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 A SKETCH 
 
 OUTH nUSTPvALIA 
 
 MELBOURNE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 
 
 1880. 
 
 Published by direction of the Royal Coinviissioners for 
 South Aicstralia. 
 
 WITH MAPS AND STATISTICAL DIAGRAMS. 
 
 E. SPILLER, GOVERXMEXT PRIXTER, XORTH-TERRACE. 
 
 1880.
 
 MAP 
 
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 THE AUSTRALIAN COLONIES. 
 
 
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 5125325 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAOK. 
 
 CHAP. I. -GENERAL DESCRirTION 5-19 
 
 I — Position and Extent. 2 — Physical Featukes. 3 — Coast- 
 line AND Harbors. 4 — Mountains. 5 — Rivers. 6 — Lakes. 
 7 — Geological Features. 8 — Flora. 9— CHAiiACTER of Lands. 
 10 — Naturalized Plants, ii — Fauna. 12 — Climate. 
 
 CHAP. IL— HISTORY 20-3'J 
 
 r — Aborigines. 2— E/Uily Explokations. 3 — Colonisation. 
 4 — Government. 5 — Local Government. 6 — Population. 
 7 — Centres of Population. 8 — Exploration. 9 — Immigra- 
 tion. 
 
 CHAP. III.— THE LAND .. 31-44 
 
 I — Its Occupation. 2 — Land Laws. 3 — Land Transfer. 
 4 — Pastoral Settlement. 5 — Wool. 6 — Agriculture. 7 — 
 TVheat. 8 — "Wine. 9 — Olives. 10 — Minop.. Products. 
 II — Horticulture. 12 — Gold. 13 — Copper. 14 — Iron. 
 15 — Silver and Lead. 16— Other Minerals. 
 
 CHAP. lY.— PUBLIC WORKS AND INSTITUTIONS 4o-53 
 
 I — Cost. 2 — Railways. 3 — Roads and Bridges. 4 — Water- 
 works, Drainage, and Lighthouses. 5 — Postal Communication. 
 6 — Telegraphs. 7 — Administration of Justice. 8 — Education. 
 9 — Religion. 10 — Charitable Institutions. ii — Local 
 Defences. 
 
 CHAP, v.— COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES 54-64 
 
 I — Imports and Exports. 2 — Nature of Exports. 3 — 
 Nature of Imports. 4 — Direction of Trade. 5 — Shipping. 
 6— River Murray Trade. 7 — The Tariff. 8— M^vnufactures. 
 
 CHAP. YL— FINANCE Ca-^S 
 
 I — National Debt. 2 — Revenue and Expenditure. 3 — 
 Banking. 
 
 CHAP. YIL— THE NORTHERN TERRITORY 69-73 
 
 I — Settlement. 2 — Climate. 3 — Phy'sical Features. 4 — 
 Agriculture. 5 — Pasture. 6 — Mining. ; — Population.
 
 Chap. I. —General Description. 
 
 1.— Position and Extent. 
 
 A GLANCE at the accompanying map shows that, 
 in spite of her name, South Australia occupies the 
 central portion of the Australian Continent. Lying 
 between 12° and 38° S. lat., and 129° and 141° E. 
 long., the colony extends from the Indian to the 
 Southern Ocean, and is bounded on the east by 
 Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria ; on the 
 west by Western Australia, Koughly defined, her 
 territory is 2,000 miles long by 500 miles wide, and 
 has an area of over 903,000 square miles — about ten 
 times that of Great Britain. 
 
 With the exception of a small" settlement on the 
 northern coast (to which a separate chapter will be 
 given) colonisation has hitherto been confined to an 
 area of about a quarter of a million square miles, in 
 the southern part of the colony ; and it is consequently 
 to this that the remarks made about South Australia 
 in the following pages must be understood to apply. 
 A portion of the colony still remains unexplored. 
 
 2.—Physicctl Features. 
 For present purposes of description, the southern 
 portion of the province may be divided into six 
 
 piB^a
 
 6 SOUTH AUSTilxVLIA: 
 
 districts: — i, Metropolitan; 2, the South-East; 3, the 
 Northern Areas; 4, the Far North; 5, Yorke's Pe- 
 ninsula ; 6, Port Lincoln. 
 
 I. The Metropolitan lies to the east of St. 
 Vincent's Gulf, and may be divided into three parts 
 — the coast-plam, the eastern plains, and the moun- 
 tain ranges between. 
 
 The coast-plam extends from Cape Jervis to Port 
 Wakefield, and varies in width from a mere point in 
 the south to about thirty miles in the County of 
 Gawler. Immediately south of Port Wakefield is 
 the Thirty Mile Scnib, a tract of light soil, formerly 
 much covered with mallee and brushwood. Between 
 this and the hills is the fertile district of Hoyle's 
 Plains. Southward, towards Adelaide, much of the 
 country is under cultivation. South of the capital it 
 becomes hilly, and is very productive ; but near Cape 
 Jervis it is in many places coated with low scrub, and 
 grazed by cattle. 
 
 The mountain range, to the east of the coast plain, 
 consists of a succession of hills, running north and 
 south, with a mean breadth of about thirty miles. 
 The slopes and valleys, often of great natural beauty, 
 are dotted with to^vnships and homesteads. The 
 southern portion depastures sheep and cattle. In the 
 north, farming is combined with grazing. The whole 
 district is rich in minerals. 
 
 The eastern plains, from the mountains to the 
 Murray, are low undulations and flats, generally
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 7 
 
 covered with scrub growths. Hitherto this country 
 has been sparsely grazed, but it is gradually being 
 cleared for agricultural settlement. 
 
 2. The South-East is the name applied to the 
 district lying soutli-east of the Murray mouth. Im- 
 mediately east from the Murray are extensive sandy 
 mallee and pine scrubs, which are being enclosed and 
 improved by the depasturing of sheep. Further south, 
 the Counties of MacDonnell, Hobe, and Grey com- 
 prise agricultural districts. Near Milliccnt, drainage 
 works have rendered the land more productive ; and 
 similarly usef id ^vorks are contemplated over a like 
 description of country northwards, towards Lacepede 
 Bay. In the neighborhood of Mount Gambler the 
 country is picturesque and rich, and English root 
 crops, hops, and grasses thrive along with ^vheat. 
 AA'^ith the exception of the southernmost corner, 
 which is of volcanic origin, the common feature of this 
 district is an alternation of flats and ridges, more or 
 less timbered, and running parallel to the sea-coast. 
 
 3. The Northern Areas are agricultural lands 
 lying east of the upper part of Spencer's Gulf, for the 
 most part in the Counties of Daly, Stanley, Victoria, 
 Frome, Dalhousie, and the western parts of Kimberley 
 and the Burra. Running due north from Port Wake- 
 field is a range of hills known as the Hummocks, 
 succeeded by the Flinders Range. 
 
 4. The Far North is the name applied to the 
 saltbush and myall country, lying north-west, north,
 
 8 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 and north-east of Port Augusta. To the north and 
 west is a series of large shallow lakes ; east of these is 
 the Flinders Range. From about thirty miles east of 
 the range to the border are low fertile flats, 
 covered with cotton, salt, and other kindred bushes 
 adapted for sheep. Extensive mineral deposits of 
 copper and iron are found in the neighborhood of the 
 Flinders Range. 
 
 5. Yorke's Peninsula, lying between gulfs 
 Spencer and St. Vincent, is 120 miles long by twenty 
 broad. In the northern portion are the celebrated 
 copper mines and smelting works of Wallaroo and 
 Moonta. Here the country is flat and scrubby, but 
 to the south there is a large quantity of open wheat- 
 growing land, having portions of low swampy ground 
 interspersed with sheaoak ridges. 
 
 6. Port Lincoln, of triangular shape, lies west 
 of Spencer's Gulf; the Gawler Ranges running 
 across from east to west form its northern boundary. 
 A belt of sandy and scrubby country, some fifty miles 
 across, stretches out between this range and the sea 
 coast. A number of colonists who combine sheep 
 with wheat farming live along the shore. Settlement 
 has but little penetrated into the central portion of 
 this district. 
 
 3.— Coast-line and Harhors. 
 The southern coast-hne — over 2,000 miles long — 
 is indented by two deep gulfs, giving access to large
 
 COAST-LINE AND HARBORS. 9 
 
 agricultural districts in the interior, which, without 
 them, must have remained uncultivated for many 
 years. 
 
 Between Cape Northumberland, near the eastern 
 boundary, and Cape Jervis, opposite Kangaroo 
 Island, the country is accessible by Port MacDonnell, 
 Rivoli Bay, Kobe, Lacepede Bay, and Port Victor. 
 MacDonnell Bay is connected with Mount Gambier 
 and Penola by a good macadamised road. From 
 Rivoli Bay a railway extends fifty miles eastward to 
 Mount Gambier, and from Lacepede Bay there is 
 also a line reaching into the Tatiara district. At 
 Encounter Bay the Murray empties itself into the 
 sea, but unfortunately the entrance at its mouth is 
 not easily navigable. To meet this obstacle large 
 harbor works are being constructed at Port Victor, 
 which is connected with Goolwa west of the Murray 
 mouth by a light railway, some nine miles long. 
 
