> 'K % Division of Agricultural Scienc e s UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 9 \ S P. F. KNOWLES MILTON D. MILLER LIFC~NIA OCT 171960 L ■ ■ ■ - i - yguM i rg i.a.iu MWBiM^y CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station Extension Service MANUAL 27 Price 25c 1 I Lithough new to California, safflower is one of the oldest known crops. For centuries its growth was confined to regions of Asia, India, Africa, and Europe, where the flowers were used as a dye for both clothing and food. India usually has grown more safflower than the rest of the countries combined, practically all of which has been used domestically. In other areas of Asia and Europe acreages often have been very small, primarily devoted to types grown for the flowers. It is only during the last century that the plant has come into prominence for its oil. As an oil crop its acreage recently has increased in both Turkey and Israel, where the climate is Mediterranean in type. Australia, another country of Medi- terranean-type climate, is now growing safflower on a semicommercial scale. The plant was introduced into the United States in 1925. It has been grown on a limited scale in Washington, Idaho, Nebraska, Montana, and in Alberta, Canada. It was first grown on a semicommercial scale in the western part of the Northern Great Plains in the period from 1930 to 1940. Commercial expansion was limited by the low oil content of the varieties available then. With development of "Nebraska" varieties (N-l to N-10 and N-852) in the late forties, however, some of them having oil contents up to 36 per cent, safflower became a more promising crop. Some of these varieties, in tests at Davis and elsewhere in the state, have proved to be well adapted to California. Introduced into California in 1950, safflower has been grown in many areas of the state (see Table 1), but its best performance has been in the Sacramento Valley, where commercial production is now centered. In this valley it is usually grown on dry land, frequently on irrigable land without irrigation. It has proved to be a good rotation crop on riceland, if the soil type is suitable, responding well to the subirriga- tion provided on those soils. But even in the Sacramento Valley, as well as in the San Joaquin and Imperial valleys, safflower has not grown satisfactorily under sur- face irrigation. THIS MANUAL is one of a series published by the University of California College of Agriculture and sold for a charge which is based upon returning only a portion of the production cost. By this means it is possible to make available publications which, due to relatively high cost of produc- tion, or limited audience, would otherwise be beyond the scope of the College publishing program. Test plots of safflower on the Davis Campus of the University of California include varieties and species from all over the world. CONTENTS Description of the plant 1 How the plant develops 1 Varieties grown in California 3 Growth requirements 5 Cultural practices 8 Diseases and insects 13 When and how to harvest 16 Upward trends in yields 18 Costs of production 19 Marketing 20 Safflower products and by-products 20 What future has safflower? 22 Two weedy species of safflower 24 THE AUTHORS: Paul F. Knowles is Professor of Agronomy and Agronomist in the Experiment Station, Davis. Milton D. Miller is Agriculturist in the Agricultural Extension Service, Department of Agronomy, Davis. AUGUST, 1960 LIBRARY UVTVERSITY OF CALIFO^NTA DAVIS Here heads of safflower have been cut in half to show how the seeds are grouped. Each head produces from 20 to 100 seeds. Individual seeds. The dried floral attachments are removed in threshing. A O W DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT Safflower {Carthamus tinctorius L.) is a winter annual that belongs to the thistle family. The coarse stems of safflower reach a height of from 2 to 5 feet. The plant produces numerous branches with heads at the ends of the branches. These heads are composite with small flowers. Each head, as is true of other thistles, consists of numerous flowers; each flower pro- duces a single seed. Depending on the variety, the flowers may vary in color from red through orange and yellow to white. Each head produces from 20 to 100 seeds. The seeds are white, in shape resembling small sunflower seeds. Seeds from present commercial varieties con- sist of the following : Per cent Hull 34-45 Moisture 5-8 Oil 30-37 Protein 12-15 Safflower varieties recommended for California will average above 34 per cent oil, and about 12 per cent protein. Vari- eties available in future years no doubt will have a higher oil content. Weight per bushel varies from 39 to 46 pounds, depending upon conditions of growth and variety. Present commercial varieties of saf- flower have spines on the leaves and in- volucral bracts (leaves associated with seed heads). The spines do not develop until the plants form heads. Most farm- ers do not consider spines a serious handicap in growing the crop. Much ef- fort has been spent on developing spine- less varieties, but thus far all such varie- ties have had a lower oil content or a lower yield than spiny varieties. Perhaps at some future date productive spineless varieties will be developed and made commercially available. HOW THE PLANT DEVELOPS The seeds require temperatures above 40° F for germina- tion, and germinate quickly at temperatures near 60° F Germination and development of the seedling at minimum germination tem- peratures are very slow; it may take up to three weeks for the seedling to appear above the surface of the soil during cold weather. During late spring, germina- tion may proceed so rapidly that seed- lings appear three to four days after planting. After the seedlings emerge they adopt a prostrate growth habit. In early life numerous leaves are produced at ground level, but no stems. When sown in No- vember or December, the plants may re- main prostrate for a period of two or three months, but when sown in late spring this stage may last only four or five weeks or less. At Davis stem growth [i] Plants start to branch from the central stem when the plant is 8 to 15 inches high; reach a full height of from 18 inches to 5 feet. starts the latter part of March in safflower sown during winter or early spring, and about the end of April when sown the first part of March. Branching begins from the central woody stem when the plant is 8 to 15 inches tall. Safflower reaches its full height of from 18 inches to 5 feet at the time it flowers. Each central stem branches to form one to five or more flower heads. After their appearance, buds open into blos- soms in four to five weeks. The early rosette or semidormant pe- riod is critical because weeds or volun- teer grain may grow ahead of the saf- flower and seriously reduce yields. This is particularly true of fall or early spring plantings in northern California, where rains usually prevent cultivation to con- trol rapidly growing weeds. In contrast to its early life behavior, safflower grows rapidly after the stems appear. If a good stand is obtained, and if the crop can be kept free of weeds until the stems begin to develop, then weed competition will not be serious be- cause the safflower generally shades out the weeds. A second critical stage in develop- ment can occur in some years after flowering, when plants fail to produce a satisfactory crop of seed on large vig- orous plants. This may be caused by in- sufficient soil moisture, since failure to produce seed usually occurred under Table 1. Distribution of Safflower Acreage in California 1950 to 1957 Acreage Year Sacramento Valley San Joaquin Valley Other areas Total 1950 300 9,220 34,179 44,375 25,646 53,927 83,983 63,500 18,244 5,108 4,131 728 400 880 845 2,500 1,632 2,672 3,350 1,897 1,914 2,162 2,172 1,500 23,300 1951 1952 1953 17,000 42,000 47,000 1954 1955 1956 28,000 57,000 87,000 1957 67,500 * Data courtesy Pacific Vegetable Oil Co., San Francisco, and from County Agricultural Commissioner's