UC-NRLF 
 
 SB 54b 317 
 
 HINTS AND NOTES 
 
 FOR 
 
 TRAVELLERS IN THE ALPS 
 
 ALPINE CLUB EDITION 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO 
 
 lik ROW, LONDON 
 W YORK AN'Ii BOMBAY 
 1899 
 
k«lK*. 
 
REQUISITES JjMMHOUNTAINEERS. 
 
 S. W. SILVER & CO. 
 
 COBITHILL, LOlsTIDOlsr. 
 
 SPECIAL LIST ON APPLICATION. 
 
 RUCKSACS, SLEEPING-BAGS, TENTS. 
 
 'INSECT-PUZZLERS' (TUCKETT PATTERN). 
 
 Cooking Stoves. Filters. 
 
 Snow Spectacles. Ice Axes. Alpine Rope, &c. 
 
 SELF-COOKING SOUPS, &c. 
 
 SPECIALITIES & PATENT ARTICLES for TRAVELLERS & EXPLORERS. 
 Illustrated Catalogues and Particulars on application to 
 
 S. W. SILVER & CO. & BENJN. EDGINGTON, Ltd. 
 67 CORNHILL, & 2 DUKE ST., LONDON, E.C. 
 
 BEALE & CLOVES 
 
 (Late JOHN BUCKINGHAM), 
 194 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE, LONDON, W.C. 
 
 ARE THE ONLY MAKERS OF THE CELEBRATED 
 
 ALPINE CLUB ROPE, 
 
 Which is almost exclusively employed by the Leading Mountaineers 
 of the time. This Rope (approved by the Committee of the English 
 Alpine Club) is made of the best Manilla hemp, and is marked by a 
 red worsted Thread twisted with the strands (see the report of the Special 
 Committee on Ropes, &c, in Vol. I., No. 7, of the Alpine Journal), 
 and it can be obtained only from the makers. 
 
 PRICE LISTS AND FURTHER PARTICULARS UPON APPLICATION. 
 
 BEALE^TCLOVES 
 
 (Late JOHN BUCKINGHAM), 
 194 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE, LONDON, W.C. 
 
 BE WARE OF FRA UD ULENT IMITA TIONS. 
 

 
 
 ill kPIIUi 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO THE 
 
 'ALPINE GUIDE' 
 
ALPINE 
 TRAVELLERS 
 
 SHOULD, 
 
 BEFORE PURCHASING A CAMERA, 
 
 J. H. DALLMEYER, Ltd., 
 
 WHO ARE SPECIALISTS IN APPARATUS FOR 
 
 LONG DISTANCE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Manufacturers of 
 
 TELEPHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. High or Moderate Power. 
 TELEPHOTO ATTACHMENTS for Ordinary Lenses. 
 LONG FOCUS LANDSCAPE LENSES, and 
 
 The Celebrated STIGMATIG LENSES, 
 
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 ill Hi UftLLITILILII; L 2 5 Newman Street, 
 
 _ LONDON, Wm 
 
HINTS AND NOTES 
 
 PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC 
 
 FOR 
 
 TRAVELLERS IN THE ALPS 
 
 BEING A REVISION OF THE 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE 'ALPINE GUIDE' 
 
 BY THE LATE 
 
 JOHN BALL, F.R.S. &c. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE ALPINE CLUB 
 
 A NEW EDITION 
 PREPARED ON BEHALF OF THE ALPINE CLUB 
 
 BY 
 
 W. A. B. COOLIDGE 
 
 FELLOW OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD 
 AND FORMERLY EDITOR OF THE ' ALPINE JOURNAL* 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON 
 
 NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 
 
 1899 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
S3 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE PRESENT EDITION. 
 
 In this edition all the old articles that have been retained have been 
 very carefully revised — that on the ' Geology of the Alps ' having, 
 indeed, been practically rewritten by Professor Bonney, while that on 
 the ' Climate and Vegetation of the Alps ' has been much expanded 
 by Mr. Percy Groom. One article (' Hypsometry ') of the old edition 
 has been omitted, as the publication of the great Government Surveys 
 has now rendered it superfluous. Two new articles have been 
 added— ' Photography in the High Alps,' by Mr. Sydney Spencer, 
 and ' Life in an Alpine Valley/ by myself. Of the two appendices 
 one (' List of Books and Maps relating to the Alps ') is an extension 
 and enlargement of a list previously given, while the other (' A 
 Glossary of Alpine Terms') has been compiled by myself from 
 many sources. It is hoped that both may be found of use, though 
 neither makes any pretensions to exhaustive completeness. 
 
 The title of the book has been slightly altered, and the articles 
 rearranged in what seems to be a better order. 
 
 I am greatly indebted to all those who have helped me, in various 
 ways, in preparing this new edition. 
 
 The Preface to the first edition (and indeed to the whole work) 
 is so interesting and characteristic that its historical importance 
 warrants me in reprinting it with three slight omissions, while 
 brackets indicate later alterations and additions, as they appear in 
 the 1875 edition. 
 
VHl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In the first edition (1863) of the first volume (' Western Alps ') of 
 the ' Alpine Guide ' the ' General Introduction ' was prefixed to the 
 text, and immediately followed by * Supplementary Notes ' relating 
 exclusively to the Western Alps. But in the first edition (1864) of the 
 second volume (' Central Alps ') the ' General Introduction ' was 
 omitted (being published in 1864 as a separate pamphlet), while the 
 ' Preliminary Notes ' relate to the Central Alps only. This plan of 
 separating the general and special portions of the Introduction seems 
 to have proved the more convenient. Hence, in the second edition 
 (1866) of the first volume ('Western Alps'), the * General Introduction' 
 is omitted, a slip referring readers to the separate pamphlet in which 
 it was then contained, while the ' Supplementary Notes' of 1863 
 have become * Preliminary Notes to the Western Alps.' In this way 
 the ' General Introduction ' (now reissued in a revised form) and the 
 special ' Preliminary Notes ' relating to the great divisions of the 
 Alps, though originally closely connected, have since 1864 been 
 separate and distinct. In 1898 the new edition of the 'Western 
 Alps ' was prefaced by a new edition of its special ' Preliminary 
 Notes,' and it is proposed to adopt a similar plan in the case of the 
 new edition of the * Central Alps,' now in preparation. 
 
 W. A. B. Coolidge. 
 Grindelwald : April 1899. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE FIRST EDITION (1863). 
 
 A just distinction has been drawn between travellers who visit 
 foreign countries with the object of gaining and communicating 
 knowledge, and tourists who go from place to place seeking amuse- 
 ment and change of scene, but without any more definite scope than 
 to gratify a superficial curiosity. The line of distinction between 
 these two classes, which was easily drawn twenty or thirty years ago, 
 is nowadays less definitely marked. The all but universal taste for 
 travelling has spread at a time when increased knowledge and a more 
 lively interest in physical science have become diffused throughout 
 the educated classes in our own and other countries. Most men of 
 cultivated minds occasionally seek relaxation in travelling, and a 
 large proportion of tourists have sufficient knowledge to take an 
 intelligent interest in some, or it may be in several, departments of 
 science or art naturally connected with the country through which 
 they pass. 
 
 These remarks especially apply to travellers in the Alps. The 
 day is past when it could be thought necessary to apologise for or 
 explain the prevalence of a love for mountain travelling. It is a 
 simple fact that, especially in our own country, thousands of persons 
 have learned to regard this as a sovereign medicine for mind and 
 body, and to feel that the weeks or months devoted to it are the 
 periods of life most full of true enjoyment, and those that leave the 
 most abiding impressions. The fact that the scenery of the Alps is 
 
x INTRODUCTION. 
 
 unsurpassed elsewhere in the world for the union of grandeur, beauty, 
 and variety, and that it is accessible with a trifling expenditure of 
 time and money, naturally accounts for the constantly increasing 
 influx of strangers. 
 
 As high mountain countries, and the Alps in particular, abound 
 with phenomena new and striking to the intelligent observer, there 
 is a constant increase in the number of those who, without under- 
 taking systematic research, are led to desire further information 
 respecting the structure of the earth's surface, and the causes that 
 have uplifted the mountain ranges, or the laws that regulate the cir- 
 culation of heat and moisture, which maintain what may be called 
 the inanimate life of our planet, or the animal and vegetable forms 
 that exhibit in apparently inhospitable regions so rich a variety. 
 
 In addition to these objects of interest, there is a simpler branch 
 of enquiry which especially recommends itself to many of our active 
 and energetic countrymen. Many parts of the Alps are very difficult 
 of access, and but a few years ago there were many considerable dis- 
 tricts whose highest peaks had never been attained, which were not 
 known to be traversed by practicable passes, and of which none but 
 slight and imperfect information was anywhere accessible. To 
 explore these little-known districts, to scale the higher summits, and 
 to discover passes that should connect valleys that are separated 
 by lofty ranges, have been the pursuits of the members of the 
 Alpine Club. 
 
 Without exaggerating the importance of the work achieved, it is 
 impossible to deny that a remarkable degree of enterprise and energy 
 has been exhibited by many of the members of that association in 
 accomplishing work which, if not actually scientific, is certainly con- 
 ducive to the progress of science. They cannot indeed rival the 
 men who, following the illustrious example of Saussure, have explored 
 the Alps with the definite object of enlarging the bounds of science ; 
 but, in achieving the preparatory task of opening the way through 
 many of the least accessible parts of the Alpine chain, they have un- 
 doubtedly surpassed the performances of all their predecessors. 
 [Their example has not been without influence in other countries, and 
 the formation of kindred associations in Switzerland, Austria, Italy, 
 and France has given additional impulse to the spirit of Alpine ex- 
 ploration and enquiry.] 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xi 
 
 It has for some time been felt that the time had come for 
 attempting to supply to Alpine travellers a guide-book differing in 
 many respects from those hitherto in use, and the writer has been 
 urged, by some of those most capable of contributing to such a work, 
 to undertake the task. He has no claim to a brilliant share in the 
 adventurous performances of his friends and fellow-members of the 
 Alpine Club ; his qualifications, such as they are, arise rather from a 
 somewhat prolonged and extensive acquaintance with the greater por- 
 tion of the Alps, in the course of which he has crossed the main chain 
 more than sixty times by forty different passes, besides traversing 
 more than one hundred and seventy of the lateral passes. 
 
 This work differs from most, if not all, of its predecessors in its 
 plan, which is designed to include the entire region of the Alps. In 
 regard to certain districts the available information is incomplete, but 
 the arrangement is such, that the omissions may be easily supplied 
 hereafter. Besides the preliminary matter contained in the Introduc- 
 tion, a variety of notes and indications connected with geology and 
 botany are scattered through the body of the work, with a view to 
 direct and guide those who feel an interest in those subjects. 
 Detailed notices of the vegetation would occupy too much space, and 
 the botanical indications have for the most part been confined to 
 pointing out localities for the rarest species, chiefly from the writer's 
 personal observation. 
 
 [In the arrangement of this work it soon became clear that it would 
 not conduce to the convenience of travellers, nor to a clear under- 
 standing of the topography of the Alpine chain, that the writer should 
 be guided by political boundaries. These, as very recent experience 
 has shown, are subject to change, and they rarely follow the natural 
 divisions suggested by the physical features of the country. Of the 
 three main divisions of the work, that which appears] under the title 
 1 Western Alps f includes the entire range that encircles the plain of 
 Piedmont, from the Maritime Alps north of Nice to the Pass of the 
 Simplon, along with the Dauphine and Savoy Alps, and the portions 
 of Switzerland connected with the Pennine range. This is the por- 
 tion of the Alps in which the amount of new matter available through 
 the activity of the members of the Alpine Club is most considerable, 
 mainly because it includes the portions most difficult of access, and 
 where, owing to the comparative neglect of their predecessors, most 
 
Xli INTRODUCTION. 
 
 remained to be done. [The volume devoted to the Central Alps 
 comprehends the greater part of Switzerland, with the portions of the 
 Tyrol lying west of the Adige, along with the Lombard valleys to 
 their natural boundary — the Lake of Garda. The third volume is 
 devoted to the Eastern Alps, extending from the Adige nearly to 
 Vienna, and from the plains of Venetia to the neighbourhood of 
 Munich.] 
 
 [Although the activity of Swiss, Italian, Austrian, and German 
 naturalists and mountaineers has left less scope for new explorations 
 in the two latter volumes, the writer trusts that they will be found 
 to contain a large amount of information, either new, or not 
 easily accessible, derived from his own observations or those of his 
 correspondents.] 
 
 It may be a satisfaction to future travellers if the writer here ex- 
 presses his conviction that, in spite of all that has yet been done, no 
 portion of the Alps can, in a topographical, and still less in a scientific 
 sense, be said to be thoroughly explored. In districts supposed to 
 be well known, an active mountaineer will constantly find scope for 
 new expeditions ; and if he has cultivated the habit of observation, 
 he may, at the same time, make these subservient to the increase of 
 knowledge. 
 
 It has been a matter of great difficulty to reconcile the necessity 
 for compression with the abundance of materials at hand, and the 
 writer cannot expect to escape criticism from readers who may find 
 one or other subject imperfectly treated. Though it is hoped that 
 the work will be found useful for reference, as containing a large body 
 of topographical and other information, it is primarily intended for 
 Alpine travellers, and the object kept in view has been to select the 
 matter most likely to be of use and interest to that class. Had it 
 been designed as a history of Alpine adventure, it would be open to 
 the reproach that it does not adequately notice the labours of earlier 
 explorers, such as Saussure, Hugi, Zumstein, and many other surviv- 
 ing travellers, nor often refer to the earlier authorities. The writer 
 has perhaps more reason to fear that travellers may reproach him for 
 having admitted too much matter, than for undue brevity. 
 
 In respect to expeditions which have been made but once, or very 
 rarely, the writer has usually given the account in an abridged form, 
 but in the actual words of the traveller whose initials are sub- 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Xlll 
 
 scribed, the names being given in full in the annexed page of 
 Explanations. 
 
 To the authors of these notes which have, for the most part, 
 been communicated in MSS. to the writer, he begs hereby to 
 express his cordial acknowledgments, and his hope that they will 
 continue to furnish further information towards [future editions] of the 
 work. At the risk of appearing to fail in more special acknowledg- 
 ment to others who have contributed valuable matter, he feels bound 
 to offer his especial thanks to Messrs. W. Mathews, jun., and 
 F. F. Tuckett, and to [Colonel Karl v. Sonklar, of Innsbruck].* The 
 two former gentlemen, in particular, have afforded invaluable assist- 
 ance by the corrections and hints which they are each so well able 
 to afford, and which were the more necessary as the work has been 
 for the most part executed at a distance from England, and with 
 but limited opportunities for consulting works of reference. 
 
 J. Ball. 
 
 1863. 
 
 • In the 1863 edition the third name mentioned was that of Chanoine Carrel of Aosta. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Prefaces (New and Old) vii, ix 
 
 I. Practical Hints xv 
 
 Art. I. Preliminary Information . . . . . . xv 
 
 II. Routes for Approaching the Alps from London . . xviii 
 
 III. Modes of Travelling in the Alps .... xxiv 
 
 IV. Plan of a Tour xxvi 
 
 V. General Advice to Travellers in the Alps . . . xxvi 
 
 VI. Advice to Pedestrians ...... xxxii 
 
 VII. On Mountaineering ....... xxxvii 
 
 VIII. Guides and Porters ....... xliv 
 
 IX. Inns and Club Huts ....... xlviii 
 
 X. Life in an Alpine Valley. By W. A. B. Coolidge . lii 
 
 II. Scientific Notes lxvi 
 
 Art. XI. Geology of the Alps. By Prof. Bonney . . . lxvi 
 
 ,, XII. Alpine Zoology . xcviii 
 
 ,, XIII. Climate and Vegetation of the Alps. By Percy Groom ciii 
 
 , , XIV. The Snow Region of the Alps cxxii 
 
 ,, XV. Photography in the High Alps. By Sydney Spencer . cxxxiii 
 
 Appendices cxli 
 
 a. List of Books and Maps relating to the Alps .... cxli 
 
 b. A Glossary of Alpine Terms. By W. A. B. Coolidge . . cliii 
 
 Index clxi 
 
INTRODUCTION, 
 
 I. PRACTICAL HINTS. 
 
 Art. Z. — Preliminary Information. 
 
 Passports.— Money.— Custom-House Regulations.— Luggage.— 
 Post O ffices.— Telegraphs.— Measures.— Time. 
 
 Passports. — English travellers are not now required, as a rule, to 
 produce passports on entering France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, or 
 Germany. But if it is intended to visit the Franco- Italian frontier south 
 of the Mont Blanc range it is prudent to have a passport, and also a. visa, 
 especially on the French side, where the spy mania is particularly preva- 
 lent. It is also often useful elsewhere to have a passport, which on the 
 Continent is the legal mode of establishing the identity of the bearer, e.g. 
 at Post Offices, and other public establishments. 
 
 Passports are issued at the Foreign Office, London, S.W., on a written 
 application, accompanied by a recommendation from some one known to 
 the Secretary of State (if the applicant is not personally known to him), or 
 from a banker, or by a certificate of identity signed by the applicant, as well 
 as by any Mayor, Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, Minister of Religion, 
 Physician, Surgeon, Barrister, Solicitor, or Notary resident in the United 
 Kingdom. The fee is 25*. The various members of a family travelling 
 together may be included in a single passport, if the degrees of relation- 
 ship are stated ; names of male members of the family, and of any man- 
 servant (if a British subject — otherwise he must procure a passport from 
 his own Government), must be given in full. Friends travelling together, 
 although not related, may be included in the same passport, but in this 
 case each of their names should be stated in the application. Passports 
 are issued between u A.M. and 4 P.M. on the day (but not on Sundays or 
 public holidays) following that on which the application has been received 
 at the Foreign Office. A passport cannot be granted in London to a 
 person already abroad, who should apply to the nearest British Mission 
 or Consulate. The bearer of every passport should sign his name 
 clearly as soon as he receives it. A Foreign Office Passport is good 
 for the life of the bearer. 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 There are several Passport Agencies in London where the whole 
 business of obtaining a passport, and any needful visa, is transacted for 
 a small fee, e.g. is. 6d. per passport, with is. per visa, in both cases in 
 addition to the Foreign Office and Consulate charges. 
 
 Money.— The coinages of France, Italy, and Switzerland are the 
 sarne, accounts being kept in francs and centimes. But Italian or Swiss 
 ( cms below 5 francs pass in Italy or Switzerland only, while in Switzer- 
 land Swiss pieces of 1859-1863 (sitting figure of Helvetia) are no longer 
 curvei/i. Papal coins are received in none of the three countries. French 
 napoleons (there are but few Swiss 20-fr. pieces) are the most con- 
 venient coins to carry. Italian inconvertible notes pass in Italy only, 
 while in Switzerland the notes of the Cantonal Banks are not always 
 received in other Cantons, and French notes are generally taken only at 
 a discount. 
 
 English sovereigns and Bank of England notes are accepted in all 
 the villages frequented by travellers in Switzerland or Italy, but not 
 always in France. Cheques, or Circular Notes (for sums of ^10 and 
 upwards) are cashed at most of the principal hotels, or at the branch 
 banks which are established in most of the chief tourist resorts during 
 the summer. In the case of Circular Notes great care should be taken 
 to keep the notes separate from the letter which accompanies them. In 
 Austria the former coinage of silver florins (or gulden), each divided into 
 100 kreuzers, is being replaced by silver crowns, or 'kronen' (each worth 
 about 10^., J florin, or a franc), divided into 100 'heller' (each worth 
 \ kreuzer), which thus roughly answers to the coinage of the three 
 other countries. There are also 5 and 10 florin (or gulden) notes (besides 
 higher denominations), which are current everywhere and are very con- 
 venient. 
 
 A little experience teaches the traveller the importance of being always 
 provided with small coins of the country visited. It is often possible, 
 before arriving at the frontier, to procure a supply at some Exchange 
 Office, which is often more convenient and economical than doing so after 
 arrival in the country. Of course the rates of exchange of the coinage 
 of one country in another vary from day to day, and care should be 
 taken to ascertain the actual current rate at the moment of application. 
 
 Custom-House Regulations. — The regulations affecting travellers 
 are not usually very strict. Of the articles usually carried by travellers, 
 cigars, spirits, and unworn wearing apparel are the principal liable to 
 duty, and should be declared to avoid unpleasantness and inconvenience. 
 A small number of cigars or a small amount of tobacco may be taken 
 free, but the Italian officials are often very strict in this matter. Nowa- 
 days through travellers can generally register their heavy luggage from 
 London direct to the more important towns in the country whither they 
 are bound, e.g. Basel, Lucerne, Zurich, Bern (but only to the Italian 
 frontier), where it will be examined, but not en route. If luggage is sent 
 across the frontier without being accompanied by its owners, it will be 
 examined, and the keys should be attached in such a way as to be easily 
 accessible. 
 
 As a general rule officials in Switzerland, Italy, and Austria are civil 
 and obliging when treated with the courtesy to which they are ac- 
 
PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. wii 
 
 customed. In Prussia and at times in France the case is otherwise, and 
 the temper of the traveller is tried by the rudeness of underlings. But 
 unless the case be serious enough, and the facts sufficiently plain, to call 
 for a complaint to the official superior, a wise traveller will disregard 
 conduct which he cannot resent effectually, and which it is undignified 
 to meet by an unavailing show of anger. These subordinate officials 
 often have it in their power to cause great annoyance to a stranger, 
 while he is powerless as regards them, and will do best to avoid an un- 
 equal encounter. , 
 
 luggage.— Travellers who register their luggage direct from London 
 to their destination (but not beyond the Italian frontier) are entitled to a 
 free allowance of 56 lbs. (25 kilogrammes). But within each country this 
 privilege varies. In France the allowance is about 66 lbs. (30 kilos.) 
 But in Switzerland (as in Italy) there is no free allowance at all on the 
 railways, while on the diligences 22-33 l° s - (10-15 kilos.) are allowed, 
 according as the road traversed is over a mountain pass or in the plains. 
 On the other hand in Switzerland it is very easy and extremely cheap to 
 forward luggage through any post office within the country. 
 
 Post Offices. — As a rule letters clearly addressed (especially if to an 
 hotel) rarely go astray within the four countries with which the traveller in 
 the Alps is concerned. But the officials vary according to their nationality, 
 as pointed out above, as well as the regulations which they are entitled 
 to enforce. It is best to avoid all titles, prefixes, or affixes in addressing 
 letters abroad, save the plain prefix ' Monsieur 5 or ' Madame.' 
 
 Letters to or from England in the case of Switzerland, Italy, France, 
 and Austria cost i\d. (25 cents., or 10 kreuzers)per \ oz., while postcards 
 are id. (10 cents., or 5 kreuzers). Within the different countries the rates 
 vary : in Switzerland a letter weighing \ lb. costs but id. (10 cents.), while 
 a post card is \d. (5 cents.) ; but in France a i-oz. letter costs 1^.(15 cents.), 
 while a post card is id. (10 cents.) 
 
 The convenience of forwarding luggage within Switzerland through 
 the post office has been pointed out above. 
 
 Telegraphs and Telephones. — The telegraphic (and telephonic) net- 
 work is now spread everywhere very widely, even (during the summer) 
 extending to many of the high mountain inns. The charges are so low 
 that it is an excellent plan, at least in the height of the season, to secure 
 rooms in advance by a telegram. In Switzerland the rate for a telegram 
 to Great Britain is a fixed charge of 50 cents., plus 29 cents, per word ; 
 while within the country itself the charges are 30 cents, and 2^ cents, 
 respectively. In France the rates are 20 cents, per word, 1 fr. minimum 
 charge, and (inland) 50 cents, for 10 words, 5 cents, per additional word. 
 
 Measures.— In all four countries— Switzerland, France, Italy, and 
 Austria— the metrical system is now adopted, which is extremely con- 
 venient. It is as follows : — 
 
 A Millimetre equals -039 inch. 
 A Centimetre ,, *39 incn - 
 
 A M^tre „ 3* 281 ft - 
 
 A Kilometre ,, '621 mile. 
 
 A Kilogramme ,, 2-20 lbs. av. 
 
XVlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 But old local measures linger here and there. A Swiss foot is 1 1 *8i 
 Engl, inches ; a Swiss ' Stunde' is 2*98 Engl, miles ; while a Swiss pound 
 is no lb. av. In France a foot is ir8i inches, a 'Toise' 70-86 inches, 
 and a 'Livre' no lb. av. An old Austrian foot is 1*03 Engl, ft, a 
 ' Klafter' is 2*87 yards, a post mile is 471 Engl, miles, while a pound is 
 1 -23 lb. av. 
 
 Time. — In Belgium and Holland, like Great Britain, Greenwich (or 
 Western European) time now prevails. This is just 1 hr. later than 
 Central Eiwopean time, which obtains in Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and 
 Austria : but in France Paris time is 4-5 minutes faster than Greenwich 
 time, or 55-56 minutes later than Central European time, while French 
 railway time is 5 or 6 minutes later than Paris time. In some towns local 
 time is still observed. Italian time is reckoned to 24 hours, from mid- 
 night to midnight. • 
 
 Art. ZX. — Routes for Approaching the Alps from London. 
 
 It may be safely asserted that no class has profited more by the ex- 
 tension of railways than travellers in the Alps. To that large majority 
 who are limited either as to time or as to money the means of crossing 
 half Europe with the outlay of but 20 hours or so in time, and a trifling- 
 expenditure of money, very often makes a tour possible which otherwise 
 would never have been undertaken. The extension of railways through 
 and on both sides of the Alpine chain has not merely enabled strangers 
 to approach all parts of the Alps with little loss of time, but has largely 
 increased the facilities for passing from one part of the chain to another. 
 Hence a traveller may now combine in a single tour visits to several 
 different and distant districts, allotting to each of them a fair share of 
 time, and expending but little on going from one to the other. 
 
 Some of the fast trains (especially in France) take only first-class 
 passengers, and on a long journey, especially if time is limited, it is true 
 economy to travel in such trains. The second-class carriages are now 
 everywhere more comfortable than formerly, and should be used on 
 shorter journeys. In Switzerland few, save through travellers, or very 
 rich persons, make use of the luxurious first-class carriages. 
 
 In the following remarks an attempt is made to indicate the quickest 
 and shortest route from London to each of the chief districts of the Alps. 
 The traveller should take care to obtain the latest information as to the 
 times of departure of the trains. The Continental ' Bradshaw ' is very 
 useful, but should be checked, when possible, by the Railway Time Tables 
 issued by the various railway companies in the different countries 
 visited. Return tickets, available for from 30 to 45 days, to all the 
 chief tourist resorts, can now generally be procured, and can, like ordi- 
 nary tickets, or special tickets for a Circular Tour, be bought before- 
 hand at Cook's or Gaze's Tourist Agencies in London. 
 
 Roughly speaking, the fast routes for approaching the Alps from 
 London may be classified under three main headings, according as the 
 traveller wishes to visit the Western, the Central, or the Eastern Alps. 
 If bound for any part of the Western Alps the traveller must go through 
 
ROUTES FOR APPROACHING THE ALPS FROM LONDON. xix 
 
 Paris ; if bound for any part of the Central Alps (save the upper Rhone 
 valley) he should make Basel his object ; while for most parts of the 
 Eastern Alps (some, as will be shown below, are best reached from Basel) 
 he must go to Innsbruck, Munich, Salzburg, or Vienna. But naturally 
 these routes occasionally overlap : e.g. the Bernese Oberland may be 
 reached from London vid Paris, as well as direct by Laon, while the 
 Alpine districts on the W. of the Brenner line may be most conveniently 
 gained without going quite to Innsbruck. 
 
 i. western alps (Paris to Nice, Grenoble, Gap, Briancon, 
 Modane, Turin, Albertville, Geneva, Lausanne, or Brieg). — Paris may of 
 course be reached from London by many routes with which we have not 
 here to trouble ourselves. From Paris the various chief districts of the 
 Western Alps may be best gained as follows : — 
 
 (a) Maritime Alps (§§ I and 2). — By Lyons and Marseilles to Ni\y 
 (c. i'S£ hrs.), and then by the Southern Railway (§ 2) ; or by the Mont Cenis 
 line, to Turin (17^ hrs.), and on by Cuneo to Valdieri or Limone (§ 1). 
 
 (b) Cottian Alps (§§ 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). — Much depends on which 
 particular district of this very extensive mountain region it is desired to 
 reach. The Chambeyron district may be best reached vid Grenoble, Gap, 
 and Prunieres station, whence there is a diligence to Barcelonnette 
 (§ 9. Rte. Q and § 3. Rte. A) ; or the Col de PArgentiere may be crossed 
 from Cuneo to the same remote town (§ 3. Rte. A). 
 
 The Viso is most conveniently gained vid Turin, Bricherasio, and 
 Crissolo (§ 4. Rte. B). 
 
 The Waldensia?i Valleys are easily reached from Turin by rail to 
 Torre Pellice past Pinerolo (§ 5. Rte. A). As on the southern sides of 
 the Alps so many valleys open into the main valley of the Po, Turin 
 is a natural centre, and is joined by railways to many towns in or at 
 the opening of many different valleys — Cuneo, Saluzzo, Pinerolo, 
 Oulx and Bardonneche, Lanzo, Ivrea and Aosta, Biella, Varallo, Orta, 
 and Domodossola — so that most spots on the Italian slope of the 
 Western Alps may be best reached from Turin. 
 
 The glens near the Mont Genevre are most accessible either on the 
 French side from the railway stations of Montdauphin or Briangon 
 (reached from Grenoble by Gap in 7-8 hrs. respectively, § 9. Rte. Q), or 
 on the Italian side from Turin either by Pinerolo or by Oulx (§ 5. Rte. B 
 and § 6. Rte. A). 
 
 The Ambin district is most easily visited from Modane, on the Mont 
 Cenis line and 13 hrs. from Paris (§ 7. Rte. A). 
 
 (c) Dauphine Alps (§§ 8, 9, and 10).— For nearly all parts of this 
 district (save the Aiguilles d'Arves, most accessible from St. Michel de 
 Maurienne, on the Mont Cenis line, and 12^ hrs. from Paris) the natural 
 starting point is Grenoble. This may be reached from Paris either by 
 Lyons (12 hrs.) or by ChambeVy, the latter route offering the advantage 
 of through carriages and quick trains as far as Chambe*ry (10 hrs.), 
 which is only 2 hrs. by rail from Grenoble. From Grenoble there is a 
 steam tramway to Bourgd'Oisans(§ 8. Rte. A), whence a high road leads 
 up to La Grave (§ 8. Rte. A), a char road and a mule path up to La 
 BeVarde (§ 9. Rte. A), and a char road and foot paths towards tin- 
 Rousses either from Le Freney or from Allemont (§ 8. Rtes. I) and E). 
 
XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The S. portions of the Dauphine Alps are best visited from Grenoble by- 
 way of La Mure and Corps (§ 9. Rtes. N and O) (so the Valgaudemar), 
 or from the La Bessee station, on the railway from Grenoble by Gap to 
 Briangon (so the Vallouise, § 9. Rte. G). Grenoble itself is the point 
 of departure for the Grande Chartreuse (§ 10) and Belledonne ranges 
 (§ 8. Rte. I). 
 
 (d) Annecy and Albertville District (§ 1 1). — A traveller bound direct 
 for these parts should go by the Mont Cenis line (in 9^ hrs. from Paris) 
 to Aix les Bains (whence there is a branch line in r£ hr. to Annecy, §11. 
 Rte. E), or a little further on to St. Pierre d'Albigny (branch line to 
 Albertville, 35 min., and Moutiers Tarentaise, 1 hr. on, § 12. Rte. A). 
 
 (e) Graian Alps (§§ 12, 13, 14, and 15). — Pralognan (§12. Rte. H) is 
 accessible by road from Moutiers Tarentaise, Val d 5 1 sere (§12. Rte. B) 
 by road from Moutiers by Bourg St. Maurice, and Bonneval sur Arc 
 (§ 7. Rte. B and § 12. Rte. B) by road from Modane. The Lanzo valleys 
 on the Italian side are best approached from Lanzo, \\ hr. by rail from 
 Turin (§13. Rte. B), while Cogne is most quickly reached by way of Turin, 
 Ivrea and Aosta (4J-5 hrs. by rail from Turin ; § 15. Rtes. A and B). 
 
 (/) Mont Blanc and Sixt Districts (§§ 16 and 17). — Most travellers 
 wish to reach Chamonix, and that is most speedily gained (§16. Rte. A) 
 from Geneva (which is 10J hrs. by rail from Paris). From Geneva a 
 steam tramway runs to Samoens, whence there is a road on to Sixt 
 (§ 17. Rte. A). 
 
 (g) Champery, Bourg- St. Pierre, Evolena, Zinal, Zermatt, Saas, 
 and the Simplon (§§ 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21). — All these places are best 
 reached from Lausanne, which may be gained in 11J hrs. from Paris 
 by Pontarlierand Vallorbes. Then the line up the Rhone valley towards 
 Brieg (§21. Rte. A ; gj hrs. from Lausanne) is used, the Ollon St. Triphon, 
 Martigny, Sion, Sierre, Visp, and Brieg stations giving access to the 
 various spots. Zermatt is the only one which can be reached by 
 railway throughout, 6J hrs. being required from Lausanne in connection 
 with the fastest night train from Paris. 
 
 2. central ALPS (Basel to Bern, Interlaken, Grindelwald, 
 Lauterbrunnen, Meiringen, Lucerne, Goschenen, Locarno, Lugano, 
 Zurich, Glarus, Coire, Thusis, Davos, Landeck, Innsbruck, Appenzell, 
 St. Gallen, Constance and Romanshorn). 
 
 (a) Diablerets District (§ 22). — Ormonts Dessus and Chateau d'Oex 
 are best gained, indeed, by Paris, Lausanne, and (1 hr. on) Aigle, but 
 there are beautiful routes from Thun direct to Saanen, Gsteig, Chateau 
 d'Oex, and Bulle. 
 
 (b) Gemmi District (§ 23). — Thun (50 min. by rail from Bern) is 
 £ hr. by rail from Spiez, which is the principal starting point for Kander- 
 steg, Adelboden, and Lenk, but Leukerbad and Ried are most directly 
 gained respectively from the Loueche (Leuk) and Gampel stations, on the 
 Lausanne-Brieg railway. 
 
 (c) Bernese Oberland (§ 24). — Bern maybe gained direct from Paris 
 via Neuchatel in 13 hrs., though it is far more convenient (no change of 
 carriage from Calais) to reach it direct from London by Calais, Laon, 
 Reims, and Delemont (22 hrs.) ; but, save in summer, when through 
 carriages run by this route, it is better to go to Basel (i8f hrs. from 
 
ROUTES FOR APPROACHING THE ALPS FROM LONDON. xxi 
 
 London), and then round in 3 hrs. to Bern. From about July 10 to 
 September 15a' train de luxe ' has been run of late years direct from 
 Calais to Interlaken ; this leaves London at n a.m., like the ordinary 
 service, but reaches Interlaken at 8.26 A.M. instead of at 12.45. But 
 even by the ordinary train it is easy to gain (by rail) Grindelwald, Lauter- 
 brunnen, Miirren, the Little Scheidegg, or (by rail and boat) Meiringen the 
 same afternoon, while a traveller bound for Kandersteg or Adelboden 
 should leave the train at Spiez (4- hr. beyond Thun) in order to attain those 
 spots by road the same day. Ried, the Belalp and the Eggishorn are best 
 reached from London by way of Paris, Lausanne, and Brieg (1 5 J hrs. from 
 Paris), Gampel being the station for Ried and Brieg for the Belalp, while 
 Viesch(for the Eggishorn) is 3 hrs. on by high road from Brieg. 
 
 The Emmenthal and the Entlebuch are traversed by the main railway 
 from Bern to Lucerne. 
 
 (d) Titlis and Worth Switzerland Districts (§§25 and 26). — Lucerne 
 (2 hrs. from Basel by quick train) is the best starting point for most spots 
 included in these districts, whether they lie on the Briinig {e.g. Sarnen) 
 or on the St. Gotthard (e.g. Brunnen, Altdorf, Wassen, Goschenen) railway 
 lines, or on the shores of the Lake of Lucerne (Rigi and Pilatus). Engel- 
 berg is now connected with Stans (its harbour is Stansstad) by a light 
 railway of its own (2} hrs. from Lucerne to Engelberg). The Furka Pass 
 is reached by quitting the St. Gotthard railway at Goschenen (2 hrs. from 
 Lucerne), but the Grimsel Pass and the Gadmenthal are more directly 
 gained from Meiringen by road. 
 
 (e) Tbdi District (§ 27). — Zurich (2 hrs. from Basel by quick train) 
 here takes the most prominent place. Thence Glarus (1 J hr.) and Linth- 
 thal (f hr. more) may be reached by rail, or Coire by Sargans in 3 hrs. 
 Glarus is the starting point for Elm, and Coire for Disentis and the 
 Oberalp Pass. The ' Engadine Express ' (in connection with the 1 1 A.M. 
 train from London) leaves Basel at 5.03 A.M. and Zurich at 7.12, 
 reaching Coire at 9.48 A.M., in time to continue the journey a long way 
 in any direction. 
 
 (/) Santis District (§ 28).— Appenzell or Wildhaus are the best 
 starting points for excursions in the Santis range. The former is 3J hrs. 
 from Zurich by way of Winterthur and Winkeln ; for the latter the 
 station of Ebnat-Kappel, in the Toggenburg, is 2\ hrs. from Zurich by- 
 rail vid Winterthur and Wyl, and thence it is a drive of 3^ hrs. to 
 Wildhaus. 
 
 (g) Xiepontine and St. Gotthard Districts (§§29 and 30). — The chief 
 centres here are Binn (2$ hrs. from Viesch, in the Rhone valley, which 
 is 3 hrs.' drive from Brieg), Airolo (on the St. Gotthard line, at the S. 
 mouth of the great tunnel, and 6^ hrs. from Basel ; quick trains do not 
 stop at Airolo), and Disentis (best reached from Coire in 8$ hrs,* drive 
 by the Vorder Rhein valley) ; Tosa Falls, Devero, and Veglia are all 
 gained from Domodossola, at the Italian foot of the Simplon Pass, the 
 first named also from Airolo by the easy San Giacomo Pass. 
 
 (//) Adula District (§31). — As this district is composed of the 
 mountain mass lying between the Lukmanier, and Spliigen S;m 
 Bernardino roads, it is most easily visited either from Biasca, on tli 
 Gotthard railway (8 hrs. from Basel) or from the various villages situated 
 
XX11 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 on those roads, all of which on the N. are accessible by road from Coire, 
 the railway from Coire to Reichenau and Thusis shortening the distance 
 to some extent. 
 
 [i) Locarno and Como Districts (§§32 and 33). — Locarno, Lugano, 
 and Como are the principal resorts of travellers in these regions. Each 
 may be reached direct from Basel by the St. Gotthard railway (6^ hrs., 
 6\ hrs., and 7 hrs. respectively by quick trains). From them Bignasco, 
 Bellagio, and other well known spots are accessible in a very short time. 
 
 (k) Albula and Bernina Districts (§§ 34 and 36). — Save the Avers glen 
 (most easily reached by a drive from Andeer, on the Spliigen road) these 
 districts mainly comprise the Engadine and the ranges enclosing it on 
 either side. That great valley may be reached by many passes, which start 
 from several railway stations — the Julier and the Albula from Thusis, 
 the Fliiela from Davos, the Finstermiinz from Landeck, on the Arlberg 
 line, the Bernina from Sondrio, in the Valtellina, and the Maloja from 
 Chiavenna. It is said that the last named route is on the whole the 
 shortest and easiest, as Chiavenna may be reached in 3^ hrs. by rail 
 from Como, on the St. Gotthard line, which is 27 hrs. direct via Basel 
 from London. But the proposed railway by the Albula Pass will (when 
 completed) be by far the quickest way. 
 
 (/) Silvretta District (§ 35). — If this district is approached from the 
 Swiss side the traveller should go direct to Klosters, below Davos (7f 
 hrs. by rail from Basel), while on the Austrian side Bludenz may be 
 reached by the Arlberg line in 7 hrs. from Basel. 
 
 (m) Ortler District (§ 37). — The quickest way to reach either Trafoi 
 or Sulden (the main tourist centres of this district) is by mail coach from 
 Landeck, on the Arlberg line (9^ hrs. from Basel), over the Reschen 
 Scheideck Pass (12J hrs. 5 drive to Trafoi, and 16^ hrs. to Sulden). But 
 a less laborious route is to go from Zurich to Innsbruck by rail (11 hrs. 
 from Zurich), and then by rail by Bozen to Meran (6 hrs.), whence the 
 drive is not quite so long as by the first named route (9J-12J hrs.) 
 
 (n) Bergamasque Alps and Val Camonica District (§§38 and 39). — 
 From the N. these districts are best approached from the Valtellina, in 
 which Sondrio may be gained in i^hr. from Colico, easily reached by rail 
 in 2§ hrs. from Como, on the St. Gotthard line. But it is shorter to reach 
 them on the S. from Bergamo, which is 3 hrs. by rail from Como. The 
 valleys between the Val Camonica and the Chiese valley are best visited 
 from Brescia (5 hrs. by rail from Como), which is also a centre for the 
 more southerly valleys described in the next Section. 
 
 (o) Adamello and Brenta Districts (§ 40). — These regions are best 
 reached from Bozen or Trent, on the Brenner line (respectively 5-6J hrs. 
 from Innsbruck), but only by means of a long drive either to Campiglio 
 or Pinzolo for the former, or to Molveno for the latter district. On the 
 W., Edolo may be easily gained from the Valtellina by the carriage road 
 over the Aprica Pass, or by a longer route from Brescia or Bergamo by 
 way of the Lake of Iseo, and the Val Camonica or Oglio valley. 
 
 3. EASTERN' ALPS (Innsbruck, Munich, Salzburg, or Vienna). — As 
 the present Editor (W. A. B. C.) has but a limited knowledge of the 
 Eastern Alps, it is best for him to content himself here with a few general 
 indications. 
 
ROUTES FOR APPROACHING THE ALPS FROM LONDON. xxiii 
 
 Innsbruck is most quickly reached from London by way of Basel, 
 Zurich, and the Arlberg line ; a traveller leaving London at u A.M. may 
 thus reach Basel at 5.45, and Zurich at 9.15 the next morning, and 
 gain Innsbruck the same evening at 6.21 P.M., this being the direct Paris- 
 Vienna express. 
 
 A traveller from Basel may join the Arlberg line at Feldkirch, after 
 having taken one of the lines along the banks of the Rhine to Constance, 
 and sailed down the lake of that name to Bregenz ; this is a longer but 
 a pleasanter route than the direct one vid Zurich and Buchs. 
 
 Near Innsbruck the traveller may easily reach the Oetzthal and 
 Pitzthal districts (from the Oetzthal or Imst stations, distant 28^ m. and 
 34 m. respectively on the Landeck line to the W.), or the Zillerthal group 
 (from the Jenbach station, 24 m. off to the N.E. on the Munich line). 
 There is an alternative entrance to the glaciers at the head of the 
 Zillerthal from S. Jodok am Brenner (19 m. from Innsbruck). The 
 Glockner and Venediger groups are best reached from Innsbruck by taking 
 the Brenner line as far as Franzensfeste (52 m. from Innsbruck), whence it 
 is 66 m. more by the Pusterthal railway to Lienz, the best starting point 
 for these districts : there is an alternative approach by Jenbach and Zell. 
 38 m. from Franzensfeste, by the Pusterthal line, is Toblach, the station 
 for Cortina and the Ampezzo Dolomites. 
 
 Further S. than Franzensfeste, on the Brenner line, are Waidbruck 
 (69 m. from Innsbruck), the station for the Grodenerthal, and Bozen (83^ 
 m. from Innsbruck), the station for the Rosengarten range, while still 
 further S. (96 J m. from Innsbruck, 13 m. S. of Bozen, or 22 m. N. of 
 Trent) is Neumarkt, the station for Predazzo, S. Martino di Castrozza, 
 and Primiero. 
 
 From Franzensfeste the Lienz line continues nearly due E. by Villach 
 (64 m. from Lienz) and Klagenfurt (24 m. from Villach) to Marburg 
 (233^ m. from Franzensfeste). At Marburg (31 m. from Graz) the direct 
 Semmering line from Vienna to Trieste (89^ m. from Laibach, or 366 m. 
 from Vienna) by Bruck (106 m.), Graz (43 m.), and Laibach (96^ m. from 
 Marburg) (this line may be said throughout the greater part of its course 
 to skirt the E. extremity of the Alps) is joined, so that this route from 
 Innsbruck by Franzensfeste is probably now the quickest from London 
 to Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. At Bruck the Pontebba line leaves 
 the Trieste line, and runs by Villach (128 m.) to Udine (82 J m.), whence 
 either Venice or Trieste is easily reached. 
 
 Munich may be reached in 24 hrs. from London by way of Ostend, 
 Cologne, Aschaffenburg, Wiirzburg, and Ingolstadt. 
 
 Vienna is most quickly gained from London (29^ hrs.) by branching off 
 from the route to Munich at Wiirzburg, and then proceeding by Niirnberg, 
 Regensburg (Ratisbon), and Passau. (The 'Oriental Express ' makes 
 the round by Paris, and employs 32 J hrs. between London and Vienna.) 
 
 Salzburg is reached (54J m.) from the Rosenheim station, between 
 Innsbruck (69 m. to Rosenheim) and Munich (40^ m. to Rosenheim— 
 3£ hrs. by quick train from Munich to Salzburg) ; it is 195 m. further 
 from Salzburg to Vienna (6-6£ hrs. by quick trains). 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Art. XXI. — modes of Travelling in the Alps. 
 
 Of the various modes of conveyance to be enumerated in this Article 
 none are more than imperfect substitutes for the only means of travelling 
 which is completely satisfactory to the lover and student of nature. 
 Walking is so peculiarly the suitable way of visiting the Alps that it is 
 most conveniently discussed separately (Articles VI. and VII., below) 
 under its two forms of pedestrianism and mountaineering. But there 
 are times and occasions when even the most ardent walkers must have 
 recourse to other means of conveyance. 
 
 i. Railways. — Apart from the facilities that railways afford for ap- 
 proaching the Alps from London (Art. II., above), they are of great service 
 to mountain travellers, as they enable them, with the least possible 
 expenditure of time and trouble, to transfer themselves from one centre 
 of interest to another. Few persons will suppose that passing through a 
 mountain country in a railway carriage can enable them to form any 
 correct idea of its attractions, yet there are a few lines (such as those 
 from Culoz by the Mont Cenis or Frejus tunnel to Turin, from Lucerne 
 to Milan by the St. Gotthard line and tunnel, and from Innsbruck to 
 Verona by the Brenner) where a succession of beautiful pictures is un- 
 rolled before the traveller's eyes. But apart from the great lines that 
 pierce the Alps by the Frejus, St. Gotthard, and Arlberg Tunnels there 
 are now a host of minor lines which run from the plains up into the 
 mountains, whether in Switzerland, Italy, France, or Austria, and which 
 thus enable a traveller to gain the very heart of the Alps below the snow 
 line without trouble. Further, there are the light mountain railways {e.g. 
 over the Wengern Alp, to Miirren, up the Rigi, Pilatus, &c), which, how- 
 ever distasteful to the lover of quiet, are yet in their way convenient, 
 even occasionally to ardent walkers. But those who have the strength 
 and health required to gain acquaintance with the inmost recesses of the 
 ice and snow world may be pardoned if they view with the greatest 
 horror the modern schemes for taking railways up the Jungfrau, the 
 Matterhorn, and Mont Blanc. 
 
 2. steamers. — All the principal lakes of the Alps (though not always 
 the minor lakes) are now traversed by steamers. Wherever they exist 
 they offer an easy and economical mode of travelling (though not a 
 speedy one), of which travellers will not be slow to avail themselves. 
 One great advantage of travelling by steamer is that the noise and dust 
 of the railway is avoided, while often the same ticket (as on the Lake of 
 Thun) may be used indifferently for rail or steamer, thus enabling 
 travellers to embark on the boat only when the weather is fine. 
 
 3. Diligences. — Nearly every year sees the opening of some new rail- 
 way in the Alps, which means the disappearance of the diligences that 
 formerly plied over that road. Yet every year too sees new carriage 
 roads opened, so that a fresh service of diligences is required. All the 
 great mountain roads which are as yet free from railways — e.g. the Col 
 de Tenda, the Mont Genevre, the Col du Lautaret, the Simplon, the 
 Furka, the Grimsel, and in particular the passes leading to the Inn 
 valley — are now well supplied with diligences. The carriages are usually 
 
MODES OF TRAVELLING IN THE ALPS. xxv 
 
 of modern make, and specially meant for travellers who desire to obtain 
 views on the way, and form a great contrast to the heavy, lumbering 
 vehicles that old travellers will recollect. The Swiss diligence service 
 in particular is very well organised, as it is a Government monopoly. The 
 prices in Switzerland vary slightly according to the seat occupied, but the 
 maximum allowed by law is from 25 to 30 centimes per kilometre (rather 
 over £ mile). Travellers have a free allowance of from 33 to 22 lbs. of 
 luggage, according as the road is in the plains or traverses a mountain 
 pass ; but by a curious anomaly excess luggage is charged for not on the 
 actual amount in excess, but on the total weight belonging to that 
 particular traveller or party. 
 
 It should always be borne in mind that some of the great Alpine passes 
 — e.g. the Mont Cenis and the St. Gotthard — are not now traversed by 
 regular services of diligences, as there the railway through the mountain 
 has practically supplanted the road over it. But the roads are still more 
 or less kept up, though it is not always easy now to procure a private 
 conveyance. 
 
 4. Carriages. — Save in the remoter parts of the Alps it may be said 
 generally that where there is a road there will be found carriages for hire. 
 But these vehicles vary much in size, shape, and convenience. Nearly 
 everywhere, too, there is now an official tariff fixed by the Government 
 authorities, so that it is only in certain corners of the Alps that travellers 
 need bargain beforehand. This necessity in the better known parts of the 
 Alps is practically confined to the wealthy traveller who desires to make 
 a round over certain Alpine passes — e.g. from the Engadine and back 
 by the Maloja, the Spliigen, and the Albula. In that case it is most 
 prudent to have a written agreement. But the old-fashioned vetturino has 
 all but completely disappeared, save in such exceptional cases. At every 
 railway station in the Alps of any importance one- and two-horse 
 carriages are now certain to be found in waiting on the arrival of the 
 principal trains ; and the competition is then between the drivers, and not 
 between the traveller and the driver. Sometimes a return carriage may 
 be had at a reduced charge, but this means a special bargain made before- 
 hand. 
 
 On many of the principal roads in Switzerland there is a convenient 
 Government arrangement (with an official tariff) called ' Extrapost/ or 
 posting, with the same carriage, but changes of horses. 
 
 5. Ridingr. — Railways and carriage roads have to a very considerable 
 extent done away with the former usual practice of engaging horses or 
 mules to cross mountain passes. This practice lingers mainly in certain 
 great Alpine centres for one-day excursions, or small ascents in 
 the immediate neighbourhood. Generally there is now an official 
 tariff, but travellers should bear in mind that in remoter parts of the Alps, 
 where no official tariffs exist, the prices given in guide books often depend 
 on the experience of perhaps a single traveller, and should not fret when 
 the next passer-by is asked a higher price. If a horse or mule be em- 
 ployed, it is well to abstain from interfering with the animal, which is 
 probably used to carry loads only, and is not accustomed to being ridden 
 in the proper sense. 
 
 6. Chaises a Porteur (Germ. Tragsesset).— This is a rough kind of 
 
XXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 arm-chair, supported by two poles, and carried by two bearers. They are , 
 very rarely found now in the Alps, save for short excursions for those who 
 dislike riding. Formerly they were very common in the Bernese Ober- 
 land, but nowadays they are hardly ever seen there, except for excur- 
 sions, e.g. from Grindelwald to the two glaciers. 
 
 Art. IV. — Plan of a Tour. 
 
 The tastes of travellers in the Alps are too different, and the objects 
 which they propose to themselves too various, to make it easy to offer 
 useful advice respecting the plan of a tour. The desire to see as many 
 remarkable places as possible within a given time is so natural in begin- 
 ners, that it is useless to contend against it. Nothing but experience 
 suffices to prove that to derive the fullest and most permanent satisfaction 
 from natural scenery, even more than from other sources of aesthetic en- 
 joyment, time is an essential element. When the impressions retained 
 after a visit to some chosen district — where the same grand objects have 
 been viewed repeatedly and in varied combination, under those changeful 
 conditions of sky and colouring that constantly succeed each other in 
 mountain countries — are compared with the imperfect recollections that 
 remain after a hurried tour, most persons discover that they do not in 
 truth make the most of their time when they arrange an expedition to the 
 Alps with a view to do as much as possible within a given number of 
 days and weeks. It is gradually ascertained that the true plan of a tour 
 in the Alps is to select a succession of places combining the requisite 
 attractions as head-quarters, and to arrange the journey so that as much 
 time as possible shall be devoted to these, while as little as possible shall 
 be given to travelling from one to the other. It is true that the advan- 
 tages of such a plan are far more evident to those who are fortunate enough 
 to have some pursuit, scientific or artistic, which connects itself naturally 
 with their journey. The weather in mountain countries is subject to 
 frequent change, and there are days when the scenery is hidden behind a 
 veil of cloud, rain, or snow. To the unemployed tourist inaction is so 
 irksome that he prefers to trudge doggedly along an Alpine track, seeing 
 nothing of the country, rather than await fair weather in a mountain inn ; 
 while to the naturalist or geologist, or other traveller with an occupation, 
 such days, if not too frequent, are acceptable as giving time to digest and 
 put in order the materials accumulated during preceding mountain 
 expeditions. 
 
 This work is designedly arranged so as to direct travellers to the most 
 convenient centres in each district of the Alps, and those especially fitted 
 to serve as head-quarters are pointed out in the remarks prefixed to each 
 section. To these indications, and to the body of the work, travellers of 
 some experience are referred. 
 
 Art. V. — General Advice to Travellers in the Alps. 
 
 Season for Travelling:. — The higher parts of the Alps are most easily 
 accessible during the height of summer ; but it is not generally known 
 that many districts, including much beautiful scenery, are seen to the best 
 
GENERAL ADVICE TO TRAVELLERS IN THE ALPS. xwii 
 
 advantage in spring and autumn. In the month of May the neighbour- 
 hood of the Swiss lakes, and more especially the valleys of the Maritime, 
 Lombard, and Venetian Alps, may be visited with full satisfaction. The 
 vegetation of those districts is then seen in its full beauty, and many 
 mountains of moderate height, commanding noble views, may be ascended 
 without difficulty, though in some seasons a good deal of snow still re- 
 mains on the secondary ridges. In June the rapid transition from winter 
 to spring, and from spring to summer, is completed throughout all the 
 inhabited valleys of the Alps. For the ordinary tourist who does not aim 
 at difficult ascents, this would be the best season for travelling, were it 
 not that the weather is usually more changeable than in the three suc- 
 ceeding months. Even for the aspiring mountaineer the second half of 
 June possesses many advantages. The length of the day greatly facili- 
 tates long expeditions ; the glaciers are more easily traversed, as the 
 crevasses are narrower, and are more covered over by snow bridges ; 
 while slopes of ice, very difficult at other times, are made easy by 
 a covering of snow that yields to the foot. On the other hand, it should 
 be remembered that the snow at this season is ill consolidated, and that 
 a slight disturbance very easily produces avalanches. Certain couloirs, 
 and very steep slopes that are tolerably safe later in the year, are highly 
 dangerous in the early season. The use of the rope, always expedient, is 
 doubly so at a season when most of the crevasses are concealed by 
 snow bridges of uncertain solidity. There is also the inconvenience that 
 there is usually a greater extent of soft snow to be traversed than later 
 in the season. Another slight drawback to mountaineering in June 
 arises from the fact that the cattle have not yet been sent up to the higher 
 pastures. The chalets to which the traveller resorts for milk, and some- 
 times for a night's rest, are not yet inhabited. But for the same reason 
 nothing can then exceed the beauty of the Alpine pastures, in the full 
 blaze of their brilliant colours, before the grass and flowers are eaten or 
 trodden down by animals. 
 
 July and August are the months usually chosen by travellers in the 
 higher parts of the Alps, and on an average of years the public is doubt- 
 less right in the selection. August is the season when the inns are most 
 crowded ; and a traveller who has moved from place to place in July 
 does wisely to select comfortable and agreeable quarters for the succeed- 
 ing month. One reason for passing this time in the higher valleys is the 
 great heat that is then usually experienced in the low country at the foot 
 of the Alps. The experience of many years has led the writer (J. B.) to 
 believe that, on an average, the best chance of finding a continuous suc- 
 cession of fine weather, with the clearness of air favourable for distant 
 views, is during the first half of September. During the summer it is 
 rare to find more than three or four days together such as the mountaineer 
 willingly chooses for an ascent, and even then the distant horizon is seldom 
 clear of clouds. Eight or ten consecutive days of perfect weather are 
 often to be had in September. About the middle of that month snow 
 usually falls on the higher Alps, sometimes descending to the valleys. 
 Those who do not take flight are often rewarded by a renewal of fine 
 weather, extending into October. The fresh snow and the shortness of 
 the days make that season unfit for high or difficult expeditions; but it 
 
XXV111 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 is most enjoyable in the southern valleys, where the great heat of summer 
 is a serious impediment to the pleasure of travelling in the earlier season. 
 The Italian lakes maybe visited with satisfaction until the end of October, 
 save that in that month a week or ten days of heavy rain, extending 
 through the entire N. of Italy, may usually be looked for. 
 
 Of late years winter climbing has become popular in the Alps, and 
 many English flock thither for that purpose as well as to skate, toboggan, 
 i ski,' &c, Grindelwald being a favourite resort. November and Feb- 
 ruary are the months during which the finest weather usually prevails. 
 
 languages spoken in the Alps. — It may safely be said that half the 
 pleasure of travelling is lost to a person who is unable to speak the 
 language of the country through which he passes. Englishmen are more 
 often prevented from speaking foreign languages by shyness and mauvaise 
 honte than by indolence or incapacity. As there is little room for shyness 
 in conversing, or attempting to converse, with a guide or waiter, a pedes- 
 trian expedition serves to help many persons over the first difficult step 
 of beginning to exercise the tongue in the production of unaccustomed 
 sounds. The region included in this work is pretty equally divided 
 between the German, French, and Italian languages. German, which 
 has rather the largest share, is spoken throughout nearly the whole of the 
 Austrian and Bavarian Alps, and through three-quarters of Switzerland, 
 the division between the French and German districts nearly correspond- 
 ing with a line drawn from Porrentruy to Sierre in the Vallais. West of 
 that line French is the language of the country, as it is throughout Savoy 
 and Dauphine, and in the Val d'Aosta (where it is the last relic of former 
 Burgundian rule), and the Vaudois valleys of Piedmont. With those ex- 
 ceptions, and that of a few parishes at the S. and E. foot of Monte Rosa 
 inhabited by a German population, Italian is spoken throughout the 
 southern valleys of the Alps, including the Swiss Canton of Tessin. In 
 the valley of the Adige, which may be said to cut through the dividing 
 range of the Alps, the division between the Italian and German population 
 lies rather S. of Bozen. Elsewhere it usually follows the watershed. But 
 there are many exceptions to this general rule. It is a work of great 
 interest to the philologist and to the historian to trace the surviving 
 vestiges which alone show the former ethnological and linguistic fluctua- 
 tions in the Alpine districts. Of especial interest are the fairly numerous 
 German-speaking islands in the midst of an Italian sea. Chief of these 
 are the thirteenth-century colonies from the Vallais to neighbouring glens, 
 such as Val Formazza (above Domodossola), with its offshoot, Bosco, or 
 even to distant valleys, such as the Rheinwald (at the chief sources of the 
 Rhine), with the adjoining glens of Vals and Safien, and the settlement of 
 Obersaxen, near Ilanz.* Davos itself was originally a thirteenth-century 
 
 * On Bosco see Dr. A. Baragiola's book entitled 77 Canto popolare a Bosco o Gurin (Cividale, 
 1 891) ; on the Val Formazza and the other Vallaisan colonies see the notes by the present Editor 
 (W. A. B. C.) in the preliminary portion of the Lepontine Alps vol. (1892) of the Climbers' 
 Guides Series, and the same writer's essay, ' Die deutschredenden Gemeinden im Grauen oder 
 Oberen Bunde (Rhatien) der Schweiz,' in nos. 376-7 (1893) of the Oesterreichische Alpen-Zeit- 
 ung of Vienna ; on the colonies S. of Monte Rosa, particularly at Macugnaga, consult the notes 
 given in the new edition of vol. i. of the Alpine Guide, pp. 493, 518, 521, 524-5, 535, 538, 542, 
 as well as Julius Studer's Walliser und Walser (Zurich, 1886), Prof. H. Bresslau's excellent 
 article ' Zur Geschichte der deutschen Gemeinden im Gebiet des Monte Rosa und im Ossola- 
 thal ' (in vol. xvi. part 3 of Koner's Zeitschrift der Gescllschaft fi'ir Erdkunde zu Berlin 
 
GENERAL ADVICE TO TRAVELLERS IN THE ALPS. x\i\ 
 
 German-speaking colony from the Vallais planted amongst a Romance- 
 speaking population. Further E. we have the most interesting region 
 of the Sette Comuni, N. of Vicenza— a district of table-land and mountain 
 pastures, enclosed between the Brenta and the Astico — which still speaks 
 a mediaeval Swabian dialect, locally called ' Cimbric, 5 besides (to pass over 
 others) several German-speaking villages in the Fersina glen, E. of Trent, 
 and those of Sauris in Friuli.* 
 
 With scarcely any exceptions the French, German, and Italian tongues 
 are not to be heard in a state of purity in any part of the Alpine region. 
 Dialects more or less uncouth prevail, though in many cases these patois 
 preserve interesting forms and words which have dropped out from 
 or have been discarded by the literary tongue. A stranger speaking the 
 latter will, however, always be able to make himself understood, for the 
 literary forms are now more or less taught in the schools, but he may 
 find some trouble at first in understanding what is said to him.t 
 
 Besides these three principal languages there are at least two others 
 which are spoken in different parts of the Alps, and which both possess 
 very great historical interest. One is the old Raetian tongue, which is 
 a backward sister {not descendant) of the other great Romance languages, 
 being, like them, a form of the \ lingua rustica romana,' though it has 
 lagged behind its fellows. It exists at present in two main dialects 
 (there are many sub-dialects). One is the Romonsch (this is the proper 
 spelling), spoken in the Vorder Rhein valley (Disentis, Ilanz, &c.) ; the 
 other is properly known as Ladin, and is much more widely spread, being 
 spoken throughout the Engadine and adjoining glens, as well as in 
 certain parts of the Tyrol, such as the valleys of Groden, Fassa, Ampezzo, 
 and Buchenstein, as well as in far Friuli. { 
 
 The second of the minor languages spoken in the Alps is the Slavonic 
 
 (Berlin, 1881), and A. Schott's older work, Die deutschen Colonien in Piemont (Stuttgart, 1842). 
 A general view of the subject is to be found in Baron v. Czoernig's Die deutschen Sprachinseln 
 im Siidcn (Klagenfurt, 1889). 
 