 West of Cape Jervis are, first, St. Vincent's and 
 then Spencer's Gulf, divided by Yorke's Peninsula. 
 Along their shores are several harbors ; most of these 
 have jetties, and some are connected with the interior 
 by railway. Ihc chief shipping places arc Port 
 Adelaide and Port Wakefield on St. Vincent's Gidf, 
 and Ports Augusta, Pirie, and Wallaroo on Spencer's 
 Gulf. From all of these railways stretch into the 
 interior, that from Port Augusta being in the direction 
 of a trans-continental line to Port Darwin, on the 
 Indian Ocean.
 
 10 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 On the Avestcrn shore of Spencer's Gulf, towards 
 the south, is the magnificent harbor of Port Lincoln ; 
 thence, following the coast towards Western Austra- 
 lia, are several good anchorages, such as Coffin's, 
 VenuSj Streaky, Denial, and Fowler's Bays. 
 
 4"— Mountains. 
 
 The mountains of Australia in no part attain any 
 great height. The principal chain in South Austra- 
 lia is the Flinders Range, commencing north of the 
 head of St. Vincent's Gulf, and running northwards 
 for several hundred miles as far as Lake Blanche. 
 The highest peaks are Mounts Kemarkable and 
 Brown, each about 3,200ft. 
 
 After a short break the Flinders Range is continued 
 due south to Port Wakefield by a line of hills called 
 the Hummocks, and south-east by a continuous line 
 of ranges running along the eastern side of St. 
 Vincent's Gulf, as far as Cape Jervis. The most 
 important of this group of hills is the Mount Lofty 
 Range (2,334ft.), forming a pretty background to 
 the metropolis. 
 
 The Flinders Range is practically followed at 
 intervals by the Mount Nor. -West, Musgrave, Mac- 
 Donnell, Stuart, Strzelecki, Murchison, and Ash- 
 burton ranges. Several prominent points on the 
 Musgrave and MacDonnell are more than 4,000ft. 
 above sea level.
 
 RIVERS-LAKES. 11 
 
 5. —Rivers. 
 
 The Murray is the only river worthy of the name — 
 running into the Southern Ocean — within the boun- 
 daries of South Australia. The country generally is 
 watered by streams which, in the winter months, 
 attain the proportions of moderate sized rivers, but 
 during the summer are reduced to mere creeks, or a 
 sucession of waterholes. 
 
 The Murray from its source, near Mount Kosciusko, 
 after forming a boundary between New South Wales 
 and Victoria, enters South Australia at longitude 141° 
 E., and empties itself into the Southern Ocean at 
 Encounter Bay, having run a distance of about 2,400 
 miles, nearly 2,000 miles of which are navigable. A 
 shifting sandy bar stretches across the entrance at its 
 mouth. 
 
 6.—Lalces. - 
 Towards the mouth of the INIurray are the large 
 and beautiful freshwater lakes known as Lakes Alex- 
 andrina and Albert, abounding in waterfowl and 
 freshwater fish, and skirted by grassy banks, forming 
 bays and headlands of great beauty. Other lakes in 
 the interior are mostly brackish — varying in size 
 according to the season. Of these a series of fourteen 
 lie northerly and north-westerly from Port Augusta, 
 the largest being Lakes Eyre and Gairdner. For 80 
 miles along the coast, S.E. of tlie Murray Mouth, 
 is the Coorong backwater from the sea ; and there is a
 
 12 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 chain of saltwater lakes parallel to the coast between 
 Robe and MacDonnell Bay. 
 
 7.— Geological Features, 
 llie geological features of the colony are but very 
 imperfectly known, no systematic examination of the 
 country having yet been made. Of the thi'ee great 
 epochs into which the world's prse-adamite history 
 has been divided, only the palaeozoic and the tertiary 
 rocks are known to exist in this colony, the secondary 
 rocks having hitherto escaped observation — if they are 
 present at all. 
 
 The mountain chain which practically commences 
 at Cape Jervis and stretches northwards for several 
 hundi'eds of miles, throwing off spurs east and west — 
 being the backbone of the country — is of palteozoic 
 origin ; but the rocks of which it is formed 
 being unfossiliferous, theu* exact position in point of 
 age is undetermined. Fossils have been obtained in 
 strata near Ardrossan, on Northern Yorke's Peninsula, 
 which prove the rocks to be the equivalent of the 
 Silurian formation ; it would, therefore, scarcely be 
 hazarding too much to infer that the whole system 
 of om- primary stratified rocks is of the same age. 
 
 The palaeozoic rocks of the colony are immediately 
 succeeded by an immense area of tertiary limestone, 
 abundantly fossiliferous, stretching eastwards to Vic- 
 toria and westwards to Western Australia. It Avould 
 seem as if nearly the whole of tliis part of Australia
 
 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES-FLORA. 13 
 
 had for a lengthened period been submerged in a sea, 
 the life of which was analagous to that now existing in 
 the Indian and China Seas, and that only the summits 
 of the highest hiUs in the chain already mentioned had 
 peered above the waters, as so many little islands; thus 
 indicating a division of Australia into two equal parts 
 by a tropical sea running north and south. The 
 carboniferous series have not been found, nor have 
 rocks of oolitic origin. Igneous rocks occur in many 
 parts, and volcanic rocks are well developed in the 
 district of Mount Gambier. Aiuiferous drifts, of 
 tertiary age, are dispersed in some localities, but gold 
 has not hitherto been obtained anywhere in sufficient 
 quantity to attract a large digging population. The 
 colony is remarkably rich in copper and iron. 
 
 8-Flora. 
 The flora of South Australia, as. far as known, is 
 less numerous in genera and species of plants than 
 that of the other provinces of Australia; and, in spite 
 of the large area of the colony, there is but little 
 diversity in vegetation. In character, the South 
 Austrahan flora is intermediate between the south- 
 eastern, the south-western, and the troj^ical floras of 
 Australia. The predominant orders arc the legu- 
 minosae, myrtaceae, compositae, proteaceee, cruciferse, 
 rubiaceae, and graminea?. Both genera and species 
 are singularly circumscribed in area, the rapid succes- 
 sion of fomis and the contrast between those of
 
 14 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : 
 
 the northern and southern parts of the colony being 
 remarkable. 
 
 The bark of most of the trees is smooth and of a 
 greyish color, owing to the slightness of the atmo- 
 spheric changes. The leaves are, for the most part, 
 coriaceous, rigid, pungent — of a shining glaucous 
 color, and with a thick external coating as if to resist 
 the heat, and retain the moisture. The flowers are 
 generally bright-colored, yellow prevailing, and their 
 vegetable fibre is fine. As in other parts of the 
 continent, the eucalyptus and acacia genera prevail : 
 thirty species only of eucalypti, and seventy of acacia, 
 are known as yet within the Kmits of the colony. 
 Plants abounding in essential and inflammable 
 oils are frequent, but indigenous eatable fruits and 
 root-bearing plants rare. There are a few poison- 
 ous plants — notably the Lotus Australis. 
 
 9.— Character of Lands. 
 
 Special and peculiar forms of plants are found in 
 different regions — wliich may be called the regions of 
 the forest land, scrub land, grass land, and the inter- 
 tropical region. 
 
 The region of the forest land Kes chiefly on the 
 mountainous districts. The predominant forest trees 
 are eucalypti, stringybark forming often whole 
 forests in some mountainous districts, though it 
 is seldom seen in the plains. The deep gullies 
 are thickly covered with shrubs and ferns, and
 
 CHARACTER OF LANDS. 15 
 
 the level tablelands with grass. The soil of these 
 tablelands is, generally speaking, very rich, and pro- 
 duces abundant crops of cereals, while that in the 
 gullies is mostly formed of black or sandy peat. 
 In such gullies all kinds of vegetables and European 
 fruits grow to j)erfection. 
 
 The regions of the so-called scrub lands occupy 
 a large portion of the whole area of the colony, 
 forming long stretches of arid plams. The soil 
 changes from loamy clay to sand, and the sui-face is 
 sometimes covered with fragments of sihcious rocks, 
 ferruginous sand, and ironstone. Surface waters are 
 rare in this description of country ; the vegetation is 
 consequently stunted, grasses and other herbage thinly 
 covering the ground where scrubs are growing. There 
 is an almost endless variety of shrubs, which are 
 interspersed ^Yith various trees. The leaves of the 
 scrub are usually of a glaucous green, and its appear- 
 ance — except in the flowering season, when much 
 beauty clothes its surface — is somewhat monotonous. 
 Amongt the scrub plants is the saltbush [atriplex 
 nu77imidaria), excellent feed for sheep. 
 
 The pasture lands, forming the principal part of 
 the area of the colony, consist of almost endless 
 undulating plains, stretching from the coast towards 
 the north and east. Near the coast the lands, of a 
 primary grassy character, are mostly under cultivation, 
 the son varying in quality. In the interior, however, 
 these plains are so extensive as to be lost in the
 
 16 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : 
 
 horizon. Their sui-face is often saline, covered vnth. 
 sharp, angular, or weatherworn fragments of various 
 sizes of ii'onstone, quartz, sandstone, and conglomerate, 
 and supporting salt along with a scanty herbage of 
 perennial grasses, cotton, sage, native peach, and other 
 bushes constituting excellent fodder for live stock. 
 Dui'ing the summer season the more grassy lands have 
 a sunburnt yellow appearance ; but du'ectly the rainy 
 season sets in they become suddenly of a deep rich 
 green, and are soon clothed with luxuriant verdure and 
 flowering plants. This season lasts from May till 
 November. Here and there are large tracts of grass 
 land called " Bay of Biscay." They have a peculiar 
 undulating surface, but the dark chocolate-colored soil 
 under them is good and produces fine wheat crops. 
 The sea-beach is mostly bordered with a belt of arbore- 
 scent slu'ubs and small trees of ramified growth. 
 