reports. [2] dry-land farming when winter rainfall was rather low and when the previous crop had exhausted the soil moisture. The deep tap root penetration has a bearing on the behavior of the plant. In Australia, safflower roots were found to a depth of 7 feet, whereas wheat roots in the same area penetrated only to 4% feet. Experiments by the Department of Irrigation of the University of Califor- nia at Davis have shown safflower de- pleting water from soil depths of 8 feet. Despite its thistle-like characteristics, cultivated safflower has not become a weed problem in California. Because of its slow early growth, it cannot compete either with wild or domestic plants. Like most cultivated crops, seeds on the ground after harvest will germinate readily with fall rains or with a preirriga- tion, but seedlings are easily killed by winter frosts, cultivation, and 2,4-D. Saf- flower does not persist at the margins of fields. VARIETIES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA Those originally tested in the counties in cooperation with the Agricultural Extension Service are still grown in the state. Newly introduced are Pacific-7 and US- 10 The variety most widely grown in Cali- fornia and the United States is N-10. Pacific-1, which is replacing N-10 and N-852 in California, was developed from N-10 by adding to the latter resistance to one of three races of rust in this state. N-10 and Pacific-1 are adapted to dry- land and subirrigated production. N-6, a variety that is grown in preference to N-10 under irrigation because of some inherent tolerance to root-rot organisms, follows N-10 and Pacific-1 in importance. It is rust-susceptible. Pacific-7, released in 1958, has shown promise for use under irrigation because of its improved tolerance of root-rot organisms. Table 2. Yields and Oil Contents of Safflower Varieties and Flax in Tests at Davis, California Date sown Feb. 16, 1949 Nov. 29, 1949 Mar. 11, 1950 June 8, 1950 Jan. 2, 1951 Feb. 23, 1951 Apr. 4, 1951 Dec. 22, 1951 Apr. 2, 1952 Feb. 6, 1953 Yield, lbs /acre Flax* 1,323 1,769 1,690 1,234 1,084 1,780 N-6 3,166 3,769 1,952 2,418 3,799 3,370 2,382 2,640 2,175 1,845 N-10 4,342 2,544 2,456 4,066 2,574 2,687 2,428 2,750 Oil content in per cent Flax* 37.3 38.1 38.0 39.5 36.7 39.3 N-6 32.3 30.2 28.4 31.1 33.7 32.9 31.0 32.9 32.2 34.5 N-10 32.6 33.6 34.2 35.9 35.6 34.6 36.1 38.1 * Variety Punjab in test sown Feb. 16, 1949, and Punjab 47 in remaining tests. [3] Table 3. Yields of Safflower Varieties Location Date sown Irrigations N-6 N-10 US- 10 Gila Pacific- 1 Pacific-7 El Centro Nov. 1949 Irrigated 3,019 2,566 Dec. 27, 1957 Irrigated 2,815 3,436 2,953 Jan. 7, 1959 Irrigated 3,520 3,503 3,638 2,000 Davis Dec. 22, 1951 Dec. 22, 1951 Apr. 2, 1952 Jan. 29, 1953 Jan. 29, 1953 Jan. 29, 1953 Jan. 29, 1953 Mar. 31, 1953 Mar. 31, 1953 Mar. 31, 1953 Mar. 31, 1953 Irrigated None Irrigated None 2 3 6 None 1 2 5 2,835 2,445 2,175 2,602 2,475 2,565 2,572 2,092 1,988 2,212 2,992 3,290 2,085 2,428 3,375 3,120 3,180 3,668 2,798 3,188 3,150 3,178 Mar. 8,1955 None 1,610 1,254 1,698 Mar. 8,1955 Irrigated 2,133 1,938 2,326 Kings Co. Jan. 22, 1959 None 3,400 3,680 3,350 3,330 3,220 Kings Co. Jan. 22, 1959 2 2,960 2,870 3,190 2,600 1,580 Tulare Co. Mar. 10, 1959 Irrigated 2,371 2,448 1,901 2,002 Imperial Valley Field Station. Table 4. Date of Seeding Tests of Irrigated Safflower at Davis, California Year 1949-50 1958 1959 Date sown Nov. 17. Dec. 14. Feb. 2 Mar. 16 Apr. 19 May 31. June 24. July 17. Mar. 7. Apr. 9 May 8 N-852 3,693* 4,073 3,730 2,845 N-6 N-10 US- 10 4,124 1,476 1,488 1,939 1,793 623 916 3,740 3,656 2,705 2,470 1,402 1,357 4,110 2,792 1,590 Gila 3,935 2,962 1,990 Pacific- 1 4,666 2,495 1,849 1,102 4,285 2,772 1,765 Pacific-7 4,424 2,109 2,028 678 4,092 2,840 1,822 + Stands thinned by frost. [4] Most successful and high-yielding saf- flower varieties currently in use in the United States have been developed by Dr. C. E. Claassen (formerly of the Uni- versity of Nebraska) and his associates. When he was with the University of Nebraska his varieties bore the prefix "N." Since becoming associated with a commercial company in California, he has designated his newer varieties by the prefix "Pacific." US-10 is a variety developed by the United States Department of Agriculture from a cross of N-10 to Western Oilseeds 14, backcrossed six times to N-10. Be- cause it was backcrossed so many times to N-10, it is similar in appearance and oil content to this variety. It has consid- erable resistance to Phytophthora root rot. Gila was developed cooperatively by the United States Department of Agricul- ture and the Arizona Agricultural Ex- periment Station. Like US-10, it stems from a cross of N-10 and Western Oil- seeds 14, backcrossed once to N-10. It is similar in many respects to N-10, but has more branches and heads, has both yel- low and orange flowers, and is two to three days later. Gila has less resistance to Phytophthora root rot than US-10, but more than N-10. GROWTH REQUIREMENTS OF SAFFLOWER Atmospheric moisture and soil moisture are critical The minimum growing season for saf- flower is about 120 days. This would be true in California if seed were sown in May or June. Fall plantings will require more than 200 days (Table 4) . At Davis when safflower is planted at different dates from November to March, all plantings will mature over a range of about 10 days in early August. Plant growth regulating factors fall into three main classifications: Climate Atmospheric moisture. Above- ground parts of the safflower plants are sensitive to atmospheric moisture, at least in terms of susceptibility to dis- eases. Only in early stages does safflower appear to be quite tolerant of high at- mospheric humidities. After the bud stage, Botrytis blight, a gray mold, usu- ally appears on the buds or flowers under prolonged rains or fogs. This disease has prevented the production of commercial varieties in coastal areas of California. High relative humidities in early spring encourage the rapid increase of rust. In other areas of the United States and in Canada safflower production has been re- stricted to districts having dry weather in late summer and early fall. Temperature. The frost resistance of safflower depends upon the variety and stage of development. In the seedling stage most varieties will tolerate tempera- tures down to 20° F, and some experi- mental types will withstand temperatures down to 10° F. Once out of the seedling stage, or once stems have begun to de- velop, it becomes more sensitive to frost damage, and temperatures down to 25° F will damage most varieties. In the bud stage or after flowering begins any tem- perature below 32° F will cause damage. If it does not lack moisture, safflower has been observed not to suffer from high summer temperatures in the Sacramento Valley — temperatures that may reach 110° F or higher. [5] Wind. Safflower has been observed to be quite resistant to damage by wind in the velocity range which characterizes the interior valleys of California. This is expressed in its ability to stand erect and to retain the seed in the head when ripe during periods when wind velocity at or near ground level may reach 15 miles per hour. Water The water requirements of safflower have not been precisely determined. Practical experience in California indi- cates that it will need the equivalent of about 16 to 18 acre-inches of available water for a satisfactory crop. In Califor- nia most of this moisture must be stored in the soil, if the crop is grown dry- farmed since safflower achieves most of its growth after the spring rains stop. For top yields under dry-land conditions a total of about 25 acre-inches of water will be required, and under irrigation, in low rainfall areas, 24 to 36 acre-inches — this includes water occurring as rain. Damage from excess moisture. All parts of the plant seem to be very sensitive to excess moisture. Flood irriga- tion has led to a high incidence of Phy- tophthora root rot. Even varieties con- This test plot, which was given 8 