemy deciding which reasons weigh most in selecting the site. Open ground is preferable. We should choose a sandy soil rather than clay, and avoid wet or marshy ground. The mounted services should have the most level ground. Cavalry and artillery are placed either in second line behind the infantry, or with infantry on their flanks for protection. The commissariat depot should be established near a road. Formation * Camps are formed of huts or tents bivouacs of brushwood, straw, branches, or anything else handy. It is best to encamp in rear of a position to be occu- Four * pied. Troops require these four necessities in the requisites, following order of importance : (1), water ; (2), wood ; (3), forage ; (4), straw. Arrange- * If water is furnished from a stream, the stream forwater should be divided into three portions ; the upper for the men to drink ; the middle for horses and cattle ; the lower for washing. Sentries from the nearest Plate 11. CAMP OF AN INFANTRY BATTALION. c A ** 4* ^ w " w QUARTER GUARD Battalion Parade, -? $ * t * c c c e c c 1 ; C C C C C ^ "y v ^ "^ ^ % & *Q < ': C ^ C -5, C v. C ^ C | C ^. C ..; ^ ^-- e v > ^ ^ ^ S ^ 5s i i |c |c |c |c|c|c|c| * ^ c c c c c c I ^ K; STAFF ) SERGES ^ , ( | | | | MENS KITCHENS [ * \ I I \ OFFICERS' \\\\ COMPANY OFFICERS < C C C C * C : ADJT C.O. C C C C C ; t REGIMENTAL STAFF OFF".* n ^p\ ^^ 1 ^f -^^r - - ^^- - WAGGONS, HORSES, DRIVERS & BATMEN. ! ASH PIT OFFICERS , LATRINE LATRINES LATRINES : % REAR GUARD * n * % S guard, or a special water-guard, must have strict orders to enforce this arrangement. In peace time, wood, like rations, is issued on the ground. The usual form of camp for an infantry battalion * Camp of a -m T> -rr battalion, is that shown in riate 11., Regulations jor encamp- ments, of which Plate II. is a copy. 10 paces is a convenient and sufficient interval between tents and companies. Each bell tent holds 15 men, but 12 is the usual number. The colour-sergeant occupies the rear tent, to be near his captain. If the camp is to stand some time, tents should be struck and repitched every 2 or 3 days, arms and blankets removed, and the ground well brushed with boughs. Tent-flys should be rolled up the first thing in the morning, but in wet weather only on the lee- ward side. As a rule the doors face the head of the column. It may be ordered otherwise, but all must face alike. Drains are cut the width of a shovel, and a few inches deep, just outside the curtains ; from which others are cut, leading into main drains between every second row of tents, or in a different direction, according to the natural slope of the sur- face, which is best seen by watching the flow of water after the first shower of rain. The quarter-master and 4 camp colourmen march * Laying IT i ou * th e with the general advanced guard, or some distance in camp. front of the -column. One of the party should know the strength of the battalion. A staff-officer will mark out the ground, and dress two camp colours on the front line of the camp. 80 paces is sufficient front, and 200 paces for depth, allowing 40 to 80 paces for parade ground. The quarter-master then proceeds to lay out the camp, placing the rear camp 10 colours at right angles to the fro at, by means of a cross staff, aligning one pair of sights with the front line, and then looking through the other pair to fix the camp colour ; or a right angle may be laid out with a tape held at 3 feet, 4 feet, and 5 feet, or any multiples of these, and stretched on the ground (vide Fig. 1), because 5 2 = 3 2 + 4 2 ; or by means of a cord with the two ends held along the line, while another man holding the centre stretches it on one side, and then passes it over to the other (vide Fig. 2). The position of the company and officers' tents are quickly fixed by means of small iron pegs with yellow vanes on them, attached to a cord at intervals of 10 paces. The front of each row is marked with a small yellow flag, with the letter of each company. The quarter-guard is fixed in the centre of the front line of the parade, its doors turned to the front. The rear guard is usually in the centre of the rear line of the camp turned towards the rear. Arrival of * A mounted officer, having ridden forward to find battalion. the camp, returns to conduct the battalion to the ground. On arrival on the parade ground, it is formed in column, with each company in prolonga- tion of the line marked out for its tents. The band, drummers, pioneers, and pipers join their companies; arms are piled, and the accoutrements taken off and hung on the piles of arms. The colour-sergeant tells off the company into squads, according to the number of tents, with a N. C. officer in charge of each. From every squad, 1 N. C. officer and 6 men (1 file pole- men, 1 file pegmen, 1 file packers) are told off ready to pitch tents when the waggons arrive. The adjutant details the following parties : BIVOUAC OF BRANCHES SECTION OF BIVOUAC 42' 11 i. Cooking party 2 men per company under the * Parties sergeant cook, who lose no time in -making the kitchens. ii. Latrine party All pioneers with picks and shovels, and 2 men per company. These dig latrines in sheltered places when possible. iii. Water party 1 N. C. officer and 2 men per company, under a sergeant. iv. Ration party 1 N. C. officer, and 2 or more men per company, under the quarter-master-sergeant, who go to the depot for rations. v. Wood party 2 or more men and a N. C. officer per company. These collect wood and bring it to the kitchen, if no fuel is earned. The rest of the men lie down by the arms. A field officer mounts the quarter and rear guards. The baggage- waggons are conducted to the rear of * Arrival of the camp by an officer, who takes care not to pass over the camping-ground, but through the battalion intervals. They are halted with the tail-boards to the front along the rear line. A subaltern marches 5 men out of each tent party to the waggons, un- packs, and brings up the tents. The other men of the tent parties, viz. front rank * Extension polemen, are paraded by the captains in rank entire polemen. on the reverse flank of the companies, the nearest men to the companies covering between the camp colours. The captains extend the polemen to 10 paces, and dress them from front to rear. At the same time a mounted officer dresses them from flank to flank. These men keep the exact spots for the tent poles. 12 Tent * The parties bring up the tents, pegs, and poles. A l " 8 P e o i g driven in at an angle at the heels of each pole- man to assist in raising the pole, the two pieces of which are put together and the top shipped into the cap of the tent, which is stretched out flat with the door hooked up. 4 men hold the storm guys if there are no guys they hold the 4 red runners. When all is ready the bugle sounds one G, and all tents are raised together. The guy ropes are first fixed, and the tent is pegged down, working round from right to left, each rope being pulled out in pro- longation of the seams of the canvas. The arms, accoutrements, and blankets are then brought in and drains cut. The tent doors face the front as a rule, unless they are turned in another direction on account of weather. The arms should be stacked round the pole. Sometimes rough arm-racks are made. Articles may be hung from the pole by cords attached with a clove-hitch. For instruction it is well to form up the parties and change rounds, so that No. 1 becomes No. 2, No. 2 becomes No. 3, and No. 3 becomes No. 1, for striking and pitching tents again. Striking * In striking camp the blankets are first rolled and tents ' packed. After breakfast the trenches, ashpits, and latrines are filled in, kitchens and their chimneys are levelled, and all fires put out. Tent-pegs are care- fully pulled out, and all spare ones placed in the bag. Doors are hooked up, and everything made ready for lowering when the G sounds. Then all the tents are let down together, doors uppermost, each S ENTRY BOX should- net be mere than 15 feet long. 13 13 tent stretched out smooth and flat, folded neatly and small three 'or four times, so as to be placed easily in its bag. The mallets and remaining pegs are collected and all stowed in the waggons. A bivouac is formed with the same regularity as * Bivouac. a camp. The arms are piled in quarter column, and men lie down in line with them to one flank. Hurdles, ferns, and dry leaves make a rough bed. Something should be got to raise the head off the ground ; and the hint to excavate a hollow for the hip is not to be despised. A row of bushes or branches helps to keep off the wind. Figures 3 and 4 are examples of such shelters. If earth is required to form a mound it should be taken from the outside, and the interior ground should not be disturbed. ' A sentry-box can be improvised with a few poles, * Sentry such as hop-poles, with straw, wicker-work, or bushes interlaced (vide Fig. 5), or by means of two pairs of waggon shafts leaning against each other, and covered with a tarpaulin. Failing such ex- pedients, sentries may use any natural shelter near their posts. Latrines are dug by the party told off under the * Latrines, pioneer-sergeant without delay. Unless orders are given to keep them within the limits of the camp, they may be made in some convenient sheltered place. The simplest form is a trench 15 feet long and 1 foot 6 inches deep, sufficient for one night. But if the camp is for a longer time, it must be deeper; and, if spars are available, two cross poles are firmly driven in at each end to support a back rest, and a seat lashed to them (vide Figs. 6 and 7, 14 Loading waggons. Baggage Cavalry camp. Artillery camp> copied from the Regulations for Encampments). The earth is heaped up on each side, covered with bushes or small trees for shelter. Sometimes strips of canvas are provided for shelter. Latrines must never be dug near the water supply. A few inches of earth should be thrown over the soil daily. In order to load the baggage-waggons, one man ets U P m * eacn waggon, takes off the cover, and packs. The rule to remember is that the articles required last are to be put in first. Thus, the blankets are placed at the bottom, then the tents, and, lastly, the tools and wood. The driver stands to his horses' heads ; on no account is a waggon to move until the cover is replaced and properly secured. The waggons should march in the order com- panies stand on parade. The letters of the companies should be chalked on the waggons, or else a small flag with the letter carried on the front of each. The baggage guard is usually formed of the officers' servants, under a N. C. officer. Their duty is to maintain order among the drivers, and to see that nothing is lost or taken from the waggons. They march with fixed bayonets a corporal and two men in front, the rest distributed on both sides of the convoy, the N. C. officer in charge following in rear. On no account are they to ride, or place their arms or valises on the waggons. It is well to know that cavalry prefer the method Q encam pi n g i n column of troops at half-order, as shown in Plate VI., Regulations for Encampments. And the plan recommended for a temporary artillery camp is that shown in Plate X., Regulations TORRENS KETTLE FLANDERS KETTLE SUNKEN FLYING COLUMN TRENCH WALL TRENCH RAISED FLYING COLUMN TRENCH __ii_.., in , '- r , ,.j -,>:' - i;_u'i^^ = , -HmJtgy 15 for Encampments, in column of subdivisions, using the carriages instead of picquet posts, and fastening the picquet lines to the wheels. This is the quickest and safest way of securing the horses. The carriages are always kept limbered up, and the harness buckled together in rear of the pair of horses to which they belong. Field Cooking. There are two kinds of kettles in use (1), the Torrens kettle " Torrens," which is bean-shaped (vide Fig. 8). It weighs 3 Ibs. and cooks for 5 men, or without vege- tables for 8 men. (2) The "Flanders," which is cylindrical (vide Flanders Fig. 9). It weighs 8f Ibs., and cooks for 8 men, or without vegetables for 15. The following is a brief description of the trenches generally employed : i. The sunken flying-column trench (vide Fig. 10), Sunken used when a battalion encamps for a day or two. column The chimney, 2 feet high, is formed of sods cut off the top of the trench. Time to make, 2 men in 15 minutes. Time to cook, 1 hour. It should be made, if possible, on a gentle slope, the mouth facing the wind. It holds 6 Flanders or 9 Torrens kettles, and cooks for about 50 men. Therefore, as a rule, one of these trenches is required per company. ii. The wall trench, suitable for wet or marshy Wall ground (vide Fig. 11). For the Torrens kettle it is 18 inches high, and 2 feet between the walls. For the Flanders kettle it is 2 feet high, and 3 feet 16 between the walls. It is built with sods, the largest placed at the bottom. Time to erect, two men 30 minutes. Time to cook, 1 hour. The kettles are slung across on bars of wood or iron. It holds 12 Flanders or 18 Torrens kettles. It will cook for 2 companies of 50 men each ; therefore, as a rule, 4 are required for a battalion. Eaised *" The raised flying-column trench (vide Fig. 12), fl y m S also adapted for wet or marshy ground. It is column * trench. built with sods, cut close by. Time to erect, 2 men 30 minutes. Time to cook, 1 hour. It will hold 6 Flanders or 9 Torrens kettles, and cooks for a company of 50 men. Broad i y> The broad-arrow kitchen (vide Fig. 13), adapted arrow f or standing camps. The base of the chimney is 3 feet square; its height 5 feet; and at bottom it is 1 foot square. Each trench holds 9 Flanders or 11 Torrens kettles. The kitchen cooks for 165 men with the Torrens and 220 with the Flanders kettles. Time to construct, 5 men 4 hours. Time to cook, 1 hour. Each trench is 18 inches deep at the mouth, and for 18 inches inwards, then it slopes gradually up to 6 inches where it enters the chimney. All trenches should be cut, if possible, on a gentle slope, with their mouths towards the wind. A stiff plaster is made of clay, and a kettle used as a mould, round which the clay is placed to cover the trenches. When dried the cracks are filled in. One or two of the handiest men should do this work. Triple v - The triple-arrow kitchen is adapted for stand- * n & cam P s e -9- a m ilitia regiment out for train- ing (vide Fig. 14). It will cook for about 600 men. Time to make, 12 men 10 hours. Time to cook, BROAD ARROW K ITCHEN SECTION OF ABOVE TRIPLE ARROW KITCHEN SECTION ON A.B. 30 icfeet 17 1 hour. The trenches are 18 inches deep at the mouth, sloping upwards to 9 inches at the top, covered with clay, with places moulded for the kettles. The base of the chimney is 3 feet square ; its height 6 feet ; and the bottom 1 foot square and 1 foot deep. The marking out of all these kitchens is much facilitated by having a bundle of pegs, with twine attached at the different dimensions. vi. Lastly, the open-hole trench (vide Fig. 15), used for men to cook separately in their canteens, is made with sods or stones, or a hole may be dug in the ground, according to circumstances. Iron tripods, 2 feet high, supporting a rod from which the kettles are suspended, have been used in manoeuvres by some regiments. They are very port- able, and the dinners require a shorter time to cook, but more fuel is wanted than when trenches are dug. These short notes should be borne in mind : (1) Three pounds of fuel is allowed per man per diem 1 cubic foot of wood makes 10 rations. (2) Water should boil in 20 minutes after the fire is kindled, and dinners should cook in an hour, which is sufficient time under difficulties. If wood is at hand and dry, they will be ready sooner. (3) Meat should be cut into pieces of |- lb., placed in the kettles, and simmered slowly until cooked. Vegetables, such as onions, may be added. (4) Potatoes may either be cooked separately or with the meat; but if not pealed they must be cooked separately. Open hole trench. Tripods Rules for cooking. Shelter Trenches. Descrip- tion of trench. Necessity for intrench- ments. Working parties and laying out tools. Drill. Shelter trenches are shallow excavations of ground, sufficient, with a parapet, to cover troops in line kneeling or lying down. The front -rank acts as a covering party, and detains the enemy, if possible, until the trench is completed, when they, with the rear rank, man the trench, and open fire. They are necessary, both in the attack and in the defence, owing to the great range of infantry and artillery fire, in situations where natural cover cannot be utilised (vide Plate III). For this reason, troops must have intrenching tools in the field, whether carried as part of their equipment, or con- veyed in carts. The drill is laid down in the Field Exercises. Working parties are detailed of complete companies, battalions, or brigades. Tools are laid out, as in Fig. 16, at 1 pace interval, the rows being in quarter column at 6 paces distance. The companies for work are formed in quarter column to one flank. After opening the ranks and causing the slings to be loosed and arms advanced, the captain orders " For shelter trench exercise, sling arms," which is done in two motions, as in Rifle Exercises, Page 48. The rear rank is turned to the left (or right), and the order given to " file on tools," upon which the marker runs to the far flank of the tools. After halting and fronting his rank, the left guide orders the men to " take up tools," when each man takes a short pace with the left foot, and, stooping down, takes a pick in the left hand and a shovel in TOOLS LAID OUT IN PAIRS FOR SHELTER-TRENCH DRILL. CONSTRUCTION OF TRENCH U,W F Z:3--'~^ ^VfytfT-yZ. 7Z? _ _ _ 19 the right, coming to the trail without noise, and carrying the iron to the front and vertical. The guide turns the men to the right (or left), and in turning they must drop the head of the pick and raise the head of the shovel. When in file they incline the handles outwards, to enable them to close up. He marches the rear rank back, and they are halted, fronted, and dressed. In orJer that each rank may carry half the too's, when the captain orders " Transfer tools," the rear rank give the fiont rank the shovels ; the latter take them with the right hand, and pass them in front of the body into the left hand ; then both ranks carry the tools in the left hand. If the tools are in heaps, or in a cart, two non-.com. officers issue them ; shovels to the tfron i ank and pi ks to the rear rank, both ranks filing past the tools (vide Fig. 17), and closing in again, the leading men stepping short. Approaching the ground, the front rank hand the rear rank the shovels at the command " Transfer tools." The right guide extends the front rank as a covering'party. They lie down 150 paces in front ; and if there is no natural cover available, and time permit, they make shelter pits, i.e. shallow excava- tions for the use of skirmishers for a short time; each pit taking 5 minutes (vide Fig. 18). For this 1 pick and 1 shovel are allowed to each group of 4 n^en. They can be improved by making loop- holes of sods. If necessary, and time permit, they may be converted into rifle pits, which see (Page 184). The rear rank open to 2 paces interval, and halt c 2 Marching to the ground. Issuing tools from heaps or a cart. Extension of covering party. 20 Extension of working party. Construc- tion of the trench. Guide to measure- ments. Trace and fitting the trench to the ground. 12 paces in rear of the line selected for the trench. They ground arms, butts to the front, so as to be handy in a moment, and take off jackets and purses- An officer steps along the line, giving 2 paces in length to each man, who fixes his pick in the ground on the left of his task, the shovel along the line, blade to the left, and then lies down till the exten- sion is completed. Word is passed when all is ready, and all set to work to cut and build up the surface sods along the line, leaving a berm of 18 inches. Each man excavates a hole of the required depth at the left corner of the task, turning to the left in working (vide Fig. 19). If the ground be hard, grooves must be cut to the rear, and the ground undermined with the pick. As a guide to measurements the handle of the pick-axe is a little over, and the shovel is a little under 2 feet 6 inches. The top stud of the shovel is 1 foot 6 inches. But new pattern tools must be proved. A sword blade is 3 feet. The length of trench which can be made is twice the number of files in paces. Thus 100 files will make 200 paces. Intervals should be left for the passage of cavalry and artillery. Roads ought not to be cut up. As a rule, the shelter trench follows the crest line of the hills, sufficiently near the brow to sweep all the ground in front with fire. The chief point to determine is how high up the slope, or how low down, the crest of the parapet must be. If too high, the slope is not " seen " ; and an enemy can assemble in comparative safety to rush the trench. If too low, the trench is seen into from opposite heights, there is no protection, and if the 21 defenders have to retire, they must run some yards up the hill exposed to full view. The practical way to fit the trench to the ground is to place sword blades or cleaning rods at intervals along the trace, while another person descends the slope some distance, and, lying down, makes sure of seeing the tops of the swords or rods. Fulfilling these conditions, the shorter the trench the better, to save labour ; and by making it as much as pos- sible parallel to the general front, there is less danger of suffering from enfilade fire (vide Figs. 20 and 21). The first task in half an hour is 2 paces (5 feet) Tasks. X 2 feet 6 inches X 1 foot 6 inches, and shelters one rank kneeling in the trench and one rank lying down behind. The second task, in half an hour, 5 feet x 2 feet 6 inches X 1 foot 6 inches, shelters both ranks kneel- ing in the trench. The third task, in 1 hour, 5 feet x 3 feet x 1 foot 6 inches, shelters both ranks and the supernumeraries lying down in the trench. Thus the trench completed requires a task from each man 5 feet long x 8 feet broad X 1 foot 6 inches deep. The berm which is 1 foot 6 inches, is unavoid- able. The parapet is 1 foot 6 inches high. At 200 yards a bullet penetrates 12 inches ; therefore, do the utmost to raise a bullet-proof parapet quickly, cutting the surface sods thick and square, and building them along the berm ; then placing every shovelful of earth just in front of them, and not scattering it. As the work proceeds, the earth is thrown more forward, taking care that the parapet is never more than 22 Best diggers in rear rank. With- drawal of covering party. The charge. Charger pit. 1 foot 6 inches high, with the inner slope as steep as possible, and the upper slope like a glacis, shovelled down to coincide with the natural fall of the ground. The men must throw the earth towards a salient angle, where there will be a deficiency ; but at a re- entering angle they must throw it outwards, for there will always be a surplus. Heather and bushes strewed over the parapet greatly help to conceal the newly-made work (vide Fig. 22). The strongest and best diggers are placed in the rear rank. They perform the first and third tasks, the front rank the second. The whole work, in- cluding the sending out and withdrawal of the covering party, must be conducted in strictest silence. At the completion of each task the men lay their picks and shovels together behind their work, handles to the front, and then dress. The men of a covering party, when called in, must retire straight back, jumping the parapet without injuring it. The exercise should be concluded by manning the trench and firing a few volleys. The instant a volley is fired the men must lower their heads behind the parapet. Bayonets are fixed in the trench, and all charge over the parapet. Tools must be returned to the cart, or deposited in rows without noise, and according to the drill. Sometimes shelter is required for officers' chargers, as when no natural cover is near. A charger pit is made in a convenient spot, in rear of the shelter trench, concealed as much as possible. It takes 3 TASKS CHARGER PIT men 2 hours 1 man digs in the trench, 1 gets earth from a ditch outside, 1 man builds up sods, and picks when required. A N. C. officer super- intends (vide Fig. 23). The duty of filling in trenches should be per- Filling in formed by a fatigue party, generally by defaulters. The N. C. officer in charge of them must see the work thoroughly done, and the earth well trodden and beaten down, otherwise the ground will be dangerous for horses. CHAPTER III. Cavalry. Necessity for some knowledge of the other Duties of cavalry. Detached. On the field of battle. THE THREE ARMS. NOT only is it necessary to learn the characteristics and functions of our own arm of the service, but we must have some knowledge of the others, in order to appreciate their assistance, to understand how to co-operate with them, and the best way to encounter them as foes. The duties of cavalry are to screen and cover the advance of an army, as also a force halted, or in retreat; to reconnoitre, gaining information of the country and of the enemy. If cavalry watches and feels for the enemy thoroughly, is prompt in securing information of his movements, and hangs constantly on to his troops, a most important service will be rendered to the army, and proportionately demoral- ising to the enemy. With this object independent parties move far ahead of the main body. Cavalry also furnish escorts and orderlies. The above are termed detached duties. On the field of battle cavalry must seize every opportunity for an effective attack, following up and confirming success, and, if needs be, it must sacrifice 25 itself to avert disaster. Its leading principle is the attack, and even in defence it must advance to attack, being comparatively defenceless halted. Hence it should be kept out of fire till the proper moment. To be effective the advance must be rapid and unexpected, the charge well timed and im- petuous. Its great tactical value depends on mobility and celerity combined. After a charge cavalry pursues or rallies rapidly. In covering a retreat the only way cavalry can defend the other arms is by continuous and vigorous offensive action, often suffering disadvantages as to time and place, and even at the risk of complete destruction. A cavalry soldier mounted in attack or defence depends upon his sword or lance, not on his carbine, which should be used from the saddle for signalling only. The effective action of cavalry is of three natures (1) Shock action in line, i.e. the charge ; (2) detached action in small parties or singly ; (3) dismounted fire action. The latter can be used advantageously under certain circumstances, chiefly on the defensive, e.g. to check an advance, or to hold a post, or sometimes a party of cavalry is pushed well to the front to seize and hold some point until the infantry come up. During the recent war between the Russians and Turks, and later in Egypt, mounted infantry were useful when there was not sufficient cavalry. Very similar was the cavalry raised during the American Civil War, when it executed remarkable raids. But there is this danger in employing a mounted force so improvised against an army well supplied with cavalry, Covering retreat. Arms. Three modes of action. Mounted infantry. 26 Tactical unit. Forma- tions in the field. Speed. Frontage. Regiment in line. Brigade in line. that it will be neither one thing nor the other in- different infantry and indifferent cavalry. The tactical unit is the squadron. Thq largest tactical body is the division, composed usually of two brigades with horse artillery attached. A cavalry brigade consists of 3 regiments and 1 battery of horse artillery attached, Each regiment has 4 squadrons. The right and left half of each regiment are termed respectively right and left wings. Two troops form a squadron. A regiment of cavalry moves in the following formations : In line ; open, quarter, and close column of squadrons ; open column of troops ; column of fours, sections, half sections, files and single files. The speed is at a walk 4 miles, at a trot 8 miles, at a gallop 12 miles an hour. Column of fours is eight abreast, 4 front rank and 4 rear rank. Column of sections is 4 front rank, covered by 4 rear rank. Column of half-sections is 2 front rank covered by 2 rear rank. In calculating the frontage of cavalry in line, allow one yard for every trooper in the front rank + 12 yards for each squadron interval + 12 yards for each regimental or brigade interval, or more for the band and staff if required. Thus a regiment in line of 4 squadrons, each of 96 sabres, will require 228 yards ; for each squadron has 48 horses in the front rank, and 48 X 4 + 12 X 3 = 228 yards. Or, suppose a brigade, of 3 regiments, each of 400 sabres. Every squadron then has 50 in the front rank ; the front of each regiment will be 50 X 4 + Fur 21 fry 2i, fnn.afSqiiadrcTU ('column of Tr<\^i' S(j " Leader (K Troop Leader , Troop l Sf/"Q tiMr/eQ _ ff( o ; . o SerrefUes Q'To-Uann of Squadrons. (^tujim of Squadrons SO cfFcur.v Cvlunvi cf Srcttr/i.v c/ 27 12 x 3 - 236 ; and the front of the brigade 236 X 3 + 24 x 2 = 756 yards, (vide Fig. 24). As a horse's length is 8 feet, the depth of a squadron in line is readily seen to be 8 x 9 = 72 feet = 24 yards by reference to Fig. 25. The depth of a regiment in open column of squadrons, say each of 50 sabres = 50x4 + 12x3 50 -186 yards. The depth of a regiment in column of troops = 50 X 4 + 12 x 3 - 25 = 211 yards (vide Fig. 26). To find the depth of a regiment in quarter column of squadrons, allow 6 horses' lengths for each squadron, and add 1 horse's length. The depth will then be 25 horses' lengths = = 67 yards. o To find the depth of a regiment in close column of squadrons, allow 1 horse's length between the rear rank and the front rank of successive squadrons, and add 1 horse's length. The depth will then be 17 horses' lengths = 17x8 = 45 yards (vide Fig. 26). In a column of fours, the squadron distances are preserved (vide Fig. 27), the depth = the front in line + squadron intervals = 200 + 36 = 236 yards. If the same regiment were in column of sections, the depth of the column in yards number of horses in the ranks = 400 (vide Fig. 27). Squadron distances are not maintained with a less front than fours, for cavalry never manoeuvre with a less front than this ; and on emerging on a plain from column of route, they will assume fours, or other formation, without delaying the rear. It is obvious that the length of the regiment in Squadron. Depth in open column of squadrons. Column of troops. Quarter column of squadrons. Close column of squadrons. Four$. Sections. 28 Half sections. Interval and distance between cavalry and infantry. War estab- lishment of a squadron. Tactical division of squadron, and how numbered. War estab- lishment of regiment. Formation for attack. column of half sections in yards = double the number of horses in the ranks = 400 X 2 = 800 yards ; and in single files it will be four times the number of horses in the ranks = 1600 yards. The interval, as well as the distance, between cavalty and infantry is 25 yards. The war establishment of a squadron is 6 officers, 2 troop sergeant-majors, 6 sergeants, 8 corporals, 4 artificers, 2 trumpeters, and 120 privates, with 2 drivers total 150 officers and men; 18 chargers, 120 troop horses, 4 draught horses total 142 horses. If we deduct horses to mount sergeant-majors, ser- geants, artificers, and trumpeters, and allow for a few casualties, the squadron will consist of 48 to 50 files or 96 to 100 troopers. The squadron is divided tactically into 2 troops- The senior of the two captains on parade is the squadron leader. Squadrons are numbered from the front in column, and from the right in line. The two troops of each squadron are termed " right " and " left " in line, and " leading " and " rear " in column. The war establishment of a cavalry regiment is 31 officers, 600 non.-com. officers and men, 22 drivers for regimental transport total all ranks, 653 ; 91 chargers, 480 troop horses, 44 draught horses total 615 horses. Cavalry manoeuvres in column with a front depend- ing on the ground. Small columns are flexible and mobile, offer a small mark to artillery, are more easily sheltered, and able to turn obstacles. Its formation for attack is in echelon, in successive lines, with a reserve in rear of one flank, or both, to protect retreat in case of failure, or to follow up victory if successful. The greatest care should be taken to protect the flanks ; and before advancing to the charge, scouts should reconnoitre the ground to the front and flanks, to see that it is not marshy, or intersected by dikes or other obstacles. Cavalry ought to attack cavalry on flank, because the flanks are its weak points ; or when in the act of deploying. Favoured by such a chance of surprise, a small body may attack a larger with every prospect of success. It can easily attack artillery in motion, or when limbering or unlimbering. Guns in position should be attacked in flank and in rear, a portion charging the escort at the same moment. Sometimes a con- verging attack may be made by skirmishers in front. Cavalry will not usually attack steady infantry, except by surprise. The best chance is when the infantry is moving ; or has an exposed flank ; or is demoralised or broken by artillery fire. When acting in support of infantry, cavalry should be so disposed as to prevent the most advanced troops being scattered by the enemy's cavalry. The general duties of artillery are to commence and carry on an action at long range. During an attack it covers the deployment of the advanced guard, and assists in driving in the enemy's ad- vanced troops. If provided with a sufficient escort, it may surprise an enemy, and shell an unguarded camp. On the defensive, it checks the enemy's deployment, obliging him to form up at a distance, and thus delays him. It is most useful in a recon- Flanks vulner- able. Scouts. Cavalry against cavalry. Against artillery. Against infantry. Support ing infantry. Artillery. Duties of artillery. 30 In the attack. In the defence. Principle of employ- ment. naissance in force, causing the enemy to disclose his strength. During an engagement, it keeps down the fire of the enemy's artillery and infaDtry, searching his position, and bringing the guns to bear successively on all approaches, woods, ravines, and all made or natural cover. Supporting an attacking force, guns will play upon the point of attack, and change position as their fire becomes masked, guarding against the enemy's skirmishers. In a defensive position, they keep down the enemy's artillery fire, delay the advance of his infantry, protect the flanks, and assist in any counter-attack. Artillery, also, co-operates with cavalry and infantry in striking a final blow, following up a retreating fire if victorious. In case of retreat it covers the retirement. The principle is to employ artillery against that arm of the enemy which, for the time being, is most prominent. During the different stages of a battle, one arm acts as the principal, therefore every effort must be directed to destroy it. Artillery fire should rather be directed against troops than guns. Great advantage is gained by concentrating fire on the enemy's artillery at the beginning of an engagement, and so clearing the way for the infantry ; and before an assault, artillery should direct its fire so as to disorganise and distract the enemy. In a position attacked, guns should be directed against the supports, leaving the fighting line to 31 the infantry ; for the supports offer a better target, especially while in column ; and it is most important to check and weaken them, for then they will be less ready to push on ; while the fighting line, it unsupported, will lose heart, and go no further ; or should they press on, their weak attack will pro- bably fail. Advantage must be taken of commanding positions to destroy parapets, palisades, buildings, &c. Artillery is that arm of the service which de- teriorates least in action. It can be kept most effectively in hand by a commander, and can move rapidly. It can be employed at ranges where infantry are useless. It has the advantage of curved fire pos- sessed by no other arm ; and is superior in physical and moral effect. Artillery reserves can be kept under cover till needed. Artillery is bulky and expensive, difficult to train and equip, and powerless in movement. It cannot be used alone, and is often insufficient for its own protection. It has " fire action " only ; and its weapons are : Horse artillery, 9 and 13 ^ pounders. T-.-TI ^-11 n 10 T -./> /Rifle muzzle-loading. Field artillery, 9, 13, and 16 f pounders. j Mountain guns, 7 pounders, 4 in each battery, carried on pack animals, are used in a difficult country, where there are no practicable roads. Field guns are mounted on sledges in winter in North America. Sometimes Hale's rockets are added to the equipment. The tactical unit of artillery is the battery of Fires at supporting troops when in defensive position. Power of artillery. But often helpless in motion. Weapons. 32 Tactical unit. Subdivi- ' sion of a battery. Speed. Limit of opening for guns. Intervals and distances. Front of field battery in line. Front of horse artillery battery in line. 6 guns, which is subdivided for tactical purposes into : i. A battery of 4 guns, and a division of 2 guns. ii. Two half-batteries of 3 guns each. iii. Three divisions of 2 guns each. iv. Six subdivisions of 1 gun each. But no smaller fraction than a division should be detached from the battery. The pace of artillery is, at a walk, 4 miles ; at a trot, 8 miles; at a gallop, 12 miles an hour. Field artillery will travel on fair roads 4 miles ; horse artillery 5 miles an hour. The narrowest space through which guns can pass is 6^ feet. Intervals and distances are measured in action from muzzle to muzzle, and limbered up from No. 1 to No. 1. In action the distance between the trail- plate eye and gun leaders'. heads =10 yards. When the battery is in line at close interval there are 4 yards between subdivisions. When in line at full interval, with 6 horses, each gun interval is 19 yards, and the battery or brigade interval (1| gun intervals) = 28^ yards; with 8 horses, each gun interval is 23 yards, and each battery or brigade interval 34^ yards. Thus the front of a field battery in line with 6 horses = 5 subdivision intervals + 3 yards the front of one subdivision = 5 X 19 + 3 = 98 yards (vide Fig 28). The front of a horse artillery battery in line = 5 subdivision intervals + 7 yards the front of the de- tachment = 5 X 19 -f 7 = 102 yards. The distance from one gun or waggon to the next is 4 yards. BATTERY IN LINE, FULL INTERVAL 43' 29' /3' /S II II g II II g II II s *ll !! g 9 BATTERY IN ACTION WITHOUT WAGGONS. 4* 4* -4* *k 4 4* n *n "11 n 'n "ii n n n n n n n n n n n n ana ana 32 Intervals between artillery and either cavalry or infantry in line are each 1J subdivision intervals = 22^, 28-g-, 34i yards, according as the number of horses are 4, 6, or 8. In selecting an artillery position we must endea- vour to obtain as many as possible of the following requisites : The greatest available sweep of range both to the front and flanks. Guns should command not only the ground to the immediate front, but also the roads along which the enemy must advance to attack, and all exits from villages and denies. But there is a limit to the range ; for even with a good telescope the effect of shell cannot be seen beyond 3,000 yards. The height should not be excessive, for the guns cannot be depressed more than 10; and guns on high ground are much exposed if placed forward on the crest to depress the muzzles. A gentle slope of 15 is best ; for if steeper, the fire will be too plunging, especially at short ranges, and the enemy will be completely sheltered on reaching the foot of the hill. There should be no cover within easy range from which the enemy's infantry can pick off the gunners ; as it is very difficult to shell troops out of a wood ; and good rifle shots, posted under cover within say 800 to 1,000 yards of a battery, with unshaken nerves, and fairly sheltered from danger, should always silence the guns before the latter can silence them. Infantry would be destroyed attacking in the open, exposed to artillery fire ; but they will avail themselves of woods, villages, and undulations D Intervals between artillery and cavalry and infantry. A perfect artillery position. "Wide range. Not too high nor steep. No cover for enemy. 