 The country near the northern coast of the intra- 
 tropical region of the province consists principally of 
 a tableland of from 60 to 150 feet above the level of 
 the sea. It falls thence gently towards the ocean, 
 although foraiing here and there into cliffs, which are 
 fi'inged mth dense thickets of various sized timber, 
 matted together A\ith bamboo and a variety of 
 chmbing plants and shrubs. The low lands near 
 the sea are covered -with dense mangroves. Grass 
 grows luxuriantly nearly everywhere ; the soil is 
 mostly good and of a dark brown color, "with small 
 nodules of fenaigmous sandstone upon the surface.
 
 NATURALISED PLANTS— FAUNA. 17 
 
 10 .—J^atiLralisecl Plants. 
 A number of grasses from other countries, and 
 especially from Europe, have been introduced into 
 South Australia, and have greatly improved the 
 pasture. Besides these, the Scotch thistle, the cock- 
 spur, the Cape dandelion, the Bathurst burr, the 
 French fly, the stink-aster, the sheepweed, and other 
 troubleeome weeds have obtained admission. The 
 cereals and fruits of Europe have also generally 
 thriven here. A description of these Avill be found 
 further on under " Horticulture and Agriculture." 
 
 11,— Fauna. 
 
 The fauna of AustraHa is peculiarly rich in mar- 
 supials. Over 40 species are found in this province, 
 as Avell as some 30 other species of small mammals. 
 The existing marsuj)ials are of moderate size, the 
 largest not exceeding 20olbs. in weight ; but remains 
 of their predecessors, equal in size to the rhinoceros, 
 have been discovered in the pleistocene formation. 
 The most peculiar of the Australian animals are the 
 duck-billed platypus and the spiny ant-eater. Of the 
 placental series, the curious water-rats or beaver-rats 
 deserve mention as being purely Austrahan. The 
 dog, or dingo, is supposed to have been introduced. 
 
 The fish on the coasts are as yet imperfectly known; 
 but the A\i Fauna is considerable — nearly 700 species 
 are found in Australia. ' Amongst the most remark- 
 able and beautiful birds are the parrots — of which 
 
 B
 
 18 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 over 60 species exist — the bower-building birds, 
 mound-raising megapodes, and the emu. Game 
 species abound, and every bay along the coast 
 swarms -svith wild-fowl. 
 
 12.— Climate. 
 
 With the exception of the northern coast, which 
 is tropical, the climate of the whole colony is of an 
 unusually equal character, resembling that of the 
 southern parts of Europe. Towards the centre of 
 the continent there is less rain and a more per- 
 sistent heat than in Adelaide, but the general 
 character of the clmiate is similar. The clearness 
 and dryness of the atmosphere are extraordinary, and 
 happily weaken the effect of the periods of extreme 
 heat to which the province is subjected from time to 
 time during the summer months (December to March), 
 so that the thermometer is no true measure of the 
 degree in which our comforts are affected by the heat. 
 After March the temperature falls rapidly. April, 
 May, September, October, and November, enjoy an 
 almost ideal climate. From the end of May till tlie 
 beginning of September the weather is very similar 
 to that in England during April and May. 
 
 The mean temperature at the Adelaide Observatory 
 is 63° Fahrenheit, the maximum registered being 
 116°, and the minimum ^^2° ; but in the hilly dis- 
 tricts close to Adelaide, and in the south-east, the 
 temperature is several degrees lower.
 
 CLIMATE. 10 
 
 In Adelaide the mean annual rainfall is about 
 2 1 inches, the greatest during a single year being 3 1 , 
 and the least 13. In the summer the average rainfall 
 is less than an inch per month, and even in winter 
 the rain is rarely continuous, and bright sunny days 
 are the rule rather than the exception. In the liilly 
 districts the mean annual rainfall is about 30 inches, 
 and in the south-eastern counties it is also much 
 greater than in Adelaide.
 
 Chap. II.— History. 
 
 l.—TliG Ahorigines. 
 
 There is but scanty evidence as to the length of 
 man's existence in Australia, as neither weapons nor 
 implements have yet been found with the remains of 
 fossil animals. Stone weapons are still used by many 
 tribes, and the primitive art of splitting, grinding, and 
 shaping rocks into hatchets and spear-heads is not yet 
 lost. 
 
 As far as is known, the aborigines were never very 
 numerous, and of late years their numbers have been 
 much diminished by internecine quarrels, infanti- 
 cide, diseases, and, above all, by their indiscretion 
 when subjecting themselves to the habits, food, and 
 clothing of Europeans. Many tribes have become 
 wholly extinct, and the total known indigenous popula- 
 tion of the colony, according to a census taken in 1876, 
 was under 4, 000, of whom only a thousand remain in the 
 settled districts. Of nomadic habits, they live by the 
 chase, by fishing, and on the roots of plants, neither 
 cultivating the soil nor erecting fixed abodes. 
 Although cunning and treacherous, their general 
 disposition is peaceful, and they show considerable 
 intelligence in adapting themselves to their special 
 habits of life. Attempts have been made to better
 
 A150RI0INES. 21 
 
 their condition by the establishment of homes for 
 the adults and training-schools for the children ; hut 
 they can rarely be depended upon to remain long at 
 any settled employment, and show a marked objection 
 to dwell within closed walls. 
 
 The best known tribes are the Narrinyeri, the 
 Adelaides (extinct), the Encounter Bays, the Port 
 Lincolns, the Dieyeries, and the Woolnahs (Northern 
 Territory), all speaking different dialects. Their 
 language is musical, abounding in vowels and liquids. 
 Although they have many peculiar characteristics, 
 there seems to be a ground for thinking that the 
 Australians are remotely allied to the Papuans. 
 Although black in the skin, they have nothing of the 
 negro type ; their hair is curly, but not woolly, and 
 grows abundantly on the face. The men are, as a 
 rule, well formed, and the women have also by nature 
 a good physique, but the life of. complete drudgery 
 they undergo at the hands of their lords and masters 
 soon ages them. The chief Aveapons in use are 
 spears, throwing-sticks, waddies, boomerangs, and 
 shields of bark, and most tribes show some cleverness 
 in making nets and baskets of grass or fibre. As 
 compared with other races of savages, the accom- 
 plishments of the Australian are few ; but it must be 
 remembered that the character of the climate and 
 abundance of the food they require are such that very 
 little call has existed on their ingenuity in supplying 
 the first necessaries of life. In spite of the persevering
 
 22 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 attempts of benevolent persons, it would seem as if 
 the extinction of the aborignal race is but a question 
 of time. [For further information on the abori- 
 ginal races, see " The Native Tribes of South 
 Australia," and ^'Folklore of the Aborigines," both 
 lying on the table in the Court.] 
 
 2.— Early Explorations. 
 Although Lieutenant Grant, of H.M.S. Lady 
 Nelson^ sighted Cape Northumberland, Mount 
 Gambler, and Mount Schank as early as 1800, the 
 first person to acquire any knowledge of the coast 
 within the boundaries of the existing colony was 
 Captain Flinders, of the Investi(jato); who, in 1802, 
 explored the whole of the southern coast-line, naming 
 many of its principal features. The result of his 
 voyage does not seem to have tempted fui'ther exami- 
 nation till 1830, when Captain Sturt, with great 
 daring and judgment, worked his way from the Mur- 
 rumbidgee to the Murray, and traced the latter river 
 thi'ough New South Wales and South Australia to its 
 mouth in Encounter Bay. 
 
 3.— Colonization. 
 The settlement of South Australia as a distinct 
 colony originated with a few gentlemen in London, 
 who, in 1 83 1 — the 'year after and consequent upon 
 Captain Sturt's explorations — made an application to 
 the Imperial Government for a charter to colonize a
 
 COLOxMZATION. 23 
 
 portion of the land forming the joresent province. 
 The application was unfavorably received, and the 
 project remained in abeyance till 1834, when a 
 meeting was held in Exeter Hall to discuss the 
 principles of the scheme, propounded by Mr. E. 
 Gibbon Wakefield, on which the new colony was to 
 be established. The chief of these were that the 
 land should in all cases be sold at a somewhat high 
 price, that the blocks so purchased should not be 
 larger than the buyers could easily cultivate, and that 
 the revenue derived from the sale of lands should be 
 applied to the importation of labor. On this basis an 
 Act was passed through Parliament in 1834, which 
 further contained the important principles — ist, that 
 the colony should not be a chaige upon the mother 
 country ; 2nd, that she should be free from any State 
 church ; 3rd, that no convicts should be transported 
 into her territory. The terms of this charter are 
 still maintained. 
 
 Commissioners were appointed to give effect to the 
 Act, but before the colony could be established a 
 certain quantity of land had to be sold. There was 
 a great difficulty in finding purchasers, and the 
 scheme nearly fell through ; but at tliis critical 
 junctiu'e Mr. G. F. Angas promoted the South 
 Australian Company, which bought sufficient land at 
 twelve sliillings an acre. Early in 1836 several 
 vessels with colonists were laid on, and a survey 
 party, under Colonel Light, was dispatched to explore
 
 24 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 a site for the capital. On December 28, 1836, the 
 first Governor (Captain Hindmarsh) landed on the 
 shores of Holdfast Bay, and proclaimed the founda- 
 tion of the colony. 
 