irrigations, developed considerable phytophthora root rot. Diseased plants are bleached. sidered resistant to this disease to date have been difficult to irrigate success- fully in California. During the winter and summer it has been killed quickly by standing water and in water-logged soil. As a consequence, almost the entire crop is grown dry-farmed, on high water table soil or after an irrigated crop. Soil moisture reserve. In spite of its dislike of excess moisture, safflower requires a soil well supplied with mois- ture. Highest yields have always been obtained where subirrigation was possi- ble or surface irrigation carefully con- trolled (see Table 3). In 1957 the low yields of many fields in California ap- peared to be associated with the presence of dry soil at a depth of about 4 feet. Shallow upland soils have not given high yields, and the cause is probably an in- sufficient reserve of moisture in the sub- soil. Under dry-land conditions yields of safflower have been much better on fal- lowed soil than on continuously cropped land. Soil Safflower is sensitive to the soil en- vironment quite apart from soil mois- ture. Wherever safflower has been par- ticularly successful it has been on deep, fertile, and well-drained soils of neutral reaction. On such soils in California, it has given seed yields comparable with those of barley. On shallow soils, or soils of low fertility, barley has been more productive. It is similar to barley in its tolerance of alkali under dry-land conditions, but more sensitive than barley when irri- gated. Boron injury has been observed in the variety N-6. In very heavy soils in California stands have sometimes been difficult to obtain. After the winter rains it may not be possible to work such soils until late spring, when cultivation may dry out the seedbed to the deplh of tillage. It may be necessary to use special seeding equip- ment to push away the dry soil and plant the seed down into moisture. On heavy soils, with plantings made during the winter, heavy rains followed by dry winds have occasionally crusted the soil and reduced emergence. The plant does not have any ill effects on the soil. In fact, there is some bene- ficial effect from the aggressive root system that strikes deeply into the soil. Under dry-land conditions, however, saf- flower will not substitute for a year of fallow, since it usually exhausts the soil of moisture down to depths of 6 to 8 feet. Rotate with other grains. Safflower may be considered a replacement for feed grains, for wheat and for rice, in either a dry-land or irrigated crop-rota- tion system. Where rainfall averages less than 17 inches or where weeds are a problem the practice of preceding the safflower year with a year of fallow may be advisable. Under dry-farmed condi- tions, if the annual rainfall is sufficient to wet the soil to a depth of around 4 feet, safflower usually can be inserted as a crop in an annual cropping program. Safflower is frequently grown as a dry- land crop on irrigable land as a soil- conditioning and weed-control measure. Farmers who operate combination live- stock-grain setups value safflower in their rotation system because the crop after- math provides excellent pasturage for sheep and cattle. Economic returns have often been su- perior to small grain in spring plantings. This is particularly true in plantings after February 15. In some recent years late plantings of cereal crops have been at- tacked by a virus disease termed "yellow dwarf." This has magnified the difference in yields between safflower and barley in favor of safflower since safflower is not attacked by the disease. The nature of fall weather has had an important bearing on the relative acreage of barley and safflower. With a long dry period after the first fall rains, farmers tend to put most of their available land into barley. Continuous wet weather in the fall and early winter until February greatly stimulates interest in growing saf- flower. Safflower is well established in the rice- growing district of the Sacramento Val- ley, and particularly in the Sutter Basin. After a rice crop, the land frequently does not dry out enough to be cultivated before the winter rains. When this hap- pens, the land will remain wet until rather late in the spring and too late for small grains to be sown. Safflower has benefited from the abundant supply of soil moisture in such soils and has not required supplemental water. Its ability to dry out such soils to considerable depths improves them for succeeding crops of rice. Highest safflower yields on riceland have occurred where the soil is left fallow for a year after growing rice, and safflower is grown the year before going back to rice. The year of fallow and aeration probably permits the better restoration of chemical and biological ac- tivities which characterize typical non- flooded soil conditions required by the safflower plant. Following a year of saf- flower growing, one of the small grains or rice would be a better choice than safflower because of the danger of serious damage from safflower rust where saf- flower follows safflower. [7] CULTURAL PRACTICES These are seedbed preparation, fertilizer application, seed treatment, planting date, method of planting, rate of seeding, cultivation and weed control, and irrigation Seedbed preparation Seedbed preparation varies with the different areas of the state and with the previous crop. A general guide would be similar in most respects to that used for barley or wheat. A well-prepared seed- bed for safflower has a firm soil surface free from large clods. Soil moisture should begin about 1 inch below the soil surface. In northern California, where saf- flower is sown in the early spring, it is good practice to fall-plow and to leave the ground rough during the winter. This will conserve rainfall by reducing runoff, and will facilitate final seedbed operations. The spring or final cultiva- tions should be geared to destroy weeds and volunteer grain. Disking and/or harrowing will usually suffice. It is im- portant to keep the soil moisture as close to the surface as possible. In the Imperial Valley and the south- ern part of the San Joaquin Valley a pre- irrigation before planting is usually necessary. This preirrigation should raise the soil to field capacity to a depth of at least 4 to 6 feet. Preplanting culti- vation should be similar to that sug- gested above, although a spring-tooth harrowing may be sufficient. Where safflower is to be surface-irri- gated, raised beds usually are preferred. This type bed reduces root-rot problems. I (use beds can be prepared in the fall or ahead of the preirrigation. In any event, if beds are used their formation becomes a part of the seedbed-prepara- tion activities since they are settled by rain or preirrigation before planting. Row crops planted on unsettled beds are difficult to cultivate since, as the beds are wetted down, they tend to settle irregu- larly and upset the precise row spacing of the original planting. Fertilizer application Where soils are known to be low in nitrogen, or where nitrogen gives an in- crease in yield with other crops, it should be applied before planting saf- flower. The rate used for barley or wheat should be satisfactory. About 50 to 80 pounds per acre are suggested for irri- gated safflower. Dry-farmed safflower normally will not require more than 20 to 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre. If more than 1^2 tons of straw was returned to the soil by the previous crop, and safflower immediately follows, ap- ply the larger amounts of fertilizer set forth in order to help decompose the straw and to fertilize the safflower crop. Drill or work the commercial nitrogen fertilizer into the seedbed before plant- ing. A form such as ammonium sulfate, or some other ammonic-type fertilizer is recommended since the ammonia form of nitrogen does not leach away as readily during the late spring rains as do the nitrate forms of nitrogen. On soils known to be deficient in phos- phorus it also