 • As regards the well known Sette Comuni, it may suffice to mention G. Nolli's Ristretto di 
 nozioni storichc ed economiche intorno ai Sette Comuni (Asiago, 1880) and the accurate notice in 
 Signor O. Brentari's Guida Storico-Aipino di Bassano, Sette Comuni, &c. (Bassano, 1885). 
 As to Fersina, see a pamphlet by Hans Leek, entitled Deutsche Sprachinseln in II Yilschtirol 
 (Stuttgart, 1884), an article (without date or place) by Anton Zingerle, named Die deutschen 
 Gemeinden im Fersinathal, and the careful notice in Signor Otto Brentari's Guida del Trent i no, 
 part i. (Bassano, 1891), pp. 272-85. For Sauris consult G. Marinelli's Guida del/a Car*/a(Udine, 
 1898), pp. 1 2 1-6, 508-13, Baron v. Czoernig's article in the 1880 vol. of the Zeitschrift of the 
 German and Austrian Alpine Club, his pamphlet mentioned in the preceding note, and another 
 article by Herr J. Pock in the 1897 vol. of the Zeitschrift. 
 
 t For various French Alpine patois the following works may be consulted with advantage : — 
 F. N. Nicollet's Etudes sur les Patois du Midi de la France (Gap, 1897); J. A. Chabran 
 A. de Rochas d'Aiglun's Patois des Alpes Cottiennes (Brianfonnais et I 'allocs laiuloises), et 
 en particulier du Queyras (Grenoble and Paris, 1877); F. Brachet's Pictionnairc du Patois 
 Savoyard til quit est parti dans le Canton d Albcrhnlle (2nd edition, Albertvilje, 1889); and J. 
 Gillie>on's Patois de la Commune de Vionnaz (Bas- Calais), published in Paris in 1880 as no. 40 
 of the ' Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes ; ' a Dictionary of tin- Swiss- Fren< h patois of 
 Switzerland is in preparation. The general subject of German Alpine patois may 1><- studied 
 in A. Socins Schr ij tsfrrache und Dialekte im Dcutsclien (Heilbronn, 1888), while the magnificent 
 ■German I )ialect Dictionary (the Schweizcrisches Idiotikon), which has been in course of 
 publication since 1881 (it has now reached the letter 'P'), and Stalder's older works, I'ersuch 
 eines Schiveizerischen Idiotikon (2 vols. Aarau, 1806-1812), and Die Landcssprachen dcr 
 SckwetM (Aarau, 1819), will be helpful for the Swiss side of the mi 
 
 % The Romonsch may be best studied in Dr. C. Decurtins' R&toromaniscke Glnrstomathic 
 (4 parts published at Erlangen between 1884 and 1806); while Z. Pallioppi's great Dictionary of 
 the Engadine Form of Ladin (Samaden, 1895), and Prof. J. Alton's Die Ladinischen Idiomc in 
 
XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 dialect, which extends through the Julie Alps, the Karawankas, and some 
 other parts of Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria. German is, however, 
 spoken by all the younger natives, so that a traveller need apprehend 
 but little trouble from this cause. He should, nevertheless, bear in mind 
 that each place in those regions has a German as well as a Slavonic 
 name, and very often an Italian name also, so that, as these are some- 
 times quite unlike each other, care is needed to avoid mistakes, which 
 may lead to considerable practical inconvenience. 
 
 For the mere purpose of living at hotels an English traveller knowing 
 only French or only German will, as a rule, save in very remote spots, 
 meet with no serious difficulty, as almost everywhere in inns frequented by 
 travellers the servants speak one or two, or sometimes even four, of the 
 chief languages of Europe. In Switzerland, except in out of the way 
 places, English is spoken in all large inns and most shops. Hence those 
 enterprising Britons who travel on the Continent with no other medium 
 of communication than their native tongue and a well filled purse should 
 confine themselves to the beaten tracks in Switzerland or Italy, and 
 avoid all but the chief places in France and Austria. 
 
 Expenses of Travelling. — The habits and wants of travellers are so 
 various that nothing approaching a general estimate of the expenses of 
 a tour can be given. To a considerable extent these vary also according 
 to the district visited. It is not, however, difficult for a traveller to form 
 an estimate for himself, so that in this place it is only necessary to 
 mention some general considerations. 
 
 A pedestrian, carrying his own knapsack, and contenting himself with 
 ordinary fare and accommodation, can get on for a few francs a day 
 anywhere. But extra good food, wine, or rooms, or frequent hiring of 
 carriages or guides, will, of course, raise the expenditure almost to any 
 extent. If the party include ladies, further expenditure becomes desirable, 
 while the mountaineer making many high ascents, retaining the services 
 of good guides for some weeks, and often taking provisions up to Club 
 huts, will spend most of all, though in his case the pleasure (at least in 
 his belief) is worth the apparently high cost of his tour. It should always 
 be borne in mind that the high charges of mountain hotels, not accessible 
 by railway, and open during a short period specially for the advantage 
 of a comparatively small number of travellers, are justified, and should 
 not be complained of. Most hotels, even in the height of the season, 
 receive at reduced fixed rates travellers who spend there at least five or 
 seven days. This is the most convenient and most economical system 
 for a traveller who is not in a hurry, and does not intend to absent himself 
 from the valleys or mountain inns for several days in order to make high 
 ascents. The rates of pension vary, of course, according to accommodation 
 &c. In Switzerland there are many comfortable, clean inns where only 
 5 to 6 francs are charged a day in summer ; the present writer ( W. A. B.C.) 
 is acquainted with many pleasant little Swiss inns, not on the beaten 
 track, where the pension varies from 3^ to 5 francs a day. In Switzerland 
 the highest rates in the mountains do not exceed 12 to 15 francs. The 
 
 Ladinien, Grodcn, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo (Innsbruck, 1879) w iH supply much informa- 
 tion as to the Ladin branch of this curious survival, which is everywhere retiring before the en- 
 croachments of German and Italian. 
 
GENERAL ADVICE TO TRAVELLERS IN THE ALPS. xxxi 
 
 most minute information as to the prices of Swiss inns is given in 'The 
 Hotels of Switzerland,' a work published annually at Basel by the ' Associa- 
 tion of Swiss Hotel Proprietors and Managers,' and to be obtained from 
 their central office at Basel for 20 cents, (within Switzerland) or 40 cents. 
 (Postal Union) post-free. It is an exceedingly useful and trustworthy 
 compendium of information. 
 
 In some parts of France and Italy prices range higher than in Switzer- 
 land, the accommodation, too, not always being suited to the wants of 
 English travellers. In the Eastern Alps the principal mountain hotels 
 are far from being as good as their Swiss rivals, while relatively more 
 expensive ; in the remoter districts of the Eastern Alps modest accommo- 
 dation can be obtained at about the same prices as in Switzerland. When 
 the traveller has made the best possible estimate of the sum he is likely 
 to require for his Alpine tour, he should leave an ample margin for 
 unforeseen expenses and for his fare from England and back. The 
 worry of finding that he has expended the exact sum allowed for 
 his whole journey, and of having no reserve in hand, seriously takes 
 away from the pleasure of his trip, and may sometimes be extremely 
 awkward. In Article I. some advice is given as to the best ways of 
 carrying or procuring money during a journey. It is only necessary 
 here once more to insist on the importance of being provided witn small 
 change, the want of which causes inconvenience and loss. 
 
 General Rules for Travelling. — Of these it would be easy to make a 
 long list ; a few only are here noted. 
 
 It is generally necessary to arrive at large foreign railway stations 
 20 or 30 minutes before the hour fixed for the departure of the train. 
 Failing this, difficulties are made as to receiving luggage, and in the 
 season there is a great bustle. 
 
 All arrangements for vehicles, mules, ordinary guides, or porters should 
 be made overnight. He who waits till next morning will find inferior 
 articles and higher prices. 
 
 Avoid sleeping with open windows in low valleys, especially those 
 liable to inundation. 
 
 Advice as to dietary is little needed, as most people in good health 
 can live on the food they find on their road. It may be noted that 
 Alpine mutton is too often tough and stringy. Veal and fowls are 
 usually the best meat. Chamois venison, when in good condition and 
 kept long enough, is good, but is rarely eaten in perfection. Trout are 
 delicate eating, but are sometimes rather dear. The same may be 
 of ptarmigan and cog de bruytre. The latter is excellent, but not often 
 to be had. 
 
 For longer expeditions there is now a great variety of tinned provisions 
 of more or less palatable kinds. In the principal tourist resorts main 
 English articles of all kinds may now be purchased during the summer 
 season. 
 
 Very fair wine is made in the Cantons of Neuchatel, Vaud, and Vallais 
 in Switzerland, in the neighbourhood of Chambery in Savoy, in the Val 
 d'Aosta, and in the Valtellina, round Meran and Bozett, and in the valleys 
 near Verona ; but the better qualities are rarely found in inns. Those \\ h< 1 
 dislike the ordinary wine may best drink Beaujolais, a sound red «rm«5 
 
xxxil INTRODUCTION. 
 
 found at most inns in Switzerland and Savoy. Some persons like Asti 
 wine, a sweetish insipid liquor, usually to be had in Piedmont, and in 
 many Swiss inns. Barbera is a strong and rough but sound Piedmontese 
 wine, which is found in Italian towns ; but, as a general rule, no wine 
 but that of the district is to be had at Italian country inns. Many 
 travellers like the effervescing lemonade, which, under the name limonade 
 gazeuse, is found almost everywhere, as is also light and harmless beer. 
 
 Most of the requisites for travelling are enumerated in Art. VI. as 
 especially important to pedestrians. A few universal requisites may be 
 noted here. 
 
 Stationery, including writing-paper, pens, ink, pencils, and drawing 
 materials for those who use them, are best obtained in London. 
 Adhesive luggage-labels, and also those of parchment, and a strap for 
 fastening together plaids and other loose articles should not be omitted. 
 Many travellers carry a telescope ; but except for chamois-hunting, 
 where it is indispensable, this is rarely useful. An opera glass of 
 moderate size is much lighter, and more useful. It also turns to account 
 in visiting picture galleries, theatres, &c. 
 
 When all other requisites have been supplied, the most important of all 
 must be found by the traveller himself. Good temper and good humour 
 are the only things quite indispensable for the enjoyment of travelling. 
 It is not wise to yield too easily to the demands that are pressed upon a 
 stranger, and every now and then a show of anger may be requisite to 
 defeat imposition ; but a man who when travelling labours under the 
 impression that all the world is combined in a conspiracy to maltreat and 
 overreach him, and who loses his self-possession in a dispute about a 
 franc, or because a waiter is slow to answer his summons, will consult his 
 own peace and the convenience of others by staying at home. 
 
 Art. VZ. — Advice to Pedestrians. 
 
 There are few men in tolerably good health who are not able to walk 
 quite enough to enable them (and this applies also to more ladies than 
 formerly) to enjoy nearly all the finest scenery in the Alps. The process 
 of training is to some rather irksome, and it varies from a few days to 
 two or three weeks, according to the constitution and previous habits ; 
 but this once accomplished, the unanimous testimony of all who have 
 tried this manner of life declares that there is none other so enjoyable, 
 and none so healthful for mind and body. Some patience and judicious 
 preparation are needed to arrive at that delightful condition in which any 
 reasonable amount of exertion is borne without fatigue, and a man, after 
 a previous day's walk of 30 miles over mountain and glacier, rises with 
 the sun, refreshed and ready for fresh enterprise. Assuming that, on 
 reaching the Alps, a traveller is not already in good training, he must 
 carefully avoid overworking himself at first. He cannot begin better 
 (if his time allows) than by making the ascent of some one of those minor 
 summits that are placed round the outer margin of the great chain, and 
 command views that often rival in beauty the panoramas from the higher 
 peaks. Such are the Moucherotte, the Mont Revard, Dent du Chat, Mont 
 
ADVICE TO PEDESTRIANS. xxxiii 
 
 Granier, and Grand Som, in the French Alps ; the Dole, Weissenstein, 
 Chaumont, Rigi, Pilatus, Niesen, Santis, and Hohenkasten, in Switzer- 
 land ; the Besimauda, Mottarone, Monte Generoso, Sasso del Ferro, Corno 
 di Canzo, and Ritten, more to the S. and E. ; and very many others that 
 might be added to the list. On arriving at some place that serves for head- 
 quarters, it becomes easy for a man to graduate the length and difficulty 
 of his excursions to his increasing powers, being careful, whenever he 
 feels somewhat overtired, to make the following a day of comparative 
 rest. 
 
 If his design be to carry his pack himself, he will do wisely to begin 
 with very short journeys. For the first few days it is felt as a decided 
 encumbrance, and somewhat increases the labour of the day's work ; but 
 after a short time the muscles become adapted to the effort, and it is 
 scarcely found to make any difference, except to persons with tender feet, 
 who are apt to feel the effects of the additional weight. For travellers 
 who have not the instinctive faculty of finding their way without a guide, 
 there is no inducement to take the trouble of carrying their own packs ; 
 but quite apart from the saving, which to many may be a matter of 
 indifference, the keen sense of absolute freedom and independence, and 
 the intense enjoyment of nature, unbroken by the presence of even the 
 most satisfactory guide, are motives enough to tempt many a man to 
 rely on himself for his means of conveyance in the Alps. The writer 
 (J. B.) warmly admires and sympathises with the feelings of those who 
 have developed the ardent and aspiring style of mountaineering that has 
 so largely increased our knowledge of the Alps, and all but ' effaced the 
 word " inaccessible " from the Alpine dictionary ; ' but, for the sake of 
 the next generation, he would think it a matter for regret if the life of 
 Alpine travellers were to be always one of struggle and warfare. There 
 is a keen pleasure in storming some citadel of nature, hewing the way 
 axe in hand, or clambering up some precipitous outwork ; but the re- 
 collections of days of solitary enjoyment amid more accessible and not 
 less sublime scenery leave an impression no less deep and abiding. 
 
 Equipment of a Pedestrian. — It need hardly be said that tempera- 
 ments are variable, and that what suits many travellers does not necessarily 
 suit all. The inexperienced will do well to try, in the first place, what has 
 been found useful by others. The following hints are chiefly meant for 
 those who undertake minor Alpine expeditions, though some notes are 
 added (especially under 3) which may be useful to those meditating high 
 and difficult climbs. The latter class of travellers will, of course, consult 
 the Report of a Special Committee of the Alpine Club on ' Equipment for 
 Mountaineers,' issued with the ' Alpine Journal' for May, 1892, and to be 
 had as a separate pamphlet from the Assistant Secretary of the Alpine 
 Club, 23 Savile Row, W., post free for yd. 
 
 1. Clothing. — An Alpine traveller is occasionally exposed to cold and 
 piercing winds, but also to great heat, as the rays of the sun in clear 
 weather have a force which is quite unknown in England. A shooting 
 coat or Norfolk jacket is the best pattern for a. coat. It maybe made 
 entirely of wool, though there is much to be said for Swiss (especially 
 Oberland) homespun, its extra weight being compensated by the fact 
 that it is very warm and practically waterproof. It is tempting to have 
 
 b 
 
XXXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 many pockets in the coat, but this means that it becomes weighted down 
 with many articles, and cannot well be taken off in very hot weather. In 
 any case there should be at least one inside pocket large enough to hold 
 a folded map, while every pocket should be made to fasten tight outside 
 by means of tabs or buttons. The waistcoat too should be woollen, and 
 should contain inside pockets for money and other valuables. K?iicker- 
 bockers are now almost universally worn, even by some Swiss guides, and 
 by all guides in the Tyrol. In that case stockings become of great 
 importance. These (or socks) should be hand-knitted, and very stout — 
 they are best obtained in Switzerland or other parts of the Alps. Gaiters 
 too are important for those who propose to be much in the snow region. 
 By far the best kind are those of ordinary stout homespun, worn among 
 the mountains in summer and all through the winter by the men of the 
 Bernese Oberland — they are fastened by a chain that passes under the 
 hollow of the boot, and are made to fasten with hooks and eyes, which 
 are much handier than buttons or straps when the gaiters are wet. 
 
 The shirt should be of thick flannel (grey best), thoroughly shrunk. A 
 collar is not always convenient when walking, but the change shirt for 
 evenings in hotels should certainly have one attached. A watch pocket 
 in the shirt is often convenient. Some climbers prefer to a shirt a woollen 
 combination garment. 
 
 The hat should be of felt, broad in the brim, and soft, so that in case of 
 necessity it may be folded down and tied about the ears, and grey in 
 colour, as that attracts the sun's rays less than any other colour. For pro- 
 tection against extreme cold or high wind a woollen knitted helmet, such 
 as is sometimes used for skating, is useful. It should cover the whole 
 head, save the face, and be made to pull on. Some prefer a tweed cap, 
 with flaps for the neck and ears, but this does not afford so much protec- 
 tion as a woollen helmet. In fine weather, however, the wearers of either 
 are very much exposed to the pitiless rays of the sun. 
 
 Mittens are better than gloves. They should be hand-knitted, and 
 have but two pods, one for the thumb, the other for all the fingers to- 
 gether, which thus better retain their heat than when each has its own 
 pod. 
 
 A silk or woollen muffler or large handkerchief is indispensable. 
 
 Many consider a waterproof coat a. necessity. It should not be very long, 
 and should be made of some stout waterproof material. In the Tyrol 
 light short cloaks ( Wettermantel) of a loose homespun (weighing about 
 3 lbs.) and long enough to cover the rucksack, carried on the back, are 
 very popular. But if the suit worn is really good (especially the Ober- 
 land homespun) any waterproof coat is quite unnecessary. Beginners 
 should be warned that long thin caoutchouc coats, coming down to the 
 feet, are very inconvenient while walking, do not really protect the legs 
 from wet, and are extremely liable to be soon torn and so completely 
 ruined. 
 
 Mr. Ball recommended a Scotch plaid ; but, though useful in certain 
 cases, it is much too heavy to be carried on a long expedition, save, of 
 course, for use at a camp. 
 
 The covering and protection of the feet is to the pedestrian a matter of 
 the first importance. The boots cannot be too strong, solid, and durable 
 
ADVICE TO PEDESTRIANS. XXXV 
 
 in workmanship. They should come up to the ankles, and be fastened 
 by leather laces. (Elastic sides have many drawbacks.) The tongue 
 should be let into the uppers on both sides of the opening, so as to be 
 water-tight up to the top of the boot. The heels should be large and 
 rather low. One most important point is that the soles (not necessarily 
 the heel) shall project all round the uppers. The nails should be so 
 arranged as to clamp over the lower edge of this projecting rim, in order 
 to afford protection from stones, &c. It is best not to have nails in the 
 centre of the sole, but both edges of the sole and the heel should be well 
 supplied with them. The front part of the boot should be long and broad, 
 while the boot should fit easily, as otherwise a steep descent of many 
 thousands of feet will be found most trying. An easy, comfortable fit is 
 extremely important, and if the boot be found here and there too loose it 
 is easy to put on a second pair of socks, or one extra thick pair. A supply 
 of spare laces should never be forgotten. By far the most suitable boots 
 for the purpose are to be purchased in the Alps, as the shoemakers there 
 know by practical experience what is required, and what will best stand 
 rough wear and tear. Some like an iron cap to protect the toes of the 
 boot. Every one with the least experience knows that it is rash to 
 commence walking in new boots. They should be worn for three or 
 four weeks beforehand. 
 
 Slippers are essential. They should be of leather (with elastic sides) 
 and strong enough for wear in the neighbourhood of a Club hut or hotel. 
 A lighter pair of slippers for use exclusively in the house is convenient. 
 
 2. Knapsack or Rucksack. — Formerly knapsacks of various patterns, 
 though all having a stiff back, were universally employed. But of recent 
 years they have been largely superseded by ' rucksacks/ a bag of strong 
 canvas, closed at the top by a cord, and carried by broad straps, so placed 
 that the pack lies in the hollow of the wearer's back in a very comfortable 
 and easy fashion. Originally brought from the Tyrol, they may now be 
 found in most parts of Switzerland, and rucksacks of local manufacture 
 are used by all the Grindelwald guides. If the canvas is stout enough 
 there is practically no danger of rain or snow working through it. But if 
 it is desired to use special precautions it is best not to have the bag lined 
 with waterproof, but to have a movable light waterproof bag which, after 
 being packed, can be slipped bodily into the rucksack. The rucksack 
 should have two inside pockets and two outside pockets, as well as a pair 
 of straps on top for carrying coat or gaiters when not in use, while 
 it is convenient to have a canvas partition dividing the bag into two 
 compartments. 
 
 3. Ice Axes and otner Articles for Mountaineers. — he axes are 
 very important articles to Alpine travellers, even to those who do not 
 propose to cut steps themselves. If they do, the axe must be extra 
 heavy and strong. Otherwise a lighter weapon is advisable. The 
 handle of the axe should be of such length as to reach up to the armpit 
 of its owner. Great care should be taken in securing the head on to the 
 handle. By far the best axes are made in Switzerland, and may be 
 purchased there in all the chief Alpine centres. Those used by the 
 Grindelwald guides (who are at the very head of their profession) are 
 manufactured by Christian Schenk, blacksmith, of Grindelwald. 
 
 b 2 
 
xxxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Next to the ice axe comes in point of importance the rope. A feu 
 prefer silk ropes, which are light indeed, but liable to snap under a great 
 strain, and very unpleasant to handle when wet. The best rope is made 
 of Manilla hemp, and is supplied under the name of ' Alpine Club rope,' 
 by Messrs. Beale and Cloves (late John Buckingham), 194 Shaftesbury 
 Avenue, W.C. A length of fifty feet suffices for a party of three. Of 
 course the rope must be carefully examined from time to time to see if 
 it shows sign of wear, but as a rule a rope will not be worth much after 
 it has been through one hard summer's climbing. 
 
 Crampons, or Steigreisen, are irons (with several points turned down- 
 wards) a little wider than the sole of the boot, and attached to it by 
 leather straps. They are convenient on a slope of hard snow, when the 
 points pierce the snow, and so do away with the necessity of cutting 
 steps. But it is dangerous to attempt to use them on ice slopes, while 
 on rocks they are an encumbrance and must be taken off. They have 
 never come into favour with English mountaineers, but are very much 
 used in the Tyrol, where they can best be purchased. A somewhat 
 analogous artificial aid is that of the four sharp iron spikes (an inch or 
 more in length) which in the Swiss Alps, especially in the Bernese 
 Oberland, are driven into the heel of the boot at the corners or edges : 
 they are designed to enable the men coming down in winter with heavy 
 wood sledges to get a grip in the ice or snow in the track, and will be 
 found very handy by travellers wishing to make winter excursions, 
 though not suited for high ascents. 
 
 Wine is best carried in long tin rounded bottles, made to fit into the 
 inner or outer pockets of the rucksack. India rubber should be carefully 
 avoided for bottles as well as for drinking cups, leather being the best 
 material for the latter. Spectacles with smoked glasses {not blue) and 
 with velvet round the edge of the wire network are most to be recom- 
 mended, while for lanterns the Italian pattern known as i Excelsior' is 
 the most suitable in every way. 
 
 Among minor articles are a strong knife (with corkscrew), a field glass, 
 some spare bits of strong twine, spare boot laces, vaseline for sun-burn, 
 and lip salve to prevent cracked lips ; but every traveller will of course 
 make, and always carefully consult, a * Rucksack List ' for himself. 
 
 4. Sundries. — Washing materials may be most compactly carried in a 
 small sheet of mackintosh, with pockets for soap, or in a small bag of the 
 same material. A little arnica, adhesive plaster, and lint are useful in 
 the case of wounds or bruises. Maps should never be forgotten (it is 
 best to carry them in a transparent oiled silk case), nor the guide- 
 book and the compass. Smokers will not forget to carry all materials 
 for their favourite indulgence, while botanists will add a quire of soft thick 
 paper, and a sheet of light pasteboard of the same size. There will 
 generally be a few maps and guide-books not in actual use, while some 
 (especially if they do not carry the bag themselves) will add a favourite 
 book or two to while away weary hours when storm-bound in a Club 
 hut. 
 
 It is not necessary to say anything here about tents and other elabo- 
 rate arrangements required by a party making a camp high up in the 
 mountains. Much useful information on that subject, as well as regards 
 
ADVICE TO -PEDESTRIANS. xxxvii 
 
 the various kinds of tinned provisions, maybe found in the Report of the 
 Special Committee of the Alpine Club referred to at the opening of this 
 Article. 
 
 Art. VII. — On Mountaineering-.* 
 
 Its Difficulties and Dangers.— Needful Precautions. 
 
 All active exercises and athletic sports require a certain amount of 
 training, in order that the muscles and senses may be used to act together. 
 Most Englishmen acquire in early life habits of bodily activity that make 
 mountaineering come easy to them, and what more is required must be 
 gained by experience. A few hints may, however, not be thrown away 
 upon beginners. The quality of sure-footedness — a mountaineer's first 
 desideratum— depends upon two habits, both easily acquired : first, that 
 of lifting the foot well from the ground, and bringing it down at once ; 
 secondly, that of observing the spot on which the foot is to rest. It is not 
 mainly in order to choose the ground for each footstep that this is useful, 
 though in some places it is requisite to do so ; the chief advantage is that 
 the muscles, being warned by the eye, are prepared for the precise exertion 
 that is wanted at the moment. If aware that the next step is to be on 
 rock worn smooth, an instinctive movement of the body is made to main- 
 tain the hold of the ground, when otherwise a slip would be inevitable. 
 In the same way a suitable slight effort often prevents debris from slipping, 
 but here the choice of the particular stone on which the foot is to rest 
 becomes important. With habit, the slightest glance at the ground is 
 sufficient, and the process is an almost unconscious one. 
 
 One of the chief uses of the ice axe or alpenstock is in descending over 
 steep and rough ground. Grasping the pole in both hands, the whole 
 weight of the body may be safely thrown back upon the point, and in a 
 
 * On the general subject of Mountaineering the reader should consult the vol. (by Mr. C T. 
 Dent and others) in the ' Badminton ' Series entitled Mountaineering (1892 — revised German 
 translation at Leipzig in 1893), or Dr. Claude Wilson's smaller work with the same title (1893) 
 in the ' All- England' Series, or Herr J. Meurer's Handbuch des Atyinen Sport (1882). 
 
 On the dangers of mountaineering the best works are Herr Emil Zsigmondy's Die Gefahnu 
 der Alpen (1885: French translation published at Neuchatel in 1886), and Signori Fiorio an<l 
 Ratti's / Pericoli delV Alpinismo (published at Turin in 1889 with no. 55 of the Bolltt: 
 the Italian Alpine Club. The English reader will not fail to study carefully Mr. Leslie Stephen's 
 essay on the subject in his Playground of Europe (1871 : but unluckily not reprinted in the 
 editions of 1894 and 1899). 
 
 The following are the dates at which the principal European Alpine Clubs were founded (m£ 
 a full account in the Bollettino of the Italian Alpine Club for 1880 and 1884) :— 
 
 1857. The Alpine Club (A.C.) 
 
 1862. Austrian Alpine Club, which in 1873 was fused with the German Alpii • 
 
 (founded in 1869) under the name of the ' German and Austrian Alpine Club ' 
 (D. und Oe.A.V.) 
 
 1863. Swiss Alpine Club (S.A.C.) 
 Italian Alpine Club (C.A.I.) 
 
 1869. Austrian Touristen-Club (Oe.T.C.) 
 
 1872. Tridentine Alpine Society (S.A.T. ) 
 
 1874. French Alpine Club (C.A.F.) 
 
 1875. Soci6t6 des Touristes du Dauphine" (S.'I . 1 1 . 1 
 1878. Austrian Alpine Club (Oe.A.C.) 
 
 1 882. Belgian Alpine Club (C. A . 1 1 . ) 
 
 There are many other Alpine Societies of a more purely local character. 
 
xxxvili INTRODUCTION. 
 
 few minutes it is easy to clear by a succession of leaps a distance which 
 otherwise would require thrice the time. It is often necessary to pass at 
 a level along the face of a very steep slope. The beginner, involuntarily 
 shrinking from the apparent danger, is apt to lean in the opposite 
 direction. This is a mistake, as by causing an outward thrust of the foot 
 the risk of slipping is much increased. In all such places the body should 
 be kept perfectly upright, and the ice axe or alpenstock held in both hands 
 ready to steady the balance, or by a bold thrust at the ascending slope to 
 stay the movement if the foot should begin to slip. It must be recollected 
 that wherever the ice axe or alpenstock is really wanted, it must be held in 
 both hands. On very steep ground it is sometimes extremely difficult to 
 avoid detaching loose fragments of rock, which may be a source of real 
 danger to the traveller's companions. When possible, especially in a 
 descent, it is best to take slightly different lines, so that the foremost shall 
 not be in the way of stones sent down by the next comer. When this is 
 not possible, the best plan is for the party to keep close together. The 
 risk of harm is much less when the detached stone has not acquired a 
 dangerous velocity. 
 
 The preceding hints apply to travelling over rocks and rough ground, 
 such as may be found in all high mountain districts. The peculiar diffi- 
 culties of Alpine travelling depend upon the extent of ice and snow that 
 cover the upper region. The ice is chiefly in the form of glaciers, whose 
 origin and constitution are described in Art. XIV. : the snow, except after 
 a recent fall, is in that peculiar condition called neve. In ascending the 
 Alps, the traveller usually begins his acquaintance with the ice region by 
 traversing a greater or less extent of glacier ice ; if he continue to ascend, 
 he will reach the neve, and it may easily happen that, at a still greater 
 height, he will find the surface covered with a layer of fresh snow. The 
 surface of a glacier is sometimes very even and slightly inclined, some- 
 times steep and irregular, being cut up by deep rents called crevasses, 
 which may vary from a few inches to many yards in width. When the 
 sun has shone for even a short time upon the glacier, the upper layer of 
 ice partially melts, leaving a crisp and crumbling surface, on which the 
 foot holds very well ; but after rain, and before sunrise, the ice generally 
 shows a hard and very slippery surface ; the foot, though shod with steel 
 points, makes scarcely any impression, and it is necessary to cut steps 
 with much labour on slopes that a few hours later may be crossed with 
 ease. The lower portion of a glacier, below the point where the neve 
 begins, is quite as easy and safe to traverse as if it were formed of rock 
 instead of ice. Reasonable caution is needed in jumping over crevasses, 
 but there is no more reason why a traveller should fall into them than 
 that he should walk over the edge of a chalk cliff on the South Downs. 
 
 Above the limit of the neve the obstacles that stand in the way of the 
 mountaineer may properly be called dangers rather than difficulties, and 
 are discussed below under that head. 
 
 In the ascent of the higher peaks of the Alps, the pleasure and excite- 
 ment are not unalloyed by some inconveniences. The first of these is 
 thirst, painfully felt by those who are not used to such expeditions, for 
 but few find by experience that they can drink cold or ice water with 
 impunity. In this, as in other matters, prevention is better than cure. 
 
ON MOUNTAINEERING. xxxix 
 
 The practice of carrying a small quartz pebble in the mouth has been 
 ridiculed, but it rests upon a rational foundation. By causing an invo- 
 luntary movement of the jaws, it stimulates the salivary glands, and keeps 
 the mouth moist. In cases where this means of prevention is insufficient, 
 dried prunes or raisins are to be recommended ; they are far more 
 serviceable than drinking. The fruit should be kept in the mouth as long 
 as possible, and chewed very slowly during the ascent. As a drink along 
 with food, cold tea diluted is the best remedy for thirst. Snow and ice 
 relieve thirst for the moment, but generally remove the skin from the 
 inside of the mouth, a result which is extremely painful. 
 
 Another source of inconvenience is the heat of the sun upon the head, 
 which may partially be obviated by wearing a grey hat, as that attracts 
 the sun far less than black or white. 
 
 More serious than either of the above is the risk of frost-bites. Numb- 
 ness in the feet or hands is the first symptom. Vigorous clenching of the 
 toes or fingers usually prevents mischief. When this has actually com- 
 menced, violent rubbing with snow, and beating the parts affected, are the 
 proper means for restoring circulation. 
 
 The painful affection called mountain sickness is due to the combined 
 effects of unusual exertion or privation and the diminished density of the 
 air at great heights. It shows itself by difficulty of breathing, indispo- 
 sition to exertion, headache, drowsiness, loss of appetite, and, if continued, 
 by nausea. It is felt mostly by persons unused to the attenuated air of the 
 high region ; while those accustomed to exertion at a height of 10,000 or 
 1 1,000 ft. rarely suffer in ascending the higher peaks of the Alps. As it 
 seldom attacks travellers till they are near the goal of their exertions, it 
 may usually be overcome by patience and perseverance. The patient 
 should halt every twenty paces, or even oftener, and resort rather to food 
 than to strong liquor as a restorative. The best proof that unusual exer- 
 tion or privation is the chief cause of the symptoms is the fact that they 
 are rarely felt in descending, even from the highest summits. Although 
 habit diminishes very much the evil effects, there is little doubt that all 
 mountaineers are more or less affected by the mechanical and physio- 
 logical disadvantages that attend muscular exertion at a great height. If 
 the time be noted that is required to ascend two snow slopes of equal 
 height and steepness, but at very different elevations, it will be seen that 
 more is consumed at an elevation exceeding 13,000 ft. than is required 
 at 9,000 or 10,000. 
 
 Long exposure to the glare of the snow, especially in sunshine, is very 
 apt to cause inflammation either of the eyes themselves or of the sur- 
 rounding membranes. The precaution of wearing smoked spectacles 
 should be adopted in time, without waiting till disagreeable sensations 
 are felt. These show that the inflammatory action has begun. The 
 consequences of neglecting these precautions are sometimes extremely 
 painful. The best remedy is to apply a cloth or handkerchief, steeped in 
 water, closely pressed upon the inflamed eyelids, and retained as long as 
 possible. Tepid water should be preferred. 
 
 This list of minor miseries of mountaineering may be closed with one 
 which is often felt for some days after an ascent, though but little at the 
 moment. This is the blistering and peeling off of the skin, caused by the 
 
xl . INTRODUCTION. 
 
 direct rays of the sun, or the reflection from the snow, aided by the sharp 
 wind which often blows at great heights. After a long day's exposure 
 at a great height it often happens that every portion of the outer skin 
 exposed to the air peels off, leaving the surface raw and uncomfortable for 
 several days. Cold cream or vaseline, and especially ' Crcme Simon,' 
 applied beforehand is a preventive. The lips are the part that most 
 frequently suffers from this cause, being sometimes split in a painful 
 manner, if not protected by lip salve. Collodion, although a disagreeable 
 application, is sometimes useful by forming a pellicle over the surface 
 which excludes the air. 
 
 Blisters in the soles of the feet should not be cut, but pierced with a 
 needle near the edge, and the contents pressed out. Rubbing the inside 
 of the sock with yellow soap is a preventive, and it is a good plan to rub 
 the feet with tallow and brandy. Some persons are apt to lose the skin 
 of the toes during a long and steep descent. It is easily replaced by good 
 adhesive plaster. 
 
 Precautions for Health.- — Few of these are required ; for the com- 
 bination of active exercise, pure air, and freedom from care is better for 
 the health than all the prescriptions yet framed by doctors. A few hints, 
 however, may not be useless. 
 
 Avoid overworking yourself at first. 
 
 When fatigued after an unusually hard day's work, avoid wine, and 
 drink very weak tea or mineral waters in the evening. You will sleep 
 soundly and awake refreshed. 
 
 Should you still feel the effects of over-fatigue, make the following day 
 one of rest. 
 
 Make it an invariable rule (if possible) to wash extensively with cold 
 or tepid water, and to change your inner clothing immediately on your 
 arrival after a day's walk. 
 
 Dietary. — In the frequented parts of the Alps it is now quite safe to 
 rely on obtaining food at the places where a traveller puts up for the 
 night. In other districts, where provisions are poor and scanty, it is 
 necessary to carry supplies, more or less extensive according to the wants 
 of each traveller. The writer (J. B.) has found i lb. of rice per day, 
 thoroughly boiled in the excellent milk which is always to be had at the 
 upper chalets, quite sufficient to give two good meals to two travellers. 
 Chocolate may be used for one meal, but in that case bread should also 
 be taken. Hard-boiled eggs contain much nourishment in small space, 
 but are disliked by some. They are usually boiled too hard ; five minutes 
 is quite enough, but even so they are not very attractive food. The 
 bread commonly found in chalets is a hard black bread, baked once or 
 twice a year, and not agreeable to unaccustomed palates. On the Italian 
 side of the Alps (and in many parts of Switzerland) a substitute for bread 
 is often found in the shape of polenta, made of maize flour. When 
 the flour is good and thoroughly cooked, this, eaten with milk or fresh 
 butter, is wholesome and pala table food. The brousse made in the cheese 
 chalets in many parts of the Alps is highly recommended by some, but 
 does not suit all stomachs. 
 
 The dangers of Alpine travelling: have been often exaggerated, but 
 they are real, and no rational man will disregard them. The best proof 
 
ON MOUNTAINEERING. xli 
 
 that these dangers are not greater than those attending many other 
 active exercises, such as fox-hunting and yachting, is the fact that, in 
 spite of inexperience and the neglect of the best known precautions, the 
 fatal accidents in the Alps have been relatively so few. The loss of many 
 lives within the last fifty years, and a much larger number of very narrow 
 escapes, some of them happening to first-rate guides and mountaineers, 
 ought, however, to operate as a salutary warning. The wives and mothers 
 of Alpine travellers, who are disquieted by the reports of accidents, 
 should know that very few have as yet occurred that could not have been 
 prevented by ordinary caution, and adherence to well known rules ; and, 
 instead of endeavouring to withhold their husbands and sons from a 
 healthful and invigorating pursuit, should simply urge them to observe 
 . the precautions which afford security against all its ordinary dangers. 
 
 The following remarks are condensed, with slight alterations, from a 
 paper by Mr. Ball, in the First Series of ' Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers.' 
 
 The dangers of Alpine expeditions may be divided into two classes — 
 the real and the imaginary. Where a ridge or slope of rock or ice is 
 such that it could be traversed without difficulty if it lay but a few feet 
 above the level of a garden, the substitution on either side of a precipice 
 some thousands of feet in depth, or of a glacier crevasse, makes no real 
 difference in the work to be done, though it may have a formidable effect 
 on the traveller's imagination. Those who cannot remove this source of 
 danger by accustoming themselves to look unmoved down vertical 
 precipices, and, in cases of real difficulty, to fix their attention exclusively 
 on the ledge or jutting crag to which they must cling with foot or hand, 
 should avoid expeditions on which a moment's nervousness may endanger 
 their own lives or those of others. 
 
 The real dangers of the High Alps may, under ordinary circumstances, 
 be reduced to three — first, the yielding of the snow bridges that cover 
 glacier crevasses ; second, the risk of slipping upon steep slopes of hard 
 ice or of snow on ice ; third, the fall of ice or rocks from above. 
 
 (i) From the first and most frequent source of danger absolute 
 security is obtained by a precaution generally known but often neglected. 
 In the higher region of the glaciers, crevasses, even of considerable 
 width, are often completely bridged over by a covering of snow or neVe, 
 so that no indication of their existence is seen on the surface of the 
 glacier. The bridges, especially when formed of fresh snow, often yield 
 under the weight of a man's footsteps ; in such a case an active man 
 whose attention is on the alert may sometimes extricate himself at once, 
 but it more commonly happens that he falls into the chasm beneath, in 
 which case his chance of life is very uncertain. But if several travellers 
 are tied together with a stout rope, at intervals of about 15 feet, and keep 
 their distance, as it is most unlikely that more than one should fall at the 
 same time into the same crevasse, no appreciable danger from this cause 
 need be incurred. Even two men tied together may with proper attention 
 diminish this risk, but greater security is obtained when they are three 
 or more in number. It is mainly because he cannot be protected from 
 this danger that a man who goes alone over the higher regions of the 
 great glaciers incurs a risk that must be called unjustifiable. 
 
 As it is hard to persuade a landsman that a well-found yacht has 
 
xlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 more danger to fear in a fog, with a smooth sea around, than when a stifr 
 breeze is blowing, so inexperienced mountaineers are slow to admit that 
 there is more real chance of accident in traversing some wide expanse of 
 neve, unbroken by a single ruffle, than in crossing a broken glacier with 
 wide crevasses opening on every side. A very moderate amount of 
 practice enables a man to make sure of his footing and to avoid seen 
 dangers, but unseen perils call forth no caution, and though the rope 
 offers complete security, many travellers, and even some guides, are 
 disposed to neglect it. At the risk of being thought over-cautious, the 
 writer (J. B.) will not cease to urge upon his fellow-travellers in the Alps 
 the enactment, as a fixed rule in mountaineering, that on reaching the 
 neve (if not before) the members of a party should all be roped together. 
 He is perfectly aware that there are many places where the risk is very 
 slight : a practised mountaineer might cross the St. Theodule Pass 500 
 times without accident, but the 501st time he might be lost in a crevasse, 
 as has happened twice on or near the pass since the writer first knew it. 
 With a sufficient inducement, and if it were impossible to find a com- 
 panion, he would not hesitate to cross that or some other high passes 
 alone ; but if he were in company, he would insist on the use of the rope. 
 
 It would seem scarcely necessary to insist that the rope should be 
 sound and strong, if it did not sometimes happen that untrustworthy articles 
 are taken by guides ; and it is not less important to note that it should 
 be fastened round the body of each member of the party, guides included, 
 leaving both hands free to use the ice axe or alpenstock in case of a slip. 
 A neglect of the first precaution led to a fatal accident in 1859, and to 
 another in 1863, and a breach of the second to the loss of three English 
 travellers, and one of their guides, in 1 860, in the descent from the Col 
 du Geant to Courmayeur. 
 
 When it is a matter of importance to cross a snow bridge of doubtful 
 solidity, it is a good plan to let each person in succession crawl across 
 on hands and knees, with the alpenstock in one hand laid flat upon the 
 snow, so as to distribute the weight over as large a surface as possible. 
 It is needless to say that, as a matter of course, the whole party should 
 be well roped together. 
 
 (2) The ascent and descent of steep ice-slopes, or of snow on ice, are 
 amongst the most difficult operations that commonly fall in the way of the 
 mountaineer, but when properly conducted there should be little or no 
 danger to those concerned. It should be explained that the term ice 
 slope is commonly applied to slopes of neve on which, after a certain 
 amount of exposure, a crust is formed, too hard to yield to the foot, yet 
 very different from compact glacier ice. This icy crust yields easily to 
 the axe, and a couple of well directed blows suffice to make a step on 
 which the foot may take secure hold. When we read of ascents in 
 which several hundred steps have been cut, it must usually (though not 
 always) be understood that these have been made on slopes of frozen 
 neve. Though the operation is rather tedious, and fatiguing to those 
 engaged in cutting the steps, such ascents seldom involve any risk, 
 for the steps are usually very easily enlarged so as to give good standing- 
 ground. On slopes exposed to the sun, where a thin layer of snow has 
 lain over rocks, the whole mass is sometimes so saturated by the 
 
ON MOUNTAINEERING. xliii 
 
 melting of the surface that when refrozen at night it is converted into a 
 continuous mass of nearly compact solid ice. Such a slope, especially 
 if it be steep, is far more troublesome than those above described ; to 
 cut steps is a much more laborious operation, and these are generally 
 shallower, and give but precarious footing. In such situations some 
 experience and perfect steadiness are indispensable, and it is essential 
 that the rope should be kept tightly stretched. 
 
 In spite of every precaution, a traveller may slip on an ice slope where, 
 if unchecked, a fall would lead to certain destruction. Against this 
 danger the rope is usually an effectual preservative. Cases are said to 
 occur where the footing is so precarious that a party cannot be tied 
 together, as, if one were to slip, he would inevitably drag all his com- 
 panions along with him to destruction. It is for those concerned to 
 consider whether in such instances the object in view is such as to justify 
 the inevitable peril of the ascent. The writer (J. B.) believes, however, 
 that such cases are extremely rare, and that very few slopes have yet 
 been surmounted where two men, with well-stretched rope, could not 
 hold up a third who should slip, especially if the latter be not wanting in 
 steadiness and presence of mind. 
 
 There is one description of slope which usually involves serious risk. 
 That is when a layer of fresh snow lies upon a surface of hard ice, or 
 even well-compacted neve. For some days there is little adhesion 
 between the upper and the under layer, and if the slope be steep the 
 disturbance caused by the pressure of a foot may easily produce an 
 avalanche capable of carrying away and burying an entire party. 
 Practical experience is needed to determine whether the ascent can be 
 safely attempted. Several fatal accidents that have occurred in the 
 numerous ascents of Mont Blanc should serve as warnings against 
 attempting an ascent when the snow is in this condition. 
 
 (3) The dangers arising from masses of ice or rock falling across the 
 track are at the moment beyond the skill of the traveller, but they may, 
 to a great extent, be avoided by a judicious choice of route. Ex- 
 perienced mountaineers learn to recognise the positions where ice 
 detached from a higher level descends over a precipice or steep slope of 
 rock. They either avoid such spots altogether, or are careful to pass 
 them either early in the morning, before the sun has loosened the im- 
 pending masses, or late in the day, after his rays have been withdrawn. 
 
 During bad weather the ordinary risks of Alpine travelling are much 
 increased, and serious dangers from other causes may assail the traveller. 
 Masses of rock are detached from their previously firm resting-places, 
 and come thundering down across the track. Falling snow obscures the 
 view and effaces the footprints, so that it becomes equally difficult to 
 advance or to retreat. Most formidable of all, the tourmentc, or snow 
 whirlwind — when the wind begins to blow in violent gusts — bewilders 
 the traveller, half blinded by the fine dust-like snow of the higher regions, 
 and benumbs his limbs with its biting breath if he be unable to keep op 
 rapid exercise. A reasonable man will not attempt expeditions in the 
 higher regions of the Alps during bad weather, and will resort to an 
 immediate retreat when unexpectedly attacked by it. Attention to the 
 bearings of the compass and to landmarks will in most cases enable 
 
xliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 travellers to retrace their steps. In attempting to traverse an unknown 
 glacier, it is prudent to gain a height overlooking the projected route, 
 and examine the surface carefully through a glass. 
 
 Very serious danger is incurred when inexperienced men take part in 
 difficult expeditions. 
 
 Of recent years mountaineering without guides has come into fashion, 
 and in some cases has been carried to an excess. Few (if any) amateurs, 
 having but five or six weeks at their disposal annually, can hope to 
 become as good all round as even a second-class professional glacier 
 guide. But to many amateurs there is a keen pleasure in overcoming 
 obstacles by their own unaided efforts, and nothing can be more justified 
 in the case of those qualified by .experience and physical capacities for 
 such feats. Solitary mountaineering in the High Alps is unreservedly 
 condemned by all competent judges. 
 
 Art. VIZI. — Guides and Porters. 
 
 The inducements to the natives to adopt the profession of guide have 
 constantly increased during the last half-century, in the same proportion 
 as the number of strangers annually resorting to the Alps. The large 
 majority of tourists do no more than follow a frequented path, where 
 one native of the district is as competent as another. The increased 
 desire to explore the less accessible parts of the Alps, and to undertake 
 difficult and dangerous expeditions, has led to a demand for the services 
 of a superior class of men, who possess in a high degree the special 
 qualities of the mountaineer. Although there is no recognised distinction 
 between the two classes, and the best guide, when not otherwise engaged, 
 is ready to carry a lady's shawl over the easiest Alpine pass, there is in 
 fact as wide a difference between them as between the most eminent and 
 the inferior men in any other profession. The practice of taking the 
 same guide throughout an entire tour, which has become very common 
 among Alpine travellers, has led to another distinction, better defined 
 than the last, between general and local guides. While the latter have 
 no pretension to go beyond the bounds of their own immediate district, 
 the others are men who have acquired a tolerably wide acquaintance 
 with many or even most parts of the Alps, who speak French and German, 
 and sometimes English, and have a sufficient knowledge of the dialects 
 used in different parts of the chain to serve as interpreters, and as useful 
 travelling servants. The men who unite the qualities of the mountaineer 
 with a wide range of local knowledge are naturally the most valuable to 
 the Alpine traveller, but their number is very limited. The best men are 
 usually engaged weeks, or months, beforehand, mainly by members of 
 the Alpine Club. An ordinary tourist has no occasion to seek for men 
 of this class, but he may find it an excellent plan to secure the services 
 of a steady respectable man who will accompany him throughout his 
 tour. 
 
 The early travellers in the Alps found that the natives most likely to 
 possess a knowledge of the mountains of their district, and therefore 
 most familiar with what was then largely a terra incognita, were the 
 
GUIDES AND PORTERS. \1\ 
 
 herdsmen and goatherds, the smugglers (if the district was near the 
 frontier), and particularly (if it was intended to make difficult ascents or 
 explorations) the local chamois hunters, though it did not prove that any 
 but a few of the men belonging to one or other of these classes were 
 really fitted to permanently become guides to strangers. Little by little 
 the more enterprising and bolder men in each district found that it was 
 profitable to devote themselves to guiding as a profession, especially as 
 the number of visitors to their valleys increased ; for there was thus a 
 chance of more or less constant employment during the summer, and so 
 of earning ready money, the stock of which in most Alpine valleys is 
 otherwise far from large. Soon it was found desirable to place the 
 members of this new profession under rules and regulations. At 
 Chamonix the first set of regulations dates back as far as 1821, but 
 ceased to have force in 1848, the later codes dating from 1851 and 
 especially 1856. The Bernese Oberland guides do not seem to have 
 been organised till 1856 (these regulations were modified in 1874), while 
 the Pontresina men did not form a society till 1861. Other districts 
 followed suit at a still more recent period, and it may now be said that, 
 with the exception of some very little frequented spots, the guides in 
 each district form a sort of corporation, with strict rules and regulations. 
 
 The system is best organised in Switzerland, where it is under the 
 control of the Cantonal {not communal) authorities, assisted by the Swiss 
 Alpine Club. In other districts matters are managed more or less ex- 
 clusively by the local branch of the national Alpine Society, which 
 issues licenses, &c, and exercises a general supervision over its men. 
 The following remarks refer mainly to the Swiss system (particularly 
 that of the Bernese Oberland), which is followed in its general outlines by 
 those of other Alpine lands. 
 
 In Switzerland any strong man, of good reputation and 18 years of age, 
 may apply for a license as ' porter : ' his pay (7-9 francs — including 
 food — per day of 8 hrs.) and other rights and obligations are very similar 
 to those of a ' guide, 5 save that he is bound to carry 50 pounds weight (the 
 guides only 20), while a ' porter' has no responsibility for the safety of the 
 party, being under the orders of the,guide, and practically occupying the 
 position of an apprentice. He cannot become a ■ guide ' till he has attained 
 the age of 20 years, and has successfully passed an examination in the 
 topography, &c, of his valley and Switzerland in general, and other 
 practical subjects, before a Commission appointed for that purpose in 
 each district. Then his responsibilities increase, and he becomes some- 
 thing more than a beast of burden. 
 
 Each porter or guide on being licensed receives (like every other 
 workman on the Continent) a book, containing the printed regulations 
 by which he is bound, &c, together with a number of blank leaves 
 whereon his employers enter their remarks and recommendations. Each 
 man, of whichever class, is bound to offer his book to his employer at the 
 beginning and at the end of his engagement, while it has to be inspected 
 by the licensing authority annually, when the license is renewed. In 
 many cases the records in these books, if carefully preserved, come in the 
 course of time to possess great interest, and even considerable historical 
 value. 
 
xlvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Where the guides and porters are numerous the Cantonal authorities 
 appoint a ' Chief Guide,' who is charged with the general supervision of 
 the men, and with settling the minor disputes that may arise between 
 them and their employers, though a serious complaint against a man 
 should be addressed to the Cantonal authorities, in the person of the 
 nearest ' Prefect. 5 Grave misconduct may be punished by fine or even 
 by withdrawal of the license, but such cases are luckily rare, and are 
 generally made known in the various Alpine periodicals. 
 
 Most of the Oberland guides, and some of those in other districts, 
 effect, with the aid of the Swiss Alpine Club, insurances on their lives 
 (mainly for the summer) against injuries received by them in the exercise 
 of their profession. (See an article by Pfarrer Strasser in vol. xxxi. of 
 the S.A.C. 'Jahrbuch'). 
 
 Though all guides are on the same legal footing, in practice there is 
 a great distinction between those who may be called ordinary guides 
 and those who are strictly glacier guides. 
 
 The ordinary guides are respectable men, ready and willing to show 
 the way, and to perform small services for their employers ; but, except 
 here and there, they confine themselves to the minor excursions, rarely 
 venturing beyond, say, the Mer de Glace at Chamonix, or the Grindelwald 
 Eismeer. They are generally engaged for a single excursion, though the 
 traveller may sometimes decide to take a pleasant-spoken man with him 
 for a few days. But, save in special cases, they are not acquainted with 
 anything beyond their own immediate district. 
 
 The glacier guides, on the other hand, are those who devote their 
 energies, save for a day or two now and then, to making high and difficult 
 mountain expeditions in any part of the Alps. This higher class of guide 
 possesses the strength and activity, combined with the courage, coolness, 
 and skill, that make the accomplished mountaineer, and is formed only by 
 the union of training and experience with the requisite natural faculties. 
 To a certain extent the raw material may be said to exist wherever 
 chamois-hunting is a favourite pursuit of the young and active men. But 
 this of itself does not suffice. The most skilful Pyrenean chasseur, 
 placed on the summit of the Straljlegg Pass, would probably be over- 
 powered with terror, and if unaided would be little likely to reach 
 Grindelwald or the Grimsel ; while many good Oberland guides might 
 hesitate before trusting themselves on the face of a dizzy limestone 
 precipice that is traversed with ease by the Aragonese cragsman with 
 his alpargatas (shoes with hempen soles). Active men and bold 
 climbers may now be found in most parts of the Alps, but it is mainly in 
 the Bernese Oberland and in the Vallais (for Chamonix has fallen 
 in this respect from its high estate) that the degree of experience and 
 skill requisite for contending with the difficulties of the snow and ice 
 region of the Alps is to be acquired. With a few brilliant exceptions, 
 however, the Vallais guides are inferior to their rivals of Grindelwald, 
 but these two sets may be classed together in point of icecraft and rock- 
 craft as against their comrades in other Alpine districts, E. and W., 
 who are often excellent cragsmen, but rarely know much (if anything) 
 about ice and snow. 
 
 A glacier guide is expected to carry a sack (though not a very heavy 
 
GUIDES AND PORTERS. xlvii 
 
 one), and to find himself in the articles requisite for his profession (such 
 as rope and ice axe). In strictness he is bound to feed himself out of his 
 pay, but save in Switzerland (where the prices for guides are very low) 
 it is usual for the employer to pay part or the whole of his guide's 
 ordinary hotel expenses. Of course, when food has to be carried up to 
 some Club hut far from an hotel, the traveller is bound to take sufficient 
 provisions, wood, &c, for his guides as well as for himself. 
 
 In pretty well every district of the Alps the sum to be paid for any 
 glacier ascent or pass is now fixed by an official printed tariff, which can 
 be seen in the inns of the district. The Swiss Alpine Club has just 
 rendered a very great service to mountaineers by collecting into two 
 small volumes, and to a certain extent in codifying, the fees due for all 
 the chief high expeditions in Switzerland (save in the Bernese Alps). 
 Of course a traveller who is content with the services rendered by his 
 guide after a few days, or it may be weeks, of companionship will add to 
 the sum legally due (including, if necessary, the 6 francs per day of 8 
 hrs. payable for the expense of the return to a man discharged at a dis- 
 tance from his home) a gratuity proportional to the work done. 
 
 While it may be said with truth that every glacier guide still on the 
 active list may be trusted to safely lead his employer on any of the 
 ordinary glacier expeditions, it is only a select minority which is capable 
 of achieving the more difficult peaks and passes. This class of men is, of 
 course, extremely limited in point of numbers (it has, indeed, been reckoned 
 that at present there are perhaps not more than 25 guides of the first 
 class in the whole range of the Alps), while such men are engaged long 
 in advance, often for year after year by the same mountaineer, so that 
 ordinary travellers have no chance of picking one up, unless by accident 
 between two engagements. In such cases of extended tours it is usual 
 that the pay should be settled not by the official tariff, but by some private 
 arrangement between the parties concerned. Sometimes it is agreed 
 that the guide shall receive so much per day (wet or fine), save when a 
 high expedition is made, when so much will be deducted from the tariff 
 for that climb, since it is evident that being sure of even some pay in 
 bad weather, it is to the interest of the guide to smooth matters for his 
 employer. Another plan is to promise a guide a lump sum down for 
 an engagement of so many weeks, the employer here taking the chance 
 of fine weather, health, &c, while the guide is bound to make as many 
 ascents in the given time as his employer's legs and the weather may 
 enable the party to achieve. Yet a third plan (in some ways the simplest 
 and fairest of all) is that the guide shall receive so much per day (wet 
 or fine), but that if a high pass is made he shall in lieu of his day's pay 
 receive a fixed sum, and if a high peak be climbed a still higher fixed 
 sum, always in lieu of the ordinary day's pay. 
 
 It often happens that a guide may travel with the same employer for a 
 series of years, and in many different districts of the Alps. In that case 
 a strong bond is formed between the two who have so often been in 
 danger and undergone exciting adventures together. This bond not 
 unfrequently gets stronger and stronger as years roll by, and it sometimes 
 becomes a lasting friendship between two men who, by being con- 
 stantly thrown together in moments of danger and anxiety, have their 
 
xlviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 good qualities brought out. No one who does not know it by personal 
 experience can form any idea of the devotion and loyalty displayed by the 
 picked men of this class towards travellers who treat them with proper 
 consideration and respect, so that a real affection springs up between 
 men who might be thought at first sight to have but little in common. 
 The writer of these lines (W. A. B. C.) can bear witness on this point, 
 as he has enjoyed the great privilege of having had different members of 
 the same family as his guides for the last thirty years. In his opinion 
 the nature of this tie has never been better set forth than in the following 
 sentences penned by a brilliant writer (Sir F. Pollock, Bart.) in memory 
 of an Oberlander who had been his faithful guide and companion for 
 several seasons : — 
 
 ' There are travellers to the Alps, I believe, who, having made one or 
 more excursions for which a guide is necessary, still regard their guide as a 
 sort of hired servant a little above the lowest degree. To such persons 
 these words are not addressed, for to them I should be speaking an 
 unknown language. But those will understand me who have known what 
 it is to share day after day the smiles or anger of the high air, and break 
 bread among the perennial snows, with a chosen faithful companion — 
 Oberlander, or Walliser, or Chamoniard ; nor these only, but all who have 
 learned the worth of true and simple manhood in times and places where 
 the refinements of our artificial life are of no account. Therefore it will 
 seem nothing strange to Englishmen of the right sort who use their eyes 
 and their limbs, whether they be Alpine climbers or not, that one should 
 not esteem lightly the loss of a valiant and courteous guide who will never 
 wield ice-axe more. These, I know, are the terms of old romance, 
 associated with pageants and great solemnities, and companies of stately 
 men and fair women. It may seem incongruous to apply them to people 
 who wear hob-nailed boots and clothes of the roughest homespun, and 
 talk in an uncouth highland dialect of German. But if valour and courtesy 
 are not the fitting words for the character of the best Swiss guides, I 
 know not what other to find. They are ever ready to perform what 
 they have undertaken, or at least carry the attempt to the uttermost of 
 man's power, not as the bare fulfilment of a bargain, but joyfully and as 
 an honourable achievement ; they are ever watchful not merely for the 
 safety of the travellers they have taken in their charge, but for their ease 
 and comfort in everything ; and all this they do as if it were pure pleasure 
 to them and the most natural thing in the world. 5 * 
 
 Art. XX. — Inns and Club Huts. 
 
 So much does the comfort of travellers depend upon the goodness or 
 badness of the accommodation found at inns, that it is not surprising if 
 they exact a degree of accuracy on this point from a guide-book that, from 
 the nature of the case, it is impossible fully to attain. Assuming that the 
 information at the Editor's disposal were always very recent, there is a great 
 degree of uncertainty about the impression left upon a passing traveller by 
 an inn where he remains for one or two nights. One traveller happens 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. x. p. 78. 
 
