CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE CIRCULAR 107 April, 1938 RAISING DAIRY CALVES IN CALIFORNIA S. W. MEAD Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. B. H. Crocheron, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CONTENTS PAGE What calves to raise 3 Management during early life 4 Marking for identification 4 Dehorning 6 Feeding from birth to two weeks of age 7 Methods of feeding and management from two weeks to six months of age ... 8 Whole milk 8 Skim milk 8 Minimum-milk methods 9 The use of dry skim milk, fresh buttermilk, whey, and dry and semisolid buttermilk 11 Care from six months to one year of age 12 Care from one year of age to first calving 14 Feeding and management just before first calving 15 Concentrates and roughages 16 Sanitation 17 Common ailments 17 Scours 17 Calf pneumonia 18 Lice 19 Pinkeye or infectious keratitis 19 Ringworm 19 Lead poisoning 19 Calf quarters 19 Raising the herd sire 20 Calculating the cost of raising dairy heifers 20 Vitamins 20 Minerals 21 Specific recommendations 21 RAISING DAIRY CALVES IN CALIFORNIA 1 S. W. MEAD 2 It is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain and improve a dairy herd by adding females through purchase, because the dairyman cannot then follow an intelligent breeding program to improve permanently the inherent productive capacity of his herd, and because there is also danger of introducing disease. Milk cannot well be produced at a profit with a diseased herd, and in many cases legal restrictions hamper the sale of either milk or cattle from such herds. For the average dairyman, therefore, herd improvement in milk pro- duction and protection against disease must come through a well-planned breeding program, which necessitates the raising of normal, healthy, female calves, from the best cows in the herd, and sired by a carefully selected purebred bull. This circular will not discuss all the successful methods of raising calves, but will discuss the fundamental principles upon which all such methods are based, and will describe a few specific methods which, with slight alterations, may be adapted to various conditions. The cost and availability of feeds and the selling price of milk or cream will largely determine the method used in any locality or even on any one ranch. Aside from cost, successful calf raising depends less upon the method used than upon the manner of its application. Rigid attention to every detail of feeding and sanitation will go far toward making any calf -rais- ing method a success. WHAT CALVES TO RAISE Dairymen should save only those calves that can be raised most economi- cally. Calves from high-producing cows, sired by a carefully selected bull, cost less to raise because of the lower percentage of culls. Calves born small, weak, or unhealthy are hard to raise, need more attention and a longer growing period, have a higher mortality ; and are therefore more costly to the dairyman. Dairymen often inquire as to the value of a cow's first calf. Although usually small, it has an equal chance with any of her later calves of de- veloping into a good cow. Since, however, the productive ability of a cow at the time of first calving is unknown, it is wiser to save calves from cows whose productive ability has been established. 1 This circular is largely a revision of Bulletin 478, Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves in California, and supersedes it. 2 Associate Animal Husbandman in the Experiment Station. [3] 4 California Agricultural Extension Service t ClR - 10 ? A female, twin to a male, is usually sterile — a freemartin. All other twin calves may be raised with the assurance that twinning has not im- paired their breeding powers. Bull calves should be disposed of at birth unless the breeding is of the best and they can be sold readily or used in the herd. Seldom is it profitable to produce veal from dairy calves. Since whole milk is required for the production of the best veal, and since an average of 10 pounds is needed for one pound of gain, the selling price of the veal seldom equals the market value of the whole milk consumed. MANAGEMENT DURING EARLY LIFE The normal calf comes into the world with a strong stimulation to grow. Certain factors, especially disease, operate to discourage its normal de- velopment. Where sanitary conditions are not good one may avoid much trouble by properly disinfecting the umbilical or navel cord, which at birth is a ready channel of infection. One should first empty the cord by grasping it between the thumb and forefinger at a point near the body and press downward to the end ; then paint the cord and a small area around it with tincture of iodine or other suitable disinfectant. Unless the calving or maternity stall is thoroughly sanitary, or if infectious calf diseases are encountered, it is well during good weather to allow the cow to calve in a clean pasture. Often certain infectious diseases of calves have been prevented in this manner. The maternity stall, however, has the advantage that the cow and calf can be watched more closely. Many calves presumably born dead could have been saved if an attendant had been present. Often the mouth and nostrils are covered with a part of the fetal membrane, which if not removed may cause strangulation. Mucus in the mouth and throat may also cause death. Marking for Identification. — Before being removed from the dam, the calf should be given some mark of identification. For this purpose a tag bearing the herd number is sometimes fastened to a strap about the neck. After the first calving, this tag is removed, and a smaller one inserted in the right ear ; or one may insert the ear tag immediately, dispensing with the strap tag. Though tattooing is satisfactory for Jerseys, Guern- seys, and Ayrshires, it is seldom visible in the black ear of a Holstein, even though red ink is used in place of black. The necessary equipment for tattooing may be obtained from com- mercial supply houses. The ear should be wiped clean, and all waxy secretions on the inside surface removed with a cloth moistened with gasoline or other fat solvent. The solvent itself must then be carefully wiped off. This step is extremely important, for the tattoo ink will not "take" in the presence of wax or oil. A generous amount of the tattoo ink, Raising Dairy Calves 5 black for light ears and red for black ears, is then applied to the num- bers or letters to be used. The ear should be held between the thumb and fingers while being punctured with the tattoo. To avoid tearing, push the ear away from the points of the instrument as the pressure is being Remove the o/tg secretions. Smear the ear and points of the stamp with tattoo ink. Im printing the tattoo. Rubbing the tattoo ink into the punctures. The tattoo is a satisfactory permanent method of identification. Fig. 1 — Tattooing the ear. Successful dairy herd management requires that each animal be given a permanent mark of identification. (From Bui. 478.) released. Rub the ink immediately into the punctures. Study of figure 1 will aid the beginner in properly performing the operation. The ear should be examined at one year of age; if the number has faded out through growth, the other ear should then be tattooed. 