34 Able to enfilade, but safe from that fire. Command. Facility for retreat. of ground ; these, therefore, ought not to be within 1,000 yards of the position. The position should be such that some of the guns may enfilade part of the enemy's line, as a single successful enfilading shot creates more mischief and confusion than a dozen passing through the line direct. But it should not be liable to enfilade. If the enemy takes advantage of this defect it will be fatal, and the guns will have to withdraw. The front slope of the position should not be too gentle, as the effect of ricochet, shrapnel, and rifle fire will be increased. A short, steep slope im- mediately in front of the guns is preferable, affording a better view ; the guns can fire safely over the infantry in both attack and defence ; and when the enemy's troops are temporarily checked, the guns will gain time to retire. To have slight command over the enemy's posi- tion is an advantage. But if the guns are in a lower position it will be difficult to shelter the ammunition waggons and limbers. There must be every facility for retreat, and no probability of the guns . being cut off. Hence the site should not be unduly detached from the main position. There is risk in having the ground in rear intersected with banks, hedges, streams, or other obstacles. If these exist passages should be prepared for the guns. The fire will be most effective when the slope of the distant ground is parallel to the trajectory. But such ground is often hidden, and ammunition cannot be wasted in firing at what is not seen. 35 Guns must be under cover as much as possible, and, to prevent the enemy observing the effects of his shell, it is well to have some trees, hedges, a field of corn, or even houses, 100 or 200 yards in front of the battery, as a mask, concealing the guns and yet not obstructing the view. ' Ground should be chosen for shelter to the horses and limbers while the guns are in action ; but the latter must not be too far away for the supply of ammunition. The guns should be posted a few yards from the edge of the plateau, or a little down the reverse slope, with the muzzles just pointing over the crest. The recoil may be decreased by the drag-shoe. It is possible to deceive the enemy as to the presence of a gun before it opens fire, by posting a troop of cavalry, or even the mounted detachment with horse artillery, in front of it. Failing natural cover, resort must be had to arti- ficial. Trenches may be dug 2 feet 6 inches deep close to the wheels and trails, in which the gunners stand when not actually serving their pieces. Spades are carried with the limbers, and sometimes gun-pits, (vide Fig. 109, Page 183), or a slight epaulment may be made. But as earth newly thrown up offers a conspicuous mark, it is well to connect it with shelter trenches for partial concealment. A battery in action should not be immediately in front or in rear of its own troops, because it would impede their advance or retreat, offer a double mark to the enemy, and our own troops in front might be shaken. A stony position is bad, for the enemy's shells will burst with greatest effect, and fragments of stones D 2 Cover for guns. Trenches and gun-pits. Guns not to be just in front or in rear of other troops ; Nor on a stony position ; 36 Nor near a conspicu- ous object. Column of half- batteries and of divisions. Of sub- divisions. Of route. * Various kinds of of fire. cause great annoyance. Marshy ground in front destroys the effect of ricochet fire, and even a ploughed field deadens it. A battery should not be posted near any con- spicuous land-mark, e.g. a prominent clump of trees, as the distance will probably have been calculated ; and the background should be such as will not give the enemy a chance of seeing if his shells burst too long, and of correcting his aim. A wall or a bank will cover guns from rifle fire ; but if artillery fire opens against them, it is well to draw them back a short distance. Besides line at full and close intervals, a battery moves in the following formations : * Column of half batteries, or of divisions, when each half battery or division is followed by its waggons (vide Fig. 29). * Column of subdivisions, when the waggons are on the right or left of the guns (vide Fig. 30). Column of route, when each gun is followed in succession by its waggon. * There are various kinds of artillery fire, viz. with reference to the horizontal plane. 1. Frontal directed perpendicularly or nearly so 1 to the general line fired at. 2. Oblique directed obliquely to the line fired at ; it is more effective, because more searching than frontal. * 3. Enfilade raking the enemy's line, the guns being posted in prolongation of that line ; it is most demoralising, there being no possibility of reply. It is usually offensive with reference to fortifications. * 4. Flanking directed along the front of, and COLUMN OF DIVISIONS. m === === -{]=== Fig. 30. COLUMN OF SUBDIVISIONS. tt ]--= -^-- -{3=r= -4fl-r= -*{]== = -+{]-=- -_9 nn o .^ _0 Q nn 9 nn - i LrtJ ' LHJ ; yu wU ~ UTJ : is '-4''- i i4'< if Si tt 4[ 16 4\ tS j \ \ if JS 13 19 13 HOyards. 37 nearly parallel to the line to be defended, taking an enemy in flank, as he makes a direct attack. It has similar advantages to enfilade. 5. Cross fire by which projectiles from guns posted in different parts of a position cross at a particular point of ground. It resembles flanking fire, and by its distracting and disconcerting action produces moral disorganisation. By means of this fire, rather than frontal fire, the long range of modern artillery is most effective. And with reference to the vertical plane 6. Direct fire with service charges, at any angle of elevation not exceeding 15. 7. Indirect or curved with reduced charges, at * any angle of elevation not exceeding 15. It is used when the object fired at is unseen, e.g. at troops behind a hill or obstacle. 8. High angle fire directed at greater elevation than 15, with any charges, and it includes what was formerly known as vertical fire. It is so named from the general direction of the projectile on impact. The projectiles carried by a battery are common Projectiles. shell, shrapnel shell, and case. Common shell is employed against troops in mass * Common or in column when shrapnel is not available ; also against troops under cover, intrenchments, and buildings. It is a good range-finder when fired with a percussion fuze, for with a few trial shots, the ranges can be best estimated by the distinct puff of smoke on graze. It contains a large quantity of powder as a bursting charge, and therefore acts both as a missile and as a mine. It is most useful against earthworks ; and its 38 range is longer than the effective range of shrapnel. It is generally carried loaded. It answers well to shell troops out of villages, houses, woods, &c., and to set fire to buildings ; but it is not to be compared to shrapnel against troops in the open. There is little choice between common and shrapnel shell against men or guns under temporary Plevna. cover. At Plevna the effect of each was inconsider- able physically ; but it caused the enemy to lie close while the infantry advanced to the attack. Shrapnel * Shrapnel shell is employed against troops in the open in any formation, and to enfilade defensive lines. If used with skill at effective range, it gives far better results than common shell. Success de- pends on the striking velocity of the balls and splinters at rupture, correct timing, and the point ,of explosion. It is, therefore, usually fired with a time fuze, especially if range-finders are employed ; for if percussion fuzes are used the graze reduces the velocity, and the balls fly upwards. But if the range is not known, percussion fuzes are first used. The shells should be made to burst from 200 yards at short ranges, to 80 yards at long ranges short against troops in column ; and from 100 yards to 50 yards short against troops in line ; and they are most effective when they burst at 20 feet above plane at short, to 50 feet above plane at extreme range. The extreme range of shrapnel with the 16-pounder is 4,200 yards ; with the 9-pounder 3,800 yards. Effective * The effective fire of shrapnel shell at range of shrapnel. 1,000 yards covers 300 to 400 yards depth of ground. 2,000 150 ,, 200 ,, 2,500 100 150 39 Employ- ment in Egypt. Its fire cannot be too direct against a deep object, but against a wide object with little depth, the more oblique the angle of fire is to the front the greater will be the area affected. Time shrapnel is best against objects moving towards or away from the guns, with fuzes bored rather short against the former, and rather long against the latter. Percussion shrapnel may be fairly effective against cavalry and artillery mounted, but the comparative effect of the shell with time and with percussion fuzes is as 7 : 1. There are 63 bullets in the 9-pounder. The shell is usually carried loaded, and is distinguished from common shell by the head being painted red. In the Egyptian campaign it was used with great effect. But it is of little use when penetration is required. A shell reversed in a gun acts like case at very short ranges. Case shot consist of a tin cylinder filled with bullets. * Case. The 9-pounder contains 110. It is effective up to 350 yards, or with an extra charge, a little further, and is most useful against infantry and cavalry at very close quarters, to repel a sudden charge, as a parting- discharge previous to a hand-to-hand fight with infantry, or to check a rush across a bridge, or through a gap or defile. At very close range, say 100 yards, double charges of case may be fired as a final blow, and there is no fear of bursting the gun. Case shot are kept handy for instant use, 2 in each axle-tree box. ,, . .Must never Case must never be fired over the heads of one's be fired own troops, though with care common shell and troops. 40 shrapnel may be so fired, provided the troops are a considerable distance in front. The number of rounds carried by each gun with Number of rounds per . gun in the 1*8 waggon is as lollows : field. 9-pound er. Common shell ... 32 Shrapnel shell ... 112 Case .. 4 16-pounder. 24 72 4 13 -pounder. 30 108 4 War estab- lishment of batteries. Tactical sub- division of a battery. Gunners. Drivers. TOTAL 148 100 142 The war establishment of a Horse Artillery R.M.L. Battery is 182 officers and men. Field 16-pounder is 201 Field 9 -pounder is 175 ,, A gun, with its waggon, men, horses, and stores, is called a subdivision. There are six subdivisions in a battery, numbered from 1 to 6 ; 2 subdivisions form a division, and the three divisions are termed right, centre, and left. The gunners work and serve the gun, keep it, the ammunition, and stores in good order, and perform guard and escort duties and fatigues. They are armed with a sword-bayonet. A few carbines are strapped on the carriages for use on guard, &c., but not for defence of the guns, lest the men neglect the proper duty of serving the guns. The drivers ride, drive, and groom the horses, keep the harness clean, and mount stable guard at night. The gun detachment of a field battery consists of the No. 1 and 8 gunners, marching with the guns or mounted on the carriages. In long marches they get an occasional lift. 41 Artillery cannot be moved about on its own ground, and for this purpose must have room both in front and on the flanks, which is the reason for intervals when acting with cavalry or infantry. The usual position of a battery is on the flank of a line. When forming up with other troops it should halt well in rear of the alignment, and as soon as the O * other arms are in position it will advance straight to its place. Occasions sometimes happen when a battery has to pass through a line of infantry or cavalry. The artillery officer should then send word in time to their commander, who will make the necessary arrangements for letting the guns through. On principle, the battery, being the unit, should not be broken up unless when absolutely necessary, e.g. certain cases of an advanced guard, and it is then recommended to break it up into divisions rather than into half-batteries. The present proportion of guns to men of the other arms is from 3 to 4 guns per 1,000, and this will probably be increased. Napoleon considered it ought to be 4 guns per thousand infantry and cavalry. In fighting a defensive battle, guns may be placed closer together than the regulation intervals, and sometimes there may be more than one tier of fire. 3 guns per 1,000, exclusive of the reserve troops, would seem to be generally sufficient. For a force encumbered with a numerous artillery is liable to certain disadvantages, viz. there may not be room on the position selected for all the guns ; artillery cannot move quickly over broken ground, and can effect little without the other arms ; and with long Necessity for intervals. Forming up with other troops. Guns passing through a line. Battery rarely to be broken up. Proportion of guns per 1000. Limit to strength in artillery. 42 columns of guns and waggons confined to roads the infantry may be delayed, or some of the artillery will not be able to get to the front in time. * Artillery may be employed effectively, without undue exposure to infantry fire, from 800 to 2,500 yards from the enemy ; and if the ground and atmo- sphere are favourable, and range-finders available, guns may be used beyond 2,500 yards. In a special case, in order to gain some decisive advantage thereby, they may approach nearer than 800 yards, remaining exposed to infantry fire at the risk of loss of men and guns. No As a rule, no guns should remain in reserve reserve in during an engagement ; for they are seldom dis- actiou. a kled by the enemy's fire, and can remain in action so long as there are supplies of men and ammuni- tion to work them, and horses to change position when required. Infantry. * Now, as to infantry. It possesses this character- Character- istic peculiar to itself, that it is the only arm which can act independently at all times, whether on the move or at rest, in attack or in defence. It can fight on every description of ground on a plain, in mountains ; in woods, villages, and towns ; in an inclosed country and in the open. Functions. * Its functions are to march, shoot, and fight well. It has to bear the whole brunt of war both on the march and in battle. It is self-protecting, and easy to train and equip; can move over any country, though much slower than the other arms. Infantry can fire on the move. But this does not mean that men may discharge their rifles while running. They 43 must always halt to fire, although they may run some yards between the rounds, as may be ordered in the attack. Yet a body of infantry is incomplete * Incom- alone, requiring engineers to make roads; cavalry P itself7 to watch and to complete success ; and artillery to prepare the way for and cover its advance, or protect its retreat. Infantry is armed with a rifle and bayonet ; and * Arms, and ii5) T two modes can apply " fire and " shock action individually or of action. collectively, in combination or separately. Now-a- days its " fire action " is by far the most important, owing to the moral effect of superior fire. Never- theless the bayonet should not be laid aside, but its use strongly inculcated. For this weapon gives the * Import- J ance of the soldier a long reach, and an independence, especially bayonet. against cavalry. Every drill practising the attack should conclude with the charge with fixed bayonets, except when there are two opposing forces. Against savage warriors, who protect themselves * Against with targets or shields, men should not thrust with shields. the bayonet straight to their front, but in a slanting direction ; each soldier pointing, not against his immediate opponent, but against the one opposite his right-hand comrade, so as to wound the enemy under the right arm before he can ward off the thrust. The tactical unit of infantry is the battalion. * Tactical Some consider the half-battalion, or the double company, as the fighting unit. But it is preferable to take the company as the fighting unit because once the battalion is disposed in extended order, * Reason for . . . this being causing loss of cohesion, owing to the superior fire- the > arms of the present day, no one officer can control 44 it ; and occasions arise for independent commands of lesser units, the battalion remaining the centre of action, and the general direction being maintained by its commander. Pace. * The pace of infantry in quick time is 120 paces = 100 yards per minute ; or 3 miles 720 yards an hour ; in double time 165 paces = 151J yards per minute. Frontage. * TO find the front of a battalion in line, allow 2 feet for each man in the front rank, 9 guides, and 3 colour party. Reducing * TO reduce files to paces, multiply by 8 and cut off paces. the last figure. The depth of a battalion in fours is equal to its front in line. A battalion in column has the companies succes- sively in rear of each other, and parallel at company or wheeling distance. The depth of a battalion in column = the front in line the front of the leading company + the depth of the rear company. In a quarter column, the companies stand at 6 paces distance = 5 yards from guide to guide. The depth of a battalion in quarter column = the number of companies X 5 - 2 yards. Thus, for 8 companies it will be 8 X 5 - 2 = 38 yards ; for 6 companies, 6 x 5 - 2 -= 28 yards. 30 paces = 25 yards is the interval left between battalions in line for elasticity and greater freedom of movement. Front of * Therefore the front of a battalion of 8 companies, a battalion in line. _ = 275 yards (mcU Fig. 31). BATTALION IN LINE 27-y \ards. BATTALION IN COLUMN BATTALION IN QUATER COLUMN 4-4- 45 The front of a company of 50 files, extended at * Front of a 4 paces interval, will be 200 paces =167 yards. e TSS The depth of this battalion in fours will be the * Fours, same as the front, 275 yards. The depth in column will be 824 - 102 + 9 = 708 * o = 234 yards (vide Fig. 32). The depth of this battalion in quarter column will * Q uarter column. be 8 x 5 - 2 = 38 yards (vide Fig. 33). The depth of infantry in line is about 3 yards from * Depth of a the front of the front rank men to the captains. The detail of a company on a war footing is : Officers : 1 captain and 2 subalterns ; 1 colour- * War estab- sergeant, 4 sergeants, 1 lance-sergeant, 4 corporals, O f a 3 lance-corporals, 110 privates, 1 piper, 2 buglers or com P an 7- drummers, 1 driver; total all ranks, 130. 4 men should he instructed as stretcher-bearers, and 2 in army-signalling. A battalion on a war establishment consists of: Officers 31 *Warestab- N on. -com. officers and men . . 1,044 lishment Drivers for regimental transport . 22 h tt T Total officers and men . 1,097 Eiding horses 12 Draught horses . 44 Total horses . 56 Infantry, in its attack, endeavours to destroy, * ^Infantry capture, or drive the enemy from his position. For this, superior fire alone is rarely sufficient ; therefore, to ensure success we must be ready at the proper moment to deliver the charge, and the charge alone 46 On the defensive. Waterloo. Plevna. Distinc- tion between "extended order" and "skir- mishing. " A battalion skirmish- ing. * will still more rarely enable infantry to gain its end ; hence a combination of these two is necessary to ensure victory. * Infantry on the defensive, firing from behind cover, must strive to demoralise and practically destroy the enemy; and that done, full advantage must be secured by delivering a counterstroke, as at Waterloo, combining offensive fire with the charge. Instances, however, occur when defensive fire alone is permissible, as when supporting artillery. The object then is to keep off the enemy's riflemen, and save the guns from capture. Or when the defending * troops are greatly outnumbered, as at Plevna. * Infantry is extended for purposes of attack and for skirmishing. But these must not be confounded. Men are formed in " extended order," properly so- called, to bring them up gradually with as little loss as possible over the dangerous ground to a point where the hottest fire can be directed against the enemy's position, and then the line is reformed com- pactly to deliver the final assault. Whereas the duty of skirmishers is to cover a body of troops behind them, and to feel for an enemy in an inclosed or wooded country. When the enemy is discovered, the skirmishers double round the flanks and through the intervals, clearing the front, and reform. Or else they lie down till the other troops pass over * them. Sometimes a whole battalion is, employed to skirmish in front of a division, and when the object is accomplished, it will reform and join the rear brigade. Greater latitude is allowed in skirmishing, and the number of paces for the extension will be named. But in " extended order," the interval tended " order requires of them more -self-confidence, and the strictest discipline. They must, moreover, 47 between files is 4 paces or less, including the space occupied by the men. Although men in "extended order" are individu- * Self-confi- . dence and ally more independent than in close order, yet " ex- strictest discipline essential in extended order, be alert and nimble of foot. The men of a company should frequently look for the signals or direction of the captain; those of a section must attend to their section-leader. All words of command must be passed by supernumeraries. Section commanders should know the number of files in their respective sections, and their right and left hand men. Their post is a few paces in rear of the centre of their sections, having their eyes on all the men. CHAPTER IV. INFANTRY IN ATTACK AND UNDER OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES. Necessity * BESIDES steady drill on the barrack square, and developing the perfecting of the men's training, efforts must be ** , made to secure a further advance in the province of soldier s warlike their intellect, and in developing their warlike character. , . character, especially in extended order; for close formations are not so much employed in action, being suitable only for bringing up troops for the fight, although they may be used in a few cases by night ( or in surprises, or against cavalry. And troops held in 2nd and 3rd lines are in close formation. The nearest formed body of troops behind the " fighting Directing * line " is called the support. The company or file by c ^g^ y which the others march is called the directing com- pany or file. Duties of * The duties of a section commander, moving to the comman- attack, are : to see that the men use the best cover der * for concealing their movements, and for inflicting loss on the enemy ; to decide what object is to be fired at, the distance and sighting of the rifles, and the kind of fire ; to keep their men in correct forma- tion, and to lead them properly to the front and 49 rear; to control the expenditure of ammunition. This last is most important, and a section commander should name certain men to fire, or for drill purposes, direct the front and rear ranks to fire alternately, or right files and then left files. A better plan still is to order the section to fire a certain number of rounds say from 3 to 5 after the expenditure of which there will be a pause in the firing, to allow the smoke to clear off, to subdue any excitement or un- steadiness in the men, and to give them fresh orders. On a favourable opportunity occurring, he may seize a position by the combined movement of his section, provided he will not expose the men to needless loss, and support is at hand. A battalion is subdivided for attack into the * Sut >- . division of fighting line, supports, and main body. a battalion About 4 marksmen per company, under an officer, attack 6 are selected as scouts, moving in advance of the * Scouts. fighting line, until the enemy's strength is ascer- tained, which will probably be about 400 to 500 yards from his position, when they should lie down, and await the arrival of the fighting line. Scouts, connecting files, and all others, make use * signals to of the code of signals referred to under the head ot u ' advanced guards, as occasion may require. (Vide pp. 71, 72.) Bugle sounds may disclose our intentions. The * In prefer- commanding officer's bugle is generally sufficient. It C bugle is only an extended line that moves by bugle sound ; sounds, the supports and main body move by word of com- mand. The advance must be made as quietly as possible, captains and supernumeraries passing all words of command. 50 The com- * When a battalion is ordered to attack, the corn- officer, manding officer points out to the captains of Nos. 1 and 3 companies the enemy's position, and selects some conspicuous object for the centre file to march on. "Whenever practicable, the extension should be When * made and everything ready for the advance under makes all cover ; then at a signal, or by word, the front line disposi- moves on. followed by the others at the regular tions under * cover. distances. (Vide Fig. 34, representing the 1st stage.) First stage * The men are to avail themselves of the slightest inequality of ground, as cover, avoiding all needless exposure. But they must not seek cover, if by so doing they lose their intervals, and fail to move direct to their front. Should artillery fire open upon them, they must not seek cover except by word of com- mand. About 800 to 1000 yards from the position, according to what may be seen of the enemy, the fighting line will open fire, the rear rank coming up The two * on the left of the front rank, so as to form rank men of . each file to entire, but the two men of each file keeping together. together If the bugle sounds " the fire," this is permissive only, as it is useless to waste any rounds when there is no good object seen, or the fire would not be effective. Fighting * The fighting line and the supports are under the officer second in command. He conducts the advance either in a general line or by alternate companies until within 600 yards of the position (vide Fig. 35, The second * the 2nd stage), when the fire should begin to have good effect ; the advance being continued by short rushes of 30 or 40 yards from cover to cover, the men lying down to fire, protecting their comrades on the move. The greatest care is required in practising this, so that the men do not close in or open out ; UJ o ^ fe I J o z -CD H=] O 3 DQ O El o -j < < m ix! O < H CO Q 50 \ KyX. A BATTALION ATTACKING. R.D STAGE. frvm <.3ffl} fc> 4CW paces firm enemy'.* positicn . About 4J>(' \pace* MAIN BODY. fighting hue- reinJnrcett fry supports Strififf in. rccnk entire^ advasicing iy tnhifi&d cornpanzes . JV T .H STAGE. 7<5O&a/:es Jrom, ene?ny' cwcus either hi rank, witij-e, or in, two ranks . 5 2 51 that they double steadily, and do not mask the fire of those lying down. As a rule, the alternate bodies, J O moving up. will not go beyond those in front, but lie down in line with them. Nos. 2 and 4 companies form the supports, fol- * Supports lowing the extended companies at about 150 yards ; but gradually decreasing that distance. They are intended to make good losses in, and to reinforce the fighting line when necessary, so that its fire may never slacken ; also to protect its flanks, being ever ready to pour a heavy fire upon any of the enemy's cavalry or infantry that may be threatening ; and supports give confidence to the fighting line by having a compact body of men of the same battalion close at hand. Every supporting company sends on a connecting file to communicate with the company in its front. The supports adopt any formation suitable to the ground. In the open they move at open files, at 1 pace interval. They may form column, for better shelter, behind a house or hillock ; and if on an exposed flank, echelon of sections is advisable. When the fighting line experiences difficulty from * Reinforc- the enemy's fire, it will be reinforced. This is at the cretional. discretion of the field officer leading the advance, who should remember that the nearer the attacking line can push on without reinforcement, the greater will be the effect when it does take place. Each support should extend so as just to occupy * Extension the front of the company reinforced. At drill the supports, files should be directed on the left of the correspond- Third ing files in front. This is the 3rd stage (vide Fig. 36), and the advance is continued by rushes by alternate E 2 52 combined companies of about 30 yards, at a smart, but steady double, by word of command of the senior officer of each combined company, the men lying down keeping up the fire. When the men who advanced are settled on the ground, they open fire, and the rear combined company is brought up into line, and so on. The utmost care must be taken to preserve the direction and proper intervals. No firing is permitted except when halted. Reserve. * The main body or reserve is to reinforce, and other- wise to assist the companies in front, so as to secure the enemy's position by a final rush. It may be in column by the left, or in any formation the com- manding officer thinks best. When deployed, intervals between companies may vary from 3 to 20 Use of * paces. In crossing rough ground, intersected with rough obstacles, it is desirable to advance in fours from the ground. flanks of companies, which will front form when cleared. As a rule, under fire, the main body of a central battalion will move in line with files at one Echelon on * pace interval ; that of a flank battalion should move a flank. . , , in echelon. About 200 yards from the enemy, the command- ing officer, having resolved to force the position by a front attack, reinforces with the reserve (vide Fourth * Fig. 37), the 4th stage. The companies, advancing in line, form rank entire, fix bayonets on the march, Reinforce- * and slope arms. When halted they form a rear rank reserve^ to the men in the fighting line, who will have fixed bayonets, as soon as they see the main body coming up. The line may be ordered to advance, and halt to pour in the hottest fire for a few moments, then to advance again. When within charging distance, 53 the signal or order to charge will be given ; the buglers, drummers and pipers sound the charge ; the men quicken their pace and cheer. If guns or cavalry are ordered to pass through an extended line, in which there are no intervals, sufficient files must close right and left to let them through, and at once resume their places in line. In practising the attack with a company, the enemy's position should be marked, and some lateral limits fixed, outside which the movements are not to take place. For it is necessary that the men are instructed as if they really formed part of a more extended line. A skeleton enemy is most useful. Thus four drummer boys may be posted on the ground to be advanced over ; two representing parties of infantry, and the others, with camp colours, parties of cavalry, who should endeavour to work round the flanks, and raise the flags to show they are about to charge. Although rarely the same troops, who have stormed a position, will be able to continue a further advance, pursuit being left to the second line passing over them ; yet sometimes it may occur that the enemy has withdrawn after the fighting line has been reinforced, and it is required to continue the advance in the original formation. In such a case, the men last brought up will form the new front line ; and on the order being given, the captains, or section commanders, calling the attention of their men, will direct their further advance ; the remainder, having closed, follow at the proper distances as supports, or reserve. When the battalion is much mixed, the quickest The charge. * Opening for cavalry and guns to pass. How to practise the attack, Skeleton enemy. Conduct of a further advance. 54 Keforming * way to re-form is to call out the markers and sound the batta- , -, , , lion. tne assembly. To fix bayonets on the march, or lying down, the method is the same as that laid down in page 56 Rifle Exercises. Fixing and * To unfix bayonets on the march, the rifle should unfixing bayonets be carried in the left hand at the trail, barrel slant- march 8 . m S upwards, the bayonet is unfixed with the right hand, the rifle changed to the right side, and carried below the right arm-pit, while returning the bayonet to the scabbard. Ammuni- * Every infantry soldier carries 70 rounds of ammu- tion ... . , carried by nition in action. 1 hree ammunition carts per bat- the soldier, ^^ folloWj eacll carry i ng g^QO rounds. Of these Ammuni- * one cart accompanies the battalion into action, about 20 yards in rear of the main body, until approach- ing the fighting line, when it must be placed under the nearest cover, ready to furnish the supply ; the other two are parked in rear, with those of the other battalions of the brigade, awaiting orders. Each company of the fighting line should have its am- munition served out to it previous to an advance ; Eeplenisn- * and a careful system should be adopted for replenish- pouches i n g t ne pouches from the regimental cart, from the Pioneers or bandsmen are generally employed for cart. this duty. They ought to be provided with a double bag worn over the shoulders. They must know how to get from their companies to the ammunition cart. The ammunition on the dead and wounded should be collected as far as possible. Disposi- * When a battalion is ordered to occupy a defensive tion of a battalion position, the disposition is much the same as for for defence. attack. The fighting line is made as strong as a free - ui Z o o Z O o B -i < a < < a: oi Z CO 2< I CD 55 use of the rifle will admit. It is, therefore, usual to place 3 companies in front line instead of 2 ; and these open fire as soon as the enemy comes within effective musketry range. Ranges of several objects should be taken previously. The supports are posted under cover, close by, to replace casualties in the fighting line. The main body is placed centrally, so that when the enemy's attack is developed, part of it, or the whole, may be moved to a convenient spot to deliver a counter attack. The object of the defence being to hold the posi- tion, the enemy must be kept at a distance by fire. But should he, notwithstanding, attempt to charge, the counter attack must repel him with fire and the bayonet. When a battalion is obliged to retire, the retreat should be conducted by companies to positions chosen for mutual support; or by alternate half-battalions, each under its own field officer ; retires 100 or 150 yards, halts, fronts, and opens fire, covering the retreat of the other. In order to pass a defile, or advance across a bridge in presence of an enemy, the principle is understood by reference to figure 38, taken from the Field Exercises. On reaching the defile, river, or canal, the fighting line opens fire ; the supports close on the one nearest the defile or bridge, and with the main body, if necessary, force the passage with the bayonet. This done, the supports extend. The main body retains possession of the defile or bridge. The old fighting line continues firing until its front is masked, and then re-forms in rear of the reserve, and the advance is continued. * Ranges to be taken. Counter attack. * Battalion in retreat. Advancing across a bridge in presence of an enemy. 56 Retiring * To retire across a bridge, or through a defile bridge in ( v ^ e ^& ^9), the plan is for the main body to presence p ass fi TS t f an( j extend 2 companies, lining the river enemy. bank on either side. These open fire when the front is clear. The supports close, and halt in front of the bridge until the withdrawal of the fighting line, the men of which incline towards the bridge, run quickly over, and form in rear of the reserve. The supports cross last, and the whole will be prepared to defend the passage or retire. To practise these two movements on parade a bridge may be marked with camp colours. Separate * When a large force has to pass a river, separate different 1 bridges should, if possible, be provided for infantry, arms. cavalry, and artillery. The several arms should not be mixed. P- . * In crossing, infantry must break step, and the cautions in J % crossing band stop playing. Files and sections are not to close up. Cavalry, as a rule, cross in file at a walk. Artillery, with carriages up to guns of position, 40 pounders, must cross fully horsed. All halting on the bridge should be avoided. Conduct of* In action the soldier must move in a free and in action, unconstrained manner, and at a smart pace. Silence must be enforced. The whole attention must be paid to the section commander, and that of the latter to the captain. Arms are earned at the " trail " ; in wet weather at the " secure." If re- quired to double, he will be specially ordered to do so by signal or word of command ; and then there must be no running, but each file must never lose connection with those on his right and left, specially observing the direction of the advance and con- 57 forming to it. Each rear-rank man must never separate from his front-rank man. Men or files, when extended, may be ordered to * Different kinds of execute independent firing so many rounds ; or to fire. fire volleys in extended order ; or, if closed, volleys in close formation ; and independent firing in close formation. In volley firing, every man firing before the others should be punished. There are short-range firing, viz. at 400 yards and under, and long-range firing, viz. from 400 to 800 yards, beyond which distance firing is only ordered under special circumstances. Every man must care- fully husband his ammunition ; for it is very easy to come to the end of it. All firing must at once cease at the word " Cease * Signal for cease firing " ; or at a long-drawn whistle sound from the firing. captain. This sound also means "Pay attention." The "alert" is the only bugle sound to be used in * The "alert" action when cavalry threaten. the only Each soldier must be posted in such a manner as S0 und to have a clear field of fire. He must learn how to * Soldiers make good use of ground both as cover and as a rest for his rifle e.g., undulations of the surface, walls, use J ground ; hedges, large and small trees ; and further, how to fire from loopholes, windows, shelter trenches, and earthworks. The enemy must be " stalked," and his position approached as close as possible by the soldier unobserved under cover. In small engage- ments this may sometimes be done by creeping forward. He must be a good and rapid judger of * and judge j. , distance. distance. Sometimes the fight is stationary, the men on 58 When * considered properly trained. Three * military positions for firing. Adjusting the sights at close range. Infantry against infantry. Never fire at random. Infantry against artillery. both sides remaining under cover, firing at each o o other for a considerable time. Lastly, we may con- sider soldiers properly trained, when, in changing position, they are able to take up their places in the new position in such a manner as to be well under cover, and favourably posted for firing with great rapidity, yet with steadiness, and without crowding or unduly opening out. The three military positions authorised for firing in the Rifle Exercises are standing, kneeling, and lying down, which last is the most usual in action. When the line approaches the enemy's position, and the fight is raging, so that the section commanders cannot name the range, it is well for the men to use the 200 yards' sight from 300 yards and under, aiming rather above the object up to 200 yards, and a little below it beyond 200 yards. In an engagement between infantry there is a con- tinuous musketry fire. Each man must make every effort to remain cool, notwithstanding the striking of bullets and the noise. He should always take a distinct aim, and never fire at random. In indepen- dent firing aim must be taken quickly. The object to fire at is the enemy's fighting line. If nothing is visible but smoke then the thickest layer should be aimed at. Always fire at the officers and mounted men, and above all, at columns. At night, companies will be in close formation, and must be ready to fire volleys or deliver a bayonet charge. In attacking artillery, infantry should fire long- range volleys, or what is better still, gain, if possible, a point within short range of a flank of the battery, by means of such cover as folds of ground, bushes, 59 standing corn, from which the men can open inde- # Fire at the pendent firing. The battery should then be charged. mo^fog, If it is moving, or about to limber up, fire at the ^ tne horses ; if it is in action fire at the line of guns guns in itself. Rapid advances and diagonal movements are the best protection against artillery fire. If the battery is captured and has to be abandoned, spike the guns if they are muzzle-loaders, or take away the removable part of the breech action if they are breech-loaders. Provided we remain cool, we possess a decided * . ? infantry superiority over cavalry in action, both in single invincible V)V Civn,lrv. combat and in bodies, cavalry charge in Echelon, i.e. in detachments following each other in rapid suc- cession. What has to be done is to fire steadily at short ranges, with the sights of the rifles at * Mi ust - ment 400 yards, aiming at the foot of the object, the of sights. advancing cavalry will then be struck through- out that distance. A fighting line favourably posted should not close to receive cavalry, but the men * As a rule avoid should retain their position, directing their fire squares; against the horsemen. But if the cavalry approach within 50 yards the fighting line should stand up. This will startle both man and horse, and it is easier to aim standing at a mounted man than when lying down. Men extending, lying down in the open, unpro- * Unless un- tected by any cover, if not under a heavy fire, should P j ^he 6 close and form sections or company. P en - When cavalry appears on the flanks these must be thrown back, when it appears in rear the rear rank should be turned about. Volleys are best against cavalry. 