may be advisable before planting to apply the equivalent of about 30 to 50 pounds of phosphoric acid either as single or treble superphosphate or as a combination nitrogen-phospho- rus fertilizer. To date in California no deficiency of other plant nutrients has been found to limit safflower production. Regardless of the type of fertilizer used, [8] it should be drilled or worked into the soil to a sufficient depth to place it into moist soil where the plant roots will de- velop. Seed availability and seed treatment Planting seed usually can be obtained from companies contracting with farm- ers to grow safflower. Such seed will usu- ally be the best available, and will have been tested and labeled for its germina- tion ability. It is important that the seed be treated with a recommended fungicide to con- trol seed-borne rust and Alternaria. These fungi can cause loss of seedling stand and serious foliage diseases in the growing crop. The protecting chemi- cal fungicide seed treatment helps to in- sure uniform stands of thrifty plants by killing the seed-borne fungi and by pro- tecting the young seedlings from soil organisms. Recommended fungicides in- clude volatile mercury materials, which should be applied at rates suggested by the manufacturer. Where wireworms or similar soil- inhabiting insects are likely to be a prob- lem, safflower seed may be protected by treating the seed with lindane or aldrin at rates suggested by the chemical manu- facturer. Since lindane on occasion has adversely affected the germination of stored safflower seed, aldrin is now the preferred chemical, especially if the treated seed is to be stored for more than six months. The insecticide and fungi- cide may be applied simultaneously if the manufacturer's recommendations are followed. Most seed as now supplied by firms in- terested in contracting for safflower has been treated before delivery to the farmer for planting. Where a farmer does his own seed-treating he should plainly tag or label such seed: TREATED SEED- POISONOUS — DO NOT USE FOR FOOD, FEED. OR OIL PURPOSES. Treatment should be applied at least 24 hours before seeding. Under dry, cool conditions treated seed can be stored for several months. Date of planting For most of the Sacramento and north- ern San Joaquin valleys, the optimum time for planting safflower for highest yields is February 15 to March 20. In the by-pass or flood areas of the Sacramento Valley, late March and April plant- ings have given good results, although plantings in May and early June, in ex- ceptionally wet years, have yielded from 800 to 2,000 pounds per acre. For best results on Sacramento Valley riceland, plant prior to April 20. In areas and years of short moisture on dry land, late March and early April are usually the best planting times. The key to the date of planting dry-farmed safflower is the available soil moisture supply. If the soil is not thoroughly wet to a depth of about 4 feet, delay planting until mid-March or early April. This will produce a shorter plant (1% to 2 feet tall) that will more efficiently fill out seed than the taller plants produced by a mid-February or early March planting. Summer-planted safflower (after mid- June) has consist- ently produced low yields in University experiments. Safflower seed, about actual size. . V.; J* m sovs N These test plots show how date of seeding may alter development. Experience has shown that fall plant- ings of safflower do not do well in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Fall plantings have failed because of: 1) weed competition (wild oats and others) ; 2) drowning of seedling plants; and 3) frost damage. In the southern San Joaquin Valley and the Imperial Valley, plantings should be made in December through February. If they are made earlier than December, they may develop stems too early and be- come susceptible to damage from frost. Method of planting Drilling seed has resulted in better stands than broadcasting. However, for early plantings broadcasting both with ground rigs and from the air has been satisfactory. It is important that the safflower seed be placed in moist soil. For this reason late spring plantings, when the surface soil is drying out very rapidly, should be made only with a hoe-opener drill to in- sure seed placement into moist soil. Pref- erably the seed should not be planted into the moisture deeper than 2 inches, although the seedlings will emerge from a depth of 4 inches if a surface crust does not develop. If seed is broadcast, harrow to cover to a depth of 2 to 4 inches. The grain drill is most frequently used for both solid and row plantings (by stopping an appropriate number of seed feeds or runs). Drills with single-disk, and double-disk-type openers have been satisfactory; for adobe soils shoe openers are best. For planting in rows of 12 to 24 inches, most of the conventional-type row planters can be adapted for safflower. For "solid" seedings, rows may be 6 to 12 inches apart. In row plantings the rows should be 18 to 24 inches apart if the crop is grown on dry land. Under irrigation, rows should not be more than 30 inches apart, and highest yields will be obtained if they do not exceed 24 inches in width. [10 1 Sometimes surface-irrigated safflower is sown on beds on 40-inch centers, with a pair of rows 14 inches apart on each bed. This is the same type of setup that is used for sugar beets; it is used in safflower culture to effectively minimize root-rot problems. Rate of seeding. Factors governing the rate of seeding include (Table 5) : 1) Method of culture (dry-farmed or irrigated). Dry-farmed seeding rates are lower, especially if soil moisture is short. 2) Time of seeding. For late plantings where it is necessary to plant 4 or 5 inches deep to reach moist soil the seed- ing rate should be increased by five pounds per acre above that shown in the table below since some of the seed may fail to come up. 3) Row spacing. Close drill-row rates are higher than wide-row rates. 4) Method of seeding. Broadcast seeding requires more seed per acre to compensate for loss of seed during the covering operation (harrowing) when some will be buried too deep and some not deep enough and thus will not de- velop into plants. Use 30 to 50 pounds of seed per acre for broadcast seeding or about 10 pounds per acre more than that shown in the 6- to 12-inch column. Safflower seed runs through a drill faster than barley. To seed 30 pounds of safflower per acre, adjust the grain drill to seed 20 pounds of barley or 45 pounds of wheat per acre. What is a satisfactory stand? For close-drill rows (solid stands) on dry Table 5. Safflower Seeding Rates — Drilled Pounds per Acre Row spacing Type land 6-12 inches 18-24 inches Dry land pounds 20-30 25-40 pounds 15-20 Irrigated and sub- irrigated 20-25 land, three to five plants per square foot are best; on irrigated or high-water table land up to five to 10 plants per square foot are desirable. Although safflower yields do not vary much over a relatively wide range of seeding rates and row spacings, the plants of thicker stands have thinner stems and are easier to thresh. Stands of less than two plants per square foot usually result in excess weed competition. Under dry-farmed condi- tions (and in the absence of a high water table) if the stand exceeds six plants per square foot, overcrowding, especially in years of short moisture, may reduce yields. Row-grown safflower (either ir- rigated or dry-farmed) should average five to 12 plants per foot of row in rows 18 to 28 inches apart. Cultivation and weed control The most effective way to control weeds in a safflower planting is by utilizing a sound crop-rotation plan which keeps weeds in check; use well-timed seedbed- preparation activities and cultivations. Do not plant safflower on excessively weedy soil (the crop is a weak weed competitor because it grows so slowly in the early stages). Let fall rains start a weed crop before the initial plowing or disking. Then time spring operations to kill one or two crops of germinating