6 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. 107 Dehorning. — Dairymen commonly prevent the growth of horns by using caustic potash, procurable at any drugstore. The treatment should be applied before the calf is 3 days of age. The hair must be clipped from Clip hair from rudimentary horn and surround w/fh grease ring. Apply caustic. Horn cells completely destroyed by the treatment. Proper dehorning gives a natural polled appearance. The result of a shiftless job. Fig. 2. — Dehorning with caustic. When properly used, caustic is satisfactory in preventing the growth of horns. (From Bui. 478.) an area about 1 inch in diameter over the rudimentary horns, which can be felt beneath the skin. A little heavy grease should be spread around the outer edge of this area to prevent the caustic from running into the eyes and causing permanent blindness. Paper should be wrapped around Raising Dairy Calves 7 the stick of caustic to avoid burning the hands. The calf is then placed on its side with the head held firmly against the ground. The surface lying immediately over the horn is rubbed with the end of the caustic stick until the hair is removed and the skin becomes red, care being taken not to cause bleeding. After the process has been repeated on the other horn, the calf should be placed in a pen alone for at least a day. It must not be turned out during rainy weather, for the rain will wash the caustic into the eyes despite the grease ring. If the work is done properly, no horns will develop. Careless treatment, however, results in the growth of scurs or crooked horns that will mar the animal's head. The various steps in the procedure appear in figure 2, which also shows properly and improperly dehorned calves. If the horns are not prevented from growing by the use of caustic, they may be removed with horn clippers or saw. In that case, one should allow the animal to reach an age of 18 months in order to avoid a possible recurrence of horn growth. The dehorning should be done during the winter to avoid contamination by flies. In rainy weather the animals should be kept under cover until the opening in the head is closed. FEEDING FROM BIRTH TO TWO WEEKS OF AGE The normal calf will usually stand alone and attempt to nurse within an hour after birth. It must receive a generous feeding of colostrum, the mother's first milk. This contains substances that aid the calf in resisting disease during early life and is assumed to be especially suited for nour- ishing the newborn animal ; experiments have shown a high death rate among calves that have not received colostrum. Usually after 36 to 48 hours, the calf will have received sufficient of this first milk and may be removed from the dam. At this early age it may easily be taught to drink by allowing it to suck the attendant's fingers in a pail of milk; the fingers are then gradually drawn away, and after a few trials the calf will drink readily. In stubborn cases, feeding may be withheld for 24 hours until the calf becomes very hungry. Regardless of the feeding method to be used, the average calf should receive whole milk during the first 2 weeks of its life; small or weak calves require milk for a longer period, whereas exceptionally large and strong ones may need very little after the first 10 days. The amount to feed daily also varies with the size and vitality. A large, strong, healthy calf may do well on twice as much milk as one underweight at birth. The stomach of the young calf cannot handle large quantities of food. Over- feeding, a mistake often made in an effort to induce rapid growth, causes indigestion, which is indicated by scouring (diarrhea), a condition that seriously retards growth. Milk should not be fed to the limit of the calf's 8 California Agricultural Extension Service L Cir - 107 appetite. Sudden changes in either quantity or quality are disastrous. The milk for each calf must be measured accurately — for instance with a spring scale fitted with a hook on which a pail may be hung. During the first few days the calf should receive a relatively small amount of milk, gradually increased daily. A common rule is to feed 10 or 12 pounds a day for each 100 pounds of live weight. Milk weighs about 2 pounds to the quart. During the first 2 or 3 weeks the daily ration of milk should be given in three feedings ; thereafter, two will usually suffice. If whole milk is to be continued, the amount should be increased daily. At no time is it necessary to feed more than 16 or 18 pounds of either the whole or the skim milk. After 10 days of age, concentrates and roughage should be available at all times. California heifers are usually undersized at their first freshening, largely because they do not receive concentrates soon enough nor in large enough quantities. The milk should always be sweet and clean and, for the first 2 months, should be fed at 90° to 100° Fahrenheit, as determined by a thermometer. For older calves the milk need not be quite so warm nor so uniformly the same temperature at each feeding. If should not, however, be fed cold. Milk too rich in fat often causes indigestion and scours. Such milk may be diluted with water or partially skimmed ; or the amount fed may be reduced slightly. Individual pens should be provided during the first 2 or 3 weeks as a precaution against the spread of diseases that come in the early life of the calf ; later, calves of the same age may be placed together in a com- munity pen provided with stanchions in which they may be fastened during milk feeding, an arrangement assuring each its proper amount of milk. Such a device also permits the feeding of concentrates imme- diately after the calves have consumed their milk, to prevent them from forming the habit of sucking each other. Clean drinking water should be available at all times, regardless of whether the calves have been weaned or are still receiving milk. METHODS OF FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT FROM TWO WEEKS TO SIX MONTHS OF AGE Whole Milk. — Whole milk, properly supplemented