60 In the event of all the ammunition being ex- pended, squares and rallying squares must be formed to resist with the bayonet. If cavalry really ride the men down they should throw themselves on the ground, but jump up again immediately, form either in line or rallying square, and fire after the cavalry, or at the Echelons coming up. No soldier should surrender or allow himself to be taken prisoner. Single * In single combat an infantry soldier may allow a mounted man to come within 30 yards before he fires. If he misses he should fire again. If he has no more ammunition he should jump aside as the cavalry soldier charges, and thrust at his horse. Forma- * The chief formations to resist cavalry are squares resist an d line. Steady, well- disciplined infantry have cavalp y- little to fear. The "thin* The " thin red line " receiving the masses of the red line." Russian cavalry at Balaklava is a conspicuous instance. Company squares are formed by an ex- tended line and the supports when threatened by a very large body of cavalry. Care must be taken that the squares are in echelon. Rallying * Rallying squares are quickly made, when an officer for each square holds up his sword, turning towards the enemy as a rallying point, and the men at the command run towards the officer, form round him without crowding, fix bayonets or swords, and turn outwards. Closing on * An excellent plan, easy of application, is for the flanks of , . ., , . , section. men of each section to close rapidly on the right or left file of that section, according to which flank is threatened (vide Fig. 40), the flank file making a half turn outwards ; or if both flanks are threatened Fig 40 SECTIONS RECEIVING CAVALRY. Kg, 44. ESCORTS FOR ARTILLERY. 61 the two right sections of a company will close on their rio-ht files and the two left sections on the left. O The word of command for drill will be " From the right " (or left), or, " from both flanks prepare for cavalry." The men fix bayonets, the front rank drop on the knee, and the rear rank open fire by command of the section leaders. Care must be taken that the sections are not wheeled up too much. As a rule they will be formed in echelon, and able * Echelon, to fire clear of each other. If not, they must move into Echelon. A support, in open files, and hard pressed, may close and form an oval round its captain, or the usual company square, closing on the centre. The * Company necessity for the main body to form square is exceptional. The great disadvantage of squares is the large mark * Disadvan- they offer to artillery \. and often cavalry will charge squares, the flanks of infantry with that very object. A company extended, on the approach of cavalry, may also form groups, each composed of a right and * Groups, left file, or, if the company has been reinforced, the two files next each other will run together, and stand back to back. In resisting cavalry, much depends upon the nature of the ground on which the infantry are, and of that over which the cavalry has to pass ; also the quality of that cavalry, and the morale and cohesion possessed by the infantry. As before mentioned, a battalion may receive cavalry in line. But there must be no inequalities of ground to protect the cavalry, or enable it to form unperceived anywhere near. Often a flank company 62 Battalion * square. Infantry * in a siege. Conduct of * an assault. Instruc- * tions to the German infantry soldier in attack. is thrown back, and another forward ; or both may be thrown back. A battalion square is formed from line, column, quarter-column, or column of double companies. Whenever it is possible for cavalry to approach unperceived, infantry must be ready to form square two-deep, or four-deep, at any moment. It may happen that infantry has to remain rifle in hand in the trenches for days together in pre- sence of an enemy. Each soldier should be pro- vided with about 200 rounds, and special rations. It may be required to search a particular work in the enemy's lines with long range fire, aim must then be taken at the crest of the parapet, which usually stands out clearly, and particularly at the embrasures. If a work has to be taken by assault, precise directions are issued beforehand as to the conduct of the different portions of the attacking force, and as to their direction. Success is insured only by the most reckless bravery, and the most expeditious crossing of the ditch. On reaching the berm, the men halt for a moment to form, then mount the parapet closed up as much as possible. A small pamphlet has been published for \\d., by a German officer of great experience in war, and a well-known writer, containing invaluable rules for the conduct of the men in action, and in the various incidents of the same. The following are some extracts therefrom : When the whistling of bullets commences, the men must constantly remember to show no signs of 63 weakness, even in the most perilous moments of the fight. It is strictly prohibited to attend to the dead or * wounded. It is better not to let the eyes rest on them. Men who are slightly wounded are not allowed to withdraw from the fight. Wounded men coming out of the fight, and re- turning to the rear, must not dare to dishearten the reinforcing troops. They must, on the contrary, put up with pain, and strive to groan as little as possible. Throwing packs away without orders will be severely punished. Every soldier must strive to remain with his com- pany or section during the fight, as he cannot, single- handed, effect anything of importance. His con- centrated attention must, therefore, be fixed on his leader. Should a soldier, through no fault of his own, become separated from his company he will join the nearest fighting body of troops, and place himself under the orders of the officer or N.C. officer in command of it, to whom he will render the implicit obedience due to his own immediate superiors. Whenever bodies of troops become intermingled i! in action (which frequently is unavoidable), the superior officer who assumes command is to be obeyed without hesitation. The soldier must bear in mind that long-range firing rarely does much execution, and that its em- ployment remains as matter of uncertainty ; the leaders are responsible for the results obtained thereby. Consequently, during an attack, no firing Not to leave the ranks to attend the wounded. Duty of the soldier when separated from his company. When troops are mixed the senior officer commands. 64 must on any account take place at greater distances than 400 yards, unless expressly ordered. Each man * rp^ so ldier must, above all. remember to adiust must J adjust his his sights correctly. This is particularly necessary, indepen- as the company and section leaders are frequently put out of action, and the men are then thrown on their own resources. Should the soldier observe any movements or changes in the enemy's fighting line that may appear to him of importance, he must report them to his superior. Every soldier must be able to convey an order clearly, and to make a clear report in the midst of the fight. During the advance no man is allowed to hesitate or halt, no matter how heavy the enemy's fire may be, or how severe the losses suffered. It is only when the officer gives the command, "Halt," that a halt is made, and a position is immediately taken up. In closing on the enemy at the run, the advance must be continued without a check right up to the enemy's position. Should this not be done, and should the assailants run back, they are as good as dead, as they have to recross the ground under a murderous fire. Effect of * A determined charge really driven right home will mined invariably be successful. If, during the fight, the enemy makes a deter- mined forward movement, the principal thing is not to allow oneself to be intimidated. Should some men lose courage and run away, they must be imme- diately brought back and encouraged by their comrades. 65 In the moment of danger the soldier must look to * I" i 111 difficulty his leader, for he it is who orders what has to be look to the leader ; done. The enemy's attack must either be met with a withering fire, or he must be immediately charged. Should the firing be so heavy that the orders of * and attend to the officers cannot be understood, attention must be signals. paid to their signals with the sword, and to their personal movements. When the enemy has been driven out of a posi- tion, the individual soldier must on no account rush on in pursuit, but wait the orders of his leader, and in the meantime continue firing on the enemy. The men must be able rapidly to re-assemble after such an attack. On the defensive the men must be determined not * n the defensive. to move from the position they are to hold. The firing is commenced either by order or by signal. The soldier should not allow himself to be intimidated by the enemy's shouts and close ap- proach. Every man should remain lying down, and fire steadily. A position should not be evacuated except by a distinct command. The enemy will not usually be able to withstand the firing of such a determined body of troops, but will run back. Should he, however, really come to close quarters, the men must be determined to engage him even hand to hand. With equally good arms victory will generally fall to the combatant possessing the greatest courage and coolness and the best discipline. ..... F 66 When * casualties occur, lance corporals and best soldiers must replace their seniors. To be humane and not to plunder. When the officers and N. C. officers have fallen, every honourable soldier must strive to replace them. The lance corporals, the oldest and ablest men, take command and lead their comrades. Should unfortunate circumstances and the decided superiority of the enemy compel a body of troops to fall back, no soldier must appear discouraged, or retire further than to the spot where the leader orders a halt, or to the pre-arranged place of assembly. Should a soldier find himself separated from his corps after an action, he will proceed in search of it and join it without delay. All aimless roaming about on the battle-field will be severely punished. Should a soldier take part in the fight in the ranks of another corps, he must carefully remember which it was, for the purpose of producing witnesses as to his conduct. The soldier must behave in a noble and humane manner towards the enemy or prisoners. Under no circumstances whatever should their private property be taken from them, and they should never be ill-used without necessity. The white flag with a red cross denotes dressing stations and hospitals ; a white band with a red cross worn on the arm denotes medical officers, bearers, &c. These, in accordance with the Geneva conven- tion, are not to be fired on. Firing off a feu-de-joie after the battle, plundering captured baggage, or any similar misdemeanour, is strictly prohibited. Furthermore, the soldier should be ready after an 67 action, notwithstanding his exhaustion, to start off in * To be . . ready for pursuit of the enemy, should this be ordered, for it is pursuit. only by a rapid and active pursuit that the victory is completed, and further fighting avoided. Escorts for Artillery. Artillery is helpless on the move. Occasions arise when a battery is sent forward to an advanced position for a special purpose, or detached to a flank, exposed to the enemy's infantry. Then if the fire of the battery is diverted in self-defence, the object for which it took position cannot be attained^ Hence it requires other troops in support. Guns in action havo to be guarded against a sudden flank attack of cavalry, combined with a converging attack in front by skirmishers ; and, also, against the enemy's infantry stealthily advanc- ing in extended order under cover in front, or on a flank. Cavalry or infantry cannot be taken from their legitimate work to form a permanent escort, so the proper course is for the battery commander to apply for a squadron of cavalry to accompany his guns when detached, as protection on the march, and when first coming into action ; and for a company of infantry to follow rapidly to replace the cavalry. If the officer commanding the escort chance to be senior to the artillery officer, he should in no way interfere, but assist the latter in every way, by defending the guns, and guarding against surprise. The escort should be formed as an advanced guard in a forward march, and as a rear guard during a F 2 Necessity for an escort. When required how to be applied for. Duty of the officer command- ing the escort. * Formation on the march. 68 Disposi- * tion oi an escort of Of an escort. Infantry escort conveyed on artillery waggons. retreat, guarding specially an exposed flank, or part may be at the head and part at the rear of the battery. When marching by a road, all adjacent roads must be patrolled. When the cavalry escort arrives at the position, if an attack by cavalry is expected, scouts must be sent well on to the front and flanks for timely warning, and the remainder take post some 200 yards on the exposed flank of the battery in echelon, ready to charge. The best disposition against in- fantry is to dismount and extend half the escort, retaining the rest in support. But the infantry should hurry up and relieve them. On arrival, the infantry escort should extend half the men at wide intervals to watch and give the alarm, much like outposts. They should be so posted as to keep the enemy's skirmishers at a dis- tance of 1,000 yards at least, and to prevent anything coming within a mile of the battery unseen. As far as possible, the enemy must be prevented from occupying any cover within range. The remainder of the escort should form the support 150 or 200 yards from and in line with the battery on its exposed flank, and 100 yards away from the waggons, for fear of an accidental explosion. The escort must move on the flanks of the guns so as not to mask their fire, unless they are in action on such high ground as to be able to fire over their heads; and possibly, even the escort may retire under the very guns themselves (vide Fig. 41). jf. j g possible to mount infantry on the waggons. A horse artillery battery can take a company, and a field battery about halt a company. CHAPTER V. ADVANCED GUARDS, FLANKING PARTIES, REAR GUARDS. A n Advanced Guard. INSTRUCTIONS are to be found in Part VI. Field * Necessity Exercises. An advanced guard furnishes the "eyes advanced and ears " of a force on the march ; an army unpro- vided with one is liable to come unexpectedly in contact with the enemy, and even if the opposing force be small, the army must halt to disperse it. Therefore, whether the advance be made on one or more roads, each column must be preceded by an advanced guard, to cover and conceal the march and formation of the main body ; to feel the way through the country, searching well in front and on the flanks of the enemy's line of march ; to give timely notice of his vicinity or approach, and keep him in check until the main body has time to prepare for action ; also, to remove obstacles, prevent delay, facilitate the march, and guard against surprise. In some cases it is sent far in advance to seize a * Sometimes . . . sent far in post, or to anticipate the enemy on some important advance, point. General duties. Specially organised, usually of the three On what depends r, its compo- sition and strength. When cavalry screen precedes the army. When there is no cavalry screen. Infantry * on the flanks in mountains. Proportion to the army covered. An advanced guard should not compromise itself with a superior force, but must not let the march be delayed by insignificant demonstrations. It must either attack promptly, or fall back slowly disputing the ground. Occasionally its duty is to engage and hold fast the enemy, and for this purpose it is strengthened. It is a specially organised force, consisting, as a rule, of all arms ; having more cavalry in an open, and more infantry in an inclosed or hilly country, with artillery to shell the enemy out of farms and sheltered ground. The composition and strength depend upon the distance in front of the main body, the object in view, the nature of the country, and other circum- stances, appreciated only on the spot. If the army is preceded by the cavalry screen, and the enemy is at a distance, the advanced guard need only be of sufficient strength for observation. But, approaching the enemy, the cavalry screen will encounter his infantry, and the advanced guard must be ready to furnish support. If there is no cavalry screen, it must be tactically complete a miniature army supplemented by cavalry to obtain information, and protect the column in rear, by extending the leading patrols sufficiently on each side. In a mountainous district parties of infantry should move along the heights on each flank. The larger the army the greater the number of men which can be spared for the advanced guard. In a forward march the effective strength of the main body, or f the strength of all the detached 71 parties surrounding the army is an average pro- portion. But in 1870 the Germans sometimes employed ^ to J. A strong advanced guard is a temptation to an engagement not previously contemplated. An advanced guard is divided into 3 portions, viz :- i. The advanced party, always preceded by 1 or 2 files under a N". C. officer. Its duty is to explore with cavalry patrols the roads in every direction, and in an open country to spread out like a fan. ii. The support, about twice the strength of the advanced party. These two together are termed the vanguard, under the orders of the officer command- ing the support, who is responsible for the proper road being followed ; and by means of scouts he must ascertain that the country on each side is clear of the enemy. He keeps up communication with the advanced party by signals and connecting files, and verifies reports before transmission. iii. The reserve, about J to | the strength of the whole advanced guard. An advanced guard ought to be provided with axes and intrenching tools. If available, signallers should accompany, and a party, when possible, proceed with any important patrol, so as to give immediate information, and spare the men fatigue. The leading files must be carefully practised in, and made to repeat, the recognised code, as follows : By day : " Advance." Wave of the hand or sword. The Germans in 1870. Division into three portions. Advanced party. Support. Duties of officer command- ing the vanguard. Reserve. Party with axes and intrench- ing tools. Signallers. * Code of signals. 72 By day : " Reinforce." Bonnet waved, or held above the head. " Withdraw." Rifle reversed. ( Vide Fig. 42.) " No enemy in sight." Rifle or sword held vertically, with bonnet on muzzle or point. " Small bodies of the enemy seen." Rifle or sword held horizontally steadily. " Strong bodies of the enemy seen." Rifle or sword horizontal, raised and lowered. "Halt all in rear." Hand held up high over the shoulder. By night, or in foggy weather, or in thick woods, whistle sounds should be used. A prolonged whistle sound calls " attention ; " and to men in extended order it means " cease firing." On outpost duty, the cry of some bird or animal or other signals, may be pre-arranged. Duties of * Connecting files between the different portions ' n files. have the important duties of transmitting signals from the front, and of showing the way to the troops in rear, by dropping a man at cross roads or other doubtful points. Principle * One general principle applies to the formation of formation, every advanced guard. Small parties of a few men are in front, supported immediately by others of in- creasing strength in rear. The point. * The leading party is called the " point." Thus a constantly increasing resistance is afforded, the seve- ral parties marching at distances which are consistent u ' a: z m UJ >- 05 S z a: HI LU ruf. 44. FORMATION OF AN ADVANCED GUARD ON A PLAIN. FCg. 43. FORMATION OF AN ADVANCED GUARD ON A ROAD. * O Point * an Advanced^ Party Support Support \ in Yards Kg. 46. SMALL ADVANCED GUARD OF THE THREE ARMS. TKetanci 600 half Sections 3l> WO tf Troops m }udt'$erti j f'ompany ] 1% Companies I I 6'Compcmie& ! 144- WO 17 WO 60 -WO W6 Body. ' -Scale, milt 73 2 73 with connection and timely junction, and yet so far disseminated as to delay an enemy until the main body has time to form up for attack or defence. The simplest case is that given in the Field * Advanced Exercises, of the advanced guard of a battalion battalion usually a company on a road. It is divided into a( ' two parts ; one Tialf-company under its guide de- taches parties of 2 files 100 yards to the front, and 100 yards to the right and left front, each under a N. C. officer or selected soldier. If the company is weak, these parties may consist of only one file each. Any flanking party not required should join its half- company. The remaining half-company follows 200 yards in rear as support, and 300 yards in front of the battalion. It sends on a connecting file 100 yards, and drops another at the same distance. The leading company of the column also sends out one (vide Fig. 43). When this advanced guard debouches from a road * On a plain, on a plain, the leading half-company is formed in extended order. The point halts, the flankers move up abreast, and lie down at the 100 yards' interval; the rest of the advanced party extend from the centre, and complete the line. Intervals are cor- rected from the centre on the march. The support follows, and the connecting file still communicates (vide Fig. 44). When an advanced guard is composed of the three * Reason for T -n employing arms, cavalry will proceed to reconnoitre, as the cavalry. fatigue and loss of time would be great if infantry performed this duty. In case the cavalry are support of checked, and to overcome obstacles, infantry and infantry, engineers will form part of the support. engineers. 74 When guns may accompany and the minimum number. Advanced guards of the three Advanced guard of a cavalry regiment. Duties of the officer command- ing the support. Distances between the fractions. Of the main body of the advanced guard, a small part of the infantry will lead, followed by the guns, then the rest of the infantry and cavalry. When the road is hilly, and the troops must move with a narrow front, 2 guns without waggons may accompany the support, in order to contend with the enemy's artillery. This number of guns is the least that should be in position at the beginning of an action. By these means delay is avoided in sending back to the reserve for them ; and no risk is run, as the enemy will not be able to extend his front more than the support. Fig. 45 shows an advanced guard composed of a battalion of infantry, a squadron of, cavalry, and 2 guns. Fig. 46 is one formed of an infantry brigade, a regiment of cavalry, and a battery of artillery. The strength of the advanced guard of a cavalry regiment would be about 2 officers and 60 N. C. officers and men, disposed in the open somewhat as indicated in Fig. 47 ; on a confined road 2 men precede as scouts. The officer commanding the support, in the absence of special orders, acts according to judg- ment, providing individual supports for the separate advanced groups, or keeping the whole together on the main road. The reserve and the main body each sends out a group to either flank. Connecting files single or double maintain communications between the several portions. The distance is about 500 yards between the ad- vanced groups, support, reserve, and main body, or, ADVANCED GUARD OF AN INFANTRY BRIGADE WITH A PROPORTION OF THE OTHER ARMS. ; &7Utt&y Jlf.ttf ff fvir/fxrff. ' . I [ Instances . I Bint KK 500 Flan&ers .. 36 SUPPORT RESERVE / I 6 Gymvanz&s.-.. r 7J)iyi c * a distance, one man always remaining concealed close by for observation, while the others endeavour to enter from the front and rear simultaneously. Examining * The same precautions are necessary to examine a a wood. W ood or other inclosure. If the wood is of any extent, the borders only can be explored by a small patrol. One man moves first along the outer edge, whiJe the others search it strip by strip. 77 A fixed rule is to turn the flanks, or threaten the * Always 11 r v turn the rear ol any place capable ot concealing an enemy flanks and before feeling in front. Therefore, woods, ravines, leTear 1 and morasses must be searched before being passed, lest an enemy lying perdu succeed in cutting off the advanced guard. By threatening the rear before approaching the front, the enemy will usually be discovered, and dislodged without loss. So, before ascending a hill, the flank files on both * Ascending sides go round the base, then a file from the point ascends cautiously, creeping when very near the top, so as not to show himself on the summit, but observing from behind the brow. He signals to the rear whether the enemy is in sight or not. The advanced party and patrols should ascend all * Best view heights, church towers, steeples, and high buildings, obtained, so as to obtain the best view, while keeping themselves concealed. On coming to a bridge, they ought to examine it * Examining well to see if it has been tampered with, and then cross it as a defile. To explore a branch road, one man, followed by * Exploring another, goes quickly to the first turn in the general roa( j. direction, and comes back if nothing is seen. But if they discover anything suspicious, one of them should remain to watch, and the other runs back to stop the patrol on the main road. The same principles apply to a cavalry patrol, but Cavalry it can advance further, and explore a wider front than an infantry patrol. The scouts work in pairs. *' . Usually half the strength of a patrol is in support, and the commander must keep the detached files 78 Scouts and i n hand by word or signal. A message should be support. Touch of sen ^ back the instant the enemy is discovered ; but the enemy the scouts should remain close to him for further to be main- tained, information. Although reconnoitring is a special subject in itself, the following concise instructions are applica- ble to patrols. Instruc- * A patrol leader should have a map, and if going to patrols. f ar > a guide. He should be able to answer these three questions: (1.) How far and in what direction am I to re- connoitre ? (2.) Where am I to look for the enemy ? (3.) What am I to do when I meet him ? Manner of * All reports should be in writing, showing the reports. name of the sender, the hour, and place of despatch. On the * Regarding the enemy's position, a patrol ought to position 3 . note the strength and composition of his piquets, where they are posted, and if intrenched ; whether the main body is close or at a distance ; if the approaches are open or barricaded ; if the outposts are vigilant, watching all points of passage ; if guns enfilade special points ; the uniforms of any of the enemy. Avoid * Hasty conclusions are to be avoided, e.g. mistaking hasty con- . elusions. country waggons for artillery. Eoads. * As to roads, the chief points are their nature, width, gradients, and fences ; if fit for all arms ; together with full information on bridges, defiles, &c. Railway?. * Exploring a railway, notice the gauge, stations, platforms, sidings, arrangements for watering, tunnels, cuttings, embankments, bridges, rolling stock, &c. 79 In a wood, notice if it is open, as with pine or beech trees ; or thick with brushwood ; its extent ; if traversed by roads or paths, and where they intersect ; and if there are villages on the borders. In the case of a river, note the width ; strength and direction of the current ; the depth, whether constant or variable ; tidal or not ; the nature of the banks and country on each side ; particulars of bridges with means of repair, ferries, and fords ; positions commanding them. A canal is similar to a river. In a town or village the chief points are : its situation, e.g. on level ground, on a height, in a valley, on a river bank ; the prominent features of the surrounding country ; if there is commanding ground near ; the nature of approaches ; if the houses are of wood, brick, or stone ; of one or more stories ; thatched, tiled, or slated ; close together, or scattered ; the principal buildings, as a church, town hall, manu- factory ; accommodation for men and horses ; supplies of provisions, corn, and forage. There are no absolute rules for the commander of an advanced guard, who must greatly depend on his own intelligence, and allow nothing to escape his observation. He marches with the reserve. His paramount duty is to prevent the main body being attacked or its march interrupted. For this reason, he should attack and disperse small bodies, bearing in mind a maxim of Frederick the Great, "never to haggle with the enemy's light troops." But he must not engage seriously, if this is not in accord- ance with the plan of the general commanding. Woods. * Elvers. * Canals. * Town or village. Duties of the com- mander of an advanced guard. Frederick the Great's maxim. 80 On first sighting the enemy. Advanced guard must protect main body at all risks. Should not pursue, but maintain the touch. When * necessary. Should he be opposed in force, he must select the most favourable ground for resistance. On first sighting the enemy, he should send back intelligence ; and if the enemy appear weak, in the absence of special orders, attack at once, to prevent delay. If the general purposes fighting on some position in rear, the advanced guard will retire slowly to it ; but if he intends or is obliged to fight on the ground occupied by the advanced guard, the latter must hold on till reinforced, calling up every available man and gun to resist to the utmost. In extreme cases the advanced guard must sacrifice itself if necessary, rather than allow the enemy to push it back and open artillery fire on the main body unprepared. Whether reinforcements are called up, or the advanced party is ordered to fall back on the support, will depend much on the ground, the enemy's strength, and the distance from the main body ; the object being to give the column time to prepare for action without unnecessarily exposing the men. Whenever the enemy is dislodged from any post or place, the advanced guard must be properly re-formed. It should not pursue, but simply maintain the touch of the enemy. Flanking Parties. When a force on the march is exposed to attack on a flank, it must be protected by parties detached to that flank, moving parallel with the column, but when halted they front towards the enemy. Pig. 48. A BATTALION ON A ROAD RIGHT FLANK THREATENED. o a c * 4 AV ' ' O ^ ' + o V* 34 1- o '=. * a ' B , a D : a a 81 81 A simple example is that of a battalion advancing * Protecting on a road with one flank threatened. It sends out a O f a company to cover that flank ; half being extended at wide intervals, and connecting with the advanced guard, and half acting as support between the flankers and the column (vide Fig. 48). A Rear Guard Is to be considered under two conditions : (a) to an advancing force, (&) covering a force retreating before the enemy. The first is simplest, its duties being chiefly to act * TO an as police, protect baggage from plunderers, watch the a ^ c ^ us waggon drivers, collect stragglers, and guard the rear of the column. But the second is very different. A rear guard * Covering a covering a retreating army should be composed of ie arn i y ln8 the freshest troops, and formed immediately after the armies separate after an engagement. Its duties * Duties. are to check and annoy the enemy, causing him to deploy, and so gain time for the main body to fall back in good order unmolested, or to re-form if in disorder, so that retreat may not be converted into a rout. This object should be effected, if possible, without fighting. It should be about to the whole force, a Proportion miniature army, composed of the three arms, much army, the same as an advanced guard in a forward march. Its distance from the main body depends upon the Distance ground, and if the enemy is pursuing. It should be a'rmy." 3 in constant communication with the column, to which it is kept closer than is usual for an advanced G 82 Formation. * The rear guard of a battalion. To be ac- companied by a party with axes, tools, &c. The command of a rear guard a post of honour. Marshal Key. Duties of the com- mander. guard. It commences its march as soon as all the waggons and baggage have moved off. Its formation is that of an advanced guard turned to the rear, and the proportions are reversed. The actual rear should be a line of skirmishers ; and a support and a reserve marches between them and the column. In the simple case of a company forming the rear guard to a battalion, it should first be turned about ; and when halted its front is to the rear. The dif- ferent portions should then be told off, or dropped in succession. A rear guard ought to be accompanied by a party carrying axes, intrenching tools, and explosives, to enable defiles to be blocked, bridges broken, roads cut up, or the enemy otherwise delayed. If the retreat is on several parallel roads, each column must have its own rear guard. The commander is chosen for skill and bravery. In a retreat he has the post of honour, and very important duties. Marshal Ney was renowned as a rear guard commander. The men must be kept constantly on the alert ; and when attacked, must defend obstinately every hedgerow, copse, or defile. The commander should occupy naturally strong positions across the line of retreat, and make a show of strength, to make the enemy believe his force to be greater than it really is. He should be kept informed of such positions as are suitable for defence, and of any obstacles the main body may meet with on the march, in order to be prepared to hold the enemy in check during the delay caused in passing such obstacle. Flanking 83 How a rear guard should be with- drawn. parties must be instructed to be specially vigilant, * Flanking , . parties so as to anticipate the enemy stealing round, and to ^ e obstructing the main body, e.g. by a neighbouring ford, while the rear guard holds a bridge across the stream. As a rule the object is not to fight, but as soon as the enemy has completed his dispositions to attack, or when the flanks are threatened, the rear guard should quickly withdraw to the next selected position. A rear guard retires under cover of an extended line. Artillery should open fire at longest effective ranges to delay the enemy. Horse artillery should be employed in preference to field artillery ; and it is well for some of the guns to remain in action to the last moment. The retreat is best carried out by alternate por- tions falling back from one position to the next. But touch with the enemy must never be lost, lest the pursuing advanced guard, moving rapidly by another road, overtake the rear guard, and cut it off. The troops must fall back deliberately, and not allow themselves to be thrown into confusion. The time for withdrawing from a rear guard action requires judgment. Night may be well chosen, and camp fires left burning to deceive the enemy. But, on the other hand, a rear guard may be required to hold the ground at any cost for the sake of the army it is protecting. G 2 CHAPTER VI. OUTPOSTS. * INSTRUCTIONS for outposts, advanced, and rear guards are comprised in Part VI. Field Exercises for Infantry. Every soldier should be fully acquainted with this subject. Meaningof Outposts are the " eyes and ears of an army," and just as a sentry over the guard-room door keeps watch while the guard sleeps, so an army can rest securely in camp or bivouac while the outposts are vigilant. They have been aptly compared to the antennae of an insect ; and in the Soldiers Pocket Book the general form of the system is likened to a man's hand with the fingers well opened, the nails being the line of piquets, the middle joints the supports, the knuckles the reserve, and the wrist representing the army to be covered (vide Plate IV.). Result of * One cause of the disasters suffered by the French neglect; 1 " by ^ n their campaign against the Germans in 1870 was the French their having neglected the use of outposts. Thus, early on 4th August of that year, their troops were cooking, and otherwise employed, when suddenly a Gerrnan battery opened fire upon them. Plate IV. o -g Z fc O & 85 And a remarkable instance of a successful sur- prise and night inarch took place in 1811, when, in the Peninsula, General Hill, with 2 brigades of infantry, 2 regiments of cavalry, and some guns, surprised the French General Girard at Arroyo-des- Surprise at Molinos. Hill marched at 2 A.M., and, though he des-Moli- had but a league to move, only arrived a little ^i before 7 A.M. The night was wet and stormy. The French, having neither outposts nor patrols, were completely surprised. One brigade marched down the main street, with the pipes playing : " Hey ! Johnny Cope, are ye waking noo ? " The other brigade marched to the rear of the village, and the whole French force was captured. Outposts are detachments thrown forward in front # General of a force that is halted, to protect it from surprise, disposL- reconnoitre the enemy, and hold him in check if tion - he advances, thus allowing time for the force to prepare for action. They are usually disposed in three lines, viz. piquets, furnishing sentries and patrols; supports; reserve. Ours is a combination of the cordon system and * Object of of patrols ; the former being a chain of double system ; sentries, intended to prevent individuals from passing through the lines ; the latter for keeping out small * and of bodies of the enemy, and giving timely warning of pa his movements. Speaking generally, outposts must vigilantly watch all approaches leading from the enemy, ob- serve all his movements, and report them at once ; if he advances, delay him to the utmost ; and prevent the passage of spies and deserters. 