weed seeds before seeding. Presently available chemical weed killers do not work well in safflower, and hand-hoeing is too expen- sive to be practical. Numerous selective chemical weed killers have been tested on safflower in California and none has been found to work economically in the crop. IPC at three to four pounds of technical ma- terial at a cost of $10 to $12 per acre, applied, has been shown experimentally to control wild oats and canarygrass in the crop. For best results with IPC. apply it between planting and a few days after seedling emergence. To date. IPC has been considered too costly to use on saf- flower. The crop can be severely dam- [in aged by 2,4-D, other hormone-type herbi- cides, and dinitro selectives. Row-planted safflower should be culti- vated as often as necessary to control weeds. This may be two or three times. The last cultivation for row-planted saf- flower should be given as late as possible. This is important. Shallow harrowing or light cultivation has been used effectively by some grow- ers to control weeds which come up be- fore the safflower emerges from the soil and for weed control in young stands. Work the fields diagonally or cross- wise to the direction of the seeded rows. Select a day with relatively high temper- ature and bright sun for the operation — plants may be turgid and brittle when they are cold. A rotary hoe, finger weeder or harrow may be used. If a har- row is used, set the teeth fairly straight and "weight" the harrow. If needed, the first cross cultivation may be given be- fore the safflower plants come up or after a few plants have emerged. From emer- gence to a height of 3 inches, cross culti- vation may result in excessive damage to the stand. A second harrowing may be given, if needed, when the plants are be- tween 3 and 6 inches tall. Since safflower grows rapidly after it is 6 inches tall, it normally will then compete with remain- ing small weeds. Cross harrowing of fur- row-planted and bed-planted safflower may damage the stand excessively by either burying the seed too deep or by disturbing the drill rows on the bed. Irrigation Less than 5 per cent of California saf- flower is surface-irrigated; the remainder is grown dry-farmed. About half of the crop is grown in the rotation on high water table land used for rice and bean culture. On these soils a natural high water table remains from rice culture. This subsurface; water is tapped bene- ficially by the following crops through- out the growing season making it un- necessary to apply any additional irriga- tion water to safflower. Subirrigation, where "spud" ditches are made 100 to 200 feet apart through the field, has been used successfully with safflower. Even here, however, the water in the spud ditches has sometimes killed the nearby plants. Sprinkler irrigations have been used successfully if irrigation is stopped just before blooming. If used later, it may re- sult in excessive root- and leaf-disease problems. Where water is to be applied to saf- flower by flooding methods, several man- agement techniques can be used to avoid root rot and drowning losses and to in- crease yields : 1. Plant on raised beds as discussed under method of planting. 2. Where flat planting is necessary, plant in rows (probably not to exceed 24 to 28 inches in width). Irrigation fur- rows should be centered in the inter-row area and should be deep enough to avoid flooding the drill-rows during irrigation. 3. To avoid ponding, plant safflower on evenly leveled land with a fall of about 2/10 foot per 100 feet. Landplane a level field before planting to fill in minor ir- regularities. Provide adequate drainage ditches at the lower end of the field. 4. Avoid using the strip check system of flood irrigation if possible, especially in heavy clay pan soils. It has proved the least satisfactory of all methods of saf- flower irrigation tried in California be- cause of root-disease problems. 5. By preirrigation, fill the soil to a depth of 4 to 8 feet. This reduces the volume of water which has to be applied after the crop is planted. 6. Where flood irrigation is to be used, do not permit the crop to suffer from lack of water. Once the lower leaves begin to fire, trouble can be expected. If you are going to irrigate, do so frequently enough up to the end of flowering to keep the crop continuously in thrifty, growing [12] condition. Safflower which has been regu- 8. Assuming a preirrigation, up to larly irrigated seems to stand irrigation three more irrigations may be given if better than crops irrigated at the last needed. The first should come just as the minute after the soil moisture has been plants start vigorous elongation (when exhausted. they are 8" to 12" tall) ; the second, if 7. Irrigating alternate furrows has needed, just before flowering; the third, helped to minimize root-rot problems. if necessary, at the end of flowering. DISEASES AND INSECTS THAT ATTACK Rust and root rot are the most prevalent. Leaf spot and bud rot are likely problems of the highly humid coastal areas, less so in the drier interior valleys. Insects, except in certain individual fields, are less of a problem Diseases The most prevalent diseases of saf- flower in California are rust and root rot. Leaf spot and bud rot are likely prob- lems of current varieties, if safflower cul- ture is undertaken in the highly humid coastal areas of the state. In the drier interior valleys, these latter diseases have not yet proved to be limiting factors to production. Insects have caused only minor damage to the total safflower crop. They have caused substantial losses in certain individual fields, however, at times necessitating control measures. Phytophthora root rot (Phyfoph- thora drechsleri). This rot has been the most serious disease of safflower in Cali- fornia. At present it is the main limiting disease to the extensive production of safflower under flood irrigation. Dry- land plantings have had losses as high as 25 per cent of the stand when moderate to heavy rains occurred in the spring. Damage may occur at any stage after the first irrigation, and is manifested by the entire plant drying up very quickly. Affected plants are usually bleached al- most white, and may occur singly or in large patches. Where dead plants occur in patches, they are usually in areas where water stood for some time. The roots of affected plants are rotted and dark-colored. The disease is always most severe where the safflower suffers from lack of water, as indicated by firing of the lower leaves. N-10 and Pacific-1 are particularly susceptible to this disease (they are not recommended for production where sur- face irrigation is practiced) . Pacific-7, US-10, and Gila have some resistance, and are more satisfactory varieties for use under irrigation. N-6 is slightly more tolerant of root rot than N-10. See the section on "Irrigation" for cultural meth- ods on how to live with the Phytophthora problem. Verticillium wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum). This disease is wide- spread in the central part of the state. Plants are not killed rapidly and there- fore diseased plants are often overlooked. Damage is generally slight. The infected plants mature early and the seed usually has lower test weight. The external symp- toms are interveinal yellowing of the lower leaves first, followed by death of the tissue at the margins of the leaves and the interveinal areas and, eventually, the whole leaf. Woody portions of the stem are light brown. No resistant va- [13] rieties are known and no control is prac- ticed in California. Rust (Pi/cc/n/a carthami). This dis- ease, which is widespread in all areas where safflower is grown, has increased in importance. Where rust has attacked seedling plants it has caused severe dam- age. Rust attacking before the bud stage undoubtedly will reduce the final yield, but where rust appears after the plants are in bloom little reduction in yield is likely to occur. A durable form of rust spore is formed late in the season, which is carried