with concentrates and roughage, cannot be surpassed for producing maximum growth. Under most conditions, however, it is too expensive to use beyond the first 4 weeks of age except for animals intended for immediate sale or show. Skim Milk. — As far as the future development and usefulness of the animal are concerned, skim milk after the first 2 weeks gives as good Raising Dairy Calves 9 results as whole milk and, when available, is the least expensive food. Animals thus fed are not, however, so fat and sleek at 6 months of age as those fed whole milk. As shown in table 1, the only appreciable differ- ence between whole milk and skim milk is in the fat content. For this reason, the concentrate ration may consist of barley, oats, or similar carbonaceous feeds. The addition of oil meal and bran will, however, im- TABLE 1 Percentage Composition of Whole Milk and Skim Milk Feeds Water Fat Protein Sugar Ash Whole milk 87.10 90.50 3.90 0.10 3.40 3.57 4.75 4.95 0.75 Skim milk 0.78 prove the palatability and thereby induce the calves to consume larger quantities and consequently to make more rapid growth. A suitable con- centrate mixture will be found among those listed in table 7. For the first 2 weeks the calf should receive whole milk, gradually reduced and replaced by an equal amount of skim milk during the third week. After the change is made, the daily allowance of skim milk may be increased gradually to 18 pounds — the maximum usually fed to even the largest calves. The longer the period of skim-milk feeding the better, but there is little advantage in continuing this feed after the calves reach 5 or 6 months of age. Skim-milk feeding is not, as popularly supposed, the cause of "pot- bellied" calves. This condition is due to underfeeding of concentrates and of good-quality roughage. Contrary to common opinion, skim-milk foam is not harmful to calves. Skim milk obtained from off the ranch should be carefully pasteurized to avoid the danger of introducing dis- ease. Minimum-Milk Methods. — Where only a limited supply of whole or skim milk is available, the question arises as to the minimum amounts of these feeds necessary for proper growth and development. So many experiments have been conducted that there are innumerable methods of calf raising which require relatively small amounts of whole or skim milk ; but the fundamental principles of all are much the same. In the past, considerable use was made of so-called "milk substitutes" — calf meals consisting of finely ground grains, low-grade flours, blood meal, usually a small percentage of dry skim milk, salt, various other minerals, and certain condiments. Such calf meals were mixed with warm water and fed as a gruel. At present most of the commercial and home-pre- pared calf meals are fed dry, in connection with what are now called 10 California Agricultural Extension Service [ Cir - 107 minimum-milk methods. The calves are given a good start on whole milk for 2 or 3 weeks and are then either continued on whole milk or gradually changed to fresh or reconstituted skim milk (1 pound of dry skim milk to 9 pounds of water) . The length of the milk-feeding period following the first 2 or 3 weeks varies. If they are to be weaned between 30 and 80 days of age, the calves are given a special concentrate mixture beginning at 7 to 10 days of age. Such a mixture is often called a calf meal or a calf starter. The home- prepared mixtures differ from the concentrate mixtures used where full-milk feeding is practiced, in that they contain blood meal or dry skim milk, or both, and often a greater variety of minerals. When 4 to 6 months old the calves are usually changed to a less complicated mixture. If milk feeding is continued for more than 80 days, the calf starter is unnecessary, a less expensive concentrate mixture being used. One very popular method in which milk feeding is discontinued at a very early age is that used with what is known as the "New Jersey Dry- Fed Calf Mixture." The calves, after being removed from the dam at the end of 48 hours, are given a maximum of 3 quarts of milk daily in three feedings for the first 10 days, after which they may receive the same amount of milk in two feedings until they are 30 days old. At 1 week of age they are given alfalfa, clover, or mixed hay, together with the dry-fed concentrate mixture listed below : 100 pounds yellow corn meal 4 pounds finely pulverized steamed 150 pounds ground oats bone meal 50 pounds wheat bran 4 pounds finely pulverized limestone 50 pounds linseed oil meal 4 pounds salt 50 pounds soluble blood flour At 3 weeks of age the milk is reduced by dilution with water, so that at 30 days the calves will be receiving only the dry-fed mixture (of which they should be eating 1 pound daily) , hay, and water. By the fifth month calves should be consuming 5 to 6 pounds of the dry-fed mixture daily. At 6 months a less expensive mixture is used, consisting of 100 pounds of corn meal, 100 pounds of ground oats, 100 pounds of wheat bran, 30 pounds of linseed oil meal, and 3 pounds of salt. A similar method of raising calves has been developed at the Wash- ington State Agricultural College. This dry-fed mixture, which is given below, is better adapted to the west coast because barley is used in place of corn : 125 pounds dried skim milk 50 pounds blood meal 100 pounds ground barley 35 pounds linseed meal (old process) 100 pounds ground oats 10 pounds sterilized bone flour 75 pounds wheat bran 5 pounds salt Raising Dairy Calves 11 Reconstituted skim milk is fed after the second week and is not discon- tinued until 6 weeks of age. The regular herd concentrate mixture is used at 6 months of age. One of the less extreme methods of raising calves on a limited amount of milk is that used at the Branch of the College of Agriculture at Davis. According to experiments at this station, calves will make normal growth and development if they receive milk to 90 days of age provided they receive relatively large amounts of concentrates and a first-class legume hay. By extending milk feeding to three months, a less expensive concen- trate mixture may be used and, as a rule, there is no reduction in the rate of growth after milk feeding has been discontinued, a danger often en- countered with calves weaned earlier. The calves are raised to 90 days of age, according to the skim-milk method, previously described, at which time they are weaned and given an opportunity to increase considerably their consumption of concentrates and hay. After the usual whole-milk feeding period of 2 to 3 weeks, fresh or reconstituted skim milk may be used with equally good results. A suitable