86 Composed * of the advanced guard or the freshest troops.- On what * the com- position of the outpost force depends ; Usually * of cavalry and infantry. Signal * stations. Mounted orderlies. Field Telegraph. Guns. Considera- * tions de- termining the strength. As a rule, the troops composing the advanced guard, being some distance ahead of the main body, form the outposts ; but if these have been engaged on the march, then the freshest troops should be detailed. It is usual for the three arms to be employed ; but the composition of the outpost force depends upon the nature of the country, and the proximity of the enemy. If he is distant, and the country open, cavalry are chiefly employed ; when the enemy is near, and the country inclosed, the duty is best performed by infantry. But for the front to be thoroughly watched, both cavalry and infantry are needed : the former are pushed well forward, espe- cially on the roads; while the infantry secure their retreat, and afford them time to rally. Signal and look-out stations should be established, and a few mounted orderlies distributed to communicate rapidly between the outposts and the main body. Sometimes the field telegraph may be employed. Guns, as a rule, remain with the reserve. They are useful to command bridges, defiles, or high roads. In all cases, the most suitable ground should be allotted to each arm. Various considerations determine the strength of the outposts. For instance, whether they are in- tended merely to watch the enemy, and gradually fall back when attacked; or to oppose his advance on ground selected for defence ; or whether the enemy can advance against the whole line, or any part, or against the flanks, or is restricted to a few approaches; what is the nature of the country, broken or wooded, defensible, and affording available 87 positions to observe the enemy ; the position and enterprise of the enemy. A smaller force will suffice if there are defensible positions. But this must be increased to afford determined resistance to an enemy close at hand and vigilant. Outposts ought not to exceed i the effective Proportion to the strength of the main body. But the number a rmy. employed should be as small as possible, consistently with security, for the duty is most harassing. The principle is for the piquets and supports to * Principle IT n WlliCQ belong to the same battalion, and to consist of the troops complete units, e.g. companies or half-companies detailed. under their own officers ; the supports and piquets being of equal strength. When a single battalion covers itself, the com- panies not required for piquets and supports form the reserve. With a larger force the reserve is composed of separate troops (vide Plate V. page 105). Outposts must be sufficiently in front of the main * Distance body to give the latter time to prepare for attack, the main yet not so far as to risk being cut off. In some cases y * they are pushed well forward to obtain a good view of the country beyond ; but in an inclosed country they are nearer. The Germans, in their campaign against the * Number] of men French in 1870, employed from 300 to 800 men required per mile on outpost duty. With us a strong battalion is considered sufficient to watch effectually a front of two miles, and this estimate tallies with the strength of the Germans at the Battle of Worth, viz., 400 men to a mile. With a large force the general of division notifies 88 Allotment of ground to be watched. Compo- nent parts of the system. Duties of the com- manding officer. The "line of obser- vation." to brigadiers the ground to be occupied ; and brigadiers point out to officers commanding battalions the sections of the line to be watched by each. The component parts of outposts are the chain of double sentries, piquets, supports when required, detached posts, patrols, and reserve, all under a special commander; and if the length of front be great, one such commander has charge of every three miles. In the case of a battalion detailed for outpost duty, a staff officer points out to the commanding officer the extent of front to be occupied, probably indicating some conspicuous house, clump of trees, or other object to mark each flank. The commanding officer selects the companies to furnish the piquets, and makes each captain take down in writing the general line of outposts ; the exact ground occupied by each piquet; what is known of the enemy's position and his movements ; the directions most requisite to patrol ; how to act when attacked ; the extent to which a post should be fortified ; how flags of truce, deserters, and others are to be received ; the nature and frequency of reports ; any changes that appear desirable at night, so that these positions may be examined by day. By the aid of a map, or, if possible, riding over the ground before the arrival of the troops, he deter- mines roughly the line to be occupied by the piquets and their sentries, and then chooses positions for the supports and reserve. * The line of piquets, following a range of hills, the edge of a wood, a river bank, or other natural feature, is the " line of observation," selected so 89 that the sentries may have the best continuous view to the front, and the piquets may give timely warning of danger, affording the army security and rest. On an average distance of 400 yards in rear of * The "line o / / , ,. i T r> i i ^ i resist- the piquets is the line of supports, determined by ance." the most defensible ground available, where the first important stand is to be made. This is called the " line of resistance." The flanks, if possible, should rest on natural * Flanks to be obstacles, e.g. a river or swamp. If not, they must protected. be thrown back, and supported by detached parties, to anticipate a turning movement by the enemy; and the exposed flank should be frequently patrolled. The commanding officer further notices all roads and paths leading from the enemy, inspects the sentries and piquets when posted, altering their positions if necessary. He sifts all information, and reports it at once to the general commanding. Each officer commanding a piquet, before moving * Duties of off, inspects and takes nominal list of his men, command- examines the arms, ammunition, and rations, and s & piquet sees that each N. C. officer has a pencil and paper or marching rough note-book. He marches his piquet to the ground, ground pointed out with great caution, sending forward an advanced guard, with scouts and flankers as the ground may permit, taking every precaution for safety. On the way he should note all accidents of ground likely to be useful to make a stand in retreat, and the general features of the country. Arriving in rear of the intended line of observation, * Qn arrival, the piquet is halted, and a patrol or a small party of skirmishers is pushed on to explore the ground in 90 front. Under cover of these he posts the first relief of double sentries, which, in advancing, open out by files, so as to cover approximately in extended order the whole ground allotted to the piquet to guard. On arriving at the line of observation, if nothing is seen of the enemy, patrols proceed still further, to examine doubtful ground within easy rifle range, and the officer places the sentries in the best situations for seeing without being seen, and com- municating with the sentries of the piquets on his flanks. He should pass from flank to flank in so doing, along the line of sentries, correcting their positions, and, if possible, reducing the number of posts. Another * If the country be open, a piquet may advance to AXay the CI ^8 ground with half the men extended, supported by country is ^ e remainder, and on reaching the position, the officer can withdraw all men not required as sentries from the extended line. Each piquet can watch from 800 to 1,000 yards, or roughly, half a mile of front. Outposts * All outposts must remain under arms and on the under alert until the whole system is completed. arms and ^^ e strength of a piquet depends much on the alert till L ^ i all posted. * nature of the ground. The sentries will be fewer in determines an mc l se d country, and more men will be employed the patrolling. The number of double sentries will strength of a piquet. rarely exceed 4, and these require 3 reliefs. A single sentry is posted over the arms ; and a con- necting sentry also single is sometimes necessary, as when all the double sentries cannot see the piquet. These are in 3 reliefs. The rest of the men are detailed according to circumstances, e.g. to 91 furnish an examining party, or a detached party, and patrols. A piquet is about the strength of an or- dinary company, or half that of a strong one ; usually from 25 to 50 men, and rarely exceeds 60, for more than this number is unmanageable. In considering the distribution of a piquet in an open country strength 1 captain, 2 subalterns, 4 sergeants, and 60 rank and file ; total, all ranks, 67 required to furnish 2 double sentries by day, and 3 more by night, a connecting sentry, a small detached party, and 2 patrols, the men must be selected for each duty according to their capabilities, and the company will be divided somewhat as follows : Example of the dis- tribution of a piquet. For 2 double sentries by day in 3 reliefs .... 12 ,, 3 ,, ,, night ,, ,, .... 18 ,, 1 single connecting sentry ,, ,, .... 3 ,, 1 ,, sentry over arms ,, ,, .... 3 Detached party, 1 subaltern, 1 sergeant, and 9 men . 11 Patrols, 2 sergeants and 7 men ...'.... 9 Remainder for duty, 2 officers, 1 sergeant, and 8 men 11 Total 67 A couple of men, with a field-glass if available, should be posted on an eminence, in a high tree, or tower. Sentries ought not to be too close to their piquet, * lest the enemy attack them and the piquet at once, and the latter will have no time to form for resist- ance. The first posting is tentative, the object being to have the whole front watched, and communication from flank to flank rapidly established. Before deciding whether a man is posted to the best ad- * vantage or not, an officer should place himself exactly in the position of a sentry. Piquet sentries Sentries ^xperi- 6 mentally. The best 92 should have a wide view to the front and flanks, and * command all approaches. No ground between two sentries should be unseen by both. Connection must Sentries be maintained with the sentries of piquets on the uomised." right and left. Their number may often be econo- mised by taking advantage of features of ground. All should be concealed from view of the enemy. Questions * An officer must satisfy himself that his sentries to\aiovr S understand and can answer the following questions : how to j What is known of the enemy ? and. indeed, the answer. whole of the piquet cannot be too soon, or too well, informed on this point. ii. Where are the neighbouring piquets, any detached or advanced parties, and the other sentries ? iii. Where do the roads in sight lead to ? iv. Do they thoroughly understand the code of signals fixed upon? v. Are they sure as to the direction their attention is to be devoted to ? This means the front of their posts ; and that they should know this better a row of stones may be placed in the direction, or a pointed stick laid on two forked props. On a dark night a white rag should be tied round the sight of the rifle. A sentry jnust further have pointed out to him the position of his piquet, and means of access to it, so that he may be able to rejoin it at night and in all weathers. Connect- * ^ ^ e canno * communicate with the piquet, a ing connecting sentry is placed so as to see both. 86 D. tl'lGS Such sentry must repeat all signals. Sometimes a connecting sentry is requisite to maintain commu- 93 nication between the chain of sentries and an advanced or detached post beyond the line. A piquet sentry has no fixed beat or patrol. His duty is properly performed if he sees well to the front and flanks, and can communicate to the flanks and rear by signal in the open, or by word of mouth in an inclosed country. The front and rear rank men of each double * The two sentry need not necessarily be together. The "double'* ground may be better observed in front sometimes sent *y n . ot necessarily by placing them a few paces apart, as when a zigzag together. path in a ravine, or a lower ridge of a hill, cannot be well seen from the crest. It must be explained clearly to a sentry what to do in falling back. He must not fire unless attacked. If posted in a narrow way, or other place where * Sentry he might be surprised, the post should be protected protected by an obstacle, and he should fix bayonets in thick against surprise. weather, or on a dark night, but not by moonlight. A sentry must take care not to be deceived by parties approaching his post, even though precon- certed signals have been arranged for the use of visiting patrols. As far as possible, the same men should mount * g ame men constantly on the same posts, and men for patrolling to mount same posts. employed in the same direction as that in which they were first sent out. Sentries posted with valises on are not to take * Sentries them off. Nor may they lie down except for con- cealment. The best postion for sentries posted in a wood is just inside the outer edge. But if the wood is 94 Where *' extensive, it is preferable not to occupy it. the sen- sentries should be tries being withdrawn a safe distance say 600 to wood. n< 800 yards on the near side, under some made cover. In this case the wood must be constantly patrolled. If it is imperative that the line pass through a wood, the sentries are best posted along a high road, a stream, or a ravine. Usually * Sentries are usually relieved every 2 hours. In every 2 severe weather they may be relieved every hour, hours. Q n being relieved they should be questioned as to what they have seen, and in answering they should not conceal even the most trifling occurrences. Duty of * When a sentry observes the enemy advancing, he ' en the E must signal to the piquet. If it is plain that an at- enemy's ^^ j s intended, he must fire at once, and use all advance. means to alarm the piquet. Position of * By day the best positions for observation are on sen ( j y by high ground, the sentries taking advantage of natural cover, or lying down just behind the crest of hills. As few changes as possible should be made at night, and these determined on during the day. By night. * -A-t night sentries must be advanced down the slopes towards the enemy, in order to see him on the sky line without giving up the advantage of the high ground, while remaining concealed themselves. The shadow of a tree or wall is a great advantage at night. Simple * Simple preconcerted signals should be arranged Si b? al re- t0 ( vide the code under " Advanced Guards," Fig. 42, arranged. p. 72) ; all the piquet must learn them, especially sentries, connecting sentries, and patrols. It must be impressed on every one on outpost duty that 95 information is first obtained by observation, and when so obtained it has to be transmitted. Signalling by flags may often be made use of. A few mounted orderlies are invaluable ; and generally information is more reliable and more quickly brought in by them. On the approach of deserters, they must be ordered * Deserters. to lay down their arms, and be conducted unarmed to the piquet. If one of the piquet deserts to the enemy, a report Precaution of the fact must be at once made to the commander ot - t [ ie of the outposts ; and the parole and countersign Deserts should be at once changed. A flag of truce must be kept at a distance in front * Flag of of the line of sentries, while the piquet is communi- cated with, so that the bearer can get no information or reconnoitre. If he brings a letter, a receipt should be given and the bearer forthwith ordered to depart. In other cases the officer commanding the piquet will detain the flag of truce until he reports to the commander of the outposts, or he will forward the party blindfold under escort to camp. No one is allowed to pass the chain of sentries except at the post of the examining party. Any one who disregards a repeated challenge should be shot. An examining party, or, as it is sometimes called, * Examining an examining guard, consists of 4 or 6 men under a N. C. officer, posted on a main road, running cen- trally through the position ; or, in case of more than one such road,, there may be a party on each. Their duty is to examine persons wishing to pass the chain of sentries ; giving or withholding permission ; or 96 reporting a particular case, awaiting instructions from the commander of the outposts. If there is no examining party, the officer of the nearest piquet performs this duty. It is to the examining party that piquet sentries should direct all persons approaching the line. On coming to the examining party, one man halts the individuals before they can overlook the line of piquets, while another sends word to the N. C. officer. They should be questioned when halted, or blindfolded before allowed to pass. Deserters or suspected spies are sent on at once without questioning to the commander of the outposts, or dealt with specially as may be ordered in each case. Detached * If a point is difficult of access from a piquet, or at post, when . necessary, some distance beyond the general line, and it is in- cumbent to occupy it, or when it is necessary to protect an exposed flank, a detached post is esta- blished under an officer, or a N. C. officer, with sufficient men to furnish the required sentries. The post should be relieved every 6 hours. The com- mander is responsible for the communication be- tween his post and the piquet. His orders should be carefully explained to him and the men before starting, as also the object for which they are de- tached. If such a post is composed of infantry, the sentries should be posted close in front of the party, the reliefs remaining equipped and having their rifles close by them as they sit or lie on the ground. No fires are allowed. If cavalry are em- ployed, their vedettes may be 300 or 400 yards in advance. Only one half should dismount at a time, unless the enemy is known to be at a distance. 97 Communication is kept up between cavalry de- tached posts by means of patrols. When a river or swamp extends along part of the line sentries may be decreased, and observation maintained by patrols, thus giving rest to as many men as possible, consistently with safety. An officer commanding a piquet, having completed his arrangements for the sentries, returns to his piquet, piles arms, and posts a bayonet sentry over the arms, and connecting sentries if necessary. These must keep their attention constantly fixed on the advanced sentries. He should send a report of preliminary dispositions to the commander of the outposts, and direct his second in command with reference to any intrenchment or temporary strength- ening of the post which appears desirable, and as to what patrols are to be sent out. If his piquet furnish a detached post, he should now visit it, to assure himself that it is in the best possible posi- tion, connected with the main line, with reconnoitring patrols in front, and strengthened against a sudden rush upon the sentries. Having written down his instructions, his gene- ral duties are to learn all he can of the surrounding country by means of a field-glass, and comparison with a map; to reconnoitre all paths and roads, noting their direction. But he should not go be- yond reach of the piquet. If he has time and means, it is well to make a rough sketch of the post. He should examine all obstacles and places likely to conceal an enemy, and find out where marshes and streams in his front can be crossed. Let everything be done quietly. No drum or bugle H Further duties of the officer command- ing a piquet. Sentry over arms. 98 No hard and fast rules on outpost duty ; but certain fixed principles. Piquets * numbered. Piquet report. Piquets * generally may not light fires. Precau- * tions when a fire is allowed. sound except the "alert" is permitted. The men should not be allowed to stray from the piquet. All first arrangements are subject to modification by the commander of the outposts or by an officer commanding the piquet himself after careful in- spection. There are no hard and fast rules : an arrangement applicable to one tract of country might be quite unsuited to another. But the prin- ciple to recollect is to watch the country thoroughly in front, and economise sentries by taking advantage of ground. And an officer must make up his mind how to act whatever may happen. An officer in command of a piquet should be provided with a field-glass, a compass, a map, a watch, a note-book with pencil, and a few simple sketching materials. Piquets are numbered from right to left, so that an officer or N. C. officer, to whom a report is made, can identify the exact place in the line of outposts whence it comes. The men should be made acquainted with the number of their piquet. A piquet report should state the number of the piquet it comes from; the hour of despatch; how the information was obtained ; if considered true ; and all particulars of the enemy's troops, if seen. As a rule, piquets are not allowed to light fires, for if they do not take cooked rations with them these are sent them from the rear. If a fire is permitted, it must be carefully screened behind a wall, bank, or other cover, so that neither light nor smoke is visible from the front. Wet sods or earth should be handy, to extinguish the fire at a moment's warning. 99 An alarm post should always be fixed a short * Alarm distance in rear of the fire, affording concealment, so that the enemy will be exposed in advancing. The men of each relief should pile arms together ; * Reliefs and the reliefs be kept separate from the patrols and separate. from each other, so as not to disturb the rest when going out. All the men, or part only at a time, are usually allowed to take off their valises. Every man should keep his own close beside him. If an attack is expected, part of the piquet must * When all piquets be kept under arms. The whole must invariably should be be under arms before daylight. With regard to its sentries, vedettes, or detached * Position of parties, a piquet is an anchor or rallying point. It to its should be posted centrally about 400 yards in rear of sentnes - the sentries it furnishes. But it cannot always be so placed, because it must command all approaches, and be under cover if possible. Its best position, there- fore, is near a road, concealed, but ready to move in any direction, communicating with its sentries, the piquets on its flanks, and the supports. Above all, it must have a good line of retreat. The general disposition of piquets depends on the configuration of the ground, the atmosphere, the vigilance and proximity of the enemy. Roughly, piquets may be from 600 to 800 yards apart ; but in an open country and in clear weather they may be further. Another consideration is, thev must be sufficiently * Pl 2 u ts , J must afford near to afford mutual aid to one another in retreat mutual by an efficient flanking fire. They should not be too close in front of the supports, for fear of demo- ralising the latter, if driven in, nor too far distant to H 2 100 receive timely assistance if Lard pressed. By a piquet being concealed near a road likely to be used by the enemy in his advance, the enemy must attack in order to discover it. Should not * occupy A piquet should not occupy a building or inclosed without* vai> d or garden, unless ordered. orders. j^ o fg cer commanding a piquet or support must Posts to be * strength- strengthen his post when practicable by a breastwork or abattis. Some such means should be extemporised At a bridge * to protect the men when defending a ford or a bridge, or ford. . the piquet being posted on the near side, while the far side, if not too distant, is watched by sentries or At a small * patrols. The same is true if the piquet is at a small village or defile. village or defile. If a piquet is posted in a defile, it must be protected from a sudden rush by obstacles. Bn t ^ e not * A bridge should not be broken, nor a main road broken, blocked with material difficult to remove, as the army nor main . road may have to use such bridge or road. Flank ' * ^ ^ an ^ pii ue t> unprotected by a natural obstacle, piquet should be rather withdrawn, and supported by a unpro- tected detached party. supported. & piquet may occupy a wood if thinly planted, and there is a clear view of the front from the far edge, along which the sentries are placed. The piquet should be near the sentries, posted centrally. Piquet in * If this is not possible, it is best to withdraw both a wood. . -' piquet and sentries to the near side to guard against surprise, and explore the wood frequently by patrols. Instances, however, may occur when it is necessary to run the line through a thickly wooded district, and then the piquets are best placed along a road, stream, line of hills, &c., traversing the wood laterally. Many and small piquets are here preferable to a few 101 strong ones ; and the supports must be brought much closer. A point regarding roads deserves notice, viz. : When roads from the front converge, they should unite in advance of the piquets, and roads passing round the flank to the rear should be carefully watched." The rule is for supports to be furnished by the same corps as the piquets ; and the supports together should be of equal strength to the piquets. Thus 4 companies on piquet will have 4 in support. The number usually depends on the number of main approaches to be watched. There need not be a support to every piquet, but often there is one for two or three piquets, placed centrally in rear of them, on or near a main road. Their distance in rear of the piquets varies from 400 to 600 yards. The principle is to have them near enough to be useful, but not so near as to be involved in the retreat if the piquets are driven in. But the supports might in exceptional cases be much nearer, or even on the very same ground as the piquets, when this affords the best defensible position. A suitable position for a support is a village or defile on the line of retreat. By means of patrols and connecting sentries a support must communicate with the supports on its right and left, the piquets in front, and the reserve ; a bayonet sentry, mounted over the arms of a support, keeps constant watch on the piquets in front. The strictness of routine insisted on with piquets is somewhat relaxed with supports. But they must ^ st P oillt of con- vergence Supports strength to piquets. Not eo each piquet. * Principle their dlstance m Strictness of routine relaxed with supports 102 be ready to march at a moment's notice, by day or night, to any required point, or to remain on the defensive. They can generally light fires and cook. In this case they prepare dinners for the piquets. But if no fires are allowed, and no cooked rations are carried, the food must be sent up from the reserve. When practicable, hot food should be provided for troops on outpost duty. Changes * Changes in dispositions for night duty should be for night J to be determined during the day. All ranks must be \^day. acquainted with the ground, so that sentries may watch well, and be regularly relieved, and patrols may move with confidence, and no unnecessary fatigue. Disposi- * At night the piquets occupy all obligatory points of piquets of passage along which the enemy may attack. In by night an i nc i ose ^ country instead of furnishing a con- tinuous chain, the double sentries are posted to watch all roads, paths, and avenues leading from the front, with reliefs close by to signal the enemy's advance; as in attacking he will confine himself to the approaches. But the intervening ground must nevertheless be constantly patrolled by small parties, of a N. C. officer and a couple of men. If the country is open, there must be more double sentries, all pushed down to the low ground, and then patrolling will not be so much needed. In some cases it may be desirable to contract the front at night, and bring the supports closer. The original positions are resumed at daylight. Reason for * Daybreak being the hour when attacks are gene- being rally made, the utmost vigilance must be exercised Daybreak! at ^ at time. For this reason outposts are relieved 103 at daybreak, so that both the old and new piquets may be available to resist. On being relieved, the officer commanding the old * Duties of officer piquet accompanies the relieving officer round the command- chain of sentries, points out the locality, and gives piquet on him all information in his power. If everything relief, is quiet in front, and the weather clear, the old piquet falls back to the support, and then returns to camp. But if on the way firing is heard, it must instantly turn back, and assist .the new piquet. An officer commanding a piquet must make up * Conduct of his mind definitely what to do if attacked, and choose when a line of retreat that will not ma.sk the fire of the attacked. supports any longer than necessary. On being first attacked he will reinforce his line of sentries with part of or all his men, and send word or signal to the adjoining piquets and to the supports. The sentries hold their ground till their flanks are turned, then fall back, step by step, in extended order, taking care to keep clear of the other piquets and of the supports, so that the enemy may be met by a direct and flanking fire. The piquets retire slowly, in echelon, or alternately, on the supports, who by this time should be judiciously extended on the strongest available ground. If the enemy is repulsed or withdraws, the piquets advance and take up their old ground. They must not pursue, but a cavalry patrol should follow him up, see where he halts, and maintain the touch. In the event of a night attack the sentries fall * During a back on the piquets, who, being carefully posted attack, beforehand, ought to be able to meet the enemy advantageously. 104 Position of * The reserve forma a general support to the whole outpost line of piquets and supports, and should be from ^ to ^ the strength of the troops employed, posted from 500 to 1,000 yards in rear of the sup- ports, centrally and out of sight ; not necessarily in one body, but it may be subdivided to hold im- portant points, e.g. two denies or bridges on different lines of retreat. The men may bivouac, cook, eat, smoke, and rest, but must be always ready to act at a moment's notice. The officer commanding the outposts remains with the reserve. All reports should be sent in to him. The reserve must be in constant communication with the outposts by signallers, mounted orderlies, and the field telegraph, which last usually conects it with head-quarters. Composed The reserve is usually composed of the three arms. three arms. Artillery is useful when it can be posted within cannon range, but beyond rifle range, of any place where the enemy must advance in column before deploying. Guns. Guns should be limbered up near a main road, but never in an inclosure. For the defence of a defile they should be unlimbered ready for action. They are sometimes posted with the supports and piquets, but if far advanced are liable to capture. They ought to command effectually any bridge or defile by which an enemy must advance, protected if necessary by a small body of infantry extended in front, or to one flank. The general duty of the reserve is to assist the supports and piquets, or to occupy a previously selected position with a view to covering their retreat. Plate V. O i- -r W 1 2 a. z co o >. Q ,UJ CO i Q OC - CO 105 Plate V. gives some idea of the disposition of a brigade of the three arms on outpost duty hy day. The outpost force should be as far in advance of the army it has to cover as possible consistently with safety. This distance depends upon the position of the ground chosen for the " line of resistance." There is no fixed rule, but the object to be kept in view is the delay of the enemy beyond the effective fire of artillery, which may be taken roughly at 2,000 yards, so that the camp may not be shelled by the enemy. Sentries on outpost duty pay no compliments. * Sentries If a superior officer visits a piquet the officer in compli- command of it reports to him, but the men take no notice unless addressed. On the approach of the commander of the outposts, the men stand to their arms only when so ordered. Three kinds of patrols are to be noticed as em- * Three ployed on outpost duty : (1) visiting, (2) exploring patrols. or reconnoitring these two are furnished by the piquets, (3) strong patrols, of a strength exceeding 12 men, sometimes sent out from the supports or reserve. Of these seriatim : A visiting patrol goes round the sentries between * Visiting reliefs to test their vigilance, ascertain if they are alert, if they have anything to report, or require assistance to examine doubtful objects, and to relieve cases of sickness. It consists of an officer, or more usually a N. C. officer or old soldier, and one or two men. Such patrol encourages the sentries and maintains communication between them and the piquet. Its usual route, after communicating with the nearest sentry of the piquet on one flank, is to 106 proceed cautiously along the front to the nearest sentry of the piquet on the other flank, returning to its own piquet by the rear (vide Fig. 49). Object of * In order that the sentries may distinguish the signals. patrol from foes a preconcerted signal should be arranged to be given, e.g. a cough, a whistle, the cry of a wild bird by night, or a handkerchief held in the hand by day. The sentries will not then be disturbed. The signal should be acknowledged by the sentries. When * Such patrolling is the chief guarantee of safety, P fs T< mos^ an d is especially necessary in a close country, in bad required. weather, and at night. In foggy or thick weather sentries must be constantly visited, and all woods, ravines, and places where an enemy could collect must be examined, sometimes specially. Patrols may be less frequent in an open country, and in clear weather, or if the line of sentries can be overlooked from some point near at hand, and reports are often obtained from thence as to the state of things. If the piquet is weak, reliefs must act as visiting patrols. Exploring * Exploring, or, as sometimes called, reconnoitring or recon- patrols, are best adapted for examining ground not patrols. visible to the sentries, and for giving timely notice of the enemy's advance. They are sent along roads for f to 1 mile towards the enemy, and consist of the smallest number of men that will perform the duty ; but they must be the smartest arid most intelligent. Their duty is to reconnoitre, and not to fight. Mode of * Proceeding along roads they should listen from time to time for sounds of men moving through O PATROLS 107 the fields or woods. On meeting the enemy, they should avoid firing, but if he advances they must fire to warn the piquet. They may not talk, smoke, or allow their arms to clatter. They ought to notice landmarks and other objects, and make marks with stones, or by breaking a branch, &c., so as to find the way back. If possible, .it is best to return by a different way. Such a patrol moves like a small ad- vanced guard. It should not be less than 3 men. There are many formations, according to ground. A point protects the front, and flankers the most ex- posed flank, at from 50 to 100 paces distance, so as to see best without showing themselves, supporting and assisting each other, yet not being so close as to risk all being cut off and captured (vide Fig. 50). One man moves behind another along the hedge- rows, by the sides of roads, and on soft ground in preference to the centre. Their difficulty is to guard against surprise in a close country, and against being seen in the open. When a small patrol reaches a hill, one man * Ascending ascends the slope very cautiously and looks over the brow ; another follows at a distance, and then the rest, so that all may not be cut off. But when possible the flanks of all objects should be turned * Flanks to T-I t* e turned, before venturing beyond. For further instructions as to these patrols, vide " Advanced Guards. " Whatever information is obtained must be trans- * Transmis- mitted to the rear by means of the established oMn- signals, without attracting the enemy's attention, telhgence. and to be of any value it must be early, ample, and accurate. A strong patrol resembles a reconnoitring patrol, 108 A strong * but is stronger, and not necessarily secret. It is sent out when necessary from the supports or reserve, and may be a troop or company. Its object is to press back the enemy's reconnoitring patrols, and by engaging a post to try to dislodge it, so as to ascertain what is behind, and what the enemy is doing. Although acting offensively, it ought not to advance beyond a mile. A mounted man should accompany, to bring back information. A strong patrol is occasionally sent out before day- break. Great caution is then needed so as not to come unawares upon the enemy forming for attack at daylight. Reconnais- It may here be remarked that a reconnaissance in iu force. force, composed of the three arms, is sometimes pushed forward to find out the enemy's strength and position, and is often followed by an engagement. Patrols to * Patrols should avoid unnecessary firing, unless the needless enemy is advancing in force, and the troops in rear false must be aroused. Every one on outpost duty should alarms. carefully avoid giving false alarms, which break the rest of the main body, and cause inattention to signals if really attacked. The most prudent course for a strong patrol is to retire steadily unperceived, after obtaining touch with the enemy, gaining the requisite information ; and, if so ordered, taking a few prisoners for further knowledge. Cavalry As outposts are frequently composed of both infantry and cavalry, it is well to know that a cavalry piquet, consisting of from half a troop to a troop, will watch about a mile of country, furnishing, as a rule, not more than 3 pair of vedettes about 600 yards in front of it. Half only of a cavalry piquet Fry. 51. 