 The boundaries at this time were comprised between 
 132° and 141° E. long., and between the Southern 
 Ocean and 26° S. lat. ; but in 1861 a tract of country, 
 known as " No Man's Land," was added, making 
 129° E. the western boundary, and in 1863, when the 
 colony determined to lay down the trans-continental 
 telegraph, another addition was made, consisting of 
 the country stretching northward to the Indian Ocean. 
 
 4'— Government. 
 The Government of the colony was originally in 
 the hands of a Board of Commissioners, three of 
 whom were resident in London and one in Adelaide ; 
 but from the time of Captain Hindmarsh's arrival the 
 executive power rested Avith the Governor and a 
 Council of eight members — four official and four 
 nominee. In 1851, however, a constitution was 
 granted, by which a Legislative Council, two-thirds 
 of Avhose members were elected by the people, was 
 authorised. The colonists soon began to agitate for 
 Responsible Government, Avhich was granted them by 
 the existing Constitution Act passed in 1856. By 
 this Act the government is vested in a Governor and 
 two Houses of Parliament, called respectively the 
 Legislative Council and the House of Assembly.
 
 GOVERNMENT. 25 
 
 The Legislative Council, which cannot be dissolved 
 by the Governor, is elected by ballot, the whole 
 province forming one electoral district for the purpose. 
 There are eighteen members, six of whom retire eveiy 
 fourth year. The electorate is based on a small 
 property qualification. 
 
 The House of Assembly, which is liable to dissolu- 
 tion by the Governor, is elected for thi-ee years, the 
 province being divided into twenty-two electoral 
 districts, returning altogether forty-six members, 
 whose services are gratuitous. The electorate is based 
 on manhood suffrage.* 
 
 Responsible Government is carried on by six 
 Ministers, members of the Legislature, who form the 
 Cabinet, and are e^v officio members of the Executive 
 Council, advising the Crown in the person of Her 
 Majesty's representative, the Governor. Each Minister 
 has control of several departments of the pubHc 
 service, the duties of which are conducted by per- 
 manent official heads. 
 
 All the afFau'S of the colony are thus under the 
 control of the two Houses of Parliament. Each 
 House is vested with equal powers, with the exception 
 that the Legislative Council cannot initiate financial 
 measures. The Crown retains power to disallow 
 bills opposed to the principles of Imperial legislation. 
 
 * Note. — The number of electoral distiiots was originally eighteen, returning 
 thirty-six membei-s, but in 1873 the number of distiicts was increased to 
 twenty-two, and members to forty-six.
 
 26 SOUTH AUSTliALIA: 
 
 The two Houses model their proceedings in accordance 
 with the practice of the House of Commons. 
 
 5.— Local Government. 
 Local self-government was established as far back 
 as 1840, when the Corporation of Adelaide was 
 formed, and has now become general throughout the 
 province. In twenty-one towns it presents itself 
 under the form of municipal corporations, managed 
 by members elected at stated periods by ratepayers, 
 and invested with extensive powers under a special 
 Act. In the country one hundi'ed and twelve bodies, 
 styled District Councils, elected by ratepayers living 
 within the limits of a proclaimed district, have control 
 over the affairs of theii- district, the State supple- 
 menting pound for pound all sums raised and 
 expended on public works. 
 
 6.— Population. 
 The population exceeds a quarter of a million, of 
 whom the majority are resident in the country districts, 
 and employed directly or indirectly in the cultivation 
 of the soil, or in the production of mineral and pastoral 
 wealth. The native-born element already forms 60 per 
 cent., and the proportion of males to females is but 
 slightly in favor of the former. The marriage rate has 
 been steadily increasing during the last ten years. The 
 proportion per i ,000 of the population of marriages in 
 1879 Avas SyiJ of bhths, 38^^; of deaths, 14. The
 
 POPULATION-CENTRES OF POPULATION. 11 
 
 births numbered 9,902 ; the marriages 2,238 ; and the 
 deaths 3,580. It is a noteworthy fact that the increase 
 of popidation within the last few years has been greater 
 than at any previous period. 
 
 7.— Centres of Population. 
 The capital city is Adelaide, with a population of 
 nearly 40,000, exclusive of the subiu'bs, which furnish 
 about 25,000 more. Adelaide contains over 8,500 
 buildings and seventy-eight miles of made streets. The 
 annual rateable value of property, excluding Govern- 
 ment offices, chui'ches, and other public institutions, is 
 ;^3 54,000, and the total value was computed last year 
 at from eight to nine millions sterling. The town is 
 well supphed with water from the Mount Lofty range 
 of hills, at the foot of which it lies, and the distance 
 from the sea is seven miles only. The chief shipping 
 place of the colony is Port Adelaide-, connected by rail 
 with the metropohs. The largest provincial towns, 
 exclusive of Port Adelaide and the suburbs of A dclaide, 
 are the Burra, Mount Gambler, Wallaroo, Glenelg, 
 Kapunda, and Gawler. 
 
 Note. — Adelaide lies in latitude 37° 57' S. and longitude 138° 38' E., and is 
 about five miles distant from the eastern shores of Gulf St. Vincent ; and Port 
 Adelaide, the principal seaport, is distant about seven miles from the capital, 
 with which it is connected bj' railway. 
 
 S.—Soutli Australian Explorations. 
 The first explorers were adventurous persons in 
 charge of live stock, travelling to the colony from New
 
 28 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 South Wales and Victoria; illustrious amongst whom, 
 and still ]-esident in the colony, are Messrs. Charles 
 Bonney and George Hamilton. Their enterprises were 
 soon followed, within narrower limits, from Adelaide 
 as a centre, by colonists in search of pasture lands. 
 Great hardships were often endured by these, and 
 not unfrequently valuable lives sacrificed in the search. 
 The natives occasionally resented what they not un- 
 naturally regarded as an unwarrantable intrusion on 
 their territory ; and want of w^ater was an enemy even 
 more deadly. 
 
 One of the first and bravest explorers from Adelaide 
 was Mr. E. J. Eyre, who subsequently became Governor 
 of Jamaica. In 1 840 Mr. Eyre undertook the leadership 
 of a party to explore the unknown country lying be- 
 tween Adelaide and King George's Sound, and after 
 losing all his companions, with the exception of one 
 black boy, reached liis destination in great distress. 
 
 The next explorer of note was Captain Sturt, 
 who, in 1844, attempted to find the inland sea, at 
 that time supposed to occupy the centre of the con- 
 tinent ; and after incredible suflfcring during eighteen 
 months he returned to Adelaide, having discovered 
 Cooper's Creek. 
 
 Several expeditions were undertaken by the Govern- 
 ment and private individuals between 1857 and 1859, 
 without adchng much to the knowledge of the interior ; 
 but in 1859 Mr. Stuart, Sturt's former companion and 
 draughtsman, commenced that grand series of explora-
 
 EXPLORATIONS. 29 
 
 tions which, after many difficulties and disappointments, 
 terminated successfully in July, 1862, by the crossing 
 of the continent from the Southern to the Indian Ocean. 
 
 In 1862, Mr. John McKinlay, sent in search of 
 Burke and Wills, made a dash across the continent 
 with great dispatch and success. It is recorded of 
 him that " for cool perseverance and kind consider a- 
 "■ tion for his foUow^ers, for modesty and quiet daring, 
 " Mr McKinlay was unequalled as an explorer." 
 
 In 1872 Colonel Warburton, with the true courage 
 of a British officer, gallantly effected his remarkable 
 expedition from the centre across the w^estern interior 
 of Australia, reaching the Hiver De Grey in an ex- 
 hausted state, after enduring many hardships. This 
 expedition is noteworthy as having been performed 
 exclusively by the use of camels, which w-ere kindly 
 supplied by Sir Thomas Elder. 
 
 In 1874 Mr. John Forrest, a Western Australian, 
 travelled from King George's Sound to Adelaide 
 north of the route w-hich Eyre had travelled thirty 
 years before. Amongst other explorers are INIr. 
 Gosse, Mr. Ernest Giles, and ]Mr. Lewis, wdio have 
 made valuable discoveries in various directions in the 
 interior of the country, and have added considerably 
 to our knowledge. The most recent exploration is 
 that of Mr. Alexander Forrest, brother to Mr. John 
 Forrest, who, in 1879, started from the De Grey 
 lliver for Port Darw^in ; but, put aside by the rugged 
 character of the country north of liim, diverged east-
 
 aO SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 ward up the Fitzro)' River and struck into the overland 
 telegraph line at Charlotte Waters. 
 
 9.—InnnigratioTi. 
 A steady and moderate increase of population 
 suitable to the requirements of the country is and will 
 be, for many years to come, essential to the welfare 
 and advancement of the province. Such additional 
 labor is readily absorbed without producing any dis- 
 turbance of the labor market. In accordance with 
 the principles on which the colony was founded, 
 immigration has for many years been paid for out of 
 the money derived from the sale of lands. Although 
 free immigration is now temporarily discontinued, 
 assisted passages are given to agricultural, and other 
 laborers, artisans, domestic servants, and other de- 
 sirable colonists, on the nomination of friends already 
 in the colony. Land order warrants to the value 
 of ^20 are granted, to persons who pay their own 
 passages, by the Agent-General for South Australia, 
 8, Victoria Chambers, Westminster, London, from 
 whom full information respecting immigration can be 
 procured.
 