on the seed or survives the winter in the soil. These spores germinate with seed, and invade the developing seedling be- fore it emerges. The disease will spread from infected seedlings to other plants, thus establishing the disease in the field at an early stage. Because of this disease, safflower normally should not follow saf- flower in the rotation. The dark-red spores formed during the summer will not live for long periods of time, but they are readily transported from one part of the field to another. Rust may cause serious loss when it de- velops on roots, crowns, leaves, and stems of young plants. Infection at a later stage may reduce yield. They spread the disease more rapidly under cool, humid conditions in the late spring. The hot dry conditions of the summer seem to reduce the spread of rust. Seed treatment with a volatile mercury fungicide will give good but not perfect control of seed-borne rust spores. Crop rotation also is recommended for control of soil-borne rust spores. Winter flooding of river bottom land has given some con- trol of soil-borne spores. No commercially acceptable chemical control of leaf rust pustules is known. No varieties resistant to all races of rust are available at pres- ent. Late-planted fields usually are af- fected less than are early-planted fields. Botrytis blight {Botrytis cinerea) or gray mold. This blight attacks saf- flower in coastal areas subject to fog. In severe attacks all heads may be affected, and little or no seed produced. It usually appears first on the buds, and becomes more severe as the flowers appear. The entire head or bud will become bleached or brown and will lift off the plant easily. No commercial varieties are resistant to this disease, and for this reason safflower culture is not recommended for coastal areas. Boron injury. Boron injury has been found on safflower variety N-6. Leaf margins turn brown, the affected areas then moving inward until the entire leaf is killed. It has been observed in a number of areas of the lower part of the Sacramento Valley, particularly where boron toxicity has been observed in a number of crops. INSECTS Lygus bugs {Lygus spp.). This is perhaps the most prevalent pest in saf- flower; normally it has caused damage of economic consequences only to late- fields. Damage is evident on the sown heads, which may fail to develop or may be partly discolored. Lygus control while the heads are small is especially impor- tant. Control measures are suggested when the number of insects are two to five per sweep (of a standard insect net) . Bean aphid {Aphis fabae). This aphid has been present in greater num- bers in early spring, with damage con- fined to single plants or to edges of fields. Control usually has been unnecessary, but may be accomplished with chemicals if the pest is present in damaging numbers. Wireworms (chiefly Limonium spp.). These have caused thin stands, but can be controlled by chemicals. Wire- worm control materials can be combined with a suitable fungicide to provide both insect and disease protection. Sunflower moth (Homoeosoma efecfef/um). The larvae have caused oc- casional damage to a few plants in a few fields. They develop in the heads where they destroy many of the seeds. To date, control measures have not been neces- sary. Grasshoppers. These readily feed on safflower in the foothill areas of the Sacramento Valley after small grain harvest. Damage usually is confined to the margins of fields, but may reach seri- ous proportions over entire fields. Chem- icals applied by airplane have proved ef- fective in the control of this pest in saf- flower fields. Stem miner {Melagromyza vi- rens, Loew). This pest in 1958 attacked some late spring plantings of safflower in the Sacramento Valley. Symptoms in- cluded a wilting of the growing tips of the plant and leaf characteristics some- what resembling those of Verticillium wilt. When opened up, stems of attacked plants were found to have been tunneled by the burrowing larvae. Under dry-land conditions, damage to yield did not ap- pear to be serious. Under late-planted, irrigated situations, there was evidence These heads failed to mature due to injury from lygus bugs. Bean aphids may cause damage to safflower. of considerable potential yield reduction. No method of controlling this new pest of safflower has yet been developed. Insect Pest Control Methods. At frequent intervals improved pest control recommendations are released by Uni- versity of California researchers. These are based upon new findings and current California and Federal pesticide regula- tions. For current information regarding identification and control of specific in- sect pests consult your local Farm Ad- visor or Agricultural Commissioner. WHEN AND HOW TO HARVEST Safflower is harvested when the moisture content of the seed is 8 per cent or less. Matured plants should not stand unharvested for long periods The time Under California conditions the har- vesting of safflower will be from 120 to 150 days after planting. At this stage all or most of the leaves will have turned brown and the stems will usually be dry. Seed should be white and should easily squeeze out of the latest heads. Most moisture meters work satisfactorily for determining safflower moisture percent- age except one in popular use for other grains. It is inadvisable to let matured saf- flower stand unharvested for long pe- riods. Birds such as pheasants, sparrows, and blackbirds at times may feed heavily on the ripe seed. Otherwise, there is little loss of seed while the crop is standing. Seeds very easily fly out of the heads of excessively dry safflower during harvest and may be lost. As the crop stands after it is ripe, the stems and branches become brittle. In threshing, these break up into small fragments that are difficult to re- move from the seed. Method and equipment Safflower may be successfully har- vested with the same combine equipment used for barley and wheat. Careful ad- justments will be necessary in the reel and cylinder speeds, in cylinder-concave clearances, and in the speed of the shak- ers. Practically the entire crop is han- dled in bulk. When harvested into sacks, these pick up some spines from the saf- flower and become uncomfortable to handle. Safflower cannot be harvested as fast as barley or wheat. Very mature saf- flower may be readily shattered by im- proper adjustment of reel speed in rela- tion to forward movement of the combine. To reduce head shatter losses, modify the reel by attaching 4- to 6-inch strips of flexible belting lengthwise along the slats. Raise the reel so that the belting touches the plants and barely clears the cutter bar. Adjust the reel speed to the rate of forward movement of the com- bine. If the heads catch on the reel slats, plug the space between the reel arms with plywood, canvas, or mesh wire screen. In excessively dry weather it may be necessary to harvest at night to re- duce reel losses. All of these hints are useful in minimizing losses from reel action. Combines with either tooth or bar cylinders may be used. A certain amount of preliminary testing is necessary in the adjustment of the combine, and the quality of the work is dependent upon the skill of the operator. When properly adjusted only empty seed will blow over with the straw, and very few cracked seeds will appear. Adjust the speed of the combine so that only a few seeds crack in threshing. Peripheral cylinder [16 1 npHtilMlSlli Safflower can be direct combined with the same equipment used for barley, as shown by this photo of a stand in the Sacramento Valley. The crop may be harvested and handled with equipment commonly available on many California farms. Here, safflower is handled with equipment normally associated with rice farming. speeds of from 2,300 to 4,600 feet per minute were found to be satisfactory for safflower. In the case of spike-toothed machines it may be desirable to remove some concave teeth or reduce them to one or two rows. Concave teeth should be ad- justed so that they barely clear