2 rnchf-t ts> 1 milt . K0.6Z. 109 should be fed at one time. Saddles should be re- moved only once in 12 hours, bridles only for water- ing and feeding. A few horses only should be watered at a time, if the water is at a distance. Vedettes should be placed from 20 to 30 yards apart, near enough to communicate when required, but not to carry on conversation. They should have their carbines drawn, loaded, and at the "advance." Lancers should remove or furl their lance flags. A cavalry piquet should have ground in front of it suitable for aggressive action if called upon. Cavalry would only be employed in support when the ground is very open, and suitable for their action. Usually the main brunt of resistance falls on the infantry. If there are cavalry supports, there should be one to every two or three cavalry piquets. A cavalry reserve is from 1,200 to 2,000 yards in rear of the supports. The best time for practising outposts is in summer, though in favourable weather instruction may be combined with winter route-marching. If but few men are on parade, they should represent a reason- able part of the whole, the rest being imagined ; and when limited to roads, the occupation of the intervening country must be taken into account (vide Fig. 51). Officers and N. C. officers ought first to be allowed to complete and explain their arrangements, and afterwards such modifications as appear necessary should be pointed out. Vedettes. When cavalry forms the support. Practice of outpost duty to be as like reality as possible. CHAPTER VII. Adminis- trative considera- tions in peace. Tactical considera- tions at other times. Advantage of a well regulated "order of march." MARCHES. IN peace time, or when not near the enemy, administrative considerations are allowed to prepon- derate, and the comfort of the troops may be studied. With several roads at disposal, we should give the infantry the shortest, cavalry the softest, guns the hardest and smoothest. Having only one road available, cavalry and artillery should march an hour or two before the infantry ; first, to avoid their being fatigued by conforming to the slower pace of the latter, and secondly, because they have much more labour at the conclusion of the march. But in the vicinity of the enemy tactical con- siderations are paramount, and the "order of march" must be such as can be rapidly converted into an " order of battle." A well regulated order of march greatly conduces to the success of military operations. No obstacle, short of sheer impossibility, should prevent a com- mander arriving at the destination ordered at the time appointed. A march must be carried out with celerity, and troops should be efficient at the end of it. This Ill result can only be obtained by training, and re- ducing the weight the soldier has to carry. The pace of a long column is irregular, fatiguing, and more tedious. Hence, when practicable, a large force marches by several roads, communication being maintained between them ; and the arrange- ments must be such as to insure the different columns reaching certain fixed positions simul- taneously. Approaching the enemy, the different arms march in the order they will probably have to come into action e.g. the guns near the head of the column, and cavalry in rear, although it is so harassing for them to regulate their pace by that of the infantry. The following rules for arranging a march should always be borne in mind, viz : i. Never parade a moment sooner than neces- sary ; and troops should be allowed to join the line of march direct from their camps. ii. When a column on the march has to retrace its steps, " tarn about," and do not countermarch. iii. If possible, avoid night marches. iv. Take care that two columns do not cross each other on the march. The Field Exercises (Part vii.) give clear directions for the conduct of route-marching. They are based on the orders framed 'by General Crawfurd for his celebrated Light Division in the Peninsula War. As a rule, infantry for comfort and convenience march in fours, and observe the " rule of the road." But crossing open ground, or on very wide roads, such as are common on the Continent, the front may be increased to column of companies, half-companies, Necessity for training and reducing weight to be carried. Use several roads when possible for a large force. Rules for arranging a march. Route- marching. * Infantry usually march in fours, sometimes on a wider front. 112 or sections. In certain circumstances infantry may also move in mass of quarter columns, or in line. * The baggage of a single battalion should follow on the line . . . of march, it; but in brigade the baggage of the different battalions follows in rear of the brigade in the same order as battalions stand in column. They must never march in the intervals between battalions. The only vehicles allowed immediately to accompany the troops are a water-cart and ammunition-cart per battalion, with perhaps an ambulance as may be ordered. Discipline * The "line of march" is the occasion, above all to be enforced. others, when strict discipline must be enforced ; and it is in movements by rail, road, and water, Falling out* that good conduct is most conspicuous. No man no t be may fall out without permission ; and as halts are necessary, ordered after the first half-hour, and every subse- quent hour, there ought to be no reason for men to leave the ranks. Object of * Intervals are necessary between the different units to absorb accidental checks, and to avoid stepping out or closing up. But opening out, which troops are liable to do especially in warm weather, must not be allowed. With good discipline this tailing off should not exceed more than | the length of the column. But with indifferent troops, and care- less officers, it will be much more perhaps doubling Evil effects* that length. And this is a matter which may be off. fraught with evil consequences ; for a division, confined to a single road, should occupy 7 or 8 miles, and will require ordinarily about 2 hours to form for action ; but if, owing to extreme opening out, it takes an hour or two more to get the rear 113 of the column into position, and the enemy mean- while attacks in earnest, there is serious risk of defeat in detail. Each company must conform to any deviation of the preceding company. When halted, the head of each battalion stands fast, and the companies in rear will close up when completely formed, unless a movement to a flank is contemplated. No battalion, company, or section is ever to defile, diminish its front, or attempt to avoid a bad spot on the road, unless the preceding battalion or company has done so. On coming to a stream, or bad place, the men are not to be allowed to deviate from the direct course, although it may be convenient for them individually to do so. Officers must be on the alert to prevent this. Captains will go to the heads of their companies, and field officers to the heads of their respective half-battalions, and remain till their commands have passed, to see orders obeyed. When absolutely necessary, defiling must be executed with order and precision, by proper words of command, preceded by " attention." It is better to pass pools of water, ditches, and other obstacles with a full front ; for by defiling or picking the way a battalion is delayed ten minutes, and consequently a 'brigade half an hour sufficient to upset any previous calculation for the execution of a time-march, and this might affect the plan of operations. If delay unavoidably occurs, the head of a com- pany, after passing the bad place, must step short till the rest close well up; it will then rejoin the I * Troops conform to the head of the column. * Defiling, &c., forbidden unless preceding troops have done * Delay resulting from defiling. 114 preceding company by an increase of pace, or on arriving at the next check. Connect- * When intervals are great, files should be sent case of on to keep up connection between companies and int^als. battalions. _ If a certain company cannot keep up, word should be passed by supernumeraries to the head of the column, and the commanding officer will check the pace. The rule to remember is to keep companies intact. Matters * The rate of marching is influenced by training, ^atTof discipline, numbers, weather, and roads. A company marching. can move a cer tain number of miles more easily than a battalion, and a battalion than a brigade. The dust of large bodies of troops is oppressive. Fitting * Officers and N. C. officers must see that the men's f shoes 1 shoes and socks fit well, and are in good repair. and socks. Shoes with low heels and broad soles are the best. The feet should be well washed, and the bottom of Remedy * the socks soaped before marching. A good remedy 'feet* 6 f r sore ^ ee ^ mentioned in the Soldiers Pocket Book, is to bathe them at night in tepid water, with a little alum dissolved in it ; and to rub the tender parts with soft soap, or any sort of grease. Spirits and water applied to the feet is the best preventive against blisters. If, however, blisters rise, they should be pricked, but the skin must not be torn off. Breakfast * The men should breakfast before starting. But startin^ the hour of starting depends on the season, climate, Hour for * and distance to be got over. 5 or 6 A.M. is usual, starting. But by the ofi g cial account o f sir F. Roberts's march from Kabul to Kandahar, it appears that for the 115 first few stages the troops turned out at 2.45 A.M., and marched at 4.30. Later, when the thermometer stood at 100 in the shade at 4 P.M., they started earlier, at 2.30 A.M. It is usual to halt for 10 minutes after the first * Periodical halts. half hour. A little longer halt may be made about midway, when the march exceeds 10 miles. If the column is long, a simultaneous halt should be arranged by signal or otherwise. In an ordinary march the advanced and rear guard calls are sounded on the bugle, and then the halt. In order to give the men the full benefit of the rest, there should be no needless closing up or dressing. Troops must not be halted in villages, nor in a village^or defile, if in the vicinity of the enemy. defiles near the enemy. By column of route is meant a formation moving * Column of on a road with a narrow front on the line of march. With infantry it is column of fours, the length of * Length of a battalion which is equal to the front in line, or twice as many in fours. feet as there are files. With a battalion of 8 com- panies of 100 men each, this will be 275 yards. Cavalry usually move in column of route by sections, four abreast, the length of which is the same number of yards as there are horses in the ranks ; in the case of a regiment of 4 squadrons of 100 sabres each this will be 400 yards. Or, they * Of a may be in columns of half-sections, two abreast, regiment when the length of the regiment will be 800 yards. ^ c jjjj? In neither sections nor half-sections are squadron sections. intervals maintained. The usual column of route for artillery has a * of a field front of one carriage. The length of a field battery, b ^ y with or without waggons, is calculated at 19 yards waggons. I 2 116 Of a field * battery without waggons. Of a horse artillery battery without Distances. Ordinary * rate of infantry. for each vehicle, less 4 yards, the last carriage being taken as 15 yards. Thus the length of a field battery with waggons will be 19x12 4 = 224 yards ; without waggons, 19 x6 4 = 110 yards. In a battery of horse artillery, each gun detach- ment consists of 10 mounted men. Each horse's length is 8 feet, and the distance between horses 4 yards = 12 feet. Therefore, each detachment, two abreast, requires 5 x 4 = 20 yards. The length of a battery without waggons will then be 6 X 19 - 4 + 20 X 6 = 230 yards. The distances on the march between battalions is at least 30 paces to allow room for the bands, &c. The distance maintained between cavalry and the other arms is 25 yards. The distances on the march between batteries = half a subdivision, interval 9^ yards ; between carriages, 4 yards; between files, 4 feet. The dis- tance between artillery and the other arms is 1| gun intervals, or as is usual with 6 horses, 28|- yards. These distances, however, may be relaxed ascend- ing or descending hills : and if the width of the road permit, carriages may move up alongside each other to lock or unlock the wheels with the dragshoe. Infantry at the ordinary pace moving in small bodies, including slight checks, but not halts, marches at the rate of 3 miles an hour = 88 yards a minute. The paces of the mounted services are, at a walk, 4 miles; at a trot, 8 miles ; at a gallop, 12 miles an hour. 117 The rate of march of cavalry and horse artillery on fair roads, alternately trotting and walking, is 5 miles an hour = 146 yards a minute. The rate of field artillery may be taken, under the same circumstances, at 4 miles an hour= 117 yards a minute. Small bodies of the three arms combined, if un- encumbered and on good roads, may be depended on to move at the ordinary infantry rate 3 miles an hour. But a division of all arms complete, even on fair roads, will not march faster than 2 to 2f miles : and an 'army corps than 1|- to 2 miles an hour. If, for example, there is a small force consisting of 2 companies of infantry, each 100 strong in fours ; A field battery without waggons ; 2 companies of infantry, each 100 strong in fours ; 1 squadron, 96 horses, in sections, the length of the column of route is found as follows : 200' 2 companies in fours -5- = 67 yards. Distance 28^ ,, Battery, 19 x 6 - 4 =110 Distance 28J Ordinary rate of cavalry and horse artillery. Ordinary rate of field artillery. Ordinary rate of a division of all arms. Example of a small mixed force in column of route. f 200 ' 2 companies in fours -x- = 67 3 Distance 25 1 squadron in sections 96 horses = 96 Total length of column 422 yards. The front of this force drawn up in line will be * Its front 499 314 yards (mdi Fig. 52). It will take _ = 5 88 minutes to pass a certain point. And if it is ordered 118 Time * to move to a place 12 miles and 1,080 yards distant, on the an d then deploy by 10 A.M., assuming the pace tarou g hout to be 3 miles an hour, when should it ployraent. march off? The distance, 12 miles and 1,080 yards, requires 4 hours, 12 min. Add 5 minutes for the last section to move off \ - ~ the ground, and 5 more for the rear to deploy J 4 hours, 22 min. The troops should, therefore, start at 38 minutes past 5 A.M. Punctu- * Punctuality in concentrating a body of troops in a certain position is most essential. It is equally a mistake to arrive too soon as too late. Time- marches should be practised, the arrangements being left to the officers commanding the different units. Time * Thus, suppose two battalions are ordered to arrive ""Two a ^ a village by 12 noon by two different roads, found on battalions. a map to j^ g m Q es ^QgQ yards, and 8 miles 700 yards distant respectively, when should each march off ? 6 miles takes 2 hours, -^- =12 minutes; there- 88 fore the first battalion requires 2 hours 12 minutes, and should move off at 9.48 A.M. 8 miles takes 2 hours 40 minutes, r = 8 min- 88 utes ; therefore the second battalion requires 2 hours 48 minutes, and should move at 9.12 A.M., or 36 minutes before the first battalion. Time * A company is ordered to a cross road on a moor, ma [^ distant by road 5 miles 540 yards ; a second company companies. i s directed to the crest of a hill, distant 6 miles 450 yards, at what hour should each march, so as to arrive simultaneously at 10 A.M. ? 119 540 5 miles takes 1 hour 40 minutes, - - = 6 minutes, 88 therefore the first company requires 1 hour 46 minutes ; and should march at 8.14 A.M. 450 6 miles takes 2 hours, - - = 5 minutes, therefore 88 the second company requires 2 hours and 5 minutes, and should march at 7.55 A.M. Again, two troops of cavalry are ordered to rendezvous by 10 A.M. by different roads, found on the map to be 8 miles 1,600 yards, and 10 miles 730 yards long respectively, when should each start ? The speed is taken at 5 miles an hour. 8 miles requires 1 hour 36 minutes, - ? ^=11 146 minutes, therefore the first troop requires 1 hour 47 minutes, and should march at 8.13 A.M. 730 10 miles requires 2 hours, - ' = 5 minutes, there- fore the second troop requires 2 hours 5 minutes, and should march at 7.55 A.M. If an infantry brigade (3 battalions of 1,000 rank and file each), 1 field battery, and 2 squadrons of cavalry each 54 files, are ordered to a camping ground 12 miles distant, and there are three avail- able good roads, of which one is allotted to each arm, when should the troops march off, so as to arrive at noon ? The infantry, at 3 miles an hour, requires 4 hours, marches at 8 A.M. The artillery, at 4 miles an hour, requires 3 hours, marches at 9 A.M. The cavalry, at 5 miles an hour, requires 2 hours 24 minutes, marches at 9.36 A.M. Time march of two troops. 'Time march of a mixed brigade by three roads. 120 And by one road. Meaning of a flank march. When dangerous. Disposi- tions. A night march. Guides and land- marks. If the whole were limited to one road, the rate will be governed by the infantry, making the time 4 hours, and the troops must march at 8 A.M. * A flank march occurs when one flank is exposed to attack, as when an army is marching in a certain direction, and the enemy is moving perpendicularly to the line of march. It is dangerous only when the enemy is within striking distance. To be suc- cessful the troops must be highly trained and well led. The commander will doubtless have had ample warning, and can arrange his order of march accord- ingly. The march must be completed rapidly, and yet the troops must be always on the alert to receive an attack in front and in flank. Guns should be distributed between the front and rear of the column. The main body of the cavalry should be on the side furthest from the enemy, lest, if on the other side, they are driven in disorder upon the column before it can form up. But part of the cavalry must reconnoitre the whole exposed flank, as well as the front, scouting further towards the enemy if the country is open ; and a body of infantry should always support them. Any defiles on the exposed flank must be explored, and guarded if possible. Every precaution should be taken to conceal the march by keeping woods, marshes, streams, ravines, and other features of the ground on the side nearest the enemy. * A night march should not be undertaken unless O absolutely necessary ; for the direction may be lost, troops get into disorder, and are done up for the * following day. Landmarks ought to be fixed before- hand along the routes; a guide should lead every ORDER OF MARCH OF A DIVISION. ivision '2 Troop ~ -. Sf< 'K/.V '? Trfop 400 \A /'z Troops "t Company: Jtifles 3CC I . Guns | Section, cf Engineers u-itJt. pack her. 'jurn\ ses ) 2". 1 * Brigcidf rtuird i IT 2-;r_Lutr ofslrti / Companies ItifLcj ll'ayytmj j. 4- Guns. Q SmalLArrr, T M^//iv/M/^Ai *st D 7 AaJtulion* I 1^ryade ) I ?i Squadrons- favcdry ^Ammunidcn } H Column, Compojaj of Enr/inters + Artillery Waggons. Co? from ? nft 2>rifffid y Fvficf. farts i BH Ambulance lOOOtolSOO A / H ffl Fueld Hospitals Advanced- G-uard t^bout 4,OO0 Yards 3fain,ody 7.MO Total ti.cva 121 column; and intelligent men should be left by the advanced troops at cross-roads to indicate the way to the rest. The bayonet alone should be used in a night action, and no firing. The successful attack on Tel-el-Kebir, before daylight, is fresh in memory. The enemy's position was not shaken by artillery fire, and the Egyptians were surprised, having no outposts. How the late Commander Rawson, R.N., guided the attacking columns by the stars, and the wonderful discipline and steadiness of the troops on that occasion, are matters of history. Some idea of the composition, strength, and ex- tent on one road of an infantry division may be obtained by reference to Plate VI., which represents the order of march recommended by the quarter- master general. Allowing for opening out half a mile between the rear of the advanced guard and the head of the column, and between the rear of the column and the head of the baggage convoy, the whole covers from 7 to 8 miles ; which is one basis of rough calculation of the time required for the ad- vanced guard to " contain " an enemy, to enable the whole to take position in line of battle. A day's march is usually from 1 2 to 15 miles, with a halt every fourth or fifth day. From 15 to 20 miles a day can be done exceptionally. Beyond 20 miles a day would be considered forced march- ing. But in 1813, for three days previous to the battle of Leipsic, the French army marched 30 miles a day. Bad roads, however, make a vast difference. Thus, Tel-el- Kebir. Order of march of an infantry division. An ordinary day's march. Often exceeded. * French in 1813 before Leipsic. 122 Effect of * bad roads, e.g. Blucher, "Wavre to Waterloo, * 1815. Road blocked with Canrobert at Magenta * "1859. Some. notable marches. Napoleon * from Boulogne to the Rhine, 1809. Sherman from Atlanta to * Savannah, 1863. Marshal Blucher, hurrying the Prussian army from Wavre to our assistance at Waterloo in 1815, could only move 1| miles an hour. Again, when a good road was blocked with baggage, Marshal Canrobert's corps advancing to support the French guard at the battle of Magenta in 1859, took 5 hours to accomplish 9 miles. Some notable marches have taken place ; and, to show what can be achieved, a few are briefly referred to. They should be carefully read in history. In September 1809, Napoleon marched from Boulogne to the Rhine with 150,000 infantry. He was joined by cavalry and artillery on the way. The distance marched was 400 miles in 25 days, at the rate of 20 miles a day, or, including halts, 16 miles. His object was to surprise the Austrian army, and he encountered no opposition. But this remarkable march occurred before telegraphs were invented and intelligence could be rapidly transmitted. In Alison's History of Europe it is stated that the instructions given by Napoleon to all the chiefs of the grand army for the tracing of all their- routes and the regulation of their movements were as perfect a model of the combinations of the general as the fidelity and accuracy with which they were followed were of the discipline and efficiency of his soldiers. The stages and places of rest, the daily marches of every regiment, were pointed out with undeviating accuracy over the immense distance from Cherbourg to Homburg. In November, 1863, the American General Sher- man marched from Atlanta, the capital of the State 123 of Georgia, to Savannah, a port on the Atlantic, 250 miles, with 60,000 infantry, 5,500 cavalry, and 60 guns, meeting constant opposition and obstruction, in 27 days. " All the troops were provided with good waggon trains, loaded with ammunition and supplies about 20 days' bread, 40 days' sugar and coffee, a double allowance of salt for 40 days, beef cattle for 40 days' supply. The waggons also carried 3 days' forage and grain. All were instructed by a judicious system of foraging to maintain this order of things as long as possible, living chiefly, if not solely, on the country." In August, 1880, General Sir F. Roberts, with * Sir F. 7,500 infantry, 1,600 cavalry, and 18 mountain from 7-pounder guns, and 8,000 camp-followers total, Kandahar 18,000 men and nearly 9,000 animals marched from 188 - Kabul to Kandahar, 321 miles, in 23 days, at an actual rate of 15 J miles a day, or, including halts, 14 miles. No wheeled guns or transport accom- panied, but everything was carried on pack animals. There was no opposition. Lastly, in Napier's History of the Peninsula we * Crawfurd's read that on the 29th July, 1809, Brigadier R. division to Crawfurd, with the 43rd, 52nd, and 95th, reached Wellington's camp after the battle of Talavera, and immediately took charge of the outposts. After a march of 20 miles, Crawfurd, fearing for the army, allowed only a few hours' rest, and then, withdrawing about 50 of the weakest from the ranks, recom- menced his march with a resolution not to halt until the field of battle was reached. Leaving only 17 stragglers behind, the brigade crossed the field of 124 battle in a close and compact body, having in that time passed over 62 English miles in the hottest season of the year, the men carrying from 50 to 60 Ibs. weight upon their shoulders. Transport by Railway. Notice to * The regulations are laid down in the last pages of master. the Field Exercises. Sufficient notice should be given Married * to the station-master. Women and children must be at the station half an hour before the departure of the train, conveyed in cabs, or army service waggons if available, in charge of a N. C. officer provided with a nominal roll. He will see them at once into the Light * carriages. Officers' light baggage, with the servants baggage. . as a guard, should arrive at the same time. After placing the baggage in the train, the servants enter the carriages allotted to them. An officer or N. C. officer will go before, and with the station-master chalk the letters of the companies Adjutant * on the footboards of the carriages. In the case of a markers. battalion, the adjutant should precede by about ten minutes, accompanied by a marker from each com- pany, one for the band, and one for the guard, whom he will place along the platform, standing beside the train, abreast of the compartment where the head of each company will rest. These N. C. officers should have a note of the exact numbers proceeding. Capacity of * As a rule, a compartment intended for 10 ordinary ments. passengers will be allotted to 8 soldiers ; and one for 8 ordinary passengers to 6 soldiers. Each company, arriving at its marker, will be 125 halted, and ordered to face the train. Arms will be grounded. The men nearest the train must be * Embarka- tion, careful that the muzzles of the rifles do not project beyond the platform. At the command, " Take off valises," one man of each compartment enters and places his valise under the seat, and his rifle on the seat ; then he takes, and places similarly, those of . the other men in regular order, so that each man's valise is under his own seat. Haversacks and water- bottles are turned round to the front. The men take up arms and enter the carriages. Each man retains hold of his rifle, unless the commanding officer allows them to be placed over the valises. But they are never to be placed on the floor. Perfect silence must be maintained. No man is to put his head out of window, nor is he to leave his carriage without permission. On arrival at the destination, the men get out * Disem- with their rifles, and fall in as when they embarked. The last man in the compartment hands out the valises. Arms are grounded, accoutrements and haversacks adjusted, and the valises put on. Arms are then taken up, and the companies marched out of the station in their original order. Or the com- manding officer may order the markers to be placed in a convenient space. CHAPTER VIII. MINOR OPERATIONS, CERTAIN operations in war require some special notice. These are the conduct and attack of con- voys ; the defence and attack of houses, villages, and woods ; the defence and passage of a defile, and of a river. Conduct * A convoy is an attendant force on the march, i.e. of a convoy. the escort required for the defence of transport other than the train accompanying an army. But the term is generally applied to the transport itself. It may be either moving from the base, in the same direc- tion as the army, carrying provisions and clothing ; or from the front to the rear with sick, wounded, and prisoners, no single line of waggons should cover more than a mile of road. If there are more car- riages, divide them into detachments, and send them as different convoys. The principle is on the march to afford the greatest amount of safety to what is most valuable, and to place the pack animals in front, for wheels cut up the road. If the road is wide enough for 3 carriages, and the order of march is likely to be undisturbed for an 127 hour, move two carriages abreast. But if the road narrows frequently, passing villages, and crossing streams, adhere to single file. The regulation 4 yards distance should be maintained between car- riages, except when ascending hills. If the road is steep, double-horse each carriage, and ascend in two divisions. To avoid accidents and overloading in consequence, a percentage of spare carriages, wheels, poles, &c., should be provided. Short halts should be made at regular intervals to rest the horses, and close up the column. On a long journey the convoy should be parked for feeding in a spot convenient for moving on. The horses must not be taken out of the shafts, but fed with forage carried for them on the waggons. The value of the convoy, the length of the journey, and the friendliness or otherwise of the country, determine the strength and composition of the escort. As a rule, it is chiefly infantry, with enough cavalry to reconnoitre, and a party of engineers to remove obstacles, and repair passages and bad parts of the road. Guns are sometimes added. The escort is necessarily disseminated, because of the length and weakness of the convoy ; but it should not be need- lessly divided, and a force must be kept ready to meet the chief attack. There should be an advanced and rear-guard and flankers, and small parties detached from the main body to the head and tail of the column. Cavalry are best suited for the advanced guard, to explore the country and discover ambuscades and the direction of any impending attack. Considera- tions determin- ing strength and composi- tion of escort. Disposi- tion of escort. 128 Escort of * prisoners. Duty of escort of prisoners when attacked. Arrange- ment of a mixed convoy. Informa- tion before starting. Their patrols should reconnoitre at least 5 miles to the front and flanks. This must be specially done before starting after halting at night. If the leading waggons are stopped there will be a block ; therefore, some infantry should march at the head to check a dash made by cavalry. A similar party should be at the rear. The usual position for the main body is central, when the convoy does not exceed a mile in length. But in an inclosed country it is better at the end which is most threatened, and it may detach a small party to the centre (vide Fig. 53). The usual strength for an escort of prisoners is 10 infantry and 1 cavalry soldier to every 100 prisoners, occasionally with guns added. The escort is more subdivided to suppress insubordination. When halted for the night, guards must be mounted. If a convoy of prisoners is attacked, the escort should remain close to them, as the enemy will not risk killing their own people by firing. To prevent escape the prisoners should be ordered to lie down. In the case of a mixed convoy, consisting of ammunition, provisions, materiel and clothing, wounded and prisoners, the arrangement on the march should be first the ammunition, then the provisions, last of all, the effects and clothing. The officer commanding before starting should obtain information of the road, places for halting and billeting, where the enemy is, where he may expect attack, and where he may take refuge in case of retreat. A 4-horse waggon occupies 12 yards in the convoy. The rate of travel may be taken on a good road Fi iy CONDUCT OFA CONVOY. u 129 at 2|- miles ; in a hilly country at 1 1 miles an hour. Every precaution must be taken against surprise. Towns, villages, and defiles should be avoided. On coming to a river or bridge, supposing the rear to be secure, the reserve should cross first ; if it is not, the reserve should follow. If both front and rear are threatened, the main body may be divided. Detachments should be sent on from the reserve to occupy a defile. The convoy must close up on the widest front. Advanced and rear guards are with- drawn. Then the defile is reconnoitred. The ad- vanced guard first passes, and proceeds far enough to admit of the convoy being parked in rear beyond the defile. The reserve occupies the high ground in the direction of the enemy. If the convoy consists of powder and combustibles, let nothing else be placed in the carriages, and no one must ride on them. Forbid smoking. Do not enter villages, and, unless specially ordered, move only at a walk. An intelligent soldier should be told off to each carriage, or if the escort is weak, to every 2 or 3 carriages; or mounted men may be distributed to superintend and see that the column is well closed up and the drivers obey. Prompt obedience must be insisted on from the drivers, but neither they nor their horses should suffer ill-treatment. About | hour after starting, halt for about 10 minutes, and afterwards at similar intervals. But take care to halt clear of bridges and all obstacles. If the drivers are civilians, and are specially Rate of march. Pre- cautions against surprise. Crossing a river or bridge. Passing a defile. Pre- cautions with powder, &c. Duties of men accom- panying the carriages. Halts. 130 As a rule avoid fighting. How best to meet a superior force. Distin- guish between a real and a false attack. Conduct if escort is defeated. requisitioned, they must be well watched, as in the confusion of an attack they may cut the traces and desert with their horses. All needless fighting should be avoided. But if the enemy has occupied defiles, or commanding ground, endangering the march, he should be at- tacked with all the force that can be spared to dis- lodge him, detachments being left with the convoy, which should continue to advance unless the road is stopped. When the enemy is dispersed, he should not be pursued. If a superior force of the enemy is reported, it is best to halt, and park the carriages, if possible, in some inclosure near the road, forming an intrench- ment, and to collect the escort. But if it is impos- sible to quit the road, the carriages should be closed up in double files, and part of the escort sent forward to delay the enemy. If the enemy makes two separate attacks, a real attack should be distinguished from a false attack ; and if the escort is not strong enough to meet both, unite it, and first fall on one attack, then on the other. On no account is a detachment posted to defend one part of the convoy to quit its post and assist another, without distinct orders. If the attack succeeds, try to get away with part of the convoy. But if none can be saved, endeavour to save the horses. When the head of the column is attacked, main- tain order, and turn the carriages carefully, lest the road be blocked. If pursued closely, upset a couple of waggons. If attacked by surprise by a strong force in flank, 131 concentrate the escort, and do the best to save part. When the enemy is not reported in superior force, "When the enemy is it will not be necessary to park, nor even to halt. not The escort should take up a position covering the flank threatened, and move along with the convoy. If the enemy is inferior in strength, part of the When he is T inferior, escort should advance, and disperse them. When obliged to halt on the near side of a defile, while it is being reconnoitred, it is well to park the leading half of the convoy, which may feed and rest, while the second half passes through and parks on the other side. The other half will then follow. The best way to park simply for a halt, is to form * Parking the waggons in several lines, 25 yards apart, axle- for a halt- tree to axle-tree, poles and shafts in the same direc- tion ; the horses being picketed in front of their respective waggons. But in order to resist an attack, draw up the wag- * To resist i i -i , attack, gons in a square or oval, in one rank ; or better in two ranks, if there is sufficient interior space. When the waggons are placed axle-tree to axle-tree the barrier will be stronger ; but when end to end, they will give more space. The horses are picketed in- side, opposite the waggons. The men of the escort can fire from the corners, and between the waggons. When ammunition is parked, the carriages should be massed close together, and the escort should take up a defensive position at a distance, to prevent the enemy firing on the convoy. Ammunition must be defended to the last ; and everything which cannot be saved should be destroyed. Should there be no time for parking when K 2 132 When * attacked, close up the waggons in double files, and time. turn the horses inwards, to shelter from cavalry. Disposi- * When halting for the night, choose a defensible tions when .. . . . halted. position, in an uninhabited place, with good water near. Post piquets and send out patrols, and make every disposition to prevent surprise. Convoy by * When a convoy is in boats, one half the escort should be in the boats ; the other half on land, by the river or canal bank, disposed much in the same way as for a convoy moving by land. They must reconnoitre well, and protect the convoy. In case of attack they will be reinforced by the men in the boats. Infantry * Infantry will generally be in the boats, while the US boats l] cavalry on land reconnoitre ; and if this duty is cavalry on efficiently performed, so that timely notice of an l&QCL* enemy is given, the infantry can be easily landed. Whereas, if the infantry march along the banks, the men are fatigued, and the convoy retarded. Sometimes * But ascending streams, the progress is slower, and on land. it is advisable for some infantry to march on land to protect the horses and drivers. Connect- * Connecting files should pass intelligence between the farthest patrols and the river. Conduct Should the convoy be attacked by water, if there attacked are an y g uns > they should fire on the enemy's boats, and the infantry fire on his men. If the enemy is signalled approaching by land, collect and draw the convoy to the opposite side. If the attack be made, halt, and land the escort, keeping the boats ready for re-embarkation. Should the escort be defeated, part of the convoy 133 should endeavour to escape at the best. The boats should be sunk rather than surrender. When possible, let the escort retire fighting, then take to the boats, and rejoin the convoy. When attacked on both banks, the escort must be divided. The best way to attack a convoy by water is by ambush, and at favourable points on the river. Ascertain when it is likely to pass, and act secretly. Fire with artillery on the leading boats, and with musketry on the boatmen. If the convoy is not brought to a standstill, bring all available men into action, follow the convoy, and keep up the fire. If the leading boats are disabled or surrender, the rest will probably do the same. An attack on a convoy on land will have greatest chance of success if made while the convoy is moving through difficult ground, or a defile ; when parking after a march, or starting after a halt. It ought to be a surprise, so as to give the column no time to close up, or the escort to concentrate. It will be more difficult if the convoy reconnoitres well. The most disadvantageous spot to the convoy should be chosen, or an ambush may be laid. The attack should be vigorously made on the flanks in an open country ; on the extremities in an inclosed country ; or, let part of the convoy enter a defile, or part issue from it, and then attack. Cavalry is chiefly employed. Perhaps the attacking force will be of this arm, with the remaining infantry, and some guns added. If the attacking force is superior, it may fall at once on the head, rear, and centre ; or part may In case of defeat. Attack of a con% r oy by water. Attack of a convoy on land. When attacking force is superior. 