 ADELAIDE 
 
 IDHAiilRAMU. 
 
 
 IEI©WiIHiJ 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 ACRES SOLD ACRES CULTIVATED 
 
 ACRES IN WHEAT ft. WHEAT HARVESTED 
 
 O — CMro^invDKooo>0 — Mm^in<orvcoo>0 — CMco^in«Orvood) 
 ininininininininintr>(C(0(0(£>vO(0^(0(O^KrNr<sNrv.isNNrvN 
 
 QOOOaOQOQOGOOOOOCOaOCOOOOOOOCOCOOOCOOOOOCOOOOOOOCOQOCOOOOOCO 
 
 8.500,000' 
 
 ^ - 
 
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 • — 
 
 ■* . 
 
 — » 
 
 '* -^ 
 
 
 — - 
 
 — - 
 
 — — 
 
 — • 
 
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 IB -1 
 
 M - 
 
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 _ ai 
 
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 * ■■ 
 
 ■• a 
 
 w « 
 
 _ •_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 8.300.000 
 8.100.000 
 
 a.000.000 
 
 7.900 000 
 7.800.000 
 7.700.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 7.S00,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.200.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.000.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6.80O.OO0 
 6.70O.00O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6.S00.000 
 
 • .♦00.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ft.aoo.ooo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. 000. 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 800. 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,400.000 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.000.000 
 4.90O.000 
 4.800.000 
 4.700.000 
 4,«O0.000 
 4.500.000 
 4.400.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 4.200.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.000.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 3.800,000 
 3.70O.O0O 
 3.600.000 
 3.500.000 
 3.400.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 — 
 
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 ~- 
 
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 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 2.80O.OOO 
 2.700.000 
 2.600.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 1.400,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 1.200.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
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 /' 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
 
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 900.000 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 soo 000 
 
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 000.000 
 
 Ll_ 
 
 
 
 
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 L_.] . 
 
 
 
 
 
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 1 
 
 POPULATION- 
 
 >. too 000 
 
 1.400.000 
 1.100.000 
 1.200.000 
 ). 100 OOC 
 1.000 000 
 ' »00.OO0 
 
 r 100.000 
 ' 700.000 
 '.«oo 000 
 
 '.too 000 
 
 r.40o.ooo 
 
 MOO. 000 
 
 I 200.000 
 '. 100.000 
 
 '.000.000 
 
 >.»oo.ooo 
 
 k too. 000 
 1.700.000 
 
 I. too 000 
 
 I. too. 000 
 I.400.00U 
 1.100.000 
 1.200.000 
 
 k. 1 00.00c 
 k. 000 000 
 
 > »00 000 
 
 I. too 000 
 t. 700.000 
 
 k. too. 000 
 
 k. too. 000 
 
 t.40O.0O0 
 1. 100. 000 
 
 I ..200 000 
 k. 1 00 000 
 
 >. 000. 000 
 k 900 000 
 
 k too. 000 
 
 k.700.000 
 
 k too 000 
 k.too.ooo 
 
 k 400 000 
 k. 100 000 
 k.200.000 
 
 k. 100 OOC 
 k.000.000 
 
 1.900 000 
 
 1. 900.000 
 
 I 700 000 
 I. too OOC 
 
 I too 000 
 
 I 400 000 
 k 300 OOC 
 ) 200.000 
 I I 00 000 
 1.000 OOC 
 t 900 000 
 
 I too. OOC 
 
 i 700 000 
 
 i.too OOC 
 
 !. too OOC 
 1 400 OOC 
 1.300 OOC 
 1.200 000 
 ! 100 OOC 
 
 rooo.ooc 
 
 I 900 OOC 
 
 I too occ 
 
 1.700 occ 
 
 i.too.oco 
 
 I.too occ 
 
 I.400.0CC 
 
 1.100.000 
 I 20000c 
 I 100 occ 
 1.000 cc;. 
 
 too cc. 
 
 ■00 oc: 
 
 700 occ 
 600. occ 
 
 too ccc 
 
 400 ccc 
 300 occ 
 looocr 
 100. oc. 
 ooo.oc: 
 
 RES SOLO..... ICKES CUlTIVtTED 
 qUlNTITY OF WHEtT RE4PE0 .. 
 
 ACRES IN WHEAT. 
 
 SURVEYOR GENERALS OfFICt. ADELAIDE. />»r,.r S Crawford. Pholn-UUi^njfhtr
 
 Chap. III.— The Land. 
 
 l.—Its Occupation. 
 At a rough estimate, about 250,000 square miles of 
 country are at present put to more or less profitable 
 use. Agriculture has not extended 100 miles from 
 the southern coast, and pastoral occupation cannot be 
 said to have reached fiu'ther than 500 miles, though 
 lately squatters have taken up large areas of land in 
 the centre of the continent, discovered by recent 
 explorations. Over five and a quarter million acres 
 of land had been sold completely at the end of 1879, 
 and there were besides at that date over 3,000,000 
 acres held upon credit, the greater proportion of wliich 
 will in due course pass absolutely to the purchasers. 
 About one in every four acres of the land sold is under 
 tillage ; the remainder is used for sheep and cattle. 
 
 2.—TI1C Land Laws. 
 Long leases at small rentals are offered to capitalists 
 willing to occupy waste lands, but it is only upon 
 condition that the Government may resume theii' 
 lands, after paying due compensation for improvements 
 made by the lessee, at from twelve to thirty-six 
 months' notice. There are also special provisions for 
 the sale of toAvnship, suburban, and the poorer or scrub 
 lands ; but the great aim of the existing land laws is
 
 32 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 to promote agricultural settlement and improvement, 
 and to give the hondjide farmer with but small capital 
 the preference of all the lands offered for sale. 
 
 The chief principles embodied by the land laws are 
 purchase after survey by Government ; deferred pay- 
 ments; limitation of area held upon credit to 
 1,000 acres of ordinary lands or 640 acres of lands 
 reclaimed by drainage ; conditions of improvement 
 and cultivation ; and, as far as possible, compulsory 
 residence. The land is sold by auction in blocks 
 var}ing in size from sixty to 1,000 acres, a large 
 quantity being put up on one day. The upset price 
 is ^ I an acre. 
 
 3.— Land Transfer. 
 
 Dealings in landed property are much faciUtated by 
 the Real Property Act, originated by Sir R. R. Torrens, 
 which provides that the title to all lands alienated 
 from the Crown since 1858, when the Act came into 
 force, shall depend upon registration. Land acquii-ed 
 before that date may be brought under the Act, upon 
 application, subject to a certain amount of protection 
 to equities which may arise. The total value of the 
 lands brought under this law amounts to nearly twelve 
 millions sterling. 
 
 4-— Pastoral Settlement. 
 The pastoral lessees — more commonly called squat- 
 ters — have, from the earhest days, been the pioneers
 
 PASTORAL SETTLEMENT. 
 
 33 
 
 of settlement ; and, notwithstanding the large area 
 of land sold to agriculturists during the last few 
 years, the acreage taken up for squatting purposes, 
 and the number of flocks and herds have considerably 
 increased. The squatter, who, by the advance of 
 agricultiu'al settlement, has been driven from the lands 
 near the seacoast, has found a refuge in the district 
 before alluded to as the " Far North," and a few 
 adventurous men have removed their flocks and herds 
 towards the centre of the continent. Greater attention 
 has been paid of late to the enclosure of shee^i runs, 
 the formation of dams and reservoirs, and the sinking 
 of wells, and an improved quality both of stock and 
 wool has resulted. INlorcoAcr, large numbers of sheep 
 are now owned by agriculturists, who advantageously 
 combine sheep-farming with the cultivation of the soil. 
 Some conception of the growth of the pastoral 
 interest during the last ten years may be formed from 
 the following facts : — 
 
 
 1869. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1879. 
 
 Total area of land (sq. miles) 
 
 
 
 
 leased from the Crown for 
 
 
 
 
 pastoral piu-poscs . . 
 
 58,000 
 
 89,000 
 
 177,000 
 
 No. of horses in the colony 
 
 73,828 
 
 93,122 
 
 130,052 
 
 No. of horned cattle " 
 
 119,697 
 
 185,342 
 
 266.217 
 
 No. of sheep " 
 
 4436,955 
 
 6,120,21 r 
 
 6,140,396 
 
 No. of pii^s " 
 
 63,826 
 
 78,019 
 
 90,548 
 
 No. of goats " 
 
 13.977 
 
 16,907 
 
 11,277
 
 34 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 The favorite kind of sheep in the interior is the 
 merino, but on the coast long-wools are preferred 
 by many. The cattle are frequently of excellent 
 breed, including Durham, Hereford, Devons, Alder- 
 neys, and Scotch long-hairs, of which good pedigree 
 stocks have been introduced. There are one or two 
 flocks of Angora goats, but no great progress has been 
 made in the rearing of these animals. Sir Thomas 
 Elder introduced camels in 1866. Their numbers 
 have greatly increased, and they are proving a valu- 
 able acquisition. 
 