cylinder teeth. Adjust rub- or bar-type cylinders for %-inch clearance at the closest point between concaves and cylinder or suf- ficiently close to thresh all the seed with a minimum of damage. Lower the cutter bar to cut fairly long stalks. Very short stems may plug the straw walkers. Set shaker screens slightly faster than for barley or wheat. Adjust wind speed to remove the light seed but not the filled seed. Enough wind is needed to blow away the fuzz from the seed. All safflower heads contain a fuzz that lies between the seeds. This fuzz will separate from the heads at harvest and appear as a dust. It does not cause any particular discomfort to the operators, but it will tend to clog the radiators of combine engines and may cause heating. A fine screen should be placed in front of the radiator of the combine to prevent its clogging the radiator. Adjust the sieve so that it will remove small sticks, leaves, and stems. Sometimes late-developing summer weeds may give trouble at harvest by forming trash in the harvested safflower seed. Some growers have plane-applied preharvest sprays to kill the weeds. Where the weed problem has been serious, a mixture of a desiccating chemical in 15 gallons of diesel or weed oil per acre has been used. On rare occasions a very weedy crop has been swathed and al- lowed to dry before threshing with a combine equipped with a pickup attach- ment. Threshed safflower containing green trash should be promptly recleaned to prevent heat damage to the grain. For information on recommended preharvest spray solutions, consult your local Farm Advisor. UPWARD TREND IN YIELDS The increase in per-acre yield is the result of better soil and increased farming experience in handling the crop Since safflower has been grown in Cali- fornia on a commercial scale, the trend in per-acre yields has been upward. This is because the crop has gravitated to areas of better adaptation and is being grown on good soil. The upward trend is also a reflection of more farmer ex- perience in handling the crop. In 1950 the average yield on 23,200 acres was 667 pounds per acre. In 1956 the state average yield was 1,700 pounds per acre on 83,983 acres. In 1957 the average was 1,621- pounds on 67,500 acres. Highest yields have been obtained in areas with good soil having a high water table or where irrigation was carefully done. Under such conditions yields have varied between 2,500 and 4,000 pounds per acre. Areas with a high water table where safflower has been particularly successful are: the Delta area of Sacra- mento, San Joaquin, Solano, and Yolo counties; District 108 in Colusa and Yolo counties, Natomas area in Butte and Sacramento counties; the Sutter Basin; and the Meridian bean-producing area of Sutter County. Yields will depend upon soil characteristics, the previous crop, and the date of planting. Under dry-land conditions, with no irrigated crop in the rotation, safflower yields will vary greatly. A top dry-farmed yield after fallow and on good soil is about 2,500 pounds per acre. On poorer [18] soils without fallow or irrigation and fol- lowing barley the yields may be as low as 500 pounds per acre. In by-pass areas, where the Sacra- mento River is sometimes diverted at flood stage during the winter, thus de- laying spring planting, safflower yields have varied between 800 and 3,500 pounds per acre, depending in large part upon date of planting. COSTS OF PRODUCTION Costs are higher under irrigation or row planting and cultivation than for wheat and barley Under irrigation the water costs are higher than those for irrigated barley or wheat because of necessary extra sum- mer irrigations. If grown in rows and cultivated, costs also are higher. Harvest- ing costs are slightly higher than for wheat or barley because the crop has to be combined at slower rates. Sample costs of growing safflower in 1957 in a rotation with rice are given in Table 6. These are sample costs and have been developed as a guide to farm planning. They do not necessarily repre- sent the actual average cost of growing safflower in the areas represented. Table 6. Sample Costs per Acre to Produce Safflower Operation or material Colusa County* Sutter County t Plow Disk — twice 1.45 1.80 0.30 3.00 4.10 6.00 0.30 16.95 5.55 16.34 1.50 1.50 0.50 1.40 4.10 6.00 0.50 Harrow — twice Plant and f ertilize Seed (40 lb) Fertilizer (40 lb N) Miscellaneous Total cultural 2.35 1.50 1.70 4.00 1.25 1.75 15.50 Harvest Combine Haul Storage and haul to mill Total harvest 2.30 14.04 3.00 19.00 7.00 Taxes Interest, depreciation, and misc. overhead Total taxes and investment 22.00 Total all costs per acre 38.84 44.50 * Ingebretsen, K., and J. Prato, on the basis of 1,500 lbs of safflower per acre. t Lindt, J. H., Jr., and A. D. Reed, on the basis of 2,000 lbs of safflower per acre. [19] MARKETING SAFFLOWER To meet increasing demands for safflower oil, the market could use a great deal more than is presently available In recent years in California two or more firms have contracted for safflower acreages. Contracts may vary some be- tween firms and from year to year. Most current contracts specify a certain mini- mum price per ton, the minimum price for the past several years having been $70 per ton. In 1959 California growers averaged about $75 per ton delivered to the seed-processing plants. Prices of all vegetable oils, however, are highly competitive, and no one oil is likely to be very much above the average. SAFFLOWER PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS These are oil, meal, hulls, whole seed as feed, hay as forage, and dried flowers for color Oil Until recently, interest in, and re- search on, safflower oil in the United States was in relation to its value as a drying oil for paints, varnishes, and re- lated products. It is light-colored and can be clarified easily. The oil has been adaptable to the production of alkyd resins which, in turn, are used in making enamels. Because very little or no lino- lenic acid is in its composition, the oil has no after-yellowing properties; it can be used in colorless varnishes and light- colored paints. Some of the properties of safflower oil are given in Table 7. The high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids and the high iodine value indicate its value as a drying oil. Table 7. Characteristics and Composition of Certain Vegetable Oils*t Characteristics Safflower Corn Soya Cottonseed salad oil Peanut Olive Linseed Iodine value (Wijs) 140-152 116-130 131-140 100-115 89-96 84-86 175-190 Constituent fatty acids J Saturated 6 14 14 22 18 12 10.0 Oleic 21 30 28 23 61 82 20.0 Linoleic 73 56 50 55 21 6 20.0 Linolenic 8 50.0 Grams of oil to give 100 gm linoleic acid 145 189 212 192 500 1,760 524 Calories in oil sufficient to give 10 gm of linoleic acid 130 170 164 173 450 1,585 472 + Cagan, B. J., and J. I. Crowley. Safflower oil. Pacific Vegetable Oil Corp., San Francisco, Calif., 1952. t Bulletin No. 1, Pacific Vegetable Oil Corp., Research and Development Dept., San Francisco, Calif., 1958. X Expressed as per cent of Total Fatty Acids. [20 1 Several countries have used safflower oil for edible purposes. India, Japan, France, Israel, Turkey, and Egypt are among them. Until recently, little atten- tion was given to safflower as a food, chiefly because the oil tended to develop undesirable off-flavors. The recent interest in safflower oil as a food in the United States stems from current medical research reports that linoleic acid has some therapeutic value in preventing atherosclerosis, a circula- tory-system disease. It is pointed out that vegetable oils high in linoleic acid tend to reduce the cholesterol content of the blood serum, and this in turn reduces the incidence of atherosclerosis. Several researchers in this field dispute these claims, and there is still room for con- siderable research to clarify the subject. In 1957 the commercial sale of safflower oil for edible purposes was begun in the United States. Meal Safflower meal may be prepared in two forms: one without the hull, called "decorticated meal"; the other with the hull, termed "undecorticated" or "whole pressed seed meal." As expected, the feed values of the two meals differ greatly (see Table 8) . In California most of the meal is marketed in the undecor- ticated form as a livestock feed. It has been consumed locally but sometimes it has been difficult to market in competi- tion with other protein meals that have been available in large amounts. Experi- ence with safflower meal in rations to fatten livestock has generally supported the point of view that it is equal to other protein concentrates if comparisons are made on the basis of protein content. The undecorticated meal is of little interest in the poultry industry because of the high fiber content. Hulls In a Sutter County test, when safflower hulls were substituted for grain hay in a fattening ration for steers — the hulls con- stituted 46 per cent of the total diet — the animals refused to eat until one quarter of the hulls was replaced with grain hay. Table 8. Comparison of Safflower Hay and Seed Products With Other Feeds Safflower Linseed mealt Alfalfa Hay* Hulls t Undecorti- cated meal f Decorticated mealf hay (good) % Moisture per cent 9.0 2.2 11.2 28.6 7.8 41.2 7.9 59.8 per cent 8.7 4.7 3.8 53.1 1.4 28.3 per cent 8.0 6.0 19.0 33.0 4.0 30.0 15.2 50.4 per cent 8.0 7.6 36.0 17.5 7.4 23.5 32.0 66.0 per cent 9.0 4.5 35.1 9.0 5.7 36.7 30.5 75.3 per cent 9.5 Ether extract (oil) Crude protein Crude fiber 1.8 14.6 29.6 Ash 8.0 N. free extract Total digestible protein Total digestible nutrients 36.5 10.2 50.3 * Scharrer, V. K., and R. Schreiber. Ztschr. Tierernahr. u. Futtermittelkunde 4:42-53. 1940. t Goss, H., and K. K. Otagaki. Safflower meal digestion tests. Calif. Agr. 8(5) :15. 1954. X Morrison, F. B. Feeds and feeding. Morrison Pub. Co., Ithaca, N.Y., 1956. [21] The average daily gain over a 103-day period was 1.19 pounds for the cattle on the hull diet, and 2.72 pounds for those fed the hay diet. It would appear that, except in small amounts, the hulls would not be desirable in a livestock ration. Whole seed as feed In Utah there has been considerable interest in ground mixtures of safflower seed and barley as feed for dairy cattle. The safflower seed, besides increasing the protein and fat content, reduces the dust in the hammermill and gives a product that will hold together and be eaten up completely. Safflower is being incorporated into some patented pelleted products for the same reason. Normally when there are oil mills willing to buy safflower for crushing, farmers cannot af- ford to use safflower for livestock feed. In 1959 safflower brought farmers about twice as much money per ton as barley. Hay as forage Experiments in Germany have shown that fresh safflower hay cut before blos- soming was readily eaten by sheep in spite of the spines. It was similar in feed value to a good meadow hay, and not greatly different from alfalfa hay if com- parisons are made on a dry-weight basis (see Table 8) . Succulent safflower will be grazed by livestock. After harvest in California, safflower fields have sometimes been grazed by livestock. Sheep particularly seem to relish safflower stubble. Dried flowers as color source Carthamin, the coloring matter in the flowers, remained the main product of the crop until the end of the last century, when the synthetic aniline dyes replaced it. Safflower, however, is still grown for this purpose in some areas of Asia and Europe, where the varieties with red flowers are preferred. By suitable treat- ment, carthamin could be made to pro- duce a variety of red colors, the most common ranging from rose red to cherry red. Its main use was to color cloth. It is now used to color cosmetics, food — in- cluding confections — artificial flowers, and liqueurs. It is sometimes used as an adulterant in or a substitute for saffron. WHAT FUTURE HAS SAFFLOWER? The value of its oil for paint and varnish and for edible oil seems to assure its future There is no doubt that the establish- ment of safflower in California was en- couraged by acreage allocations in other crops such as cotton, rice, and wheat. With overproduction of barley at the present time and low prices, farmers have shown more interest in safflower. Will the elimination of overproduction in these other crops bring a waning in- terest in safflower? It is likely there will be readjustments in the status of safflower at frequent intervals in the years ahead. But there appears to be little danger that it will disappear as a commercial crop in Cali- fornia. For one thing, the value of the oil has become widely realized in the paint and varnish industry. And now it ap- pears that it will successfully enter the edible oil market. It should be remembered that present safflower varieties are not much removed from the introductions brought in from other countries about fifteen years ago. The plant breeder must be credited with recognizing the better types, and ad- [22] vancing the crop so far in such a short types should be available and types that time. The next ten years should bring further improvement. It should be pos- sible to increase the following: oil con- tent, protein content, yield, cold toler- ance, and resistance to disease. Earlier will be successful in more humid areas. In other words, safflower should be even more successful in the areas where it is now established, and the boundaries of its area of production will be pushed out. TWO WEEDY SPECIES OF SAFFLOWER There is no danger of these crossing with the cultivated species to produce a vigorous weedy hybrid These weedy species have been estab- lished in California for many years. They are somewhat similar in appear- ance, and both have been called "distaff thistle." Both are weeds of range areas and the margins of fields; they have not been observed to persist in cultivated fields. Livestock avoid land where they are abundant. One of these, Carthamus lanatus L., has been found near San Luis Obispo, Palo Alto, Petaluma, and Skaggs Springs. This is a widespread and very successful weed in Europe and Asia. The stems are tall and woody, the leaves small and very spiny, the heads % to % inch in diameter and about 1% inches long, the flowers lemon yellow, and the plant parts covered with long sticky hairs. The second species, C. baeticus (Boiss. and Reut.) Nym., is established around Sonora, Jackson, east of Stockton, north of Los Angeles, San Luis Obispo County, and in eastern Orange County. This weed originated in the Iberian Peninsula or adjacent areas of North Africa. It is similar to C. lanatus except that the heads are smaller and the bracts around the head flare outward; the flowers are light yellow, and the plant parts are less hairy. Both are rather remotely related to cultivated safflower, but there is no danger of their crossing with the culti- vated species to produce a vigorous weedy hybrid. Both of the wild species as well as cultivated safflower are very susceptible to 2,4-D compounds, which have proved very effective in control. Be- cause of this fact and because safflower is a weak competitor it is not likely to become a weed pest. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical iden- tifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Co-operative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture co-operating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. George B. Alcorn, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 5m-8,'60(A5497)MH - To obtain additional copies of this manual or a catalog listing other manuals and free publications available, see your University of Cali- fornia Farm Advisor (offices located in most California counties), or write to: Agricultural Publications 207 University Hall 2200 University Avenue Berkeley 4, California Orders for 10 or more copies of any manual take a 20 per cent discount off the list price. All manual orders are shipped prepaid. When ordering manuals, send orders and payment to the above ad- dress. 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