concentrate mixture for use during the milk-feeding period will be found in table 7. After weaning, the selection of a concentrate mixture depends upon the available rough- age, as indicated in that table, and discussed in the text under the head- ing "Concentrates and Roughages." The addition of 20 per cent of dried skim milk to the concentrate mixture, after the calves are weaned, in- duces more rapid growth. The average food consumption in various lengths of feeding periods, and body weights of 35 Jersey and 16 Holstein heifers raised by this method are given in table 2. Note that the calves consumed on the aver- age 1 to 1.5 pounds of concentrates daily during the first 90 days and 4 to 4.5 pounds during the period from 3 to 6 months. The cost of raising to 6 months of age can be determined by applying local prices to the amounts of feed consumed. It must be understood that fresh skim milk, if available, can profitably be fed to 6 months of age. The method given above is recommended only where there is a limited supply of skim milk. The Use of Dry Skim. Milk, Fresh Buttermilk, Whey, and Dry and Semisolid Buttermilk. — That dry skim milk equals fresh skim milk in value has been demonstrated by several experiment stations. It may be used as a complete substitute for fresh skim milk by mixing 1 pound with 9 pounds of water, the resulting mixture being known as reconsti- tuted skim milk. The flake form should be used, as it will dissolve more easily than the powder. The concentrate mixture for calves after wean- ing from liquid food at an early age can be greatly improved by adding 20 per cent of dry skim milk. Fresh buttermilk and whey are satisfactory foods if strictly fresh and 12 California Agricultural Extension Service [ Cir - 10 ? not diluted with wash water or condensed steam as is sometimes the case. They should not be substituted for whole milk until the calf is at least 4 to 6 weeks old. Because of their greater acidity and laxative action, more care is required in changing over from whole milk than is the case with skim milk. Since whey contains very little protein, the concentrate mixture should contain more protein than one fed with skim milk. Re- TABLE 2 Average Consumption of Feed and Average Body Weights of 35 Jersey and 16 Holstein Heifers Weaned from Milk at 3 Months of Age Data recorded Jerseys Holsteins Whole milk pounds 110 875 84 350 30 155 252 503 pounds 135 Skim milk 1,000 Concentrates /Birth to 3 months 131 420 30 235 364 \At 12 months 670 * Calves allowed free access to hay will consume somewhat greater amounts, with a consequent lower consumption of concentrates. suits will be better if some whole or skim milk is fed along with the whey. Dry buttermilk may be used like dry skim milk, but with somewhat greater care because of its greater acidity. Semisolid buttermilk mixed with three times its weight of warm water may also be used, but is less satisfactory than the dry product because it does not keep so well. CARE FROM SIX MONTHS TO ONE YEAR OF AGE The growth of the dairy heifer from birth to first calving falls naturally into six stages. The 2 days following birth constitute the first. During the next stage, extending through the second week, the calf should get its start in life on whole milk. In the third, the change is usually made from whole to skim milk or to one of the minimum-milk methods. The fourth carries the calf to the age of 6 months or past the period of great- est mortality. A calf normal at birth and given proper care up to this age, presents a relatively simple problem during the fifth period, from 6 months to one year, demanding only good judgment on the part of the feeder. This is also true of the sixth period, which extends from one year to first calving. In many cases, however, after caring for the young heifers conscientiously from birth to 6 months of age, the dairyman erroneously assumes that they can now take care of themselves, and gives no concentrates during the pasture season and little more than roughage during the winter. In many sections of California where pas- Raising Dairy Calves 13 ture is available during 9 months of the year, this danger is greater than in colder parts of the country where the heifers are brought up from the pasture in the fall and must be fed concentrates. In the latter case, the animal can store up some reserve for the pasture season. TABLE 3* Normal Body Weight and Height at Withers of Females During the Growing Period Age in Holsteins Jerseys Ayrshires months Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Birth inches 28.3 pounds 90 inches 26.0 pounds 55 inches pounds 69 1 30.2 121 27.7 76 27.5 90 2 32.3 157 29.4 105 29.5 128 3 34.2 200 31.2 140 31.2 170 4 36.2 249 32.9 174 33.1 218 5 38.0 302 35.1 222 35.1 254 6 39.7 349 36.9 260 36.4 286 7 40.9 389 38.1 302 37.3 304 8 42.2 425 39.3 340 38.5 336 9 42.9 466 40.5 376 39.0 366 10 43.8 501 41.3 407 39.6 406 11 44.3 529 41.9 432 40.1 427 12 44.8 558 42.6 456 40.7 456 13 45.6 574 43.3 480 41.3 485 14 46.2 596 43.8 503 42.0 533 15 46.8 612 44.4 520 42.4 547 16 47.4 643 44.6 533 42.7 560 17 47.7 660 45.1 553 43.1 579 18 47.9 686 45.5 572 43.7 604 19 48.3 715 46.0 598 44.2 627 20 48.7 746 46.3 621 44.6 651 21 48.9 774 46.5 649 44.9 679 22 49 2 796 46.8 668 45.4 707 23 49.5 824 47.2 689 45.6 733 24 49.8 841 47.4 716 45.9 759 25 50.2 869 737 46.6 798 26 50.5 893 758 46.7 807 27 50.9 925 48.0 770 46.8 859 28 51.1 966 784 46.9 29 51.3 994 804 47.0 30 51.5 1,021 48.3 47.2 * Data from Bulletin 478. Many dairymen mistakenly suppose that grass is a perfect food for young stock. As a matter of fact, grass contains about 80 per cent of water ; and the digestive organs of the calf under 10 months of age are incapable of handling sufficient amounts of this bulky food for normal growth. One must therefore feed concentrates to keep the heifer growing rapidly. Heifers underweight at 6 months of age should receive some- what larger quantities. The amount of concentrates to feed can be de- termined by weighing the heifer and comparing the result with the 14 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. 