 S-JVool. 
 If the wind and tendon of the horse, or the firm- 
 ness and delicacy of the flesh of horned cattle, gain 
 when reared on the natural fodder of a warm and 
 sunny climate, tempered by tree shade and camping 
 grounds which afford shelter from extremes of 
 weather, so the character of wool is affected by 
 the nature of the country the sheep depasture. Two 
 distinct classes of fodder influence the wool of South 
 Australia: that of the grassy or coast, and the salt- 
 bush or interior country. In each class there is a 
 subdivision into hill or plain feed. Thus many 
 characters of wool are produced from the two chief 
 breeds of sheep adopted by the colonists. Of high- 
 class Merino, the Mount Crawford, Canowie, Levels, 
 Keyneton, and Terlinga stand prominent. Of Lin- 
 coln, the Collingrove and Moorak ; and the wool of
 
 WOOL.— AGRICULTURE. 35 
 
 both breeds, where carefully tended, acquires special 
 degrees of strength and lustre. Also, whilst the 
 grassy country will produce the finest, softest, and 
 densest fleece, the remarkable freedom from all 
 disease and larger development of carcase in the 
 saltbush country causes the quantity and length of 
 wool of the sheep fed there to well compensate for a 
 relative harshness and coarseness. 
 
 6. — Agriculture. 
 
 That the general character of the land, so far as 
 it has been tested, is in a high degree favorable to 
 agricultural settlement, may be judged from the 
 fact that nearly half of the male population of the 
 community are engaged in farming pursuits — chiefly 
 cereal. The settled land may be divided into three 
 classes — the plains, which for the most part are at 
 once available for the plough ; the hilly country, 
 where more or less clearing of timber must be done 
 to render the land fit for cultivation ; and scrub 
 lands, which in some cases are of inferior quality, 
 but in others are only kept from being cultivated 
 owing to the expense and labor that would be in- 
 volved in removing the timber. A fourth class might 
 be added, consisting of comparatively level country, 
 sprinkled with sheaoak and other small timber, which 
 can be removed at a comparatively small cost. 
 
 Notwithstanding the dryness of the climate the 
 soil is productive, and consequent on that dry-
 
 30 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 ness the quality of the products is excellent. Not 
 only do English fruits, vegetables, and cereals of all 
 kinds grow to perfection, but many semi-tropical 
 products do well, the earth yielding a bountiful 
 return for a moderate amount of labor. The 
 system of farming is, as a rule, simple. There is 
 little or no exertion made to return to the soil the 
 ingredients which are taken from it by the process 
 of vegetable growth. The land is either cropped 
 year after year, for the most part Avith wheat, until 
 it becomes thoroughly exhausted, or it is treated to 
 alternate fallow ; but, doubtless, as settlement spreads, 
 and the quantity of cultivable virgin soil diminishes 
 and population increases, a change will take place in 
 this respect. 
 
 7 -Wheat. 
 
 Of the total area under cultivation (2,271,058 
 acres) nearly two-thirds is cropped with wheat, of 
 which nearly one anda-half million acres were reaped 
 at the last harvest, December, 1879, yielding an 
 aggregate of over fourteen million bushels. The pro- 
 gress made in wheat cultivation has of late years been 
 very rapid, as may be gathered from the fact that in 
 1868 the area under wheat was only half a million 
 acres, and that in 1875 i^ nearly reached 900,000 
 acres. 
 
 The actual production of wheat to the acre is 
 small, averaging about 9'/^ bushels, but the cost ot
 
 ^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 h 
 
 
 4 
 
 < 
 U 
 
 >■ 
 
 Z 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 oe 
 
 o
 
 WHEAT. 37 
 
 cultivation is also small. The farmer but lightly 
 ploughs his ground. The seed is sown broadcast by 
 machinery, at the rate of sixty to seventy acres 
 per day; and by the machine known as Ridley's 
 reaper — of South Australian invention — eight to ten 
 acres can be reaped per day by a man with two 
 horses. This reaper combs and threshes the grain 
 out of the ear. It is then winnowed in the field 
 and taken to market. The stalk is left standing ; 
 sometunes to be fed over, and then burnt, and some- 
 times to be cut by the mowing-machine and chaffed 
 for fodder. No system of rotation of crops has yet 
 been arrived at, except in the South-Eastern Districts. 
 The greater portion of the land has been sown with 
 wheat continuously for many successive years with- 
 out manure or rest, and has received a minimum of 
 cultivation. 
 
 Of the quality of the South Australian wheat it 
 is almost needless to write. It fetches the highest 
 price in the London market, and has obtained the 
 highest awards at every International Exhibition 
 where it has been shown. To give some idea of the 
 quantity of wheat produced, it is worth mentioning 
 that after supplying her own wants the colony had 
 over 300,000 tons of breadstuffs, Aalued at nearly two 
 and three-quarter millions sterling, available for 
 export last season; and yet the season was but 
 moderately prosperous.
 
 38 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 8 -Wine. 
 
 The rich chocolate loam, and the ferruginous soil 
 with lime, of the hillsides and plains in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Adelaide, are admirably adapted for the 
 production of wine grapes; and wine-growing has been 
 carried on from the early days of the colony, when 
 cuttings Avere obtained from some of the best stocks of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, France, Germany, and Spain. 
 Inexperience has naturally led to many failures ; but 
 of later years much greater care has been taken, both in 
 adapting the soil and position of the vineyard to the 
 grape, and in the manufacture of the wine. This has 
 been followed by a considerable improvement in the 
 quality of the wines produced, and there is now good 
 reason to hope that they may become successful com- 
 petitors in the European market. Most of the South 
 Australian wines are of a full-bodied or sweet character; 
 but on the hills lighter wines are readily made. 
 
 The extent of lands planted with vines in 1879 
 was over 4,000 acres, and the produce of the vintage 
 of March, 1880, was nearly half a million gallons, or 
 about 200 gallons per acre of vines grown for wine. 
 The greater part of this ^vine is consumed in the 
 colony ; but in spite of obstructive fiscal laws, over 
 ;^ 1 6,000 worth was exported in 1879 ^^ Great Britain 
 and the neighbouring colonies. 
 
 9.— Olives. 
 The dryness of the climate, the absence of fi'ost,
 
 OLIVES-MINOR PRODUCTS. 39 
 
 and the length of the coast-line, give to a large area 
 of the colony unrivalled advantages for the cultivation 
 of the olive tree ; and if it has not yet been canied 
 out on any very extensive scale, it is because colonists 
 are accustomed to turn over their capital so quickly 
 that they have not the patience required by the slow 
 growth of this tree. Many of the best varieties of 
 olives were introduced soon after the foundation of 
 the colony, and for years small quantities of oil of 
 excellent quality have been made. It is only during 
 the last three or four years, hov/ever, that tliis industry 
 has acquired any magnitude. Several thousand 
 gallons were made during the past season, and the 
 area under olives is considerable. The oil, when 
 made, commands a ready sale in the colony at a 
 higher price than the imported article. . 
 
 10. —Minor Prodjtcts. 
 
 Besides wheat, attention is bestowed upon the ciUti- 
 vation of hay, barley, rye, potatoes, field peas, lucerne, 
 and to a small extent of flax, hops, and artificial grasses. 
 
 The total yield of these products during the season 
 1879-80 was as follows: — 
 
 Barley .. 202,000 busliels, gatlicrcd from 15,100 acres. 
 
 Oats .... 61,000 " " " 4,100 " 
 
 Peas .... 58,000 " " " 4,000 " 
 
 Hay .... 296,000 tons " " 265,000 " 
 
 Potatoes. . 27,000 " " over 7,000 " 
 
 Hops are grown with great success in the South- 
 Eastern District, and also in the Adelaide liills.
 
 40 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Flax is an indigenous plant, which, thrives well, 
 and, having the special merit of cleansing soils, will 
 be a valuable production as soon as the means of 
 harvesting are cheapened, and facilities for retting 
 provided. Not only is flax useful as a fibre plant, 
 but the linseed yields valuable oil and fodder. 
 
 Tobacco is also indigenous in many parts of the 
 colony, but it is not yet cultivated for commercial 
 purj)oses. Amongst other plants which have not yet 
 got beyond the experimental stage of cultivation 
 may be mentioned the castor-oil plant, the sunflower, 
 mustard, rape, canary-seeds, lupin, maize, lentils, 
 chicory, osier, broom, millet, esparto grass, opium, 
 and many plants used in the distilling of perfumes. 
 
 Attempts have been made to establish sericulture 
 as a colonial industry, but hitherto with no substantial 
 results. The colony is already possessed of a good 
 stock of the best varieties of silk-mulberries, and the 
 tree thrives well. The climate appears to be ad- 
 mirably suited to the silkworm, and some excellent 
 cocoons have been sent to International Exhibitions, 
 and gained high commendation there. 
 
 11. —Horticulture. 
 Nearly all kinds of European fruits are produced 
 to perfection in the colony — those of the Continent 
 almost everywhere ; and the more peculiarly English 
 fruits, such as the strawberry and raspberry, in the 
 liilly districts. In good seasons many kinds o£
 
 HORTICULTURE-GOLD. 41 
 
 fruits — especially apricots, peaches, plums, and grapes 
 — grow in great abundance. The earliest of the spring 
 fruits is the loquat, which ripens before the end of Sep- 
 tember. Cherries and strawberries follow in October 
 and November, and then gooseberries, currants, and 
 raspberries. At Clnistmas time the first of the apri- 
 cots and figs are ready for eating, and soon after 
 peaches, plums, and grapes are ready, not only for 
 home consumption, but for export, considerable quan- 
 tities being sent to the neighboring colonies. Apples, 
 pears, melons, nuts, filberts, Avalnuts, and Spanish 
 chestnuts, and a variety of other fruits, carry on the 
 supply till the orange season, which begins about June 
 and lasts until November. 
 