INNS AND CLUB HUTS. xlix 
 
 to arrive when the house is crowded, the larder ill-provided, and servants 
 and the master tired. He is ill-lodged, ill-fed, and ill-attended, and as a 
 natural consequence his report is highly unfavourable. A few days later 
 another traveller is lodged in the best rooms, finds abundant supplies, and 
 is treated with attention. The second report is, as it ought to be, entirely 
 different from the first. There are but a few hotels of the best class so well 
 arranged, and under such skilful and active management, as not to be 
 liable to such vicissitudes. In truth, however, the information obtainable 
 dates back at least several months, perhaps even two or three years, and 
 in that time very many changes can occur. The management of an inn, 
 especially a large one, requires constant activity and watchfulness on the 
 part of some one directly interested in its success ; and it constantly 
 happens that a change of management, or a mere relaxation of the inn- 
 keeper's activity, caused by over-prosperity or by engaging in other 
 pursuits, reduces an hotel from the first to an inferior rank. At the same 
 time new houses are every year opened in the frequented parts of the 
 Alps ; so that between the falling off of old and the rise of new inns it is 
 impossible to achieve invariable accuracy. Those who use this book will, 
 therefore, confer a favour on the Editor, and on future travellers, if they 
 will note down the inns at which they stop in the course of their tour, 
 with such observations as they consider due, and communicate the same 
 to him for use in a future edition. Such information is useful even in 
 respect to the most frequented places, whether the traveller's judgment 
 agree with that here expressed or not. 
 
 It is generally known that no country in Europe is so well provided 
 with inns as Switzerland. The hotels in the more frequented places 
 leave very little to be desired by the most fastidious, and in country 
 places they are much superior to similar establishments in our own 
 country. In the principal inns great attention is paid to the requirements 
 of English guests in every respect. There is always a late dinner as well 
 as a i o'clock lunch, while there is generally a resident English chaplain 
 during the summer, a small English church being often built close by the 
 inn. The smaller inns are, of course, more simple, but clean and good, 
 while the prices fall in proportion to their distance from frequented 
 tourist centres. Great improvements as regards inns have been made of 
 late years in the French and Italian Alps, though as a rule these are not 
 yet quite up to the Swiss standard. The smaller inns in the Tyrolese, 
 Lombard, and Venetian Alps are perhaps no longer so primitive and 
 unsophisticated as they formerly were, though, as in all other parts of the 
 Alps, exceptions may be found here and there. In the first edition of 
 this ' Introduction' Mr. Ball stated that he was in the habit of stopping in 
 remote villages and hamlets in the Lombard and Venetian Alps wherever 
 convenience dictated, without caring to make previous enquiry as to the 
 accommodation to be found there, and that he rarely failed to obtain 
 tolerable food and a clean bed. The present Editor (W. A. B. C.) has 
 long followed the same plan in all parts of the Western and Central Alps, 
 and his experience is similar to that of Mr. Ball. In a previous Arti< k 
 (Art. V., above) some remarks were made as to the prices of mountain 
 inns, whether for passers-by or for those remaining some days en pension. 
 It is only necessary to repeat here the warning there given that the appfe 
 
 c 
 
] INTRODUCTION. 
 
 rently excessive charges of high mountain inns should not be complained 
 of, since the expenses of transport (often of even water and wood) are 
 very great, and the season for which they are open (and that for the 
 benefit of a limited number of travellers and subject to all the chances 
 of the weather) is often extremely short. 
 
 In justice to themselves and the public, travellers should take the 
 trouble to look over their bills, and to point out for reduction any items 
 that appear unreasonable. Should a simple remonstrance fail, there is 
 generally no use in further resistance. The extortion must be gross 
 indeed that will not be sanctioned by the local authorities, should a 
 traveller lose time by resorting to them. There is but one effective threat 
 to which innkeepers are usually very susceptible — that of exposure in 
 English newspapers and guide-books, and this, in gross cases, should 
 always be enforced. Cases of shameless extortion are usually confined 
 to the meaner class of inns, or to those which have been opened expressly 
 for tourists on some Alpine route. No reasonable person will object to 
 pay somewhat more than the usual rate of accommodation at an inn set up 
 expressly for the convenience of a limited class, but it is well to make the 
 owners understand that by unreasonably high charges they defeat their 
 own object. 
 
 One of the chief matters which occupy the attention of the great Con- 
 tinental Alpine Clubs is the construction and maintenance of Club huts 
 in suitable spots on the way to the principal peaks and passes of their 
 respective districts. Formerly these were but rough shelters, but every 
 year sees a steady advance and improvement in this point, so that high 
 expeditions are very much facilitated thereby. 
 
 In the Swiss Alps the huts are not large or luxurious, but are generally 
 open, and nothing is charged for accommodation ; one of the guides in the 
 nearest Alpine centre is entrusted with the general care of the hut, while 
 the section of the Club to which it belongs sends annually a representative 
 to inspect and to report on the actual condition of the hut and its fittings. 
 In a few cases there is a man or woman resident during the summer, 
 who supplies provisions, wood, &c, at a fixed rate ; here and there wood 
 for fuel is placed in the hut, and may be used on a small payment, while 
 in one or two cases the hut (or part of it) is closed by means of a key. 
 
 The French and Italian Club huts are almost always locked, and the 
 key must be brought up either from the nearest village or by one of the 
 local guides ; the inconveniences of this practice are obvious, and it is to 
 be hoped that it will gradually give way to the plan usual in the Austrian 
 huts. Very many of these latter are really small (or even large) mountain 
 inns (with resident managers), having separate bedrooms, dining-rooms, 
 &c. In these cases a regular charge is made for staying a few hours or 
 sleeping there, members of any of the great Alpine Clubs generally 
 paying half-price. But in many other Austrian huts the door is secured 
 by a Club key. One of these Club keys may be purchased (on signing a 
 formal document) by any member of the Club to which the hut belongs, 
 and opens all the huts. This is a very convenient and practical method of 
 solving a real difficulty. Most of the Austrian huts (not being inns, i.e. 
 not 'bewirthschaftet') contain a stock of tinned provisions, wine, spirits, 
 &c, according to Dr. Pott's excellent system : these are packed in large 
 
INNS AND CLUB HUTS. li 
 
 baskets, and all a traveller has to do is to enter what he has taken on 
 one of the printed lists provided for that purpose and giving the price of 
 each article, and then (after signing it) to drop it with the sum due into 
 a box placed in the hut for the purpose. Recently in several huts in 
 the Austrian Alps the money in these boxes has been robbed, but the 
 abuse of an excellent system will not (it is to be hoped) lead to its 
 abolition, since by this plan of provisioning huts the necessity of de- 
 scending to the valleys between two expeditions is done away with. 
 A man appointed by the section owning it visits each of these huts 
 periodically in order to renew the stock of provisions and to empty the 
 money boxes. 
 
 The German and Austrian Alpine Club publishes annually a more or less 
 complete list of all the Club huts and small mountain inns in the Alps ; this 
 is very convenient, though the information as to the Western and Central 
 Alps is not always quite up to date. The same society issued in 1897 a 
 most useful map, showing precisely the exact position of every Club hut (to 
 whatever society it belongs) and small mountain inn in the Eastern Alps ; 
 by a system of elaborate signs it is possible to tell at once whether a 
 Club hut is inhabited by a manager during the summer, or whether it is 
 only ' provisioned, 5 or whether it is a mere shelter hut. 
 
 The Swiss Alpine Club published in 1896 a very handy and detailed 
 pamphlet (with map) describing each of its Club huts, mentioning what 
 expeditions may be made from it, &c, though unluckily without a minute 
 account of the path up from the nearest village. 'This booklet was 
 supplemented in 1898 by a set of views of all the Swiss Club huts, old 
 and new. The same Club also publishes in its monthly organ, ' Alpina, : 
 from time to time reports as to the precise actual condition of each of 
 its Club huts, a plan which cannot be too highly recommended for 
 adoption by other Alpine societies. 
 
 The Dauphine Societe" des Touristes also issues an account of all the 
 Club huts in that district, together with the tariff for the guides and 
 porters there (latest issue in 1896). 
 
 The French Alpine Club in 1898 put forth a short notice of its huts in 
 the Alps and in the Pyrenees. 
 
 But as far as the present writer (W. A. B. C.) is aware there is no 
 recent and full account of the Club huts of the Italian Alpine Club, the 
 list given in its ' Cronaca' (1888) being naturally rather out of date. 
 
 It would be an enormous practical advantage to mountaineers of all 
 nationalities if the great Clubs would combine to issue each spring a small 
 pamphlet, stating the exact state of each Club hut (for some are ruined, 
 more or less permanently, every winter), with a clear account of the route 
 thither (something like those in the later volumes of the * Climbers' 
 Guides'), for nothing is harder to ascertain than whether a hut still 
 exists, and if so, where it is situated precisely, and how to reach it. 
 Possibly, though this would almost be too good, in the course of time it 
 might be arranged that all locked Club huts should be made to open 
 with similar keys, due restrictions of course being placed on the sale of 
 such keys, as is now done by the German and Austrian Club. 
 
 c 2 
 
Hi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Art. X. — Life in an Alpine Valley.* 
 
 The traveller in the Alps who really takes an interest in the lands 
 through which he is making a holiday trip can scarcely fail to desire to 
 know more about their inhabitants than he can gain from those with 
 whom he comes into contact in what may be called their official capacity, 
 e.g. innkeepers, postal, railway, and diligence officials. At first he is apt 
 to believe that the inhabitants of Alpine lands have no other care or 
 occupation than attending to the wants of passing travellers. But 
 gradually he realises (especially if he visits his favourite haunts in winter) 
 that the state of things to which he is accustomed in summer is really 
 extraordinary and abnormal. This feverish period lasts but two or 
 three months in the year, while for the rest of the time the inhabitants 
 are living quite a different life, and that the life which they led all the 
 year round previous to the comparatively recent fashion on the part of 
 the dwellers in the plains of visiting the Alps in summer. Few travellers, 
 however, have either the leisure or opportunities for studying the home life 
 of the Alpine folk for themselves, while the abundant printed materials 
 on this subject are widely scattered, and are generally in a foreign 
 tongue. Hence the following outline sketch of the real conditions of life 
 prevailing among the Alpine folk may be welcome to some readers, for 
 whose convenience, should they care to fill up the scanty outline which 
 alone space allows us to give here, some of the more important printed 
 sources are indicated in the notes. But by far the best way of getting 
 information is by personal conversation with some of the natives, e.g. the 
 guides, often very intelligent men, who will be surprised and delighted 
 to find that their travellers consider them as something better than mere 
 path-finders, and who will readily describe their everyday life, amid 
 conditions very unlike those subsisting in the plains. 
 
 i. The question of origins is always fascinating, though the available 
 materials rarely allow of a final and definite solution of the problem. In 
 Article V. something was said of the distribution throughout the Alps of 
 the various races which represent either tribes that remained there 
 when others descended into the plains, or sometimes tribes that have 
 been driven up into the hills by the pressure of strangers coming from 
 distant lands, who either absorb or expel those whom they find in 
 possession of the lands they covet. But, to whatever race the inhabit- 
 ants of the Alps belong, the manner in which they occupied the Alpine 
 valleys seems to have been very similar. In the case of the lower 
 Alpine valleys it is a well ascertained fact that the early settlers took up 
 their abode on the slopes high above the valley stream, thus securing at 
 once pastures for their herds and flocks, wood for fuel and building, 
 much sunshine, and freedom from the evils of the marshy banks of the 
 
 * This Article is new and has been written by Mr. Coolidge, who, towards the end, has in- 
 cluded the substance of the page devoted by Mr. Ball (in the ' Climate and Vegetation ' article 
 of the old edition) to Chalet Life in the Alps. The present writer has kept chiefly in view the 
 German-speaking parts of Switzerland, which are both better known and better organised than 
 the Alpine districts of the French, Italian, or Tyrolese Alps. Many illustrations have been 
 drawn from the past and existing state of things in Grindelwald, as the residence of the author 
 in that valley enables him to command much local information as regards it. 
 
LIFE IN AN ALPINE VALLEY. iiii 
 
 stream : only little by little did the increasing population descend to the 
 river bank, and from sheer necessity clear away the reeds and brushwood, 
 and even undertake an elementary kind of drainage. In the upper 
 Alpine valleys, or the side valleys, the early settlers pushed along the 
 mountain slopes in the same fashion, above the often narrow and rocky 
 bed of the stream, thus avoiding too the swampy flats at the junction of 
 this stream with a mightier torrent, and finally occupied the pasture 
 hollow or basin at the upper end of the glen, immediately under the 
 great mountain peaks. In many cases doubtless the higher regions were 
 originally only inhabited in summer for purposes of pasture. Now and 
 then a few daring spirits or very poor men did not descend to the lower 
 regions in winter, and so little by little the upper regions became per- 
 manently inhabited, while summer pastures had to be sought still higher 
 up. It must, too, be always borne in mind that each of these early 
 settlers in the Alps (as now in the wilder parts of the earth) brought with 
 him his family, so that each little settlement was ' self-sufficing,' depend- 
 ing solely on its own exertions for obtaining food, fuel, clothing, and 
 other necessaries : each household would have its own meadows, 
 pastures, woods, &c, and but scanty communication with its neighbours, 
 who were perhaps many leagues distant. As the population increased 
 of course this complete isolation became a thing of the past, and rules 
 and regulations were adopted by common accord as to various weighty 
 points regarding pastures, forest, rotation of crops, &c. But it was only 
 very slowly that what originally were mere customs hardened into fixed 
 rules and regulations. Again, with increased population, and residence 
 all the year round in these high regions, came the necessity of having a 
 permanent chapel for common religious worship, and this became the 
 centre of the life of the valley : meetings to discuss common matters of 
 interest would be held after service on Sundays or holy days near or even 
 in the chapel, for at those times it was easiest to gather together 
 the scattered dwellers in the valley. In course of time the humble 
 chapel would be replaced by a more or less stately parish church, 
 which would be in an even greater degree the centre of the common life 
 of the community : thither they were bound to come for baptisms, 
 marriages, burials, &c. ; near by dwelt the priest, who represented edu- 
 cation and the outer world, and would be the natural adviser and coun- 
 sellor of his rustic parishioners ; and there would be the warning bell to 
 tell of sudden calamity, or to gather together the inhabitants in haste for 
 any urgent cause. But it was only at a comparatively late period that 
 buildings, other than the priest's house (in which was the school), and 
 the inn, clustered round the church or were erected in its neighbour- 
 hood. In short, the origin of Alpine villages is usually quite modern, 
 though from very early days the church stood on a knoll visible far and 
 wide, and was practically the nucleus of the future hamlet. Even now in 
 many Alpine valleys there is often no one considerable village, but many 
 more or less isolated homesteads, with perchance a few small hamlets ; 
 but the 'church town' (as they call it in Cornwall) is always the most 
 important of these hamlets (though by no means always the largest), for 
 it is the natural centre of the life of the inhabitants, and so bears par 
 eminence the name of the valley or commune of which it is, so to speak, 
 
liv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the tiny capital. The church hamlet may also have its own special 
 name, and travellers in the Alps soon discover (sometimes by painful 
 experience) that in a remote valley they must first ascertain where the 
 church hamlet is, and there they may be certain is the valley inn, not 
 unfrequently in former days kept by the priest or pasteur himself.* 
 
 The early history of Grindelwald illustrates most of the points indicated 
 above. By local tradition the earliest settlements were high above the 
 right bank of the Liitschine, and most probably the valley was first 
 visited for the sake of pasture in summer only. Various great lords 
 settled their serfs there in widely scattered homesteads, which only later 
 crept down towards the river bed (even now there are but few houses here), 
 while in the course of time these lords were gradually bought out by the 
 great house of Austin Canons at Interlaken. The original chapel of S. 
 Petronella, high up in a cave under the cliffs of the Eiger (the cave is still 
 shown), gave way to a wooden church (dedicated to our Lady of Inter- 
 laken), built and consecrated (c. 1146) on the present site by the diocesan, 
 the Bishop of Lausanne, this being replaced c. 11 80 by a stone church, 
 which subsisted till 1793. It was not till the suppression of the religious 
 house of Interlaken in 1528- 1532, at the time of the Bernese Reformation, 
 that the men of Grindelwald passed from the condition of serfs of the 
 convent to that of subjects of the ambitious and encroaching town of 
 Bern. The valley then, too, first became a separate parish, having 
 previously been only a chapelry of the religious house, and served by one 
 or other of the Canons. To this day the traveller can see for himself that 
 the population live in widely scattered homesteads, or in one or two 
 small hamlets (each bearing its own name). He will also soon discover 
 that there is only a valley of Grindelwald, but no village of that name, 
 the church hamlet, with its few houses, being properly known as ' Gydis- 
 dorf,' a name which is found in the documents relating to the valley as 
 early as 1275, while later we hear of a meeting of the men of the valley 
 held on i the hillock at Gydisdorf.' 
 
 2. The simplicity which, as we have seen, characterises the occupation 
 and gradual settlement of an Alpine valley is even nowadays maintained 
 in the daily manner of life of its inhabitants. Not much money circu- 
 lates, for, save those connected in some way with the reception, &c, of 
 foreign visitors, little money is to be found there, and most transactions 
 are made in kind. There are few industries in the mountain valleys, 
 except in such cases as the wood-carving industry at Brienz and in the 
 Grodenerthal. Each household is chiefly occupied in supplying its own 
 wants, though of course there are a few necessary artisans, such as 
 bakers, cobblers, blacksmiths, carpenters, and the like. It is cheaper 
 now to import corn from the lowlands than to grow it at considerable 
 heights (where, as at La Berarde, in the Dauphine Alps, the seed must 
 remain two winters in the earth, and yet the corn is cut while still but 
 half ripe), so that in such a valley there is not much arable land, and that 
 little mainly devoted to potatoes and other vegetables. Meat and wine 
 
 • On the origin of Alpine villages see Herr von Inama-Sternegg's excellent essay 'Die 
 Entwickelung der deutschen Alpendorfer,' in series v. vol. 4 of Riehl's Historisches Tascken- 
 buch (Leipzig, 1874), and also part 2 (and particularly the notes) of Prof. A. von Miaskowskfs 
 Die Ver/assung der Land; Alpen- und Forstwirthschaft d. deutschen Schiveiz (Basel, 1878). 
 
LIFE IN AN ALPINE VALLEY. lv 
 
 are rare luxuries in a mountain valley, though occasionally a pig may be 
 salted down, and half a bottle of wine drunk on some special occasion of 
 rejoicing. Spinning and weaving have almost disappeared, as cloth can 
 be purchased at low prices, and then made up at home. The young 
 and active men in many cases take naturally to hunting (especially 
 chamois-hunting), though more for pleasure than as a regular business. 
 But although such conditions of life may seem poor and cramped to towns- 
 men, the mountain dwellers lead a free and healthy life, having but few 
 wants, and those mainly supplied on the spot, though at the price of 
 much labour and fatigue. Of these wants food and wood are the 
 principal. The former want is satisfied by the milk, cheese, butter, &c, 
 all due to the cherished kine, and the latter (whether wood for fuel or for 
 house-building) by the forests which clothe the upper slopes of most moun- 
 tain valleys, though a few communities have recklessly sold their woods, 
 and now bitterly regret it. The care of the cattle and the procuring of wood 
 from the forests (especially in winter) thus constitute the greater part ot 
 the real life of the inhabitants of mountain valleys. It is thus practically 
 an exclusively pastoral one, so that the ownership and use of the land, 
 whether meadow, pasture, or forest, is the foundation on which rests the 
 welfare, and indeed the very existence, of an Alpine community. Hence 
 we find that as soon as the first colonising process is over fixed 
 arrangements must be made, by custom or by law, as to the land in any 
 particular valley. Private property, indeed, exists in the case of the 
 homestead, and perhaps a field or two, but the rest of the land in a 
 mountain valley is held as common property, not to be used at any man's 
 will, but subject to the rights of each man in this property belonging to 
 all and maintained for the common benefit according to strict customs 
 and rules. Hence we find that in each mountain valley there comes a 
 time when such customs or rules obtain force of law, which regulates the 
 use of the land owned in common. It is this common ownership of 
 land, subject to the rights of user on the part of each male inhabitant, 
 that constitutes the special characteristic institution of the Alpine folk, 
 the Commune or Gemeinde being the name given to the common owners, 
 each of whom is a burgher, and as such entitled to special rights of user. 
 All through the Middle Ages the Communes were purely pastoral asso- 
 ciations, resting on the regulated user of the common lands {Albnend, 
 originally written ' Allmeind,' and related to the word ' Gemeinde '). 
 The original settlers, and those who came soon after, were alone both 
 owners and users of the land, and in their Common Meetings settled all 
 matters relating to the common land in the valley and rights of user over 
 it. Hence, save in very rare cases, all the inhabitants were burghers, 
 and there were but few who came to live in the valley without being born 
 in it. The latter class was known as l Beisassen ' or * Hintersassen ' 
 (in English municipal history ' foreigners '), for though residents they 
 were not burghers. It was not till about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century that this class became important in point of numbers, partly 
 from easier means of travel, partly for other reasons. It was the neces- 
 sity of replacing the old system of Poor Relief by a new system which 
 completely altered the character of these pastoral associations. Formerly 
 it would rarely happen that any * burgher ' could, with his rights of user 
 
lvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of the common land, fall into great need and distress, save in the case 
 of illness and old age, when the alms of the faithful in the valley sufficed 
 to support a brother in need. But when at the time of the Reformation, 
 in the Alpine districts as elsewhere, the increasing number of ' residents ' 
 taxed that charity heavily, a special provision had to be made (in 
 Switzerland it is dated 1 55 1) by which each Commune was bound to 
 support, in case of need, not merely its full members, but also those who 
 were merely 'residents.' Hence for the first time there arose a dis- 
 tinction, which gradually became more and more important, between the 
 old ' Burgergemeinden ' (or associations of full ' burghers ') * and the 
 new ' Einwohnergemeinden ' (or the communes consisting of all residents 
 in the valley, whether burghers or not). The former were exclusively 
 pastoral ; the latter became more and more political, and it is obvious 
 that great difficulties would arise as to the sources whence to procure 
 funds to meet these new calls, whether by imposing rates or by accumu- 
 lating funds for the special purposes of poor relief. The story is long 
 and complicated, and here it need only be said that in the Swiss Alps 
 the two kinds of Communes still subsist side by side, save in glens {e.g. 
 Grindelwald) where there are practically only 4 burghers,' or where the 
 1 burghers ' have more or less freely made over all or part of their 
 common property to the new political associations. Yet both kinds of 
 Communes have one very important feature in common — that Swiss 
 citizenship, or even Cantonal citizenship, can only be obtained by a person 
 who has previously become, whether by purchase or in any other manner, 
 a member of a Commune. The Commune is the unit out of which first 
 the Canton, and then the Swiss Confederation itself, has been built up. 
 And the Commune in its original sense is simply the association of the 
 inhabitants of a valley, based on the common ownership of land, which 
 is subject to certain well defined rights of user on the part of each of the 
 male burghers of full age. This pastoral community is thus the basis of 
 the institutions by which the Alpine folk have been ruled in the past, and 
 are still ruled in the present. Its importance, therefore, in considering 
 their manner of life cannot be over-estimated, t 
 
 Space does not allow us to illustrate the above sketch by even a brief 
 notice of the development of the Commune in the valley of Grindelwald, 
 though existing documents allow us to form a very fair idea of the course 
 of events. It may, however, be stated that while the valley (which 
 technically includes the hamlet of Burglauenen, the first railway station 
 on the way down towards Interlaken) forms a single 'Einwohner- 
 gemeinde ' from a political, ecclesiastical, and educational point of view, 
 
 * An exact parallel to these ' Burgergemeinden ' still exists in Oxford, where the ' freemen ' 
 of the city (i.e. the ' burghers ') still have the right of pasturing their cattle on the common pas- 
 ture ground known as ' Port Meadow.' 
 
 f The clearest account of this very intricate subject that is known to the present writer is 
 contained in Professor A. von Orelli's admirable work Das Staatsrecht der schweizerischen 
 Eidgenossenschaft (Freiburg i. B., 1885), p. 121 sqq. Those who desire to go more deeply into 
 the subject may consult for the history of the development of the Communes Prof. F. von 
 Wyss's elaborate e«say entitled ' Die schweizerischen Landgemeinden in ihrer historischen 
 \ ntwickelung,' in his Abhandlungen zur Geschichte des schweizerischen qffentlichen Rechts 
 (Zurich, 1892), while for the actual state of the Communes in different Cantons the student 
 should refer to vol. ii. (Zurich, 1873) of Max Wirth's Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik de? 
 Schweiz. 
 
LIFE IN AN ALPINE VALLEY. lvii 
 
 yet it is composed of no fewer than seven Communes from the point of 
 view of the common pastures, of which we must now speak. 
 
 3. The Alps or Common Pastures. — Stress has been laid in the pre- 
 ceding remarks on the position of an inhabitant of a Swiss mountain 
 valley, as member of a sort of corporation with common lands, subject to 
 certain limited though well defined rights of user. But though it may be 
 said generally that this membership is of vital importance to a peasant, 
 yet it should never be forgotten that private property also prevails to a 
 considerable extent. A fairly well to do Swiss peasant {e.g. in the valley 
 of Grindelwald) is therefore the owner of two different sets of rights : — 
 
 i. Private Property. — This includes, or may include, three items — 
 
 (a) The Homestead, i.e. the dwelling-house, with the land (arable or 
 meadow) surrounding it, this, of course, varying in extent and in value. 
 
 (b) A ' Vorsass ' (' Maiensass,' ' Mayen,' or ' Voralp '), i.e. a plot 
 (larger or smaller, as the case may be) of land on the lower mountain 
 slopes immediately above the village, or the scattered homesteads of 
 which the valley is made up ; this land may be used at the free will of the 
 owner for arable purposes {e.g. potatoes), or as pastures for the cattle in 
 spring or autumn, or as meadow land, the hay being cut and stored for 
 the use of the owner's cattle in the winter. A house, with one or more 
 dwelling-rooms, is usually found on each * Vorsass.' 
 
 In the case of both items the owner has the fullest rights of private 
 ownership as to the use he may choose to make of any part of his land, 
 rotation of crops, &c. Naturally these bits of land first received special 
 names, so that in the valley of Grindelwald we hear already in 1146 of 
 * Schonegg ' (N. of the parish church, and the former home of the famous 
 guide Christian Aimer), while the still surviving name of 'auf der 
 Herrschaft' (applied to certain lands with houses at the N.W. end of the 
 valley) recalls the former owners, the lords of the castle of Unspunnen, 
 near Interlaken, who in 1432 parted with them (and also with the ' Buss 
 Alp' above) to the Canons of Interlaken. In fact the number of local 
 names in the valley of Grindelwald which are preserved in old documents, 
 and are still in daily use, is quite extraordinary when one considers that 
 the valley is of no very great size, and is and always has been an Alpine 
 valley. 
 
 (c) A bit oi forest, as to which the owner is tied down by various regu- 
 lations, intended to prevent undue thinning and felling in general, though 
 (as in the case of communal forests) these regulations are generally of 
 recent date. 
 
 ii. Rights of User over Land held in Common. — It is a matter of no 
 surprise to find that very early indeed, if not from the time of the first 
 colonists, the bits of land in our Alpine valley best suited for use as 
 arable or meadow land passed into private ownership, originally, no 
 doubt, that of some great religious house or feudal lord, and late 
 feudalism dissolved, that of the former serfs, who stepped into the 
 position of their late feudal superiors. But the mountain pastures to a 
 very large extent (and the forests also in some degree) remained in the 
 possession of the Commune, subject to the rights of user to which 1 
 member of that commune was entitled. These mountain pastures are in 
 Switzerland called 'Alps,' and we must now proceed to give pom* 
 
lviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 account of them, reminding our readers of the immense importance of 
 these ' Alps ' to the Alpine folk, who are, as shown above, pre-eminently 
 a pastoral race.* 
 
 It seems most convenient to treat this subject (which is but little 
 known to the generality of English travellers) under three heads — 
 
 What is meant precisely by an ' Alp? 
 
 Who are entitled to rights of user on an ' Alp? 
 
 What is the manner of life on a?i ' Alp? 
 
 (a) What is an ''Alp? — An 'Alp 5 may be generally described as 'a 
 mountain pasture, specially fitted for pasturing cows in milk,' so that 
 cheese can be made on the spot (there are also special ' Alpen ' for 
 heifers, sheep, and goats). This is the original meaning of the word, 
 which is now frequently used also of the lofty peaks that overhang the 
 mountain pastures. The term used in the Tyrol is ' Aim,' which some 
 consider a shortened form of 'Allmend' (common land), though it is 
 probably but a mutilated form of ' Alp.' f 
 
 It is obvious that • alps ' in this sense are of immemorial antiquity. 
 In 739 Abbo by his will gave his * alpes in Cenisio ' to the monastery of 
 Novalesa, which he had founded in 726.J In the Appenzell Inner Rhoden 
 vol. (Soleure, 1899) °f tne ' Schweizerische Alpstatistik ' (p. 1) it is stated 
 that the Sambtiser alp, on the Santis, was given by its owner to the 
 great abbey of St. Gallen as early as 868, while in the charter of founda- 
 tion (dated 1061) of the parish church of Appenzell the Megglis alp, 
 
 * In the following remarks we have mainly in view the ' Alps ' of the German-speaking parts 
 of the Swiss Alps ; comparatively little has been published or is known as to those of the 
 ' Suisse Romande' (which is, too, largely non-Alpine), that little agreeing in its main lines with the 
 system prevailing in the German-speaking districts. In the French, South Swiss, and Italian Alps 
 the pastures, unless (as in the Tarentaise) managed by Swiss herdsmen on Swiss principles, are in 
 a very bad and backward state, largely owing to the almost incredible ravages committed (as in 
 the Dauphine Alps, Ticino, Graubiinden) by the sheep from the plains of Provence or the Ber- 
 gamasca, to whose owners these pastures are often let. As to the French Alps and their present 
 generally wretched condition, M. Briot's Etudes s?tr I Economic Aipestrc (Nancy, 1896) supplies 
 much authentic information. In the Tyrolese Alps the pastures are as a rule badly managed 
 and little cared for : see on these in particular the work by Dr. Martin Wilckens entitled Die 
 Aipemvirthschaft der Schweiz, des Algdus und der tvestosterreichischen Alpenldnder (Vienna, 
 1874). 
 
 Amid the multitude of excellent works relating to the \ Alps ' of German-speaking Switzer- 
 land the most recent and most comprehensive is that (nearly 1,000 pages) by Prof. Felix Anderegg, 
 Illustriertes Lehrbuch fur die gesamte schweizerische AlpwirthschaJ r t (3 parts, Bern, 1897-8). 
 For statistics (which are, however, not unfrequently corrected by Prof. Anderegg's book) the 
 official work, Die Alpenwirthschaft der Schweiz im Jahre 1864 (Bern, 1868), must be consulted. 
 In the series called ' Schweizerische Alpstatistik ' (Solothurn) a set of monographs on the 
 ' Alps' of the Swiss cantons is being published — rural Basel, Solothurn, St. Gallen, Nidwalden, 
 Uri, Glarus, Schwyz, and Appenzell Inner Rhoden have as yet been treated. The history is 
 best set forth in two books by Prof. A. von Miaskowski, Die schweizerische Allmend in 
 ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1879), and Die Verfassung der Land-, Alfien- 
 und Forstwirthschaft der deutschen Schweiz (Basel, 1878). Many technical details may be 
 found in Dr. Schatzmann's Alpwirthschaftliche Volksschriften (new edition, 2 vols., 1887), and 
 the same writer's article ' Alpwirthschaft ' in vol. i. of Furrer's Volkswirthschafts-Lexikon der 
 Schweiz (Bern, 1885). More general accounts are given in Berlepsch's Die A Ipen and Schwei- 
 zerkunde. The history of the 'Alps' in the valley of Grindelwald must be worked out from the 
 documents (down to 1353) in the Fontes Rerum Bernensium (8 vols., Bern, 1883-1893), and in 
 the muniments of the Austin house of Interlaken (calendar published by Fr. Stettler in 1849 at 
 Coire in vol. ii. of the Regesten der Archive der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft), while 
 many local details are contained in the periodical called Der Gletschermann, which Herr 
 Strasser (the pastor of Grindelwald) put forth at Grindelwald in 1888-1890. 
 
 f Schweizerisches /diotikon, vol. i. p. 190 ; Jahrbuch des osterr. Atyenvereins, 1866, p. 
 403, 1867, p. 374 ; Zeitschrift of the same society, 1873, P- I 3°- 
 
 X See Vaccarone's Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali, p. 29, and Menabrea, Des Origines FSodales 
 dans les Alpes Occidentales, p. 107. 
 
LIFE IN AN ALPINE VALLEY. lix 
 
 higher up the same peak, is mentioned, as well as several other ' alps.' 
 The first distinct mention of lofty ' alps ! that the present writer has come 
 across dates from the year 999, when the Archbishop of Milan (as 
 trustee for the church of Brebia, in the Val d'Ossola) exchanged certain 
 lands, &c, with the monastery of San Salvatore, at Arona : among the 
 lands received by the monastery are four ' alpicellae,' situated at the head 
 of the Val Anzasca, two of which bear the familiar names of Macugnaga 
 and Rofel.* Thus even over 900 years ago ' alps ' existed. In the valley 
 of Grindelwald the first distinct mention of an * alp ' as such is that of the 
 Scheidegg Alp in 1238/j" 
 
 No doubt originally, when there were few cows as compared with the 
 extent of available mountain pasture, the right of grazing was unlimited 
 and unfettered by any regulations, but as the population, and therefore 
 the number of cows, increased, it became necessary to make regulations. 
 Hence there arose a rather complicated system, which is found in full 
 vigour in the fourteenth century, and is no doubt considerably older. In 
 its main outlines it was that which still obtains. Its leading principle was 
 that only cows that had wintered in that particular valley should be 
 allowed to graze in summer on the ' alps ' of that valley, a regulation 
 obviously designed to limit the enjoyment of the ' alps ' to the cows of 
 the burghers, to the exclusion of ' foreign cattle.' Within the valley 
 there was also a restriction introduced which was intended to prevent the 
 over-use of the 'alps,' which might thereby become exhausted in point 
 of fertility. This restriction consisted in limiting the number of the cows, 
 even of the burghers, which could be pastured on each 'alp.' Each 
 ' alp ' was thus divided into ' Kuhstosse,' i.e. cow-shares, each share 
 being a plot of ground which would suffice for the maintenance of one 
 cow during the summer. These shares were carefully recorded in the 
 'Alp Register' ('Seybuch,' 'Alpbuch,' or ' Alpenrodel'), and in view 
 of the overwhelming importance of the pastures for the inhabitants it was 
 each man's natural interest to keep a sharp look-out on his neighbour, so 
 as to make sure that he did not transgress these regulations. Alienation 
 of these shares in any way to non-burghers was prohibited under 
 stringent penalties. The first 'Alp Regulations' in the valley of 
 Grindelwald (for the six alps of the monastery — as the Buss Alp was not 
 purchased by the monastery of Interlaken till 1432 — and the ' Gletscher 
 Alp,' or Zasenberg) date from 1404, and contain the provision as to the 
 wintering of the cattle which can be sent up to the ' alp,' each burgher 
 being allowed to send his cows only to that 'alp' on which he had 
 rights owing to his possession of a particular bit of land in th< 
 valley (see also under ^, below). Both provisions are found in the 
 existing 'Regulations' of 1883. Already in 1404 there were seven 
 ' Alpen,' and now, therefore, ' Alp Communes,' in the valley of Grindelwald 
 —Scheidegg (Grosse S., of course), Grindel, Holzmatten, Bach, and Buss, 
 all on the N. slope of the valley, while Itramen is on the way up to the 
 Mannlichen, and Wargisthal on the way up to the Wengern Alp. (1 he 
 Wengern Alp belongs to the commune of Lauterbrunnen, is mentioned 
 as early as 1268, and in 1318 passed into the possession of the monastery- 
 
 • See Bianchettis U Ossoia Inferiore, i. p. 97 and ii. p. as- 
 t Fontes Rerum Bernensium, it. p. 176 
 
lx 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of Interlaken. The Canons too from 1335 onwards acquired bit by bit 
 all the ' Kuhrechte ' on the ' alp ' of Miirren). 
 
 It may interest our readers to learn that those who have rights of user 
 on an ' alp ' may send thither other animals instead of cows, the pro- 
 portion being thus reckoned (at Grindelwald) to one cow or « Kuhstoss : ' 
 2 heifers, 3 calves or sheep, 4 pigs, or 8 goats. As to horses, the regu- 
 lations of the different 'alps 5 vary. The sheep and goats go to the 
 highest pastures, whither heavy cows cannot climb ; the pigs remain with 
 the cows, and the heifers have 'alps 5 to themselves. 
 
 The following tables may be of interest to our readers ; the first is 
 taken from Professor Anderegg's book (pp. 135 and 661), that corrects 
 the ' Alpwirthschaft ' in 1864, from which the other special tables are 
 extracted.* 
 
 I. The 'Alps' in the Swiss Mountain Cantons. 
 
 Canton 
 
 No. of 
 
 ' Alps ' 
 
 No. of 
 ' KuhstSsse ' 
 
 Capital Value of the ! 
 • Alps ' 
 
 I. Bern .... 
 
 836 
 
 (597) 
 
 39,965 
 
 12,707,000 frcs. 
 
 2. Grisons .... 
 
 646 
 
 (596) 
 
 63,317 
 
 7,429,000 
 
 3. Tessin .... 
 
 435 
 
 (400) 
 
 24,473 
 
 2,218,000 
 
 4. Vallais .... 
 
 422 
 
 (272) 
 
 20,171 
 
 4,431,000 
 
 5. Vaud .... 
 
 409 
 
 (385) 
 
 23,005 
 
 9,816,000 
 
 6. Obwalden 
 
 281 
 
 (202) 
 
 8,534 
 
 3,537,5oo 
 
 7. St. Gallen . 
 
 274 
 
 (234) 
 
 24,907 
 
 7,809,600 
 
 8. Neuchatel 
 
 245 
 
 (776) 
 
 7,382 
 
 3,675,000 
 
 9. Lucerne 
 
 214 
 
 (176) 
 
 6,258 
 
 3,815,000 
 
 10. Schwyz .... 
 
 208 
 
 (177) 
 
 12,945 
 
 6,968,000 
 
 11. Freiburg 
 
 192 
 
 (178) 
 
 9,901 
 
 6,520,000 
 
 12. Appenzell (Inn. Rhod.) . 
 
 124 
 
 (112) 
 
 3,282 
 
 768,800 
 
 13. Glarus .... 
 
 102 
 
 (90) 
 
 8,813 
 
 5,202,000 
 
 14. Nidwalden 
 
 99 
 
 (81) 
 
 4,436 
 
 1,821,600 
 
 15. Appenzell (Auss. Rhod.) 
 
 93 
 
 (93) 
 
 1,832 
 
 827,700 
 
 16. Uri 
 
 89 
 
 (81) 
 
 8,527 
 
 2,187,200 
 
 17. Solothurn 
 
 68 
 
 (68) 
 
 1,632 
 
 836,400 
 
 18. Basel (rural) . 
 
 38 
 
 (38) 
 
 889 
 
 629,800 
 
 19. Zug .... 
 
 3 
 
 (3) 
 
 120 
 
 144,300 
 
 
 4,778 (4,559) 
 
 270,389 
 
 81,573,300 
 
 * Prof. Anderegg adopts a different reckoning of ' Alps " from that of the 1864 Alpenwirth- 
 sckaft, so that the numbers in the latter are given in brackets in col. 1. There are, therefore, 
 some discrepancies, partly owing also to omissions in the 1864 book ; the greatest is the case of 
 Neuchatel, in which the 1864 book counts the shares of individual users, instead of (as Prof. 
 Anderegg) the actual number of independent ' alps.' The Schweizerische Alpstatistik furnishes 
 more local corrections for the cantons that have as yet been described in that series ; e.g. Uri 
 (5,036,400 frcs. capital value) has 10,354 ' Kuhstosse,' divided among 102 'alps:' Nidwalden 
 (3,673,025 frcs.), 5,207 on 166 'alps ;' Glarus (6,159,280 frcs.), 8,054 on 87 ; St. Gallen (13,986,700 
 frcs.), 21,744 on 304 ; Solothurn (2,395,215 frcs.), 4,179 on 209 ; rural Basel (690,620 frcs.), 1,026 on 
 60 ; Schwyz (11,280,000 frcs.), 17,492 on 417 ; and Appenzell Inner Rhoden (2,682,955 frcs.), 4,008 
 on 168. Unluckily Prof. Anderegg does not give the number of ' Kuhstosse' per canton, so that 
 the 1864 number is given in col. 2, but he reckons (p. 665) that the actual total of ' Kuhstosse ' 
 ifnow 318,792, an increase of 48,403 on the census of 1864. The capital value (in col. 3) is 
 taken from Prof. Anderegg, the total amount of that of 1864 being 77,186,103 frcs. 
 
LIFE IN AN ALPINE VALLEY. 
 
 lxi 
 
 II. Some well known Swiss 'Alp Communes.' 
 
 Name No. of ' Alps ' No. of ■ Kuhstosse ' I Capital Value 
 
 Grindelwald 
 
 Lauterbrunnen . 
 
 Meiringen 
 
 Zermatt 
 
 Saas .... 
 
 Pontresina 
 
 7 2,176 
 
 6 1,093 
 
 5 742 
 
 7 483 
 
 6 647 
 
 7 4i5 
 
 352,512 frcs. 
 
 165,650 
 
 123,665 
 
 24,429 
 
 30,192 
 
 55,195 
 
 III. Some well known Swiss 'Alps.' 
 
 Name Name of Owner 
 
 No. of \ Kuhstosse ' 
 
 Grindelwald : — 
 
 
 Grindel . . . . | Same Alp commune 
 
 475 
 
 Bussalp . 
 Scheidegg 
 Itramen . 
 
 
 
 1 ,, 
 
 43o 
 360 
 346 
 
 Bachalp . 
 Wargisthal 
 Holzmatten 
 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 260 
 205 
 100 
 
 Wengernalp . 
 Engstlenalp . 
 Belalp . 
 Fee 
 
 
 
 
 Lauterbrunnen 
 Innertkirchen 
 Mund 
 Fee 
 
 300 
 
 449i 
 45i 
 461 
 
 As the result of old quarrels, and probably deeds of violence, some of 
 the Swiss 'alps' extend beyond what might seem to be their natural 
 limits — e.g. Scheidegg (Grindelwald) extends across the Gr. Scheidegg 
 nearly to where the Schwarzwald inn now stands, while the Blackenalp 
 (near Engelberg) belongs (since the thirteenth century) to Attinghausen, 
 near Altdorf (Uri), on the other side of the Surenen Pass, and the 
 Ennetmarchtalp, on the Urnerboden (since at least the twelfth century), 
 to Spiringen, in the Schachenthal, above Altdorf, though on the other 
 side of the Klausen Pass. The last named alp is said to be the most 
 considerable in Switzerland, having a summer population of 350 souls, 
 1,300 ' Kuhstosse' and 154 milk huts (besides 145 stables and 30 cheese 
 storehouses), while its capital value is put at about a million francs. It 
 would, no doubt, be possible and very interesting to trace out from old 
 documents these gradual encroachments, which introduce quaint varia- 
 tions into the geography of some of the Cantons. 
 
 (6) Who are Entitled to Rights of User on an l Alp* — From what has 
 been said previously it will be clear to the reader that neither i residents ' 
 in an Alp Commune nor foreigners (unless in either case by virtue of a 
 lease) can have any rights over the ' alps ' in that Alpine valley. Those 
 rights are strictly limited to the * burghers. 5 Hut here comes in a 
 
lxii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 difference, for these rights can be enjoyed by the burghers in one of two 
 capacities — 
 
 (i) As Owner of a Particular Bit of Land.— I.e. the right of pasture 
 (' Kuhrecht 5 for one, two, or more cows) is annexed to the possession of 
 a plot of land in the valley, and cannot be alienated from it. The rights 
 here are ' real,' and thus belong not to each burgher as such, but to a 
 burgher who happens to possess one of the bits of land (of course care- 
 fully registered in an official book) to which are annexed one or more 
 ' Kuhrechte.' 
 
 This is the system which obtains (and existed already in 1404) in the 
 valley of Grindelwald, so that of course the value of a piece of land there 
 depends on how many, if any, cow-rights are annexed to it. 
 
 (2) As Burgher of that Particular Alp Commune or ' Alftgemeinde? — 
 I.e. each male burgher of full age has the right of pasturing his cows (as far 
 as the 'alp 5 will suffice) on that particular 'alp 5 which belongs to his 
 own Commune. 
 
 These rights are thus 'personal, 5 e.g. at Hasleberg and in the 
 Emmenthal. 
 
 Hitherto under this head we have spoken only of ' alps 5 which belong 
 to Communes, since these alone are of importance for the purpose of 
 this paper ; but there are very many ' alps 5 in Switzerland which belong 
 either to private individuals exclusively, to the State or to monasteries, 
 or to ancient corporations .existing within a Commune. The following 
 table (extracted from Professor Anderegg 5 s book, pp. 660 and 665) will 
 show the exact state of things as regards the 4,778 'alps 5 in Switzerland : — 
 
 
 ' Kuhstosse ' 
 
 Capital Value 
 
 1. Owned by Communes, 1,577 (33 p. c.) . 
 
 2. Owned by Communes and individuals 
 
 jointly, 95 (2 p.c.) 
 
 3. Owned by Communes and ' corporations ' 
 
 jointly, 478 (10 p.c.)' 
 
 4. Owned solely by individuals, 2,580 (54 
 
 p.c.) 
 
 5. Owned by State or monasteries, 48 ( 1 p.c. ) 
 
 105,201 
 6,376 
 
 31,879 
 172,146 
 
 3,190 
 
 26,918, 169 frcs. 
 1,631,466 
 
 8,157,330 
 
 44,783,762 
 
 8i,573 
 
 If we refer to Tables II. and III., above, the following is the state of 
 things with regard to the special ' alps 5 there mentioned. All are owned 
 by Communes, save the Meiringen 'alps 5 (in the hand of 'corporations 5 ), 
 and the Engstlen Alp (joint ownership of Commune and individuals). 
 Of the ' alps 5 which belong exclusively to individuals a well known 
 instance is that of the Stein Alp, in the Gadmen valley, which belongs 
 (like the best house — now the inn, — the mill, and the best land) to the 
 heiress of the old lords, the Von Weissenfluh family, so that travellers 
 will there discover the lady of the manor in their obliging hostess. 
 The great monastery of Einsiedeln still owns several 'alps, 5 while the 
 wide Sand Alp, under the Todi, belongs half to some Linththal men and 
 half to the Commune of Betschwanden. 
 
LIFE IN AN ALPINE VALLEY. lxiii 
 
 Even where there is no proper ' alp ' there are often scanty pastures 
 {e.g. on high slopes of the Wetterhorn and the Mettenberg), and these may 
 be visited by any one, and the grass cut by the first comer. This is what 
 is called 'Wildheu' (wild hay), and stirring tales are told of the dangers 
 and perils to which a poor burgher may be exposed if he has no 
 ' Kuhrechte' of his own, and so depends entirely on 'Wildheu.' 
 
 (c) What is the manner of Life on an ' Alp.' — Subject to the general 
 regulations prevailing for the ' alps ' in any particular Swiss valley, the 
 owners of any of these ' alps ' {i.e. the members of the ' Alp ' Commune) 
 have a right to determine various minor details. A day (varying according 
 to the more or less advanced season) is fixed by them on which (but not 
 before which) the cows may be driven up to the 'Alps/ this being called 
 the 'Alpfahrt.' The cows may be separately driven up, but many go 
 together with the men who are to take charge of them during the summer, 
 and who have been previously busy in transporting to the lowest huts on 
 the 'alp' the great kettles, &c, required for cheese-making. The cows, 
 after their long winter imprisonment in their stables in the valley, are 
 frantic with joy at regaining their freedom and liberty of eating as much 
 fresh grass as they desire, though in the spring they have in many cases 
 had a foretaste of these joys on the * Vorsassen ' belonging to their several 
 owners. 
 
 The 'Alpfahrt 5 takes place usually in the first half of June, and the 
 average time during which the cows are on the * alp ' each summer may 
 be reckoned at about ioo days. But, of course, an early autumn may 
 drive them down sooner. By the end of September at latest they are all 
 on the 'Vorsassen' again, and there in some cases they spend the winter 
 (in stables), instead of being brought down to the valley ; but in that 
 case milk porters descend daily to the homestead. 
 
 On each 'alp' there are always at least two sets of huts, sometimes 
 three (on the Scheidegg Alp, in the Grindelwald valley, there are no less 
 than five), from one to another of which the cattle and their attendants 
 shift as the grass is gradually consumed. A fortnight or three weeks 
 are spent at the highest huts, and then a second halt made at the middle 
 and at the lowest huts, so as to profit by the new-grown grass. These 
 successive tiers of pasture are known as ' Staffel ' or ' Lager,' and are 
 distinguished by the epithets of ' Unter,' ' Mittel,' and 'Ober.' (The 
 French equivalents are, 'd'en bas,' 'du milieu,' and 'd'en haut,' while 'di 
 sotto,' 'di mezzo,' and 'di sopra' are the Italian terms.) The goats 
 and sheep are sent up to the very highest Alpine pastures, whither cows 
 cannot mount ; sometimes, indeed, the sheep and goats have remote 
 pastures of their own, such as those near the Gleckstein, on the Wetter- 
 horn, and on the Zasenberg, beyond the Eismeer, at Grindelwald. (The 
 latter alp, the ' Gletscher Alp,' was grazed in 1898 by small Vallais cows, 
 who are said to have thriven exceedingly, but is said never to have 
 been used by cows previously.) The huts which form the summer 
 hamlets on an 'alp' are properly known as 'chalets,' this word having 
 only in recent times been applied also to the dwelling-houses in the 
 valley. But it cannot be too carefully borne in mind that every hut on 
 an 'alp' is not a 'milk 5 hut, for near the milk huts are other huts, in 
 which the cheeses are stored, while here and there, especially on the 
 
lxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 lower slopes (and very often on the * Vorsassen '), there are huts used for 
 storing hay. 
 
 In a milk chalet the chief man is the 'Senn' or ' fruitier, 5 who is in 
 charge of all the milking, cheese-making, &c, arrangements. He is a 
 very important personage in his way, and the same man often spends 
 thirty or forty summers or more on perhaps the same ' alp.' A general 
 superintendence is, however, exercised by two officials on each ' alp,' 
 who are called 'Pfander' (the name occurs already in 1404) at Grindel- 
 wald. As (we give the usual arrangements at Grindelwald) several cow- 
 owners join together in employing the same ' Senn,' it is obvious that 
 considerable difficulties might arise as to the amount of milk actually 
 drawn from each cow, and consequently the precise amount of cheese 
 due at the end of the season to each cow-owner. Hence twice a year, 
 once soon after the ' Alpfahrt ' and again in August, it is usual for each 
 cow-owner (or his representative) on one evening to milk some one else's 
 cow, in order to prevent any cheating by not fully milking the cow. The 
 amount of milk given by each cow (the owner then milking) in the 
 morning and evening of the next day (' Messtag') is added together, and 
 the mean taken for the day. This operation is repeated in autumn, and 
 the two means are added together, so as to arrive at the definitive mean. 
 As this is done in the case of each cow it is easy to calculate in the case 
 of the owner of several cows how much cheese is due to him at the end 
 of the season. The 'Senn' and his assistants are allowed sufficient 
 cheese, milk, &c, for their maintenance, as well as a fixed payment per 
 cow for their trouble. But of course there is nothing paid by the cow- 
 owners for the use of the pastures, though a rent is due when the 
 ' Kuhrechte ' are taken on lease ; sometimes a particular man may 
 temporarily exchange his ' Kuhrechte ' on one ' alp ' in the valley with a 
 friend for others on another ' alp,' this being an arrangement for mutual 
 convenience, each then taking the other's place for that season. 
 
 It is in these milk chalets that Alpine travellers have often sought and 
 found hospitality, especially in the days when ' Club huts ' were still 
 unknown ; even now it is occasionally necessary to have recourse to the 
 courtesy of the ' Senn,' which is very rarely at fault, though, unfortunately, 
 it sometimes happens that travellers abuse it. It should always be borne 
 in mind that the ' Senn ' is not bound in any way to take in wandering 
 tourists, and that a suitable payment should be made for the milk, &c, con- 
 sumed, as well as for the rough bed, or accommodation in a neighbouring 
 hay barn. If treated properly the inhabitants of these milk chalets 
 will readily give much interesting information, for though rough in out- 
 ward appearance they are often well-to-do peasants, who take to this 
 free, healthy life in summer for the sheer pleasure of it. 
 
 It does not enter into the scope of the present paper to describe the 
 daily life of a \ Senn ' (beyond warning our readers that the best exported 
 Swiss cheese comes from the lower-placed 'alps' — e.g. those in the 
 Emmenthal and the Gruyere — the rest being kept for local consumption 
 in the valley where it is made), or his diversions, such as wrestling, 
 hurling boulders, dances, &c, of which the two well known works by 
 Berlepsch, besides many others, give full accounts. But when possible a 
 traveller should try to visit one of these festivals (but ?iot one of those 
 
LIFE IN AN ALPINE VALLEY. lxv 
 
 specially got up for the edification of travellers), so as to realise for him- 
 self the rough, but simple and brave, life led by the ' Aelpler ' on their 
 mountain pastures. On the better class of Alps the cheese-makers make 
 a fine show in their old-fashioned Sunday best of short breeches, velvet 
 or satin jackets, with embroideries, and short sleeves puffed at the 
 shoulders, and a ribbon-decorated hat. It is often hard to recognise in a 
 gaily attired young fellow the hard-working and roughly clad cheese- 
 maker who may have been seen on the same ' alp ' the day before. 
 
 A word must suffice for the cow songs (' Ranz des Vaches ' or * Kuh- 
 reihen') which are sung to the cows, whose names are often enumerated 
 one after the other, and for the falsetto method of singing called 
 'Jodeln.'* But it is difficult to part from the ' Aelpler' without making 
 some mention of the * Prayers on the Alps,' sung in the evening after sun- 
 down. The text generally consists of a thrice-repeated 'Ave Maria,' 
 followed by appeals to various saints to watch over the herds, and to 
 preserve them from all harm during the coming night : in these appeals 
 the name* of *St. -Wendelin, the patron of herdsmen, is generally 
 promihent. These* metrical prayers or litanies are now used only on a 
 few ' alps,] particularly 'on (hose in the Calfeisenthal, and on the Lasa, 
 and other, * alps,' all above Ragatz, as well as . on the Ober Lavtina 
 alp, in the Weisstannenthal.f Naturally these litanies are chiefly pre- 
 served in the Roman Catholic Cantons, but it is said that the l Senn ' 
 who sings them on the Brandlisberg Alp (Calfeisenthal) is a Protestant.}: 
 
 * For the subject 'of music and songs in the Alps generally consult two articles by Herr 
 Szadrowsky in the ist and 4th vols, of the Jahrbuch of the Swiss Alpine Club, and two essays by 
 Prof. Ritter and Dr. Pommer in vols. xx. and xxvii. of the Zeitschrift of the German and 
 Austrian Alpine Club : they contain many musical illustrations. 
 
 t Several texts of these Prayers (as well as of the various forms of the ' Ranz des Vaches ') 
 are given by Prof. Anderegg, pp. 705-10 and 730-53, and in Herr L. Tobler's Schweizerische Volks- 
 lieder (Frauenfeld, 1882). A litany from Schwyz is printed in vol. i. p. 240 of the Schweizer- 
 isches Archiv fiir Volkskunde, and several from the Upper Vallais (sometimes the opening 
 verses of St. John's Gospel are recited) in the same periodical, vol. ii. pp. 295-6, while in the 
 Alpina of the Swiss Alpine Club, 1895, p. 136, that used in the Melchthal (Obwalden) is given. 
 
 J Jakrb. d. S.A.C. xxiv. p. 481 n. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 II. SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 
 
 Art. XX. — Geology of the Alps.' 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 i. Crystalline Rocks occurring in the Alps • . lxvii 
 
 2. History of the Genesis of the Alps . lxix 
 
 3. Constituent Rocks of the Alps lxxiii 
 
 4. The Growth and Sculpture of the Alps ........ Ixxxy 
 
 5. The Glacial Period xciii 
 
 6. Geological Literature and Maps ....»•»#. xcvi 
 
 On turning his eyes along the horizon from any commanding position 
 in the valley of the Po, the spectator sees himself surrounded by a vast 
 rampart of mountains, open only on the eastern side, but elsewhere 
 enclosing the plain of Piedmont within a continuous wall. The im- 
 pression conveyed to the mind is that this great chain, known under the 
 collective name of the Alps, forms but a single system, and has a 
 common origin. The same impression is derived from the examination 
 of a general map of Europe. It is apparent that the ranges which 
 enclose the plain of Piedmont, and extend eastward to the neighbour- 
 hood of Vienna, constitute but one chain, whose members are linked 
 together by the action of causes common to them all. 
 
 In this vast mountain mass there are some portions which at first 
 sight are distinguishable as separate groups, the limits of which are 
 more or less accurately definable, and it thus happens that denomina- 
 tions, such as Maritime Alps, Graian Alps, Pennine Alps, &c., have from 
 an early period been affixed to certain portions of the chain. These 
 denominations, most of which were admitted by the ancient geographers, 
 arose from the desire to recognise certain obvious facts in the orography 
 of the country, without reference to its geological structure ; but in 
 several cases the divisions adopted by the physical geographer are the 
 same that are suggested to the geologist by the study of the rocks of 
 which the mountains are composed. Thus, the Maritime Alps, with a 
 central granitic ridge limited by the valleys of the Stura and the Tinea, 
 the Col de l'Argentiere, and the Col de Tenda, form a group which is as 
 
 • The article in the former editions was mainly from the pen of the late Monsieur E. Desor, of 
 Neuchatel. Portions have been retained in the present edition, but the greater part, more espe- 
 cially that dealing with the petrology and stratigraphy of the Alps, has been rewritten by Pro- 
 fessor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., past President of the Geological Society and of the Alpine Club. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxvii 
 
 well defined to the eye of the geologist as to that of the common observer. 
 The same may be said of the Finsteraarhorn group, the Pelvoux group, 
 the Carnic Alps, and generally of all the groups which have a well defined 
 crystalline nucleus. The case is otherwise when several crystalline 
 nuclei approach each other so nearly that there is no depression or 
 trough apparent between the neighbouring centres, and nothing in the 
 form of the surface to indicate a separation between them. 
 
 These observations apply to the Central Pennine, Simplon, and Monte 
 Rosa groups, also to the Noric, and in some measure to the Raetian Alps. 
 The physical features of the surface do not here conform to the geological 
 structure. Geographers have necessarily followed the former as their 
 guide, and as it was necessary to fix some limits to the separate groups, 
 they have usually adopted a valley or gorge, which affords to the eye the 
 external evidence of a separation between adjoining mountain masses. 
 In this way the Pennine Alps have been held to extend from the Dora 
 Baltea to the Tosa, and the Noric Alps from the Adige to Vienna. 
 
 The geologist is forced to look for some more positive bases of classifi- 
 cation than the mere contour of the surface. He endeavours, amid the 
 irregularities and disturbances of the strata, to trace the causes which 
 have operated in upraising the mountains and have given them their 
 present form, as the comparative anatomist strives to trace the essential 
 elements of the organic structure amidst the varied forms assumed by the 
 different species. 
 
 The general shapes and aspect of mountains depend upon the nature of 
 the rocks of which they are composed, and on the intensity of forces 
 that have upraised them. It is evident that peaks so bold in outline as 
 the Matterhorn or Monte Viso could not be formed of strata such as the 
 molasse or the flysch. Their shape implies a great degree of hardness in 
 the rocks from which they are fashioned. In the same manner it may 
 be affirmed that the reservoirs in which the greater glaciers are accumu- 
 lated, and the narrow gorges through which they now advance — or did 
 once flow, between faces of rock that still bear the traces of their 
 passage — demonstrate a high degree of resistance in the materials. 
 
 i. Crystalline Rocks occurring in the Alps. 
 
 The following is a brief resume of the more typical crystalline rocks 
 which occur in the Alps. 
 
 Granite is a crystalline granular rock, composed essentially of quartz, 
 felspar (mostly orthoclase), and mica ; hornblende is a not infrequent 
 accessory. 
 
 Syenite is a similar rock, composed essentially of felspar (mostly ortho- 
 clase) and hornblende ; the latter mineral may be more or less replaced 
 by mica (biotite) or augite ; the rock is then called a mica- syenite, or 
 augite-syenite. 
 
 Diorite differs from syenite in that the felspar is a plagioclase. 
 
 Tonalite is a variety of Diorite, which contains quartz as an essential 
 constituent. Biotite also occurs. The Adamello consists of this rock, 
 the name being taken from the Tonale Pass. 
 
 Felstone is the name given to a large group of rocks, having a rather 
 
 d2 
 
lxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 compact felspathic matrix, in which not seldom distinct crystals of felspar 
 (orthoclase or plagioclase), quartz, hornblende, augite, mica, &c, are 
 scattered about, and are sometimes very conspicuous. These varieties 
 are called by many authors porphyry. Where the felspar is orthoclase 
 the rock is termed felspar-porphyry or felsite ; if quartz be also present, 
 quartz-porphyry or quartz- felsite ; if the felspar be plagioclase the rock is 
 called either porphyrite or quartz-porphyrite, according as quartz be 
 absent or present. Rocks consisting essentially of a species of plagio- 
 clase felspar (generally less rich in silica than in the cases just mentioned), 
 augite, iron oxide, and (often) olivine, if rather coarsely crystalline are 
 called dolerite ; if finely crystalline or compact, basalt. In varieties of 
 the latter rock augite occurs in conspicuous crystals, and the rock has 
 been named by some augite- porphyry. When the rock is very coarse 
 and the augite commonly is the variety called diallage, the rock is termed 
 gabbro. Some authors use the word euphotide as an equivalent, others 
 apply this term to gabbro in which certain mineral changes have occurred, 
 the felspar being replaced by a mineral akin to saussurite, and the diallage 
 by a green hornblende (often the kind called smaragdite). 
 