107 normal shown in table 3. Where facilities for weighing are not available, the height measurement may be used, and the concentrates adjusted according to the state of flesh of the animal. In those parts of California where the pastures dry up during the latter part of the summer, hay as well as concentrates must be supplied. During the winter months and when there is no pasture, the heifer under one year of age should receive its fill of the best available hay, together with sufficient concentrates for normal growth. Suitable con- centrate mixtures are listed in table 7. CARE FROM ONE YEAR OF AGE TO FIRST CALVING Cost is the principal argument against raising dairy heifers. Since the period from birth to first calving is unproductive, the advantage of early calving is evident. To sacrifice size of animal for early calving is, how- ever, a serious mistake. The undersized heifer, after freshening for the first time, is limited in her ability to produce milk by the fact that the stimulation to grow is still strong. Since a cow cannot consume sufficient food for both maximum milk production and normal growth, both milk production and growth are impaired. Growth is most economical when it is most rapid. It is most easily accomplished between birth and two years of age, since at this time the animal is endowed with the strongest stimulation to grow. Though the normally developed heifer at one year of age will do fairly well on good pasture alone, the pasture feed, as the summer advances, usually be- comes less abundant. The practice — all too common in California — of neglecting to supplement such feed with concentrates or with first-class hay has resulted in a high percentage of undersized heifers. In winter or during a period when pasture is not available, heifers between one year of age and first calving should have free access to the best available hay and should receive 3 to 5 pounds daily of a concen- trate mixture, the amount depending upon their condition of flesh. Silage, a very good feed at this age, may be substituted for part of the concentrates and hay. If a Jersey heifer makes normal growth she is considered ready to breed at between 16 and 18 months of age. The last 15 Jerseys to freshen in the University herd averaged as large at 13 months as the figure given in table 3 for a heifer 17 months of age. Four of the heifers, in fact, were bred at 13 months and at freshening had an average weight of 982 pounds. The average production of milk fat for these first-calf heifers was 466 pounds in 305 days, on official test. Since growth can be so markedly affected by feeding conditions, heifers should he bred according to body weight rather than age. Table 4 Raising Dairy Calves 15 shows the proper relation between body weight and breeding age when heifers make normal growth. Feeding and Management Just Before First Calving. — Fitting the heifer for lactation should begin 2 or 3 months before calving. During the first part of the lactation period, the high-producing heifer cannot consume sufficient food to supply the materials needed for milk produc- tion. During the period preceding parturition, therefore, she must store TABLE 4 Age and Weight Schedule for Breeding Dairy Heifers Breed Age to breed Normal weight Holstein months 19-21 18-20 17-19 16-18 pounds 715-774 Ayrshire 604-651 550-598 533-572 in her body a reserve supply of food materials to draw on during this period of heavy production. When good pasture is available, no additional roughage is needed. The amount of concentrates to feed varies according to the condition of the heifer. Usually it is well to start with about 2 pounds and to increase in 10 days to 5 or 8 pounds daily. When no pasture is available, hay must be supplied. Any of several concentrate mixtures may be used during the fitting period. Those listed in table 7 should give good results. It is well to fasten the heifers in the stanchions with the milking herd for the feeding of concentrates so that the feeder can note the condition of the animal and can feed more intelligently. The heifer will also form the habit of coming to the barn at milking time and will soon become accustomed to the surroundings. In consequence, she will be more easily handled after freshening. A week or 10 days before calving, the concentrate mixture should be changed to 2 parts of wheat bran and 1 part of linseed oil meal. At this time the bowels should be kept loose. Whenever there is any tendency toward constipation, a dose of % pound of Epsom salts in a quart of water should be given. At least a week before the calculated date of calving, the heifer should be watched closely; at the first sign of ap- proaching parturition she should be given a clean, comfortable place in which to calve. After parturition the heifer should be protected from cold drafts and should receive very little feed for the first few days. At the end of 24 hours, a warm bran mash with a small amount of hay is usually given as the first food. Warm water should be supplied. Thereafter, the feeder 16 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. 107 may use the concentrate mixture intended for milk production, starting with 1 pound a day and gradually increasing this amount to meet the needs of the cow. CONCENTRATES AND ROUGHAGES Mixtures of grains, grain by-products, and other by-products of the oil and milling industries are often called grain mixtures, but should prop- erly be termed concentrate mixtures. Such feeds as hay, pasture, forage, and silage are known as roughages ; they differ from the concentrates in being more bulky and in usually containing a higher percentage of fiber. They vary considerably in protein content; and since they are generally the cheapest source of food nutrients, the basis for selecting a concen- trate mixture depends largely upon the roughage available. Generally speaking, there are three classes of roughages. The first includes the high- protein roughages or legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, vetch, cowpea and soybean hay, or green pasture. The second class consists of the low- protein or carbonaceous roughages, examples of which are the grain and grass hays or dry pastures and nonleguminous silages. The third class, known as mixed roughages, contains any mixture of high- and low-pro- tein roughages such as alfalfa hay and corn silage ; oat and vetch hay ; or dry pasture, supplemented by a limited amount of a leguminous hay. A suitable concentrate mixture should supply, at lowest cost, those de- sirable characteristics and constituents in which the particular rough- age may be deficient. In addition it must of course be palatable, supply sufficient protein of good quality, be highly digestible, and provide va- riety, bulk, and common salt. Table 7 lists several concentrate mixtures suitable for dairy heifers. The dairyman should select the one that not only meets his requirements most closely, but does so at the least cost per pound of digestible protein and total digestible nutrients. By using tables 5 and 6 and by noting the available local feed prices one can easily calculate the cost of any mixture listed. Though the concentrate mixtures 1-6 