 The sidtana, muscatel, and other raisin-making 
 vines are largely grown in the vineyards, and some 
 eighty tons of raisins, equal to the best imported 
 are manufactured every year. The Xante grape, from 
 which currants are made, is also groA\Ti, and the 
 ciuTant-making industry, though still in its infancy, 
 promises to be of great importance. 
 
 During the summer season a large quantity of jam 
 is made, much of Avhich is exported, more especially 
 the apricot, peach, and plum varieties. 
 
 W-Golcl. 
 In South Australia gold-mining has hitherto made 
 but little progress. Several small discoveries have 
 been made from time to time at Echunga, Jupiter
 
 42 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Creek, in the Barossa Ranges, at Mount Pleasant, 
 "Waiikaringa, and other places, and connected with it 
 small diamonds have been found in the Echunga 
 goldfields. There is continuously a small gold-digging 
 population. 
 
 13.— Copper. 
 
 The only mineral which has as yet contributed 
 materially to the prosperity of the colony is copper, of 
 which over sixteen million pounds' (^16,000,000) 
 worth have been exported since the discovery of the 
 first mine at Kapunda in 1842. Several other valu- 
 able mines were subsequently discovered. The most 
 famous are the Burra Burra, Wallaroo, and Moonta, 
 the last two of which are still being worked. 
 
 Owing to the prevailing low prices, the copper- 
 mining industry has not been very prosperous for the 
 last three years, the export of copper and coj^ppi* ore 
 during 1879 having reached only ^3 5 1,388 ; but there 
 is no sign of failing in the existing mines, and north 
 of Port Augusta lodes of copper ore can be traced for 
 miles across the country. A railway is being con- 
 structed through this district, and as soon as the price 
 of copper rises, mines will probably be worked there. 
 
 IJf.—Iron. 
 
 The deposits of iron in the province are of great 
 
 richness and extent, but, owing to the absence and 
 
 high price of coal they have been but little worked. 
 
 Native iron has been found so pure that it has,
 
 SILVER AND LEAD— OTHER MINERALS. 43 
 
 without any preparation, been welded on to a 
 piece of manufactured iron and stood well. An 
 attempt was made about six years ago to smelt the 
 iron ore with wood, and a few tons of first-class pig 
 iron were produced ; but owing to hitches at the first 
 the undertaking was abandoned. Some of the veins 
 discovered are as much as forty feet wide. 
 
 15.— Silver and Lead. 
 
 Lead ore is found in large quantities in several 
 places, and generally contains a proportion of silver, 
 in many instances as high as fifty or sixty ounces to 
 the ton ; but the cost of smelting has hitherto pre- 
 vented the extraction of the metal. Silver ore 
 yielding as high as 30 per cent, of silver has been 
 found, and some rich ore is known to exist on private 
 property. 
 
 16.— Other Minerals. 
 
 Bismuth has been found in several places, notably 
 at Balhannah, from which mine zinc and cobalt have 
 also been raised. Amongst other useful mineral 
 productions found are : — Antimony, asbestos, baryta, 
 bitumen, cobalt, calcspar, dolonnte, fireclay, fluor- 
 spar. Fuller's earth, gypsum, kaolin clay, lignite, 
 marble, magnesia, magnesian limestone, mica, ochi-e, 
 platinum, salt, slate (very fine, both roofing and 
 paving), soapstone, and native sulphur. Of these 
 gypsum and slate are extracted in considerable quan- 
 tities, and used commercially. In the South-East a
 
 44 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 remarkable substance called coorongite is found on 
 the surface; it occurs in thin tough cakes, and a 
 brilliant illuminating mineral oil has been obtained 
 from it by distillation. A company has recently been 
 formed to bore for this oil at Salt Creek.
 
 Chap. IV -Public Works Sl Institutions. 
 
 l-Cost. 
 Up to the end of December, 1879, ^ ^^^^^ of about 
 seven and a-half millions had been exj)ended on 
 public works out of loans specially raised for the 
 purpose. Of this amount nearly four millions has 
 been spent on railways, half a million on harbor 
 improvements, three-quarters of a million on water- 
 works, a little over half a million a-piece on telegraphs 
 and main roads, nearly a quarter of a million on 
 schoolhouses, a hundred and twenty thousand on 
 jetties and lighthouses, and the balance for sundiy 
 other works. Beyond this, however, large sums taken 
 out of the Land Fund and out -of General Revenue 
 have, from the earliest days, been disbursed upon 
 roads, bridges, buildings, jetties, lighthouses, and other 
 undertakings of a public nature. 
 
 2.— Railways. 
 With the exception of a few miles of suburban 
 raih'oad, the Government has undertaken the con- 
 struction and maintenance of all the railways in the 
 province ; and although at present they yield a mean 
 return of only about 2 '/^ per cent, on tlieir cost, the 
 benefits of the consequent extension of the margin of
 
 46 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 cultivation are held to counterbalance the burthen of 
 interest which falls on the general public. 
 
 Over 500 miles of public railroad were open to the 
 pubHc at the close of 1879. The standard gauge for 
 the main trunk lines is 5ft. 3in. — the same as on the 
 Victorian lines ; but in the outlying districts, where 
 speed is of little and cheapness of great importance, 
 the 3ft. 6in. gauge has been adopted. 
 
 The average charge for conveymg passengers may 
 be estimated at about i '/^d- per mile, and for a ton of 
 goods from 2d to 3d. per mile. A bushel of wheat 
 is carried fi'om the BuiTa to Port Adelaide, a distance 
 of 100 miles, for yd.; and the rates charged on all 
 the lines are proportionately low. 
 
 Over 250 miles of railway are now in course of 
 construction. 
 
 3.— Roads and Bridges. 
 From the earliest days the importance of opening 
 up the country by means of good roads was fully 
 recognised; and during the past years upwards of 
 one and thi*ee-quarter millions have been devoted to 
 these works, the whole cost of Avhich, with the 
 exception of ;^ 2 00,000, has been defrayed out of the 
 General Ke venue, no special toll or rate having been 
 levied. Of the 3,300 miles of main roads open to 
 the public at the end of 1879, about 1,300 are 
 m,acadamized. All these roads are under the care of 
 Local Main Koad Boards ; but in addition to these
 
 EOADS AND BRIDGES— WATERWORKS, &c. 47 
 
 main lines perhaps as many more miles of district or 
 by-roads have been constructed and are kept in repair 
 by local municipalities. For this purpose funds are 
 raised by a rate on landed property, supplemented by 
 grants-in-aid from the General Revenue. 
 
 The colony can boast of several fine bridges. The 
 most notable is that at Edward's Crossing, over the 
 River Murray, which is 190 feet long, and cost 
 ;^ 1 2 5,000 to build. The next bridge in importance is 
 the Jervois Bridge, over the stream at Port Adelaide. 
 There are also several handsome bridges over the 
 Torrens in Adelaide, and many substantial structui'es 
 across the rivers and creeks in country districts. 
 
 4.—Waterworhs, Drainage, and Lighthouses. 
 
 The sup;ply of water was first undertaken by 
 Government in 1857. In addition to a high-pressui-e 
 supply from the River Torrens to the city und subm-bs 
 of Adelaide, water has been laid on to several centres 
 of population, among which are Port Adelaide, 
 Glenelg, Port Augusta, Port Pirie, Port Elliot, 
 Kadina, Moonta, and Kapunda. 
 
 At present the drainage of Adelaide is defective ; 
 but a scheme of deep di'ainage, submitted by the late 
 Mr. W. Clark, C.E., is being carried out under the 
 supervision of Mr. Oswald Brown, C.E. 
 
 On thirteen prominent points on the southern coast 
 lighthouses have been erected ; and as there is a com- 
 plete system of marine survey, wrecks are not frequent.
 
 48 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 5.— Postal Communication. 
 
 Considering how thinly populated and extensive 
 the outlying settled districts are, more than ordinary 
 postal facilities are afforded to the public. Direct 
 communication Avith Europe is maintained by two 
 lines of packets, each of which dispatch steamers 
 twice a month. There is a daily overland mail to 
 Victoria and New South AVales, besides ship mails 
 about twice a week. The average number of mails 
 sent away daily from Adelaide is 326. Money-order 
 offices are established in connection with most of the 
 Post Offices, and money can also be sent by telegraph. 
 
 A uniform rate of twopence per half ounce is 
 charged upon inland and intercolonial letters ; and 
 newspapers are forwarded free of charge to any part 
 of the world. 
 
 6. —Telegraphs. 
 
 At the end of 1879 there were 4,400 miles of 
 telegraph lines, and 6,000 of wire open to the public. 
 Every township of any importance is connected with 
 the capital by wire, the number of stations open 
 being 150 — between which telegrams are sent at a 
 uniform rate of a sliilling for ten words. 
 
 To South Australia belongs the honor of having, 
 at her sole cost and unaided by the sister colonies, 
 constructed the trans-continental line, which joins the 
 Indian and the Southern Oceans, and brings Australia 
 into continuous communication with Europe and the
 
 TELEGRAPIIS-ADjIINLSTRATION of justice. 49 
 
 rest of the civilized world. This line is over 2,000 
 miles long, and was carried across a previously quite 
 unknown country for the greater part of that 
 distance. 
 
 7.— Administration of Justice. 
 