 Melaphyre is only a name given to rather old basalts. Diabase is 
 applied to members of the same group which have undergone a greater 
 amount of secondary change ; these, with the finer-grained diorites, 
 which can hardly be distinguished one from another without microscopic 
 examination, are often grouped together for descriptive purposes under 
 the name Greenstone. 
 
 Serpentine results from the alteration of a group of rocks which consist 
 mainly of olivine ; these in their unaltered condition are called peridotites. 
 Serpentine commonly also contains a variety of enstatite, which occurs in 
 flaky crystals with a lustre something like that of brass. The rock is 
 rather easily scratched with a knife, has a slightly F soapy ' feeling, and 
 is generally, in the Alps, of a dark colour, commonly dark-green. Some 
 varieties, in chemical composition, approach rather nearer to the basalts ; 
 these are generally harder than the rest. The mineral serpentine (for 
 the rock and its chief constituent bear the same name) may be produced 
 from ferro-magnesian minerals other than olivine, but the rock of which 
 the well known serpentine near the Lizard, in Cornwall, is a good type 
 was originally a peridotite. The name, however, has been used by 
 earlier writers with considerable laxity, and this has given rise to much 
 confusion. 
 
 Of the rocks more or less foliated, Gneiss has practically the same 
 composition as granite. Protogine is only a granite modified by pressure. 
 It was formerly asserted to contain talc instead of mica ; this, however, is 
 a mistake ; the mineral so named is only a somewhat altered biotite. 
 Hornblende-schist is, in composition, nearly identical with a diorite, and 
 in many cases is only a modified form of that rock or of a dolerite. 
 Chlorite- schist^ Talc-schist, Mica-schist, are foliated rocks in which the 
 minerals named are dominant. Potstone is, as a rule, a variety of the 
 first rock without foliation. Mica-schist commonly also contains a fair 
 proportion of quartz, and sometimes of calcite, and thus graduates, on 
 the one hand, into quartz-schist, a. foliated rock consisting mainly of 
 quartz, and, on the other, into calc-schist, which has the same structure, 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxix 
 
 and consists mainly of calcite. If the rock is without foliation, and is 
 practically pure calcite, it is called marble, the difference between this 
 and limestone being that all the constituents of the former have crys- 
 tallised in situ. Dolomite is a mineral composed of carbonate of both 
 lime and magnesia. The name is also applied to the rock which mainly 
 consists of this mineral. This sometimes is thoroughly crystalline, as in 
 the Binnenthal ; sometimes it is imperfectly crystalline, like many lime- 
 stones, as in the case of the ' Dolomites ' of South Tyrol. 
 
 2. History of the Genesis of the Alps. 
 
 In the study of a mountain chain two sets of questions are raised, the 
 one relating to its growth and development, the other to the history of its 
 constituent rocks. These cannot be wholly separated, because the effects 
 of one may be recorded in the other, but nothing is gained, and sometimes 
 much is lost, by failing to keep in mind the fact that they are generally 
 distinct. Both have led to much controversy, which in neither case can 
 be regarded as closed, though one may venture to predict what will be the 
 leading outlines of the ultimate conclusions. 
 
 The Alpine chain, as it now exists, is the product of a series of move- 
 ments which, in the main, occurred in the Tertiary era. Mountains, 
 indeed, there were at an epoch, geologically speaking, much earlier, which, 
 however, in all probability differed widely as to both trend and outline 
 from the present Alps. These will presently be mentioned, but by the 
 time (approximately) when the Bagshot sands of England were deposited 
 they had wholly, or almost wholly, disappeared. The end of a long period 
 of subsidence was now approaching. Here and there, it is true, this 
 already had been locally interrupted, but, as yet, neither the Alps nor any 
 other mountain chain in connection with them had been developed. 
 About the end, however, of the Eocene period long folds began to form 
 in the crust of the earth on the site of the Alps. The cause of these 
 movements is still a subject of dispute. The effect, however, seems to be 
 beyond question ; the strata forming this crust, to a depth below what can 
 now be examined, were bent and folded into a series of huge parallel 
 wrinkles. These movements, apparently, gave rise not only to the 
 Western, Central, and Eastern Alps, but also to the Appennines on the 
 one side and the Julian and Dinaric Alps on the other. The outline of 
 the Italian peninsula, as every child knows, resembles a boot, but a 
 similar form, though in the reverse position, is enclosed by these moun- 
 tains from the south end of the Adriatic northward. Whether the 
 development of a series of associate ranges on a plan so complicated was 
 the result of a single group of movements, or of a succession of move- 
 ments, is a point on which different opinions are entertained, to which 
 reference will later be made ; but at any rate it must be admitted that any 
 attempt to break up the Alps into two or more distinct mountain masses 
 involves very serious difficulties. We may be content in these pages to 
 avoid abstruse theoretical questions, and to speak of the Alpine chain as 
 a whole. . 
 
 The earth's crust, as has been said, began to be folded, and the 
 result of the process was to raise it above the sea in long strips or 
 
Ixx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 shoals. Then by degrees the banks became hills, and the hills became 
 mountains. All this time the retiring waves were beating upon the 
 coast line ; the rain, as now, fell on the rising ground, and was discharged 
 seawards in streams and torrents ; the rocks were expanded by heat and 
 contracted by cold ; they cracked, and they were shattered by the strains. 
 In a word, no sooner did the land appear than the processes of denu- 
 dation began. The detritus, hurried down from the highlands, was 
 deposited as beds of sand and conglomerate on either side of the growing 
 mountain chain. Then after a long interval of time, an epoch of com- 
 parative quiescence during which this process of mountain sculpture and 
 marginal deposit continued, not only the Alps themselves but also the 
 latter area were subjected to renewed disturbances like the former ; 
 but these appear to have acted with greatest intensity in the region of the 
 Central Alps, roughly speaking, and to have produced more effect on 
 the northern than on the southern side of the chain. By them the folds 
 already existing were intensified and complicated, the beds of sandstone 
 (molasse) and puddingstone (nagelfluh) were uptilted and uplifted, till 
 in some cases, as in the Rigi and the Speer, they rise about 6,000 feet 
 above the sea level. 
 
 Without entering into details, it will suffice to say that the crust thus 
 folded consisted of a thick mass of sedimentary rocks — limestones, 
 shales, and sandstones, the majority being of Secondary or early Tertiary 
 age. This rested upon a floor of crystalline rocks — granites, gneisses, 
 and schists : these, whatever may have been their origin, are much 
 more ancient. When the crust was bent into folds the latter rocks, 
 being the harder, may have been occasionally forced through the former ; 
 their masses, at any rate, have better resisted denudation, so that 
 they, or the remnants of them, project in bold peaks and lofty ridges, 
 while the softer sedimentaries sometimes form valley-like troughs 
 between them. The rock masses which now compose the Alps were 
 greatly compressed during this process of crumpling : shales were 
 thus converted into slates ; limestones and sandstones not seldom 
 assumed a rude cleavage. In certain cases secondary minerals were 
 developed, though generally only on a microscopic scale, so that the 
 new divisional surfaces assume a peculiar sheen, and the slate, for 
 instance, becomes a phyllite. But, besides the sedimentaries, the 
 crystalline rocks themselves were affected, and in them also similar 
 structures were developed. Schists assumed, so to say, a new schis- 
 tosity ; foliated rocks a new foliation, which rendered them fissile in 
 directions quite different from those along which they could formerly be 
 split. In the case of the more massive rocks, serpentines sometimes 
 are slaty : even granites have yielded to the pressures, have assumed a 
 foliated structure, and have been converted into gneiss ; for in the 
 crystalline rocks this mechanical change has been followed by a more 
 marked mineral change than in the sedimentaries, and the powdered 
 mineral constituents, when acted upon by water, have entered into new 
 combinations : thus mica, black and white, secondary hornblende, 
 quartz, and other minerals can be found, which either have been 
 developed along the divisional planes, produced by crushing, or at least 
 have had their direction of growth affected by these. To take, for 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxi 
 
 example, the case of granite : from the powder of the felspar, under the 
 action of water, white mica and free quartz have been produced. Of these 
 the former is developed upon the divisional surfaces, which are, so to 
 say, veneered, or varnished, with the new mineral ; the rock assumes a 
 foliation, and answers to the definition of a gneiss. When crushing has 
 been carried still further, the felspar may be practically destroyed and a 
 kind of mica-schist produced. It is then strictly true that, as the older 
 school of geologists affirmed, a granite may be found passing into a 
 gneiss, or a gneiss into a mica-schist ; only, instead of a granite repre- 
 senting, as they supposed, the ultimate result of metamorphism in 
 materials which, in a less advanced stage of alteration, had made a 
 mica-schist, and, in a greater, a gneiss, exactly the reverse had 
 happened, for the mica-schist and the gneiss have been, as it were, 
 manufactured from the granite, and represent stages of a certain kind of 
 metamorphism, the mica-schist answering to the most extreme one. 
 Foliation, therefore, may be a result of pressure, but it is by no means 
 proved, and probably is not true, that all foliation is due to the action of 
 pressure, as described above, or, in other words, to a process which is 
 later in date than the solidification of the rock. There are gneisses, for 
 instance, in which a mineral banding is conspicuous ; mica, or some 
 such constituent dominating in occasional layers, which sometimes 
 exceed half an inch in thickness. This structure, in the writer's opinion, 
 cannot be shown to be the result of pressure subsequent to solidification. 
 In some cases it may be the record of an original stratification, but in 
 not a few it is probably produced by differentiation in the constituents of 
 the mass, previous to its complete solidification, and is analogous to the 
 ' flow structure,' which is exhibited by certain lavas, and is common in 
 artificial slags. But that many schists, possibly also some gneisses, 
 were originally sediments, clayey, sandy, or calcareous, cannot be 
 doubted ; the first and second being the detritus of older rocks, while 
 the third sometimes may have been formed by the accumulation of 
 organisms ; the materials of these, under the combined action of heat, 
 pressure, and water, have entered into crystalline combination ; producing 
 new minerals, and, in most cases, obliterating the records of their 
 previous history. It is impossible, in the present state of knowledge, to 
 separate these various classes of so called metamorphic rocks by hard 
 and fast lines, or to pronounce, in every case, upon the origin of a speci- 
 men, but we may assert with confidence that the crystalline rocks of the 
 Alps are partly igneous, partly sedimentary, in their origin, and that 
 both groups have been modified by pressure, followed by mineral 
 change ; these modifications, in the case of the former group, being 
 subsequent to the assumption of a crystalline structure. 
 
 In the Alps, at any rate, when due allowance is made for the result of 
 subsequent pressure, the crystalline rocks which were sedimentary in 
 origin commonly overlie those for which an igneous origin seems more 
 probable. But at this stage a distinction must be made, for we find 
 here, as in other mountain chains, two kinds of igneous rocks, the 
 one underlying, and apparently older than, the altered sedimentaries, 
 the other clearly later in date than the rocks with which they are 
 associated, whatever these may be : in other words, igneous rocks of 
 
lxxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the latter kind are obviously intrusive, while those of the former, though 
 igneous in origin, may have been covered up by the materials which 
 have since become crystalline. The intrusive rocks, of course, even 
 if mainly lower in position than another group of rocks, send off veins 
 into it, or occasionally break through it. Thus, in the Alps, there are 
 certain gneissoid granites, which are intrusive and comparatively late 
 in date ; such, for instance, as the porphyritic gneissoid granite of the 
 Lukmanier Pass, the so called Fibbia gneiss at the top of the St. 
 Gotthard Pass, and the Protogine of Mont Blanc — indeed, so far as the 
 writer has observed, all the porphyritic (gneissoid) granites. Other 
 granites, like the 'core' of the Central Oberland, Dauphine, and the 
 Central Tyrol, may be also intrusive, but the evidence, so far as it goes, 
 suggests that they must be referred to a very remote period. In the Alps, 
 then, the amount of granite is much greater than was originally sup- 
 posed ; only its appearance is somewhat illusory, as it has been modified 
 by pressure, has assumed a foliated structure, and is now petro- 
 graphically a gneiss. The same may be said of many other schistose 
 rocks in the Alps. Some of the mica-schists (though by no means 
 all) are also modified igneous rocks, allied to granite ; the serpentinous 
 schists are often only serpentine or rocks closely allied to it, which 
 have been rendered fissile by pressure ; while very many of the horn- 
 blende schists certainly are modified dolerites, or basalts ; some of the 
 chlorite schists also may have had a like origin. 
 
 It is very difficult to determine the age of the above named intrusive 
 rocks. As will be presently mentioned, there is evidence of volcanic 
 activity in the Vicentine district in Tertiary times, and of the same, on a 
 much grander scale, on the Southern side of the Alps, in Permian or 
 early Secondary times. But in the Alps, as a rule, intrusive igneous 
 rocks are rare among the Secondary and Tertiary sedimentary 
 deposits, and the above named gneissoid granites, foliated diorites 
 (hornblende schists), and similar pressure-modified rocks are associated 
 with other crystalline schists ; hence they are later than these, and earlier 
 than the great earth movements which upraised the present chain, but, 
 as nothing more can be affirmed, that leaves a very wide margin of 
 time. There are, however, some granites and allied rocks, thus 
 situated, which still retain their normal aspects, and appear, as a rule, 
 to have escaped uncrushed ; such are the granite of Biella, extending 
 N.E. towards Varallo, and that of Baveno, Mont' Orfano, and the 
 vicinity. The red granite of the second locality and the grey granite of 
 the third are extensively worked. To these may be added the granite of 
 the Cima d'Asta, with some smaller masses in various localities, and the 
 Tonalite or quartz-diorite of the Adamello. The ' protogine ' of the 
 Meije and other neighbouring peaks of the Central Dauphine Alps is 
 also a granite, which is but little modified ; and the Bernina group 
 affords examples of granitic rocks, indubitably igneous, which generally 
 have escaped with but slight damage. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxiii 
 
 3. Constituent Rocks of the Alps. 
 
 We pass on to give a brief sketch of the rock masses which constitute 
 the present Alpine chain, leaving for a while the details of its growth and 
 development. 
 
 The Foundation Stones. — These, as stated above, are crystalline rocks ; 
 if we put aside those obviously of igneous origin, they may be roughly 
 grouped under three heads : — 
 
 (1) Rocks rather Granitoid in Aspect, which appear, as a rule, to occupy 
 the lowest position, and to constitute generally the ' core ' of a range. 
 Such are the granitoid gneisses common in the ' Laurentian ' region of 
 Canada,, or beneath the Torridon sandstone in the N.W. of Scotland. 
 Rocks of this character occur, as mentioned above, in various districts of 
 the Alps. 
 
 (2) Rocks more Variable in Character and often more Stratified in 
 Aspect. — Among these rather thick masses of mica-schists and various 
 gneisses, often markedly banded, are common, in which garnets, horn- 
 blende, and various accessory minerals frequently occur ; the gneisses 
 often have a rather saccharoidal aspect, and are somewhat friable when 
 hammered. These are well developed on the N. and S. sides of the 
 St. Gotthard Pass, e.g. about the Val Tremola. This group is not in- 
 frequently poorly developed, and is sometimes missing : it must be 
 regarded as of only provisional value, and its origin an open question ; 
 probably some of its members will be found ultimately to have been 
 sedimentary, others igneous. 
 
 (3) Rocks mainly of Sedimentary Origin. — This group consists chiefly 
 of micaceous schists, varying from dark or lead-coloured, often calcareous, 
 and sometimes passing into pure crystalline limestones or dolomites, 
 with occasional quartz-schists, brown and white, besides actinolitir, 
 talcose, and chloritic schists. Many of the last named schists may be 
 modified igneous rocks ; sometimes they may have been originally volcanic 
 tuffs. The dark micaceous schists not seldom contain garnets of con- 
 siderable size ; smaller garnets of lighter colour, cyanite, and stauro- 
 lite are not uncommon minerals. This group has a great development. 
 It may be traced along the chain practically from one end to the other. 
 It appears sometimes to succeed the second group by a gradual transition ; 
 sometimes its rests, with a rathermarked indication of unconformity, on 
 the rocks of the first group. The mass at a distance has a thoroughly 
 stratified aspect, as may be seen, for instance, on the S. side of tin Rhone 
 valley from above Brieg to Obergestelen. In its members the more 
 quartzose and more micaceous layers are often interstratined, precisely 
 as are the sandy and clayey bands in an ordinary sedimentary rock. 
 The geological age of the group is, however, a more difficult question 
 than that of its origin, and has been the subject of much dispute. In 
 the Cottian Alps these rocks have been called 4 schistes lust ices,' in the 
 more E. part of Switzerland ' Bundner Schiefer,' and* in both they have 
 been regarded as altered rocks of Secondary age— in the former cas. 
 
 - mainly Triassic, in the latter as Triassic or Jurassic, or both. In die 
 Lepontine Alps also the schists, which include the beds bearing black 
 
Ixxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 garnets, have been referred to the Jurassic age. The controversy on the 
 subject, which has attracted considerable attention, still continues. The 
 writer, who has taken some part in it, has a very distinct opinion that in 
 some cases the disputants have been regarding different sides of the 
 shield, and that the terms * schistes lustrees 5 and ' Biindner Schiefer ' 
 will be found to cover rocks of more than one geological age, some being 
 crystalline schists of very great antiquity, others only comparatively un- 
 altered rocks of Primary (probably Carboniferous) and of Secondary age. 
 He is, however, convinced, after careful examination, that the group of 
 schists in which the black garnet bands of the Lepontine Alps occur 
 had already become schists in Triassic times, for some members of this 
 group are represented by fragments in the basement beds of the Trias. 
 The statement also that garnets and staurolites are associated with 
 belemnites * in rocks of Jurassic age is incorrect, for the 'knoten' and 
 c prismen ' of the schistose Jurassic rocks of Scopi, and of the region 
 about the Nufenen Pass, are neither garnets nor staurolites, but, as can 
 be proved by a microscopic examination, totally different minerals, the 
 occurrence of which proves little with regard to the history of the rock. 
 He ventures, therefore, to affirm that none of the crystalline schists in 
 the Alps have been proved to be the equivalents of either Primary or 
 Secondary rocks, and many of them have been demonstrated to be 
 much more ancient than any strata to which a date can be assigned. 
 It is accordingly his opinion that all the true crystalline schists of the 
 Alps are older than the Cambrian rocks, and so belong to the i dawn 
 period' of geological history, or, in other words, to the great series, 
 now termed Archaean, and commonly not to the very latest epoch of this 
 era.f 
 
 If then we regard these upper schists of the Alpine chain as Archaean, 
 and pass on to the rocks which, as a rule, have undergone mineral 
 change only on a minute scale, and in which fossils can be still dis- 
 tinguished, more or less readily, we find that, as yet, Cambrian rocks 
 have not been identified in the Alps, and even those which have been 
 assigned to earlier Palaeozoic ages are restricted to a comparatively 
 limited district. 
 
 Silurian and Devonian. — Rocks which can be thus identified (by the 
 presence of fossils, or by conformity with beds containing them) occur 
 only in the extreme E. and N.E. of the Alpine chain, as, for instance, in 
 the Carnic Alps (forming a long strip south of the Upper Gailthal, where 
 Upper Silurian, and a fairly complete section of the Devonian system, 
 have been identified), in the Karawankas, and on either side of the Mur 
 for some considerable distance to the N. of Graz, where Devonian fossils 
 occur, and, in the lower part, some contemporaneous igneous rocks. 
 Devonian and Upper Silurian rocks have also been identified on the N. 
 side of the Central range in a long strip, which extends from E. of 
 Radstadt to the neighbourhood of Schwaz, in the Innthal. The Devonian 
 system, as a rule, s t eems to be well represented ; the Silurian fossils more 
 
 • Quart. Journ. Geo/. Soc. 1890, p. 236. 
 
 t It must be remembered that the Archaean is no more marked off by a hard and fast univer- 
 sal line from the Palaeozoic (Primary) than this is from the Secondary, or the latter from the 
 Tertiary. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxr 
 
 often indicate the upper part of the system, though probably the whole of 
 that, as distinguished from the Ordovician (Lower Silurian of many 
 geologists), is represented in some places. How far the latter can be 
 identified seems to be more questionable. The occurrence of either 
 Silurian or Devonian rocks in the Central or Western Alps at present is 
 not established. 
 
 Carboniferous. — Strata belonging to this system are more widely dis- 
 tributed in the Alps, though they generally occur in rather restricted 
 areas, and often form comparatively narrow strips, enfolded among 
 crystalline rocks of much greater antiquity. Commonly they are obvi- 
 ously detrital in origin — conglomerates, sandstones and shales. The first 
 are frequently full of fragments of the crystalline rocks ; when these are 
 small and the rock is a kind of grit, made of quartz, felspar, and mica, 
 which has been modified by subsequent pressure, it is locally difficult to 
 distinguish from a crushed crystalline rock — gneiss or schist. The sandy 
 rocks are sometimes, as to the N. of Briangon, of considerable thickness. 
 But the clayey rocks are more common, and usually have been converted 
 into slates by subsequent pressure. These very often are black from car- 
 bonaceous materials, and thin beds of anthracite occur, which have been 
 worked at different points, as at Chandolin, near Sion, Les Coupeaux, near 
 Chamonix, and in the valleys of the Arc, I sere, and upper Romanche. 
 Fossil plants are found abundantly in certain localities, such as the upper 
 valley of the Diosaz, N. of the BreVent. Limestones are rare ; they 
 occur, however (containing Fusulina and marine fossils), at the Ofen 
 Alp, in the Gailthal (where they belong to the upper part of the system), 
 and in the Stang Alp district, at the junction of the frontiers of Salzburg, 
 Styria, and Carinthia (where, however, no fossils have been found in the 
 limestone, which is assigned to the lower part of the system). 
 
 Permian. — During the last thirty years this system in the Alps has 
 been much augmented in extent, chiefly at the expense of the Trias. It 
 is, however, only developed on a large scale in the Eastern Alps. In the 
 Central and Western Alps it is often missing, or is merely represented 
 by a grit, conglomerate, or sandstone, generally of no great thickness, 
 which forms a base to the Secondary rocks, is unconformable with and 
 composed of the ruins of the underlying crystalline rocks, and is often 
 called Verrucano. So far as the writer knows, the rock does not contain 
 fossils, and, as it is sometimes followed directly by Jurassic rocks, may 
 represent more than one geological period. Still some of the Verrucano 
 in all probability is rightly referred to the Permian. To this age also 
 the red * porphyry ' of the Windgalle is assigned by some geologists. 
 In the Eastern Alps, however, more especially on the S. side, a most 
 interesting series of rocks (as explained below) is now referred to the 
 Permian period. In the Karawankas district some marine deposits, 
 with Fusulina, have been observed ; these are followed by sandstone, and 
 this again by calcareous beds, containing Bellerophon and other marine 
 fossils. The upper and lower deposits are rather limited in area, but the 
 sandstone extends, with some interruption, in a long strip from the valley 
 of the Save, S.E. of Villach, to near the E. bank of the Eisack. 
 From a well known locality on the W. side of the district it receives the 
 name of 'Grodner' sandstone, which occasionally much resembles the 
 
lxxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 red Triassic sandstone of England and parts of Germany. Beneath this, 
 over a large area, on both sides of the Eisack, near Bozen, is a great 
 eruptive series, consisting mainly of quartziferous felstones, commonly 
 called quartz-porphyries, with some associated tuffs ; these prove the 
 group to be eruptive, and to indicate an ancient volcanic district. 
 Where if is most completely developed, two thick masses of quartz- 
 porphyries, separated by tuffs, occur, and beneath the lower are more 
 tuffs and a basement conglomerate. All this district has been made 
 classic ground by the labours of Von Richthofen, Mojsisovics, and many 
 other geologists of the present and previous generations. The area more 
 or less covered by the great lava-flows measures hardly less than forty 
 miles from N. to S., and about the same from E. to W. The glen of the 
 Kuntersweg, between Klausen and Bozen, cuts through these porphyries, 
 and is indebted to them for much of the beauty of its scenery. Indica- 
 tions of volcanic outbreaks, presumably of the same age, are found in 
 more than one locality further W., as on the shore of the lake of Lugano, 
 where a dark porphyry, that has flowed over the denuded edges of 
 crystalline schists, is overlain by a red porphyry, and on this (as may be 
 seen by the lake-side at the foot of Monte Salvatore) rest Triassic strata. 
 Smaller masses of porphyry also occur about the S. end of the Lago 
 Maggiore, and of the lake of Orta, and for some distance further W. 
 Similar rocks, probably of the same geological age, occur about Raibl, 
 and at other places in Carinthia. 
 
 Trias {including Rhcetic). — If we exclude from this group the ' schistes 
 lustrees ' of the Cottian x\lps, and the ' Bundner Schiefer ' of the Grisons 
 and the immediate neighbourhood, we find that, over a considerable 
 region of the Alps, Triassic rocks are either missing or very poorly 
 developed. On the margin of the crystalline masses on the western side 
 of the main watershed, from that of the Pelvoux to Mont Blanc, Jurassic 
 deposits appear to rest directly upon the crystalline rocks, so that these 
 regions, in all probability, were above water in Triassic times. Indeed, 
 in all parts of the Pennine, the Lepontine, and the Central Alps on either 
 side of the Reuss, Triassic strata, if represented, are commonly limited 
 in thickness, and abnormal in character. Here the most usual type is 
 rather a soft porous limestone or dolomite, of a yellowish colour, often 
 called ' Rauchwacke \ or \ Rauwacke, 5 with which beds of gypsum are 
 sometimes associated ; occasionally it passes into a breccia, containing 
 fragments of the underlying crystalline rocks. In the heart of the 
 Pennine and Lepontine Alps this deposit is found occasionally, appearing 
 and disappearing in a curious ' patchy ' manner. Here, as on the flank 
 of the Hohthaligrat, a little strip is ' nipped in ' among crystalline masses, 
 far away from any rocks of Secondary age ; there, as in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Nufenenstock, the Jurassic beds are, in one place, separated 
 by a few feet of Rauchwacke' from the crystalline schists ; in another, 
 they rest directly upon them. In other localities, as in the Val Canaria, 
 and on the S. slopes of the Lukmanier Pass, the * Rauchwacke ' attains 
 to a considerable thickness. There can be little doubt that this peculiar 
 friable rock has been deposited under exceptional physical conditions ; 
 probably much of it, like calcareous tufas, is not of organic but of 
 chemical origin, a precipitate in the isolated recesses of a hilly district, 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxvii 
 
 which was subsiding somewhat irregularly, so that lagoons were formed, 
 which communicated intermittently with the open sea, or salt lakes were 
 produced in basins of inland drainage, as in Utah or Thibet. 
 
 Triassic and Rhaetic deposits, however, assume a greater importance 
 E. of the Rhine, and may be traced on the N. side of the central 
 crystalline range through the great zone of limestone mountains almost 
 up to the longitude of Vienna. South of the crystalline range, Triassic 
 strata set in on the E. side of the S. part of Lago Maggiore, though a 
 few outliers occur further W. : they rapidly expand in thickness, and 
 occupy a wider area, so that in the district from the Lake of Lugano to 
 that of Garda, Jurassic and later rocks are confined to the S. border of 
 the mountain district. Thus the sedimentary zone, south of the crystalline 
 range which forms the watershed of the Tyrol, is practically composed of 
 rocks belonging to the Triassic or Rhaetic systems. Curving upwards 
 from the N. part of the Lake of Garda, these continue to run south of the 
 crystalline axis (one or two outliers occurring on the Brenner Pass) and 
 extend to the E. end of the chain. The grand crags, towers, and battle- 
 ments of the well known Dolomite Alps are all excavated from strata of 
 Triassic or Rhaetic age. In both these systems, from the valley of the Rhine 
 eastwards, N. and S. of the central range, the dominant rock is light 
 fawn-coloured limestone or dolomite : this is sometimes interstratified 
 with red or dark-coloured clays, and occasional sandy beds. The 
 complete section from the base of the Trias to the top of the Rhaetic, 
 exhibited on both the N. and S. sides of the central range, indicates a 
 great marine series, very different from the abnormal and imperfect Trias 
 of Britain. Not only is the ' Muschelkalk ' of the Vosges district repre- 
 sented, but also the sandstones and clays of the Bunter and Keuper are 
 replaced by great masses of marine deposits. Of these the most note- 
 worthy are the Dachstein dolomite (' Hauptdolomit ') of both the N. 
 and S. range (Rhaetic), and the Schlern dolomite (Keuper). The last 
 deposit is rather limited in extent, but of it the grand cliffs of the Schlern, 
 Langkofel, and neighbouring mountains as far as the Marmolata are 
 composed ; those of the Tofana, the Pelmo, the Antelao, and the 
 mountains E. of the Ampezzo Pass are Dachstein dolomite, for the 
 Schlern rock attenuates eastward. The last word has not yet been 
 written on these stupendous masses of dolomite, but many geologists 
 think that, directly or indirectly, they owe their origin to ancient coral 
 reefs. Tuffs and lava-flows occur in the lower part of the Trias in the 
 Schlern district ; these, however, are lithologically very different from 
 the similar masses of Permian age, for the so called augite-porphyry of 
 the Trias is in reality only a variety of basalt or dolerite. These are 
 well displayed on the Seisser Alp. But a still more interesting group of 
 igneous rocks, which is somewhat later in date, occurs in the vicinity 
 of Predazzo. Here more than one species is found ; the earliest, 
 according to Mojsisovics, is the so called syenite of Monzoni (now often 
 called Monzonite), a coarse-grained rock, consisting mainly of two kinds 
 of felspar, with augite or hornblende ; a Tourmaline-granite breaks 
 through this ; later still are 'melaphyres' and * augite-porphyries,' besides 
 some others which occur in comparatively small masses or dykes. 
 Volcanic rock of Triassic age does not occur further to the E. 
 
Ixxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Jurassic. — In the Eastern Alps the Triassic system is succeeded con- 
 formably by the Jurassic. South of the central crystalline range the 
 representatives of the latter system are often reduced by subsequent 
 denudation to isolated patches, but they become more continuous 
 towards the S. margin of the sedimentary zone. They are well 
 preserved on the W. side of the valley of the Adige, and about the head 
 of the Lake of Garda, and may be followed to the neighbourhood of the 
 Lago Maggiore. On the N. side, however, of the central range they are 
 more widely developed, and may be traced, with occasional intervals, 
 along the N. sedimentary range into Switzerland, occurring in force 
 between the valleys of the Inn and the Rhine. W. of the latter river 
 they form a considerable portion of the great sedimentary zone of the 
 Glarus and Bernese Alps, and pass on, across the Rhone, through Savoy 
 along the E. side of the crystalline axis which extends from the Mont 
 Blanc group to that of the Belledonne, in Dauphine. S. of the prolonga- 
 tion of the latter and of the Pelvoux group the whole Alpine region E. of 
 the Rhone (much of which is drained by the Durance) consists of Jurassic 
 rocks overlain by later Secondary, and in some places also by the earlier 
 Tertiary deposits ; these continue until the Maritime Alps slope steeply 
 down to the Mediterranean. Strips of Jurassic sediments, generally 
 narrow, are also enfolded among the crystalline rocks of the main water- 
 shed of the Alps, as, for instance, along the trough which is partly 
 interrupted by the Oberalp and Furka Passes. Similar strips occur to a 
 less extent on the S. side of the same great watershed, as in the upper 
 part of the Val Bedretto. These last deposits belong to the Lias, and 
 are generally dark slaty mudstones, occasionally interbanded with thin 
 sandstones. On the Lukmanier Pass, as at the Vitgira Alp, and on the 
 flanks of the Scopi, on the Furka and Nufenen Passes, and on the N. 
 side of the Gries Pass, belemnites are found, much distorted by pressure, 
 together with occasional fragments of other fossils. In these localities 
 (except on the Furka) the dark calcareous mudstones also contain, often 
 in the same blocks with the fossils, ovoid bodies (' knoten ') and rather 
 rounded prisms (' prismen '), which project from weathered surfaces, and 
 have a curious ' spotted ' appearance. The error, to which these have 
 given rise, has been already mentioned. Belemnites thus crushed 
 have also been found near the Plateau de Paris, above La Grave, in 
 Dauphine. About Bourg d'Oisans the cliffs of Lias often present very 
 striking alternations of dark slaty and of lighter, more ' stony ' layers, 
 which recall some of the banded deposits in the Lower Lias of England, 
 such as are worked for the manufacture of cement. The more slaty 
 members, such as the rocks in the Val Ferret, or in places on the Furka 
 Pass, were probably once a shale or clay, like some of the Upper Lias of 
 Yorkshire or Rutland. But in the N. and S. ranges of the Eastern Alps, 
 and in the more S. parts of the Western (French) Alps, especially where 
 the Lias is some distance away from the crystalline massif, limestones 
 become important constituents, and the beds often contain a rich and 
 varied fauna, among which ammonites sometimes become abundant. 
 
 Except in the isolated localities already mentioned, the other members 
 of the Jurassic system generally succeed the Lias, and representatives of 
 the Lower, Middle, and Upper Oolites of this country have been 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxix 
 
 identified. (The second is generally the most developed, the first and 
 third are sometimes rather attenuated.) Still in some parts of the Alps 
 the group as a whole is represented by a great thickness of rock. The 
 necessarily restricted compass of this essay prevents any detailed dis- 
 cussion of the various subdivisions, and their numerous variations in 
 different parts of the chain. It must suffice to say that the magnificent 
 outer mountain zone which extends from the valley of the Reuss through 
 the Bernese Oberland to the valley of the Rhone, above the Lake of 
 Geneva, and then sweeps away to the S.W. into French territory, is 
 largely formed from rocks of the Jurassic age. Limestones are frequent, 
 and sometimes attain considerable thickness ; in colour they vary from 
 light to dark, but commonly change to a warm buff, or a dull grey tint, on 
 weathered surfaces. The grand limestone cliffs which rise on the S. side 
 of the Lake of Brienz, or above the valley of Lauterbrunnen, and the 
 pastures on either side of Grindelwald, are also composed of rocks, 
 which are the equivalents of the English Oolites (for in this district the 
 Lias is but poorly represented). It may perhaps be said that wherever 
 particularly fine cliff scenery occurs in the Central or Western Alps 
 the rocks will probably be the equivalents of the English Oolites, 
 though often very different in their lithological character, and that the 
 upper (and major) portion of the Jurassic system plays in the scenery 
 the part which in the Eastern Alps is taken by the Trias or Rhaetic. 
 
 Neocomian and Cretaceous. — These systems, the Lower and Upper 
 Cretaceous of many geologists, are also well developed in the Alps. On 
 the N. range they come in succession to the Jurassic system, but in its 
 most E. part, as, for instance, in the Salzkammergut, a rather marked 
 break (which will be noticed presently) occurs between the Cretaceous 
 and the Neocomian. This, however, disappears further W., and has not 
 been observed in the Tyrol or in Switzerland. In the N.E. region also 
 it is often difficult to separate the Cretaceous deposits from the Eocene, 
 for they assume the character of a group of rocks, which are commonly 
 called the Flysch, and will be more particularly noticed below. Passing 
 over them for a time, the Neocomian and other Cretaceous rocks appear 
 to occur only in strips and patches on the N. zone until they reach the 
 W. side of the valley of the 111. Then they form a continuous mass 
 which extends through the N. Oberland across the head of the Lake of 
 Geneva into Savoy, and so they run along the W. side of the chain by 
 Chambe^ry and Grenoble, till they broaden out and occupy a large area 
 between the Drac, the Durance, and the Rhone. Then they fringe the 
 Jurassic zone which sweeps inland from the mouth of the Var to Toulon, 
 reaching the sea near Nice and the Maritime Alps, and forming the 
 subordinate ranges which lie E. of the lower course of the Rhone, and 
 inland from the coast at Toulon. S. of the main watershed Neocomian 
 and Cretaceous rocks begin in the neighbourhood of the Lago di 
 Varese, and can be traced, with interruptions, to the Lake of Garda. To 
 the E. of this they become more continuous, and extend over a larger 
 area as far as the valley of the Tagliamento. Yet further E. they 
 continue, after a short interruption, and are grandly developed about th< 
 Semmering Pass and in the ranges parallel with the Adriatic through 
 I stria and Dalmatia. The pale cream-coloured limestones which are a 
 
lxxx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 characteristic feature in the mountains and islands of the E. coast of the 
 Adriatic are of Cretaceous age. 
 
 The Neocomian system in the Alps consists partly of clayey, partly of 
 calcareous rock, the light-coloured limestones called ' Schrattenkalk ' 
 belonging to the upper part of the system. It is the equivalent of the 
 Urgonian group, and contains as characteristic fossils Caprotina 
 ammonia and Radiolites neocomensis, over which comes a limestone 
 containing very abundantly a foraminifer (Orbitolites lenticularis). The 
 ' Schrattenkalk ' is characterised by the curious rifts and fissures of its 
 weathered surface, which gives to its scenery a singularly wild and some- 
 times rather desolate aspect. To this system also belongs the Biancone 
 of the Venetian Alps, which also extends into Lombardy, where it takes 
 the name Majolica. The Cretaceous system proper is variable in 
 character, and in no part resembles the soft white chalk, which in 
 England is its most important constituent. The horizon of the Gault 
 and Upper Greensand, as well as different parts of the Chalk, have been 
 identified by fossils. In the Salzkammergut region the system is repre- 
 sented by the Gosau beds, clays, and sandstones, which contain a rich 
 fauna, and rest, with unconformity, on Neocomian beds. They are approxi- 
 mately contemporaneous with the upper part of the English Chalk. In 
 Switzerland the * Sewenkalk,' with beds representing the Gault and Upper 
 Greensand of England, is well developed, and the whole system, together 
 with those of the Neocomian and Jurassic, is implicated in the great 
 folds on the N. margin of the Alps, as may be seen in the Bay of Uri by 
 the side of the Axenstrasse. The Cretaceous system is well represented, 
 generally by calcareous rocks, in the districts of the French Alps which 
 have been mentioned above. Of its occurrence on the S. side of the 
 Alps it may suffice to say that limestone is the dominant rock. This, in 
 the Venetian Alps, where it is the equivalent of the Senonian or Upper 
 Chalk, is an argillaceous limestone, stratified in thin layers, called 
 ' Scaglia, 3 containing sometimes flint nodules, and varying in colour from 
 white to dark red. In Lombardy this stage is represented by marly 
 limestones and sandstones. Flint also occurs in the hard and nearly 
 white limestones of I stria and Dalmatia, already mentioned, which are 
 singularly compact, and furnish a splendid building stone. The moun- 
 tains are rather barren, for much of the water disappears down swallow 
 holes and fissures. 
 
 Eocene {including Oligocene), — The great break which in England 
 separates the Secondary from the Tertiary series does not exist in the 
 Alps, for the Cretaceous system is followed in regular succession by the 
 Eocene, and in some places it is impossible to fix upon any well marked 
 line of separation between them, owing to the rarity of fossils. The beds 
 referred to the lower part of the Tertiary have commonly a rather peculiar 
 character, and recent investigations have shown that the group, to which 
 the name of Flysch has long been given, and of which the exact geological 
 position has been a matter of dispute, belongs really in one part of the 
 Alps to the Cretaceous and in another to the Eocene system. This 
 indicates, of course, that the physical conditions of which the Flysch is a 
 result began in one part of the Alps at an earlier date than they did in 
 another. The Flysch in the E. part of the Alps is more arenaceous in 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxxi 
 
 character than it is in the W. part, and takes the name of Vienna sand- 
 stone. Here, in the extreme E., it seems, so far as can be inferred from 
 the fossils (occasionally found), to begin even in the Neocomian period. 
 But in the Salzkammergut district it appears to be truly Cretaceous, and 
 W. of this to correspond with the higher members of the same system 
 together with part of the Eocene, for it is overlain by beds containing 
 nummulites. In the Algau districts (Bregenzerwald) the Flysch follows 
 upon the ' Sewenkalk,' where the latter represents the uppermost horizon 
 of the Cretaceous, and has thus gradually mounted to the threshold of 
 the Tertiary series, to which in Switzerland it is restricted. As in that 
 region beds containing nummulites are included in the upper part of the 
 Flysch, the latter must be the equivalent of the Eocene up to somewhere 
 about the horizon of the Middle Bagshot beds in England. The Flysch, 
 as distinguished by lithological characters, comes to an end about 
 Chambery, though Eocene beds are continued further southwards. 
 
 As the lithological peculiarities of the Flysch are more characteristic 
 of the Eocene system in the N. than in the S. zone of the Alps, it may be 
 convenient to describe them briefly before proceeding further. The 
 Flysch consists of clayey or sandy limestones, sandstones, and conglome- 
 rates or breccias, with shaly or slaty beds (sometimes largely developed), 
 which are frequently interbanded together, and form together a rather 
 conspicuously stratified group several hundred yards thick. As a rule 
 fossils are scarce, or consist only of obscure markings referred to plants, 
 or of the tracks of worms and other organisms, though occasionally in 
 certain localities a sufficiently abundant fauna has been discovered to 
 indicate the geological position of the deposit. The noted fossil fishes of 
 Glarus occur in strata corresponding with the uppermost Eocene or 
 Oligocene, and the Brown coal of Haringin the valley|of the Inn occupies 
 nearly the same horizon. 
 
 But the most interesting and most puzzling beds in the Flysch are the 
 conglomerates or breccias. These, in many localities, include erratic 
 blocks of great size, which long since attracted the notice of geologists. 
 One of the best known localities is the Habkernthal, within a few miles 
 of Interlaken. Another place, easily accessible, is on the road to 
 Ormonts-Dessus, a short distance above Sepey, but these boulders occur 
 in many other parts of the Alps. According to Dr. E. Fraas * 'they 
 extend along the whole Flysch zone,' and near Vienna on the Waschberg 
 and Holingsteinerberg, near Stockerau, contain huge erratic blocks, one 
 of the largest of which, a red granite, has been used as an appropriate 
 memorial to L. von Buch. Similarly, to the W., near Sonthofen, in the 
 Algau, and in Switzerland these foreign blocks are associated with a 
 great line of overthrust. The erratics, large and small, consist of man) 
 kinds of rock, sedimentary and crystalline, but some of the latter call for 
 special attention.* A diabase is conspicuous in the E. Alps ; but varieties 
 of this rock have also been found in the Swiss breccias. Those, 
 however, to which more attention has been paid are granites. Blocks of 
 this rock about four yards long, and more than thirty cubic yards in 
 volume, are not uncommon. In form they are generally somewhat 
 
 * Scenerie der Alpen, p. 257 (1892). 
 
 e 
 
Ixxxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 rounded, and resemble the blocks which have been lying for some time 
 in an Alpine torrent, rather than on a moraine. The interesting collection 
 from the Habkernthal in the Bern Museum contains about seven varieties 
 of granite ; most, if not all, of these are different from any known to the 
 writer as occurring in the neighbouring crystalline zone, or, as a rule, in 
 any other parts of the Alps. One of the most striking is a porphyritic 
 granite not unlike a variety common in the Schwarzwald.* In the Hab- 
 kernthal the Flysch, about the horizon of the boulders, is a brownish or 
 blackish mudstone, rudely fissile, perhaps cleaved, containing hard cal- 
 careous lumps, seemingly segregatory. It is interrupted by streaks and 
 lenticular patches of grit, conglomerate, or breccia. These, in some 
 places, are frequent, and very curiously interspersed ; this, however, may 
 be due to the breaking up (by subsequent earth movements) of larger 
 masses ; still the sudden and sporadic occurrence of these patches of 
 coarser material in the finer mudstone is very perplexing ; this peculiarity 
 and the aspect of the rocks themselves suggest that a load of grit and 
 boulders has been suddenly thrown down (almost as if it had been tipped 
 from a ballast waggon) in a deposit, which normally was more or less a 
 mudstone. In the Sepey district the mudstones, sandstones, finer and 
 coarser conglomerates are distinctly interbanded, but the biggish blocks, 
 which sometimes are almost, if not quite, as large as those in the Hab- 
 kernthal, occur sporadically. For instance, in one place a rather egg- 
 shaped block of granite, about nine feet by six, lies in a bed of conglo- 
 merate (the materials of which are more or less rounded, but can hardly 
 be called good ' pebbles'), about four yards thick, in which the other 
 fragments range from about two feet in diameter downwards. In another 
 place, a block, perhaps even larger, is apparently almost isolated in the 
 ordinary mudstone. In the Ormonts valley, however, many of these 
 boulders consist of a grey granite or gneiss, and more closely resemble 
 Alpine types. 
 
 To account satisfactorily for the presence of these erratics is no easy 
 task. Some geologists regard them as the relics of a vanished mountain 
 range, which, at that epoch, existed to the N. of the region where these 
 erratics now occur, or as indications of an ancient shore line. Still this 
 solution of the problem presents serious difficulties. The beds, as a 
 whole, do not resemble an ordinary shore deposit in the neighbourhood 
 of low reefs or low cliffs, and, if the action of torrents be invoked to explain 
 the presence of bands of conglomerates and of large boulders in a group 
 of strata generally fine-grained, these could only have descended from a 
 rather lofty mountain range, and it is very strange that all other traces of 
 it should have so completely vanished since Eocene times. If, however, 
 we suppose mountains to have existed on the site of the present Alps, 
 then their crystalline rocks must often have differed from any which are 
 now exposed. Indeed, neither supposition removes the main difficulty — 
 namely, how these large blocks were transported. It seems impossible 
 to suppose that the lower Habkernthal could have been the site of a great 
 range of crystalline rocks in Eocene times. In that case Secondary 
 rocks should be absent from the neighbourhood of the Lakes of Thun and 
 
 * Something like the lighter variety of the Shapfell granite in England. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxxiii 
 
 Brienz. If then these blocks have travelled for some distance, how did 
 they come ? Either bergs or rafts of shore ice seem to be the only 
 possible modes of conveyance. But to this supposition the palseontolo- 
 gical evidence is directly opposed, for, according to it, the temperature 
 throughout Eocene ages was always higher, and often very much higher, 
 than it is at present ; hence that the winters should be cold enough to 
 form coast ice seems impossible, and that glaciers should reach the sea 
 hardly more probable. Thus these erratics must remain for the present 
 among the unsolved problems of geology. 
 
 On the S. side of the chain Eocene deposits are restricted to the E. 
 part, where they present more than one feature of interest. In the 
 Vicentin district the ' Scaglia ' beds, which form the uppermost part of 
 the Cretaceous system, are followed by a group of deposits, among which 
 basaltic cliffs afford proofs of contemporaneous volcanic action. Over 
 these, in the Middle Eocene, come the calcareous shales of Monte Bolca, 
 which have been for long noted for their numerous fossil fishes and plants ; 
 in other districts further E., at about the same level, are beds with fora- 
 minifera (nummulites and alveolina). In the Vicentin, at a somewhat 
 higher level, are beds of fresh-water origin, containing brown coal ; with 
 these is associated the most important lava-flow (basalt) in the district, 
 which sometimes attains a thickness of about ioo yards. The remainder 
 of the Eocene, and part of the Oligocene, is represented by the noted 
 fossiliferous deposits of Castel Gomberto (among which are some tuffs) ; 
 these are generally assigned to the Middle Oligocene, though in some 
 places they also belong to the Upper. The top of this group is formed 
 by fresh-water deposits. Further W. the Eocene is not well represented, 
 and its upper parts assume the aspect of the Flysch. 
 
 Between the latest of the Eocene or Oligocene deposits in the Alpine 
 region and the earliest of the Miocene a considerable time must have 
 elapsed, and great physical changes occurred, for, during that interval, 
 the Alps came into existence as a mountain chain. Doubtless their 
 growth was slow. In the N.E. district it began, as we have seen, as 
 early as the beginning of the Cretaceous era, but further to the W. no 
 evidence is found of any marked disturbances at this date. Probably, 
 however, a larger area was affected during the Eocene age, and the 
 movements became more marked, as the disturbing forces acted with 
 greater intensity, during the Oligocene era.* 
 
 In the Central and Western Alps the latest beds implicated in this 
 series of movements are referred to the Lower Oligocene. Beds of this, 
 or of late Eocene age, are now found at great elevations, as on the 
 Diablerets (10,650 ft) and the Pointe de Salles (8,183 ft.), while in the 
 Aiguilles d'Arves they reach 11,520 ft. The earliest deposits which 
 apparently formed outside the zone of upheaval are referred to the 
 middle of the Oligocene ; these, however, are limited in extent while 
 the representatives of the remainder of that system and of the Miocene 
 are spread over a much wider area. The beds consist largely of sand- 
 stones and conglomerates. These, for the most part, are of fresh-water 
 
 * The Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of many geologists. 
 e 2 
 
lxxxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 origin, but the occasional intercalation of marine deposits shows that 
 the sea was still near at hand. 
 
 On the N. border of the chain these conglomerates, called nagelfluh, 
 sometimes, as in the Rigi and the Speer, attain a great thickness. They 
 present many resemblances to the stratified gravels on the lowlands 
 N. and S. of the present chain, and were obviously deposited by strong 
 and rapid rivers. Although a few pebbles of crystalline rock have not 
 yet been identified in situ in the Alps, it can hardly be doubted that the 
 nagelfluh represents the deltas of rivers, which flowed from the Alps as 
 they then existed. These conglomerates are now referred to the upper 
 part of the Miocene.* The molasse (mostly sandstone), in many places, 
 has yielded abundant plant remains ; the fauna is sometimes marine, or 
 brackish- water, but is more frequently terrestrial or fresh- water, as at 
 Oeningen. From this locality came, with many other vertebrates, the 
 skeleton of a large salamander, which was described by J. J. Scheuchzer 
 as homo diluvii testis. 
 
 Deposits of a character generally similar to the Swiss molasse (sand- 
 stones with occasional conglomerates or shales) may be traced along the 
 border of the Alps on both sides of the chain ; these indicate that the 
 Miocene era was one of extensive and active denudation. With its repre- 
 sentatives the geological record in the Alpine regions practically closed, 
 for beds of Pliocene age are few, local, and unimportant. That era was 
 probably marked, especially in the Central Alps, by another epoch of 
 great earth movements, by which the deposits just named were sometimes 
 elevated, as in the Rigi and the Speer, about 6,000 ft. above the sea. 
 That period also, and all the subsequent time down to the present day, 
 has been characterised in the Alps by denudation rather than by depo- 
 sition. True, the Alpine rivers have spread deposits of sand and gravel, 
 in some cases far from thin, over the lowland valleys ; the Alpine 
 glaciers, during their epoch of greatest extension, built up their moraines 
 even beyond the mountains ; the same glaciers, as they retreated, have 
 scattered erratics over the district, and in several places have covered it 
 with a mantle of boulder clay. According to some geologists these ice 
 streams have left a record of their passage in the excavation of the basins 
 of the great Alpine lakes. But this is a moot question, which will be 
 more fully discussed below. It is, however, certain that since the end 
 of Miocene times the N. margin of the Alps has never been washed by 
 the waves of the sea. The S. side of the chain has also been above 
 water, but probably the valley of the Po, during Miocene ages, at least, 
 formed a shallow gulf, which gradually became filled up. There may 
 have been some slight general elevation of the district, but probably the 
 accumulation of materials, brought down by the rivers, would suffice to 
 bring the surface to its present level. 
 
 Pleistoce?ie.\ — The deposits formed during this period are in most dis- 
 tricts so insignificant in extent that they might be passed over without 
 notice, were it not for the special interest that attaches to the history of 
 the operations which were in progress in the Alps during the time thus 
 
 * By some geologists they are placed on a rather lower horizon. 
 
 t This section, with some omissions, is retained from the first edition. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxxv 
 
 covered. These operations, whatever they may have been, have resulted 
 in the transport of enormous quantities of solid matter from the inner and 
 higher parts of the chain to the wide channels of the main valleys, and to 
 the low country surrounding the base of the Alps. This transported 
 matter is of three kinds, each of which deserves a brief notice. 
 
 i. The Ancient Alluvium. — This is present to a greater or less extent 
 on all sides of the Alps, and in the bottoms of most of the great valleys, 
 but is mainly developed on the S. side of the chain, and may there be 
 studied to the best advantage. To this is referred the masses of rolled 
 stones, composed of crystalline or harder sedimentary rocks, that at a 
 slight depth beneath the surface are seen to spread along the valley of 
 the Po, extending to a variable distance from the foot of the mountains, 
 and along the course of the wider and deeper valleys. A deposit of 
 similar character, covered only by a thin skin of vegetable soil, covers the 
 plain of Friuli, from the Piave to the Isonzo, and, in some places at least 
 forms beds of considerable depth. 
 
 2. Moraine Deposits. — In a subsequent page the reader will find a brief 
 notice of the geological action of glaciers, where the nature of those 
 masses of mineral matter which are borne down from the upper regions 
 of the Alps to the lower valleys, and are known by the name of moraines, 
 is more fully described. At many points in valleys, to which, as we know 
 from other evidence, glaciers formerly extended, mounds of transported 
 matter, including large angular blocks irregularly dispersed through 
 gravel and fine sand, still exist, and at the opening of the great valleys on 
 the S. side of the Alps similar mounds appear on a great scale, sometimes 
 forming hills of considerable height. Those which surround the S. side 
 of the Lake of Garda are fully 35 miles in length, and some of them, as 
 that of Solferino, are nearly 500 ft. in height. The ancient moraines 
 opposite the opening of the valley of the Dora Baltea are on a still 
 grander scale. 
 
 3. Glacial Silt. — The action of glaciers in pulverising the underlying 
 rocks, and transporting the materials to a distance in the form of ex- 
 tremely fine mud, is referred to in Art. XIV. (on Glaciers.) Accurate 
 measures are wanting to show the amount of solid matter thus annually 
 transported from the Alps to the lower valleys, to the bottom of lakes, 
 and to the sea. Whatever that amount may be, it must have been much 
 greater during the period when all the valleys of the Alps were traversed 
 by glaciers, and an extent of surface was exposed to the grinding action 
 of those glaciers 20 or 30 times as great as the beds of existing ice- 
 streams. A large share of this deposit must have been carried into the 
 valley of the Po, and when beyond the reach of the ancient allmium this 
 must be the chief constituent of the subsoil. 
 
 4. The Growth and Sculpture of the Alps. 
 
 Though the subject has already been mentioned indirectly, the ques- 
 tions involved are so difficult that something may be gained by regarding 
 it for a moment from a different point of view. 
 
 The Alps, as has been already said, commence their history as a 
 mountain chain about the middle of the Tertiary era. This is generally 
 
lxxxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 admitted, but difficulties begin when we attempt to pass beyond that 
 general statement. In any speculations as to the earliest chapters in the 
 chronicle much, of course, must depend on the views held as to the age of 
 the crystalline schists. Many geologists have maintained that not a few 
 of these are metamorphosed rocks of Palaeozoic or even later ages. For 
 this opinion the writer, as already said, not only can find no warrant, but 
 also can produce much evidence to prove the great antiquity of those 
 crystalline rocks of which the higher peaks and ranges are wholly, or 
 almost wholly, composed. The Silurian and Devonian strata of the N.E. 
 Alps, if he may judge from the results of a limited investigation, have 
 derived their materials from older crystalline rocks, which, however, may 
 not have occupied the site of the existing Alps. But in Carboniferous 
 ages the grits and conglomerates, full of fragments from the adjoining 
 region, indicate that even then the Alpine region was one of hills, if not of 
 mountains. Moreover these fragments often exhibit structures that prove 
 that the parent rocks, prior to this era, had been affected by potent earth 
 movements. It is, however, hopeless to attempt any restoration of the 
 physical geography of the Alpine region during the Carboniferous period. 
 No more can be said than that from the W. of the Gailthal to the S. of 
 Dauphine bold and fairly lofty hills must have alternated with marshy 
 lowlands : the one giving birth to strong streams ; the other supporting, 
 not infrequently, a luxuriant vegetation. The Carboniferous period 
 was followed by another epoch of mountain-making, certainly not less 
 pronounced, which appears to have affected more especially Switzerland 
 and the Western Alps. There the Carboniferous deposits were folded, 
 often sharply, like a pamphlet shut up in a book, between the underlying 
 crystalline masses, and these disturbances were followed by denudation, 
 probably considerable and long continued. In many places, as near Le 
 Freney, in Dauphine, and in the Bifertengrat, on the E. side of the Todi, 
 secondary strata may be seen resting both on the crystalline schists and 
 the denuded edges of the infolded Carboniferous deposits, thus indicating 
 that in parts of the Alps there is a great break between the last members 
 of the Primary, or Palaeozoic, series and the first of the Secondary, which 
 corresponds with an epoch of disturbance comparable with that which gave 
 birth to the present mountain chain. Of the outlines and contours of these 
 pre-Secondary mountains nothing positive can be said. But, as will be ex- 
 plained, there is some reason to think that the folds, at any rate over a con- 
 siderable area, trended not far away from N.N.E. to S.S.W. The area, 
 however, occupied by these mountains did not wholly correspond with the 
 present Alpine region. The sea, for instance, must have covered the latter to 
 some distance W. of the Lake of Garda, at any rate from early Permian 
 times,* for here, as already mentioned, the great outbursts of volcanic 
 material are associated with, and followed by, a mass of marine deposits, 
 which continue through the Trias and Rhaetic into the Jurassic period. 
 Seeing that the united thickness of the deposits, from the base of the 
 Permian to the top of the Rhaetic, can be hardly less in some parts of the 
 Dolomite district than 9,000 feet, and that, in many parts of the Alps, the 
 
 • In the Gailthal Permian deposits appear to rest conformably on Carboniferous, both being 
 marine. See Dr. E. Fraas, Scenerie der Aipen, p. 86. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxxvii 
 
 Permian and Trias, as already stated, are either absent or very feebly and 
 irregularly represented, and that the succeeding Jurassic beds usually 
 are extremely well developed, we can hardly doubt that the first-named 
 period saw the beginning of a long age of subsidence (perhaps initiated 
 by the volcanic outbursts). 
 
 By the end of the Triassic period the greater part of these pre- 
 Secondary Alps must have disappeared under water. The mountain 
 ranges must have been replaced by lines of rocky islands, till at last the 
 highest peaks alone rose above the sea as monuments of a drowned land, 
 like the Lofoten islands, at the present day, on the W. coast of Norway. 
 There is no reason to doubt that this downward movement continued 
 practically throughout the Secondary era, but a minor question of some 
 interest may be asked, to which opposite answers have been given. Did 
 these islands remain above water until the Alps began once more to rise, 
 and are they now represented by certain areas of the existing ranges, or 
 did ' this silence of the central sea ' prevail for a time where the mountain 
 peaks once rose, and now have risen again ? Many geologists, among 
 whom E. Fraas may be quoted, are of opinion that the sea was always 
 interrupted by long narrow islands which corresponded in direction with 
 the present mountain ranges. Something may be said in favour of this 
 view, but the writer thinks that, if any islands escaped submergence, they 
 must have been very small. For instance, in several parts of the Pennine 
 Alps little patches of ' Rauchwacke ' still remain in the heart of the 
 crystalline districts* S. of the Rhone valley, which are identical with the 
 deposit underlying the Jurassic in the same valley. As the latter system 
 attains to a considerable thickness, and as the present differences in level, 
 at which it now occurs, can be shown to be due to post- Secondary dis- 
 turbances, it is highly probable that the ' Rauchwacke ' was succeeded by 
 other Secondary deposits, or, in other words, that the whole region was 
 gradually submerged. Another point also must not be forgotten. In 
 these Secondary deposits conglomerates are rare, and even beds of sand- 
 stone not very abundant. Their materials are fairly uniform in character. 
 The Alpine Lias, like that of England, seems to point to the action of 
 large rivers, with embouchures not very remote, and the existence of con- 
 tinental land, yet not quite close at hand. It might, indeed, be urged 
 that a mountainous region, in subsiding, broke up into islands, and that 
 its valleys were converted into fiords. If so, no doubt it would supply 
 but little coarse material ; still it could hardly fail to interfere with the 
 continuity of the deposits, and the general aspect of the Lower Second- 
 ary rocks in the Alps leads the writer to infer that their materials were 
 laid down over an area comparatively uninterrupted, and were derived 
 from a region at some little distance. 
 
 So for long ages deposition went on over the Alpine area ; if there- 
 was any interruption to, or discontinuity in, the subsidence, it was only 
 local. The first sign of an upward movement occurs, as already stated, 
 between the Neocomian and the Cretaceous period, and this only in the 
 E. Alps. From the lithological character of the Vienna sandstone, or 
 Flysch, of the E. Alps, it seems probable that by the close of the Neoco- 
 mian period denudation had begun in that region, though there is no 
 proof, so far as the writer is aware, that a mountain range, in the ordinary 
 
Ixxxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 sense of the words, had been as yet produced. But the Alps had begun 
 to grow ; and the movements gradually extended westward, though, as 
 far as can be ascertained, nothing like a mountain system existed in the 
 latter region until after the nummulitic group had been deposited. Then, 
 in late Eocene or in early Oligocene times, if the more modern grouping 
 be preferred, the Alps apparently rather rapidly became a great mountain 
 chain. But it must be remembered that though the uprising of the Alps 
 is assigned, as a matter of convenience, to a particular geological epoch, 
 no more is meant than that deposits prior to this epoch afford no indica- 
 tions of the existence of mountains, while those posterior supply ample 
 evidence. But the chain may have continued to develope itself steadily 
 for long ages after the epoch thus selected as a date. Accordingly the 
 inner zones of the Alps very probably continued to rise, while the nagel- 
 fluh and molasse were deposited on the lowlands outside the chain, 
 where very likely there was a corresponding subsidence. 
 