inclusive are suggested for feeding with high-protein roughages, they properly supplement mixed roughages when the calves are receiving either whole or skim milk, because milk is high in protein. If the available roughage is a low-protein form, one should then make one's selection from mixtures 7-12 inclusive. Any of the mixtures listed, when used for calves weaned from milk at as early an age as 90 days, will be improved materially if 20 per cent of dry skim milk is added. Feeds such as barley, oats, wheat, milo, Indian corn, or Egyptian corn should be rolled or crushed for best results. Only the best quality of fish meal and rice bran should be used in the mixtures listed. Raising Dairy Calves 17 SANITATION Prevention of infectious diseases is usually easier than eradication. The calf quarters and feeding utensils should be scrupulously clean. At frequent intervals the quarters should be given an especially thorough cleaning — the walls, partitions, stanchions, and mangers scraped and washed with a hot lye solution. Calves appearing even slightly abnormal should at once be isolated and their condition carefully diagnosed, if necessary by a veterinarian. If an infectious disease is suspected, a veterinarian should be consulted at once. COMMON AILMENTS Scours. — The most common ailment of calves is scours, or extreme loose- ness of the bowels. In general there are two classes, known as infectious and noninfectious scours. So many variations and conditions accompany these that this circular cannot discuss the subject in detail ; only general recommendations can be made. Where losses persist, information regard- ing prevention and treatment should be obtained by calling a qualified veterinarian. The noninfectious form is usually due to digestive disturbances and may be caused by overfeeding, sudden changes in quantity or quality of milk, feeding milk too rich in fat, dirty feeding pails, variations in tem- perature of milk, irregularity in feeding time, feeding milk alternately sweet and sour, or exposure to moisture and filth. The trouble is more easily prevented than cured. A calf that has received a setback because of scouring can be restored to normal growth only with great difficulty. At the first sign of indigestion or scouring, isolate the calf, withhold milk for a day, and gradually return to normal feeding. In addition, administer 2-4 tablespoonfuls of castor oil in % pint of mineral oil. This treatment may be followed with about % ounce of bismuth subnitrate mixed with a very small amount of water twice daily. A pint of lime water may also be added to the milk at each feeding. Occasionally, scour- ing among calves has been overcome by pasteurizing the milk. Certain outbreaks of scouring in calves under six weeks of age may be successfully treated by substituting warm barley water for milk for two days. On the third day equal parts of barley water and milk are fed, and the animal is gradually brought back to milk by the fifth to the eighth day. The barley water is prepared by boiling rolled barley in the proportion of one part of the grain to five parts of water. The grain is then strained out through cheesecloth, and the liquid fed at a tempera- ture of about 100° F. The calves when hungry drink it as readily as milk. Infectious scours is a bacterial disease attacking calves at birth or 18 California Agricultural Extension Service [ Cir - 107 shortly thereafter. Although it is often called white scours, there are probably also other types of infectious scours. The symptoms are weak- ness, dullness, sunken eyes, and a profuse discharge of dirty or yellowish- white feces having a pasty or watery consistency and an extremely offensive odor. The most common form of this disease often results in pneumonia and is usually fatal, attacking calves shortly after birth and causing death before the end of the first week. Unless drastic measures are taken, every calf will be affected. Dead calves should be immediately removed and burned or buried ; the bedding burned ; and the quarters occupied by the calf and cow, as well as the adjacent surroundings, thor- oughly disinfected. On farms where this disease has recently existed, the maternity stalls should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected before a cow is allowed to •enter. After calving, the udder and teats of the cow should be cleansed and disinfected before the calf is permitted to suck. Immediately after calving, all bedding should be removed, and the stalls thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Since the specific causes of infectious scours are unknown, the com- mercial antiserums and vaccines often recommended are necessarily of the so-called "shotgun" type and have therefore proved rather unreli- able as a means of combating this very serious calf ill. The most successful method of handling an outbreak of infectious scours is to select an entirely new calving location (box stall or pasture) that has not been used by cows or calves for a considerable time. The cows should be moved to these quarters just before calving, and the external reproductive organs and rear quarters thoroughly washed with soap and water. Before the calf nurses, the udder and teats should be similarly cleaned. The calf should not be moved to the regular calf quarters until 2 to 3 weeks of age, when the danger from this particular form of scours is largely past. The value of two or more feedings of the mother's first milk, known as colostrum, cannot be overemphasized since this milk aids the calf in resisting the infectious diseases of early life. Calf Pneumonia. — Pneumonia causes heavy losses in calves. The dis- ease is caused by bacteria ; but the susceptibility of the animals is greatly influenced by the conditions under which they are maintained. Over- crowding; dampness; poorly ventilated quarters; insufficient bedding, especially on concrete or stone floors; and exposure to extreme varia- tions in atmospheric conditions are factors involved in lowering the calf's resistance and allowing the infection to gain the upper hand. It may follow an attack of scouring or may be entirely unassociated with scouring, being contracted by calves 2 to 3 months of age. The disease is characterized by a profuse discharge from the nose, heavy breathing, Raising Dairy Calves 19 and a considerable rise in body temperature. Such calves should be iso- lated, blanketed, placed in a dry, well-bedded pen free from drafts, and given free access to clean water. A purgative such as castor oil with mineral oil should be administered ; and if the calf is valuable a vet- erinarian should be consulted. Lice. — As a