134 When it is inferior. Action if attack is successful. head the convoy, while the main body defeats the escort in detail. But if the force is very inferior, it is best only to make an attempt on the rear, and to hang on the line of march to delay and harass the convoy. Without guns an attack on a convoy, closed up or parked, will not probably succeed, unless with a superior force. It is advisable to feint at many points in order to disseminate the escort, and to hare a reserve. If the attack succeeds, move off the carriages quickly ; and in case there is danger of recapture, remove what is most valuable. If nothing can be removed, take away the horses, and burn the convoy. Escort to * Sometimes foraging parties require an escort, and parties? *' ts strength and composition depend on the nature of the country, the distance to be proceeded, and the proximity of the enemy. After clearing the country of the- enemy, the escort should be disposed in a chain of posts, with at reserve- in front of the district to be foraged. Piquets should be placed on the approaches, and infantry and cavalry patrols pushed on in front. The posts should be so far to the front as will allow time for the foraging parties to mount, and support the escort, or retire in good order. In foraging a village, place a chain of sentries round it, to prevent all but the parties detailed from entering. If the inhabitants do not carry out the forage, parties must be sent in to collect it. An armed party should patrol round the village to prevent straggling and disorder. To forage * a village. 135 Defence of a Souse. A well-built house, capable of holding at least half a company, may be turned into a small fortifi- cation, without much labour, so as to afford cover and an obstacle. The selection is generally made in reference to an extended position, a detached post, a bridge, &c. (vide Fig. 54). It should be sheltered from artillery fire when possible. But this cannot always be, and a good defence can still be made if precautions are taken to put out fires caused by shells, and all inflammable substances removed. A brick house with slated or tiled roof is the best ; for stone splinters under artillery fire ; and wooden or thatched houses easily catch fire. A flat roof enables the defenders to fire over the parapet wall by means of loopholes or sand-bags. Parts of the house should flank each other. For this object bay windows and porches are useful. Any cellars give some accommodation, or else splinter-proofs may be built behind a second wall, for shells burst at the first wall. These will render men fairly safe, and protect them from falling splinters during the cannonade which precedes the advance of the enemy's infantry. The defensive measures to be taken are the very first thing to clear the field of fire. To loophole the outer walls, providing, when pos- sible, flanking fire, and making two rows on the ground floor if not pressed for time. The loopholes of the upper rooms should be sloped well down to see as close to the foot of the Avail as possible. Some Choice of a house. Shelter from artillery when possible. Brick better than stone. Cellars. * Defensive measures. * Clear field of fire. 136 Barricade doors and windows. Remove glass. * must be made at the salient angles. When walls Loopholes, are very thick, loopholes are more easily made under the eaves, where they are thinner. Low walls or flat roofs should be prepared for men kneeling. If the roof is high-pitched and tiled, the single tiles just above the eaves should be removed. * Strongly barricade the doors and windows on the basement and ground floor to the height of about 6 feet, with boxes and casks filled with cinders, earth, or anything else handy ; or by bullet-proof timber fastened by struts. Loophole the upper part of the doors and window-shutters. The men inside * can use the furniture as a step. Remove all glass. The up stairs windows need not be barricaded, but sheets or blankets should be hung across the lower parts to hide the men from view. Rolls of carpets, mattrasses, sand-bags, &c., may be piled up 6 feet high, as a protection, with openings left to fire through. * If there is no flank defence afforded by the building itself, build out a tambour, at an angle, on a projecting gallery, on the upper floor, from which to fire down. Ditches should be cut outside the lower windows and doors, and obstacles strewed round them to prevent the enemy from closing. Cut communications through partition walls, and leave one entrance on the least exposed side for communication or retreat. Loophole the porch inside the door (vide Fig. 55). In preparing an obstinate defence, remove the staircases, and loophole the upper floors, communi- cating with the latter by ladders. Provide flank defence. Obstacle?. * Communi- cations. FO RTI Fl ED HOUSE. DEFENCE OF A HOUSE 136 137 If breaching is feared, support the upper floor with beams, and have material ready to barricade the breach. Provide against fire by removing thatched roofs. * Pre ~ cautions Cover the floors with wet earth or dung. Place against barrels of water and wet blankets in each room, and detail a few men specially as firemen. For the defence of a farm or a group of buildings, * Defence of . . , a farm or similar precautions must be taken on a larger scale. group of Boundary walls should be occupied, to obtain a good distribution of fire, attending to flank defences. Open as far as possible in the rear any small out- houses useless for defence. Loophole only the walls commanding the enemy's line of attack. What houses are occupied should flank each other, and see into the boundaries. Make the best communi- cations between them, and arrange one as a keep. Such a farm or group of houses, holding 2 or 3 companies, often becomes a good tactical pivot. Attack on a House. Employ guns and rockets before the assault, to * Artillery. clear the way for the infantry by destroying obstacles, making a breach or setting a building on fire. If we have no artillery, at least two different attacks * At least should be arranged on different sides, and an attempt attacks. made with ladders to get in by the roof. An ex- tended line precedes the storming party, getting as * Extended close to the houses as any cover will allow, for the nearer they are the less will they be exposed to fire from loopholes of unflanked buildings, because of the difficulty of obliquing and depressing the rifles. 138 party. They aim at the loopholes, unbarricaded windows, and other vulnerable parts. Under cover of this Storming * fire the storming parties advance, generally on the angles, and endeavour to blow in the doors or lower windows, or to force them open with crowbars, or a piece of heavy timber. An effort may be made to undermine the walls, while a ladder party tries the Any thatched or wooden outhouses should be set on fire, and even a fire of straw or brushwood close to the walls will shake the confidence of the defenders. A reserve must be kept in hand to follow up success, to cover retreat, and to prevent aid being rendered to the defenders. Burn what * roof. is inflam- mable. Reserve. When villages are useful. Disad- vantages. Defence of Villages. Villages are useful in a defensive line as sup- porting points or pivots ; but we should compare the number of men required to hold a similar front in the open, and see if the garrison required for the village will be more than its position is worth. They possess the advantages of being made defensible in the shortest time, and of being de- fended obstinately for a long time ; they shelter the troops before an attack ; and conceal their disposi- tion, and those of troops in rear. On the other hand, the defenders are scattered, and it is difficult to supervise them. Artillery fire causes loss by splinters, &c., and shells may set buildings on fire. A village may be a pivot on the main line, an advanced post or outpost, or a reserve post ; and the DEFENCE OF V I LLACES SALIENT VILLAGE, i f/ouse prepared^ for dcfenw. Trrm .Abatis . ntanaleJnent . helter Trench . Wall . BROADSIDE VILLAGE Jfouse prepared for defence. & \Abatis waiiiEntangrlernertt' fvj from which they may come round and take the assailants in flank. In a few instances small parties may be concealed in the wood if it admits of their action. 149 When possible, guns should be posted so as to bring a heavy fire on a wood in front, without endangering the defenders retiring, and the latter should have their line of retreat clearly pointed out, so that they can fall back by detachments, while the enemy's troops, having attacked and gained the wood with loss, will probably be in disorder and unwilling to quit cover, especially in face of artillery fire. If the wood be set on fire to any great extent we should evacuate it, and take up a position in rear. Heavy fire of artillery on wood. Dangerous operation. Attack of a Wood. A large wood is injurious to an army on the offensive. But small woods may be very useful, masking troops, concealing reserves, and sometimes enabling cavalry to act opportunely on the flanks of an attack. Troops attacking a wood are in ignorance of what force there is within, how it is disposed, and how it may be sheltered. It is a dangerous and difficult operation. Tactical formations cannot be carried out, therefore an attack on a wood strongly held would be only justifiable when the object in view cannot be attained otherwise. We must learn what we can of the interior from * Obtain all maps and the inhabitants, and reconnoitre well the formation." front and flanks, endeavouring to know how the wood is held, and where the enemy has his infantry and guns, and where are his weak points. A false attack may make him show his position. The defenders will probably have imperfect com- munication, and the supports and reserves less under 150 control than in the open, whereas the assailants will Two or * have complete communication and supervision. It attacks at is, therefore, best to make two or three distinct though simultaneous attacks instead of one. As an attack made in the open to be successful generally presupposes superiority of force, much more is this necessary when the enemy is sheltered behind trees, walls, shelter trenches, &c. Artillery must prepare the way with deliberation, all the guns available being brought into position, and divided into as many divisions as there are Artillery * attacks. The fire should be rapid ; those guns sup- porting all attacks may support each other for a time in succession, firing at the points selected to be forced. They may advance to within 1,500 yards, as probably there will not be many guns in the wood, lufantry. * Under this fire the infantry will make the actual attack, the supports moving close up to the fighting line, and they will try to force the breach and effect a lodgment. If the edge of the wood is gained a sufficiently strong body must be collected before advancing further, and then the line must move carefully and steadily, with supports on the flanks, ready to meet any counter attack by the enemy. Re-form # Before issuing from a wood troops must be before advancing re-formed, further. Defence of a Defile. Meaning of* A defile is any ground over which troops must a defile. ., ., , . necessarily pass with a very narrow front in pro- portion to their strength, so that the extent of front limits the number of combatants, and enables a weak force to contend successfully against one much 151 stronger. But a defile may be turned, or possibly avoided altogether, by the enemy discovering a mountain path, or crossing a stream by a neigh- bouring ford, the existence of which was unknown to the defenders holding a bridge. Hence the latter should look out well to anticipate these movements and be ready to take the enemy in flank while he is searching for another point of passage. Although the term is usually applied to a moun- tain pass, or a road traversing a forest, yet it also includes railway cuttings, hollow roads, streets, causeways, embankments over swampy ground, and all bridges. The road itself should not be cut up, nor obstacles difficult of removal be constructed, unless it is known that we shall not require the road ourselves, and it is determined to deny the use of it to the enemy. The most effectual defence is to be made by occupying a position on our own side of the defile, extending on both sides, so that every gun and rifle can be brought to bear upon the head of the enemy's column as he debouches. Another way is by taking up a strong position somewhere within the defile, blocking the road with obstacles, and placing the men under the best available cover. This is practicable if the flanks are inaccessible, or made tolerably secure, but not otherwise, nor should it be adopted if part of the defending army has not yet passed through. When this is the case the defile must be held on the enemy's side, infantry being disposed according to the ground in a chain of small posts guarding the front and flanks, and the guns commanding the chief As a rule, the road must not be cut. Defensive position on our own side. Position within the defile. Position on the enemy's side. 152 approaches. The rest of the army will then pass to the further side of the defile, and take up the best position to protect the gradual withdrawal of the defending troops. But a position on the enemy's side should not be occupied under other circumstances, unless there is no ground in rear suitable for defence, Disadvan- or it is specially desired to prevent the enemy Position. entering the defile, or part of a retreating army has not got through. For if the defenders are driven back into the defile in their rear, the retreat may be converted into a rout, and great loss entailed. Mountain * In the case of a mountain defile, traversing strong ground, when the heights on each side are difficult of access, a stand may safely be made at the entrance nearest the enemy, infantry being extended along the heights commanding the defile, to make sure of the flanks, while the road is barricaded, and the infantry must make a stubborn defence. But if the heights have no command over the road, the stand must be made further to the rear, either in the defile itself or at the exit. Attack on a Defile. Duty of * Supposing it is required to make an attack on a attacking defile like the last referred .to, so long as the de- hold the heights, no advance is possible, therefore, parties of infantry must precede, to ascend the heights and clear them of defenders, while the Artillery. guns destroy the obstacles and any cover in the defile. This done, a party of infantry will seize the Seizure of * passage, with the bayonet if necessary. The further passage. advance must be made cautiously, flanking parties always working along the heights, and an advanced i. 66, TETE DE PONT. Tig. ^7. SALIENT BEND. Tig. 59. STRAIGHT REACH. Ttg.60. USUAL POSITION OF A FORD. Shallow 153 guard thrown out on the road itself, followed by some * Caution in guns as near the front as is safe, ready to take advance, position on the further side. Supports must be close up, in case further opposition is experienced. Defence of a Bridge. The same principle obtains as in the case of other * Best defiles, and the best position is on our own side of usually on the bridge, due precaution being taken to watch the ^ide roads on the other side. But sometimes a village is built on a river, and on both banks ; then the houses, hedges, and walls must be placed in a state of defence and occupied, lest they are made use of by the enemy. If, however, we are not strong enough to do this, level the buildings on the enemy's side as far as possible, and clear the field of fise. Again, if the bridge is in rear of the village, the enemy's side must be held. The dispositions of both artillery and infantry * All should be such as to bring the greatest amount of g re to bear fire on the bridge itself and the ground beyond. on the bridge. If a field work is made by way of a tete-de-pont, * NO road it must be closed, and no road leading to the bridge s le ^ must pass through the work, but outside it, so that through a tete-de- the defenders of the work may not be affected by pont. their friends retiring, or by the enemy in pursuit. The troops retiring may assemble behind the work, and file over the bridge, while the enemy will be exposed to the fire of the tete-de-pont (vide position F! S- 56 )' bridle By a comparison of Figs. 57 and 58, it is evident * over a winding that a bridge situated in a bend of the river river. 154 re-entering to the enemy is much more capable of defence than one in a salient bend. But if a When a * temporary floating bridge is constructed, a straight reach is piece of the river will be more suitable (vide Fig. 59), e> as the current runs more easily, there are fewer eddies, and the approaches to the banks are likely to be good. Attack on a Bridge. The general plan of attack may be understood by reference to Fig. 38 representing a battalion advancing across a bridge in contact with the enemy (ante, p. 55). Artillery * But artillery must first cannonade his position previous to before the infantry advances. These will move on infantry j n extended order, keeping up a continuous fire, advance. and making .the best use of cover. Should a single building be occupied defensively, a party must be told off to attack it, so as not to delay the general advance ; but if the enemy is in force on our side, the houses must be shelled, and cleared of defenders, before the bridge itself can be stormed. Defence of a Ford. Limit of * A ford should not be deeper than 3 feet for infantry, 4 feet for cavalry, and 2 feet 6 inches for artillery and waggons. The best ways to find a ford are to see where wheel tracks enter the river on Discovery * one side and come out on the other ; by questioning >r ' the people ; by finding out what communication there is between houses on the banks facing each other ; by taking the depths in a boat ; by noticing 155 bends in the river where the current is strong and broken. It is well to know that when a river flows through a bed which has not a homogeneous geological structure throughout, the current will hollow out the softer parts, the straight course will be deflected, and the current will not continue straight, but will * be again deflected. This is the origin of the serpen- tine course of rivers. The deepest part follows the strongest current, as indicated by the thick line in Fig. 60, and is called by the Germans the "thalweg" (or valley-way). Thus a ford is gene- rally found in the direction from one convex part to the next opposite, diagonally across the river, while the opposite concave parts will be the deepest, and the banks near them steep. We must always defend a ford on our own side of * the river. For if we defended it on the other, and were forced back, the enemy would learn where it was. As in the case of a bridge, fire must be concentrated. A ford may be made impassable by deepening it, or placing trunks of trees, stakes, harrows, or other impediments. But if we require to use the ford this should not be done. General direction in a winding river. Reasons for defending a ford on our own side. Attack of a Ford. When troops approach the river bank they must first find the ford, and the crossing will be slow and on a small front. Therefore, artillery should first commence fire, and endeavour to clear the other side. Infantry should line the bank, on each side Artillery opens the attack. 156 Infantry * and under their fire some guns and cavalry, with infantry in support, should cross quickly, and establish themselves on the further side. Hold in * force certain points only, but carefully watch the whole line. Post * reserve centrally. Recon- * noitre frequently. Defence of a River. The enemy's object will be to pass over a part of his troops and establish himself on our side of the river, and under cover of these the rest of his men will cross with comparative safety. The first party over must naturally be weak, and should be easily overwhelmed. But if reinforcements succeed in following, troops should be ready to oppose them. It is out of the question to hold a great length of river, and the enemy will assuredly adopt ruses, and feint at different points. Therefore, we should only hold in force the weakest points, e.g. bridges and fords, and dispose a series of advanced posts to watch carefully the whole line, while the main body is posted in one or two central positions, ready to move to any point that may be threatened. Frequent reconnaissances should be made, and a good system of communication established, so that counter attacks may be prepared ; for a mere passive defence will avail little. When the river is broad there will be greater difficulty in throwing a bridge and in crossing by boats. But when it is narrow, and the ground on our side is suitable for defence, it may be better to offer a weak resistance at the point of crossing, and to make the chief stand at some previously selected position across the enemy's probable line of advance. 157 Passage of a River. From what has been remarked under the head of * Selection Bridges, it will be seen that when a bridge is well f or held and defended, an attack upon it will most crossing. likely entail loss. It is, therefore, best to choose some point of crossing in a bend of the river concave to the defenders, with firm ground on both sides, and where the bank on our side is the highest. By these means guns can be quickly brought up to direct a converging fire on the enemy's position. But they should not be brought into action until the last moment. A hamlet, wood, or some other shelter should be * Shelter on looked for on the opposite side, which will cover the opposite advanced party when first moved across, and enable bank - them to hold their own till reinforced. Sometimes confluent streams and islands may be made use of in the passage. All available boats, material for bridges, and other * Boats and requisites should be collected under cover, and troops massed in rear of neighbouring heights. Detach- ments should also make feints to distract the enemy. When all is ready a cannonade should be opened * Under , artillery on the opposite bank, the guns being specially cannonade. directed against the enemy's artillery. As soon as the other side is cleared of defenders, the covering * Covering party should be sent over as quickly as possible, and crosses they, when once established, must strengthen their post, and defend it obstinately against any counter attack, pending the arrival of reinforcements. Besides boats, rafts may be used, and even some of the men 158 may swim across, their arms and accoutrements being carried for them. A feint It may happen that a party detached to make a may sometimes feint is unopposed, and an opportunity may offer to act on the enemy's flank. But if the party is small, no risk should be run of being overpowered on the other side unless they can join hands with the troops attacking at the main crossing. Passage Perhaps the best instance of a successful passage Douro, to refer to is that of the river Douro by Sir Arthur Wellesley on the 12th May, 1809, in presence of the French army under Marshal Soult (vide Plate IX.). Near Oporto the river takes a sharp bend round the Serra rock on the left bank, opposite to which was an isolated building called the Seminary. Sir Arthur Wellesley observed that his guns from this rock could sweep the opposite bank, and that its position hid the passage of barges; also, that the Seminary was a strong building, capable of holding 2 battalions, easy of access from the river, but sur- rounded by a high wall on the other three sides. He collected secretly his troops behind the Serra rock, placed 18 guns on the summit, and detached a brigade under General Murray to Avintas with orders to send down more boats, and if possible to cross there himself. When Sir Arthur Wellesley heard that Murray had found boats, he sent 1 officer and 25 men over in a barge to the Seminary, and reinforcements quickly followed. % boat-loads crossed before the French were alarmed ; they then tried to storm the Seminary, but our guns swept the left of the Plate IX. 159 building, and confined the assault to one side, where the musketry drove them back. Meanwhile, the in- habitants brought over several great boats, by which the Guards crossed, and passing through the town took the French in rear, while Murray's brigade appeared, coming from Avintas ; so the French, sur- prised, and fearing to be cut off, abandoned their sick and 50 guns, and retreated in great disorder towards Amarante. The panic was so great that a squadron of the 14th dragoons cut their way through 3 battalions in a hollow road, and so complete was the surprise that Sir Arthur Wellesley sat down in Soult's quarters to the dinner prepared for that marshal. Again, on the 7th October, 1813, Wellington * Passage crossed, with the allied army, over the river Bidassoa, Bidassoa into France with very little loss, that river being held by Marshal Soult. Wellington manoeuvred to distract Soult, and succeeded in crossing at different points, partly by a bridge left unbroken by the French, who were driven from a strong intrenched position above it, and partly by a ford near Irun, pointed out at low water by a countryman. The French, falsely secure from the strength of * Kesult of a ground, neglected to watch the mouth of the river, a ut and were surprised. Barricades. A barricade to block up a street or road is made * How im- by cutting a ditch across it, throwing the earth into a parapet at least 7 feet high, and facing it with 160 paving stones. But if there is little time, bags, boxes, baskets of coal, ashes, manure, sacks of corn, casks, or other solid materials from the neighbour- ing houses, may be formed into a parapet, while planks laid on chairs, tables, or casks may serve as the step for the defenders to stand on. Carts, carriages, wheelbarrows, and furniture may be strewed in front as obstacles (vide Figs. 61 and 62). adjoining * Adjoining houses should be loopholed to afford a flanking fire. To prevent a barricade in a main street being turned, any streets leading to the rear of it should be similarly blocked. Attack of a* To attack a barricade, artillery should breach it. barricade. -_ ., , . -,,-, If guns are not available, some men should try to enter neighbouring houses, and fire from the upper rooms and roofs upon the defenders. A passage may be forced from one house to another until the rear of the barricade is reached, and a party should try to turn it by passing down another street leading behind it. STREET BARRICADE BARRICADE CHAPTER IX. OBSTACLES AND OTHER ACCESSORIES TO DEFENCE. MORE than two hundred years ago, Sir William Temple said : " In all sieges the hearts of men defend the walls, and not the walls the men." And this is as true now as then, with respect to holding any post or other position which it is our duty to defend. The defence of Rorke's Drift in * J Drift, South Africa in 1879 is a most brilliant example, 1879. where two subalterns and about 130 men success- fully withstood the attacks for hours of an enemy flushed with victory, and in overwhelming numbers. The officers had presence of mind, and applied their knowledge of field fortification in the limited time and means at their disposal. The object of all defensive works is to enable a * Works weaker to resist a stronger force. When it is possible, engineers superintend troops of the line. But they may not always be available, and there are many instances where unskilled labour may be turned to account, with a little knowledge on the part of the officer?, who should remember not to M 162 rely on the works themselves, which are but auxiliaries to the defending troops, and a passive resistance is easily overcome. Obstacles are most efficient when placed some little distance in front of the parapet, say from 80 to 100 yards, in the case of a small work ; but in front of a line of works, this distance may be greater. Then the attacking troops, detained under musketry fire, will have to overcome the obstacles, and be thrown into disorder, and then have to assault and get into the works. Conditions * The conditions to be fulfilled by all obstacles, fulfilled by are : They should be hidden from the enemy's obstacles. distant view and fire, which is usually effected by a glacis ; be defended by heavy fire ; and be strong enough to form serious impediments. They should be under close musketry fire, i.e. within 300 yards of the defending line; but not too close, lest the defenders be disadvantageously affected by the close proximity of an attacking force. They must afford no cover to the enemy, and they cannot do this if within effective range. If possible, they should be protected from the enemy's artillery fire, so as to be intact when his infantry comes up to them ; and be difficult to remove or surmount; and lastly arranged with gaps sufficiently large to allow a counter attack to be made ; e.g. 150 yards is enough for half a battalion to extend for attack, and for cavalry and artillery to pass. Different * The chief obstacles are abattis, entanglements, use. palisades, fraises, military pits, pickets, crowsfeet, gabion band trip, hurdles, chevaux-de-frise, and an inundation. ABATTIS. 64- WIRE ENTANGLEMENT. 163 Abattis are felled trees, the trunks and stoutest * Abattis. limbs being cut 12 to 15 feet long, and laid as close together as possible, with the branches towards the enemy, and pointed, at least 5 feet high, with the butts buried in the ground, secured by stout stakes, or by logs laid across several butts. The smaller branches and leaves are removed, so as not to give cover. They are placed upright in the ditch, at the foot of the counterscarp ; or more usually beyond the ditch in a trench, 2| feet deep, protected from artillery fire by an advanced glacis 2^- feet high (vide Fig. 63). As an estimate of time, 6 men will cut and fix 1 tree to cover 3 yards of ground in 1 hour. And 20 men will make 2 rows, 30 yards long, in 6 hours, when the trees are small and close at hand ; half the men felling, pointing the branches, and dragging the trees into position ; the other half fixing them, and picketing down the butts. The tools required are 6 felling axes, 2 hand axes, 6 bill-hooks, 2 hand saws, 2 mallets, and drag ropes. Hard, tough wood is best. Pine is worst, being easily broken and burnt. To fell trees men should work in gangs of 3 one with a saw, one with an axe, the third with a rope to haul the tree over on the required side, to be indi- cated by a nick. 3 such men in a gang will fell a moderately sized oak tree in 3 hours, and a fir tree in 10 minutes. Backwoodsmen, as in America, work much quicker with axes. Entanglements are excellent in a wooded country, * Entangle- ments, affording means of using a wood, which otherwise would give cover to an enemy. They were much M 2 164 employed in the American Civil War/They are made by half sawing the .trees through, and pegging them down, so as to interlace- each other. A wire entanglement is good both against infantry and cavalry. It consists of wire stretched across stout stakes, 4 feet to 7 feet apart, arranged in rows chequer- wise, the wire crossing diagonally and twisted round the heads of the stakes 1 or 2 inches above the ground. No. 14 B.W. gauge is the most convenient size 1 mile in length weighing 90 Ibs. This obstacle is rapidly prepared, very portable, little injured by artillery fire, and impassable by cavalry. It is most effective when at least 10 yards deep, and concealed with brushwood and small bushes (vide Fig. 64). 5 men will make 50 yards of this entanglement in length, by 10 yards in depth, in 10 hours, with 900 yards of wire. They require 3 bill-hooks, 1 mallet, 2 pairs of pincers, 150 pickets. A wood, if felled for 20 or 30 yards, forms a good obstacle alone. Palisades. * Palisades are roughly squared timber about 6 inches square, cut through diagonally, so that the longest sides are about 8 inches, making a stout paling to guard against assault. Their usual height is 10 feet, with 3 feet buried in the ground. They are kept together by 2 ribands, one underground, the other near the top, both being on the inside, and are placed 4 inches apart, which spaces should be ac- curately kept, to prevent a man putting his foot through on to the riband, and so helping himself to climb over. When the trees are too small to cut across, as in a .165 country with much fir, palisades are made of round timbers. They must be covered from artillery fire ; their usual position is, therefore, in the ditch, or to close the rear of a small advanced work seen into from the main line. Fraises are simply palisades in a horizontal or * inclined position, and their best place is on the counterscarp, sloping slightly down to the ditch, for then they are a formidable obstacle, and do not interfere with projectiles thrown into the ditch. Their position, when under the escarp, is not so good, as there they may assist in the assault. Military pits are employed in a country affording # Large no wood. They are either made 6 feet or 2| feet m pits! ry deep, i.e. either too shallow or too deep to be useful as rifle pits. The large ones are traced on the ground by forming equilateral triangles of 10 feet side, and describing circles with a radius of 3 feet, which leaves an interval of 2 feet between each 2 pits, on which the earth is heaped. The smaller pits are placed chequer- * Small wise, and the earth is spread about. It is usual to ^^^ make 3 rows of each kind, and pickets are placed at the bottom with sharpened points. It will take one man a day to make a large pit, or 6 small ones. They are effective against cavalry, and break the formation of infantry (vide Figs. 65 and 66). Pickets are sometimes used alone, as by the * pickets. Chinese in the Peiho forts. They are simply pointed stakes. Crowsfeet are good against cavalry, but not much * Crows- feet use against infantry. Each is formed of 4 iron spikes 3 inches long, joined at the heads in such a way that 166 Gabion band trip. Chevaux- de-frise. Inunda- tions. Dam. when thrown on the ground, one point is always upwards. They may also be placed in fords. The gabion band trip is formed of the bands of Jones's iron gabions buttoned and placed in lines 3 or 4 feet apart, connected with stout wire or rope, passed through the bridging holes, and secured at intervals to pickets. The rows are parallel and chequerwise (vide Fig. 67). This is a useful obstacle against cavalry, and even against infantry during a night attack. Chevaux-de-frise are made of cast-iron pipes in lengths of 6 feet, about 5 inches in diameter, with wrought-iron spears 4ft. 7-|in. long. The pipes fit together, and the spears pack in them, so that they are easily carried in the field. Sometimes they are made of beams of wood, with spears 6ft. long, or sword blades (vide Fig. 68). They are easily removed, and are therefore useful to close a road. In such a position they are chained together and fastened to stakes, so as not to be dragged away. They are often used to close the entrance of a field-work, in which case one end has a wheel, and the other is fastened to a hinge on a post. ' Inundations may sometimes be made. But if a stream runs parallel to our front, when inundated, it will be as much an obstacle to ourselves as to the enemy, preventing any advance to the attack. It is, therefore, better to inundate by means of a stream running perpendicularly to the front, for then the enemy's attack will be divided. * The dam must be strong enough to resist the pressure of water and the enemy's attack, either by night or by distant artillery (vide Fig. 69). Tig. 65. LARGE MILITARY PITS. Tig. 66. SMALL MILITARY PITS. GABION BAND TRIP. CHEVAUX DE PRIZE Tig. 69. DAM. 166 BRIDGE WITH ARCH BLOCKED UP. Tig.11. WEIR. Fig. 7Z. COMMON FOUGASS. I66 2 167 The slope next the water should be | ; the outside slope, y ; and the thickness at top about 14 feet at least. By filling up an arch of a bridge with piles, an in- Arch undation may often be made, the roadway being generally raised on each side, and an overflow left under the arch (vide Fig. 70). Even when the water is only 2 or 3 feet deep, a shallow inundation may be made by cutting trenches and scattering the earth. In an inundation there must be a waste weir, cut at the level of the water, and protected from being worn away by a revetment of fascines ; the outside slope and the bottom should also be revetted. The waste weir is made at the side of the natural Waste course of the water. The dam must extend some distance on each side of the stream (vide Fig. 71). The parts beyond the stream are first made, and the thickness increased gradually as it gets nearer the water. The waste weir is made at one side with a cut leading to it. The central part of the dam is filled in as quickly as possible with bags of earth, stones, &c., as many men working as close together as possible without crowding. In a hilly country, an escarpment may be made, * Escarp- i.e. cutting the side of a hill or slope to make it steep. But care must be taken to have it flanked, otherwise it will shelter an enemy. It depends on the soil, for some will not stand when cut away steeply. Self-acting fougasses and torpedoes were much Fongasses. used by the Americans. The quantity of powder in each is about 2 or 3 Ibs., placed about 6 feet below the surface. Some means must be adopted to 168 explode them as they are passed over, e.g. a glass tube laid on the ground, which, when trodden upon, will allow sulphuric acid to run down into a composition, and ignite the powder. Small fougasses or land torpedoes are sometimes used to defend lines and field-works. The usual form is shown in Fig. 72. The excavation is 6 feet deep ; the earth is banked up behind and revetted to insure its acting in the proper direction. Above the charge a shield of wood is placed, and over this stones, but better still, live shells. It is fired by electricity, the wires leading to the rear. The best position is under the salients. In the defences of Richmond in 1864, the con- federates buried live shells a little under ground, and fired them by means of a sensitive fuse, which ignited when trodden upon. Stockades. * A stockade is a line of stout timbers, planted close together, and loopholed. It not only serves as an obstacle, but gives cover. The timbers are roughly squared, and to be bullet-proof must be at least 6 inches thick of oak, 18 inches of fir. The loopholes are cut at intervals. They are planted 3 feet or 4 feet in the ground, and stand 7 feet or 8 feet above it (vide Fig. 73). It is more quickly made by using round timbers without squaring them, leaving spaces at intervals for men to fire through (vide Fig. 74). On the inside earth may be heaped up against the bottom, backed by logs, laid lengthways, and fastened down by stakes or planks to keep the earth up. Loopholes may also be made with sand-bags. Fig. 73 STOCKADE WORK. /Vl Kg. 74-. HASTY STOCKADE. Tig. 76- FORM OF LOOP HOLE. Fig. 76. LOOPHOLES ON THE TOP OF A WALL. 169 Stockades cannot withstand artillery fire, and it is useless to make timber proof against it, as by heap- ing earth against it on the outside. Also, by so doing, the use of the stockade as an obstacle is done away with, for the enemy can run up, and so climb over. When timber is on the ground, the wood being cut, but not -fashioned, a 12 feet length of stockade with double row of timbers, requiring no loopholes, can be made by 8 men in 4-g- hours. A single row of the same length, with a ditch in front, and loopholed, took 8 men the same time. The plan, shown in Fig. 74, required 6 men in 3 hours to make a length of 12 feet. But in all these cases allowances must be made for collecting the timber. To board up windows against musketry requires a * Boarding thickness of 6 inches of oak, 10 or 12 of Scotch fir, windows. and 18 of common fir. Men should be divided into squads of 8 or 10 to collect various materials, while the rest are dis- tributed at work. , Loopholes have a height inside of 18 inches, this * Loopholes, being as much as a man can elevate or depress his rifle. The width depends upon the lateral range required, and so varies with the thickness of the wall. The usual width inside is 18 inches, so the rule may be followed to make loopholes 18 inches square on the inside. Outside, the opening should be as narrow as pos- sible, generally 3 inches. The height outside varies from 18 inches to 30 inches depending on