 But to this process also an end came towards the close of Miocene 
 times. New disturbances began, produced apparently by thrusts from 
 the S., or rather outwards from the plain of the Po and the head of the 
 Adriatic, which, while they gave a general uplift to the bordering low- 
 lands of France, Switzerland, and Austria, most intensely affected the 
 middle part of the chain — that is, roughly speaking, the districts of the 
 Oberland and Glarus Alps. The N. margin of this zone affords remark- 
 able examples of folding and overthrust-faulting. The uplifted nagelfluh 
 forms hills, which rise considerably more than 4,000 feet above the general 
 level of the lowlands ; in some places, as near the Rigi Scheidegg, the 
 Eocene beds were thrust over the Miocene. Then also, in all probability, 
 the remarkable double fold* of the Glarus region (described by Heim), 
 and the complicated over-folding and faulting in the N. buttresses of the 
 Jungfrau, unravelled by Baltzer, were, if not originated, at any rate 
 brought to their present condition. 
 
 As the result of these movements, which doubtless were long continued, 
 and perhaps may hardly yet have entirely ceased, the present mountain 
 system of the Alps has been upraised. They have been carved by the 
 destructive processes of Nature (to be presently indicated) into their 
 present form ; these have acted simultaneously with the upraising, and 
 are certainly not yet at rest. 
 
 There is a question, however, which is still unanswered : Were the 
 Alps formed by the inosculation of two chains produced by separate 
 movements at different times, or are they a single chain, of which the E. 
 end began to be developed at an earlier epoch than the W. one ? Not a 
 few authorities of the first rank approve the former view, the leading 
 features of which may be briefly sketched as follows.t 
 
 The Alps are formed by the combination of two curved chains, the 
 convexities of both being turned towards the N.W. ; the outline of each 
 of these two chains can be roughly compared with that of a pocket pistol, 
 and they are so placed that their * barrels ' are nearly parallel, the muzzle 
 of one touching the convex part of the handle of the other. 
 
 * Probably the folding is associated with thrust faults. 
 
 t Much of the following account is taken from a summary by Mr. J. Eccles {Alpine Journal, 
 xv. p. 561 sgg.) of Dr. C. Diener's work entitled Der Gebirgsbau der West-Alfien (1891). 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. lxxxix 
 
 The West chain commences at the Maritime Alps, and consists of two 
 principal crystalline zones — indicating regions of maximum disturbance 
 — named respectively after Monte Rosa and Mont Blanc, between which 
 is a zone (part of the Brian^onnais) mainly consisting of sedimentary 
 deposits, and forming an infolded trough. There is also an outer sedi- 
 mentary zone, beyond which are others, less well defined, and more 
 limited in extent, including the zone of the molasse and the chain of the 
 Jura. The Monte Rosa zone extends from near Cuneo, in Piedmont, to 
 the Adula group ; it includes the central nuclei of the Cottian and Graian 
 Alps, the group of Monte Rosa, with the neighbouring peaks, and the 
 Alps of Ticino. In this zone the arrangement of the beds, broadly 
 speaking, is comparatively uniform throughout, consisting, in the W. part, 
 mainly of a regular series of anticlinals of moderate elevation, affected 
 only by local disturbances, while further E., in the more central portion 
 of the zone, steep dips and generally more complicated conditions prevail. 
 This zone comes to an end about the Blegno and Leventina valleys, on 
 the E. side of which the dip of its beds makes a high angle with that of 
 the beds in a chain running S. from the Adula group. The Mont Blanc 
 zone has been subjected to much greater disturbance, and is a region of 
 intense lateral pressure. This zone begins in the Maritime Alps, and 
 can be traced over a region often occupied by Secondary or Tertiary 
 rocks, by occasionally outcropping crystalline masses, such as the 
 Pelvoux, Grandes Rousses, and Belledonne groups. It follows, there- 
 fore, that over this region (and the same holds further N.) the zone 
 exhibits a rather complicated structure, and consists of more than a 
 single fold. It passes on through the Mont Blanc group and the parallel 
 range of the Brevent, crosses the Rhone valley near Vernayaz, and runs 
 through the Bernese Oberland to beyond the Reuss. In places, as in 
 Mont Blanc itself, the fan structure is strongly developed. The Adula 
 group, as it strikes approximately at right angles to the trend of the 
 Monte Rosa group, cannot, according to Dr. Diener, be part of the 
 system of the Western Alps. In the East chain, which it begins, the beds 
 turn gradually eastwards, until at last they trend continuously nearly in 
 that direction. The essential structure of the Eastern system is a cen- 
 tral crystalline zone flanked by calcareous and other sedimentary rocks ; 
 it is thus more simple than that of the W. half of the Alps. 
 
 By Dr. Diener's theory of the separate origin of the two parts of the 
 Alpine chain several difficulties in its structure are explained : notably 
 the way in which the Alpine chain appears to broaden out in approaching 
 the Lake of Garda, the marked N.N.E. and S.S.W. trend of the sedi- 
 mentary deposits in this and the adjoining regions, and the apparently 
 more complicated structure of the W. half of the Alps. But it creates 
 other difficulties. For instance, the sedimentary deposits on the margin 
 of the Alps appear to extend from E. to W. without any break such as 
 the junction of two chains might be expected to present, and the structure 
 of the outer zone seems to accord better with the hypothesis that the 
 Alps were the result of sets of simultaneous movements, but that the 
 later disturbances acted more powerfully in the central than in the E. 
 region. Moreover, while the existence of a cross trend in the strata 
 {i.e. from N.N.E. to S.S.W.) is most perceptible about the Lake of 
 
XC INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Garda, it is by no means restricted to that region.* 'The Order massif 
 and the district to its N. seem indicative of another and less clearly 
 marked parallel trough j the rather abrupt cessation of the region of 
 Secondary rock, on the S. side, near that end of the Lago Maggiore, and 
 the remarkable bend of the watershed of the Pennine chain, on the E. 
 side of the Vispthal, also suggest the effect of an anticlinal running in 
 the same direction ; while, yet further W., to beyond Mont Blanc, the 
 general trend, both of the ridges of crystalline rock and of the troughs 
 of Secondary, suggests similar disturbances. Obviously the whole course 
 of the chain for a long distance S. of Mont Blanc corresponds with the 
 same line of folding, but this might be an accidental coincidence. It 
 can, however, hardly be a mere chance that the central massif of Dau- 
 phine, with the parallel crystalline ranges of the Grandes Rousses and 
 Belledonne, project so markedly in a S.S.W. direction, though the water- 
 shed of the Alpine chain is already beginning to curve towards the east- 
 ward side of a circle of longitude.' f These considerations have led the 
 writer to suggest that this structure is a record of older disturbances. 
 1 These folds may be due to earth movements which are pre-Triassic, but 
 not improbably post- Carboniferous, in age. Certainly the deep sea, 
 which, as already pointed out, covered the greater part of the E. Alps 
 in Triassic times, appears to have shallowed rapidly westwards, and 
 its coast in that direction to have had a general trend much nearer 
 N. and S. than E. and W. The direction of the ridges of older rock in 
 the Schwarzwald and Vosges agrees with this, as does the position and 
 direction of the most important watershed in the Cevennes — namely, that 
 from which the Allier and the main stream of the Loire descend — which 
 also appears to be in intimate relation with the whole series of earth 
 movements which have affected DauphineV % But further study of the 
 Alps is necessary before the difficulties of this problem can be completely 
 overcome. 
 
 The sculpturing of a mountain region is a subject which presents 
 fewer difficulties than it formerly did. The peaks and valleys have alike 
 been hewn out by Nature's carving tools, by the heat and the frost, the 
 rain, the stream, and the glacier. This action, doubtless, has been modified 
 and directed by the earth movements. Obviously before wave can batter, 
 or river furrow, rocks must be upheaved from the quiet depths of ocean, 
 and exposed to the action of the elements. The effects also of these 
 cannot fail to be modified by the strike and dip of the rock masses, by 
 the existence of folds and faults, by the alternation of hard and soft 
 material. But while valleys may be connected with synclinal folds or 
 anticlinal fissures, while their direction may have been affected by the 
 slope of the rising ground or the outcrops of particular rocks, while they 
 may have been guided or even initiated by faults, there is no ground for 
 supposing that any one valley — not even such a gorge as that of the 
 
 * This synclinal trough, though less conspicuous N. of the line joining Meran and Bozen, seems 
 traceable as far as Innsbruck, and is indicated by the outliers of Secondary rock on either side of 
 the Brenner railway N. of Sterzing. 
 
 f See the writer's ' Tyndall Lectures ' for 1888 on the ' Growth and Structure of the Alps,' in the 
 Alpine Journal, vol. xiv. p. 106. 
 
 + Ibid. p. 107. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. xci 
 
 Tamina, or of the Trient — is in any proper sense a fissure. Whatever 
 cracks may have been produced in the terrestrial crust by the strains of 
 earth movements, the forces of Nature have worked so long and so vigo- 
 rously on the lines sketched out that they have obliterated them as com- 
 pletely as the tools of the carver destroy the design pencilled on a piece 
 of wood. 
 
 At the present day the subject of mountain sculpture generally receives 
 full notice in text-books of Geology, and some details in that of the Alps 
 have been discussed by the writer in three lectures published in the 
 ' Alpine Journal,' * so that a brief outline may suffice. The valleys in a hill 
 district, as a rule, may be divided into valleys of dip, or those which cor- 
 respond in direction with the dip of the strata, and valleys of strike, or 
 those which follow the trend of the beds. The former, as produced by 
 the more rapid streams, are commonly narrower and steeper and more 
 gorge-like ; the latter, as excavated by rivers which have only a slow fall, 
 are broader, more level, and enclosed by less abrupt slopes. The form, 
 however, obviously depends much on the nature and structure of the 
 rocks, and a traveller, with but a slight knowledge of geology, soon finds 
 little difficulty in understanding the relation of the course of a river to the 
 rocks which it traverses. Thus the valley of the Rhine, above Chur, and 
 that of the Rhone, above Martigny, are, broadly speaking, valleys of strike. 
 Their general direction is parallel with the outcropping edges or trough- 
 like infolds of the softer sedimentary rocks, and these are modified, more 
 especially in the second case, by irregularities in the outline of the under- 
 lying crystalline masses. The rivers which traverse the sedimentary zone, 
 between the Lake of Geneva and the course of the I sere below Grenoble, 
 as they make their way from their sources in the mountains to the border- 
 ing lowlands, often exhibit very conspicuously valleys of strike alternating 
 with valleys of dip. 
 
 When the Alps first began to rise definitely above the sea their water- 
 shed must have been determined by the highest ground, and with this 
 the present one may be roughly compared. Hence in the Tyrol the cen- 
 tral range may have always been the watershed of the chain, and may 
 thus indicate the zone in which the uplift has been the greatest. But, as 
 a consequence either of the combination of two separate chains or of a 
 complication due to the existence of an earlier structure, as suggested 
 above, the line of watershed seems to run irregularly from the Oetzthal 
 group along the Ortler group, and to betake itself to follow a range which 
 apparently corresponds with the S. one in the E. Alps. But this change 
 of direction, as the writer has pointed out in the lectures already men- 
 tioned, may be more apparent than real, due partly to removal by denud- 
 ation of the westward extension of the Dolomite group, and to complica- 
 tions introduced, especially in the region of the Central Alps, by the 
 second series of mountain-making movements. The inference, at any 
 rate, seems legitimate that when the river valleys of the Central Alps were 
 first defined the Oberland range can have offered but little obstruction to 
 the northward flow of water, so that this part of Switzerland must then 
 have more closely resembled in its structure the Central Tyrol. When 
 
 * Vol. xiv. pp. 38-50, 105 118, 221 235. 
 
XCll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the former range began to assume a more grandiose aspect, owing to the 
 later series of disturbances, it must have been uplifted slowly enough to 
 allow the Rhine, the Reuss, and the Rhone to keep open their channel of 
 exit, by sawing down into the rising mass. 
 
 Two remarkable features in the Alpine valleys may be briefly noticed 
 before quitting this subject. One is that occasionally the watershed 
 between the valleys of strike, belonging to two distinct river systems, is very 
 ill marked. Notable examples are to be found on the Reschen Scheideck 
 between the drainage of the Inn and the Etsch, and on the Toblacher 
 plateau, between the Rienz and the Drave. These may be explained by 
 supposing that denudation has been more active at the head of one of 
 the valleys, so that part of the territory of one of the river systems has 
 been, so to say, annexed by the other as it has cut away the rising ground 
 by which the two basins were once divided. A similar explanation may 
 be offered for the second feature, viz. that the watershed between two 
 river systems not unfrequently lies very near one end of an almost level 
 trough, which overlooks a steep descent. The most conspicuous instance 
 of this structure is presented by the Maloja Pass. The summit is a long 
 and nearly level valley ; the watershed, close to the Kulm, is so faintly 
 marked that a cutting, a very few yards deep, would divert the waters of 
 the nearest lake down the precipitous descent into the Val Bregaglia. 
 This and similar structures may be attributed to the more rapid erosive 
 action of the streams draining towards Italy. The original * divide ' 
 between the waters of the Inn and of the Maira may have been situated 
 as far S. as Vicosoprano, so that the streams from the valleys now occu- 
 pied by the Forno and Albigna glaciers may once have been received by 
 the Inn. On most of the great mountain high roads a comparatively level 
 * trough,' exists at the top of the pass, though the structure generally is 
 not so marked as in the case of the Maloja. 
 
 The interesting question of the origin of the Alpine lakes is briefly 
 noticed in the next section, so that it may suffice to say that, in the 
 writer's opinion, some of the smaller tarns may be exceptional results of 
 the erosive action of glaciers ; some are formed by moraines, and some, like 
 the Lago d' Alleghe, by dams produced by bergfalls. In many lakes, 
 both large and small, the level of the water is raised by debris, which 
 has been thrown down either by one of these two causes or by tribu- 
 tary streams. But it seems impossible to attribute the greater Alpine 
 lakes to glacial erosion, for not only is there no evidence that glaciers 
 under ordinary circumstances ever excavate basins, but also it is clear 
 that in the Alps their effects have been comparatively superficial, and 
 of secondary importance on the rocks over which they have passed. 
 These larger basins, in the writer's opinion, have been produced by 
 unequal movements in the floor of valleys, already excavated by the 
 ordinary processes of denudation, and are thus comparatively modern 
 features in the physical structure of the Alps. The deltas at their 
 heads and the division between the Lake of Thun and of Brienz, are of 
 course yet later in date, and are continually increasing in size. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. xcii 
 
 5. The Glacial Period* 
 
 As we have already seen, the relative level of the different portions of 
 the Alpine chain has undergone no considerable change since the close 
 of the Tertiary Period. This latest portion, however, of the history of 
 the Alps is not less interesting, for it is marked by the extraordinary 
 extension of the glaciers. 
 
 It is impossible here to enter into any detail of the evidence upon 
 which the present conclusions of geologists have been based, and still 
 less to refer to the prolonged discussions to which at every step they 
 were subjected — discussions which ultimately served to establish the new 
 theory upon more decisive proof, than if it had been more easily accepted. 
 
 In the brief description which is given (Art. XIV.) of the phenomena 
 of existing glaciers, it has been shown that amongst other operations 
 they transport large quantities of mineral matter from the upper ridges of 
 the Alps to the lower valleys ; that this transported matter consists 
 partly of large blocks, partly of smaller stones and gravel. It is seen 
 that a portion of these blocks are stranded upon the bank of the glacier, 
 while others are carried down to its lower end, where, if the shape of 
 the ground be favourable, and the glacier remain long enough sta- 
 tionary, they, along with the rest of the transported materials, enter into 
 the formation of a terminal moraine. Again, it is seen that by the 
 passage of a glacier, the bottom and sides of the valley are subjected to 
 a peculiar process of smoothing and polishing, which leaves its tokens 
 permanently impressed on the general form of the rocks, and on the 
 condition of their surface. Finally, it appears that the pressure of the 
 glacier against the bottom and sides of the valley reduces the rocks and 
 gravel that find their way to the bottom partly to fine mud, and partly to 
 flattened pebbles, scored by the friction they have encountered in the 
 rocky bed of the glacier. 
 
 It has long been known that blocks, sometimes of great dimensions, 
 and composed of rock utterly different from that of the district in which 
 they are found, are scattered through the lower parts of the main valleys 
 of the Alps, and over the low country at their base. Such blocks, with 
 their edges still fresh, and without trace of violent transport, are seen 
 resting on steep slopes. Further enquiry showed that in the places where 
 these blocks were deposited, the rock in situ is often rounded and 
 grooved — nay, even, that when hard enough, it has preserved the finer 
 striae and polish which we see under the beds of existing glaciers. One 
 after another the moraines, the glacial mud, and the scored pebbles were 
 discovered at long distances from the present limits of the glaciers, but 
 associated with the distribution of the erratic blocks ; and these appear- 
 ances were shown not to be confined to the Alps, but to be equally distinct 
 in other mountain districts, as, for instance, in the British islands, during 
 the same recent geological period. 
 
 Though it was sustained by able advocates, foremost amongst whom 
 must be reckoned the late M. Charpentier, the theory which accounted 
 for the dispersion of the erratic blocks by the agency of extinct glaciei > 
 
 * This section is retained with little change from the first edition. 
 
XC1V INTRODUCTION. 
 
 encountered much opposition. It has perhaps suffered more from the 
 exaggerations of some of its supporters than from the criticism of its 
 opponents. At present the original controversy is nearly set at rest. The 
 absolute identity of the operations of existing glaciers with the facts 
 traceable throughout the Alps, and other mountain countries, has over- 
 come the reluctance of many eminent geologists to admit the new theory, 
 and the former extension of glaciers over a wide area in the Alps, and 
 elsewhere, is now one of the admitted data of geological science. 
 
 The evidence is in some respects more complete and convincing on the 
 southern than on the northern side of the Alps ; and it is probable that 
 if the phenomena had been sooner studied in that region, the period of 
 resistance to the new theory would have been abridged. It has been 
 fully proved that nearly all the secondary valleys that open into the 
 valley of the Po were traversed by great glaciers which extended down 
 as far as the opening of the valley, and in some instances, as already 
 mentioned, were protruded into the plain. 
 
 On the north side of the Alps the area occupied by the ancient glaciers 
 was even more extensive. The glacier of the Rhone, with a vast number 
 of affluents poured into it from the tributary valleys of the Pennine and 
 Bernese Alps, not only filled the basin of the Lake of Geneva, but 
 also covered a great portion of the plain of Switzerland, and reached to a 
 considerable height on the flanks of the Jura. 
 
 A map showing the distribution of the erratic blocks in Switzerland 
 has been published by M. Escher von der Linth ; a similar map, including 
 the Alps of Lombardy and a part of Piedmont, accompanies a memoir 
 by M. Omboni in the 2nd volume of ' Atti della Societa Italiana di Scienze 
 Naturali.' 
 
 In the 3rd volume of the ' Acts ' of the same society, M. G. de Mortillet 
 has published a more complete map of the ancient glaciers of the Italian 
 side of the Alps, with an interesting memoir, in which he discusses at 
 length various questions to which in this brief essay it is impossible to 
 do justice. The latest speculations upon the part played by glaciers in 
 the past history of the Alps lead to conclusions that have not as yet 
 gained the general agreement of geologists. M. de Mortillet, M. Gas- 
 taldi, and other distinguished Italian geologists hold that during the 
 period preceding the utmost extension of the glaciers, the Italian lakes 
 were filled with the waterworn materials that constitute the so called 
 ancient alluvium, and that the cavities so filled were scooped out by the 
 action of the glaciers when they descended into the lake basins. Other 
 theorists, and among them the eminent English geologist, Sir A. Ramsay, 
 have gone further still, and have sought to prove that the ancient glaciers 
 were competent not only to clear out the bed of a lake, supposing it filled 
 with alluvium, but to excavate the rock-basin itself. When we recollect 
 the depth of the Italian lakes, which vary from 900 feet in the Lake of 
 Lugano to over 2,600 feet in the Lago Maggiore, we feel that more 
 cogent evidence than any yet produced is required before we can admit 
 the probability of even the more moderate of these hypotheses. The 
 subject is interesting from its novelty as well as its geological importance ; 
 but, pending its further discussion, we concur in the objections to the 
 new theories urged by Mr. Ball in the 'Philosophical Magazine' for 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. XCV 
 
 February and December 1863.* On somewhat similar grounds we can 
 give no credence to the supposed operation of glaciers in the excavation 
 of the valleys of the Alps, while we admit the probability that the action 
 of ice has, along with other agents, had a large share in modifying the 
 details, and shaping the minuter features, of the surface of the Alpine 
 valleys. 
 
 Notwithstanding the labour that has been bestowed by geologists upon 
 the study of the glacial period in the Alps, there remain many branches 
 of enquiry which are far from being exhausted. One of these relates to 
 the probable oscillations in the extent of the glaciers. The great moraines 
 which are so remarkable on the S. side of the Alps prove that the glaciers 
 must have remained for a long period at or about the limit which they 
 indicate, and that this limit has not since been surpassed ; but this does 
 not imply that at an earlier date the great ice streams may not have 
 flowed further into the plain, without remaining long enough to leave 
 such moraines as would survive to the present period. One of the diffi- 
 culties found in studying the glacial phenomena in that region arises 
 from the fact that during the period of the retirement of the glaciers, and 
 since that time, the materials of the ancient moraines have been con- 
 stantly attacked by torrents, sometimes transported to a distance, and 
 partially stratified. The region of ancient moraines along the southern 
 base of the Lombard Alps is extremely interesting from its diversified 
 scenery, and the small lakes formed by the mounds of moraine matter 
 add much to its beauty ; but laborious and patient study is necessary for 
 those who would unravel the phenomena. 
 
 The glacial deposits in some valleys show that the onward movement 
 of the great ice-stream was by no means uniform. One of the most 
 notable, and in some ways most perplexing, of these indications is 
 afforded in the valley of the Limmat. A morainic deposit occurs on the 
 upper part of the Uetliberg overlain by a coarse gravel, called the 
 ' locherige Nagelfluh,' to distinguish it from the well known conglomerate 
 of earlier Tertiary age. But that pebble-bed descends to near the level 
 of the Limmat at Baden, fifteen miles below Zurich. In the intervening 
 district another extensive morainic deposit, newer than it, occurs, about 
 and at some height above the Lake of Zurich, and this is followed by 
 the stratified river gravels forming the bed of the valley to the west of 
 the town. But the ice must have advanced over this also ; for, near Kil- 
 wangen, about four miles above Baden, moraine is seen resting upon it. 
 Of these three records of the actual presence of ice the second is sup- 
 posed to mark the epoch when the Alpine glaciers reached the Jura and 
 attained their greatest extension. 
 
 Another branch of enquiry connected with the same subject regards 
 the effects of the glacial period in the Alps upon animal and vegetable 
 life. It is probable that the period of the utmost extension of the 
 glaciers was unfavourable to most forms of life, and that the present fauna 
 and flora began to appear on the flanks of the chain only as the gla 
 retired to the upper valleys. Among the mammalia whose remains 
 belong to that period are a few now extinct species. There is nothing to 
 
 * See a further paper by Mr. Hall, Geol. Mag. 1871, p. 359 '» also pipers l«y Prof, Monney, 
 . Journ. Geol. Sac. 1871, p. 312, 1873, p. 382, 1874, p. 479. 
 
XCVl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 show that the new inhabitants appeared simultaneously, but some reason 
 to hold the contrary opinion. The fish, insects, and mollusca that in- 
 habit the Alpine lakes could have made their appearance only after these 
 were clear of ice, a period which must be separated by a long interval 
 from the commencement of the retirement of the glaciers. 
 
 On the questions concerning the antiquity of man, which now so 
 much interest geologists, the glacial deposits of the Alps have hitherto 
 been silent, and we cannot determine whether the earliest human in- 
 habitants witnessed the presence of great glaciers in the lower valleys of 
 this mountain chain.* 
 
 6. Geological Literature and Maps. 
 
 The Alps have in recent years loomed large in geological literature. 
 It would be a laborious task to draw up anything like a complete list 
 even of the books and papers which are restricted to questions of Alpine 
 Geology, and, if accomplished, it would be too long for publication in 
 these pages. Hence it must suffice to enumerate a few of the larger 
 books which deal with the geology of the Alps, or of some important 
 district, and to mention the official publications or periodicals in which 
 valuable information is likely to be found. The list is restricted, with 
 a few exceptions, to books published within about the past thirty 
 years, because although the older books often contain valuable material 
 they have been in part superseded by the rapid advance made during 
 that time by some departments of natural science. 
 
 i. Books. 
 
 Baretti {M.). Geologia della provincia di Torino. With Atlas. Turin, 1893. 
 Diener (C). Der Gebirgsbau der West-Alpen. Prague, Vienna, and Leipzig, 
 
 1891. 
 Favre {A.). Recherches Geologiques dans les Parties de la Savoie, du Piemontet 
 
 de la Suisse Voisines du Mont-Blanc. 3 vols. With Atlas. Paris, 1867. 
 Fraas [E.). Scenerie der Alpen. Leipzig, 1892. 
 Freeh (F.). Die Karnischen Alpen. Halle, 1892. 
 Giimbel ( C. W. ). Geognostische Beschreibung des bayerischen Alpengebirges. 
 
 Gotha, 1 86 1. 
 Heer (O.). Die Urwelt der Schweiz. Zurich, 1st edition, 1865; 2nd enlarged 
 
 edition, 1879. The English translation, 2 vols. 1876, is entitled 'The 
 
 Primaeval World of Switzerland,' edited by James Heywood. 
 Helm {A.). Untersuchungen liber den Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung. 2 vols. 
 
 and Atlas. Basel, 1878. 
 ,, Handbuch der Gletscherkunde. Stuttgart, 1885. 
 Lory (C). Description Geologique du Dauphine. Paris and Grenoble, 1860-64. 
 
 * Here followed, in previous editions, an account of the geological divisions of the entire chain 
 of the Alps. This section would have required searching revision, if not recasting, and the sub- 
 ject is one which cannot be satisfactorily treated in the present state of our knowledge of Alpine 
 Geology. Accordingly it has been thought best to omit it altogether, except so far as the matter 
 has been dealt with in earlier parts of tbis Article. I may, however, refer to the suggestive papers 
 on Alpine geology by Professor Rothpletz. His writings andthose of Mrs. Gordon (.Miss Ogilvie) 
 show that the structure of the Dolomite region is much less simple than geologists in general have 
 supposed, and that in it also folding and faulting, especially by overthrusting, have produced 
 very marked effects. — T. G. . B. 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS. xcvii 
 
 Mojsisovics (E. von). Die Dolomit-Riffe von Siidtirol und Venetiens. Vienna, 
 
 1879. 
 RichtJwfen [F. von). Geognostische Beschreibung der Umgegend von Pre- 
 
 dazzo, &c. Gotha, i860. 
 Studer (B.). Geologie der Schweiz. 2 vols. Bern and Zurich, 1851-53. 
 Suess {£.). Die Entstehung der Alpen. Vienna, 1875. (See also references in 
 
 * Das Antlitz der Erde.') 
 Zaccagna (D.). Sulla Geologia delle Alpi Occidentali (article in the « Bollettino 
 
 del Reale Comitato d' Italia,' 1887). 
 
 A useful book in its way is the ' Livret-Guide Geologique dans le 
 Jura et les Alpes de la Suisse' (Lausanne, 1894), published to help the 
 members of the 6th International Geological Congress in their scientific 
 excursions in the Jura and Swiss Alps. It has maps and plates, so that 
 it is a very handy geological guide for Swiss travellers. 
 
 2. Official Publications. 
 
 Austria. — K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. 
 
 Abhandlungen. Vienna. From 1852 onwards. 
 
 Jahrbuch. ,, ,, 1850 ,, 
 
 Fra?ice. — Bulletin des Services de la Carte Geologique dela France. From 1889. 
 Italy. — Reale Comitato Geologico d' Italia (' Bollettino'). From 1870. 
 Switzerland. — Beitrage zur geologischen Karte der Schweiz. From 1864 onwards. 
 
 3. Publications of Scientific Societies in which Papers of Importance 
 have appeared. 
 
 Academie des Sciences de i'lnstitut de France (' Comptes Rendus'). 
 
 Accademia Reale dei Lincei (' Atti '). 
 
 Annales des Mines. Paris. 
 
 Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft (' Zeitschrift '). 
 
 Geological Society of London (* Quarterly Journal '). 
 
 Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna) (* Sitzungsberichte '). 
 
 Konigliche Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften ('Sitzungsberichte'). 
 
 Societa Geologica Italiana (' Bollettino'). 
 
 Societe Geologique de France (' Bulletin '). 
 
 A summary of the papers dealing with Alpine Geology by MM. Favre 
 and Schardt is now printed in 'Ecloga? Geological Helvetica? ' (the 
 periodical of the Swiss Geological Society). 
 
 Geological papers occasionally appear in the publications of the French, 
 German and Austrian, Italian, Swiss, and other foreign Alpine Clubs and 
 Societies, but there are few in that of the English Alpine Club. 
 
 4. Maps. 
 
 The best and most recent geological map of the whole chain of the 
 Alps is that by F. Noe, entitled 'Geologische Uebersichtskarte der 
 Alpen/ ttoWt™- Vienna, 1890. 
 
 The following are geological maps of more limited regions: — 
 
XCV111 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Austria. — Franz Ritter von Hauer. Geologische Uebersichtskarte der Oester- 
 reichisch-Ungarischen Monarchic 57^00- Vienna, 1867-1871. 
 Two sheets, which include the greater part of the Eastern Alps. This 
 is the map of the Austro- Hungarian Geological Survey. 
 
 E. Mojsisovics v, Mojsvar. — Geologische Uebersichtskarte der Tiro- 
 lisch-Venetianischen Hochlander zwischen Etsch und Piave. 750m) » 
 6 sheets. Vienna, 1878. 
 
 France. — Carte Geologique detaillee de la France. eoJoo (* n P rocess of publi- 
 cation, but only a few of the Alpine sheets have as yet been issued). 
 
 Carte Geologique de la France. 100 ^ oo5 . This includes the French 
 part of the chain and somewhat more. 
 
 G. Vasseur and L. Carez. Carte Geologique Generate de la France. 
 soo^oq . This map was completed about three years ago, and includes the 
 French part of the chain with the adjacent territory. 
 
 Italy. — Carta Geologica dTtalia. toooooo- Rome, 1889. This map includes 
 considerably more than the Alps of Italy, as well as a bit of the east 
 side of the Adriatic. 
 
 A geological map of the Italian kingdom, on a scale of T o(jooo> * s m 
 course of publication, but the Alpine sheets have not yet appeared. 
 
 Switzerland. — Geologische Karte der Schweiz. y^yoo, 2 5 sneets - 1862-1888. 
 
 To these may be added, as dealing with a single point in geology — 
 
 A. Favre — Carte du Phenomene Erratique et des Anciens Glaciers du Versant 
 Nord des Alpes Suisses, et de la Chaine du Mont-Blanc. 2 50000 
 (published by the Swiss Geological Survey). 4 sheets. 1884. 
 
 Art. XIX. — Alpine Zoology.* 
 
 The zoology of the Alps is replete with many points of interest. 
 Although some of the more remarbable animals have passed away ; 
 although the gigantic urus {Bos primigenius\ which flourished in the 
 forests of Mid-Switzerland during the prehistoric human period, and 
 perhaps gave its name to the Canton of Uri, is now extinct ; although the 
 marsh hog (Sus scrofa palustris), which survived in the Lake habitations, 
 exists no longer, having given place to the modified wild boar and 
 domestic hog, that afford sport and food to the present population, yet 
 the mountains at a higher elevation, and far above the snow line, afford 
 examples of the Alpine fauna, which, as might a priori have been expected , 
 represents in many important points the faunas of other and still less 
 accessible regions. We purpose briefly to recapitulate the more striking 
 forms, and to comment on their vertical distribution. 
 
 j. Alpiiie Mammals. — The order Carnivora is well represented in 
 Switzerland. The lynx (Felis lynx) and the wild cat (F. catus) are to 
 be found at high elevations in the Alps. The former, in the Pyrenees, 
 is said to reach the vertical height of 11,300 feet; its ' bathymetrical' 
 distribution in the Alps is unrecorded. Up to a thousand feet are found 
 the marten {Mustela foina\ the weasel (Putorius vulgaris), and the 
 
 • This article was originally written by Mr. C. Carter Blake. It has been carefully revised by 
 Dr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., Secretary of the Zoological Society, with the assistance of Mr. Bou- 
 lenger and of Prof. Bell. Mr. W. Warde Fowler has contributed the Section on ' Alpine Birds.' 
 
ALPINE ZOOLOGY. xcix 
 
 polecat (P.fcetidus). The stoat or ermine (P. crminea) reaches a high er 
 elevation than any other Alpine carnivore ; it is found at the height of 
 10,000 feet. Next beneath it, at 9,000 feet, lives the brown bear (Ursus 
 arctos), which, however, is now getting very scarce, except in one or two 
 remote districts of the Alps. The fox {Cams vulpes) and the badger 
 (Meles taxus) occur on the lower slopes. 
 
 The order of Ungulates exhibits many interesting examples. In the 
 whole world, the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Carpathians, the Albanian 
 mountains, and the Caucasus are the sole spots where the chamois, or 
 ' Gemse ' {Rupricapra tragus), still survives, the solitary representative of 
 the group of mountain-antelopes in Europe. The chamois ranges to an 
 elevation of 12,000 feet. It has so long been selected as the representa- 
 tive of the Alpine fauna that any comment on the most striking and 
 picturesque animal in the Alps is superfluous, and a general reference to 
 the monograph * on it written by F. C. Keller (' Die Gemse, 5 Klagenfurt, 
 1887) is all that is necessary. It is rarely seen in the more frequented 
 parts of the Swiss mountains, and can be best studied in the Eastern 
 Graians and the Maritime Alps, in both of which districts it is carefully 
 preserved for hunting purposes by order of the late and present Kings of 
 Italy. In Switzerland chamois are most common in the less known parts 
 of the Grisons. The goats are represented by the ibex, bouquetin, or 
 steinbock (Capra ibex). The horns of the male bouquetin are strong, 
 thick, and subquadrangular, frequently extending to a length of several 
 feet ; those of the female are much smaller. In Switzerland the steinbock 
 was rapidly disappearing as early as the sixteenth century, and the last 
 authenticated cases of its occurrence in the Swiss Alps were in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Arolla about 1830- 1840. They exist in numbers only in the 
 Eastern Graians (Cogne), where they are preserved by the King of Italy, 
 whose father purchased all the hunting rights in these districts from 1856 
 onwards. The herd now numbers about 300. Attempts to reintroduce 
 the steinbock into the Grisons and Eastern Alps, by means of the 
 importation of specimens from the E. Graians, have not been attended 
 by success. Yet the steinbock was once far more common. Its remains 
 are found in the Swiss Lake dwellings ; the arms of the Grey League of 
 Rjetia (from 1650 at least, and probably from a far earlier date), and of 
 the city of Chur (from 1466), the names of the Col and Dents des Bou- 
 quetins, near Arolla, and those of the well known Hotels Steinbock at 
 Chur and at Lauterbrunnen all serve to show that the steinbock was 
 once no rare phenomenon in the Swiss Alps.f An allied wild goat is 
 found in the Pyrenees, and in other mountains of Spain, the Pyrenean tur 
 Capra pyrenaica X) \ other wild goats are found in Crete, and in th<- 
 Caucasus. 
 
 The deer of Switzerland belong to the South German forms — the red 
 deer (Cervus elaphus) and the roebuck (Capreolus caprcea). Neit ho- 
 of these ranges to so great an elevation in the Alps as the chamois or the 
 
 • See a notice of this book in the Alpine Journal, vol. xiii. pp. 3447- 
 
 t See Dr. Girtanner's monograph, Der Alpensteinbock (Treves, 1878), of which an Italian 
 translation appeared in the BolUttino del Club Alpino Italiano, 1870, pp. 4x2-461. A short 
 article on bouquetins by Mr. Coolidge in the Alpine Journal, vol. xvii. pp. 193 6 (an addition 
 .76), is followed by a detailed list of allusions and articles relating to bouquetins. 
 % See Mr. Buxton's Short Stalks, First Series, chap. \ ii. 
 
 f* 
 
C INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ibex, the firmer feet and coarser digestive apparatus of the two latter 
 animals enabling them to ascend to higher vertical zones, and to subsist 
 on a less nutritive diet than the cervine ruminants. The hog of Switzer- 
 land is of the same race as the wild boar of France and Germany. 
 
 2. The Chiroptera, or bats, of the Alps are confined chiefly to the moun- 
 tains of inferior height, and do not ascend above the snow line. The 
 ordinary Pipistrelle bat ( Vesperugo pipislrelhis), the noctule ( V. noctula), 
 thebarbastelle (Synotus barbastellus), the small horseshoe bat (Rhi?iolophus 
 hipposideros), the great horseshoe bat (R. ferrum equinum\ Natterer's bat 
 ( Vespertilio nattereri), and the large-eared bat (Plecotus auritus) belong- 
 to the Alpine fauna. It is stated that other species have been found, but 
 according to F. von Tschudi they are of less frequent occurrence than 
 the species named above. 
 
 3. The Alpine Insectivora are all of a characteristically European type. 
 The hedgehog (Erinacens europcens), the Alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus), 
 and the water shrew {Crossopus fodiens) are Alpine forms. The white- 
 toothed shrew (Cocidura leucodon), a beautiful species, of which the back 
 is reddish brown and the belly white, is also frequently met with. Besides 
 these the mole ( Talpa europcsa) is common, and is even found in places, 
 like the Urseren valley, surrounded on every side by rocky ground 
 in which the animal cannot subsist. 
 
 4. The Rodentia of the Alps are not numerous. The marmot, ' Murmel- 
 thier ' or (in patois) i Munk J (Arctomys marmotta), is to be found in its small 
 burrows up to the snow line ; it is persecuted for the sake of its flesh (con- 
 sidered a great delicacy by the Alpine folk) by hunters, who sell its fat 
 at a high price as a remedial agent. Several kinds of campagnol 
 (Arvicola) occur in the Alps, amongst which is the snow mouse (A. 
 nivalis), a peculiar species, first discovered on the Faulhorn by Martins 
 and Bfavais in 1841. The mountain hare {Lepus variabilis) is also found 
 in the Alps ; the same species extends from the 55th parallel in the 
 eastern hemisphere northward to the Arctic circle. 
 
 5. Alpine Birds. — The distribution of birds in the Alps is peculiarly 
 interesting owing to the great variety of elevation, and therefore also of 
 food, temperature, and cover. The mountainous district may be roughly 
 divided into three successive regions of elevation, each with its 
 characteristic avifauna. 
 
 (1) The region of the valleys and lakes, with the slopes immediately 
 above them up to 3,000 ft. Here the species are numerous, and in great 
 part identical with those of southern England. Some striking differences, 
 however, will be noticed at once. The black redstart is perhaps the 
 most abundant bird, and plays for the Swiss peasant the part of our 
 robin ; our pied wagtail is replaced by the white wagtail (Motacilla 
 alba) ; the willow warbler, so abundant with us, is rarely heard, while 
 Bonelli's warbler is abundant on all wooded slopes. The rook is seldom 
 to be found, while the crow is abundant and gregarious. Of species 
 rarely or never met with in England may be mentioned the serin finch, 
 the crag martin, the Alpine swift (which breeds in the tower of the 
 Munster at Bern), the meadow bunting (Emberiza cia\ and the marsh 
 warbler (Acrocephalus palustris), which here seems to take the place of 
 our common sedge warbler. Ducks, sandpipers, and other water-loving 
 
ALPINE ZOOLOGY. ci 
 
 birds are rarely met with in summer; but the dipper is common/ and on 
 the lakes the black-headed and common "gulls may be seen, as well as 
 the black and common terns. The white-tailed eagle,^he'os]3fcey< and 
 the black kite are often seen on or near the great* lakes. * 
 
 (2) On ascending to the middle region (3,000 to 6,000 ft.) we find on its 
 pastures and in its forests a comparatively new avifauna, though in 
 summer some species are common to this and the lower region. This is 
 the home of the woodpeckers ; besides our three English species we 
 have here in the pine woods the great black woodpecker and the rarer 
 three-toed woodpecker (Picus tridactylus), while among deciduous 
 trees the grey woodpecker (P. canas) occurs. The pines are full of 
 titmice, including the crested titmouse, which is hardly less common 
 than the other species. Nutcrackers and jays are here found in summer 
 up to 6,000 ft., but descend to a lower level in autumn. With these are 
 crossbills, robins, nuthatches, and, in sunny spots, siskins and the 
 interesting citril finch (Chrysomitris citrinelld). Of the grouse kind 
 the capercaillie, the black grouse, and the hazel grouse are met with ; 
 but these seem to be getting rarer in the Central Alps. Owls, including 
 Tengmalm's owl and the great eagle owl, are not uncommon, but are 
 seldom seen by travellers. 
 
 (3) The third region includes the highest pastures, which the cattle do 
 not reach till mid- July, and the desolate tract of rock and snow above tJiem. 
 Here the species are fewer, but of great interest. On the pastures breed 
 the Alpine accentor and Alpine pipit (Anthus spi?ioletta\ the ring ouzel, 
 and the mealy redpoll. Still higher may be found the beautiful snow 
 finch, which builds where it can on human habitations, as at the Furka 
 and the St. Gotthard, and \ packs ' in late summer in large flocks. The 
 partridge of this region is the so called Greek redleg (Caccabis saxatilis, 
 or Steinhuhn) ; the grouse is the common ptarmigan {Schneehuhri), 
 which in summer is found at great altitudes, and even on the summit of 
 Monte Rosa. On rocks above glaciers (such as the Aletsch) the moun- 
 taineer may look out for the red-winged wall-creeper (Tichodroma 
 muraria\ which is also found at lower elevations. Perhaps the most 
 characteristic bird of the mountains is the Alpine chough, which breeds 
 in rocks at 8,000 ft. and higher ; beautiful as it is in form and flight, it 
 shares here, with its relative the raven, the reputation of being a bird of 
 ill omen, and is apt to appear over the precipices when bad weather is at 
 hand, and when the climber is involved in difficulties. The birds of prey 
 are hardly so numerous here as might be expected ; the great bearded 
 vulture (Ldmmergeier) is fast becoming extinct in Switzerland, and the 
 golden eagle is rare. 
 
 The above account of the distribution refers to the summer only ; but 
 it should be added that the movements of Alpine birds in spring and 
 autumn offer a very interesting study. For further information the reader 
 is referred to papers in the * Ibis ! (1887 and 1891), by Mr. Howard 
 Saunders and Mr. Scott Wilson, and to two chapters in 'A Year with 
 the Birds,' by W. Warde Fowler. (W. W. F.) 
 
 6. Alpine Reptiles and Batrachians. — The common frog (Rana Urn- 
 poraria) and the common lizard (Lacerta Trivipara) are found at the 
 height of nearly 10,000 feet, the Alpine newt (Afotgc alpestris) and the 
 
Cll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 viper', ('Vcpera, btrusy & nearly 9,000 feet, the common toad (Bufo 
 vplgqris) f A n 4 &5 £>\oy-ypor*i\*{Anguisfragilis) at 7,000 feet, and the 
 Cprrjnjarj «4ake {.Tropidopotyis* natrix) at 5,000 feet. All these species, 
 howevef, are also met with, at least locally, in the plain. One species only 
 can be considered as exclusively Alpine, the black salamander {Sala- 
 mandra atra\ which occurs at between 2,500 and 10,000 feet. On the 
 southern aspect of the Alps a second species of viper ( Vipera aspis) 
 ascends to 6,500 feet. 
 
 7. Alpine Fishes. — Few fishes are found at great altitudes. These are 
 the minnow {Leuciscus phaxinus) to 8,000 feet, miller's thumb {Cottus 
 gobio) to 7,000 feet, the trout {Salmo fario) to, 6,500 feet, the loach 
 {Cobitis barbatuld) to 5,500 feet, and the grayling (Thymallus vexillifef) 
 to 4,500 feet. The occurrence of other fishes, such as the burbot {Lota 
 vulgaris) at 5,500 feet, the rudd {Leuciscus erythropthalmus) at 6,000 
 feet, the perch {Perca fluviatilis\ the carp {Cyprinus carpio), and the 
 tench {Tinea vulgaris) at from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, is probably the 
 result of importation from lower altitudes. The presence of trout in 
 the Sgrischus lake in the Fex glen, above Sils, in the Upper Engadine, 
 at a height of 8,600 feet, is also probably to be ascribed to human agency. 
 
 8. Lnvertebrata. — Many of the numerous groups of Invertebrates 
 attain high altitudes in the Alps, but when application is made for 
 definite information it is astonishing to find how small our knowledge of 
 the Alpine invertebrate fauna is. It is, therefore, certain that travellers 
 who collect specimens at accurately ascertained heights will aid the 
 progress of natural science. What is known is of much interest. Mr. 
 A. E. Craven, in 1888, took, near Zermatt, Helix harpa, a snail other- 
 wise known only from South America, Lapland, and Amurland. Vitrina 
 diaphana, another snail which is common enough all over France and 
 Germany, ranges as high as 7,500 feet. Protective colouring is exhibited 
 by the high -ranging grasshopper {sEdipoda fasciata), which is clearly 
 seen when on the wing ; but becomes almost, if not quite, invisible when 
 it closes its wings, and settles on the rock. 
 
 As regards Alpine Butterflies, a good idea of the various kinds may 
 be gained from a paper by the late W. A. Forbes in the ' Entomologist's 
 Monthly Magazine' for 1879. Beetles are rarer at great heights than 
 butterflies ; bees are occasionally carried up by the wind or desire of 
 exploration to heights of over 12,500 feet, and of the other orders of 
 insects it can only be said that the Alpine species are very poorly repre- 
 sented in public collections in this country. 
 
 A scorpion (Euscorpius germanicus) is found at heights between 
 5,000 and 7,000 feet, and two species of earthworms {Allobophora 
 p7'ofuga and Lumbricus castaneus) were collected at 5,500 feet by Mr. 
 Whymper. 
 
 With regard to the deep-water fauna of the Alpine lakes Professor 
 Forel, of Morges, and other naturalists have worked assiduously on this 
 subject. 
 
 Books to Consult. 
 
 The chief authority on Alpine Zoology is F. von Tschudi's w Das Thierleben 
 der Alpen,' first published in 1853, which has passed through ten editions in 
 
ALPINE ZOOLOGY. Clli 
 
 German, and was translated into English in 1858 ; see also V. Fatio's ■ Faune des 
 Vertebres de la Suisse' (5 vols. 1869-1894). A recent pamphlet, 'Alpenthiere 
 im Wechsel der Zeit,' by Conrad Zeller (Leipzig, 1892), gives a sketch of the 
 history of the subject. See too the zoological section (by K. W. v. Dalla Torre) 
 of the ' Anleitung zu wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Alpenreisen,' published 
 at Vienna between 1878 and 1882, by the German and Austrian Alpine Club. 
 
 Art. XIII. — Climate and Vegetation of the Alps.* 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGK 
 
 i. Climate and Vegetation of the Alps ciii 
 
 2. Additional Notes : — 
 
 (a) Climate of the Alps. 
 
 i. Diminution of the Pressure of the Air ...... cviii 
 
 ii. Increase of the Intensity of Solar Radiation .... cviii 
 
 iii. Fall of the Temperature with Increased Altitude . . . . cix 
 
 iv. Aqueous Vapour in the Alpine Air ...... cix 
 
 v. Winds in the Alps ex 
 
 (d) Vegetation of the Alps. 
 
 i. General Conditions affecting Plant Life cxi 
 
 ii. The Direct Effect of the Alpine Climate upon the Forms of 
 
 Alpine Plants cxiv 
 
 iii. The Flowers of Alpine Plants cxv 
 
 iv. Origin of the Alpine Flora cxix 
 
 The narrow limits of this Introduction admit but of a brief reference 
 to a subject which it is difficult to treat without entering into some 
 detail. The climate of the Alps determines the character of the vege- 
 tation, and upon this depend the occupations and manner of life of the 
 inhabitants. Writers upon this subject have attached too much im- 
 portance to the absolute height above the sea-level, as though this had 
 a predominant influence upon the climate ; whereas the position of 
 each locality in respect to the great mountain masses, and the local 
 conditions of exposure to the sun and protection from all cold winds, 
 or the reverse, are of primary importance in deciding the climate and 
 the vegetation. 
 
 Olive Region. — Along the southern base of the Alps we find a first 
 illustration of the remark above made. The climate of the lower 
 declivities and the mouths of the valleys is markedly warmer than that 
 of the plains of Piedmont and Lombardy. While the winter climate of 
 Milan is colder than that of Edinburgh, the olive ripens its fruit alon^ 
 the skirts of the mountain region, and penetrates to a certain distance 
 towards the interior of the chain along the lakes and the wider valleys 
 of the Southern Alps. The olive has even become wild on the shores 
 of the Lake of Garda, where the evergreen oak is indigenous, and lemons 
 are grown on a large scale, with partial protection during the winter. 
 The climate of the Borromean islands and some points on the shores of 
 the Lago Maggiore is known to permit the growth of many plants of the 
 warmer temperate zone, while at a distance of a few miles, and close to 
 
 * This article has been carefully revised throughout by Mr. Percy Groom, M.A., F.I ,.S 
 who is solely responsible for the valuable ' Additional Notes ' which follow the revis< < 
 
CIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the shores of the same lake, but in positions exposed to the cold winds 
 from the Alps, plants of the Alpine region grow freely, and no delicate 
 perennials can survive the winter. As regards the conditions under 
 which the olive flourishes, it requires a dry soil, and is at home in 
 regions of Italy where the summer is dry. According to Grisebach at 
 Nice the olive unfolds its buds in the month of January, when the 
 temperature is 8*2° cent., but the fruits do not ripen till the following 
 November. At Lugano, for instance, the mean temperature in January 
 is '9° cent., in February 4*2°, and it is not till March and April that the 
 mean temperature, 8*2° cent., is passed. Thus it appears that the tardy 
 awakening of the olive at Lugano would not permit it to ripen its fruit, 
 though it might allow its existence. In the canton of Tessin, of which 
 Lugano is one of the chief towns, the annual mean minimum in winter 
 (for twelve years) was —6*8°, at which temperature the olive is not killed. 
 At Montpellier, where the tree flourishes, the mean minimum is —9*23°. 
 Martins says that the olive is not seriously menaced at -i5'9f°. Its 
 successful cultivation may be held to indicate a winter in which frosts are 
 neither long nor severe, where the mean temperature of winter does not 
 fall below 42 Fahr., and a heat of at least 75 ° Fahr. during the day is 
 continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn. 
 
 Vine Region. , ; — The vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, and 
 will produce fruit with a much lower summer temperature ; but to give 
 tolerable wine it demands, at the season of the ripening of the grape, a 
 degree of heat not much below that needed by the olive. These con- 
 ditions are satisfied throughout a great part of the Alpine chain in the 
 deeper valleys, and in favourable situations up to a considerable height 
 on their northern slopes. While the olive region is but exceptionally 
 represented on the S. side, the vine not only extends to form a girdle 
 round the base of the chain, but reaches near to the very foot of the 
 greater peaks. The fitness of a particular spot for the production of wine 
 depends far more on the direction of the valley, and of the prevailing 
 winds, than on its height. Hence it happens that in the Canton of the 
 Vallais, the valley of the Arc in Savoy, and some others on the N. side 
 of the dividing range, tolerable wine is made at a higher level than in the 
 valleys of Lombardy, whose direction allows the free passage of the keen 
 northern blasts. It is not uncommon to see vineyards rising in terraces 
 on the N. slope, exposed to the full force of the sun, while on the opposite 
 declivity the pine descends to the level of the valley. The vine in the 
 Alps often resists a winter temperature which would kill it down to the 
 roots in the low country, possibly because of the protection afforded by 
 the deep winter snow. An early thaw followed by spring frosts often 
 injures the crop. A mean summer temperature of 68° Fahr. is con- 
 sidered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in most of the places 
 where the vine is grown in the Alps the heat rises, at least occasionally, 
 much beyond the required limit. In fine weather the thermometer often 
 stands at and above 8o° Fahr. in the shade in the valleys. Along with 
 the vine many species of wild plants, especially annuals, characteristic of 
 the flora of the S. of Europe, show themselves in the valleys of the Alps. 
 
 The Mountain Region, or Region of Deciduous Trees. — Many writers 
 take the growth of corn as the characteristic of the colder temperate 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. CV 
 
 zone, corresponding to what has been called the mountain region of the 
 Alps. But so many varieties of all the common species, with widely 
 different requirements, are in cultivation, that it is impossible to identify 
 the growth of cereals in general with any natural division of the surface. 
 A more natural limit is marked by the presence of the principal deciduous 
 trees. Although the oak, beech, and ash do not reach exactly the same 
 height, and are not often present together in the Alps, their upper limit 
 corresponds accurately enough to that transition from a temperate to a 
 colder climate that is shown by a general change in the wild herbaceous 
 vegetation. The lower limit of this district is, as we have seen, too 
 irregular to admit of definition ; its upper boundary, marked by the 
 gradual disappearance of the above-mentioned trees, is at about 4,000 ft. 
 on the N. side of the Alps, and often rises to 5,500 ft. on the southern 
 slopes. It would be a mistake to suppose that the aspect of this region 
 is mainly characterised by its tree vegetation. The climate appears to 
 be favourable to one or other of the trees which have been named as 
 marking its limits, but the interference of man has done much to 
 eradicate them. It is probable that at a very early date they were 
 extensively destroyed for use in building, and to clear space for meadow 
 and pasture land ; so that, if we except the beech forests of the Austrian 
 Alps, there is scarcely a considerable wood of deciduous trees to be 
 seen anywhere in the chain. In many districts, where population is not 
 too dense, the Scotch pine {P. sylvestris) and spruce {Picea excelsd) have 
 taken the place of the oak and beech, mainly because the young plants 
 are not so eagerly attacked by goats, the great destroyers of tree vegeta- 
 tion. On the S. side of the Alps the chestnut, although naturally an 
 inhabitant of a warmer region, has in many districts replaced the other 
 deciduous trees, rising to within 1,000 ft. of the same height, being met by 
 the spruce, which descends through the intermediate space. To this 
 region belong many of the lower ranges on the outskirts of the Alpine 
 chain, and some highland pastoral districts, such as those of the Bauges, 
 in Savoy, of the Swiss Canton of Appenzell, and the plateaux of the 
 Venetian Alps between the Adige and the Piave. We find here one 
 form of the peculiar condition of society charactertstic of the Alpine 
 highlands, but this is more conveniently described in connection with 
 the next region. The annual mean temperature of this region is not 
 very different from that of the British Islands, but the climatal con- 
 ditions are as different as possible. Here snow lies for several months 
 together, till it disappears rapidly in a few weeks of warm spring weather, 
 and gives place to a summer considerably warmer than the average of 
 our seasons. 
 
 The Subalpine Region, or Region of Coniferous Trees. — This is the 
 region which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of 
 the Alps. On a rough estimate of the region lying between the summits 
 of the Alps and the plain country that encircles them, we may reckon the 
 whole amount of land in cultivation at about one-quarter of the surface, 
 and of which but little more than a half is under vineyards or corn-fields, 
 and the remainder produces forage and artificial meadow. Nearly another 
 quarter may be set down as utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, 
 glaciers, bare rock, lakes, and the beds of streams, leaving about one- 
 
CV1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 half of the entire surface which is divided between forest and grass land, 
 either natural meadow or pasture. These proportions show clearly that 
 if any considerable population is to derive a subsistence from the soil, it 
 must be from feeding animals, and not from the direct production of 
 human food. It is principally from the subalpine region that these 
 animals draw their support. Grass-land is, indeed, abundant in some 
 parts of the mountain region, but it is chiefly reserved for hay, while the 
 upper pastures of the subalpine and Alpine regions support the herds and 
 flocks during the fine season. Botanically this region is best distinguished 
 by the prevalence of coniferous trees, forming vast forests that, if not 
 kept down by man, and by the tooth of the goat, would cover the slopes 
 of the Alps. The prevalent species are the spruce (Piceaexcelsa) and the 
 silver fir (Abies pectinata). In granitic districts the larch (Larix Europcsa) 
 flourishes, and reaches a greater size than any other tree! Less common 
 are the Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) and the arolla (Pinus cembrd) or 
 Siberian fir. In the Eastern Alps the mughus, dwarf-pine, or Krummholz 
 (Pinus pumilio) of the Germans, becomes conspicuous, forming a distinct 
 zone on the higher mountains, above the level of its cogeners. The pine 
 forests play a most important part in the natural economy of the Alps, 
 and their preservation is a matter of vital consequence to the future in- 
 habitants. Through ignorance or recklessness, the destruction of the 
 forests has in some districts been carried much too far ; for the present 
 gain derived from the sale of timber, and the additional space gained for 
 pasture, may be dearly purchased by future sterility. In the Northern 
 Alps the coniferous trees scarcely attain to a height of 6,000 ft., while 
 on the S. side they often reach 7,000 ft. The larch, the arolla, and the 
 mughus are the species that ascend highest, not uncommonly surpassing 
 the above limits. 
 
 The Alpine Region. — In defiance of etymology, which would make the 
 term Alpine coextensive with the entire tract available for pasturing cattle, 
 this epithet has been attached by writers of authority to the zone of vege- 
 tation extending between the upper limit of trees and the first appearance 
 of permanent masses of snow. Shrubs are not wanting throughout this 
 region. The common rhododendron, several small species of Alpine 
 willow, and the common juniper extend up to, the latter even beyond, 
 the level of perpetual snow. It is in this region that the botanist finds 
 fully developed the peculiar vegetation characteristic of the Alps. Many 
 alpine species may, indeed, be found here and there at lower levels, either 
 accidentally transported from their natural home, or finding a permanent 
 refuge in some cool spot sheltered from the sun, and moistened by stream- 
 lets descending from the snow region ; but it is here that the varied species 
 of saxifrage, primrose, pedicularis, anemone, gentian, and other genera 
 that give to the Alpine flora its utmost brilliancy of hue, have their 
 peculiar home. In valleys where pasturage is scarce, the inhabitants are 
 forced to send their cattle up to the very limit of vegetation in order to 
 support them during the summer, while the grass of the subalpine region 
 is in great part turned into hay for winter use. In such cases one or two 
 men remain for several weeks on some isolated slope of Alpine pasture, 
 many hours' walk from the nearest village, until the day arrives when the 
 cattle are led back, perhaps across a glacier, or by some very difficult 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. cvii 
 
 track, to the lower chalet which serves as an intermediate station between 
 their summer and winter quarters. In other parts of the Alps, where 
 sheep and goats are more common, the pastures of the higher region are 
 left exclusively to them. The limits of this region in the Northern Alps 
 may be fixed between 6,000 to 8,000 ft. above the sea, and at least 1,000 
 ft. higher on the S. slopes of the Alps and in some parts of the main 
 chain. In Piedmont it is not uncommon to find chalets at 8,500 ft. 
 above the sea-level, and vegetation often extends freely up to 9,500 ft. 
 
 The Glacial Region. — This comprehends all that portion of the Alps that 
 rises above the limit of perpetual snow. We continue to use that term, 
 which is convenient and cannot well be replaced, but without explanation 
 it is apt to mislead. 
 
 Since the mean temperature becomes constantly lower as we ascend 
 above the sea-level, there must be some point at which more snow falls 
 in each year than is melted, or carried off by the wind, or otherwise re- 
 moved. It is found that, one year with another, this occurs at pretty 
 nearly the same point, and that the same patches or fields of snow are 
 found to cover the same slopes of the mountain. But we never find, 
 unless after fresh snow, that the entire surface of a mountain above a 
 certain height is covered with a continuous sheet of snow. The form of 
 the surface causes more snow to rest on some parts than upon others ; 
 the prevalent winds blow away the freshly fallen snow from the exposed 
 ridges, and cause it to drift in the hollows ; and the sun acts with great 
 force, even on the highest peaks, upon the slopes fully exposed to his rays. 
 The consequence is, that portions of the surface remain bare at heights 
 greatly exceeding the so called limit of perpetual snow ; and that limit 
 is far from retaining a constant elevation throughout the Alps, or even on 
 opposite sides of the same mountain. The term, nevertheless, has a 
 definite meaning when rightly understood. Leaving out of account 
 masses of snow that casually accumulate in hollows shaded from the sun, 
 the formation of permanent snow-fields takes place at about the same 
 height when the conditions are similar. Hence it happens that, on view- 
 ing an Alpine range from a distance, the larger patches and fields of snow 
 on adjoining mountains, with the same aspect, are seen to maintain a 
 pretty constant level. Vegetation becomes scarce in this region ; all 
 the more level parts are covered with ice or snow, and the higher we 
 ascend, the less of the surface remains bare, with the exception of pro- 
 jecting masses of rock, which usually undergo rapid disintegration from 
 the freezing of whatever water finds its way into the superficial fissures. 
 Many species of flowering plants have nevertheless been found at a 
 height of 11,000 ft., and even above 12,000 ft. As only a thin covering 
 of snow can rest upon rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 6o°, and this 
 is soon removed by the wind or melted by the sun, some portions of rock 
 remain bare even at the greatest height attained by the peaks of the 
 Alps. There is, indeed, reason to believe that the quantity of snow 
 falling on the higher summits is very much less than falls a few thousand 
 feet lower down. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 2. Additional Notes. 
 (a) Climate of the Alps. 
 
 i. Diminution of the Pressure of the Air. — As we ascend a mountain 
 the air constantly becomes more and more rarefied. The actual rate at 
 which the atmospheric pressure, registered by the barometer, falls with 
 increasing altitude depends, however, on the temperature, the rate of 
 decrease in the pressure of the air being slower at high temperatures 
 than at low ones. These facts are illustrated by observations made 
 at the Hospice on the Great St. Bernard Pass and on the St. The'odule 
 Pass. 
 