rule, dairy calves are not affected with lice during the summer and fall. In winter and early spring, however, lice are often present, especially around the muzzle, eyes, withers, and along the back line. Many treatments may be used. Powdered derris root dusted into the hair is fairly effective. Raw linseed oil, rubbed sparingly into the hair, is also a useful control measure but will blister the skin unless the animal is kept out of direct sunlight for several days. A 3 per cent solution of a coal-tar disinfectant, liberally applied, will control the lice without blistering. Sodium fluoride should never be used, since it has a very deleterious effect on the teeth when consumed even in minute quantities. Any treatment for the eradication of lice should be repeated three or four times at weekly intervals. Pinkeye or Infectious Keratitis. — This disease is characterized by an inflammation of the membrane of the eye, the cornea finally becoming involved, assuming a hazy, blue appearance, and eventually changing to a milky-white opacity. Occasionally ulcers form on the cornea. Calves so affected should be immediately isolated. A small amount of a 2 per cent yellow oxide of mercury ointment or several drops of a 10 per cent solution of argyrol placed between the eyeball and lid daily has proved effective. Ringworm. — This infection of the skin is indicated by round spots of rough skin devoid of hair, commonly around the head, but occasionally on other parts of the body also. Unless treatment is administered, the disease tends to spread. The spots should be washed with soap and water, scraped to remove all scaly material, and treated with tincture of iodine. Lead Poisoning. — Paints containing lead should never be used on buildings or fences with which calves come in contact, since such paints when consumed in any appreciable quantity are poisonous, resulting in the death of the animal. CALF QUARTERS The calf barn should be light, well ventilated, and free from drafts. In- dividual box stalls should be provided for calves under 1 month of age ; and community pens, equipped with stanchions, for the older animals. If possible, the individual box stalls should have tight walls to aid in preventing the spread of unsuspected infectious disease. The barn fittings, if of wood, should be removable to allow for thor- 20 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. 107 ough disinfection at frequent intervals. If ever the calves are exposed to infectious diseases, such an arrangement will facilitate a thorough cleaning. Provision should be made for the calves to exercise daily. Plan for con- structing calf barns and corrals may be obtained from the Agricultural Extension Service, University of California, Berkeley. RAISING THE HERD SIRE In most respects, feeding and care are identical for the future herd sire and the heifers. During the growing period, however, the males should be fed liberally to induce maximum growth; otherwise, the inherited size of the animal cannot be judged. When between 4 and 5 months of age, the bull calf should be separated from the heifers. Milk feeding should continue to 5 or 6 months of age, and even 2 or 3 months longer for best results. Concentrates and roughage recommended for heifers should be fed liberally. Well-grown bulls may be used in service once or twice a week beginning at 10 to 11 months of age, and the number of services increased after 12 to 13 months of age. CALCULATING THE COST OF RAISING DAIRY HEIFERS Many requests have been made for information concerning the cost of raising dairy heifers. No definite information can be given, since the price of feeds and other costs vary considerably throughout the state. The individual dairyman may, however, closely estimate the cost by applying local prices to the feeding recommendations made in the pre- vious paragraphs. VITAMINS Though vitamins A, C, and D are important in nourishing the calf, it has not been demonstrated that under California conditions there is apt to be a deficiency of C or D. On certain ranches in the state, however, calves have been found suffering from a lack of vitamin A. This defi- ciency results in sore eyes (similar in appearance to pinkeye), certain forms of reproductive disturbances, weak and unthrifty calves, scours, and pulmonary complications. Vitamin A is formed in the animal body from carotene which is found in all green feeds. Whole milk from prop- erly fed cows contains vitamin A. All leached and bleached roughages are decidedly deficient, and straws are almost lacking in this factor. Although high-grade cod-liver oil is a rich source, a more economical method, usually, is to supply green pasture or best-quality hay. The poor growth made by dairy heifers turned on to dry, bleached pastures in summer is partly explained by a deficiency of vitamin A. Under such conditions, also, the heifers often receive an insufficient Raising Dairy Calves 21 amount of feed. Such a ration is also deficient in protein and often in the necessary minerals. The effect of a low vitamin- A intake on such pasture will be particularly noticeable if the heifers have previously received a poor grade of hay. If the animals will be on dry, bleached pasture for more than a month, it is economically sound to supply them with green hay. If the pasture is short they should also receive concen- trates. MINERALS Minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron are necessary for regu- lating the body processes and for developing the skeleton. Milk contains relatively large amounts of various minerals, and these must come origi- nally from the feed. An adequate supply of minerals is therefore ex- tremely important for the rapidly growing calf and the high-producing cow. The minerals about which we hear most are calcium and phos- phorus. The legumes are particularly rich in calcium, whereas the con- centrates abound in phosphorus but are relatively low in calcium. The grain hays and grasses are relatively low in both calcium and phosphorus. Except in certain restricted districts, mineral supplements are not neces- sary, nor are they, as many believe, a panacea for the common disorders of livestock. Certainly, however, potassium iodide should be admin- istered where indicated by cases of goiter and hairless pigs. Since com- plicated mineral mixtures are unnecessary and expensive, their use should be avoided. Some soils may produce feeds deficient in minerals. If this condition is evidenced by bone chewing, gnawing of wood, or other forms of depraved appetite, one should add to the concentrate mixture 1 or 2 per cent of a high-grade supplement such as steamed bone