the thick- ness of the wall, and the amount of elevation or 170 depression required. Sometimes they are made wide on the outside in order to crowd as many men together as possible for firing behind a wall, as in an ordinary sized loophole a man must change his position from side to side to get lateral range, the outside opening being so narrow. But long shallow loopholes allow very little elevation or depression. On the top * Fig. 75 shows a form which is sometimes adopted. of walls. And on the top of a wall they are often cut down ; with a stone placed above them as in Fig. 76, or a log is laid above it, as in Fig. 77. When loopholes are made in buildings, they should be about 4 feet apart on the ground floor, but not so numerous in the upper rooms ; about 5 feet apart will do. Some should be made with care obliquely at the angles, to fire in the direction of the capital ; but the corner must not be weakened. Loopholes must be made either too high or too low for the enemy to make use of them. For the defenders the inside floor may be raised, or a step erected (vide Fig. 55, p. 136). Two unskilled men will make 1 loophole in a brick wall 2 feet thick in 25 minutes, using crowbars. If the wall is 14 inches thick they can do it in 12 minutes. If the wall is of stone, the time will be longer. No detail can be given. Of sand- * Sand-bags and sods are much used to make loop- bags and holes quickly on the top of a parapet or shelter sods* trench, in shelter pits, rifle pits, &c. The sods must be cut thick and square, and placed as in Fig. 78, with a splay to the inside. Walls. * Walls of soft stone or brick are not much injured by artillery fire, unless it is concentrated on a wall. Single shots make a hole but will not bring the Fig. 77. LOOPHOLED WALL. SANDBAG LOOPHOLES. WALLS. Hg 73 FigM { 170 2 171 whole wall down, and soft stone does not splinter much, therefore we may safely use such walls as a screen, as an obstacle, and as protection against rifle fire, but not against artillery. Earth should not be heaped up outside the wall unless it is very high. The best plan is to dig a ditch at the foot of the wall, and throw the earth forward into a glacis commanded by the fire from the loopholes (vide Fig. 79). If the wall is 6 feet high the loopholes should be cut 4 feet 6 inches from the ground ; and the ditch in front must be made, else the enemy will close with the loopholes. Or a banquette may be used, and the loopholes made higher. When a double row of loopholes is required, the best method is to dig a trench about 4 feet deep inside, from which some men can fire through the row made low down, while the earth from the trench is formed into a mound in rear, from the top of which the others can fire (vide Fig. 80). If the wall is too high for men to fire over it standing on the mound, we must erect scaffolding, but this is likely to be knocked down by artillery, so it is better to break down part of the wall. When the height of the wall is 4 feet 6 inches, trunks of trees supported by stones may be laid on the top (vide Fig. 77), or loopholes may be made by placing large stones or sods on the top. In making use of hedges it is preferable to treat * Hedges, them as obstacles, and to leave a hedge in front of a work, having the ordinary parapet and ditch all behind it (vide Fig. 81a). In such a position the hedge forms a sort of 172 Hougo- mont. Hollow road. Improving * banks, &c. Breast- works. Labour. * entanglement, and a serious obstacle for men to get through under fire. A low parapet may be thrown up in rear of the hedge, the earth being got from a trench (vide Figs. 81 b, c.). This gives cover, while the hedge is * still an obstacle and a screen. At Hougomont, on the field of Waterloo, the hedge was about 20 yards in front of a loopholed wall, and the French were shot down in great numbers trying to get through it. * In the case of a hollow road, the road should be used as a ditch ; a trench being dug behind the hedge on one side, while the hedge on the other side is bent down to form a sort of abattis or entanglement (vide Fig. 82). In improving banks and hedges, a working party may be extended at wide intervals ; for 1 man can convert 20 to 30 feet of hedge into a good breast- work in 3 hours. Breastworks are the simplest and quickest para- pets that are thrown up in the field. Figs. 83 to 92 are rough diagrams of some of their forms. Fig. 83 shows how the line is broken for flanking defence. The next three are sections of different parts. Fig. 88 shows the advantage of availing oneself of any undulation of ground, which is apparently unimportant. Fig. 92 is a form for rocky soil with 2 lines of workmen. It is considered that 1 man excavates 1 cubic yard per hour. The number of hours varies ac- cording to the soil. Generally 6 cubic yards is the work of a day of 8 hours. The usual and convenient distance for workmen BREASTWORKS fig 3 \ 17* I BREASTWORKS Fig. 30. AMERICAN BREASTWORK Jfy.fiS. 173 to be apart is 6 feet. But this is not invariable, and is sometimes reduced to 4 feet ; but time is not gained in proportion. Steps should always be made for easy communi- * Commum- , , . cations, cation over the parapet, and also in rear when there is a trench, to enable the defenders, after firing their last round, to retire,, and interpose a fresh obstacle to the enemy. The tools and stores required for strengthening * Tools and posts are embraced under the following heads, viz. : i. Field-exercise tools i.e. shovels, picks, felling axes, bill-hooks for digging trenches, making breast- works, abattis, &c. ii. For houses and walls sledge-hammers, hand- borers, crowbars, saws, augurs, spike-nails. iii. General service sand-bags, rockets, hand- grenades, small shells. Each man in the construction of a breastwork has 1 pick and 1 shovel. One man can carry 100 sand-bags, the weight of which when empty is 60 Ibs. Each bag holds 1 bushel. In the American Civil War troops always in- * American trenched themselves, and with rare exceptions the defenders repulsed the attack. The men worked in squads, varying in number according to the nature of the wood ; but it was generally pine. Each squad felled 6 trees ; the branches were lopped off, and the trunks laid as in Fig. 93, to form a breastwork, giving about 3 feet of cover a trench 3 feet was dug, and the earth thrown over. The men then set to work to clear the field of fire 174 by cutting down as many trees as possible in front. This was their intrenchment when time was short. Peters- * But at Petersburg and Charleston, when more burff time was available, bomb-proof barracks were con- structed, beams being placed in the ground, and covered by a strong roof of timber and earth not visible outside. Sometimes the casemate was in the parapet. Thus the men were kept well under cover from artillery fire, and always close at hand. Bomb- * For the construction of bomb-proof barracks, a barracks. trench is dug of a depth depending on the nature of the soil, about 5 or 6 feet, and drained, its width being 12 feet. The sides are lined with timber 6 feet long, and 1 foot thickness of timber placed on top. The earth is kept up behind the timber by planks, slabs, and hurdles ; and over the whole the earth is piled. To get into this steps are made at intervals, and lighting is obtained from windows between the level of the ground and the roofing timber. The men sleep with their heads to the wall, and a little passage is left between them. In case of a heavy fire, it may be necessary to roof it over the edge, projecting beyond the steps (vide Figs. 94 and 95). Similar bomb-proofs were made in the last war between the Turks and Russians Plevna * e.g. at Plevna. As earth will not stand at a steeper slope naturally than about J-, i.e. with a base equal to its height, materials are used to support it at a higher angle. Use of * These are called revetments ; and are gabions, revet- fascines, hurdles, planks, sand-bags, sods, &c. ments. . As a rule, it is only the interior slope of a parapet ssi gs-sssasssssKT-J'iV. S 1 * 1 fc 1 1 175 that must be revetted, so that men can stand close up to it to fire. Brushwood will make gabions, fascines, and hurdles. The Chatham calculation is * Chatham calcula- that 50 men can fell an acre of wood in 7 or 8 tion. hours, about a day's work, including packing it in waggons. Fourteen waggons are required to carry the quantity cut by. them ; and if it is ordinary brushwood, it will make 100 gabions, 40 fascines, and 2,500 pickets. A gabion is a strong cylindrical basket without * Gabions top or bottom, 2 feet in diameter, and 3 feet high. To make one, describe a circle with a piece of cord and two pegs 11 inches apart as radius, and divide the circumference with the cord into 6 parts. Place 6 pickets with the thick ends downwards at these points, and other 6 pickets in the intermediate parts of the circle, with the thin ends down. This 'will make the basket of uniform size. Flexible twigs or rods are then interwoven with the upright pickets, commencing with 3 rods at the bottom, and weaving each in succession outside of 2 pickets and inside one. As they are expended, others are added, and the basket-work or web is continued to the height of 2 feet 9 inches. It is then sewn in 3 or 4 places from top to bottom with withies called gads, or spun yarn, to prevent it coming off the pickets. The ends of the pickets are cut off about 1 inches beyond the web, and pointed. The best wood for the web, and particularly for the gads, is willow or hazel. A gabion when made stands 3 feet high in revet- ment, weighs 36 to 40 lb., and is made by 3 men in 2 hours. It is the most durable revetment, resisting the shock of the discharge of guns in embrasures 176 J better than fascines. They stand in position by themselves, and can be formed into a revetment by ordinary labourers. 3 practised men will make 4 gabions in a day of 8 hours. 2 gabions and an 18-foot fascine make nearly the same amount of revetment. The division of labour in making a gabion is for 1 man to weave, 1 man to keep the pickets upright, and 1 man to prepare gads, by treading on one end, and twisting them well till they are supple. Figs. 96 and 97 show the method of making, and Fig. 98 the way they are built up in revetment, a layer of fascines forming the foundation, and another layer between two courses. When the parapet is only 4 feet 6 inches high, there will be 1 foot 6 inches height remaining above a single gabion. It is better to revet this with sods or sand-bags than with fascines, for a single shot will knock away a whole fascine. Jones's * Jones's gabions (vide Fig. 99) require each 10 gabions. pickets and 10 bands of galvanised iron, each about 6 feet long. 2 men put a gabion together in from 10 to 15 minutes, as follows : One band is fastened and laid on the ground, and 4 pickets are placed (2 inside, and 2 outside), dividing the circle equally. Then the rest of the pickets are fixed alternately inside and outside. The bands are placed one by one over the pickets, inside and outside alternately, the slots and buttons being all kept to one side. Each band must remain half way down the pickets until the next one is put on; this will ensure the pickets continuing in their places. The dimensions of a gabion are 3 feet by 2 feet. These gabions are Fig. GABIONS Fig. $7. 176 I F ally launched into the current, so as to join in mid stream. Men can then cross one by one. Often 216 Ladder bridge. Frame * a single tree will be long enough to reach to the opposite bank, over which a party may cross to assist in preparing a bridge of one kind or other, according to circumstances. Fig. 124 shows how a ladder bridge may be formed by running a trench-cart or gun limber into the stream, and securing it there, with the shafts vertical, by ropes on both sides. Ladders are laid on the body of the cart or limber from both banks, and covered with planks. A similar bridge can be made by waggons placed lengthways in a shallow rapid stream. Such bridges support infantry. Frame bridges are used generally to restore exist- ing bridges which have been damaged or destroyed. They are of various kinds, made of frames such as shown by Fig. 125. The following is a description of a single lock bridge, of which the other kinds are modifications : Construe- * The section of the river or chasm must be accu- tion of single-lock rately taken and marked on the ground with a cord and pegs, and the distance between the footings on one side must be 18 inches wider than on the other, otherwise the frames will not lock. The standards (vide Fig. 125) are laid out on the section, and marked with chalk at the places for lashing the ledgers and transoms. The whole are lashed to- gether on both banks. The ledgers should be above the standards, about 2 feet from the butts, the tran- soms beneath. The frames are carefully squared, and the broader must be 18 inches wider throughout than the other. A ledger should be about 1 foot longer than a transom. The braces are then lashed. O The transom of the narrow frame should be about . /26 SINGLE LOCK BRIDGE NETWORK OF ROPE BRIDGE AT ALCANTARA. CONSTRUCTION OF BEAMS. . J23 PILE DRIVING 216 7. 217 18 inches wider than the width of roadway between the ribands. Pickets are driven in for the guys and foot ropes. Foot ropes are fastened round the butts of the stand- ards, below the ledgers, with a timber hitch. Fore and back guys are attached to the tops of each frame. The fore guys are crossed, those of the narrow frame passing between the horns of the broad frame. The frames are launched and locked. Two tem- porary roadbearers are sent out, and 2 men working on the crutch of the bridge place the fork transom in position. The rest of the roadbearers are sent out resting on this transom. Chesses are laid and racked down, and a handrail rigged up. The roadway is 9 feet wide, and will support infantry in fours. The height m n should not be less than ^ of a b, the span (vide Fig. 126). The slope of the standards for these frames should be 2 T , and for trestles . There are two sorts of suspension bridges. In one, Suspension the roadway passes over the suspending chains ; in the other, it is hung from them. The former is the simplest, and one example, the iron gabion bridge, may here be noticed. The iron bands of Jones's abions are connected * Ir n gabion together by bolts and nuts. The bolts are 1| inches bridge. long and ^ in diameter. The bands are looped round beams; one beam is held by tackle to the bank, and the bridge is stretched taut. The bands of 4 gabions, with the pickets woven between the bands, alternately over and under, will make a bridge of 40 feet to 50 feet span for infantry in file. 218 A stronger bridge has been made of 6 chains, each chain formed of the bands of 4 gabions, 18 inches to 2 feet apart, over a span of 60 feet, able to support a field gun. Rope * A very celebrated bridge was made of ropes bv bridge over J Tagus at Colonel Sturgeon of the staff corps in the Peninsula war to restore the communication across Trajan's bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, to bring up stores from Badajos for the attack on the forts at Salamanca. The French had blown up the principal arch. The gap was 100 feet wide, and large enough timber could not be procured. 18 lengths of 6|- inches cable, stretched across, were fastened by tackle. The cables were formed into a network by strong lashings, as shown in Fig. 127, and over this 8 cross beams were laid, having notches in their under sides to receive the rope. Other beams rested on the cross beams to support the planks, and were constructed as in the figure. The single beams were twice the width of each of the double ones. The junction was made by screw-bolts, allowing elasticity, and for the whole bridge to be rolled up and transported ; for it was secretly made at a distance ; and on llth June, 1812, the siege train crossed by it. Piles. * Piles are often useful for making piers, and to strengthen parts of a bridge. A convenient way of driving them by hand is shown in Fig. 128 two spars being lashed to the head of a pile, and a plank laid across them for the men using mauls to stand upon. For temporary bridges, the Handbook for Field Ser- vice gives these rules as to strength of materials : 219 5 deal battens 7 inches x 3 inches, supported at in- * Strength tervals of 15 feet, will carry infantry in fours crowded, materials. 5 larch spars 6^ inches in diameter, free from large knots and defects, will carry infantry crowded, or a 16 -pounder. Transoms should not be less than 9 inches in diameter, to resist the greatest strain to which a bridge is likely to be exposed, viz. that caused by infantry in fours. The planks for a roadway to carry horses should not be less than 1J inches thick. To measure the breadth of a stream by the peak * Measuring of a cap, stand on one bank and lower the peak ^ealTc^ until its edge cuts the other bank. Steady the head ca P- by placing the hand under the chin, turn gently round towards the most level part on your side, and notice where the eyes and edge of the peak again cut the ground. Measure this. It will be nearly the breadth of the stream. CHAPTER XII. RECONNAISSANCE AND FIELD-SKETCHING. Necessity " ON fait d'autant mieux la guerre que Ton for knowledge connalt mieux le pays." So thought Napoleon. country ^ or tne P r P er conduct of all operations in the field, a knowledge of the country is essential, as on it depend greatly the character of the movements and composition of the force. And it is truly said that "Every manoeuvre which is not founded upon the nature of the ground is absurd and ridiculous." Meaning * A reconnaissance may be described as the ex- reconnais- animation of part of a country, or of an occupied sance. position, or a fortress, in order to obtain information as to its resources for supplies, and for movement of troops and carriages ; also, as to the strength, position, and intentions of an enemy for purposes of attack or otherwise. If the object is specially to discover his strength, and make him develop his troops, we require an armed force. But if secret information of the enemy is sought, an officer of intelligence is usually selected, who approaches as near as possible to the position, and notes down all he can see and discover. It is desirable that all N. C. officers should under- 221 stand the rudiments of reconnoitring, for there are * many occasions when information procured by a scout or a patrol may prove invaluable. There are some in every corps fully competent to furnish a reconnaissance of a road, river, c., after a little instruction. But the duty generally devolves upon officers, who, either mounted or on foot, apply their knowledge of field-sketching to the best advantage usually with limited time at disposal. Hence, needless detail should be avoided, and great accu- racy cannot be expected. Among the officers, also, there will be some quicker of eye, and more handy with the pencil than others, and they should be employed in preference. For field-sketching the reconnoitrer should have * with him a prismatic compass, protractor, sketch- book about 9 inches square, with ruled paper, pencil, india-rubber, and a small box of colours. Field-sketching or surveying is the art of ascer- taining by measurement the shape and size of any part of the country, and representing it on a reduced scale in a conventional manner, so as to bring the whole under the eye at once. It is only the objects of tactical importance to which attention should be directed. These are hills, their steepness, relative height, the form of each feature ; roads ; all lines of communication ; rivers ; fords ; marshes ; woods ; fences ; and all other objects likely to affect the movements of the three arms. A survey or plan is made with good instruments ; the measurements being laid down at leisure, and the drawing executed with minute finish, when accuracy is more important than time. Who should re- connoitre. Articles required. Field- sketching. Survey dis- tinguished from military sketch. 222 Whereas a military sketch is performed hurriedly, with simplest instruments, entirely in the field ; and to become a good sketcher, practice in applying the principles of regular surveying is required, combined with rapidity and fair accuracy. * ^ * s P oss ibl e to m ake a hasty sketch without any instruments at all, thus : Having a sheet of paper or sketch-book, select the most convenient and level part of the ground as a base line, and step a few hundred yards along it, noting a tree, bush, or other object at its extremities. Draw a straight line on the paper corresponding with this, and mark off its length on the scale. Note from each end of the base the most prominent parts of the ground e.g. hills, roads, churches, houses, &c. Place the paper on the ground, with the line drawn for the base, in the direction of the base, and without moving it mark off the angle each object makes with the base line and the approximate distance. Meaning of * The scale is the proportion the sketch is to bear to the ground represented. Scales are usually drawn to represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands of feet, yards, &c. The left division shows smaller quantities than are given in the other divisions, and these latter are numbered from the left division but one to the right. A scale so divided is drawn with two straight lines, the under being thick, as shown in Fig. 129. But when the divisions represent greater dis- tances, as in scales of 1 inch or 2 inches to a mile, suitable for road sketches, &c., the scale is drawn with one line only. The representative fraction of a scale shows the 223 number of real inches represented by one inch on the scale. It is also the proportion between a drawing made on the particular scale and the real object represented e.g. in a scale of 1 inch to 10 feet the fraction is T 2u 5 for 6 inches to 1 mile jjgjkji = ~ w \ for 3 inches to 1 mile ^ho- If a line a mile long be represented by a yard, the representative fraction is TT V^ ; if the same line be represented by a foot it will be -g^g^. The representative fraction should always be stated on a plan or sketch for this reason. An inch and a mile are measures applicable only to English operations, and do not convey any idea of the relative proportions between English and foreign plans, in which the same standards of measure are not used. The scales usually adopted in field-sketches are 8, 6, 4, 2, 1 inch to the mile. The size depends on the nature of the ground, and the amount of detail required. Thus, for the sketch of a position, the scale may be from 6 inches to 12 inches; for road sketches, 1 inch to 4 inches. The following are a few examples of simple scales : To make a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile to show furlongs Divide a straight line 6 inches long into 8 equal parts, each of which represents a furlong. Divide the left division into 11 equal parts, each of which represents 20 yards ; number the left, division 220 yards on the left, and on the right, and number the rest 1, 2, 3 .... &c., furlongs successively to the right. To construct a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile to Represen- tative fraction. Examples of simple scales. 224 read yards, we must calculate what length will represent 100 yards, thus : As 1,760 yards are represented by 6 inches, 1,000 yards will be repre- sented by -^ = = 3'4 inches. Divide a straight 1760 line A B of this length into 10 equal parts, each of which will represent 100 yards. To do this, from A draw a straight line A C, making any convenient angle with A B. Set off 10 equal parts on A c, join the last with B, and draw parallels intersecting A B these will divide it into the 10 equal parts required. Produce B A, a distance equal to 100 yards; from A draw A D at any convenient angle, and divide the 100 yards into 10 equal parts in a similar manner. If the scale to be made were larger, e.g. 24 inches to 1 mile, a straight line representing 1,000 yards would be of inconvenient length ; and it would be better to take a less number, say 200. Then 200 200 x 24 will be represented by r- = 2' 72 inches. 1760 Divide a straight line of that length into 2 equal parts, to show hundreds. Take one of these parts on the left and subdivide it into 10 equal parts, to show tens of yards. To make a scale of 1 inch to 8 feet. Here, 10 feet is represented by 1| inches. Divide a straight line of this length into 10 equal parts, each of which will represent 1 foot. Suppose that a length known to be 2 miles is represented on a plan by 4'4 inches, construct the scale to read yards. 225 21 x 1760 : 1000 : : 4'4 : x 44 x 1,000 x 2 88,000 x = - ' - = ' - =r 1 inch. 10 x 5 x 1,760 88,000 i.e. 1,000 yards are represented by 1 inch. Divide an inch into 10 equal parts for hundreds of yards. Add one of these parts on the left for further sub- division. The representative fraction is To construct a scale of 8 inches to 1 mile to read feet. Here such small divisions of 10 feet cannot conveniently be shown. So, since 8 inches represent 1,760x3 = 5,280 feet, 2,000 feet are represented by ' = 3'03 inches. Divide a straight line of this length into 2 equal parts, each to show 1,000 feet, and add another part on the left for further subdivision. The representative fraction is y 9 T 2 . To draw two plain scales, one to measure yards, the other paces of 30 inches, when the representa- tive fraction of a plan is m 12 )6,000 _! . (1) ' : 600 : : 1 : x x = 1| inches. oOO Divide a straight line of this length into 2 equal parts for hundreds of yards, and subdivide the left part to show tens of yards. (2) 1 inch represents 500 feet = 200 paces. Divide an inch into 2 equal parts for hundreds of paces, and subdivide the left part to show tens. If on a plan 3 miles are represented by 4 inches, to draw a plain scale of miles and furlongs long enough to measure 5 miles. Divide 4| inches into 13 equal parts, each of which will represent Q 226 ^ mile. Adding 7 such parts gives a length of 5 miles. Bisecting each of the 4 left parts will show furlongs. To draw a plain scale of to measure feet and inches up to 5 feet 9' : 5' :: 1' : ' = 6 " = 6f inches. Divide a straight line of this length into 5 equal parts to show feet, and the left part into 12 to show inches. To draw a scale of ^^ to show single paces, the maximum length being 60 paces, assuming the pace to be 30 inches. Here, 250 paces : 60 paces :: 30 inches : \\ = 7-| inches. Divide a straight line of this length into 6 equal parts to show tens of paces, and the left part into ten to show single paces. If a plan has no scale attached, but some of the distances are noted on it, one marked 3 miles measures 6 inches. In order to make the scale, it is evident 2 inches represent 1 mile. Divide 2 inches into ?, \, to show fractions of a mile, and add another 2 inches on the right for a complete mile. To draw a scale showing miles and furlongs for a map on which the distance between 2 places, 35 miles apart, is represented by 8'75 inches. As 8'75 inches represent 35 miles, 9 inches repre- sent 36, and 10 inches represent 40 miles ; therefore 2| inches 10 miles. Divide 2^ inches into 10 equal parts for miles, and the left division into 8 equal parts for furlongs. 227 Comparative, diagonal, and other scales should be studied in text books. Distances in military operations must not only be * Measure- measured by length, but also by the time taken in ^ y t j me as traversing them. This varies greatly in mountain- i oi Enlnrging orreducing a map. ous districts, so that a scale of time, founded on experience, will be a most useful addition. Such a scale should show the hours over mountain passes as compared with the hours marching on level roads. A map is easily copied on a larger or a smaller scale by drawing a series of squares on it, and another series on the paper for the copy, each square in the latter to be proportionately larger or smaller than the former. The detail of the map is then filled in. Thus, suppose a drawing with a repre- sentative fraction TITS^ is to be copied on a scale of 3 inches to 1 mile. The scale corresponding to TITTSTF is 6 inches to 1 mile. Then, if we draw squares of 1 inch side on the original, the squares on the copy must be -| inch a side. Again, if a drawing on a scale of 3 inches to a mile, having \ inch squares marked on it, has to be copied so that 880 yards will occupy 3 inches on the copy. As 3 inches represent | mile on the copy, 6 inches will represent 1 mile, and for copying the original, the squares must have sides of 1 inch. The use of the prismatic compass can be under- * The (Compass stood in a few minutes. Every circle is divided into 360. So the compass card under which the needle swings is graduated into 360 and half degrees ; and Q 2 228 an angle can be taken to by estimation if the instrument is perfectly steady. To take a * To take a bearing, remove the cover, raise the sight vane, and uncover the prismatic glass. Keeping the compass level, so that the rim of the card does not touch the glass, raise it steadily to one eye, and bring the hair of the vane in line with the object. The number reflected up is the bearing, i.e. the angle a straight line drawn from the observer's eye to the object makes with the magnetic meridian. A reference to Fig. 130 will readily show the bear- ings of the four cardinal points, and the quadrant within which any intermediate angle falls, e.g. 45 is north-east. On windy days it is advisable to kneel, and the oscillations of the card may be checked by touching the spring under the vane. Errors. * The compass is liable to error if near iron ore, or an iron gate, and is affected by magnetic disturb- ances. No two instruments read exactly alike, and accuracy can only be obtained to about half a degree. Use of the * j n field-sketching, we determine the positions of compass in field- objects by compass in four ways, viz. : slcc telling* i. By triangulation, which means fixing a certain number of conspicuous stations within the required area, by means of a carefully-measured base line, and the observations of the various stations from the two extremities of the base, or from stations pre- viously fixed. Where the bearings intersect is the position of the object. ii. By interpolation, standing at the object, taking the bearings of two or more fixed points from it, and laying these bearings off backwards from the COM PASS POLE STAR FtgJSI * t k * NORTH POINT SCALES. Sca2e> cf 6 inches tc> 1 mile 100 200 300 WO 500 1000 YARDS Seals, of Z -inches to iTnilf. 229 respective fixed points. The intersection of these bearings fixes the object. iii. By taking the bearing of the object, and pacing to it along that bearing, laying the distance down to scale. iv. By pacing from one fixed point towards an- other fixed point, and then pacing the length of the off-set. The chief consideration in triangulation is the Base, measurement of the original base, which should be as long as possible in proportion to the ground, and central from 600 to 1,200 yards for a square mile ; from f mile to 2 miles for 10 square miles. It must also be level, or nearly so, to avoid reducing the measurement to the true horizontal length ; and the ends chosen should have an unobscured view. The stations should be selected so as to afford good intersections, not too acute or too obtuse. An angle of 60 is best, so as to form equilateral triangles. The stations can then be determined with fair ac- * stations. curacy ; and the base is not shortened for subsequent triangles. Interpolation comes into play when a certain * interpola- object, e.g. a tower, is thought to be wrongly placed. Then, in order to correct its position, select any two points, the distance between which is known to be correct, and which are placed conveniently with re- gard to the tower, making the intersection of the bearings from 60 to 90. This intersection fixes the correct position of the tower, which can be checked by the bearing from a third point. The " magnetic meridian " is the north and south * Magnetic ,. . meridian, line as shown by compass, deviating from the true 230 north and south line by a variation depending on the place, the year, and even slightly the time of day or night. Variation * The variation is found by ascertaining the angle north. between the magnetic north and the true north, as laid down in the neighbourhood of an observatory, or from the bearing of the Pole star, when it is vertically over the star e of the Great Bear (vide Fig. 131). The variation changes constantly. In England in 1838 it was 24 6' W., since which date it has been going north 'again at the rate of about 7' a year. From 1838 to 1884, the difference has been 46 x 7 = 322' = 5 22' ; so that we may take the present variation to be 18 44'. Scale and * No sketch is complete without a scale and a north point. point ; the latter should be drawn as in Fig. 132, the magnetic north being at right angles to the hori- zontal lines on the paper, which run east and west. Forward By the " forward angle " is meant with the theo- 1 dolite the horizontal angle between the zero line selected, and the direction we are about to proceed * in. With the compass it is the bearing of the line of direction in which we are pacing from the last station. The rule is to observe it last. Back * The " back angle " is the horizontal angle be- tween the bearing of the forward station and the station just quitted. Closing The " closing angle " is the bearing taken of another station at the conclusion of a traverse begun from a previous station, to test the work. Check A "check angle " is the bearing taken from one or angle. more subsequent stations in a traverse of some con- spicuous object, not more than about mile distant. 231 If the work is correct the bearings should converge at the point marking the position of the object fixed from previous stations. An " offset " is a measurement taken perpendicular * Offset, to the " forward angle." The traverse of a road, river, &c., is proceeding * Traverse, along it, taking bearings of different objects on either side at the starting point, and, last of all, the " forward angle " ; then stepping the distance as far as the road is straight, where a halt must be made to take another round of angles, fixing distant points. All intermediate objects may be fixed by the eye. The distances of any buildings, bridges, hills, &c., met with on the road are noted in a field-book, which is often more convenient than the sketching- block itself, especially in bad weather. This book should open lengthways, and have two * Field book. parallel lines about \ inch apart ruled through the centre of every page. The work commences at the bottom, and proceeds upwards. The parallel lines represent the right and left of the road ; and all detail on or near the road should be entered neatly, and in conformity with the conventional signs. Other information is written. A clear system should be adopted, so that the work may be intelligible, if required to be transferred to paper later on. The distances along the road are entered within the lines. They are not noted from place to place, but in one count so long as the direction continues the same. As soon as the direction changes, as at a bend of the road, the total distance is closed with a circle for a new station, and a new count commences. Care must be taken not to confuse distances with angles, 232 which should be written with the symbol for angles along a line right or left, with the name of the object or place to which a side road may lead ; and the " for- ward " angle should be distinguished thus /./ 89. Plotting. * rj^e p rocess O f laying down on the plan the work entered in the field-book is called " Plotting." For this purpose an ivory protractor is used, having parallel lines cut across it, and the whole of the angles of a semicircle marked on one edge, running into a point in the centre of the opposite edge, which is the centre of the circle. The manner of proceeding is very simple. Having fixed a point .on the paper as a starting-point, in order to lay down a bearing, Protractor. * first place the protractor to the right of the point if the angle is not greater than 180, i.e. when it is in the eastern half of the circle, and to the left of the point when it is greater than 180, i.e. when it is in the western half of the circle. Second, place the centre of the edge marked by a star exactly at the point. Third, make the parallel lines on the pro- tractor coincide with the east and west lines of the paper. Then, holding the protractor steady, mark the angle on the outer edge with a point on the paper, and draw the bearing to it from the starting- point. The angles between 180 and 360 are marked on the protractor inside those from to 180, and every angle of each pair is the supplement of the other, i.e. the difference between them is 180. Laying off # This is useful, enabling an ungle to be laid down backwards, backwards, as explained under the head of " Inter- polation." Thus, if standing at a certain point we find an object already fixed on the paper bearing 55, to lay it off backwards we take the angle 235, 233 and vice versd. It has also another advantage, for when a point is so near the edge of the paper that the actual bearing cannot be laid down, marking the angle backwards and producing it from the first point gives the bearing required. In pacing, precaution must be taken not to lose * Pacing, count. A good plan is to close a finger in the hand O J. O for every 100 up to 500, then to open the hand, mark down 500, and begin afresh. Although the regulation pace is 30 inches, yet most men step longer, especially when walking fast. Measurements are more likely to be accurate if we step yards and not paces ; we thus avoid the trouble of reduction to yards to suit most scales, and we get over the ground quicker. Going up or down hill the distance will be longer than it is in reality ; so we must step out. Other means for measuring may be used, such as a * other horse ; but his paces at a walk and a steady trot ^ents? must be carefully tested. And the circumference of a carriage wheel may be measured, and a rag tied to one of the spokes, so that the revolutions can be counted. It is always desirable to check the pacing by noting milestones or points, the distances be- tween which are already known ; and telegraph posts will be of assistance, when fixed at uniform intervals. In the representation of slopes, a slope is con- Slopes. sidered the hypotheneuse of a right-angled triangle, and is represented by a fraction, the numerator of which contains the number of units in the perpen- dicular, and the denominator the number of the same units in the base, e.g. a slope of J is one where the perpendicular is one-third the length of the base, 234 while in a slope of f the perpendicular is three times the length of the base. Clino- A clinometer is an instrument for measuring meter. slopes and vertical angles. It can be made with a piece of cardboard about 6 inches long, on which a semicircle is described. From the centre a line is drawn perpendicular to the diameter, and is num- bered at the edge. Radii are drawn to cut the semicircle, reading units and tens of degrees. A plumb bob, suspended from the centre, shows the angle of elevation or depression at which the diameter is held. Represen- # Hills are represented on the system of contouring. of VnL Contours are imaginary lines drawn round a hill at equal vertical intervals. An idea of them is best obtained by considering the hill surrounded by water, the level of which rises first 10 feet, and the mark up to which it reaches on the different slopes will form the first contour. Suppose the water to rise another 10 feet, and the mark again traced, this will be a second contour, and so on. Contours. In order to determine the number of contours on a slope, we must measure the inclination, and pace its length, stepping out so as to approximate the horizontal measurement ; then mark on a fixed straight line as many contours as there is space for horizontal equivalents, the scale of which is indicated on the protractor corresponding to certain slopes and scales. Contours are usually shown at the vertical interval of 25 feet on a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile ; of 12| feet on a scale of 12 inches ; and of 50 feet on a scale of 3 inches to 1 mile. CONTOURS Fit? ffl THE SKETCH M Tl O m o o V) to O m m TJ o THE SKETCH X 235 The horizontal equivalent of a contour is the base Horizontal of a right-angled triangle, of which the perpendicular is the vertical interval between two contours, and the hypotheneuse is the measured slope. For 1 for a 25 foot contour it is about 480 yards. 