 
 
 Mean Annual 
 Atmospheric 
 Pressure in 
 Millimetres 
 of Mercury 
 
 Deviations from the Annual 
 Mean Atmospheric Pressure 
 
 
 Cold Month 
 (March) 
 
 Warm Month 
 (July) 
 
 Great St. Bernard 
 St. Theodule 
 
 ( 2,472 m. ) 
 l(8,in ft.) J 
 
 t (10,899 ft- )» 
 
 563-9 
 506-2 
 
 -4-2 
 -4-6 
 
 + 4*6 
 
 + 5'8 
 
 ii. Increase of the Intensity of Solar Radiatio7i. — The higher a spot 
 is situated above the sea-level the thinner will be the stratum of air inter- 
 posed between the sun and that spot ; hence the less will be the amount 
 of sunlight which is intercepted and absorbed by the air before reaching 
 the earth. The sun's rays will thus strike the earth at the top of a moun- 
 tain with greater intensity than at the foot of it. This increased intensity 
 of insolation with rise above the sea-level is not due solely to the 
 decreased thickness of the layer of air intervening between sun and earth. 
 It is further occasioned by the simultaneous diminution in the absolute 
 amount of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere. Consequently intensity of 
 insolation increases more rapidly than the atmospheric pressure lessens, 
 with rise in altitude. M. Violle's and M. Margottet's simultaneous 
 measurements on the summit of Mont Blanc and at the foot of the 
 Bossons glacier illustrate this. They were made on August 16 and 17, 
 1875, both fine days. 
 
 - 
 
 Altitude 
 
 Atmospheric 
 
 Pressure in 
 
 Mm. 
 
 Pressure of 
 Aqueous 
 Vapour 
 
 Relative 
 
 Intensity of the 
 
 Sun's Rays 
 
 Mont Blanc 
 Bossons glacier . 
 
 4,810 m. ) 
 
 (15,782 ft.) r 
 
 j 1,200 m. ) 
 1 (3,937 ft.) 7 
 
 430 
 66l 
 
 I 
 
 S-3 
 
 •94 
 
 79 
 
 This intense insolation at increased altitudes causes by day a greater dif- 
 ference between the temperature in the shade and in sunlight, and also 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. cix 
 
 between the temperature of the air and that of the soil. M. Charles 
 Martins's observations made in the Pyrenees illustrate this last statement. 
 His measurements were made on three fine days in September, the two 
 points being less than fifteen miles apart. 
 
 _ 
 
 Altitude 
 
 Mean Temperature of 
 
 Soil Air 
 
 ' Bagneres 
 Pic du Midi . 
 
 551 m. (1,808 ft.) 
 2,877 m. (9,439^.) 
 
 36-1° (cent.) 22-3° (cent.) 
 33-8° „ | io-i° „ 
 
 The same circumstances which lead to magnified insolation by day cause 
 a constantly increasing radiation of heat from the earth's surface by night 
 as the altitude is greater. Comparing, for instance, Chamonix with the 
 Grand Plateau on Mont Blanc, situated 2,882 m. higher, radiation at 
 night was nearly twice as great at the higher spot. The temperature of 
 the snow sank, on the nights of August 28-31, to -19*2° (cent.), whilst 
 the temperature of the air was -6*5° (cent.) Thus it comes to pass that 
 on mountains more intense insolation by day, together with increased 
 radiation by night, causes the soil to undergo greater changes of 
 temperature than in the plains below. 
 
 iii. Fall of the Temperature with Increased Altitude. — As we 
 ascend a mountain the temperature of the air falls about half a degree 
 (cent.) for each 100 yards of vertical ascent. The exact rate of the fall 
 of the temperature varies slightly according to the aspect, the mean tem- 
 perature, and the configuration of the mountain. Both the diurnal and 
 the annual variations of temperature of the air decrease as the altitude 
 increases. On the St. Theodule Pass (3,322 metres, 10,899 ft-) tne mean 
 monthly temperature of the air is below freezing point in all months 
 excepting June (o° cent.), July (i° cent.), August (ri° cent.), and 
 September (i-i° cent.) Observations there in 1865-6 showed that the 
 temperature of the air rose above o° cent, four times in May, though but 
 twice in October, and then only at midday, while in the four months from 
 June to September the temperature of the air rose at about midday 
 (1 o'clock actually) 1 10 out of 122 days. At night it exceeded o° cent, on 
 no occasion in June, but in the three following months it did so eleven 
 times. Thus in the higher region of the Alps the temperature of the air 
 falls below freezing point on most summer nights. 
 
 iv. Aqueous Vapour in the Alpine Air. — The absolute amount of 
 water vapour in the air diminishes with increasing altitude more rapidly 
 than does the atmospheric pressure. But the relative humidity, i.e. the 
 degree to which the air is saturated with aqueous vapour, shows no 
 regular changes as the altitude varies. That is to say, though the air at 
 the top of a mountain contains less aqueous vapour than that at the foot, 
 it is not necessarily drier. In the Alps it appears that, on the average, 
 above the altitude of 1,000 metres, the air is drier in winter and moister 
 in summer than below that limit. The important and prominent feature 
 of the hygrometric condition of the air at great heights in the Alps is the 
 
CX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 rapid changes in the relative humidity of the air in fine weather : wet 
 fogs and mist alternate with spells of fine weather, during which the air 
 may be extremely dry. 
 
 The rate of evaporation is greatly accelerated on mountains, in conse- 
 quence of the diminished pressure of the air. In addition the extreme 
 dryness of the air on fine days aids the process. Consequently objects 
 dry rapidly on the mountains ; perspiration evaporates quickly from the 
 human body, the skin tends to become parched, and the feeling of thirst 
 is increased. 
 
 Cloudiness. — As might be anticipated from some previous remarks the 
 cloudiest weather in the Alps is in the spring and summer, but in the low- 
 lying parts of Switzerland it is in winter. 
 
 Rainfall. — On many mountains the fall of rain (including snow) increases 
 with the rise above the sea-level, but only to a certain altitude, above 
 which it again diminishes. It is, therefore, possible that the maximum 
 snowfall is not on the actual summits of the Alps. 
 
 Duration of the S?iow. — The snow line descends to its lowest limit at 
 the end of January, after which it gradually ascends till it attains its 
 highest point {circa 2,700 metres, or 8,859 ft-) about August. In the 
 middle of March the snow clothes the mountains to approximately the 
 same extent as in the middle of December ; even at the end of October 
 the snow line {circa 1,510 metres, or 4,954 ft.) is higher than at the end of 
 May {circa 1,470 metres, or 4,823 ft.) 
 
 v. Winds in the Alps. — In the Alps, as on other mountains, the 
 general rule holds good that during the day-time there is a wind ascend- 
 ing from the valleys to the mountain tops, whereas at night-time the 
 exact contrary takes place. These alternating day and night winds are 
 familiar to the inhabitants of the different regions of the Alpine chain, and 
 are known by various local names. 
 
 The diurnal formation of clouds and rain is greatly influenced by these 
 winds. The wind ascending the slopes by day takes with it the moisture 
 from the valleys, and dries the air of the latter. As the air ascends it 
 cools, and the moisture condenses in the form of clouds hovering on or 
 over the mountain tops, or even forms rain. The descending night wind 
 dissipates the clouds, and carries moisture down to the valleys. 
 
 The Foh?i wind is a warm, dry, irregular wind, blowing from southern 
 points (S., S.E., or, rarely, S.W.) It blows about thirty to forty days in 
 the year, most frequently in autumn and winter, least often in summer. 
 On a winter's day it causes the temperature of the air to be as high as in 
 summer, and the atmosphere to become extraordinarily dry. It is greeted 
 with joy in spring-time, because in one day it melts enormous masses of 
 snow and ice, doing, according to Hann, as much work in this direction 
 as the sun unaided would normally accomplish in fourteen days. 
 
 (b) Vegetation of the Alps. 
 
 In discussing the causes of the presence of a plant in a certain 
 region it is necessary to answer two questions : ' How did the plant 
 originally come there?' and 'What characters enable it still to exist 
 there? 5 Similarly, in dealing with the form and behaviour of the 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. Cxi 
 
 plant, two problems present themselves : ' To what extent are the 
 characters of the plant due to those of its ancestors ?' and ' How far are 
 they to be attributed to the direct action on a plant of its surroundings ? ' 
 
 i. General Conditions affecting Plant Life. — A plant derives its food from 
 the soil and the air. The green parts, particularly the leaves, under the 
 influence of light, absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere. In order 
 to build up new plant material the carbon thus absorbed by the leaves 
 requires to be supplemented by water and substances contained in 
 solution in the soil. The latter are absorbed by the roots, and con- 
 veyed up the stems to the leaves, where they combine with the carbon to 
 form complex food substances (process of assimilation). From the 
 leaves the excess of water is excreted, mainly in the form of vapour (pro- 
 cess of transpiration). For its existence and growth an ordinary plant 
 requires carbonic acid and oxygen (both occurring in the air), water, 
 and substances in solution (found in the soil) ; and further needs an 
 adequate supply of light and an appropriate temperature. 
 
 Effect of Temperature. — As a rule flowering plants exhibit no vital 
 activity at a temperature below the freezing point of water. Usually a 
 temperature several degrees above this point is essential to arouse the 
 growth of a plant. No experiments have been made with regard to this 
 question upon plants growing at high Alpine altitudes. It is, however, 
 known that certain of them can push out their flowers just at the snow 
 line in the melting or unmelted snow {Crocus vermis, Soldanella alpina 
 and S. pusilla, Ranunculus alpestris, Anemone vernalis, &c.) It is 
 safe to assume that when they are at a temperature below o° cent, the 
 vast majority of Alpine plants are incapable of any appreciable vegeta- 
 tive activity. They must, therefore, rest during the long season at 
 which the temperature is very low and the ground is covered with snow. 
 It is impossible to foretell by means of observations on the temperature 
 of the air at different altitudes when the plants at those altitudes will 
 first commence active vegetation in the summer, or first enter upon a 
 rest at the approach of the winter. One reason of this is that the dis- 
 tribution of snow over the surface is not equable, and the intense 
 insolation may cause the temperature of patches of ground uncovered 
 with snow to rise considerably above that of the surrounding air. The 
 active vegetative season at the different altitudes, however, has been 
 found to run parallel with the mean monthly temperature and the 
 rate at which the snow line ascends. For instance, the mean monthly 
 temperature of the air on the St. Theodule Pass (3,322 metres) does not 
 reach as high as o° cent, till June, but remains above this point during 
 the three following months, and sinks again below it in October. 
 Again, the snow line in the Alps at the end of May is lower than it is at 
 the end of October ; it lies at about the same altitude at the end of Sep- 
 tember as it does towards the end of June. Both these sets of facts 
 correspond to the late commencement of spring, and the lingering second 
 summer in autumn time, also to the short vegetative season and the long 
 period of rest. 
 
 Owing to this shortness of the active season plants at high altitudes 
 in the Alps require to produce flowers rapidly and to mature their seeds 
 quickly. As an aid in this respect many Alpine plants have relatively 
 
CX11 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 well developed subterranean stems, or thick roots, in which they store 
 food during winter, so that at the commencement of the active season the 
 reserve stock of food may be at once available for the rapid production of 
 new leaves and flowers. Later in the season, when the leaves are 
 actively manufacturing food, the nutriment is being consumed not only 
 in the production of seeds and in growth, but is also being stored up in 
 the subterranean parts for use in the following spring. 
 
 In the lowlands of Switzerland, as elsewhere in Europe, there exists a 
 considerable number of annuals, i.e. plants which in a single season ger- 
 minate from seeds, produce flowers and seeds, and then die. They rest 
 during the unfavourable season only in the form of seeds. Opposed 
 to these are pere7inial plants, which can live year after year, and can 
 rest during the unfavourable season. The shortness and severity of the 
 Alpine summer would render the continued existence of annuals pre- 
 carious, because one especially severe season, by preventing the ripening 
 of fruits, would threaten an annual species with extermination. In 
 addition the annuals labour under the disadvantage that a seed cannot 
 store up such a large amount of food as a subterranean organ of a 
 mature plant, nor can the root of a tiny seedling at once have at its com- 
 mand such supplies of water and substances in the soil as an already well 
 developed plant. Hence at high altitudes very few annuals occur in the 
 Alps ; and the few which exist there are, for the most part, small plants 
 living in a moist sand (e.g. Gentiana tenella). Kerner gives the following 
 numbers, which illustrate the gradual disappearance of annuals in the 
 Alps : on the Danube plains there are in every ioo plants 56 annuals 
 and 44 perennials, whereas in the Alps out of every 100 plants 4 only are 
 annuals and 96 perennials. 
 
 Even when the plants are in a state of activity variations of the tem- 
 perature influence their behaviour. There is for each of the various 
 functions a certain minimum temperature, below which the function is 
 in abeyance. Above this each rise in temperature causes the process to 
 become more active, till a certain optimum temperature is attained, 
 above which again there may be a waning of activity, till at a certain 
 maximum temperature the performance of the function ceases. This 
 holds good for the processes of absorption by means of the roots and 
 leaves and the process of growth. The process of transpiration has, 
 however, no temperature maximum or minimum. The temperature of 
 the Alpine plant depends more on the illumination than on the tempera- 
 ture of the air, and it is quite impossible to dissociate the influence of 
 temperature, light, and moisture on active vegetative processes in Alpine 
 plants. 
 
 Effect of Light. — Light is essential to green plants in order that they 
 may obtain from the air the carbonic acid required for their continued 
 existence. Light directly promotes assimilation and transpiration by the 
 leaves, and indirectly accelerates absorption of liquids on the part of the 
 root ; and the activity of these processes is proportional to the intensity 
 of the light. Light has the reverse effect on growth in the length of 
 stems, as it retards the process with a strength proportional to its in- 
 tensity. 
 
 Effect of the Relative Humidity of the Air. — Dryness in the air promotes 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. CXlli 
 
 transpiration ; moisture in the air has the reverse effect. Indirectly the 
 same effects are produced on the rate of absorption by the roots. 
 
 Effect of the Rarefaction of the Air. — The decreased pressure of the air 
 promotes transpiration, but by diluting the carbonic acid in the atmo- 
 sphere retards the assimilation of carbon. 
 
 Relation of t/ie Behaviour of Alpine Plants to Climate. — These brief 
 considerations with reference to the influence of temperature and light, 
 as well as moisture and pressure in the air, suffice to show that Alpine 
 plants are exposed to considerable risks. The most striking danger 
 appears to be loss of too much water by excessive transpiration. Intense 
 insolation, the frequent dpyness of the air, and its low pressure all unite 
 in inducing rapid transpiration. During the day-time, however, the 
 intense insolation, inasmuch as it warms the soil to a temperature con- 
 siderably above that of the air, at the same time promotes absorption by 
 means of the roots. At night-time intense radiation cools the soil to such 
 a degree as seriously to retard, or quite stop, absorption of water from 
 the soil, and a plant itself is almost equally cooled, but the air is not. 
 Hence at night-time the plant is doubly in danger of being dried up, 
 owing to the fact that conditions causing the slowing of the absorption 
 of water are not counterbalanced by external influences initiating an 
 equivalent retardation of its exhalation of aqueous vapour. These con- 
 siderations, together with the necessity of having a proper proportion 
 between transpiration and the absorption of carbonic acid by the leaves, 
 give the clue to the structure of many of the Alpine plants. In the first 
 place an extensive development of the subterranean parts is very 
 characteristic, and this, apart from the significance already attached to 
 it, is of importance in that a large surface is thus provided for absorbing 
 nutritive bodies and water from the soil. The Alpine plants are usually 
 of low stature, often forming little mats of turf, or even hemispherical 
 cushions, with close-set, small leaves. As examples of plants forming 
 mats or cushions the following may be mentioned : Petrocallis pyrenaica, 
 a number of species of Draba, Silene pwnilio and S. acaulis, Cherleria 
 sedoides, some species of Androsace, including A. imbricata and A. 
 helvetica (both of which form small, hemispherical mounds), Herniaria 
 alpina, and a number of species of Saxifraga. Even where no distinct 
 tufts or mats are formed the leaves are frequently arranged in rosettes, 
 pressed against the ground. In all these cases the leaves are set closely 
 together, and only the flower stalks, when of any length, represent an 
 elongated stem. This compressed arrangement of the leaves diminishes 
 transpiration by exposing less of the leaf surface freely to the atmosphere, 
 and by leading to the accumulation of moisture in the air between the 
 leaves. In many cases the small size of the leaves works in the same 
 direction. Transpiration is often further depressed by the copious de- 
 velopment of hairs {e.g. in Edelweiss), by succulence in relatively decreas- 
 ing the surface in comparison with the volume (e.g. Sedum sempervivum), 
 or by the stiff or leathery nature of the leaves, which are then clothed with 
 a thicker, more impermeable membrane. It will, therefore, be found that 
 there are many Alpine plants which have small, stiff leaves, with a greater 
 or less extent of succulence or hairiness. Occasionally the exposed 
 face of the leaf is diminished by the blade being rolled on itself (in some 
 
 g 
 
CX1V INTRODUCTION. 
 
 grasses and Empetrum nigrum). The low stature of the Alpine plants 
 possibly confers a double advantage, first by diminishing the effect of 
 wind (which increases transpiration) and secondly by placing the plant in 
 a layer of atmosphere which soon tends to assume the temperature of the 
 soil and the plant, particularly at night-time. In contrast to those Alpine 
 plants, which are obviously constructed in harmony with their surround- 
 ings, there are others which appear to be devoid of any special structural 
 characteristic enabling them to economise water. These may have relatively 
 tall leafy stems, or comparatively large, thin, smooth leaves. At present 
 no sufficient explanation has been offered which will account for the 
 power undoubtedly possessed by these forms of resisting the trying 
 Alpine conditions. Neither can we offer any adequate reasons for the 
 power which Alpine plants possess of withstanding the almost regular 
 frosts at night-time in summer ; we can only assume that it is a character 
 stamped into their * constitution. 5 The relatively large amount of green 
 colouring matter in Alpine plants, which is to be noted by their frequently 
 dark green colour, enables them to absorb sufficient carbonic acid, in spite 
 of the shortness of the vegetative season and the rarefaction of the air. 
 
 ii. The Direct Effect of the Alpine Climate upon the Forms of Alpine 
 Plants. — If we succeed in cultivating in our gardens plants which grow 
 in high Alpine situations, it is our experience that the garden individuals 
 are frequently very different from individuals of the same species on the 
 mountains. If naturally woolly their hairy covering often diminishes, 
 their stems tend to become longer, and their leaves are separated by 
 greater intervals along the stem. In addition the leaves tend to become 
 thinner. This proves that in such Alpine forms the shape of the plant is 
 largely induced by the Alpine conditions. In order to ascertain to what 
 extent these conditions are directly responsible for the shapes of Alpine 
 plants Bonnier cultivated plants in the lowlands, at high altitudes in 
 the Alps and Pyrenees, and at intermediate stations. When the plants 
 remained healthy he found that with increasing altitude they became 
 more dwarfed, the stem being shorter, and the leaves pressed closer to- 
 gether ; often, in place of being inserted at intervals up a distinct stem, 
 the leaves formed a rosette at the base. For instance, the Jerusalem 
 Artichoke {Helianthus tuberosus), which in the plains produces a tall, 
 leafy stem, in the Alps assumes a dwarfed shape, with all its leaves 
 arranged so as to form a flat radical rosette, like a dandelion. With in- 
 creasing altitude the leaves became thicker, often smaller, and deeper 
 green in colour. The subterranean parts of the plants at the higher 
 stations were much more developed relatively to the parts above ground 
 than in the lowlands. These facts prove that the forms of the Alpine 
 plants are largely determined by the external conditions ; and, as these 
 structural modifications have been shown above to be of direct advantage 
 to the plant, we are entitled to say that the Alpine plants are so consti- 
 tuted that they adapt themselves to their surroundings. 
 
 But it is not alone on the structural characteristics of the Alpine plants 
 that the Alpine climate acts in a manner which aids them to resist the 
 trying nature of surrounding conditions. Some plants that are annual in 
 the plains become perennial in the Alps — for example, the annual 
 meadow grass (Poa annua). Again, seeds ripened in intense sunlight, or 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. CXV 
 
 in dry places, germinate more rapidly than those matured in the shade 
 or in damp regions. This character is doubtless a great advantage to 
 Alpine plants, which have only a short active season. It is known that if 
 seeds of cereals, which have absorbed water and become swollen, be 
 frozen a number of them will be killed, but those that survive will ger- 
 minate much more rapidly than seeds not frozen ; and it is further esta- 
 blished that potatoes kept frozen for a time during winter will shoot up 
 more rapidly than specimens kept in warmer places. Hence it seems 
 probable that the very severity of the cold at high altitudes causes the 
 Alpine plants to shoot up with greater rapidity when spring-time does set 
 in. This hastened development in flowers growing at considerable alti- 
 tudes is to be seen in the times of flowering of plants found also in the 
 lowlands. Thus, for instance, Gnaphalium dioicum, Gentiana germanica, 
 and Dianthus superbus are in full flower in the Alps in July, whereas in 
 the valleys they scarcely open their flowers in August. 
 
 As to the precise factors in the Alpine climate which induce the 
 structural changes above mentioned it is not easy to speak with any con- 
 fidence. The intensity of the light, and the low temperature at night, 
 both work in the same direction, retarding the growth of the stem, and 
 thus rendering it dwarfed, with close-set leaves. The rarefaction of the 
 air has no influence in this direction ; in fact it appears to operate in an 
 opposite manner, for stems grow more rapidly in rarefied air than in air 
 at ordinary atmospheric pressures. The intensity of the light is, at any 
 rate, partially responsible for the relatively increased thickness of the 
 leaves. In confirmation of this view we find Arabis anachortica, a sup- 
 posed species differing from A. alpina in having thin papery leaves, 
 occurs only in the shady hollows of rocks. On removing it to Kew it 
 changed into A. alpina, the papery consistence of the leaves being thus 
 induced by the peculiar habitat, and the plant proving to be merely a 
 variety of A. alpina. Zahlbriicknera paradoxa and Saxifraga arachnoides 
 occupy similar shady cavities in rocks, and have thin, papery leaves, pro- 
 bably for the same reason. Alpine plants in exposed positions have, for 
 the most part, leathery or hairy leaves, whereas among those growing in 
 shaded ravines, torrent beds, &c, we find plants with more delicate leaves. 
 Finally it has been shown by experiments on lowland plants that in- 
 creased illumination tends to cause increased thickness of the leaf, and 
 that dryness of the air has the same effect, tending to increase the 
 hairiness of leaves. 
 
 iii. The Flowers of Alpine Plants. — The first impression one has on 
 seeing Alpine flowers is that they are more beautiful and more brilliant 
 than lowland plants. It is, however, a mistake to suppose that the 
 flowers of Alpine plants are larger than those of their relations in low- 
 lying lands ; in fact, the reverse is sometimes the case. As a rule the 
 flowers of Alpine species are about the same size as those of lowland 
 species belonging to the same genus. It is the smaller size of the leaves 
 of the Alpine species, the frequent crowding of the flowers, which thus 
 form bright and isolated patches on the ground, and the increased depth 
 of tone of the floral tints, that, taken together, give rise to the illusion 
 that flowers growing high up on the Alps are larger than similar flowers 
 growing in the plains. The brilliancy of colour is, to a certain extent, 
 
Cxvi - INTRODUCTION. 
 
 directly caused by the Alpine conditions. If we examine individuals of 
 the same species growing at different heights we find that with increasing 
 altitude there is generally a deepening of the tints of the flowers ; for 
 instance, the light blue of the forget-me-not becomes deeper, the yellow 
 of hawkweeds tends towards orange. It is a well known fact that the 
 colours or shades of Alpine flowers change when the plants are cultivated 
 in gardens. In any family of flowering plants in which flowers having 
 different tints occur it is often found that the yellow flowers are the 
 simplest and most lowly organised, and that the blue flowers are the 
 most highly organised. Further, it is known that, speaking broadly, in 
 a family the successive advance of the complication of the flowers 
 corresponds more or less to the colours in the following order : yellow, 
 white, pink, red, crimson, violet, blue. In Alpine flowers there is a 
 larger percentage of the colours corresponding genetically to high 
 organisation than there is in the lowland. For instance, the yellow of 
 the lowland primrose and cowslip is supplemented by the violet tints of 
 several species in the Alps. There is a pink-flowered Alpine saxifrage 
 in addition to the ordinary yellow and white-flowered species. An orange- 
 red Alpine hawkweed contrasts with the paler yellow lowland species. 
 There are many flowers which are violet, or brilliant sapphire, or deep 
 ultramarine (Campanula, Phytewna, Saussurea) ; the gentians vary in 
 their different species from yellow, whitish green, to deep yet vivid blue; 
 the speedwells ( Veronica) from pink to sapphire, with a central spot, 
 white or yellow, fringed with orange or vermilion. 
 
 Frequently too the Alpine flowers have stronger scents, and pour out 
 more honey than their lowland allies. The increased yield of honey of 
 Alpine flowers is illustrated by observations of the average yield of hives 
 in the Pyrenees, as shown in the following table (there were, at the time 
 of observation, no less than 19,829 hives in the Eastern Pyrenees r 
 scattered at altitudes varying from o to 1,500 metres, or 4,921 ft.) : — 
 
 Altitude in Metres 
 
 Mean Annual Yield of Hives 
 in Kilogrammes of Honey 
 
 O-30O 
 
 3-06 
 
 3OO-60O 
 
 4-08 
 
 60O-9OO 
 
 5'00 
 
 900-1,200 
 
 7-00 
 
 1,200-1,500 
 
 933 
 
 Bonnier has shown that, comparing individuals of the same species, 
 but growing at different altitudes, the amount of honey poured out by 
 the flower increases with the altitude, and that often there is a parallel 
 increase in the strength of the scent of the flowers. Altogether the 
 heightened brilliancy of Alpine flowers, the increased yield of honey, 
 and often of the more potent scents are to be attributed, partly at 
 any rate, to the direct action of the Alpine conditions on the plants 
 themselves. 
 
 It is a matter of doubt whether these facts would afford a sufficient 
 basis for the explanation of the colours of Alpine flowers, because it is 
 still doubtful whether such changes as are merely wrought by the direct 
 action of environment are ever hereditary. Still more problematical is it 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. CXV11 
 
 whether, in consequence of such direct action of the surroundings ope- 
 rating for generations, a plant with, say, yellow flowers could give rise to 
 descendants possessed of blue flowers. A second explanation has been 
 offered — namely, that the rarity of insects in the Alps necessitates increased 
 powers of attraction, in order that cross-fertilisation by their agency may 
 be sufficiently secured. It must be noted, however, that both the flora 
 and the insect fauna become poorer in species as the Alps are ascended, 
 and additional attraction would only be necessary if the flower-visiting 
 insects decreased in numbers at a greater rate than did the flowers fertilised 
 by their agency, or if the opportunities of visiting flowers were lessened. 
 As regards the absolute number of flowers and insects it is impossible to 
 judge. It is possible only to glean an indication of their relative numbers 
 by comparing the insect visitors of flowers in the Alps and in the plains. 
 H. Miiller found that Alpine flowers had at least as many sorts of visitors 
 as flowers in the plains. In fact, he showed that some flowers in the Alps 
 had visits from a larger number of varieties of insects than those in the 
 plains ; for instance, Polygonum bistorta, whilst visited by only 7 varieties 
 of insects in the plains, had 38 sorts of visitors in the Alps. Selecting 12 
 of the most frequently visited plants in the plains, and comparing their 
 visitors with the visitors in the Alps, the numbers were found to be 80 
 and 85 respectively. By this method he concluded that there is at least 
 as great a probability of cross-fertilisation in the Alps as there is in the 
 lowlands, and also as proportionately great a number of insect visitors. 
 It must not be forgotten that the Alpine conditions render the flowers 
 more attractive by increased supplies of honey and stronger scents. 
 
 From the point of view of their relations to insect visitors insect ferti- 
 lised flowers may be ranged under five general heads : — 
 
 a. Po. A. — Flowers visited for their pollen alone, or for honey which is 
 freely exposed {e.g. elder, Umbelliferce). Such flowers are visited by all 
 classes of flower-visiting insects. 
 
 b. A. B. — Flowers with half concealed honey {e.g. buttercups, saxifrages). 
 Compared with the first class there is a decrease in the variety of visitors, 
 and a relative increase in the number of insect visitors with long tongues. 
 
 c. B. and B. — Flowers {e.g. geraniums) and heads of flowers {e.g. 
 daisy family) with completely concealed honey. This is an advance on the 
 second class, but yet the flowers are not restricted to any particular class 
 of insects. 
 
 d. H. — Bee flowers {e.g. pea family, gentians). In these the honey 
 cannot be reached by insects with short tongues, and so these flowers are 
 specially adapted for bees. Under this head there are three sub-groups 
 specially adapted for (i) ordinary bees, (ii) humble bees, (iii) wasps. 
 
 e. F.— Butterfly and moth flowers {e.g. pinks, ordinary honeysuckles). 
 These are especially adapted for Lepidoptera, and have their honey so 
 deeply stored that it is not accessible to any insects save butterflies and 
 moths. 
 
 It is obvious that the insect fauna of a region will be more or less 
 reflected in the forms of the flowers. The following table, condensed 
 from Mailer's observations, summarised by Loew, illustrates the relative 
 parts played by the different classes of insects on the groups of flowers 
 mentioned above : — 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Group of Flowers 
 
 Region 
 
 Percentage of Visits by 
 
 Butterflies 
 and Moths 
 
 Po. A. and A. B. 
 
 B. and B. 
 
 H. 
 
 Plains 
 
 Alps 
 
 Plains 
 
 Alps 
 
 Plains 
 
 Alps 
 
 Plains 
 
 Alps 
 
 17 
 
 18S 
 13-1 
 47 '2 
 iJ-6 
 45 '7 
 76S 
 79 '6 
 
 Bees with | Bees with 
 
 Long Short 
 
 Tongues, I Tongues 
 
 including ( and other 
 
 Humble Bee? Hymenoptera 
 
 6-i 
 
 7'4 
 27-4 
 12-6 
 59 '6 
 47 '5 
 
 8-7 
 
 347 
 13-8 
 26 3 
 107 
 i6'3 
 
 2'0 
 
 5'9 
 27 
 
 Flies, 
 
 Beetles, 
 
 and other 
 
 Insects 
 
 56-5 
 
 597 
 32-9 
 29-2 
 
 8'5 
 
 4-6 
 
 147 
 
 9-0 
 
 This table illustrates the relative decrease in the number of the 
 Hymenoptera, especially the short-tongued bees, but the increased 
 number of humble bees in the Alps. It also shows clearly the vastly 
 increased importance of butterflies and moths as fertilising agents. 
 These facts stand out too in the composition of the flora. There is an 
 increased number of flowers belonging to group F., especially adapted for 
 Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). To select an example, the genus 
 Primula is represented in the plains by no flower adapted for Lepidotera, 
 but has one species adapted for humble bees, viz. P. farinosa. There 
 are, on the other hand, six Alpine species adapted for Lepidoptera, viz. 
 a variety of P. farinosa, and the species P. integrifolia, P. villosa, 
 P. viscosa, P. longiflora, and P. Allionii. The curious case oi P . farinosa, 
 in which there are two forms, Alpine and lowland, adapted for Lepi- 
 doptera and humble bees respectively, leads on to the interesting fact 
 that in the Alps there are a number of flowers which are transitional 
 between humble-bee flowers (H.) and Lepidoptera flowers (F.) Such, 
 for instance, are the Alpine variety of the pansy ( Viola tricolor) and some 
 Alpine gentians {Gentiana tenella, G. nana, G. campestris, G. obtusi folia). 
 These transitional flowers are, too, more or less closely genetically related 
 to Alpine species, which are completely adapted for Lepidoptera : Viola 
 tricolor var. alpestris, is allied to V. calcarata (a butterfly flower) ; the 
 transitional gentians are allied to G. verna and G. barbarica, which are 
 adapted for butterflies ; P. farinosa has as close relations P. integrifolia, 
 P. villosa, and P. viscosa. These facts suffice to suggest strongly that 
 in the Alps a number of flowers have been evolved under the influence of 
 Lepidoptera. Thus the peculiar forms of Alpine flowers have been 
 developed, at least partially, under the influence of the Alpine insects, 
 and there is no reason for disbelieving that the insects have had a share 
 too in the evolution of the colours and scents of the flowers. In particular 
 Miiller attributes to butterflies the evolution of a large number of flowers 
 ranging from pink to crimson, such as Alpine primulas, pinks (Dianthus), 
 Siiene acaulis, Erica carnea, &c. Flowers of these tints are, in general, 
 much visited by butterflies. Further, the clove-like smell is characteristic 
 of many butterfly flowers (pinks, Daphne striata). The increased variety 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. CX1X 
 
 of tints in the bee flowers is associated by Miiller with the relatively 
 greater number of humble bees in the Alps, and he regards flies as 
 responsible for the abundance of white-flowered Alsinece, and of the 
 whitish, yellowish, or speckled saxifrages which belong to group A. (^see 
 the preceding table.) The colours and scents of the Alpine flowers are 
 hence to be attributed partly to the direct action of the environment on 
 the individual plants, and partly to the selecting influence exerted by 
 insects on the race. It is extremely interesting to note that, just as the 
 vegetative part of the individual plant responds to the Alpine conditions 
 in a fashion beneficial to itself, so also do the flowers ; the heightened 
 colour, the increased excretion of honey, and the stronger scents induced 
 in each individual by the Alpine conditions bring more visitors to the 
 flowers, and thus tend to atone for the shortness of the flowering season. 
 
 One additional point with reference to the flowers of Alpine plants is 
 that, as compared with those in the lowlands, there is an increase in the 
 number of flowers habitually self-fertilised. This increase takes place 
 at the expense of the flowers which are capable of self-fertilisation, but 
 are usually cross-fertilised. The number of exclusively cross-fertilised 
 flowers remains relatively the same in the Alps and in the plains. This 
 increase of self-fertilisation is possibly associated with the shortness of 
 the active season and the necessity for forming seeds quickly. It is, 
 however, significant that the increase in self-fertilisation takes place 
 nearly exclusively in that class (Po. A.) which is normally (in the low- 
 lands) visited least by Lepidoptera and humble bees, and is therefore 
 least likely to profit by their relative abundance and most likely to suffer 
 from the poverty in short-tongued bees. 
 
 iv. Origin of the Alpine Flora. — It is impossible to discuss, within 
 the narrow limits of the present article, the origin of the Alpine flora, 
 particularly as eminent authorities, such as Sir Joseph Hooker, Dr. 
 Christ, and Mr. John Ball, have differed considerably in their views on 
 this subject. 
 
 The first important fact is that many species of plants found in the 
 higher parts of the Alps occur also in the Arctic regions, but are absent 
 from the intervening low country. They afford examples of \ discon- 
 tinuous distribution.' According to Dr. Christ's estimate there are 294 
 species of plants which live almost exclusively in the higher regions of 
 the Alps, and of these 100 reappear in the Arctic regions. There is a 
 second category of Alpine species — namely, those which do not occur in 
 the Arctic regions, but are found on distant mountains, though they do 
 not inhabit the plains separating the latter from the Alps. For example, 
 Mr. John Ball calculated that 17 per cent, of the Alpine species occur in 
 the Arctic regions, while as many as 25 per cent, reappear in the Altai 
 mountains, in Asia. How are we to explain this sporadic appearance of 
 plants in distant, isolated regions ? We can no longer assume that they 
 were created separately at the various spots in which they occur. It 
 follows that they were evolved at some spot from which at some time 
 they travelled to their present scattered quarters. It is impossible to 
 assume that under present conditions the seeds were conveyed by the 
 agency of wind or birds from one distant region to another, although 
 intervening mountains might be regarded as stepping-stones ; for we 
 
cxx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 find that the number of identical species at widely separated spots is too 
 great to permit of this explanation, and, furthermore, the agreement 
 between the floras of different mountain chains is by no means propor- 
 tional to their geographical proximity, even when their climates are 
 closely alike. 
 
 It is found that some mountain plants reappear on the sea-shore, 
 though absent from the country separating the mountains from the 
 sea-shore. Though sea-shore plants have in general a wide distribution 
 it is obviously impossible that the sea-shore should play more than a 
 very limited part as a pathway for plants dwelling on the different 
 mountain chains of the earth. Under present conditions, then, the 
 existing plains form an impassable barrier between the Alps and the 
 Arctic regions or distant mountain chains. In particular the climate in 
 these plains is not suited to the high Alpine plants, which, furthermore, 
 would be probably killed out by the competition of typical lowland 
 forms. If these conclusions are correct we may assume that the 
 plains did not always act as barriers, but that conditions reigned 
 which permitted free communication between the extreme north and 
 distant mountain chains. For the realisation of this scheme we must 
 look to the Glacial Period, when the glaciers of the extreme north 
 descended southwards, and the glaciers from the mountains stretched far 
 north to meet them. For instance, during the Glacial Period in Europe 
 the Scandinavian glaciers descended south as far as Germany, while the 
 Alpine glaciers extended north into the same country. This condition of 
 things would enable the Arctic and mountain forms to mingle in the 
 lowlands. As the climate ameliorated the fixed flora would be either 
 driven north or up the mountains till the present distribution of forms 
 was the result. The majority of eminent botanists agree in regarding 
 the Glacial Period as the key to the distribution of high Alpine forms, 
 but differ as to the precise region of origin of the constituents. Mr. John 
 Ball, however, was of opinion that for the explanation of the discon- 
 tinuous distribution of mountain species it was necessary to look further 
 back than the Glacial Period. In his opinion the mountains were centres 
 of evolution of new species, which then streamed down into the plains. 
 Against this view it may be urged that there is often clear evidence that 
 high mountain forms (like Alpine species) in different parts of the world 
 have been derived from lowland forms, whereas there is no evidence of 
 the reverse process having taken place. Furthermore it is not found 
 that the richness of the flora of a region is proportional to its possessions 
 in the shape of mountains : Australia, for instance, poor as it is in moun- 
 tains, is rich in endemic forms. 
 
 Amongst Alpine plants some are clearly derived from the Mediter- 
 ranean-Oriental region, such as Erica carnea, Crocus vernus, Colchicum 
 alpinum. These Mediterranean types are not numerous (only 48 species) 
 in the Alps, but become more so in southern mountains. 
 
 In a previous section attention has been directed to the fact that 
 the master key to the structure of Alpine plants lies in their need to guard 
 against disproportinate loss of water. For plants inhabiting deserts and 
 dry open steppes there is the same imperative necessity. Hence it is a 
 matter of no surprise that certain steppe plants should have settled in the 
 
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF THE ALPS. CXX1 
 
 Alps and have even given birth to Alpine species. Some species of 
 Saussurea, and Artemisia, Edelweiss {finaphalium leontopodium), all 
 seem to be steppe plants ; in fact, the last named, and Alpine species of the 
 first, are found on the steppes of Northern Asia. Oxytropis and Astra- 
 galus are typical genera inhabiting steppes and deserts, where they are 
 represented by hundreds of species, though in the Alps each has only 
 half a dozen species. 
 
 In addition to all the forms discussed above, and many ubiquitous forms 
 found alike in the Alps and in the lowlands, there are a number of species 
 which are found in the Alps but nowhere else. In the Alps there are 
 (according to Dr. Christ) about 182 endemic species. These peculiarly 
 Alpine plants exceed in beauty those which are common to the Alps and 
 the Arctic regions. Of the beautiful gentians one alone, Gentiana nivalis, 
 reappears in the Arctic regions. In the extreme north Primula farinosa 
 alone represents the Alpine primulas. The same general rule holds good 
 for the bright-coloured species of Androsace, Soldanella, Campanula, 
 Phyteuma, and Viola, whose Alpine species do not reappear in the far 
 north, or are only represented there by a single species. As might be 
 anticipated from considerations set forth in iii, above, the beauty of many 
 of the brightest Alpine flowers has been gained in the Alps themselves. 
 
 List of Books. 
 
 Among a very large number of books and articles the following are specially 
 recommended : — 
 
 Climate. 
 
 G. Berndt. Der Fohn. Gottingen, 1886. (2nd edition. 1896.) 
 J. Hann. Handbuch der Klimatologie. Stuttgart, 1883 (2nd edition, 1898). 
 P m Blumer-ZweifeL Was ist Fohn? (article in the 'Jahrbuch' of the Swiss 
 Alpine Club, published at Bern in 1895, vol. xxx. pp. 320-337.) 
 
 Botany. 
 
 John Ball. On the Origin of the European Flora (in the ' Proceedings of the 
 
 Royal Geographical Society' for 1879). 
 John Ball. The Distribution of Plants on the South Side of the Alps. (Pub- 
 lished in 1896 by the Linnean Society in vol. v. part 4 of the 2nd series of 
 its botanical * Transactions.') 
 A. W. Bennett. The Flora of the Alps. 2 vols, with 120 coloured plates. 
 
 London, 1896. 
 G. Bonnier. Les Plantes de la Region Alpine et leurs Rapports avec le Climat 
 
 (' Annales de G^ographie,' 1895, pp. 393-415)- 
 H. Christ. La Flore de la Suisse et ses Origines (Bale and Geneva. German 
 
 edition, 1879. French edition, 1883). 
 Loew. Bluten-biologische Floristik. Stuttgart, 1894. 
 //. Midler. Alpenblumen, ihre Befruchtung durch Insekten, und ihre Anpa- 
 
 sungen an dieselben. Leipzig, 1 881. 
 K. W. von delta Torre. The Tourist's Guide to the Flora of the Alps. Trans- 
 lated by A. W. Bennett. London, 1886. 
 
 Accompanied by A. Hartinger's 500 Plates of Alpine Plants. (Genn*rj 
 text and Plates appeared in 1882 and 1884 respectively ; 2nd edition <»l 
 the Plates completed in 1897 ; all published at Vienna by the German 
 and Austrian Alpine Club. ) 
 
CXXll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Art. XIV. — The Snow Region of the Alps. 
 
 Glaciers. — Avalanches.* 
 
 A large part of the heat which the sun sends to the earth is expended 
 in converting water into vapour, and raising it into the atmosphere. As 
 soon as any portion of the atmosphere becomes over-saturated with 
 vapour, this is precipitated, at first in the form of cloud, and, if not re- 
 absorbed, ultimately reaches the earth again as rain. Several causes, 
 which it is beyond our limits to discuss, combine to lower the temperature 
 of the air as it is raised above the earth's surface, and at a sufficient 
 height it becomes so cold that whatever vapour is condensed takes the 
 form of snow and sleet. In falling to the earth this is usually reconverted 
 into water, but in high mountain districts, where the temperature of the 
 surface is also low, the greater part of the aqueous vapour returned from 
 the atmosphere retains the form of snow. When the air is calm, the 
 snow of the High Alps consists of regular crystalline forms of exquisite 
 beauty, being wonderfully varied modifications of a six-rayed star. When 
 the air is disturbed, the snow assumes a new condition, which is that of 
 small frozen pellets, little larger than a pin's head. It is this which forms 
 that blinding snow-dust well known to those who have ever experienced 
 the tourmente. The snow that falls on the exposed ridges and steep 
 slopes does not long remain there. The larger portion is generally 
 carried away by the wind ; a further portion accumulates till the slope 
 becomes too steep, when it slides down in an avalanche ; and a small 
 part is disposed of by melting and evaporation. The result is, that 
 nearly the whole of the snow falling on high mountains is retained in the 
 hollows, or on the more level parts of the surface. If these hollows arid 
 plateaux are below the level of perpetual snow, or, in other words, if they 
 are so situated that the annual melting equals the quantity of fresh snow 
 annually supplied, no accumulation can take place. A certain quantity 
 of snow is gathered into these storehouses every winter, and is removed 
 during the following summer, the same process being renewed year after 
 year. This condition of things is seen in the Carpathians, the ranges of 
 Central Spain, and many other European mountains, whose summits rise 
 above the level of perpetual snow. 
 
 The case is otherwise when the winter snows are gathered in hollows 
 and plateaux where the rate of melting is less than the annual supply. 
 The first impression of a person speculating on the subject would be, that 
 under such circumstances the accumulation would go on without limit, 
 and that a layer of snow constantly increasing in thickness would be 
 
 * In giving a brief sketch of the present state of our knowledge of the phenomena of the snow 
 region of the Alps, the writer (J. B.) involuntarily enters upon a discussion which has furnished 
 abundant matter of controversy, now in great part set at rest. Those who desire fuller information 
 may refer to the original writings of Rendu, Forbes, Agassiz, and Tyndall, or may satisfy them- 
 selves with an article in the Edinburgh Revietv for January 1861. For simple and lucid accounts 
 of ice and its action the reader should refer to the late Prof. Tyndall's The Forms of Water in 
 Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers (1872), and Prof. Bonney's Ice-Work Present and Past 
 (1896) — both published in the ' International Scientific ' Series. The standard work on Glaciers 
 is now the Handbuch der Gletscherkunde (Stuttgart, 1885), by Prof. Heim, of Zurich : a very full 
 summary in English was published by Mr. Tuckett in vol. xii. of the A tyine Journal. 
 
THE SNOW REGION OF THE ALPS. Cxxiii 
 
 formed on these parts of the surface. To understand what actually 
 occurs, a little detail is necessary. 
 
 The higher region of the Alps, and other high mountains, is subjected 
 to a constant alteration between heat and cold. In clear weather this 
 takes place between each day and night j in clouded weather the intervals 
 are longer. The sun shining upon the mass of snow-dust and minute 
 crystals partially melts them, and ultimately fuses them together, till they 
 form grains of larger size, which are frozen together in compact particles 
 of ice during the next interval of cold. At first this process is confined 
 to the uppermost layer of the snow, but as the alternate melting and 
 congelation are frequently renewed, a similar change extends through 
 the mass, which is gradually converted into that peculiar condition that 
 has been called neve, or in German Firn. The longer the exposure of a 
 layer of snow has lasted, the more complete is the change into neVe" ; the 
 sooner a fresh layer falls, the more imperfect will be the conversion of 
 the older one. 
 
 A section of the upper strata of the neVe, here and there exposed on 
 the sides of a crevasse, shows successive layers whose upper surfaces are 
 seen to be more near the condition of ice than the interior portions. In 
 the lapse of years the neve increases layer by layer, one of them corre- 
 sponding to every considerable fall of snow, until a considerable weight 
 presses on the lower and older portions of the mass. 
 
 To understand what effects are produced by this pressure, we must 
 bear in mind an important property of ice, to which the name regelation 
 has been given. Two surfaces of ice, at or very near the melting-point, 
 when brought into contact, freeze together so completely that no trace of 
 their original separating surface remains. Adequate pressure applied to 
 a mass of fragments of ice, by forcing them into positions where their 
 surfaces come into contact, causes regelation, and the closer the contact 
 the more completely will the separate portions be welded together. 
 
 Such is the change that is effected in the recesses where the Alpine 
 snows are stored. Having been first brought to the condition of granular 
 neve by the sun's action, these grains are more and more completely united 
 in the deeper portions of the mass into nearly compact ice. 
 
 If the reservoirs of which we have spoken were closed basins ot 
 sufficient depth, they would simply become filled with stationary masses 
 of ice ; but, as a general rule, this is not the case. They partake of the 
 general slope of the mountain, and each is connected with the lower level 
 by a valley, glen, or ravine, through which the snow would speedily flow 
 if it were converted into water. But, under adequate pressure, ice, and 
 especially such imperfect ice as is formed from the neV£, possesses a 
 considerable degree of plasticity. It gives way in the direction of least 
 resistance. A piece of ice compressed in a mould yields until it fills all 
 the inequalities, and produces an accurate cast of the mould. The vast 
 masses of neve that are piled in the upper valleys of the Alps yield in the 
 same way to the pressure caused by their own weight, and gradually 
 flow downwards through the channel of these valleys. In other words, 
 they become glaciers. 
 
 We now see that the essential condition for the formation of a glacier 
 is the existence of a reservoir large enough, and at a sufficient height, to 
 
CXX1V INTRODUCTION. 
 
 accumulate such a mass of neve as will, by its weight, convert its own 
 substance into ice, and force it to flow in whatever direction it encounters 
 the least resistance. In moving onward the glacier conforms to the laws 
 that regulate the motion of imperfect fluids. The resistance of the sides 
 and the bed on which it moves retards the motion of the adjoining 
 portions of the ice. The centre, therefore, moves faster than the sides, 
 and the surface faster than the bottom. When the ice-stream flows 
 through a bend in the valley, the point of most rapid motion is shifted 
 from the centre towards the convex side of the curve. While the ice 
 thus conforms to the laws of fluid motion, the internal changes by which 
 it is enabled thus to comport itself are peculiar, and have no example 
 among other bodies of which we have experience. The nature of the 
 motion, involving constant changes in the relative positions of the 
 particles, implies fracture, which must be frequently renewed ; but this 
 would speedily reduce the whole to a mass of incoherent fragments, if it 
 were not for the property of regelation. At each step in the progress of 
 the glacier this repairs the damage done to the continuity of the ice, and 
 by the twofold process of fracture and regelation the glacier moves 
 onward, constantly changing its form, yet in appearance an almost 
 continuous mass of solid ice. 
 
 The rate of progress of a glacier depends upon various causes, but 
 mainly on those which would regulate its motion if it were converted into 
 water — viz. the dimensions of the reservoir, and the inclination of the 
 slope down which it flows. It is also influenced by temperature : the 
 nearer the ice is to its melting point, the more easily it yields, and the 
 faster it moves. It is nearly certain that the cold of winter penetrates 
 but to a slight depth into the interior of the glacier, and this accounts for 
 the continuance of the motion in that season. 
 
 The above description applies to true glaciers, which, as we have seen, 
 are rivers of ice flowing through definite channels. There are in the 
 Alps a vast number of smaller accumulations of neve, gathered into the 
 lesser' hollows and recesses of the surface, that give birth to minor 
 glaciers, or glaciers of the second order, in which the phenomena of the 
 true glaciers are imperfectly exhibited. In these the conversion of the 
 neve into ice is incomplete, and the approach to the law of semi-fluid 
 motion but slight. These secondary glaciers usually lie on steep declivi- 
 ties, and their downward motion, which is trifling as compared with that 
 of the greater ice-streams, is mainly effected by sliding on the underlying 
 surface of rock. 
 
 Returning to the description of the true glaciers, we have next to 
 remark that although the ice of which they are composed is amenable to 
 pressure, it is devoid of the other chief attribute of imperfect fluids or 
 viscous bodies : it is but slightly capable of yielding to tension. When 
 the general movement of the glacier tends to draw asunder adjoining 
 portions of ice, this is unable to obey the strain, the mass is rent through, 
 and in this manner are formed the crevasses. These are among the 
 best known and most characteristic of glacier phenomena. They are 
 most numerous and widest in summer, when the glacier moves most 
 rapidly, and are partially or completely closed up in winter, when the 
 onward flow of the ice is slackened. But the same causes recur year 
 
THE SNOW REGION OF THE ALPS. CXXV 
 
 after year, subject to slight variation owing to the differences of seasons, 
 and, as a general rule, crevasses reappear annually in the same places, 
 though the ice in which the rent takes place may have been some 
 hundreds of feet higher up the stream in the preceding season. Crevasses 
 are at first narrow fissures, and are gradually enlarged by the onward 
 motion of the glacier, increasing from a few inches to many feet in width, 
 and sometimes reaching to a great depth. The positions in which 
 crevasses usually oppose the most serious obstacle to the Alpine traveller, 
 are those where the bed of the glacier suddenly changes its inclination 
 from a gentle slope to a steeper declivity. The ice, as it bends over the 
 convex surface, is rent by transverse crevasses of great depth and width, 
 which often cross the entire breadth of the ice-stream, and these are 
 repeated as each successive portion arrives at the same point, so that the 
 result is to form a series of deep parallel trenches, divided by massive 
 walls, or ramparts of ice, giving the glacier when seen from a distance 
 the appearance of a gigantic staircase. It not unfrequently happens 
 that, in the same places where the ice is thus rent by one set of parallel 
 crevasses, another system of crevasses may be formed running trans- 
 versely across the first. In this way the whole of the surface is cut up 
 into isolated tower-shaped masses. When first formed the sides of 
 crevasses are more or less vertical walls, with well-defined edges, but the 
 exposed parts of the ice are rapidly attacked by the sun, and even by the 
 air and by rain. In a short time the flat-topped ramparts and turrets 
 have their upper edges eaten away till the broad rampart becomes a sharp 
 ridge, and the tower a pointed pinnacle. This is the origin of those 
 singular and beautiful forms that are often seen towards the lower part 
 of an icefall in the greater glaciers, where the crevasses penetrate to a 
 depth that must be reckoned by hundreds of feet. 
 
 A peculiar sort of crevasse, somewhat different in its origin from the 
 rest, is best known by the German name Bergschrund. This arises 
 along the line of separation between the fields of neve that partake 
 more or less of the downward movement of the glacier, and the upper 
 snow-slopes that remain attached to the rocky skeleton of the mountain. 
 A continuous fissure, sometimes 20 or 30 feet in width, marks the separa- 
 tion, and interposes a formidable obstacle to the traveller who seeks to 
 reach the higher peaks. 
 
 When the upper mountain slopes are covered by a considerable depth 
 of neve', the crevasses naturally cut through the neve, and expose sections 
 showing the outcrop of the successive beds of snow from which it was 
 originally formed. When it is cut up by the intersection of transverse 
 crevasses, the neVe' often appears in the form of huge square blocks. 
 These blocks of creamy ne've' were known, Saussure tells us (§§ 1975 and 
 2054), in his time at Chamonix as ' seracs,' this being the name given to 
 the compact white cheese obtained from ' petit lait,' or whey, and 
 pressed together in square wooden rectangular boxes. But the name 
 ' seVacs ' is nowadays commonly extended to all pinnacles or blocks, 
 whether composed of ne've' or of ice, and particularly to those seen in an 
 icefall. 
 
 A remarkable phenomenon, seen only on the greater glaciers, is that 
 presented by the so called moulins. During the summer, when the sun 
 
CXXV1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 acts with great force, the melted ice soon forms rivulets on the surface. 
 In portions of the glacier intersected by crevasses the superficial water is 
 quickly carried off ; but where the ice is compact, these rivulets uniting 
 together may accumulate until they form a considerable stream. Sooner 
 or later this encounters a crevice, perhaps at first very small, which is 
 enlarged by the action of falling water till a vertical shaft is formed in 
 the ice, through which the stream pours in a waterfall that is lost to 
 sight in the depths of the glacier. Another phenomenon is what are 
 commonly called glacier tables, or ice cones capped by a great boulder 
 which has protected that particular bit of ice from being melted by the 
 sun's rays. 
 
 Among other apparent objections to the above given explanation of 
 the origin of glaciers, it may occur to the reader that, as considerable 
 pressure is necessary to account for the conversion of the neve' into ice, 
 the upper strata which have not undergone this pressure ought to con- 
 tinue in the state of neve, and that the upper surface of the glacier should 
 consist of neve', and not of ice. This objection loses sight of the vast 
 amount of ablation, or loss, which a glacier annually undergoes through 
 the melting of the surface. By mounting high enough on each glacier 
 we do find the upper surface formed of neve, but as it descends to a lower 
 level a fresh slice of the surface is annually cut away by the sun's heat, 
 and, taking a rough average, it is not too much to assert that the ice 
 which we find on the surface in the middle or lower part of a glacier was 
 200 feet deep at the time when the same part lay one mile higher up the 
 stream. For this and other reasons the writer (J. B.) is persuaded that 
 the depth of the greater glaciers has hitherto been much underrated. If 
 we possessed continuous series of observations on any of those glaciers, 
 showing the annual rate of progress in successive parts of the stream, 
 and the corresponding loss by ablation, we should be able to infer with 
 great probability the thickness of the deposit in the reservoir whence 
 it flows. 
 
 It is clear that the further a glacier flows towards the lower region, the 
 greater will be the annual amount of ablation. At length it must reach a 
 point where the amount of annual melting of the ice equals the amount 
 borne down by the progress of the glacier, and at that point the latter 
 must come to an end. The inequalities of the seasons may cause a slight 
 oscillation in the length, especially when several successive seasons 
 concur to produce the same effect. Abundant winter snow and cool 
 summers cause the glaciers to advance, while opposite conditions cause 
 a contrary result. The more considerable changes that have been 
 occasionally recorded have been probably caused by local accidents. 
 
 During the summer months, as we have seen, the glacier is covered 
 with streamlets produced by the melting of the surface ; the sun is 
 constantly eating away the edges and sides of the crevasses, and the air 
 and the earth dissolve a portion of the under surface. The plenteous 
 supply of water from all these sources finally makes its way to the rocky 
 bed, where it passes on under the ice, and finally issues in a single stream 
 from the foot of the glacier. Here the ice usually forms a dome-shaped 
 arch, through which the stream flows out into the valley, and whose 
 beautiful azure tints attract the notice of travellers. 
 
THE SNOW REGION OF THE ALPS. C.xxvii 
 
 The appearance of the surface of a glacier usually differs much from 
 the previous conception formed by a visitor. Instead of the clear hues 
 of ice, he finds it soiled by earth and other impurities, carried from the 
 slopes of the adjoining mountains by violent winds. The surface is 
 generally very uneven, for, even in the parts free from crevasses, the 
 same ice over which the traveller walks was at some earlier period of its 
 history rent by fissures, and has probably passed through the wild 
 confusion of an icefall. Lower down, when pressure came into play, 
 the broken members were welded together again so as to form a continuous 
 mass, and the greater irregularities of the surface were removed ; but 
 many minor hillocks and depressions, unsuspected at a distance, preserve 
 a record of the changes that have been undergone. 
 
 Besides the minor impurities that fleck the surface of the ice-stream, 
 there are other more important foreign bodies borne down by it. The 
 traveller who views it from some commanding station will almost always 
 detect a fringe of blocks of stone, of various sizes, lying along both sides 
 near the bank, and may usually trace one, two, or more lines of blocks 
 descending from the upper end of the glacier, and marking a continuous 
 trail along the course of the stream. The general name for these trains 
 of blocks is moraines. In the ceaseless progress of decay which is 
 eating away the solid materials of the mountains, blocks of stone, 
 accompanied by finer gravel, constantly fall from the steep slopes above 
 upon the surface of the ice. As this gradually advances it receives fresh 
 contributions, and in this manner are accumulated the blocks and gravel 
 along the sides of a glacier that are known as lateral moraines. As the 
 glacier is wasted away by melting in the lower part of its course, a portion 
 of the lateral moraine is stranded on the bank ; a further portion finds its 
 way to the glacier bed through the crevasses that usually abound near 
 the sides ; and, except under peculiar circumstances, a small portion 
 only is carried down to the foot of the glacier. When two glaciers 
 come together, each being provided with its lateral moraine, the conse- 
 quence is that the two moraines that are brought together become joined 
 and confounded into one in the centre of the united ice-stream. In this 
 manner is formed a medial moraine. Being far from the edge of the 
 glacier, it is much less exposed to destruction than the lateral moraine. 
 It sometimes disappears from sight in an icefall, but as the crevasses, 
 though deep, rarely penetrate through the entire thickness of the ice, the 
 blocks of stone fall only to a certain depth, and in due time, when the 
 upper ice is removed by ablation, they come again into view. In this 
 way huge blocks of stone are borne down from the higher crests of the 
 Alps to the lower valleys, with the edges still fresh, and without ha\ in- 
 suffered mechanical violence. Most of the greater glaciers are formed 
 by the union of a number of smaller separate ice-streams. To the 
 junction of each of these affluents belongs a separate medial moraine, 
 which may often be traced for many miles from the point of junction to 
 the foot of the glacier, disclosing the mineral composition of parts of the 
 range difficult or impossible of access. When composed of large blocks, 
 a medial moraine sometimes forms a ridge 30 or 40 feet in height, running 
 along the middle of the glacier. The first impression is, that this ridge 
 is formed of rocks piled one over the other ; but it more commonly 
 
CXXVlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 happens that each block rests upon ice, and that the reason why they 
 form a ridge raised above the general level is that the blocks, and the 
 gravel which accompanies them, protect the ice from ablation, though 
 separate small stones conduct heat, and sink into the surface. 
 
 The mass of blocks and finer matter accumulated in front of a glacier 
 forms the terminal moraine. Its extent depends very much more on the 
 form of the ground in the place where the glacier comes to an end, than 
 on the quantity of matter transported by the glacier. In the course of 
 ages this would almost always suffice to produce a considerable mound, 
 if the end of the glacier remained nearly at the same point, and if it did 
 not often happen that the larger portion falls into the bed of the stream 
 issuing from the glacier, and is there water-worn, reduced in size, and 
 gradually carried onward through the valley. 
 
 Not less important than the transport of rocks on the upper surface of 
 the glacier is the action of the under surface on the mineral materials 
 with which it comes into contact. The motion of a glacier is mainly 
 effected by means of the internal motion of the ice, by which one part is 
 enabled to advance more rapidly than another, but in part the motion 
 (as conjectured by Saussure) is accomplished by the sliding of the under 
 surface of the ice upon its bed. The smaller particles of stone and sand 
 that find their way under the ice are set into the surface, and, urged by 
 the enormous weight of the glacier, become a most powerful graving 
 tool, which wears away the surface of the hardest rocks. Blocks of stone 
 falling from the moraines to the bottom of the glacier through crevasses 
 are rapidly ground down in this gigantic mill, and the materials are 
 reduced partly to small scored pebbles, and partly to an impalpable 
 powder, finer than the finest mud. Every stream issuing from a glacier 
 is at once recognised by its milky colour, derived from this minutely 
 pulverised matter, which is often retained in suspension for a distance of 
 60 miles and more from its source. It is this glacier silt which has largely 
 contributed to fill up the heads of the Alpine lakes, and no doubt a con- 
 siderable quantity is carried directly to the sea through the Po, the Adige, 
 and other rivers of the Eastern Alps. 
 