meal. Otherwise, if the feeding recommendations made in this circular are followed, there is no reason to believe that supplementary minerals other than common salt are necessary in California, for dairy animals kept in valley pastures. Range feed in the foothills becomes low in phos- phorus as the season advances and the feed becomes leached and bleached. SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS With the cooperation of the Agricultural Extension Service a survey has been made of the calf -raising methods used by a large percentage of the cow-testing association members of the state. The results explain why there is such a high percentage of undersized heifers, especially at the age when heifers of normal size should be calving for the first time. Experience has shown that normal growth cannot be obtained on roughage alone ; yet 40 per cent of the dairymen are feeding only hay as a supplement to milk. Fully 70 per cent of the dairymen wean their calves at an average of 5^ months, while 30 per cent wean their calves 22 California Agricultural Extension Service [ Ci R- 107 at slightly under 4 months of age. Either method will give satisfactory results provided that sufficient concentrates as well as hay are fed. Fully 80 per cent of the dairymen turn their calves out to pasture before they are 6 months old ; and approximately 50 per cent feed no supplements of any kind, either concentrates or hay, after turning the calves out to pasture. In other words, apparently many of the calves grown in Cali- fornia must depend upon pasture alone after 6 months of age. Such a TABLE 5 The Nutritive Values of Common California Concentrates and the Comparative Costs of Total Digestible Nutrients Pounds nu- trients in 100 pounds of feed Cost of 100 pounds of total digestible nutrients at a given cost of one ton of feed Feeds Digest- ible protein Total digest- ible nu- trients $15 $20 $25 $30 $35 $40 $45 $50 $55 $60 Beet pulp, molasses Corn, Indian 6 7 7 7 8 9 9 9 13 19 31 38 38 54 74 84 79 72 79 68 84 80 70 81 78 82 81 71 SI. 01 0.89 0.95 1.04 0.95 1.10 0.89 94 1.07 0.93 0.96 0.91 0.93 $1.06 $1.35 1.19 1.27 1.39 1.27 1.47 1.19 1.25 1.43 1.23 1.28 1.22 1.23 $1.41 $1.69 1.49 1.58 1.74 1.58 1.84 1.49 1.56 1.79 1.54 1.60 1.52 1.54 $1.76 $2.03 1.79 1.90 2.08 1.90 2.21 1.79 1.87 2.14 1.85 1.92 1.83 1.85 $2.11 $2.36 2.08 2.22 2.43 2.22 2.57 2.08 2.19 2.50 2.16 2.24 2.13 2 16 $2.46 $2.70 2.38 2.53 2.78 2.53 2.94 2.38 2.50 2.86 2.47 2.56 2.44 2.47 $2.82 $3.04 2.68 2.85 3.12 2.85 3.31 2.68 2.81 3.21 2.78 2.88 2.74 2.78 $3.17 $3.38 2.98 3.16 3.47 3.16 3.68 2.98 3.12 3.57 3.09 3.21 3.05 3.09 $3.52 $3.72 3.27 3.48 3.82 3.48 4.04 3.27 3.44 3.93 3.39 3.53 3.35 3.39 $3.87 $4.05 3.57 3.80 Oats 4.17 Corn, Egyptian Rice bran 3.80 4.41 Wheat Milo 3.57 3.75 Wheat bran Coconut meal Linseed meal, old 4.29 3.70 3.85 3.66 Cottonseed meal, 3.70 $4.23 method of raising dairy heifers is particularly objectionable when we know that almost half the dairymen feed no concentrates during the milk-feeding period. The survey also brought out that 18 per cent of the dairymen who own Holsteins breed them at 12-15 months of age ; 38 per cent breed them at 16-18 months ; 25 per cent at 19-21 ; and 19 per cent at 22-27 months. Since the recommended age for breeding normally grown Holstein heifers is 19-21 months, 75 per cent of the Holstein dairymen are breeding their heifers too young or find it necessary to delay breeding until their heifers are 22-27 months of age. A similar study of the reports from dairymen owning Jersey and Guernsey cattle has shown that 40 per cent breed their heifers at 12-15 months of age; 38 per cent breed them at 16-18 months ; 19 per cent at 19-21 months ; and 3 per cent at 22-24 months. Since normally grown Jersey heifers may be bred at 16-18 months, over 60 per cent of these Raising Dairy Calves 23 dairymen either breed their heifers too young or delay breeding until the heifers are 19-24 months old. In view of the reports received con- cerning methods of feeding, it is doubtful whether the heifers bred between 12 and 15 months are as large as normal heifers at 16-18 months of age. It is also doubtful whether the 22 per cent who breed their heifers at 19-24 months would delay breeding until this age if their heifers TABLE 6 Comparative Costs of Digestible Protein in High-Protein Concentrates Pounds nu- trients in 100 pounds of feed Cost of 100 pounds of digestible protein at a given cost of one ton of feed Feeds Digest- ible protein Total digest- ible nu- trients $15 $20 $25 $30 $35 $40 $45 $50 $55 $60 Fish meal 54 38 38 31 19 71 82 81 78 81 $1.39 1.97 1.97 2.42 $3 95 $1.85 2.63 2.63 3.23 $5.26 $2.31 3.29 3.29 4.03 $6. 58 $2.78 3.95 3.95 4.84 $7.89 $3.24 4.61 4.61 5.65 $9.21 $ 3.70 5.26 5.26 6.45 $10.53 $4.17 5.92 5.92 7.26 $11.84 $ 4.63 6.58 6 58 8.06 $13.16 $ 5.09 7.24 7.24 8.87 $14.47 $ 5.56 Soybean meal Cottonseed meal, choice 7.89 7.89 Linseed meal, old process 9.68 Coconut meal $15.79 were sufficiently large to breed at the customary age. In summarizing, one may safely say that about half of the cow-testing association mem- bers who replied to the questionnaire are either losing considerable time in getting heifers into milk production or are producing numerous undersized first-calf heifers. Of course, if a dairyman has abundant cheap pasture, he may profit- ably feed only roughage and delay breeding until the heifers have reached the normal size for breeding. Otherwise, the increased cost in- volved in feeding concentrates up to 8-10 months of age and in supple- menting poor pastures with hay will be fully repaid by bringing heifers into milk at an earlier age and producing heifers capable of beginning milk production unhampered by lack of size. 24 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. 107 I 65 1 1 s>5 ■ o m . ■ © 1-H t^ ++ S, CD 60 IS i^ £ • • © • -iOO •© ■ ■* 3 • • »-H • • i-l CO • i-H -CO * s OS 00 1 © ~ O **3 S-. g....oio..o.-.^ S -----*.-H..rH..CO © 1-H t~ 3 o o c3 3 o a ~ Xfl «5 CO g • CO • ~H .. . . cn --co M § OS t^. 1-1 t>. a ~ ft o o © « s £ o 1 M CO g • ■ w o • ■ • •© . -* . ja fe © o © 1 ^ o « "a _ 1 so-o ©■• 83 < U o 1 © r rH l^ J -e i CO g • .© ••©© •© • • . os • ~ H © 3 m © 1-t t>- o CD ar u a d a « j=i 13 s 60 3 el g • ■ i«ifl •© -OS 1 © 3 1-H t» ^o h a> a T3 "« a ,3 X as g-io-»o-...©..ai 3-"*-^....eq..»H © 1 a Tt< OO -a w s is a EH 05 fe £ g ■ • iO • • • .©©.*. © 3 a ~ ib "o J? t^ g- •©©••.. ©.OS • g.-eoco ••••!-< -. 1 s s 3 co 2 « ft ^H co 01 >o 13 g • •© • •©© •© • • . oj ■ t- © § s m "a Z ^ EH g • • • ■ m >o •■© • • os ~ o "* a © i-i r- ■3 G 1 (4 '? a CO »h 3 O 60 fz; s» . 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