121 240 50 960 and for 2, 3, 4 ... &c., we may assume it to be I-, J, J . . . &c. ; these distances, e.g. if the contours are 25 feet apart, the slope 8, and the measure- ment 600 yards, the horizontal equivalent will be i| = 60 yards, and 10 such contours can be marked on the line up or down. Horizontal equivalents may also be described as the horizontal distances between contours running at equal vertical intervals, being shorter as the slope of the hill is steeper. Thus, if a and b are two points immediately above one another on two contours, a c the horizontal equivalent = b c (the vertical interval) x co-tangent ^_bac. Suppose it is required to find the difference of level between A, the highest, and B, the lowest, point on a plan contoured with 25 feet vertical intervals, and there are 8 of these contours between these points, of which 6 show descending ground, and 2 show a rise, then a reference to Fig. 133 shows that the difference of level is 100 feet. Time, however, will rarely admit of contours being run in detail ; but the principle of them must be * Principle remembered in all field-sketching. The shading of shading hills may be in the vertical or horizontal styles, or in brushwork, which last is rapid and simple ; but in every case the steeper the slope the more intense 236 must be the shading, and the lines thicker and closer together, while in a gentler slope they will be thinner and farther apart. The brows or salients will usually be found steeper than the valleys and re- entering parts. To represent slopes greater than about 35, we must resort to vertical, broken strokes, such as are employed for rocks and precipices. There is one disadvantage in a contoured plan, even when shaded, and that is, it requires often a practised eye to read the features correctly, for there is much similarity between the summits and the valleys ; and this is specially so, when the surface has been gradually denuded, e.g. the chalk downs near Dover. Therefore, to make the drawing clearer, arrowheads should indicate whether the slopes run up or down ; and the heights in feet of certain points should be noted. Relative * When a sketch is completed, the simplest way is to estimate two or three of the highest points, then of intermediate points, and of the lowest points, which last will be usually water ; mark them 1, 2, 3, respectively, and state in the references their relative heights. Aneroid. A pocket aneroid is very useful in determining heights ; there is generally a small table in the case, and when the readings are taken at the base and summit of a hill, the height is found by deducting the former from the latter. Or with a barometer, the difference between the readings at the base and summit multiplied by * T T gives the height in feet ; T | T5 - of this result must be added or subtracted for every degree of temperature above or below 55 Fahr. 237 The greatest practicable slope for horses is f ; for * Practicable IIP AT> i slopes. mules i ; for men f . Baggage waggons ascend a slope of Y-- with difficulty. A slope of y is impassable for them. Infantry can ascend | or 20 ; but for single soldiers steeper ground is practicable. Cavalry are at a disadvantage on a greater slope than 5 ; and are useless on a steeper slope than 10. Artillery finds 10 difficult, and is quite inefficient for action on a greater slope than 12. The following is the authorised method to be * Authorised adopted for all reconnaissance sketches and written s kt and reports : re P rt - The sketch is to contain all necessary information, which can be put in without confusion and without unduly increasing its size. The written report is to be supplementary to, and explanatory of, the sketch, to convey necessary information with the utmost conciseness, and to be written on the form shown in Fig. 134. The form is folded so that the marginal headings may be seen in their proper places when the report is turned over for the perusal of the third column. Before writing the report, every place referred to in the sketch should be marked with a red numeral, surrounded by a circle, consecutively upwards from the bottom. But places named on the sketch need not be numbered. Remarks on a sketch should be made in the margin, clear of the drawing, connected with the points referred to by light lines. The lower edges of both sketch and report are to be in line, and the sketch attached to the left margin. 238 Report. * In Figs. A, B, c, D, is an ordinary double sheet of foolscap open ; a a is the original fold down the centre, and it is refolded along b b, a line parallel to a a, but a little to the right of it : thus A, E, D, F, form a margin visible when the report is turned for the perusal of the 3rd column. This margin con- tains the headings of the report in Roman numerals, I, II., III., &c. Horizontal lines are drawn opposite each marginal heading to contain information concerning that heading, and these are continued over the page so as to form a 3rd column if necessary, and drawn so as to fall in their proper places exactly over the lines in the 1st and 2nd -columns, when the page is turned down. First fill in the spaces in the 1st column, and then, when necessary, use the others. The report is headed and signed at the back of the page containing the 1st column. Reeonnais- * The various points to be noticed in reconnoitring sance j of a road. a road are :- i. The road itself general direction ; nature as hilly or otherwise ; gradients over 5 should be clearly shown. Heavy waggons can scarcely pass slopes greater than 8, unless with extra horses. Such a place, or any bad part of a road, may seriously delay a march, and should, if possible, be avoided. Its construction and present condition ; whether metalled or not ; where materials for repair are to be obtained. Whether sandy and heavy in dry weather, or of stiff clay and deep in wet weather ; if drained or not. Quarries near at hand, gravel pits, and stone walls, furnish means for repair ; fencing, timber, logs. CROSSINGS OF ROADS Fi s J35. RICK OF HAY fiy 136 RICK OF STRAW 239 hurdles, small trees, brushwood, heath, planks, &c., should be mentioned if likely to be needed. Width which should be 20 feet for convenient passage of troops. Any narrow part should be specially noted. Guns in column of route require at least 3 yards, but more if there are sharp turns in the road. ii. Bridges and fords. A rough hand sketch should * Bridges be made of any bridge showing dimensions, number, and size of piers ; width and number of spans ; thickness of arches at crown and haunches. We should mention, also, the material the bridge is built of, the length and width of roadway, the quickest way to destroy and repair it, if materials for repair are close at hand, and the nearest point of crossing if it is destroyed. The nature of the river crossed ; what fords exist, to be used either in conjunction with the bridge, or instead of it if destroyed. The position of the bridge, whether in a straight reach of the river, or at a bend, salient, or re- entering to the enemy. The approaches; adjoining country; means of defending it. (For fords, see ante, p. 155.) When a bridge passes over a road, notice the height above the road, and if loaded waggons can pass under it. It is particular to indicate clearly on a sketch when a road crosses another, or a railway, which of the two is uppermost (vide Fig. 135). iii. Kate of marching, specifying whatever is likely * Rate of to delay it. Length of denies and hollow ways ; marc 1Dg< 240 Towns and * villages. Water supply. where danger chiefly exists. Note everything that will enable an officer to take defensive measures, and to guard against surprise. iv. Towns and villages. State the situation as regards the road ; if adapted for fighting purposes, or for billeting troops; if inclosed by walls, fences, hedges, banks ; built of stone, brick, or wood ; tiled or slated roofs, or thatched ; the position and number of entrances ; chief substantial buildings ; the character of the country surrounding ; the streets, whether narrow and winding. Count or estimate the number of houses, and allowing half for the inhabitants ; the remainder will serve for accommodation. We can allow 1 man per yard in a room 15 feet wide, and 2 men per yard in wider rooms. A rough estimate of the population can be obtained by multiplying the number of houses by 5. Ascertain their trade and occupation. If agricultural people, they will be better with the -use of pick and shovel than if manufacturing. Inquire the market days, and where are the chief stores, bakeries, factories, butchers' and provisions shops, wheelwrights, forges, mills, telegraph office, &c. v. Water supply, whether from rivers, ponds, wells, pumps. To water horses from the edge of a stream, the level of the water should not be more than about 4 inches lower than the bank. One well of ordinary depth will supply a battalion ; but if the depth is very great it will take some hours -to draw water. The number of horses which can be watered at a time at a certain part of a stream is 241 the same as the width of that part in yards. A * Watering horse requires about 3 minutes to drink. It is advisable to dam up a small stream. vi. The nature of the country, hilly or level ; open * Country, or wooded ; pasture or cultivated ; what trees form the woods, if with tall stems, comparatively open, or thick with brushwood and low branches. Notice if the fences are large or small, what walls and ditches exist affording cover or obstacles any high places near the road suitable for signal stations any dry spaces of grass or heath suitable as halting-places, clear of a village, with water convenient ; or shady places in warm weather. vii. Rivers. Note the following points, which * Rivers, apply more fully when the reconnaissance is of the river itself : The force of the current and its direc- tion, shown on the sketch by an arrow-head ; all bridges, ferries, and fords, with roads leading up to them, crossing or running parallel to the river : its breadth and depth ; whether liable to floods, and the extent of country flooded ; the character of the banks, their height, and which commands the other. The number of arches, span, and height of bridges ; depth of water under the bridge ; any commanding ground within range of field guns ; boats and barges avail- able ; islands ; towns, villages, or detached houses oa the banks ; whether the river is navigable with facility or not ; whether tidal ; how high up the tide extends, and its average rise and fall (vide Crossing Eivers, p. 198). viii. Camping ground, whether desirable, on gravel * Camping or on clay, or if the country is low and marshy; affording sufficient supply of good water 5 gallons grounds. 242 Hallways. * per man and 10 per horse a day is ample ; if fuel is procurable (vide Encampments, p. 8). Positions. * ix. Positions, such as would be advantageous to an advanced or a rear guard, should be particularly noticed, e.g. cross roads, a ridge of hills commanding the road, villages, woods, and broken ground, keeping constantly in view the object of covering our own troops, and of causing the enemy to traverse an open space under fire. x. Railways, where they lead to, the gauge, single or double track ; whether on an embankment, in a cutting, or on level ground ; position of stations, size, length of platforms, convenience for transport of troops; rolling stock and stores: tunnels, bridges, viaducts ; whether it is possible to march troops along the line. Further particulars would be obtained by a special examination of the railway. When a reconnoitrer is directed to obtain informa- tion of supplies and accommodation in a district or a separate place, it is desirable to tabulate it in some such form as the annexed : Supplies and accom- modation. Name or reference number of pi are. Distance in miles and furlongs. Population. Accommodation on a march. Supplies. Trans- port. Water. Inter- mediate Total: Houses. Persons. Men. Horses. Crops. * Regarding crops, an acre yields about 25 bushels of corn, 45 of oats, 35 of barley, 25 of peas, 30 tons of turnips, 15 tons of carrots, and 8 tons of potatoes. Bricks. * A brick is 9 inches long, 44 inches broad, 3 inches thick, and weighs 9 Ibs. An unskilled man can lay 243 300 to 500 in a day ; a very good workman 1,000. A man can wheel 30 bricks in a barrow. Men extended 5 paces apart can clear 30 paces forward of brushwood 5 or 6 years old in 8 hours. Sometimes tall grass, corn, and reeds, impeding the view, should be cut or trampled down or burnt. Men 2 paces apart can cut down hedges in from 6 to 18 minutes, pulling down the top branches with a pole and rope, and if necessary cutting the lower branches with an axe. There is no better little work on reconnoitring than that entitled What to Observe and How to Report * It, by Colonel Hale, Royal Engineers. Every ser- geant should possess a copy. That officer classifies reports in three kinds 1st, verbal ; 2nd, written ; 3rd, drawn. Sometimes they are of two or all combined. 1st. A verbal report is one made by word of * mouth. The soldier making it is advised not to. be, and not to speak in, a hurry ; to settle exactly what he is going to say ; and if he has made a mistake to say so at once. 2nd. And because it is difficult to give a verbal * message accurately, the soldier is recommended, when possible, to write it down on a piece of paper, no matter how small or untidy. He should write clearly, read aloud what has been written to detect mistakes, sign his name, rank, and regiment, and put down the minute, hour, and date ; for what is true in one month may be incorrect in another, or even what s true in one hour may not be so in another e.g. a river may > be fordable in June and a * Clearances. What to Observe and How to Report It. Verbal report. Written report. 244 Report drawn and written. Conven- tional signs. Reconnais- sance of a position. Principles. torrent in January ; at 6 A.M. it was crossed on foot, but at noon the tide has risen, and it cannot be crossed on horseback. 3rd. The third kind of report is a drawing, without which it is often difficult to explain the position of roads, houses, woods, troops, &c. Certain marks, called conventional signs, are made use of to denote different objects. They are, as it were, the alphabet of the reconnoitrer. All employed in reconnoitring should use the same signs. Plate X. shows the conventional signs authorised to be employed. Avoid repeating information. What is clearly shown in a sketch need not again be described in a report. If an officer is directed to reconnoitre a position his attention should be given to the advantages and disadvantages it offers, the neighbouring country, the communications, rivers and bridges, crossing them, woods and fences, obstacles, demolitions, intrench- ments, and other works. When made of a position occupied by, or near an enemy, it will necessarily be hurried. But for defence there is usually sufficient time, and although it is not the duty of the reconnoitring officers on service to offer suggestions as to the best way of occupying a position, unless specially ordered to do so, certain principles should be borne in mind, viz. there should be depth to the rear for the circulation of troops, the position should not be too extensive for the force to occupy it, and the flanks if possible secured, with safe and easy communication between them, and suitable ground for manoeuvring in rear. The greatest number of Plate CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. DETAILS &c a a-iOL L(L SL-. . Woods or single trees *W>i tY^t&fiS Different (Icxeri/'dt'tts f>f tre*-,* li'be indirittetl in ii'rituig tv/ifti necessary Fields having hedge TOWS with c-md without, trees f err if ! 1 . Bridge Y7tr rna-teriaJ, to be inriictutfd Iri/ tfie- words "tron., ft one, ' brick, "wof>A, " , 'Z.Fh'in^ Bi'idge "boats Act \\\itfr tfheulUL ~iru'tarmj7ly be-represent'ed, eJttwr by a-ii'osh (TfbhiK or by bZne chalk pencil lines Sanies of import ant cities.litles of plai\s &c SHEFFIELD. All other- printing Brarknell. LINES OF COMMUNICATION AND RIVERS Road enclosed &// f'cncf-.iJiJftf p,,rrm 4 . ' rrom *rt or ob.ftttclt>of any kind* Road ivithaut, fence. c- Footpatli .......................... ...... ._---- 7Ji, nature- of fhfrvaAs whether metalled, i tmnetcULeA- tfo, Railroads ecessary. sL ~by ine,- J^TTLbCitiftfTt^Tlt- (^tlttino Untble Tina?, the- trans- verse-lznes -which- dirtuiyiush' flvujyle. fratn sinyle.-lntf.'i; m black Canal Jj>&i., Electric txjlegrapli *- t'hitr X.con? CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. Fence, bank or'YNall Nullahs (India' Church or Cliapel Other buildings ) and Sai-dens / &f to 1 MUe JtEtiiL TTpp-^' 3 i/ic'iiAr ff / AfiJe, THE FOLLOWING TINTS SHOULD BE USED WHEN POSSIBLE Woods Light shade- ff/' ffrcesi./ fiooh -fe's >V? ?'i.) Cultivation J.ig'ht shad*, cfyamboyc- Maill lX>ads ////?/ sienrieu Masonry Crimson. Jahe Wooden Imildinj* JilticK. Br i tish tl'OOpS Ci-imslan.. // Opposing force Blue When tSije..ffime trvops lire shewn isi su.ccesswe positions, different StiadfA of the. santC'Coifrr shoitLcL be used J~'or -rvtiyh- tfiffcfies colntired cJiaiti penci is ( frh+f . brown, r^.d- and, tpreen,) rriaju t>e used Field Artillery Infantry | Cavalry TROOPS &C Sen le. 6 inches tt> 7 Mile-. Battery 'ji'l"! 11 ! 11 !"! 1 3. inc/u-s tv / J/ile tW0 . 5(Xf-rnen- in / mm Direction of a Patrol Picxjiuu a Support r~ i Senti-v' 6 Double Sentry tte 6 Double Vedette Sentries, Vedettes, a/id Ritrols, coloured red. djo i/i' . dc 11 1 ICP loured 6 6 (56 Clearances or demolitions ETI angjemeuts or abattis Rifle pits Battery Site of battle MV Yds Scale- t! inches to a. mi If li, /:" itwai' (i'tUi>irr.r tJl J't i'i.v.'.' iilh-i ---- - - 2*4 2 245 troops should be devoted for the defence of vital points. The position should command a good view to the front, with gentle slopes for effective action of artillery. The requisites for a good position for that arm have already been noticed in detail (vide p. 33). A reserve must be in hand to support any part attacked. The three arms should be distributed on the ground best suited to their action, and certain points should be chosen well to the front as advanced posts. Retreat should be easy, and another position selected to be taken up if necessary a little further to the rear, also arrangements made for pursuit in the event of success. A danger has to be guarded against of extending too far in order to seize a vital point, and of occupy- ing too much ground for the available troops. It is better to keep a small force concentrated and well under observation. There are no rules as to the strength to occupy a Strength certain extent of ground in line f battle. Two per examples may be quoted: At Alma the Russians Alma, occupied 4 miles with 40,000 men and 110 guns, which gave about 12,000 men and 36 guns per mile. At Waterloo, the British, with their Dutch-Belgian Waterloo. allies, numbering 75,000, held a front of 2 miles. The points to notice on a canal resemble those * Canal, relating to a river, and include the position and dimensions of locks and what means they afford of crossing. The space between two locks may be run dry by opening the gates of the lower lock. The places between which the canal communicates, the tonnage of the craft navigating it and the condition of the tow-path, should be stated. Marshes. * With regard to morasses and marshes we should observe their extent, and if it is possible to pass them by any paths, or if not to make a corduroy road of rough felled timbers or by laying faggots of brushood, furze, &c. l e - * Small parties of infantry can cross ice 3 inches thick, cavalry and field-guns 4 to 8 inches thick. In 1881 rails were laid across the St. Lawrence at Montreal, and trains ran over the ice for some weeks in winter. Questions * Inhabitants should be questioned as to the popula- habitants. tion, the name of the mayor and principal persons at a certain place, the number of horses and vehicles, the strength and position of the enemy's troops, his outposts and patrols. It is well to note the answers given to use when questioning others. Questions * Prisoners should be questioned as to their bat- prisoners, talions or corps, the names of their commanders, the position of other corps, the places where they marched : from, the condition of the soldiers, if they are well fed, the position of any intrenchments. Observa- * A reconnoitring party, observing an enemy on the tionsofthe maj-Q^ ma y ascertain his numbers by noting the time occupied by the different arms in passing a certain point, their breadth of front, and rate of marching. Thus if a spy reports that a column, consisting of 9 battalions (1,000 strong) in fours, pre- ceded by a cavalry regiment (384 sabres) in sections, and followed by 2 batteries of field artillery in column of route, passed through a village, taking 47 minutes to pass his house, and that he observed the usual intervals between the corps, we can prove that his statement is accurate as under : Cavalry, 384, in sections = 384 yards. Infantry, in fours, X 9 = 3,072 ,, o 9 intervals of 25 + 1 of 2S = 253^ 2 field batteries @ 224 + 1 battery interval 9 457^ ,, j -t & , 217 Judging distances, 57, 247 K. KETTLES, camp, 15 Kinds of bridges, 199 of cooking trenches, 15 of fire, 36, 57 of obstacles, 162 of patrols, 105 of revetments, 174 Kitchens for field cooking, 15 Knowledge of ground essential, 6, 57 of country essential, 220 L. LAAGER to resist attack, 131 Labour in excavating earth, 172 Labourers, agricultural people as, 240 Ladders, bridge of, 216 for escalade, 188 in defence of a house, 136 S 258 Ladders, party for in, escalade, 187 Landmarks to be fixed in a night march, 120 Laths, profiling, ISO Latrines, 13 party to make, 11 Laying off an angle backwards, 232 out a camp, 9 Le Bourget, German attack on, 144 Length, horse's, 27 of artillery teams, 32 of columns on the march, 115, 116, 121 Lengthening bridge by trestles, 212 Lever bridge, 215 Light baggage at railway station, 124 Limbers and artillery waggons to be shel- tered, 34 Limit to depth for fords, 154 to escalade, 185 to strength in artillery, 41 Line, fighting, 50 front of troops in, 26, 32, 44, 117 of communications, 2 of observation, 88 of operations, 1 of resistance, 89 Loading baggage waggons, 14 pack animals, 195 Load on bridges, 206 Lock bridge, 216 on canal, 245 Logs on the top of walls, 170 Loopholes, dimensions of, 169 for defence of barricades, 160 in houses, 136 of sand-bags and sods, 170 on the tops of walls, 170 Marching, route, to be practised, 111, 239 t6 the ground to entrench, 19 Marking communications, 146 Marshes, report on, 246 Materials for hasty demolitions, 191 collected for bridges, 157 strength of, 219 Maxims of Frederick the Great, 79 of Napoleon, 2 Measuring distances, 233 distances by sound, 248 distances by time, 217 distances by triangulation, 228 guide to, in shelter trenches, 20 width of stream by peak of cap, 219 Meat, how to cook, 17 Military, bridging, 199 considerations prevail near the enemy, 110 indications, 247 pits, 165 spirit and discipline, xiv, 112, 250 Moral agents, 2 Mountains, defile in, 152 infantry employed in, 70 Mounted infantry, 25 orderlies with infantry outposts, 86 orderlies with strong patrol, 108 Movement of battalion by rail, 124 Mules loading with Otago pack-saddle, 195 Music, band of, how far heard, 248 Musketry fire, 3, 57 proficiency in, how stimulated, xv N. M. MACHINE guns, 140 Magnetic meridian, 229 Manoeuvres, gradients admitting of, 237 to represent reality, xiv Map, enlarging or reducing a, 227 scales for a, 222 Marauding forbidden, 66 March, arrangements for the, 111 attack when on the, 80 baggage on the line of, 112 discipline on the, 112 flank, 120 forced, 121 halts on the, 115 hour of starting on the, 114 length of a, 121 night, 120 opening out on the, 112 order of, for a division, 121 punctuality on the, 118 space occupied on the, 115, 116 time occupied on the, 118 to attack, 4 weight to be reduced on the, 111 Marches, 110 instances of notable, 121 time, examples of, 118 Marching a battalion into camp, 10 of a piquet to its ground, 89 rate of, 116 rate of, how influenced, 114 NECESSITY for advanced guard, 69 for deployment, 4 for developing warlike character, 48 for intrenchments, 18 for escorts to artillery, 67 for intervals, 41 for knowledge of country, 220 for outposts, 84 Night, changes for, made by day on out- post duty, 94, 102 disposition of piquets by, 102 march, 120 precaution against surprise at, 93, 103 North point, how drawn on a sketch, 230 variation of magnetic, 230 Notice to station-master of troops moving, 124 Number of casks to make a pier, 200 of paces hi so many files, 44 of rounds per gun, 40 of telegraph poles per mile to count, 233 of troops, to estimate, 246 of men per mile on outpost duty, 87 of men per mile in positions, 245 piquet to have a, 98 O. OATR, 248 Observation, line of, 88 Observations of the enemy, 246 Obstacles, 161 259 Obstacles, abattis, 162 at salients, 146 chevaux-de-frise, 166 conditions to be fulfilled by, 162 crowsfeet, 165 engineers and pioneers to remove, 43, 73, 186 entanglements, 163 escarpment; '167 fougasses,'167 fraises, 165 gabion band trip, 166 inundations, 166 military pits, 166 palisades, 164 to guard against surprise at night, 161 use of, 161 value in positions, 161 Occupation of a village, 138 of a wood, 145 of ground by outposts, 88 Offensive to be taken when opportunity occurs, 45, 141 Officer, company, in camp, 11 field, of the day, 88 mounted, to conduct battalion to camp, 10 on outpost duty, 89, 96, 97, 103 Offset in sketching, 231 Open ground in front best for defence, 7 Open hole trench, 17 Opening in obstacles, 162 of infantry to let cavalry and guns through, 53 out on the march, 112 Operations, base of, 1 line of, 1 Order of battle, 4 of march, 110 of march of a division, 121 Orderlies mounted with outposts, 86 with strong patrol, 108 Organisation of a corps, 5 of a division, 4 of artillery, 32 of cavalry, 26 of infantry, 43 Outposts, artillery with, 86, 104 changes for night made by day, 102 component parts of, 88 composed of cavalry and infantry, 86 cordon system and patrols in, 85 detached post, when necessary in, 96 distance in front of main body of, 87 duties and disposition of, 85 flanks to be protected of, 89 formed of advanced guard or freshest troops, 86 how to practise, 109 instances of neglect of, 84 meaning of, 84 mounted orderlies with, 86 no compliments paid by, 105 no hard and fast rules for, 98 not to shut themselves up, 100 of a brigade, 105 principle of detailing troops for, 87 proportion of, to army, 87 relief of, 102 remain alert till all are posted, 90 sentries of, 91 signals arranged for, 94 Outposts, signal stations with, 86 to be under arms before daylight, 102 Ox, rations furnished by an, 249 P. PACE of cavalry, 26 of convoy, 129 of field artillery, 32 of horse artillery, 32 of infantry, 43 of large bodies of troops, 117 Paces, to reduce files to, 44 Pacing, 233 Pack animals, loading of, 195 Pahs, New Zealand, 192 Palisades as obstacles, 164 destruction of, 192 Parade, never, sooner than necessary for a march, 110 Parallels made by infantry, 177, 182 Parapet of breastworks, 172, 173 of parallels, 177, 182 of shelter trench, 21 Parking convoy, 131 Parties detailed on arriving in camp, 11 working, 144, 180 Passage of Beresina, 210 of Bidassoa, 159 of Danube, 209 of Douro, 158 of rivers, 157 Paths in woods, 146 Patrols ascending a hill, 77, 107 examining farm, 76 examining wood, 76 exploring, 106 exploring a branch road, 77 instructions to, 78 object of, 85, 166 of cavalry, 77 strong, 108 to turn flanks, 77, 107 visiting, 105 Penetration of bullet, 21 Petersburg, bombproof barracks at, 174 Pickaxe in shelter trenches, 20 used for blowing in a gate, 194 Pickets as obstacles, 165 fascine, 178 Piers of casks, 200 of cribwork, 210 to form, 200 to launch, 203 Pig, rations furnished by, 249 Piles, 218 Pioneers to clear obstacles, 43, 73, 176 Piquets, cavalry, 108 may not generally light fires, 98 numbered, 98 position of, 99, 102 relief of, 102 report, 98 to afford mutual aid, 99 when attacked, 103 when to be under arms, 99 Pitching tents, 12 Pits, charger, 22 gun, 35, 183 military, 165 rifle, 19, 184 260 Pits, shelter, 19 Plain, advanced guard crossin , 74 Planks as revetment, 178 Plans, how made, 221 scales for, 223 Plevna, bombproof barracks at, 174 defenders outnumbered at, 46 effect of shell at, 38 Plotting, 232 Point for crossing a river, 157 north. 230 of advanced guard, 72 Pontoons, boat, 207 cylindrical, bridge of, 206 Population, estimate of, 240 Position for bridge over a winding river, 153 observations on enemy's, 78 occupation of a, 244 of piquets, 99 of reserve, 104 of sentries on outpost duty, 94 of supports, 101 reconnaissance of. 242, 244 to hold a defile, 151 Post, detached, 96 to be strengthened, 100 of honour, command of rear guard, 82 Potatoes, how to cook, 17 yield per acre, 242 Powder compared to guncotton, 191 Power of artillery. 31 Practicable slopes, 237 Practice in marching, 111, 118 in outpost duty, 109 Precautions against fire in defence of a house. 137 against surprise of a convoy, 129 against surprise of a piquet, 100 against surprise of a sentry, 93 In choosing a camping ground, 8 when one of a piquet deserts, 95 when fires are allowed on outpost duty, 98 Preliminary instruction of recruit, rv Principles deciding distance between piquets and supports. 101 of defence of villages, 139 of detailing outposts, 87 of employing artillery, 30 of forming an advanced guard, 72 of hill shading, 235 of occupying a position, 244 Prismatic compass, measurements by, 228 use of, 227 Prisoners, escorts for, 128 questioning, 246 Profiling laths, to erect, 180 Projectiles, artillery, 37 Proportion between the three arms, 4 of advanced guard to army, 70 of guns to men, 4, 41 of men to front line of defence, 140, 148 of men to shelter trench, 20 of outposts to army, 87 of rear guard to army. SI of reserve of advanced guard, 71 of reserve of battalion in attack, 51 of reserve of outposts, 104 of supports to fighting line. 51 of supports to piquets, 101 Protection of bridges, 208 Protractor, use of, 232 Pursue, advanced guard not to, 80 cavalry to, 24 Q QUARTER GUARD, mounted by field officer in camp, 11 master in camp, 9 Questioning inhabitants, 246 prisoners, 246 sentries, 92 Quick time, rate of, 43, 116 R. RACKS, arm, extemporised, 12 Rafts, bridge of, 209 Rails, to twist, 195 Railway, capacity of, carriages, 124 destruction of, 194 report on, 78, 242 transport by, 124 Rammers, 181 Range, effective, of artillery, 3 of case, 39 of common shell. 37 of musketry, 3, 57 of shrapnel, 38 to be taken, 55 to be wide for artillery, 33 Rate of marching, 26, 32, 116, 117, 129 Rations from pig. ox, sheep, 249 of forage, 249 of wood, 17 party to draw, in camp, 11 Rear guard, duties of, 81 how withdrawn, 83 Reconnaissance, articles for making, 221 meaning of a, 220 of bridges and fords, 239 of camping ground, 241 of canal. 245 of country, 241 of positions, 78, 244 of railway, 242 of river, 79, 241 of road, 78, 238 of town or village, 79, 240 of wood, 79 Reducing a map, 227 Reforming battalion after attack, 54 after taking a wood, 150 Regimental reserve ammunition, 54 Reinforcing by reserve, 52 discretionary, 51 Relative heights" to be shown, 236 Relays in working parties, 181 Relief of outposts, 103 of sentries, 94 to be kept separate, 99 Repair of roads, means for, 238 Replenishing pouches from ammunition cart, 54 Report, on bridges and fords, 239 on canal, 245 on camping ground, 241 on positions, 78, 244 on'piquet, 98 261 Report, on railway, -78 on reconnaissance, 237 on river, 79, 241 on road, 78, 238 on town or village, 78, 24 on various kinds of, 2i3 on woeds, 79 Representative fraction of a scale, 223 Reserve, advanced guard, 71 ammunition, 54 cavalry, 28 employment of, 52, 55, 138, 148, 156 in assaults, 138, 187 necessity for, 52, 55, 138, 141, 148, 156 none of artillery, 42 of battalion attacking, 52 of outposts, 87, 104 reinforcing with, in attack, 52 Resistance, line of, with outposts, 89 Retiring battalion across a bridge, 56 Retreat, battalion in, 55 cavalry in, 25 facility for artillery, 34 of beaten army, 81 rear guard covers, 81 through a defile, 151 Revetments, 174 fascines as, 177 gabions as, 175 hurdles as, 178 planks as, 178 sand-bags as, 179 sods as, 178 Rifle pits, 146, 184 range of, 3, . r >7 River, defence of, 156 passage of. 157 reconnaissance of, 241 velocity of, 198 Roads, length of columns on, 111, 115 rail, report on, 78, 242 reconnaissance of, 78, 238 where, should converge, 101 Rope bridge over the Tagus, 218 Rorke's Drift, 161 Rounds carried by infantry soldier, 50, 62 per gun of artillery, 40 Route, column of artillery, 115 column of cavalry, 115 column of infantry, 111 marching, to be practised, 111 Rowing boats, 212 S. SADDLE, Otago pack, 195 Salients, abattis at, 146 Sand-bags as revetments, 179 loopholes of, 170 to hold powder, 193 to muffle ladders, -188 Sanitary consideration of camping ground, Scale, plain, to construct, 222, 223 representative fraction of, 223 to be shown on sketch, 230 Scouts, cavalry, 29, 74, 78 infantry, 49 Screen cavalry, 70 Section commander, duties of, 47, 48 of cavalry, 27, 115 in escalade, 188 Security of prisoners, 12S rendered by outposts, 84 Selection of site for camp, 8 Sentries, connecting, 92 double, how posted, 91, 92 outposts not to take off valises, 93 over arms, 97 pay no compliments on outpost duty, 105 position of piquet in regard to, 99 posted in a wood, 94 protected' from surprise, 93 questions to be answered by, 92, 94 relief of, 94 same to mount same posts, 93 to be economised, 92 Sheep, rations furnished by, 249 Shell, common, 37 shrapnel, 38 Shelter on enemy's side of river, 157 pits, 19 trenches, 18, 141 Shooting line, 139, 145 Shovellers, proportion of, 181, 182 Shovels in shelter trenches, 20 Shrapnel shell, 38 Siege, infantry in a, 62 Sights to be adjusted in action, 58, 59, 64 Signal code, 65, 71, 94, 106 preferred to bugle sounds, 49 stations with outposts, 86 to cease firing, 57 Single combat, 60 Site for camp, selection of, 8 Skeleton enemy for instruction, 53 Sketching field, 221, 222, 235 scales for, 222 Skirmishing, 46 Slabs of guncotton, 193 Slinging arms for shelter trench drill, 18 for escalade, 190 Slopes, how represented, 233 practicable for manoeuvres, 237 practicable on roads, 238 all Small arm ammunition cart, 54 Socks, examination of, 114 Sods, loopholes of, 170 revetment of, 178 Soldier in action, 56, 57, 62, 66 weight carried by, to be reduced, 111 Sore feet, treatment of, 114 Sound, velocity of, 248 Space for troops in position, 26, 32, 44, 117 on the march, 111, 115, 117' Speed of artillery, 32 of cavalry, 26 of infantry, 43 Squadron, cavalry unit, 26 Squares, formation of, 60, 61, 62 to be avoided, 61 Stages of attack, 50 Starting, hour of, on the march, 114 Stations in field sketching, 229 Stockades, construction of, 168 demolition of, 192 Stores, classification of, 163, 173 collected for passage of river, 157 for escalade, 187 Storming party, 138, 144, 187 Strategical point, definition of, 2 village as, 141 Strategy denned, 1 262 Straw in camp, 8 contents of rick of, 250 inspection of, 249 Stream, arrangements for watering at, 8 measuring with a cap, 219 reconnaissance of, 79, 241 t to find discharge of, 199 Street, a defile, 151 patrol passing down a, 76 Strength in artillery, 41 of advanced guard, 70 of escorts, 127 of garrison in village, 142 of garrison in wood, 148 of materials, 219 of outposts, 86 per mile in positions, 245 Striking tents, 12 Subdivisions, column of, 36 Sunken flying column trench, 15 Supplies of ammunition, 54 to be tabulated, 242 Support, cavalry in, 29, 78, 109 extension of, 51 in a village, 141 in a wood, 148 In attack, 51 of advanced guard, 73 on outpost duty, 101 Surprise, instances of, 84, 85 to guard against, 84, 93, 100, 107 Surveying, 221 Suspension bridge, 217 Swamp, report on a, 246 Sword, the arm of cavalry, 25 System of training soldiers, xiv T. TACTICAL point, 2 unit of artillery, 32 unit of cavalry, 26 unit of infantry, 43 Tactics defined, 1 Tailing off, evil effects of, 112 Tasks in shelter trenches, 21 Telegraph, destruction of, 195 poles, to count, 233 with outposts, 86 Tel-el-Kebir, 121 Tents, circular, capacity of, 10 drainage for, 12 parties for pitching, 12 striking, 12 Theatre of war defined, 2 Timber, to fell, 163, 194 Time marches, 118 for escalade, 185 required on the march, 118, 239 to attack, 102 to start on the march, 114 Tools for escalade, 187 for strengthening posts, 173 issuing, 19 laying out, 18 Torpedoes, land, 168 Torrens kettles, 15 Touch of the enemy to be maintained, 24, 78, 103 Towns, accommodation in, 240 reconnaissance of, 79, 240 Trace of field-work, 180 of gun-pit, 183 of parallel, 182 of shelter trenches, 20 Tracks, searching for a ford, 154 Trail bridge, 213 Train, a battalion moving by, 124 baggage, oa the line of march, 112 Training of troops, xiv Transport company with division, 5 Traverse in field-sketching, 281 Trees, for crossing a stream, 215 to fell, 163, 194 Trenches, cooking, 15 shelter, 18, 35, 140, 141 shelter, filling in, 23 siege, 182 Trestles, Belgian, 208, 211 lengthening bridge by, 212 wooden, 210 Triple arrow kitchen, 16 Tripods for cooking, 17 Troops, disembarking from a train, 125 in action, space for, 26, 32, 44, 117 indications of, 247 moving by rail, 124 number of, per mile in positions, 245 on the march, space for, 111, 115, 117 to conform to the head of the column, 113 Trot, pace at a, 26, 32 Truce, flag of, 95 U. UNLOADING baggage waggons, 11 Unpacking mules, 196 V. VALISES, outpost sentries not to take off, 93 Valley-way of a river, 155 Vanguard of advanced guard, 74 Variation of the compass, 230 Vedettes, 96, 109 how posted, 109 Velocity of rivers, 198 of sound, 248 Verbal report, 243 Village, accommodation in, 240 as advanced or detached post, 141 attack of, 143 defence of, 138 intrenching, 140 patrol entering, 76 reconnaissance of, 79, 240 Vision, extent of, 247 W. WAGOONS, American sheet iron, 209 ammunition, shelter for, 34 loading baggage, 14 rarking, 131 trench, 15 Walls, destruction of, 191 treatment of, for defence, 170 War establishment of battalion, 45 of battery, 40 263 War establishment of cavalry regiment, 28 Waste weir, 167 Water, allowance of, 199 arrangement for supply in camp, 8 convoy by, 133 depth in fords, 154 supply, 240 Watering places, 241 Weapons of artillery, 31 of cavalry, 25 of infantry,. 43 Wheat, yield per acre of, 242 Wheel for measuring distances, 233 tracks leading to fords, 154 Wickerwork for sentry boxes, 13 gabions, 175 Wood, attack of, 149 defence of, 145 Wood, felling, 162 party in camp, 11 patrol examining, 76 piquet in, 100 reconnaissance of, "9 roads through, 145 sentries in, 94 Working parties, 181 along parallels, extension of, 1S3 in attack, 144, 188 in shelter trenches, extension of. 20 telling off, 181 Written report, 243 Z. ZONES of fire, three, 3 THE END. LONDON : MACLURE AND MACDONALD, Lithographer! to the Queen, 97, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.G. Ji?so,