 By the process above described, every rock over which a glacier passes 
 is worn in a peculiar manner. Not only are all projecting asperities 
 removed, and reduced to the condition of uniform convex faces, but the 
 surface is ground and polished in a way entirely different from the action 
 of water or other known agents. The presence of fine striae extending 
 for a considerable distance, occasionally mingled with larger grooves, is 
 one of the characteristic indications of glacial action. These have been 
 studied with much attention of late years, since their importance as evi- 
 dence of the former extension of the glaciers has been recognised by 
 geologists. After much discussion, no difference remains among com- 
 petent men of science as to the fact that the existing glaciers occupied a 
 very much wider area than they now do, at a period geologically very 
 recent. The exact limits of that area may not be settled, and there is 
 room for discussion as to some of the results attributed to their action ; 
 but the fact that they played an important part as geological agents, not 
 only in the Alps, but in other mountain countries where they do not now 
 exist, is generally admitted. 
 
THE SNOW REGION OF THE ALPS. Cxxix 
 
 The geological agency of glaciers is discussed in Art. XI. Many 
 other interesting branches of enquiry connected with the glaciers remain 
 untouched in the foregoing sketch. They are not only amongst the 
 grandest and most impressive objects in nature, but at the same time 
 amongst the most fertile in instruction to the student of her laws, while 
 their influence on the climate and conditions of large portions of the 
 earth is of vast importance to mankind in general. 
 
 To form an adequate idea of the part played by glaciers in the general 
 economy of nature, let the reader consider for a moment the consequences 
 that would arise in our continent if they were to disappear. All the 
 greatest rivers would at once be reduced to insignificant streams, rising 
 in rainy weather, and dwindling away in time of drought. The Danube 
 nominally rises in Swabia, but its true source, which is the Inn, along 
 with the Salza, the Drave, and its other chief tributaries, derives from the 
 glaciers the streams that maintain the level of the river. The Rhine, the 
 Rhone, the Po, and the Adige are fed almost exclusively by the Alpine 
 glaciers, and it is these that maintain the abundant supplies of pure 
 water that enable the Italian lakes to diffuse fertility throughout the valley 
 of the Po. 
 
 The intimate structure of glacier ice has been much studied and dis- 
 cussed, and has revealed facts of new and unexpected interest. Those 
 who feel an interest in the physics of the subject will not fail to read 
 Professor Tyndall's important work, 'The Glaciers of the Alps' (i860, 
 reprinted in 1896), or Professor Heim's work referred to at the opening 
 of this Article. 
 
 The phenomena of glaciers may be studied in most parts of the Alpine 
 chain, where the average height of the peaks approaches 11,000 English 
 feet. Reckoning from west to east, the chief glacier districts are the 
 Dauphine Alps, the main range of the Graian Alps between the Roche 
 Melon and the Little St. Bernard, the Vanoise group, the Grand Paradis 
 group, the chain of Mont Blanc, the entire range of the Pennine Alps 
 from the Great St. Bernard Pass to the Simplon, the Bernese Alps from 
 the Diablerets to the Grimsel, the Sustenhorn group from the Titlis range 
 to the Furka, the range of the Todi, the Adula group, the Bernina group, 
 the Ortler group, the Adamello range between the Val Camonica and the 
 Val Rendena, the Oetzthal glaciers in the Tyrol, and lastly the snowy 
 range extending from the Brenner Pass to the Heiligenbluter Tauern, 
 and culminating in the Gross Glockner. There are a few small glaciers 
 in the Maritime Alps (mainly in the Cima dei Gelas range), and one on 
 Monte Viso (the true source of the Po), with some others in the 
 Chambeyron group and in the Ambin group between the Mont Cenis 
 Pass and Tunnel. In the Dolomites glaciers are few and far between. 
 The Hohsand and Gries glaciers in the Lepontines are surprisingly 
 extensive as compared with others in that district. Perhaps two of the 
 most remarkable of small glaciers on minor peaks are the Blaugletscherli, 
 at the N. foot of the Schwarzhorn, near Grindelwald (which has no neV£), 
 and the Glarnisch and Bachi glaciers (commonly called neve's, though the 
 former at least has a distinct icefall), on the Glarnisch, while on the still 
 lower Santis (8,216 ft.) there are at least two considerable masses of 
 permanent ndve'. The largest single glacier is the Great Aletsch, 
 
 // 
 
Cxxx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 draining the S. side of the Bernese Oberland group ; it descends in one 
 unbroken stream with a length of 15 miles and an average breadth of 
 fully one mile, while its total area (excluding its feeders, which add 15J 
 square miles more) is no less than 50 square miles. Next in order of 
 length and area (in the Alps, of course) come the Unteraar, the Viescher, 
 and the Gorner glaciers, followed by the Mer de Glace and the Lower 
 Grindelwald glacier ; in the Eastern Alps the Gepatsch (area 8£ square 
 miles, length 7 miles), Pasterze, and Gurgler glaciers are the largest 
 (Richter reverses the order of the first and second named). The Lower 
 Grindelwald glacier descended to the lowest level, having sunk to 3,225 ft. 
 in 1 818, though now, of course, its snout is far higher up. Professor 
 Heim reckons that the total glacier surface (ice and neve) in the Alps is 
 between 1,158 and 1,544 square miles ; of this about half is in Switzerland, 
 wherein the Vallais has nearly three times as much as its nearest rival, 
 the Grisons, which is followed pretty closely by Bern. The same inves- 
 tigator tells us that there are about 1,155 glaciers in the Alps (though 
 no doubt this is only a rough calculation). These are distributed as 
 follows (see his work, p. 49) : — 
 
 - 
 
 Large Glaciers 
 
 Small Glaciers 
 
 Total 
 
 1. Switzerland . 
 
 2. Austria . 
 
 3. France . 
 
 4. Italy 
 
 138 
 71 
 25 
 15 
 
 333 
 39i 
 119 
 
 63 
 
 471 
 462 
 144 
 
 7* 
 
 
 249 
 
 906 
 
 i,i55 
 
 A few years ago a ' Commission Internationale des Glaciers ' was 
 formed to collect authentic information as to various questions relating to 
 glaciers and their fluctuations in the whole world. Limiting ourselves to 
 the Alps (which form the scope of this work) special mention should be 
 made of the very elaborate and valuable annual reports as to changes in 
 Alpine (mainly Swiss) glaciers published by Professor Forel (the first two 
 appeared in the 'Echo des Alpes' of Geneva for 1881 and 1882, but since 
 then in the ' Jahrbuch ' of the Swiss Alpine Club). The results of the long- 
 continued observations on the Rhone Glacier have not yet been published. 
 But there exist several excellent monographs (generally with sketch 
 maps) on various glaciers, among which we may name the following : — 
 
 « Miage,' by Professor Baretti (' Memorie della Reale Accademia delle 
 Scienze di Torino,' second series, vol. xxxii. 1880) ; 'Brenva,' by Signor 
 Marengo (' Bollettino ' of the Italian Alpine Club for 1881, and see the 
 * Alpine Guide, 5 vol. i. p. 373); * Glaciers of the Grand Paradis Group,' by 
 Signor Druetti (same periodical for 1897) ; ' Lower Grindelwald,' by Pro- 
 fessor Baltzer ('Denkschriften der schweiz. naturforschend. Gesellschaft,' 
 vol. xxxiii. part 2, 1898) ; ' Pasterze,' by Herr Seeland (' Zeitschrift ' of the 
 German and Austrian Alpine Club from 1880 to 1893) ; and the ' Vernagt- 
 ferner,' by Dr. Finsterwalder (' Wissenschaftliche Erganzungshefte,' no. 1 
 of the 'Zeitschrift' of the German and Austrian Alpine Club, 1897). 
 
THE SNOW REGION OF THE ALPS. Cxxxi 
 
 For the Eastern Alps we have Professor Richter's classical writings— 
 <Die Gletscher der Ostalpen' (1888) and 'Urkunden iiber die Ausbriiche 
 d. Vernagt- und Gurglergletschers im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert ' (Stuttgart, 
 1892), as well as his 'Geschichte der Schwankungen der Alpengletscher ' 
 (a general article in vol. xxii. of the ' Zeitschrift ' of the German and 
 Austrian Alpine Club, 1891). In 1898 Dr. Magnus Fritzsch issued at 
 Vienna a very handy and detailed list of all the cairns, posts, splashes of 
 red paint, &c, placed (up to 1896) on various Tyrolese glaciers, with notes 
 of the advance or retreat of each. 
 
 A word must be said as to the lakes which are formed not so much in a 
 glacier as between it and the stones on one or other of its sides. They 
 not unfrequently drain through a hole in the ice and cause great damage 
 to the valley below. The best known case is the Marjelen lake, near the 
 Great Aletsch Glacier, and not far from the Eggishorn Hotel (its 
 history has been written by Mr. Gosset in vol. xxiii. (1887-8) of the 
 ' Jahrbuch' of the Swiss Alpine Club). Another case is that of the Rutor 
 lake, in the Rutor group, between Aosta and the Little St. Bernard Pass 
 (for its history see the admirable historical article by Professor Baretti in 
 the ' Bollettino' of the Italian Alpine Club for 1880 ; see also the * Alpine 
 Guide,' vol. i. p. 289). A third is that formed at the foot of the Crete Scche 
 glacier, at the head of the Val de Bagnes, in 1894 (see M. Pioche's article 
 in vol. xxi. of the 'Annuaire ' of the French Alpine Club, and the ' Alpine 
 Guide,' vol. i. p. 442) and 1898. A somewhat analogous phenomenon is 
 when, owing to special circumstances, water accumulates (a \ poche 
 d'eau ') within a glacier, suddenly breaking loose and devastating the 
 valley beneath. The chief case is that of the bursting of such an accumula- 
 tion in the Tete Rousse glacier, on the Aiguille du Goiiter, which in 
 1892 practically destroyed St. Gervais les Bains (see M. Durier's article 
 in vol. xix. of the ' Annuaire ' of the French Alpine Club, and the ! Alpine 
 Guide,' vol. i. p. 368). In the Val de Bagnes the Gietroz glacier has at 
 least twice in historical times (1595 and 18 18) so blocked the narrow 
 valley that when the barrier was broken through the valley below suffered 
 tremendous damage ; but this danger is now averted by an ingenious 
 device, described in vol. i. p. 442 of the ' Alpine Guide.' 
 
 Avalanches. — It is impossible to quit the snow region of the Alps 
 without a brief reference to avalanches (Germ. Lauineri).* These are of 
 different kinds, and very different in their effects, according as they 
 consist of snow, neVe\ or ice. The snow, which falls in prodigious 
 quantities on the slopes of Alpine valleys in winter, is little compact, and 
 when it accumulates to such a point as to begin to move, the disturbance 
 sometimes extends to a great distance, and a mass of snow sufficient to 
 overwhelm a village falls in the course of a few minutes. The chief 
 danger from these avalanches, which are very common in some valleys, 
 
 * The French name comes from 'ad vallem,' as they slide valleywards, while the Germru 
 is said to be a form of the mediaeval ' labina,' (which still survives in RomoiiM h as'Iavma'), 
 meaning that which slides. See an interesting note by Mr. Tuckett on these two words in \ ■ >!. % . 
 of the Alpine Journal, pp. 346-9 ; the word ' lowinas ' appears as early as 1302, in two Latti 
 ments relating to Morschach, above the Lake of Lucerne {ibid, xviii. 128). I !)<• standard work on 
 avalanches in Switzerland is Herr Coaz's Die Lauinen der Schweizeralfen (Bern. 1881), while 
 another book by Herr Elias Landolt, Die Bcicht, Schneelawincn und Stftnscklllfe (Zurich, 1887), 
 
 fives a most interesting account of the artificial means of defence de\ i 
 cods, and the like. 
 
 h 2 
 
CXXXli INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and are called Staublauinen (dust avalanches), arises from the roofs 
 giving way under the weight of the snow. So much air is contained in 
 the snow that it is possible to breathe freely, and many persons have been 
 delivered, or have been able to work their own way out, after being buried 
 for many days and even weeks. 
 
 Far more formidable than the Staublauinen are those called in German 
 Switzerland Grundlauinen. These usually occur during the spring, 
 after the winter snow has become partially consolidated, and approaches 
 the consistency of neve. When an unusual quantity has fallen in the 
 preceding winter, the heat of the sun in spring sometimes causes the 
 descent of very considerable masses in a semi-compact condition. The 
 momentum gained in descending several hundreds or thousands of feet 
 makes this description of avalanche very destructive in its effects. A 
 broad passage is cleared through a pine forest as though the trees had 
 been but stubble, and when it reaches inhabited places, which does not 
 often occur, it either crushes the houses on which it falls, or buries them 
 so completely as to make the work of extrication very difficult. In the 
 higher valleys of the Alps these avalanches are very common in the spring, 
 falling before the herdsmen go to the chalets on the ' Alps.' The remains 
 are often to be seen throughout the summer, and not unfrequently serve 
 to bridge over a torrent which works for itself a passage beneath the snow. 
 
 Comparatively small glaciers, lying on a steep rocky slope, have in a 
 few rare instances been known to detach themselves partially from their 
 beds, and to fall into some lower valley. Should this occur in the 
 neighbourhood of inhabited places, the result is a catastrophe as formid- 
 able as that caused by the fall of portions of a mountain. The village of 
 Randa was in 1 819 all but completely destroyed by the blast of air 
 occasioned by the fall of a portion of the Bies glacier ; but the most 
 recent and most terrible occurrence of this kind was the fall of an enormous 
 portion of the Altels glacier on to the Gemmi path in 1895, when (as in 
 1782) several men and many cows perished (see the excellent account 
 of this disaster published by Professor Heim at Zurich in 1895 under the 
 title of ' Die Gletscherlawine an der Altels 5 as no. 98 of the ' Neujahrs- 
 blatt d. Ziircher. Naturforsch. Gesellschaft '). Smaller ice avalanches are 
 of daily occurrence in the High Alps, in situations where a glacier reaches 
 the edge of a steep rocky slope. In warm weather, when the movement 
 of such a glacier is accelerated, blocks of ice frequently fall over the edge 
 of the precipice, and in falling are broken into smaller fragments, each 
 of which is, however, capable of doing severe injury. The guides, who are 
 acquainted with the places exposed to the descent of such masses of ice, 
 are very careful to avoid them, or else to pass very early in the day before 
 the sun has set the ice in motion. Of this class are the avalanches that 
 are seen and listened to with so much interest by travellers in the Bernese 
 Oberland. They are apt to feel surprise that what appears to be no more 
 than the fall of a little snow down the rocky face of the Jungfrau, or the 
 Wetterhorn, should cause a roar that is impressive even at the distance 
 of a couple of miles. They learn, on closer acquaintance, that what has 
 appeared to be mere dust is caused by the fall of blocks of ice of very many 
 tons weight, which are shattered into small fragments, each of them as 
 formidable as a cannon ball. 
 
THE SNOW REGION OF THE ALPS. Cxxxiii 
 
 A description of avalanche, which is rarely encountered except by 
 mountaineers in the High Alps, arises where fresh snow rests upon steep 
 slopes of ice or frozen neve. A trifling cause may set the loose snow in 
 motion, and when this begins to slide it rarely ceases until the whole 
 superficial stratum has reached the bottom of the slope. The danger is 
 not so much that of being buried in the snow, as of being carried over 
 precipices or into the bergschrund which often lies gaping at the foot 
 of such a slope. 
 
 Art. XV. — Photography in the High Alps/ 
 
 This Article is devoted especially to the requirements of the Alpine 
 aspirant who may desire to combine photography with his favourite 
 pastime of climbing. Those who confine their attention to the subalpine 
 districts hardly need further information than that to be found in the 
 best class of the numerous existing text-books on the subject. Photo- 
 graphy in the High Alps, which is certainly one of the most difficult 
 branches of the art, cannot claim to have attained any great degree of 
 popularity until the last twenty years ; for although the camera had, 
 previous to that period, been carried up sundry peaks and passes by 
 some enterprising climbers, it must be confessed that their work was, 
 with a few notable exceptions, of a somewhat inferior description. The 
 rapid improvement made in the manufacture of dry plates between 1870 
 and 1880 was, without doubt, responsible for the real commencement of 
 mountain photography, which may be said to have begun in 1879 w i tn tne 
 extraordinarily beautiful series of views in the High Alps taken by the late 
 Mr. W. F. Donkin, whose brilliant success naturally roused a spirit of 
 emulation in others, and at the present time the camera is to be fre- 
 quently found amongst the contents of the rucksack. 
 
 The climber should give a considerable amount of thought and con- 
 sideration to the apparatus he intends to use, with especial reference to 
 its size, weight, portability, strength, &c. It cannot be too strongly 
 impressed on him that the frivolous form of photography, in which a 
 mere button is pressed and the rest done by some other person who has 
 probably never set eyes on a Swiss mountain, is altogether out of place 
 amongst the snow fields and ice-clad peaks of the High Alps, where, if, 
 in spite of the difficulties of transport, it be worth while to take a camera 
 at all, it is surely worth while to take the proper amount of care in order 
 to secure successful results, for it should always be remembered that a 
 mountain rarely presents the same picture to the eye on separate visits. 
 Whether the apparatus should take the form of a hand camera or a 
 stand camera must, of course, depend largely on personal preference. 
 The advantage would appear at first sight to be on the side of the hand 
 camera. As regards weight, this certainly is the case, but the question 
 of size and portability requires to be judged from a somewhat different 
 point of view. 
 
 Of the hand cameras of the usual box form the quarter-plate and 
 5 in. x 4 in. sizes are the largest that can be conveniently carried up any 
 
 * This article is new and has been written by Mr. Sydney Spencer. 
 
CXXX1V INTRODUCTION. 
 
 mountain of average difficulty ; whereas, under similar circumstances, a 
 half-plate stand camera may be taken with perfect ease, the various parts 
 constituting the latter being packed in the rucksack with greater comfort 
 than the hand camera, whose cumbersome shape renders it a most awk- 
 ward piece of luggage. 
 
 Moreover, although excellent enlargements and lantern slides can be 
 obtained from quarter-plate negatives, the direct prints made from them 
 produce an impression distinctly inferior to that given by half-plate 
 prints of similar subjects. 
 
 Nevertheless many will, no doubt, give the preference to the hand 
 camera, owing to the small amount of preparation required before using 
 it. It is hardly necessary to point out that a multiplicity of complicated 
 movements are a serious drawback to a hand camera intended for 
 use in the mountains. It is obviously impossible to specify the numerous 
 hand cameras now before the public, but amongst those which up to the 
 present time (1899) have been well tried, and may be recommended for 
 the High Alps, are the Frena (Beck), the Ross Twin Lens, the Primus 
 (Butcher), the Newman and Guardia, the Key (Platinotype Co.), and the 
 Xit (Shew), all of which are well constructed machines, and in the box 
 form, excepting the last-named, which folds. 
 
 The chief points of each may be briefly set forth as follows : — 
 
 The Frena is a light camera possessing a magazine capable of carrying 
 as many as forty films, the changing mechanism of which is, however, 
 liable to upset by the inevitable bumping incidental to rock-climbing. 
 
 The Ross Twin Lens camera is also a fairly light machine, whose chief 
 advantage lies in the fact that the photographer is able to see the exact 
 picture he is taking. 
 
 The same result is obtained by an ingenious reflecting arrangement in 
 the Primus No. 7 A hand camera, which is, in addition, fitted with double 
 extension bellows, enabling lenses of varying foci to be used, an advan- 
 tage which will be readily appreciated by Alpine photographers. 
 
 The Newman and Guardia Special Pattern B camera is a very 
 beautifully constructed machine in all its parts, with which lenses of 
 varying foci can also be used by means of its triple extension bellows, 
 but it is, perhaps, open to the objection of being rather complicated and, 
 in common with the last named camera, is somewhat heavy. 
 
 The ingenious dark slides and simplicity of manipulation are the most 
 noticeable points of the Key camera, which has certainly proved as 
 effective in practice as any of those named here. 
 
 The Xit camera stands by itself as a hand camera, and is, perhaps, 
 the one which will recommend itself most to the climber, owing to its 
 extraordinary lightness and portability. It can, indeed, be carried quite 
 easily in the pocket, although this mode of carrying it is certainly not 
 recommended. If fitted with the Xit extension back it may be used as 
 an ordinary stand camera with all the advantages conferred by the use 
 of lenses of varying foci. 
 
 All the cameras above mentioned possess in common the advantage of a 
 rising front, which is indispensable for the mountains. The lenses used 
 ought, of course, to be of a first-rate kind, and should have a focal 
 length of about 5^ inches. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE HIGH ALPS. cxxxv 
 
 As time exposures are often preferable, and even necessary for Alpine 
 photography, it is advisable to make a rule of taking a tripod stand for 
 use with the hand camera ; for the trembling of the hands and the 
 increased pulsation of the heart, caused by the exertions of climbing, 
 render it impossible to hold the camera motionless for a sufficient length 
 of time in the hands alone, while it is seldom easy to find a convenient 
 object on which to place the camera. 
 
 A telescopic aluminium tripod of great lightness, with triangular legs 
 made adjustable for uneven ground, has been recently brought out (Shew), 
 and would probably meet the requirements of the case. Should the 
 climber, however, desire to avoid the trouble of carrying a tripod, he can 
 make use of a metal clip and screw by means of which the camera can 
 be fastened to the head of the ice axe, which thus serves as the support 
 to keep the camera steady. 
 
 A stand camera is undoubtedly more troublesome to manipulate than 
 a hand camera, but, owing probably to the fact that it is used with 
 greater care, it is on the whole more certain, and consequently more 
 satisfactory in its results. If the apparatus be carried by a guide (who 
 seldom regards it with a friendly eye) the climber should content himself 
 with a half-plate camera, which is the largest size he can reasonably 
 expect the guide to carry in addition to the other impedimenta necessary 
 for a mountain expedition. If, however, the climber should be willing to 
 bear the burden on his own shoulders, and have|nothing else to carry, he 
 could, if he wished, take the 7^ in. x 5 in. size, but it is doubtful whether 
 the slight enlargement in the size of the picture obtained fully compensates 
 for the increased weight and dimensions of the whole apparatus. 
 
 The particular points to which attention should be given in selecting a 
 stand camera may be enumerated as follows : — 
 
 The Body of the Camera. — It is important that this be of the best 
 possible workmanship, made of thoroughly seasoned wood and metal 
 bound (aluminium being used as far as possible), in order that it may 
 withstand the variations and vagaries of mountain weather and the 
 severe shocks which it is certain to encounter during its Alpine career. 
 It will, of course, possess the usual advantages of a swing back and a 
 rising front, the latter being quite indispensable. These movements 
 should be easily adjustable, as nothing is more trying to the temper on a 
 cold day than to have stiff movements to handle with half-frozen fingers ; 
 they should also not be of such a complicated nature as to be easily put 
 out of order. An undetachable revolving adaptor, to hold the dark slide 
 vertically or horizontally at will, is an improvement on the usual remov- 
 able adaptor, and an aluminium turntable is of untold convenience. All 
 thumbscrews should be made so that they cannot be removed. A small 
 spirit level or a plumb indicator fixed on the camera will be found useful, 
 and it is also advisable to take one or two extra focussing screens to 
 replace possible breakages. 
 
 Lens. — The most serviceable for the mountaineer are the sets of inter- 
 changeable lenses now sold by various makers, which practically enable 
 the photographer to include in his picture just as much as he wishes. 
 For instance, the Set C of Zeiss convertible lenses, sold by Ross and 
 Co., includes a 9-inch, an 1 ij-inch, and a 14-inch single lens, the various 
 
CXXXV1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 combinations of which give 5 f -inch, 6^-inch, and 7-inch focus, thus 
 giving a range of foci varying from 5§-inch to 14-inch. The lens mount 
 is provided with an iris diaphragm and a movable ring marked with 
 scales of apertures for the various focal lengths. 
 
 The yellow screen is a comparatively recent introduction into Alpine 
 photography, of which the chief use is to give a correct rendering of 
 colour values, and to diminish the sensitiveness of the plates to the 
 violet and blue rays. It is intended more especially to be used with 
 isochromatic plates, as its utility with ordinary plates is not very apparent. 
 For mountain photography its chief advantages lie in the softening of 
 shadows and the rendering of clouds and distant ranges, although, as far 
 as the latter is concerned, it cannot be claimed that the same result may 
 not be successfully obtained without the screen. Its use is distinctly 
 beneficial in a hazy atmosphere. A primrose yellow screen is the most 
 useful, of such a shade that about three times the usual exposure is 
 necessary. 
 
 Shutter. — The climber may choose between two classes of shutter, 
 the blind shutter and that used between the lenses. Of the former the 
 Thornton -Pickard still holds its own for efficiency. Its best place is, 
 perhaps, at the back of the lens, and fastened to the lens carrier, where it 
 runs less risk of being damaged or of shaking the camera when set in 
 motion. Of the between-lens shutters the Bausch-Lomb is probably the 
 most popular at the present moment. The Goerz Sector Shutter may, 
 however, prove the best for the climber, as all its working parts are 
 covered in, being thus protected from injury. Both these shutters can be 
 worked by a finger trigger instead of the pneumatic ball and tube. 
 
 A shutter is, of course, an absolute necessity for rapid plates, but where 
 slow plates are invariably used it is not an altogether indispensable item 
 in the outfit, as in this case the cap serves quite as well, and in any event 
 should never be left behind. 
 
 Dark Slides or Changing Box. — For plates a changing box is recom- 
 mended instead of the usual separate dark slides. The Burns-Shaw is 
 probably the best for Alpine work, although it necessitates the use of 
 a dark slide. It is a very solid light-tight wooden box to hold twelve 
 plates, with two brass slides running in deep grooves at one end, through 
 which the plates pass out of and into the changing box into and from the 
 dark slide. The plates are protected from scratches by metal flanges, which 
 bind them together in pairs. Of other changing boxes now in use the 
 Adams, and the Newman & Guardia, neither of which requires the use 
 of a separate dark slide, have both been well tried. In these the plates 
 are changed by lifting them with the fingers from the back to the front of 
 the box at the end enclosed by a soft leather bag. None of these appear 
 to be wholly satisfactory for films, which are perhaps best used in dark 
 slides specially made for them, of which the best pattern is, perhaps, 
 that made by Shew. It is hardly necessary to emphasise the import- 
 ance of having the sliding shutters of the plate holders, if these be 
 used, fitted with the utmost accuracy, as the penetrative power of light on 
 a high snow-field is very remarkable. For this reason it is also necessary 
 to have the wood-work of these thin cameras and slides well painted with 
 dead black outside as well as inside. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE HIGH ALPS. CXXXV11 
 
 Tripod. — The ordinary camera legs, even if made fourfold, are, when 
 closed, inconveniently long for mountain work, and in the descent of 
 difficult and steep rocks may become a really serious source of danger. 
 The prudent climber will, therefore, do well to be satisfied with a short 
 set, measuring when folded twelve inches at the most, which can be 
 easily carried in the side pocket of the rucksack. It is essential that the 
 legs should be made sufficiently stout to possess the requisite rigidity in a 
 high wind. They should also be provided with very sharp points, 
 without which it is sometimes almost impossible to place the camera on 
 the limited space of a rocky summit. On deep snow three small discs 
 of cork or wood are most useful for preventing the legs from sinking. 
 
 The focussing cloth — the only remaining item of importance — should 
 have along one end a running tape sewn down in the middle, by which 
 means it can be tied securely to the camera. 
 
 A full discussion of the comparative merits of glass plates and Jihns 
 would require more space than these pages can afford, but it may be 
 boldly asserted that, whenever it is possible to take them, glass plates are, 
 in spite of their greater weight, much to be preferred. The wisest course, 
 however, is to take a supply of both, as the lightness of films is an 
 immense advantage when it is important to keep down the weight of the 
 rucksack. Moderately slow plates are perhaps the best for Alpine 
 photography — at any rate for a novice. After two or three years' 
 experience the photographer will be able to please himself in the matter. 
 With regard to the packing of the plates after exposure — a question of 
 some importance to the climber, who is obliged so often to send his 
 luggage unaccompanied from place to place — an excellent plan is to put 
 them back, packed in pairs, face to face, in the original wrappings, into the 
 same boxes from which they were first taken, and to place the latter in the 
 middle of the suit-case or trunk, tightly packed all round with clothes. 
 In this way they will run very slight risk of breakage during their travels. 
 It is well to remember also — especially when using isochromatic plates — 
 that hotel dark rooms are often not quite light-tight, and that it is wise to 
 remain in your darkened bedroom some time before deciding that you 
 have shut out all the light and so rendered the room safe for handling 
 extremely sensitive films. Otherwise the season's work may be found on 
 development to be very disappointing. Many workers find the small 
 portable changing bags useful and safe for this purpose. The re- 
 placing of the plates or films in the dark backs must all be done by the 
 sense of touch, and hence it is necessary to be systematic in your pro- 
 ceedings, otherwise considerable confusion may occur. These bags are 
 only suitable for plates up to half-plate size. They can be home-made of a 
 double thickness of black twill. Of the type with eye-piece and ruby 
 window the ' Shepherd ' is a good example. 
 
 Probably the most convenient travelling lamp is one of a triangular 
 form holding a night light, with sides of ruby fabric, not glass. Good 
 patterns are Redding's and the ' Traveller.' 
 
 The exposures required do not on the whole differ very much from 
 those necessary in the valleys and plains. The safest plan is to make 
 use of an exposure meter, or one of the set tables of exposures calculated 
 for ordinary use. A little curtailment of these will be necessary for most 
 
CXXXVlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 subjects, and even then there may perhaps have been slight over- 
 exposure, which is a fault on the right side and can be corrected in develop- 
 ment. For a picture in which there is nothing but brilliantly illuminated 
 snow and ice the exposure must, however, be very much shortened, to avoid 
 the risk of losing the half-tones, and for views of this kind it is better to 
 have the sun as much as possible in front of the camera. 
 
 It is manifest that the climber labours under the great disadvantage of 
 not always being able to pick and choose the time of day at which he 
 would like to take his photograph, but as a general rule the early hours of 
 the forenoon and the later hours of the afternoon are, in summer, the best 
 for the lighting of the mountains, as the light is then more evenly diffused 
 and the shadows less dense. In the concentrated glare of midday the 
 contrast of light and shade are apt to be too violent, and there is inevitable 
 risk of over-exposure as regards the snow, or hopeless under-exposure in 
 the case of rocks in shadow. 
 
 During the first season of his photographic labours amongst the 
 mountains the climber should develop his plates, or at least a portion of 
 them, as soon as possible, in order to guide him in the matter of 
 exposures. When he has gained sufficient experience he will probably 
 prefer to postpone development until his return home, for the distractions 
 of a climbing centre are decidedly unfavourable to the exercise of that 
 amount of patience and care necessary for obtaining the best results. 
 A detailed description of the developers, which must necessarily vary 
 according to the speed of the plates and the different makes, is hardly 
 necessary. Each probably possesses enthusiastic advocates who can 
 put forward unanswerable arguments in favour of their pet developer. 
 
 With regard to the choice of subjects, so much depends on the aesthetic 
 perception of the individual that it is almost impossible to give definite 
 advice. One of the chief points to be kept in mind is a proper balance 
 of proportion in the subject, to secure which a due amount of discrimi- 
 nation must be exercised in the choice of a lens of the correct focal length 
 for the subject ; for it is most important that the photograph should 
 convey a true impression of the peak or mountain landscape as seen from 
 the point at which it is taken. Too great an expanse of sky tends to 
 dwarf the peaks, and the photographer must guard against the common 
 fault of including too much in his picture. 
 
 Mountain views usually look best taken with the plate turned vertically, 
 but to this rule there are necessarily exceptions, such as the views of 
 Mont Blanc from the neighbouring summits, or such views as that of the 
 great wall of peaks which overhang the Argentiere Glacier. Panoramic 
 views should be taken horizontally, but these are as a rule more useful 
 than pictorial. Clouds add very much to the artistic effect of the picture, 
 and the climber should never be persuaded to leave the camera behind on 
 what may appear to be a hopeless day for photography, for during cloudy 
 weather, or after a storm, he will probably secure some of his finest pictures. 
 
 If a foreground is to be included it must be good of its kind. A bad 
 foreground may entirely spoil an otherwise satisfactory view, and should 
 be left out altogether ; or should this be impossible it will be better to 
 leave the subject alone, unless the photograph is desired for merely 
 topographical purposes. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE HIGH ALPS. CXXxix 
 
 During the last few years, since the introduction by Mr. Dallmeyer of 
 his telephotographic /ens, the production of pictures of distant objects by 
 this means has come a good deal to the fore. There is considerable 
 difference of opinion as to the comparative advantages of photographing 
 a distant object with an ordinary long-focus lens, with subsequent 
 enlargement from the negative so obtained, and producing a large image 
 direct by the use of a telephotographic lens. There is no question that 
 higher degrees of magnification can be obtained by telephotography, as,, 
 in the case of an enlargement from an ordinary negative, the final degree 
 of magnification is reached when the enlarged grain of the plate coating 
 becomes unpleasantly visible. Many workers with telephotographic lenses 
 have found great difficulty in obtaining satisfactory density in their nega- 
 tives, but from results obtained by some photographers it seems likely that 
 this failure was due to faults in manipulation, although no doubt highly 
 magnified images often tend to be thinner than those less magnified. 
 Probably the best telephotographic work has been done elsewhere than 
 in the mountains, where the rays from the distant object have traversed 
 an atmosphere of tolerably uniform density overlying land of uniform 
 configuration or wide stretches of water. In the mountains it is far 
 otherwise : the photographer is viewing his distant peak over deep valleys 
 where practically no radiation reaches the upper part of the air, and over 
 ridges of rock or snow from which the most intense heat is being reflected 
 into the layer of air through which the light rays are passing. Hence 
 the rays are bent and distorted, and a blurred image is produced. More- 
 over, owing to the longer exposure required with the telephotographic 
 combination, the image produced by this is more apt to suffer from these 
 conditions than is that produced by the ordinary lens. No one, however, 
 can help recognising that from the point of view of topography, and for 
 purposes of mountain exploration, this method is most valuable. On the 
 other hand the artistic mind may fairly object to a foreground which is 
 actually some three or four miles distant, but in which the windows of 
 the houses are plainly visible. 
 
 Turning to the practical side of the question, we have to consider 
 what modification of the ordinary camera and lens is necessary for this 
 work. The camera must have a long extension bellows, opening to 17 
 or 20 inches in the half-plate size, for the degree of magnification depends 
 with any given lens combination on the distance of the focussing screen 
 from the negative lens. The negative lens which, attached to the back 
 of the positive, forms the telephotographic combination may be either 
 fitted to one of Dallmeyer's own Rapid Rectilinear lenses or to any 
 similar lens of a good maker which will work at F/8. Zeiss and 
 Voigtlander also make a similar negative combination. The angle of 
 view included is about I2°-I5°. 
 
 The whole lens is probably best mounted for Alpine photography in 
 aluminium, to save weight ; if extreme magnification is desired a high- 
 power negative lens combined with a portrait lens will be necessary, but 
 this is too cumbersome and expensive for ordinary purposes. 
 
 When using this lens the rigidity of the camera and its stand must be 
 carefully attended to. Owing to the camera being racked out to its full 
 extent, and the exposure being somewhat prolonged, this is really a very 
 
Cxi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 great difficulty in Alpine telephotography. On a mountain ridge wind is 
 rarely absent, and if a source of difficulty when using an ordinary lens, 
 with a camera extended 9 inches, it is doubly so with this lens and an ex- 
 tension of 20 inches. Every plan for sheltering and anchoring the camera, 
 with a string and stone, or by using an extra strut to the front, must be 
 employed, and in buying a new camera it is well to avoid too light a 
 pattern. Obviously with this high magnification any vibration becomes 
 evident in the negative. 
 
 Accurate focussing, both by means of the rack and pinion on the lens 
 and finally by the camera pinion, is necessary, and a focussing glass should 
 be employed. The focussing should be done with the actual stop used. 
 
 In distant photography with this lens it is always wise to use an 
 orange screen. 
 
 It is necessary to remember that, owing to the narrow angle embraced 
 in these views, it is advisable to choose a point of view as nearly level 
 with the object to be photographed as possible, otherwise the angle to 
 which the camera must be tilted results in great distortion of the per- 
 spective. This to some extent limits the usefulness of the lens. 
 
 No precise rules can be laid down here as to the comparative length of 
 exposure necessary when photographing an object with an ordinary 
 rapid rectilinear lens, and with the same lens used with a negative lens 
 to form a telephotographic combination, as this must depend upon the 
 length of camera extension and the degree of stopping down that maybe 
 necessary. Full details for calculating the exposures at various degrees 
 of extension are supplied in the instructions issued by the makers of 
 these lenses, but it will usually be found that the exposure works out at a 
 considerable multiple of that required with the positive lens. It will be seen 
 that when a yellow screen is used the exposure will thus often extend to 
 ten to fifteen seconds, and this explains why wind vibration is so trouble- 
 some and difficult to avoid. But snap-shot work has been done with 
 this lens, and it is important to remember that under- rather than over- 
 exposure is to be aimed at, and very prolonged and gradual development 
 employed, until no further change in the plate can be seen. The time 
 of development may easily extend to three-quarters of an hour. A 
 developer strong in reducer and fairly well restrained should be employed. 
 Most workers will probably find hydrokinon convenient for such long de- 
 velopment, but many successful workers use pyrogallic acid and ammonia 
 or soda. It is hardly needful to point out the importance of keeping 
 the plate well protected from the red light during this long development. 
 
 In conclusion let us insist that, whatever the method employed may be, 
 the photographer should above all endeavour to impress his work with 
 an individuality of its own, and thereby show how much the artistic 
 temperament can achieve with mechanical material. Finally, let him 
 not be discouraged by failure in his early efforts, for he will do well to 
 remember that in this, as in most pursuits, theory is but a signpost on 
 the road to success, and that practice alone makes the master. 
 
 Further detailed information of a valuable nature on this subject will 
 be found in a chapter by Mr. Clinton Dent in the Badminton volume on 
 ' Mountaineering,' and also in a chapter by Captain Abney in the ' Barnet 
 Book of Photography.' 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 APPENDIX a. 
 
 LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS RELATING TO THE ALPS, 
 i. Books. 
 
 [The following list is intended to include all the more important books relating 
 to the Alps, but makes no pretensions to be a complete Alpine Bibliography. 
 Works relating exclusively to the physical sciences, as well as articles in periodi- 
 cals, are purposely excluded from it, while lists of Guide-books and Alpine 
 Periodicals are more fitly given in the * Preliminary Notes ' to each of the volumes 
 of the new edition of the ' Alpine Guide. ' 
 
 The nearest approach to an exhaustive Alpine Bibliography (it is practically 
 complete so far as regards Switzerland and the neighbouring districts) is the work 
 entitled ' Landes- und Reisebeschreibungen,' by Herr A. Waber, which was 
 issued in 1899 at Bern as part iii. of the extensive ' Bibliographic der Schweizer- 
 ischen Landeskunde,' published by the Swiss Government.] 
 
 Aeby, C, Fellenberg, E. v., and Gerwer, R. Das Hochgebirge von Grindelwald. 
 
 Coblenz, 1865. 
 Allais, G. Le Alpi Occidentali nelP Antichita. Turin, 1891. 
 Aimer's, Christian, Fiihrerbuch, 1 856- 1 894. A facsimile edition. London, 
 
 1896. 
 Alpenivirthsckaft der Schweiz im Jahre 1864, Die. Bern, 1868. 
 Alpi che cingono P Italia, Le. Part i. of vol. i. alone published. Turin, 1845. 
 Alpstatistik, Schweizerische. Solothurn. 
 
 Now appearing in Parts, of which eight (by different authors) have as yet been 
 
 issued, dealing respectively with the Cantons of Baselland (1894), Solothurn 
 
 (1896), St. Gallen (1896), Nidwalden (1896), Uri (1898), Glarus (1898), 
 
 Schwyz (1899), and Appenzell Inner Rhoden (1899). 
 
 Altmann, J. G. Versuch einer historischen und physischen Beschreibung der 
 
 Helvetischen Eisbergen. Zurich, 1751. 
 Anderegg, Felix. Illustriertes Lehrbuch flir das gesamte schweizerische Alpwirth- 
 schaft. 3 parts. Bern, 1897-8. 
 
 /'. A. Relation des Passages de tout le Circuit du Duche d'Aoste 
 
Cxlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 venant des Provinces circonvoisines, avec une description sommaire des 
 Montagnes, 169 1-4. 
 MS. preserved in the State Archives at Turin, and onty partially published. 
 For further particulars see the new edition of the ' Alpine Guide,' vol. i. 
 p. xiii. 
 Attldjo, J. Narrative of an Ascent' to the Summit of Mont Blanc on the 8th 
 and 9th of August, 1827. London, 1828. 
 Later editions in 1830 and 1856. 
 Baillie-Grohman, W. A. Tyrol and the Tyrol ese : the People and the Land 
 in their Social, Sporting, and Mountaineering Aspects. London, 1876. 
 (2nd edition, 1877.) 
 Baillie-Grokman, W. A. Gaddings with a Primitive People. 2 vols. London, 
 
 1878. 
 Baillie-Grokman, W. A. Sport in the Alps. London, 1896. 
 Barth, Hermann von. Aus den nordlichen Kalkalpen. Gera, 1874. 
 Barth) Z., and Pfautidler, L. Die Stubaier Gebirgsgruppe hypsometrisch und 
 
 orographisch bearbeitet. Innsbruck, 1865. 
 Berlefisch) H. A. Die Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern. Leipzig, 1861. 
 (5th edition, Jena, 1885.) English translation by Leslie Stephen. London, 
 1861. 
 Berlepsch, H. A. Schweizerkunde ; Land und Volk iibersichtlich vergleichend 
 
 dargestellt. Brunswick, 1864. (2nd edition, 1875.) 
 Bernenshim, Fontes Rerum. Bern's Geschichtsquellen. 7 vols, (with Index 
 
 volume), extending to 1353. Bern, 1883-1893. 
 Bianchetti) Enrico. L' Ossola Inferiore : notizie storiche e documenti. 2 vols. 
 
 (one of text and one of original documents. ) Turin, 1878. 
 Biellese, II. Milan, 1898. 
 
 Published by the Biella Section of the Italian Alpine Club on occasion of 
 the Congress there in 1898. 
 Bonnefoy^ J. A., and Perrin, A. Le Prieure de Chamonix : documents relatifs 
 au Prieure et a la Vallee de Chamonix. 2 vols. Chambery, 1879- 1883. 
 See also Per r in. 
 Bonney, 7. G. Outline Sketches in the High Alps of Dauphine. London, 
 
 1865. 
 Bonney, T. G. The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring 
 
 Countries. London, 1868. 
 Bonstetten, Albert von. Superioris Germanise Confcederationis Descriptio. 
 
 The first description of Switzerland, written in 1479 : the Latin and German 
 texts have been well edited in vol. xiii., 1893, of the ' Quellen zur 
 Schweizer Geschichte,' published at Basel. 
 Bordier, A. C. Voyage Pittoresque aux Glacieres de Savoye. Fait en 1772. 
 
 Geneva, 1773. 
 Botircet, P. J. de. Memoires Militaires sur les Frontieres de la France, du 
 Piemont, et de la Savoie, depuis PEmbouchure du Var jusqu'au Lac de 
 Geneve. Paris and Berlin, 1801. 
 Only partly by M. de Bourcet. 
 Bourrit, M. T. Description des Glacieres, Glaciers, et Amas de Glace du Duche 
 de Savoye. Geneva, 1773. 
 English translation by C. and F. Davy. 3 editions, 1775-6, at Norwich and 
 Dublin. 
 Bourrit, M. T. Description des Alpes Pennines et Rhetiennes. 2 vols. 
 Geneva, 1781. 
 In 1783 this work was reprinted at Geneva under the title of ' Nouvelle 
 
LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS RELATING TO THE ALPS. cxliii 
 
 Description des Vallees de Glace,' and again in 1785 in 3 vols, under the 
 title of ' Nouvelle Description G£ne>ale et Particuliere des Glacieres, 
 Vallees de Glace, et Glaciers qui forment la grande chaine des Alpes de 
 Suisse, d'ltalie, et de Savoye.' 
 Bourrit, M. T. Descriptions des Cols ou Passages des Alpes. 2 vols. Geneva, 
 1803. 
 
 These three works are the most important of the number published by this 
 author. 
 Brockedon, IV. Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps by which Italy communi- 
 cates with France, Switzerland, and Germany. 2 vols. London, 1828-9. 
 Brockedon, W. Journals of Excursions in the Alps : the Pennine, Graian, 
 Cottian, Rhetian, Lepontian, and Bernese. London, 1833. (3rd edition in 
 
 1845.) 
 Burchy Lambert van der. Sabaudorum ducum principumque historiae gentilitice. 
 Leyden, 1599. 
 The Elzevir edition (Leyden, 1634) is entitled * Sabaudiae Respublica et 
 Historia.' 
 Busk, Miss R. H. The Valleys of Tirol : their Traditions and Customs, and 
 
 How to Visit them. London, 1874. 
 Campell, Ulrich. Raetiae Alpestris Topographica Descriptio. Finished in 
 
 1572. 
 Campell, Ulrich. Historia Raetica. Finished by 1577. 
 
 These two important works were published at Basel as vols. vii. (1884), 
 viii. (1887), and ix. (1890) of the ' Quellen zur Schweizer Geschichte.' 
 Carl von Oesterreich, Erzherzog. Ausgewahlte Schriften. Vienna and Leipzig. 
 
 Vol. iii. (1893) narrates the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland. 
 Chabrand, J. A., and Rochas d'Aiglun, A. de. Patois des Alpes Cottiennes 
 (Brianconnais et Vallees Vaudoises) et en particulier du Queyras. Grenoble 
 and Paris, 1877. 
 Christoman/ws, Th. Sulden-Trafoi : Schilderungen aus dem Ortlergebiete. 
 
 Innsbruck, 1895. 
 Cole, Mrs. A Lady's Tour Round Monte Rosa. London, 1859. 
 Coleman, E. T. Scenes from the Snow Fields : being Illustrations from the 
 
 Upper Ice-World of Mont Blanc. London, 1859. 
 Conway, Sir Martin. The Alps from End to End. London, 1895. 
 Coolidge, W. A. B. Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books. London, 1889. 
 
 Contains a history of Swiss Guide-books, of Alpine Inns, and of Zermatt, 
 with a list of Books of Swiss Travel. 
 Coxe, W. Travels in Switzerland and in the Country of the Grisons. 3 vols. 
 
 London, 1801 (4th and best edition). 
 Cunningham, C. D., and Abney, W. de W. The Pioneers of the Alps. 
 London, 1887. (2nd edition, 1888.) 
 Lives of Famous Guides. 
 Daudet, Alphonse. Tartarin sur les Alpes. Paris, 1885. (English translation, 
 
 same date. ) 
 Del uc, J. A., and Dentan, P. G. Relation de Difi&rents Voyages dans les Alpes 
 
 du Faucigny. Maestricht, 1776. 
 Denty Clinton T. Above the Snow Line: Mountaineering Sketches between 
 
 1870 and 1880. London, 1885. 
 Dent, Clinton T., and others. Mountaineering. London, 1892. 
 
 In the 'Badminton Library.' German translation. \j £psk*, 1893. 
 Desjardins, Ernest. Geographic de la Gaule Romaine. 4 vols. Paris, 1876- 
 1893. 
 
Cxliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Desor, E. Excursions et Sejours dans les Glaciers et les Hautes Regions des 
 
 Alpes de M. Agassiz et de ses compagnons de voyage. 2 Series. Neuchatel 
 
 and Paris, 1844 and l %4$- 
 Dumas, Alexandre. Impressions de Voyage — Suisse. Paris, 1833 or 1834. 
 Durier, Charles. Le Mont Blanc. Paris, 1877. 4th edition, 1897. 
 Ebel, J. G. Schilderungen der Gebirgsvolker der Schweiz. 2 vols. Leipzig, 
 
 1 798- 1 802. 
 Eckenstein, O., and Lorria, A. The Alpine Portfolio— The Pennine Alps from 
 
 the Simplon to the Great St. Bernard. London, 1889. 
 Eckerth, W. Die Gebirgsgruppe des Monte Cristallo. Prague, 1887. (2nd 
 
 edition, 1891.) 
 Edwards, Miss Amelia B. Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys : A 
 
 Midsummer Ramble in the Dolomites. London, 1873. 
 E>ggtr,J. Geschichte Tirols. 3 vols. Innsbruck, 1872- 1880. 
 Egli, Emil. Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz bis auf Karl den Grossen. Zurich, 
 
 l8 93- 
 Engelhai'dt, C. M. Naturschilderungen, Sittenziige, und wissenschaftliche 
 
 Bemerkungen aus den hochsten Schweizer-Alpen, besonders in Sud-Wallis 
 
 und Graubiinden. Paris, Strasburg, and Basel, 1840. 
 Engelhardt, C. M. Das Monte- Rosa und Matterhorn-(Mont Cervin)-Gebirg 
 
 aus der Inseite seines Erhebungsbogen gen Nord ; seine Auslaufer und 
 
 Umgrenzung, besonders der Saasgrat mit dem Mischabeldom iiber dem 
 
 Gletscherkrater von Fee. Paris and Strasburg, 1852. 
 Ferrand, Henri. Histoire du Mont Iseran. Grenoble, 1893. 
 Ferrand, Henri. La Frontiere Franco-Italienne entre le Mont-Thabor et le Petit 
 
 Saint Bernard. Grenoble, 1894. 
 Forbes, James D. Travels in the Alps of Savoy and other parts of the Pennine 
 
 Chain. Edinburgh and London, 1843. (2nd edition, 1845.) 
 Forbes, James D. Norway and its Glaciers visited in 1851 ; followed by Journals 
 
 of Excursions in the High Alps of Dauphine, Berne, and Savoy. London, 1853. 
 Forbes, Sir John. A Physician's Holiday, or a Month in Switzerland in the 
 
 Summer of 1848. London, 1849. (2nd edition, 1850.) 
 Freshfield, D. W. Across Country from Thonon to Trent : Rambles and 
 
 Scrambles in Switzerland and the Tyrol. London, 1865 (privately printed). 
 Freshfield, D. W. Italian Alps : Sketches in the Mountains of Ticino, Lombardy, 
 
 the Trentino, and Venetia. London, 1875. 
 Freshfield, Mrs. Henry. Alpine Byways, or Light Leaves gathered in 1859 and 
 
 i860. London, 1 861. 
 Freshfield, Mrs. Henry. A Summer Tour in the Grisons and Italian Valleys of the 
 
 Bernina. London, 1862. 
 Frey, Jacob. Die Alpen im Lichte verschiedener Zeitalter. Berlin, 1877. 
 Friedldnder, Ludwig. Ueber die Entstehung und Entwickelung des Gefuhls 
 
 fur das Romantische in der Natur. Leipzig, 1873. 
 Frobel, Julius. Reise in die weniger bekannten Thaler auf der Nordseite der 
 
 Penninischen Alpen. Berlin, 1840. 
 Fuchs, Josef. Hannibal's Alpeniibergang. Vienna, 1897. 
 Furrer, Sigismund. Geschichte, Statistik, und Urkunden-Sammlung iiber Wallis. 
 
 2 vols. Sion, 1850-2. 
 Gay, Hilaire. Histoire du Vallais. 2 vols. Paris and Geneva, 1888-9. 
 Gelpke, E. F. Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz. 2 vols. Bern, 1 856- 1 861. 
 Gelpke, E. F. Die Christliche Sagengeschichte der Schweiz. Bern, 1862. 
 George, H. B. The Oberland and its Glaciers : Explored and Illustrated with 
 
 Ice- Axe and Camera. London, 1866. 
 
LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS RELATING TO THE ALPS. cxlv 
 
 Gesner, Conrad. Epistola ad Jacobum Avienum de Montium Admiratione. 
 Zurich, 1 54 1. 
 Prefixed to Gesner's ' Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis. ' 
 Gesfter, Conrad. Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati. Zurich, 1555. 
 Gilbert, Josiah. Cadore, or Titian's Country. London, 1869. 
 Gilbert, Josiah, and Churchill, G. C. The Dolomite Mountains. London, 
 
 1864. German translation, Klagenfurt, 1865. 
 Gioffredo, Pietro. Storia delle Alpi Marittime. Turin, 1839. 
 Girdlestone, A. G. The High Alps Without Guides. London, 1870. 
 Gnifetti, G. Nozioni Topografiche del Monte Rosa ed Ascensioni su di esso. 
 
 2nd edition. Novara, 1858. 
 Gremaud, J. Documents relatifs a l'Histoire du Vallais, A.D. 300-1431. 7 vols. 
 
 Lausanne, 187 5- 1894. 
 Grower, G., and Rabl, J. Die Entwickelung der Hochtouristik in den Oester- 
 
 reichischen Alpen. Vienna, 1890. 
 Grohmann, Paul. Wanderungen in den Dolomiten. Vienna, 1877. 
 Gruner, G. S. Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes. 3 vols. Bern, 1760. 
 Gihither, K. Der Feldzug der Division Lecourbe im Schweizerischen Hochge- 
 
 birge. Frauenfeld, 1896. 
 Giissfeldt, Paul. In den Hochalpen. Erlebnisse aus den Jahren 1859-1885. 
 
 Berlin, 1886. 
 Giissfeldt, Paul. Der Montblanc. Berlin, 1894. 
 
 French translation. Geneva, 1898. 
 Haller, Albrecht von. Die Alpen. Bern, 1732. 
 
 This famous poem appeared in the first edition of the author's * Gedichte ; ' 
 a convenient annotated edition of the * Gedichte ' was edited by L. 
 Hirzel at Frauenfeld in 1882. 
 Harpprecht, Th. Bergfahrten. Stuttgart, 1886. 
 Hartmann, Otto. Der Antheil der Russenam Feldzug von 1799 m der Schweiz. 
 
 Zurich, 1892. 
 Hegetschweiler, Joh. Reisen in den Gebirgsstock zwischen Glarus und Grau- 
 
 biinden in den Jahren 1819, 1820, und 1822. Zurich, 1825. 
 Herzog, H. Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten, und Gebrauche. Aarau, 1884. 
 Heusler, A. Rechtsquellen des Cantons Wallis. Basel, 1890. 
 Hinchliff, T. IV. Summer Months among the Alps : with the Ascent of Monte 
 
 Rosa. London, 1857. 
 Hirzel- Escher. Wanderungen in weniger besuchte Alpengegenden der Schweiz, 
 
 und ihrer nachsten Umgebungen. Zurich, 1829. 
 Hoffmann, Georg. Wanderungen in der Gletscherwelt. Zurich, 1843. 
 Hudson, C, and Kennedy, E. S. Where there's a Will there's a Way : an 
 Ascent of Mont Blanc by a New Route and Without Guides. London, 
 1856. 
 
 2nd edition (1856) has also an account of the first ascent of Monte Rosa. 
 Hugi, F. J. Naturhistorische Alpenreise. Solothurn, 1830. 
 Hugi, F. J. Ueber das Wesen der Gletscher und Winterreise in das Eismeer. 
 
 Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1842. 
 Idiotikon, Schweizerisches (Swiss-German Dialect Dictionary.) 
 
 In course of publication since 1881 at Frauenfeld ; has now (April 1899) 
 reached the letter ■ P.' 
 Javelle, Emile. Souvenirs d'un Alpiniste. Lausanne, 1886. (3rd edition, 
 1897.) 
 
 r,S.W. The Italian Valleys of the Pennine Alps. London, 1858. 
 Kohlrusch, E. Schweizerisches Sagenlmch. Leiptrig* 1854. 
 
Cxlvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Laborde, J. B. de, and Zurlauben, F. A. de. Tableaux Topographiques, Pit- 
 
 toresques, Physiques, Historiques, Moraux, Politiques, Litteraires de la Suisse. 
 
 Paris, 1777-80. 2 vols, of text and 2 more with the 278 Plates. 
 Lalrobe, C. J. The Alpenstock ; or Sketches of Swiss Scenery and Manners, 
 
 1825-6. London, 1829. (2nd edition, 1839.) 
 Latrobe, C. J. The Pedestrian : a Summer's Ramble in the Tyrol. London, 
 
 1832. 
 Lechner, E. Piz Languard und die Bernina-Gruppe. Leipzig, 1858. (2nd 
 
 edition, 1865.) 
 Lechner, E. Das Thai Bergell (Bregaglia) in Graublinden, mit Chiavenna. 
 
 Leipzig, 1865. (2nd edition, 1874.) 
 Lendenfeld, R. von. Aus den Alpen : die Westalpen und die Ostalpen. 2 vols. 
 
 Prague, Vienna, and Leipzig, 1896. 
 Leonhardi, G. Das Poschiavinothal. Leipzig, 1859. 
 Leonardi, G. Das Veltlin, nebst einer Beschreibung der Bader von Bormio. 
 
 Leipzig, i860. 
 Lorria, A., and Martel, E. A. Le Massif de la Bernina. Zurich, 1894. 
 Lowl, Ferdinand. Aus dem Zillerthaler Hochgebirge. Gera, 1878. 
 Lurani, F. Le Montagne di Val Masino (Valtellina). Milan, 1883. 
 Liitolf, Alois. Sagen, Brauche, und Legenden aus den Ftinf Orten, Lucern, 
 
 Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, und Zug. Lucerne, 1865. 
 Liitolf, Alois. Die Glaubensboten der Schweiz vor St. Gallus. Lucerne, 
 
 1871. 
 Main (Burnaby) Mrs. The High Alps in Winter. London, 1883. 
 Mathews, C. E. The Annals of Mont Blanc : a Monograph. London, 1898. 
 McCrackan, W. D. The Rise of the Swiss Republic. Boston (Mass.) and 
 
 London, 1892. 
 Menabrea, Leon. Des Origines Feodales dans les Alpes Occidentales. Turin, 
 
 1865. 
 Merian, Matthew, and Zeiller, Martin. Topographia Helvetia, Rhsetiae, et 
 
 Valesise. Frankfort, 1642. 
 Meurer, Julius. Handbuch des Alpinen Sport. Vienna, Pesth, and Leipzig, 
 
 1882. 
 Meyer, J. R. a?id H. Reise auf den Jungfrau-Gletscher und Ersteigung seines 
 
 Gipfels. Aarau, 181 1. 
 See also Zschokke. 
 Miaskowski, August von. Die Schweizerische Allmend in ihrer geschichtlichen 
 
 Entwickelung vom xiii. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart. Leipzig, 1879. 
 Miaskowski, August vo7i. Die Verfassung der Land-, Alpen-, und Forstwirth- 
 
 schaft der deutschen Schweiz in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung vom xiii. 
 
 Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart. Basel, 1878. 
 Michelet,J. hs. Montagne. Paris, 1868. 
 
 English translation, 1872. 
 Mohr, Th. and Conradin von. Codex Diplomaticus ad Historiam Raeticam. 
 
 Coire, 1848-1858. 3 vols. 
 Vol. iv. (1863) forms vol. i. of the periodical * Ratia.' 
 Montannel, De. La Topographie Militaire de la Frontiere des Alpes. Grenoble, 
 
 1875. 
 Moor, Conradin von. Geschichte von Curratien und der Republik 'gemeiner 
 
 drei Biinde ' (Graublinden). 2 vols. Coire, 1870-1. 
 A useful detailed chronological Index to the above appeared in 1873 at Coire 
 under the title of ' Historisch-Chronologischer Wegweiser durch die 
 Geschichte Curratiens und der Republik Graubiinden. ' 
 
LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS RELATING TO THE ALPS. cxlvil 
 
 Moore, A. W. The Alps in 1864. A Private Journal. London, 1867 (privately 
 
 printed) : a published edition is in preparation. 
 Mummery, A. F. My Climbs in the Alps and the Caucasus. London 1895. 
 Munster, Sebastian. Cosmographia. German edition at Basel, 1544, and Latin 
 
 one at Basel in 1550. 
 Niischeler, A. Die Gotteshauser der Schweiz. 
 
 3 parts. Zurich, 1864-73. 
 Oder, P. L'Oberland Bernois sous les Rapports Historique, Scientifique, et 
 
 Topographique. 2 vols. Berne, 1854. 
 Operations Giodesiques et Astronomiques pour la Mesure (Pun Arc du Parallth 
 
 Moyen. 2 vols. Milan, 1825-7. 
 Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild, Die. Vienna. Vol. vi. 
 
 Oberoesterreich und Salzburg, 1889; vol. vii. Steiermark, 1890 ; vol. viii. 
 
 Karnten und Krain, 1891 ; vol. xiii. Tirol und Vorarlberg, 1893. 
 Pallioppi, Z. and E. Dizionari dels Idioms Romauntschs d'Engiadina ota e 
 
 bassa, della Val Miistair, da Bravuogn, e Filisur, con particulera consideraziun 
 
 del idiom d'Engiadina ota. Samaden, 1895. 
 Payer, Julius. Die Adamello-Presanella Alpen. Gotha, 1865. 
 Payer, Julius. Die Ortler- Alpen (Sulden-Gebiet u. Monte Cevedale). Gotha, 
 
 1867. 
 Payer, Julius. Die westlichen Ortler- Alpen (Trafoier Gebiet). Gotha, 1868. 
 Payer, Julius. Die sikllichen Ortler- Alpen. Gotha, 1869. 
 Payer, Ju litis. Die centralen Ortler-Alpen (Martell, &c.) Gotha, 1872. 
 
 These five pamphlets form ' Erganzungshefte ' nos. 17, 18, 23, 27, and 31 
 to * Petermann's Mittheilungen. ' 
 Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers. 1st Series, edited by John Ball. London, 1859. 
 
 2nd Series, 2 vols., edited by E. S. Kennedy. London, 1862. 
 4 editions of 1st Series, all in 1859, * Knapsack' edition, i860, and partial 
 French translation by Elise Dufour, Paris, 1862. 
 Perrin, A. Histoire de la Vallee et du Prieure de Chamonix du ioeme au 
 
 i8eme Siecle. Chambery, 1887. 
 For the * Documents ' see under Bomiefoy. 
 Peyer, G. Geschichte des Reisens in # der Schweiz : eine culturgeschichtliche 
 
 Studie. Basel, 1885. 
 Pezay, Marquis de. Description des Vallees des Grandes Alpes : Dauphinl, 
 
 Provence, Italic Grenoble (in French) and Turin (in Italian), 1793. 
 The most convenient edition is that published in 1894 at Grenoble. 
 Planta, P. C. von. Die curratischen Herrschaften in der Feudalzeit. Bern, 
 
 1881. 
 Planta, P. C. von. Geschichte von Graubiinden. Bern, 1892. 
 Rahn, J. R. Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste in der Schweiz von den altesten 
 
 Zeiten biszum Schlusse des Mittelalters. Zurich, 1876. 
 Rahn, J. R. Kunstund Wanderstudien aus der Schweiz. Vienna, 1883. 
 
 The same author has also published (in the ' Anzeiger fur Schweizerische 
 Alterthumskunde ') many lists of the artistic treasures to be found in 
 several of the Swiss Cantons, e.g. Tessin. 
 Rambert, Eugbie. Ascensions et Flaneries. 2 vols. Lausanne, 1888. 
 Rebmann, H. R. Ein Neuw, Lustig, ErnsthafTt, Poetisch Gastmal und 
 
 Gesprach zweyer Bergen, in der Loblichen EydnossschafTt, und im Berner 
 
 Gebiet gelegen : Nemlich des Niesens und Stockhoms. Bern, 1606. 
 Enlarged edition, 1620. 
 Reding- Biberegg, R. von. Der Zug SuworofTs durch die Schweiz. With many 
 
 plans. Stans, 1895. 
 
Cxlviii < INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Regesten der Archive in der Schtveizerischen Eidgenos sense haft. 2 vols. Coire r 
 1848-54. 
 
 Contains calendars of the muniments of many of the great Swiss monastic 
 houses, e.g. Disentis, Einsiedeln, Interlaken, Piavers. 
 Rey, R. Le Royaume de Cottius et la Province des Alpes Cottiennes d'Auguste 
 
 a Diocletien. Grenoble, 1898. 
 Richter, E. Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen. 3 vols. Berlin, 1893-4. 
 Rilliet, Albert. Les Origines de la Confederation Suisse : Histoire et Legende. 
 
 Geneva and Bale, 1868. (2nd edition, 1869.) 
 Rochas cPAiglun, A. de. Les Vallees Vaudoises : Etude de Topographie et 
 d' Histoire Militaires. Paris, 1881. 
 See also under Chabrand. 
 Rohrdorf, Caspar. Reise liber die Grindelwald-Viescher-Gletscher und Ersteigung 
 des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges. Unternommen und beschrieben im 
 August und September 1828. Bern, 1828. 
 Roman, J. Dictionnaire Topographique du Departement des Hautes-Alpes. 
 Roman, J. Tableau Historique du Departement des Hautes-Alpes. 2 vols. 
 Roman, J. Repertoire Archeologique du Departement des Hautes-Alpes. 
 
 These three splendid works were published at Paris in 1884, 1887- 1890, and 
 1888 respectively. 
 Ruden, J. Familien-Statistik der loblichen Pfarrei von Zermatt. Ingenbohl, 
 
 1870. 
 Ruppen, P. J. Die Chronik des Thales Saas. Sion, 185 1. 
 Ruthner, A. von. Aus den Tauern : Berg- und Gletscher-Reisen in den oster- 
 
 reichischen Hochalpen. Vienna, 1864. 
 Ruthner, A. von. Aus Tirol : Berg- und Gletscher-Reisen in den osterreichischen 
 
 Hochalpen. Vienna, 1869. 
 Saleve, Le. Geneva, 1899. 
 
 Published by the Geneva Section of the Swiss Alpine Club. 
 Saussure, H. B. de. Voyages dans les Alpes. 4 vols. Neuchatel and Geneva, 
 1 779-1 796. 
 The ' Partie Pittoresque ' of this work has appeared in several editions since 
 
 1834. 
 Schaubach,A. Deutsche Alpen. 5 vols. Jena, 1865-1871. 
 Scheuchzer, J. J. Helvetian Stoicheiographia, Orographia, et Oreographia. 
 
 Zurich, 1 7 16. 
 Scheuchzer, J. J. Itinera per Helvetise Alpinas Regiones facta annis 1702-1711. 
 
 Collected edition. 4 vols. Leyden, 1723. 
 Schiller, F. von. Wilhelm Tell. 1804. 
 Schlagintweil , A. and H. Untersuchungen iiber die physikalische Geographie 
 
 der Alpen. 2 Series. Leipzig, 1850 and 1854. 
 Schott, Albert. Die deutschen Colonien in Piemont. Stuttgart and Tubingen, 
 
 1842. 
 Sella, V., and Vallino, D. Monte Rosa e Gressoney. Biella, 1890. 
 Sererhard, N. Einfalte Delineation aller Gemeinden gemeiner dreien Biinden im 
 
 Jahr 1742. Coire, 1872. 
 Simler, Josias. Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius. Zurich, 1574. 
 
 Handy Elzevir edition, Leyden, 1633. 
 Simony, F. Das Dachsteingebiet. Vienna, 1889- 1896. 
 Sinigaglia, L. Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites. London, 1896. 
 Smith, Albert. The Story of Mont Blanc. London, 1853. 
 Sonklar, K. von. Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe, mit besonderer Riicksicht auf 
 
 Orographic und Gletscherkunde. Gotha, i860. 
 
LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS RELATING TO THE ALPS. cxlix 
 
 Sonklar, K. von. Die Gebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern. Vienna, 1866. 
 Sonklar, K. von. Die Zillerthaler Alpen. Gotha, 1874. 
 
 ' Erganzungsheft ' no. 32 to Petermann's ' Mittheilungen.' 
 Sowerby,/. The Forest Cantons of Switzerland. London, 1892. 
 Sprecher, Fortunatus a. Pallas Rietica armata et togata. Basel, 1617. 
 
 Also Elzevir edition, Leyden, 1633. 
 Stanyan, Abraham. An Account of Switzerland. Written in the Year 17 14. 
 
 London, 17 14. 
 Stephen, Leslie. The Playground of Europe. London, 1 87 1. 
 
 Later editions (with some changes), 1894 and 1899. 
 Stubei : Thai und Gebirg, Land und Leute. Leipzig, 189 1. 
 Stitder, Bernard. Geschichte der physischen Geographie der Schweiz bis 181 5. 
 
 Bern and Zurich, 1863. 
 Stitder, Gottlieb. Topographische Mittheilungen aus dem Alpengebirge. Bern 
 
 and St. Gallen, 1844. 
 Studer, Gottlieb. Ueber Eis und Schnee. 3 vols with supplement (1883). Bern, 
 1869-1871. 
 
 New editions of vol. i. (1896), vol. ii. (1898), and vol. iii. (1899.) 
 Studer, Gottlieb, Ulrich, M. , and Weilenmann, J. J. Berg- und Gletscher- 
 
 Fahrten. 2 Series. Zurich, 1859 and 1863. 
 Stttder, Julius. Schweizer Ortsnamen : ein historisch-etymologischer Versuch. 
 
 Zurich, 1896. 
 Slump/,/. Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnosschaft Stetten, Landen, und Volckeren 
 Chronicwirdiger Thaatenbeschreybung. Zurich, 1548. 
 2nd edition, 1586 ; 3rd edition, 1606. 
 Symonds, J. A. and Margaret. Our Life in the Swiss Highlands. London and 
 
 Edinburgh, 1892. 
 Tatarinoff, E. Die Entwickelung der Probstei Interlaken im xiii. Jahrhundert. 
 
 Schaffhausen, 1892. 
 Theobald, G. Naturbilder aus den Rhatischen Alpen. Coire, i860. 
 
 2nd edition, 1862 ; 3rd edition, 1893. 
 Theobald, G. Das Biindner Oberland. Coire, 186 1. 
 
 Tissot, Victor. La Suisse Inconnue. Paris, 1888. English translation, 1889. 
 Tobler, Ludwig. Schweizerische Volkslieder. 2 vols. Frauenfeld, 1882-4. 
 Tbppffer, R. Voyages en Zigzag. 2 Series. Paris, 1844 and 1853. 
 Jscheinen, Moriz. Walliser-Sagen. Sion, 1872. 
 
 Tschudi, ALgidius. De prisca ac vera Alpina Rhaetia, cum coetero Alpinarum 
 gentium tractu descriptio. Basel, 1538 (also in German). 2nd edition, 
 1560. 
 Probably the first published treatise exclusively devoted to the Alps. 
 Tschudi, AZgidius. Gallia Comata. Constance, 1758. 
 
 Published long after the author's death in 1572. 
 Tucket t, F. F. Hochalpenstudien. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1873-74. 
 
 Only collected edition of the author's Alpine articles. 
 Tuckett, Miss L. How we spent the Summer ; or a Voyage en Zigzag. London, 
 
 1864. 4th edition, 1871. 
 Tuckett, Miss L. Pictures in Tyrol and Elsewhere. From a Family Sketch- 
 
 Book. London, 1867. 2nd edition, 1869. 
 Tuckett, Miss L. Zigzagging amongst Dolomites. London, 187 1. 
 Tiirst, Conrad. De situ Confcederatorum descriptio, 1495-7. 
 
 Latin and German texts printed in 1884, •* Basel, in vol. vi. of the 
 ' Quellen zur Schweizer Geschichte,' together with a reproduction of his 
 map, the earliest map of Switzerland known to exist. 
 
Cl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Tyndall, John. The Glaciers of the Alps. London, i860. 
 
 Reprinted in 1896. 
 Tyndall, John. Mountaineering in 186 1. London, 1862. 
 Tyndall, John. Hours of Exercise in the Alps. London, 1871. 
 Tyndall, John, New Fragments. London, 1892. 
 Ulrich, M. Die Seitenthaler des Wallis und der Monte Rosa topographisch 
 
 geschildert. Zurich, 1850. See also under Studer, G. 
 Umlauft, F. Die Alpen : Handbuch der gesammten Alpenkunde. Vienna, 
 Pesth, and Leipzig, 1887. 
 English translation, 1889. 
 Vacation Tourists and Notes of Travel in i860. London, 1861. 
 
 Has articles by J. J. Cowell on the Mont Iseran, by Leslie Stephen on 
 the Allalinhorn, by F. V. Hawkins on an attempt on the Matterhorn, 
 and by J. Tyndall on the Lauithor. 
 Vaccarone, L. Le Pertuis du Viso. Turin, 1881. 
 Vaccarone, L. Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli antichi tempi. Turin, 
 
 1884. 
 Vaccarone, L. Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali. 3rd 
 and best edition. Turin, 1890. 
 Does not include the summits of the Pelvoux Group. 
 Veneon, Jean (i.e. Perrin, Felix). In Memoriam Tschingel. Grenoble, 1892. 
 Venetz, L. Memoire sur les Variations de la Temperature dans les Alpes de la 
 Suisse. 
 Most valuable essay, containing much information as to old glacier passes. 
 It appeared at Zurich in 1833 in vol. i. part ii. of the ' Denkschriften 
 der allgemeinen Schweizerischen Gesellschaft fiir die gesammten Natur- 
 wissenschaften. ' 
 Vernaleken, Th. Alpensagen : Volksiiberlieferungen aus der Schweiz, aus 
 Vorarlberg, Karnten, Steiermark, Salzburg, Ober- und Niederosterreich. 
 Vienna, 1858. 
 Fischer, W. Die Sage von der Befreiung der Waldstatte nach ihrer allmaligen 
 
 Ausbildung. Leipzig, 1867. 
 Wagner, J. J. Historia Naturalis Helvetian Curiosa. Zurich, 1680. 
 Wagner, R., and Salis, L. R. von. Rechtsquellen des Cantons Graubiinden. 
 
 4 parts. Basel, 1 887-1892. 
 Weilenmann, J. J. Aus der Firn en welt. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1872-7. 
 Welden, L. von. Der Monte Rosa : eine topographische und naturhistorische 
 Skizze, nebst einem Anhange der von Herrn Zumstein gemachten Reisen zur 
 Ersteigung seiner Gipfel. Vienna, 1824. 
 Whymper, E. Scrambles amongst the Alps in the Years 1860-9. London, 
 1871. 
 
 2nd edition, 1871 ; 3rd edition (abridged), 1880; 4th and definitive edition, 
 1893. German translation, Brunswick, 1872 (2nd edition, 1892) ; French 
 translation, Paris, 1873. 
 Wills, Sir Alfred. Wanderings among the High Alps. London, 1856. 
 
 2nd edition, 1858. 
 Wills, Sir Alfred. ' The Eagle's Nest ' in the Valley of Sixt : a Summer Home 
 among the Alps ; together with some Excursions among the Great Alps. 
 London, i860. 
 Wilson, Claude. Mountaineering. London, 1893. In the 'All-England' 
 
 Series. 
 Windham, W., and A/artel, P. An Account of the Glacieres or Ice Alps in 
 Savoy. In two letters — one from an English gentleman to his friend at 
 
LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS RELATING TO THE ALPS. cli 
 
 Geneva ; the other from Peter Martel, engineer, to the said English gentleman. 
 London, 1744. 
 The original French text of both letters, written in 1741-2, was printed by 
 T. Dufour in the * Echo des Alpes' for 1879. 
 Wirth, Max, Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweiz. 2 vols, in 
 
 6 parts. Zurich, 1870-3. 
 Wundt, Th. Die Besteigung des Cimone della Pala. Stuttgart, 1892. 
 IVundt, Th. Wanderungen in den Ampezzaner Dolomiten. Berlin, 1893. 
 Wundty Th. Wanderbilder aus den Dolomiten. Berlin, 1894. 
 IVundt, Th. Das Matterhorn und seine Geschichte. Berlin, 1896. 
 Wundt, Th. Die Jungfrau und das Berner Oberland. Berlin, 1897. 
 WysSy F. von. Abhandlungen zur Geschichte des schweizerischen offentlichen 
 Rechts. Zurich, 1892. 
 Contains a remarkable history of Swiss * communes' and of the 'free 
 peasants ' of Eastern Switzerland in the late Middle Ages. 
 Wyss,J. jR. Idyllen, Volkssagen, Legenden, und Erzahlungen aus der Schweiz. 
 
 2 Series. Bern and Leipzig, 181 5 and 1822. 
 Wyss, /. A\ Reise in das Berner Oberland. In 2 parts with ' Hand Atlas. ' 
 Bern, 181 7. 
 French edition published at the same time. 
 Wyss, J. R., and Httber, Ferd. Sammlung von Schweizer-Kuhreihen. Mit 
 
 Melodien und alten Volksliedem. 4th and best edition. Bern, 1826. 
 Zingerle, I. V. Sagen, Marchen, und Gebrauche aus Tirol. Innsbruck, 1859. 
 Zingerle, I. V. , and Inama-Sternegg, K. Th. von. Die tirolischen Weisthumer. 
 
 4 vols. Vienna, 1 87 5- 1 888. 
 Zschokke, H. Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung ihrer 
 hochsten Gipfel im Sommer 1812. Aarau, 181 3. 
 This pamphlet, compiled from information given by the Meyers, should be 
 carefully compared with R. Meyer's original narrative, printed in the 
 * Alpenrosen ' for 1852 (issued at Aarau and Thun). 
 Zsigmondy, Emit. Die Gefahren der Alpen. Leipzig, 1885. 
 
 French translation, Neuchatel, 1886. 
 Zsigmondy, Emil. Im Hochgebirge. Leipzig, 1889. 
 
 2. Maps. 
 A. Austrian Alps. 
 
 Government Maps. — The best map is the ' Specialkarte der osterreichisch- 
 ungarischen Monarchic' In all 763 sheets. Scale 75^. Surveyed 1869- 
 1885 (by 1874 most of the Alpine regions complete) ; published 1874-1888, 
 while a later revised edition (' Reambulirung ') is also appearing. 
 
 Special Maps. — The * k.u.k. Militar-geographischeslnstitut 'has also issued 11 
 sheets of * Topographische Detailkarten.' Sheet 5 is devoted to the 
 Ampezzo and Sexten Dolomites ; sheet 7, to the Langkofel and Rosengarten 
 groups, or the N. W. Dolomites ; sheet 8, to the Stubai Alps ; sheet 9, to 
 those of the Oetzthal ; sheet 10, to the Pala group ; and sheet 11, to the 
 Adamello, Presanella, and Brenta districts, all these sheets being on a scale 
 
 Another set of district maps is that issued by the German and Austrian 
 Alpine Club on a scale of 35 ^ ; these now include all the chief districts of 
 the Austrian Alps, save the Dolomites (in preparation), the 4 sheets repre- 
 
Clii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 senting the Oetzthal and Stubai regions being particularly clear and 
 beautiful, while the Ortler map is perhaps the most useful to English 
 travellers. 
 
 B. French Alps. 
 
 i. Government Maps. — Carte de l'Etat Major. 258 sheets (1833-1876). Scale, 
 soJoo- (The best edition is that lithographed, and kept up to date ; it is 
 known as the 'Type 1889.') 
 
 Carte de la Frontiere des Alpes (in 3 colours). 72 sheets, (c. 1875.) 
 
 Scale, 8o5oo- No longer sold to the public. 
 Carte du Service Vicinal. 
 
 very untrustworthy as to names and heights, 
 ii. Special Maps. — See vol. i. of the new edition of the ' Alpine Guide,' pp. 
 xxxvii-xxxix. 
 
 C. Italian Alps. 
 
 i. Government Maps. — Carta Topografica del Regno d' Italia. 277 sheets. Scale, 
 iooooo - Surveyed 1 879- 1 891 ; published (so far as regards the Alpine 
 regions) 1884- 1897. 
 
 , Tavolette rilevate per la construzione della Carta del Regno d' Italia. 
 
 (Surveyed 1880-4, published 1882-1892.) Scale, g^fe. Accurate, but 
 
 very illegible. No longer sold to the public, as is no doubt also the case 
 
 with the clearer ^ edition (surveyed 1884- 1892). 
 
 ii. Special Maps. Set the new edition of vol. i. of the 'Alpine Guide,' pp. 
 
 xxxvii-xxxviii. 
 
 D. Swiss Alps. 
 
 A very complete list (extending to over 700 pages) of all Swiss Maps of any 
 kind (general or special), wherever they appeared, was published (for the Federal 
 Topographical Bureau) by Professor Graf, at Bern, in 1896, under the general 
 title of ' Literatur der Landesvermessung. ' 
 
 i. Government Maps. — The Dufour Map (25 sheets, 1845-1864, scale 100 1 000 — its 
 history was published at Bern in 1896) has now been superseded by the 
 publication, after careful revision, of the original large scale survey ( 50 ^ 00 for 
 the mountain districts, 25000 f° r tne plains) ; this is known as the * Topogra- 
 phischer Atlas der Schweiz,' or Siegfried Atlas, and extends to 589 sheets, 
 in course of issue (all the mountain sheets are now published) since 1870. 
 It is extremely clear, and most accurate, being undoubtedly the most 
 splendid representation of a mountain land ever yet published. 
 
 The best small-scale map (unofficial) of the Swiss Alps is that issued in 
 1897 by L. Ravenstein, of Frankfort (2 sheets on a scale of asSooo)- 
 ii. Special Maps. — The Siegfried map quite does away in Switzerland with the 
 need for large-scale Special Maps, especially as the Federal Topographical 
 Bureau issues combinations of sheets or parts of sheets, so as to form most 
 convenient District Maps. See the new edition of vol. i. of the ' Alpine 
 Guide,' p. xxxix, and also the notes on maps in the ' Preliminary Notes' of 
 the new edition of vol. ii. (in preparation) of the same work. 
 
cliii 
 
 APPENDIX b. 
 
 A GLOSSARY OF ALPINE TERMS. 
 
 [It is to be hoped that one day some well qualified person will take in hand the 
 compilation of a complete Alpine Glossary, for which there are already abundant 
 printed materials (sometimes hidden carefully away in local pamphlets or periodi- 
 cals), that may be supplemented to almost any extent by personal investigation 
 in the valleys of the Alps. The present Glossary aims only at including the 
 principal technical and patois terms — slang excluded — that may puzzle an English 
 traveller or reader. Many of the examples given can be found in the new edition 
 of vol. i. of the * Alpine Guide,' others in the later volumes of that work.] 
 
 Aigue. A stream {aqua). 
 
 Allmend. Land owned in common, whether arable, meadow, pasture, or 
 
 forest. 
 Aim. The Tyrolese term for an ' alp ' or mountain pasture. See Art. X. 3. 
 Alp. A mountain pasture used in summer. See Art. X. 3. 
 Alpbuch. The official register in which everything relating to a particular 
 
 'alp ' is entered. 
 Alpenhorn. A long curved horn of wood, originally used by the • Alpler,' but 
 
 now mainly employed to amuse tourists. 
 Alpenschatzung-. The estimate of the number of cows that can be supported 
 
 on an 'alp.' See Stoss. 
 Alpenstock. The long wooden pole used by Alpine travellers and by hunters 
 
 in the Tyrol, though of recent years on high mountains it has been superseded 
 
 by the ice-axe. 
 Alpfanrt. The annual journey of the cows up to the ' alp ' in June. 
 Alpler. A man employed on an ' alp ' during the summer. 
 Amait (Italian). A small plain in the mountains, e.g. Col de PAmait di Viso. 
 Amont, d\ The ' upper ' pastures or huts as opposed to those ' d'aval.' 
 Anken. Butter. n 
 
 Arete. A rock or snow ridge, generally a more or less sharp ridge. 
 Avalanche. Snow or ice which slides or falls by its own weight towards the 
 
 valley ('ad vallem '). See F Alpine Journal,' vol. v. p. 349. 
 Baisse, Bassa, and Basse. A local term in the French and Italian Alps for a 
 
 low pass, e.g. Baisse de St. Veran, Bassa di Dittos, Basse du ( lerbier. 
 Baita. A hut (of wood or stones) on an 'alp,' built under the shelter of a 
 
 boulder. 
 Balm and Balme. A cave. 
 Bannwald. A forest which is put under ' l>ann,' i.e. where no trees can be 
 
 felled under very severe penalties, often because the forest shelters a village 
 
 from avalanches ; hence applied to the wildest portions of a forest. 
 Banz (Bernese Oberland). I'atois word for B sheep. 
 Baraoca, Baraccone, and Baraque. Small stone hut. 
 Bee, Becca, Becco. A pointed summit, like the beak of a bird. 
 Belsass. Strictly speaking a Swiss who lives in a 'commune' other than his 
 
 own ; loosely applied to all such dwellers, whether Swiss or f< 
 
 Art. X. 2. 
 
Cliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Bergerie (Viso and Vaudois Valleys). A local term strictly meaning a sheep 
 
 chalet on a mountain pasture ; but also more generally applied to any cheese 
 
 chalet. 
 Bergfall and Bergrutsch. A landslip. 
 Bergrecht. See Kuhrecht. 
 Bergschrund. A particular kind of crevasse — namely, that which occurs where 
 
 the steep upper neve or icy slope of a peak touches the more level ice or snow- 
 field at its foot. 
 Bise. A cold wind, generally blowing from the N. 
 Blatten. Smooth rock slabs lying at a great incline. 
 Bocca and Bocchetta (Italian). A narrow 'mouth' or pass, e.g. Bocca di 
 
 Brenta. 
 Branta. A wooden barrel-shaped vessel (carried on a man's back) used in 
 
 Switzerland for bringing the milk home from the mountain pastures or from 
 
 the stable below ; a smaller vessel of the same kind is called a * Brantli. ' Cf. 
 
 1 Brenta,' used in the Sarca valley (Adamello district) for a shallow vessel 
 
 employed for soup, and by analogy for a stagnant tarn in a dolomite glen 
 
 (Freshfield's 'Italian Alps,' p. 378). 
 Brec or Brie (Viso and Vaudois Valleys district). A rock peak especially if 
 
 fissured and pointed, e.g. Brec de Chambeyron, Brie Bouchet. 
 Breche. A narrow or well defined gap in a rock ridge. 
 Buhl. A hillock. 
 Burger gemeinde. A * commune ' composed solely of the burghers, to the 
 
 exclusion of mere ' residents,' &c. See Art. X. 2. 
 Caire (Maritime Alps). A peak. 
 
 Canale (Venetian Alps). A valley, generally a main valley. 
 Casera. A hut on a mountain pasture, especially the hut wherein the cheeses 
 
 are stored. 
 Casse. A slope covered with small stones, the result of the wearing away or 
 
 weathering of the rocks above, e.g. Casse des Oules ; also a saucepan, or a 
 
 hollow in the earth which holds water like a saucepan, e.g. Grande Casse. 
 Ceng-ia or Sengia. A narrow ledge on a rock wall. See Vire. 
 Chalanche or Cialancia. A bare avalanche-swept slope of stones. 
 Chalet. A hut on the mountain pastures, especially one used for milk and 
 
 cheese purposes in summer ; by extension, any dwelling-house in the valley 
 
 below. The word should have no accent. 
 Chiot. A small rocky plain, and any hut upon it. 
 Cima, Cime, or Cimon. A mountain peak, e.g. Cima Tosa, Cime du Vallon, 
 
 Cimon della Pala. 
 Clapier or Clappey. A slope of stones fallen from above, or due to the 
 
 weathering of the rocks above, i.e. screes (Cumberland term). 
 Clot. A small plain on a mountain-side, e.g. Clot des Cavales. 
 Cluse. A narrow rocky defile. 
 Col or Colle, Generally a pass {e.g. Col du Geant) ; in certain parts of the 
 
 Italian Alps a hill (e.g. Col Vicentino). Possibly both meanings come from 
 
 1 collis,' a hillock as opposed to a * mons ' or mountain ; but perhaps ' Col ' 
 
 in the sense of a pass comes from ' collum,' a neck. 
 Collerin. A small gully or ' couloir,' e.g. Col du Collerin. 
 Colonnes coiffees. Earth pillars (see this word), as they are capped by a great 
 
 boulder. 
 Colour and Colouret. A gully or ' couloir,' and a small gully, e.g. Col del 
 
 Colour del Porco, and the two Colourets on the Col de la Galise. 
 Combe. A glen, especially a side glen, and a narrow glen, e.g. Combe de Malaval. 
 Commune. The association (based originally on common ownership of land, 
 
A GLOSSARY OF ALPINE TERMS. civ 
 
 and later on political considerations) of the inhabitants in a village, or some 
 
 particular bit of a large valley, or in a small valley. 
 Conca. A high mountain hollow or basin. See Kar. 
 
 Corniche. Used in two senses: (i) a narrow ledge of rock; (2) an over- 
 hanging crest of snow on a ridge. 
 Couloir. A steep gully in the mountain-side; it is often filled with ice, snow, 
 
 or stones. 
 Coupe (Cogne). A narrow gap or ' cut ' in a ridge. 
 Crampons. An iron frame fastened underneath the boot by leather straps, and 
 
 furnished with several sharp points. They are much used in the Eastern Alps, 
 
 in order to avoid step-cutting on slopes of hard snow, or even ice, but are 
 
 useless on rocks. 
 Crevasse. A crack or rent in a glacier, due to the straining of the ice on its 
 
 downward flow. 
 Croda (Dolomites). Rock ; * croda morta' is 'disaggregated rock, loosened by 
 
 weathering ' (Ball's ' Eastern Alps,' p. 526). 
 Crot. A deep mountain hollow, e.g. Crot del Ciaussine. 
 Crozzon. A very steep and massive rock peak, e.g. Crozzon di Brenta. 
 Dirt Bands. Transverse curved bands of fine mud or debris, which mark the 
 
 line of depression (into which they have been washed by little rills) between 
 
 the ridges which in an icefall run between the crevasses, but sink, through 
 
 the action of the sun, when the crevasses are closed up at the base of the icefall. 
 Dirt Cones. Hillocks of ice on a glacier, which have been protected from the 
 
 action of the sun by the thick layer of sand, &c, on them, and which therefore 
 
 form miniature mountains. 
 Draye (Cottian Alps). A small cattle track along the mountain -side, formed 
 
 originally by the dragging or sliding of a log of wood along the slope. 
 Earth pillars. Pillars of earth, standing out from the mountain-side, each capped 
 
 by a great boulder which has prevented the earth of which they are composed 
 
 from being weathered away by rain, is.c. 
 Egg-. A hillock. The word * Egg ' has nothing to do with ' Eck. ' 
 Eglise. The church hamlet of a ' commune.' 
 Emd. The second crop of grass, or ' aftermath. ' 
 Eng-e. A narrow passage along a rock wall or slope, e.g. the two ' Enges ' near 
 
 Grindelwald. 
 Erratic blocks. Boulders of one kind of stone which are now found stranded on 
 
 rock of a different formation, having been carried thither by an ancient glacier 
 
 and left there (sometimes very delicately poised) when the ice disappeared. 
 
 When they are very delicately poised they are also called ' blocs perches ' 
 
 (see below). 
 Etret and Etroit. A narrow defile in a valley. 
 Fenetre and Finestra. A narrow gap or f window ' in a mountain ridge, e.g. 
 
 Fenetre de Saleinaz. 
 Ferner. The Tyrolese term for glaciers. 
 Firn. The accumulation of hard snow which has descended from the steep upper 
 
 mountain slopes, and which on its further downward course will be consolidated 
 
 by pressure into ice, and so form a ■ glacier,' i.e. the raw materials of a 
 
 glacier, e.g. the Jungfraufirn. 
 First (E. Switzerland). A ridge. 
 
 Fluh. A steep or precipitous rock cliff, especially if clean cut. 
 Fohn. A stormy hot and dry wind which rushes over the Alps from S. t« > X. , not 
 
 probably due to the heated desert of the Sahara, but to the suction of thu 
 
 from the valleys on the N. slopes of the Alps, so that masses of air come from 
 
 the S. to restore the equilibrium. See * Alpine Journal,' vol. xiii. p. 274. 
 
clvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Forca, Forcella, Forclietta, Forclaz, Furka, &c. A fork -shaped depression 
 
 in a mountain ridge. 
 Frazione (Italian). One of the hamlets that make up a ' commune.' 
 Fruitier. A cheesemaker. See Senn. 
 Gaden. A room. 
 
 Gand. Any kind of heap of stones or land covered with such. 
 Gandeck or Gandegg. A lateral moraine. 
 
 Gaumer. The man or lad who actually drives out and guards the cows on an 'alp.' 
 Gemeinde. See Commune and Art. X. 2. 
 Genossame. A guild or corporation of persons which owns certain lands in 
 
 common, and which does not include all members of the Commune ; also the 
 
 rights of a member of such a corporation. 
 Gerechtig-keit. The right (generally ' real '—see Art. X. 3) of user over lands 
 
 owned in common. 
 Geroll. Slope of loose small stones, or * screes. ' 
 Gtaicet (Graian Alps). A deep-cut pass over a lateral ridge, e.g. Ghicet d'Ala. 
 
 Cf. ' wicket.' 
 Gias. Properly the enclosed space or * corral 'on an ' alp ' within which the 
 
 cattle (in the S. valleys of the Maritime Alps only goats and sheep) are penned 
 
 at night or for milking purposes ; also the huts near by. 
 Giogo. See Joch. 
 Glacier Remanie. A second and lower glacier {e.g. the Schwarzwald glacier 
 
 at the N. foot of the Wetterhorn), formed by the breaking away of frag- 
 ments from a glacier above, these fragments being then pressed together, and 
 
 thus reforming a glacier. 
 Glacier Table. A flat slab of rock lifted up on a pillar of ice produced by the 
 
 non-melting of the ice, which is thus protected from the action of the sun's rays. 
 
 The table generally leans towards the S. , as the sun melts the ice on that side 
 
 more quickly than on the N. side. 
 Glaciere. Originally this word meant the ' Firn ' or * neve ' as opposed to the 
 
 ice of a glacier ; now it is generally confined to caves with masses of ice which 
 
 never melt {e.g. the Schafloch, in the Justisthal, above the Lake of Thun). 
 Glissade* Sliding down a snow slope, voluntarily or involuntarily. 
 Gola. A very narrow ravine. 
 Graben. A ravine torn in the mountain-side. 
 
 Grund. The level bit of a valley near the stream, as opposed to the slopes above. 
 Guffer. A heap of gravel, particularly when it forms a central moraine. 
 Gut sen, A hillock. 
 
 Guxe. A wild storm (blizzard or ' tourmente ' ) in the mountains. 
 Gwachte. A snow drift ; also an overhanging crest of snow. 
 Hanging- Glacier. A glacier lying on a very steep slope, so that the spectator 
 
 wonders how it can ' hang ' there. 
 Heisse Platte. An exposed rock face in an icefall, over which fragments of ice, 
 
 &c. , frequently fall, e.g. that above the Grindelwald Eismeer. 
 Hlntersass. A non-Swiss person living in a ' Commune ' where he has no 
 
 rights either as Swiss, Cantonal, or Communal burgher. 
 Hof. A homestead and its meadows, enclosed within a ring fence. 
 Hubel. A hillock. 
 Icefall. The dislocation of a glacier when descending over steep rocks from a 
 
 higher to a lower level ; the ice is then broken up into chasms and pinnacles, 
 
 which are consolidated into one mass again, when the lower level is reached. 
 Tas. The French patois form of ' Gias, ' e.g. Jas du Seigneur. 
 Joch. A broad pass, or 'yoke' (the Italian ' giogo '), e.g. Domjoch. 
 Todeln. Shouting in a high falsetto in rhythm but without uttering any words. 
 
A GLOSSARY OF ALPINE TERMS. clvii 
 
 Xar. The Tyrolese term originally for a bowl or cup ; and by analogy for a 
 mountain hollow or basin, open on one side, a * Kessei ' being enclosed on 
 all sides. See the ' Zeitschrift ' of the German Alpine Club, vol. i. pp. 305-9. 
 
 Xarrenfeld. A limestone plateau, with many fissures through which the water 
 drains away. 
 
 Kees. A Tyrolese term for a glacier ; it is said to come from an old German 
 word, meaning * frost ' (' Jahrbuch ' of the Austrian Alpine Club, vol. ii. p. 402). 
 
 Klus. See Cluse. 
 
 Krinne. A deep cut in a mountain ridge, e.g. the two near Grindelwald. 
 
 Xuhrecht. The right of a man to pasture one cow on the 'alp' in summer; 
 also used in the sense of ' Stoss. ' 
 
 later. One of the divisions into which an ' alp ' is divided horizontally, so that 
 the cows may shift their quarters in order to get fresh grass, e.g. Ober Lager, 
 Mittel Lager, Unter Lager. 
 
 Ii.ipiaz. See Karrenfeld. 
 
 Lau or Laus. A lake. Lauzet, a small lake. 
 
 LauiDe. An avalanche. See * Alpine Journal,' vol. v. pp. 346-9. 
 
 Lauze. Slate, e.g. Col de la Lauze. 
 
 lei or Lex. A meadow enclosed by hills, e.g. Lex Blanche (Allee Blanche). 
 
 Xiimmi (Gadmenthal). A pass, e.g. Triftlimmi. 
 
 Lombarda. The wind which blows over the Mont Cenis from Lombardy. 
 
 Xiiicke. A gap or pass in a mountain ridge, e.g. Gamchiliicke. 
 
 Maiensass. The pastures used in spring before the cows go up to the 'alp.' 
 
 Malta. A small mountain plain. See Amait. 
 
 Malg-a. A cheese and milk hut. 
 
 Mandra. A herd of cattle; hence Mandron and Margheria, the huts 
 erected for their use. 
 
 ' Marmites des Geants.' See Potholes. 
 
 Massif. A mountain ' mass,' or group. 
 
 Mayens and Monti. See Maiensass. ' Mayens ' seems to be also used in 
 the sense of ' Muanda.' 
 
 Montagne. Term often used in the French Alps for ' alp,' or mountain pasture. 
 
 Moos. A swamp. 
 
 Moraine. The stones and rocks that fall from the mountain-sides on to a 
 glacier, and are often raised above its level, as the sun protects the ridge of 
 ice beneath them from the rays of the sun. When two glaciers meet their 
 lateral moraines unite to form a medial or central moraine ; the stones un- 
 loaded at the snout of a glacier are called a terminal moraine, and those 
 between a glacier and its rock bed are a ground moraine. 
 
 Motte. Clods of peat or turf. 
 
 Moulin. The funnel-shaped opening or shaft excavated (where at first there 
 was but a crack) by the running streams on the surface of a glacier, which 
 thus pierce the ice, and flow over the rock bed on which it rests. Hence the 
 name ' Glacier Mills.' 
 
 Mourre. A mountain of which the summit resembles a ' nose,' e.g. le M 
 id (Dauphine Alps). 
 
 Moutonnees, Roches. Rocks polished into smooth rounded masses (like the 
 backs of sheep) by the action of a glacier moving nbovc them. 
 
 Muanda and Muande. One of the sets of huts on an 'alp' from which th« 
 cows * change ' or shift to another. 
 
 Want. A mountain torrent, e.g. the Bon Nant. 
 
 Neve. See Pirn. 
 
 Wledergelassener. A 'settler' in a € commune ' wherein lie h;is no rights. 
 See Beisass and Hlntersass. 
 
Clviii ■ INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Orrido. A wild and narrow gorge. 
 
 Ouille (Maurienne). Patois form of * Aiguille,' e.g. Ouille de l'Arberon. 
 
 Oule. A hollow in the ground like a kettle, e.g. Casse des Oules. 
 
 Pala (Dolomites). A mountain peak, e.g. Cimon della Pala. The derivation 
 of the word is contested. 
 
 Paravas, Pelvas, Pelvo, or Pelvoux. A mountain, especially if rounded at 
 the summit. 
 
 Parei. Patois form of ' paroi ' (wall), e.g. Granta Parei. 
 
 Pas. Name sometimes given to a low pass {e.g. Pas du Bceuf), or to a difficult 
 bit on a path (e.g. Pas d'Encel). 
 
 Perches, Blocs. Erratic blocks (see above) which are delicately poised on a 
 mountain-side. 
 
 Pertuis. A tunnel through the rocks, e.g. the Pertuis du Viso or tunnel under 
 the Col de la Traversette. 
 
 Peyron. A huge boulder. 
 
 Picket. Ice axe. 
 
 Pieve (Italian). The church hamlet, where is the parish church ('ecclesia 
 plebana '), e.g. Pieve di Ledro. 
 
 Plolet. Ice axe. 
 
 PIz (E. Switzerland). A mountain peak, e.g. Piz Bernina. 
 
 Plan. A small plain or level shelf on a mountain-side, e.g. Plan des Dames. 
 
 Flatten. See Blatten. 
 
 Potholes. In the bed of a mountain torrent, or at the bottom of a glacier 
 ' moulin,' a stone is whirled round and round by the stream, and so scours out 
 a hollow or * pothole.' The holes are sometimes called ' marmites des geants,' 
 e.g. in the Gletschergarten at Lucerne. 
 
 Primesti. The Ticino word for ' Maiensassen,' which see. 
 
 Puy. An isolated eminence on a side ridge. 
 
 Ramasse. A wooden sledge (sometimes with a rough seat or chair on it) used 
 formerly on the descent from the Mont Cenis to Lanslebourg (and now at 
 Allevard — see the 'Alpine Guide,' vol. i. p. 128 of the 1898 edition), by 
 which travellers and their luggage, as well as wood, &c. , are swiftly conveyed 
 down the steep mountain-side to the village below. See a seventeenth-century 
 description in the * Rivista Mensile ' of the Italian Alpine Club, vol. iv. p. 52. 
 Sledges of this kind(' Holzschlitten ') are still used in winter at Grindelwald 
 for bringing down wood from the forests ; and have been taken (for the 
 convenience of ladies) in winter over the Monchjoch and the Strahlegg. 
 
 Rechtsame. The right of user (generally 'real') on the 'Allmend.' See 
 Art. X. 3. 
 
 Red Snow. This phenomenon (especially frequent in early summer) is due to 
 the presence of a minute plant, one of a group of freshwater alga, and now 
 known as ' Chlamydococcus nivalis ; ' it is pink in the state of germination, 
 but later becomes deep crimson. 
 
 Rimaye. A bergschrund. Desor (i. p. 333) in 1844 proposed to give this 
 meaning to the word, which in the ' Suisse Romande ' signifies a great 
 crevasse. Littre says that it is a Savoyard word, coming from the Low Latin 
 'rima' ('fente ' - ' rima' is used in this sense by Simler in I574)> and this 
 from 'ringor,' meaning 's'ouvrir.' 
 
 Rinne and Runse. A narrow gully down which water trickles, or small stones 
 fall, e.g. the Schneerunse on the Todi. 
 
 Roesa, Roise, or Ruise. A word which in the Aostan patois signifies a 
 * glacier : ' it is the true explanation of the names Monte Rosa, Roisebanque, 
 and Reuse d'Arolla. 
 
 Rua. See Frazione. 
 
A GLOSSARY OF ALPINE TERMS. clix 
 
 Rucksack. The form of loose bag preferred by the Tyrolese. See Art. VI. 2. 
 
 The word should have no " on the u. 
 Riiti. A ' clearing' in a forest or < backwoods,' by which a bit of meadow or 
 
 pasture land is won. Hence 'Riitli,' a small clearing. 
 Sa^na. A marshy spot, e.g. Sagna del Colle. 
 Sand Cones. See Dirt Cones. 
 
 Sattel. A broad and well defined pass or * saddle,' e.g. Roththalsattel. 
 Scharte. The Tyrolese term for a <fenetre,'or narrow gap in a ridge, e.g. 
 
 Tabarettascharte. 
 Scheidegrg". A ridge c dividing ' two valleys. 
 Schrund. A crevasse. 
 Schwendl. See Riiti : the verb is still used to mean the clearing away in 
 
 spring, on a mountain pasture, of the rubbish which has fallen on it since the 
 
 preceding summer. 
 Screes. See Geroll. 
 Sella. See Sattel. 
 Senn. A cheese-maker. 
 
 Sennhiitte. The hut wherein dwells a cheese-maker in summer on the * alp.' 
 Seracs. A stage in the process of cheese-making — viz. the cheese made from 
 
 ' petit lait ' or whey (< serum '). Saussure (§§ 1975 and 2054) tells us that 
 
 this cheese is compressed into cubes in rectangular boxes, and that these so 
 
 resembled the creamy blocks of neve cut into squares by the crevasses formed 
 
 in their downward course that the natives of Chamonix applied this cheese 
 
 term to this particular state of the neve. Nowadays the term * seracs ' is 
 
 generally (though inaccurately) used of the ice pinnacles formed in the icefall 
 
 of a glacier. 
 Serra. A narrow defile {serret) in a valley ; also an elongated mountain range 
 
 (serre). 
 Sex. A rock (saxum), e.g. Notre Dame du Sex. Probably identical with the 
 
 forms ' Scesa ' and * Scez.' 
 Seybuch. See Alpbuch. ' Seyen ' is the Bernese Oberland term for the 
 
 determining how many cows an ' alp ' can support during the summer. 
 Snow Line. The point at which the melting of the snow in summer is exactly 
 
 balanced by the fall of snow in winter ; it varies considerably according to the 
 
 steepness of the mountain slope, its exposure, &c. 
 Speck. Bacon. 
 Speicher. A hut on the * alp ' in which cheeses are stored before being taken 
 
 down to the valley : it generally stands on six low stone pillars, so as to 
 
 keep the mice out. 
 Staffel. One of the horizontal strips into which the * alp ' is divided, so that 
 
 cows by shifting their quarters may obtain constant supplies of fresh grass 
 
 during the summer. 
 Steigeisen. See Crampons. 
 Stoss. The amount of pasture required to support one cow for the summer on 
 
 the ' alp. ' 
 Striations. The deeply graven lines on rock slabs, especially those which have 
 
 formed the bed of a glacier ; they are caused by the boulders or stones that are 
 
 imprisoned between the ice and rock, and act as graving tools. 
 Stube. The * keeping-room,' ' stove ' room, or main room in an Alpine 
 
 dwelling-house : and thus * Gaststube ' is the best room given up to ' con- 
 
 sommateurs ' or guests. 
 Stunlung. The estimate of the number of cows that can be supported by an 
 
 * alp ' during the summer. 
 
Clx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Stutz. A mountain slope along which a steeply mounting path is carried, e.g. 
 Sandigenstutz, Lungenstutz. 
 
 Sust. A shelter in general (under an overhanging boulder, or a hut), but 
 especially applied to a hut for customs officials, e.g. Susten, in the Rh6ne 
 valley. The French form is ' souste ' and the Italian ' susta. ' 
 
 Talancia. A very steep slope of snow or ice that never melts ; more par- 
 ticularly the strip of snow or ice in a steep couloir or gully. 
 
 Thalweg. The bed of a stream in the mountain valley ; the stream has eaten 
 its way through the slopes above it, and thus its bed seems to resemble a 
 ' valley path. ' 
 
 Tobel. A deep-cut ravine in the mountain-side, like a ' Graben. ' 
 
 Toumple or Temple. Properly the deepest part of a river bed ; then any deep 
 hollow or gulf. It is masculine, so that, though the word occurs in Dauphine, 
 it is doubtful if it explains the name of the ' Col de la Temple. ' 
 
 Tourmente. A blizzard in the mountains. See Guxe. 
 
 Tsante. A patois word meaning a gently inclined slope {e.g. Tsanteleina) as 
 opposed to a great wall, 'granta parei.' See vol. i. p. 275 of the new edition 
 of the ' Alpine Guide. ' 
 
 Ueberhang. An overhanging bit of snow, or ! corniche ; ' also applied to over- 
 hanging rocks. 
 
 XTja. Patois form of ' Aiguille,' used in the Graian Alps, e.g. Uja di Mondrone. 
 
 Vanoise. The wind which blows over the Mont Cenis from the Vanoise 
 glaciers, in Savoy. 
 
 Vastera (Maritime Alps). An enclosed space or ' corral ' for the cows at night. 
 In the S. valleys of the Maritime Alps the word ' gias ' (which otherwise 
 has the same meaning as ' Vastera ') signifies such enclosed spaces for goats 
 and sheep only. See the ' Bollettino ' of the Italian Alpine Club for 1897, 
 p. 223 n. 
 
 Vedretta, or Vadret. The term applied to a glacier in the eastern portion of 
 the Swiss, &c, Alps (Engadine, Valtellina, and Val di Fassa). 
 
 Verglas. A thin film of ice on smooth, inclined rock slabs ; it is due to the 
 freezing in the night of a trickle of water. 
 
 Villa (Italian). The chief or ' church ' hamlet of a 'commune,' e.g. Villa di 
 Lozio. 
 
 Vire. A rock ledge on a wall which often enables that wall to be traversed, or 
 helps the traveller to turn some obstacle on the ridge above. 
 
 Voralp and Vorsass. Originally the mountain slopes between the dwelling- 
 houses in an Alpine valley and the ' alp ' or mountain pasture proper were 
 owned in common ; now this portion is generally owned by individuals. In 
 either case these words mean the pasture grazed by the cows in spring 
 before they go up to the ' alp ' proper. See XVXaiensass. 
 
 Wang. A steep grass slope as opposed to 'Wand,' which is of rock, e.g. the 
 Maienwang, between the Grimsel Pass and the Rhone Glacier Hotel. See G. 
 Studer's ' Das Panorama von Bern,' p. 19 n. 
 
 Weiler. A hamlet of a 'commune.' Like Frazione and Rua. 
 
 Wildheu. Properly the grass or hay gathered by the first comer on mountain 
 slopes far from any mountain pasture, and so visited only by the poorer 
 natives who have not enough hay and no means of buying more. The word 
 also applies to the grass or hay got above a frequented mountain pasture, 
 which in this case is a perquisite of the f Aelpler ' who take the trouble to 
 bring it down, and can not be taken by any one else. 
 
 Zieger. The cheese made from whey, which is known in French-speaking 
 districts as ' seracs. ' 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ablation, cxxvi 
 
 Accidents, xli-xliii 
 
 Adamello, lxvii, lxxii 
 
 Aelpler, lxiv-lxv 
 
 Aletsch glacier, Great, cxxix-cxxx 
 
 Algau, lxxx 
 
 Allmend, Iv, lviii 
 
 Alluvium, ancient, lxxxv 
 
 Aim, lviii 
 
 Aimer, Christian, Ivii 
 
 ' Alpargatas,' xlvi 
 
 Alpfahrt, Ixiii 
 
 Alpregister, lix 
 
 Alps, Central, xx ; Eastern, xxii, cxxxi ; 
 
 Western, xix 
 'Alps,' lvii-lxv, cvi-cvii ; regulations, lix 
 Altels avalanche, cxxxii 
 Annuals, cxii 
 Arctic regions, cxix-cxxi 
 Arves, Aiguilles d', lxxxiii 
 Avalanches, cxxxi-cxxxiii 
 
 Bach i glacier, cxxix 
 Bagnes, Val de, cxxxi 
 Bees, cxvi-cxviii 
 Beisassen, lv 
 Belalp, lxi 
 Berarde, La, liv 
 Bergschrund, cxxv 
 Bies glacier, cxxxii 
 Binnenthal, lxix 
 Birds, c 
 Blackenalp, lxi 
 Blanc, Mont, xxiv, 
 
 cxxxviii 
 Blaugletscherli, cxxix 
 Books, List of, cxl 
 Boots, xxx iv 
 Bosco, xxviii 
 Bouquetins, xcix 
 
 I. xl 
 Brenva glacier, cxxx 
 
 lxxii, lxxxix, cix, 
 
 Brienz, lv, Ixxix 
 ' Bundner Schiefer,' lxxiii 
 Burgergemeinden, lvi 
 Burglauenen, lvi 
 Butterflies, cii, cxvii-cxviii 
 
 Calfeisenthal, Ixv 
 
 Canaria, Val, Ixxvi 
 
 Carriages, xxv 
 
 Cenis, ' alps ' on, lxv 
 
 ' Chaises k porteurs,' xxv 
 
 Chalets, lxiv-lxv 
 
 Chamois, xcix; hunting, xxxii, lv 
 
 Chamonix, xlvi, cix 
 
 Cheese, xl, lxiii-lxiv, cxxv 
 
 Chestnuts, cv 
 
 Church town, liii 
 
 Citizenship, lvi 
 
 Climate, ciii sqq. , cviii sqq. 
 
 Clothing, xxxiii 
 
 Club huts, 1-li 
 
 Clubs, Alpine, xxxvii note, xlvii, 1-li 
 
 Communes, lv-lvi 
 
 Coniferous trees, cv 
 
 Crampons, xxxvi 
 
 Cr&te Seche lake, cxxxi 
 
 Crevasses, cxxiv-cxxv 
 
 Crystalline rocks, lxvii 
 
 Custom houses, xvi 
 
 Dangers in the Alps, xxxvii, xl sqq. 
 
 Davos, xxviii 
 
 Deciduous trees, civ 
 
 Diablerets, lxxxiii 
 
 Dietary, xxxi, xl 
 
 Difficulties in the Alps, xxxvii 
 
 Diligences, xxiv 
 
 Dolomites, lxix, Ixxvii, xcvi note, CXXIX 
 
 Eggs, xl 
 Einsiedeln, Ixii 
 
clxii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Einwohnergemeinden, lvi 
 
 Emmenthal, lxii, lxiv 
 
 Engstlenalp, lxi-lxii • 
 
 Ennetmarchtalp, lxi 
 
 Equipment, xxxiii 
 
 Erratic boulders, lxxxi-lxxxiii, xciii-xciv 
 
 Expenses of a journey, xxx 
 
 Extrapost, xxv 
 
 Fee, lxi 
 
 Fersina glen, xxix 
 
 Festivals in the Alps, lxiv-lxv 
 
 Firn, cxxiii 
 
 Firs, cvi 
 
 Flowers, cvi-cvii, cxv sqq. 
 
 Flysch, lxxix-lxxx 
 
 Fohn wind, ex 
 
 Forests, lv, lvii, cvi, exxxiii 
 
 Formazza, Val, xxviii 
 
 Fruitier, lxiv 
 
 Furka Pass, lxxviii 
 
 Gemeinde, lv 
 
 Gemmi Pass, exxxii 
 
 Geology, lxvi sqq. 
 
 Gepatsch glacier, exxx 
 
 German colonies, xxviii 
 
 Gervais, St., exxxi 
 
 Gi^troz glacier, exxxi 
 
 Glacial Age, xciii-xevi, exxviii ; 
 
 cvii 
 Glaciers, xxxviii, cvii, cxxiii sqq. 
 
 motion of, exxiii-exxiv, exxvi 
 
 exxx-exxxi 
 Glarnisch glacier, exxix 
 Glarus, lxxxi, lxxxviii 
 Gleckstein, lxiii 
 Gletscheralp, lix, lxiii 
 Glossary of Alpine terms, cliii 
 Gorner glacier, exxx 
 Gotthard Pass, St.; lxxii-lxxiii 
 Gouter, Aig. du, exxxi 
 Gries glacier, exxix ; Pass, lxxviii 
 Grindelwald, xxxv-xxxvi, xlvi, lii note, 
 
 liv, lvi— lxiii, lxxix, exxix ; Lower 
 
 glacier, exxx 
 Grodenerthal, liv 
 Grundlauinen, exxxii 
 Gruyere, lxiv 
 Guides, xxxv, xliv sqq. 
 Gurgler glacier, exxx-exxxi 
 Gydisdorf, liv 
 
 region, 
 
 exxxn ; 
 
 exxviii, 
 
 Hintersassen, lv 
 Hohsand glacier, exxix 
 Homesteads, lv, lvii 
 Horses, xxv 
 Humidity of the air, ex 
 
 Ibex, xcix 
 
 Ice axes, xxxv 
 
 Icefalls, exxv 
 
 Inconveniences of Alpine travelling, xxxii, 
 
 xxxviii 
 Inns, xxx-xxxi, xlviii-1 
 Interlaken, monastery of, liv, lvii-lviii 
 
 note, lx 
 
 'Jodeln,' lxv 
 
 Jungfrau, xxiv, lxxxviii, exxxii 
 
 Habkernthal, lxxxi-lxxxii 
 
 Hasleberg, lxii 
 
 ' Herrschaft, Auf der,' lvii 
 
 Kuhrechte, lx, lxii, lxiv 
 Kuhreihen, lxv 
 Kuhstosse, lix— lxi 
 
 Ladin, xxix 
 
 Lager, lxiii 
 
 Lakes in the Alps, lxxxiv, xcii, xciv, cii, 
 
 exxviii-exxix, exxxi 
 Lammergeier, ci 
 
 Languages in the Alps, xxviii sqq. 
 Larch, cvi 
 
 Lauterbrunnen, lix, lxi, lxxix, xcix 
 Letters, xvii 
 
 Life in an Alpine valley, lii sqq. 
 Litanies, lxv 
 Luggage, xvi-xvii 
 Lukmanier Pass, lxxii, lxxvi, lxxviii 
 
 Macugnaga, lix 
 
 Maiensass, lvii 
 
 Majolica, lxxx 
 
 Maloja Pass, xcii 
 
 Man in the Alps of old, lxxxiv, xevi 
 
 Maps, cli 
 
 Marjelen lake, exxxi 
 
 Marmots, c 
 
 Matterhorn, xxiv, lxvii 
 
 Mayens, lvii 
 
 Measures, xvii 
 
 Megglisalp, lviii 
 
 Meije, lxxii 
 
 Meiringen, lxi-lxii 
 
 Mer de Glace, exxx 
 
 Mettenberg, lxiii 
 
 Miage glacier, exxx 
 
 Milk, xl, lxiii— lxiv, exxv 
 
 Monev, xvi 
 
INDEX. 
 
 clxiii 
 
 Monzonite, lxxvii 
 
 Moraines, lxxxv, cxxvii-cxxviii 
 
 Morschach, cxxxii note 
 
 Moulins, cxxv 
 
 Mountaineering, xxxvii sqq. ; dangers of, 
 xl ; difficulties of, xxxvii ; inconveni- 
 ences of, xxxviii ; solitary, xliv ; winter, 
 xxviii : without guides, xliv 
 
 Mules, xxv 
 
 Miirren, lx 
 
 Music, lxv 
 
 NAGELFLUH, lxx, lxxxiv, xcv 
 Neve\ xxxviii, cxxiii, cxxv, cxxix 
 Nufcnen Pass, lxxiv, lxxvi, lxxviii 
 
 Obersaxen, xxviii 
 Olive trees, ciii 
 Ormonts glen, lxxxi-lxxxii 
 Oxford, lvi note 
 
 Paradis glaciers, Grand, cxxx 
 
 Passports, xv 
 
 Pasterze glacier, cxxx 
 
 Pastures, lvii-lxv, cvi-cvii 
 
 Pedestrians, xxxii sqq. 
 
 ' Pensions,' xxx 
 
 Perennials, cxii 
 
 Pfander, lxiv 
 
 Photography, cxxxiii 
 
 Pines, cvi 
 
 Plan of journey, xxvi 
 
 Polenta, xl 
 
 Pontresina, lxi 
 
 Poor relief, lv— lvi 
 
 Porters, xlv 
 
 Post offices, xvii 
 
 Prayers on the 'alps,' lxv 
 
 Precautions for health, xl 
 
 Pressure of the air, cviii 
 
 Provisions, tinned, xxxi, 1 
 
 Pyrenees, xlvi, cxvi 
 
 Railways, xviii, xxiv, xxxi 
 
 Ran da, cxxxii 
 
 ' Ranz des Vaches,' lxv 
 
 ' Rauchwacke,' lxxvi, lxxxvii 
 
 Regelation, cxxiii 
 
 Reschen Scheideck, xcii 
 
 Rheinwald, xxviii 
 
 Rhone glacier, cxxx 
 
 Riding, xxv 
 
 Rigi, lxx, lxxxiv, lxxxviii 
 
 Rivers in the Alps, cxxviii-cxxix 
 
 Rofel alp, lix 
 
 | Romonsch, xxix 
 
 ! Rope, xxxvi, xli-xliii 
 
 | Rousse, T6te, glacier, cxxxi 
 
 i Routes from London to the Alps, xviii 
 
 ' Rucksack, xxxv 
 
 I Rutor lake, cxxxi 
 
 Saas, lxi 
 
 Safien, xxviii 
 
 Salles, Pointe de, xciii 
 
 Sambtiseralp, lviii 
 
 Sandalp, ferii 
 
 Santis, lviii, cxxix 
 I Sauris glen, xxix 
 
 Scaglia, lxxx 
 
 Scheideggalp, lix, lxi, Ixiii 
 I ' Schistes lustr^es,' lxxiii 
 
 Schrattenkalk, lxxx 
 
 Schonegg, lvii 
 i Scopi, lxxiv, lxxviii 
 
 Season for travelling in the Alps, xxvii- 
 xxviii 
 
 Senn, lxiv 
 
 SeYacs, cxxv 
 
 Sette Comuni, xxix 
 
 Settlements in the Alps, early, lxii-lxiv 
 
 Seybuch, lix 
 
 Sgrischus lake, cii 
 
 Sickness, mountain, xxxix 
 
 Silt, lxxxv, cxxviii 
 
 Slavonic, xxix 
 
 Snow Line, cxxii 
 
 Speer, lxx, lxxxiv 
 
 Staffel, lxiii 
 
 Staublauinen, cxxxii 
 
 Steamers, xxiv 
 
 Steigeisen, xxxvi 
 
 Steinalp, Ixii 
 
 Steinbocks, xcix 
 
 Striations, cxxviii 
 
 Tables, glacier, cxxv* 
 Telegraphs, xvii 
 Telephones, xvii 
 Telephotography, cxxxi x 
 Th^odule Pass, St., cviii-cix, cxi 
 Time, xviii 
 
 Tourmentes, xliii, cxxii 
 Tonalite, lxvii, lxxii 
 
 Unspunnkn, lvii 
 Unteraar glacier, cxxx 
 Urnerboden, lxi 
 
 Valley, Life in an Alpine, lii v? v - 
 Valleys, kinds of Alpine, xci-xcii 
 
clxiv 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Vals, xxviii 
 
 Vegetation in the Alps, ciii sqq. , ex sqq. 
 
 Vernagt glacier, exxx-exxxi 
 
 Verrucano, lxxv 
 
 Viescher glacier, exxx 
 
 Villages, origin of Alpine, liii-liv 
 
 Vines, civ 
 
 Viso, Monte, lxvii, exxix 
 
 ' Voralp,' lvii 
 
 ' Vorsass,' lvii 
 
 Walking, xxiv, xxxii, xxxvii 
 Weights, xvii-xviii 
 
 Weissenfluh family, von, lxii 
 
 Wendelin, St., Ixv 
 
 Wengernalp, lix, lxi 
 
 Wetterhorn, lxiii, exxxii 
 
 ' Wildheu,' lxiii 
 
 Winds, ex 
 
 Wine, xxxi, civ 
 
 Winter, xxviii, xxxvi, Hi. exxiv 
 
 Zasenberg, lix, lxiii 
 Zermatt, lxi, cii 
 Zoology, xcviii 
 
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