 The legal tribunals consist of a Supreme Court, 
 with three Judges, and a Coiu't of Insolvency in 
 Adelaide, and Local Courts of civil jurisdiction in all 
 the principal to^vns and townships. The Judges hold 
 Circuit Courts at Naracoorte and Mount Gambler 
 twice a year. Police Courts have also been established 
 in Adelaide, and a few other towns, to deal 
 summarily with offences against the peace, larcenies, 
 and other minor criminal offences, and to commit to 
 the Supreme Court. 
 
 The Supreme Court enjoys all the powers of the 
 £)ourts of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, and 
 Exchequer, and fulfils the functions of the Courts of 
 Chancery and of Yice-Admiralty. It also grants 
 probates and letters of administration, and hears 
 appeals from all the tribunals of inferior jurisdiction. 
 
 The Local Courts of Full Jurisdiction can adjudi- 
 cate in all personal actions in amounts up to ^100, 
 and in actions of ejectment where the land is under 
 the Heal Property Act, and does not exceed £ 1 00 in 
 value. Local Courts' of Limited Jurisdiction can only 
 decide suits involving claims under ^20 in ^■alue. In 
 .the former case, the Court consists of a Special 
 
 D
 
 50 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Magistrate, two Justices of the Peace, or a Jury of 
 four ; in the latter, of a Special Magistrate alone, or 
 of two Justices of the Peace alone. 
 
 The Insolvency Court is presided over by a Com- 
 missioner (who is also the Special Magistrate of the 
 Adelaide Local Court), who has power to grant first, 
 second, and third class certificates, the last of which 
 does not operate as a discharge from debt ; and to 
 order imprisonment for a term not exceeding three 
 years in cases of fraudulent insolvency. 
 
 Inquests are conducted by the Magistrates in the 
 country districts; but a Coroner presides over all 
 inquests held in the city and suburbs. 
 
 There is an efficient Police Force, consisting of 
 detectives and mounted and foot constables, com- 
 prising about 300 men. . 
 
 8. —Education. 
 The administration of the public schools is in the 
 hands of a Responsible Minister, and the object of the 
 existing Act is to educate every child in the colony 
 up to a certain standard. The system is practically 
 secular, but not to the exclusion of Bible-reading. 
 All children between seven and thirteen years of age 
 are obliged to attend school not less than thirty-five 
 days in each quarter of a year. The only compulsory 
 subjects are reading, A\Titing, and arithmetic ; but 
 instruction is also given in other branches. The 
 ordinary fee for primary schools is 4d. per week for
 
 EDUCATION— RELIGION. 51 
 
 chilcli'en under eight years of age, and 6d. for older 
 children, but gratuitous instruction is provided for 
 children whose parents are unable to afford payment. 
 
 The number of primary schools in operation during 
 1879 ^v^s 220; that of children in attendance at 
 these being 30,000. In country districts, where 
 Government schools have not been built, provisional 
 schools are established. Besides these schools there 
 are seventy evening schools in operation. The num- 
 ber of teachers is nearly 800, of whom more than half 
 are females. 
 
 In addition to the State schools there are neaiiy 
 300 private schools, including several of the grammar 
 school type. The State does not undertake secondary 
 education, with the exception of having an advanced 
 school for giiis and a training college for teachers. 
 
 Higlier education is provided for by a University 
 founded in 1872, and supported partly by private 
 munificence and partly by Government. 
 
 Amongst the most useful institutions of an educa- 
 tional character are the Adelaide Botanic Garden and 
 the South Australian Institute, containing under one 
 k'oof a public and circulating library, a museum, and 
 reading-room in Adelaide, and with branches in the 
 country districts, 
 
 9 .— Religion. 
 "ilie colony was founded upon principles entirely 
 opposed to any connection between Chiu'ch and State.
 
 52 80UTH AUSTIULIA: 
 
 The beneficial results of this freedom of religion from 
 State assistance and control may be estimated from 
 the fact that two-thirds of the population — scattered 
 though it be — have provided themselves with suitable 
 accommodation for the observance of public worship. 
 The number of churches and other buildings thus 
 used is over 900, and the total number of sittings 
 about 150,000. 
 
 The Church of England stands numerically at the 
 head of the denominations, but the AVesleyan Metho- 
 dists have the largest number of churches. The 
 Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Baptists, 
 Primitive Methodists, Congregationalists, and Bible 
 Christians have (in order) from 28,000 to 7,500 ad- 
 herents ; and there arc a number of other smaller sects. 
 Excluding those cases in which objection was taken 
 to affording the information, about 85 per cent, of the 
 whole poj)ulation are members of Protestant Churches, 
 and the remaining 15 per cent. Roman Catholics. 
 
 An efficient system of Sunday schools is spread 
 throughout the colony, and they are attended by 
 about 40,000 children. 
 
 10 .— Cliavltcible InstUutions. 
 Ample provision is made in public, semi-private, 
 and pri^'ate institutions for the relief of the helpless 
 section of the community. There arc hospitals for 
 the sick, asjlums for orphans and neglected children, 
 for the poor and infirm, for the deaf and dumb and
 
 CHAlUTxVBLE INSTITUTIONS— LOCAL DEFENCES. 53 
 
 blind, and for the insane; a retreat for sailors, a club 
 for buslimen, a children's hospital, an inebriate retreat, 
 and mission stations for the natives, and other 
 charities. 
 
 ll.—I'Ocal Defences. 
 It is only within the last few years that a system 
 of military defence has been introduced. Well- 
 armed forts have been erected to cover the approach 
 to Port Adelaide, and a military road is being made 
 at the rear of the sandhills skirting the eastern coast 
 of St. Vincent's Gulf. The defence force consists of' 
 volunteers of over i,ooo men, comprising two batteries 
 of artillery, one troop of cavalry, and nine companies 
 of infantry. A first-class band of forty performers is 
 attached to this force. There is also a body of rifle 
 volunteers of over 500 men.
 
 Chap. V -Commerce and Manufactures. 
 
 1.— Imports and Exports. 
 
 The annexed table of imports and exports reveals 
 the rapid development of commercial relations. 
 
 In 1838 the value of the exports did not exceed 
 ;^5,ooo; in 1869 it amounted to nearly ^3,000,000; 
 by 1876 it had advanced to considerably over five and 
 a quarter millions (^5,355,021), or ^^22 os. 3d. per 
 head of the population; but in 1879, owing to the 
 reduced value of produce, the amount fell to four and 
 three-quarter millions (;^ 4,7 6 2,7 2 7), or ^^ 19 15s. per 
 head of the population. 
 
 The imports, which in a measure represent the pay- 
 ment for the exports, have augmented concurrently 
 with them. In 1838 the value of the imports was 
 under ;^ 1 60,000 ; in 1869 it had increased to two and 
 three-quarter millions; and in 1879 i^ reached five 
 millions (^5,014,149), or about £ig i8s. per head of 
 the popidation. 
 
 2.—JVatur6 of Exports. 
 
 I. Breadstuffs have for many years occupied a 
 
 foremost place amongst the staple products of the 
 
 province. During the last five years the most valuable 
 
 export was that of 1876, which amounted to nearly
 
 ADELAIDE 
 
 MA ©IB. AMI ^, ^IEI©T?IirrS 
 
 POPULATION SHIPPING 
 
 EXPORTS IMPORTS 
 
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 P0PU14TI0N SHIPPIWC n.i ., EXPORTS. 
 
 IMPORTS COMBINED EtPORTS * IMPORTS. 
 
 SURVEYOR GENERALS OfhcE. ADELAIDE Fm^fr S OuwfoM.PhoU-Utiwymphr.
 
 MTURE OF EXPORTS. . 55 
 
 two millions (1,988,000); wliile, owing to a bad 
 harvest, the least valuable is that of 1879, which, how- 
 ever, was considerably over one and a half million 
 (1,648,000), comprising over 70,000 tons of flour and 
 442,000 quarters of wheat. The harvest of 1879-80 
 has been fairly good, and the area under wheat has so 
 largely increased within the last few years (see page 36) 
 that the export of breadstuifs during the present year 
 will, in all probability, reach 300,000 tons, valued at 
 nearly two and three-quarter millions sterhng. The 
 great bulk of the crop is shipped to the United King- 
 dom; but New South Wales, Queensland, Cape Town, 
 Mauritius, New Caledonia, and several eastern ports 
 also receive large consignments of flour. The price of 
 wheat at Port Adelaide during the last five years has 
 varied from 3s. 9d. to 8s. 2d. per bushel. 
 
 2. Wool was probably the first product exported, 
 and is now second only to breadstufl's.in importance. 
 The increase has been especially marked during the 
 last ten years, and in 1878 the value of the export 
 amounted to over one and thi'ee-quarter millions ster- 
 ling (^1,833,000) for fifty-six and a-half million lbs. 
 In 1879 it stood at a little under one and three-quarter 
 millions sterling (^1,694,000) for 43,i49,98ilbs. 
 The season 1879-80 has been a good one, and the 
 value of the export for 1880 is expected to be con- 
 siderably in advance of that of the previous year. 
 Nearly all South Australian wool is shipped direct to 
 London by steam or sailing vessels.
 
 56 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 3. Copper and Copper Ore to the value of sixteen 
 and a half millions sterling have been exported since 
 1843, but during the last three years the low jirice 
 has considerably reduced the export, which in 1879 
 was only ^35 1,388. 
 
 4. Miscellaneous Products. — In addition to the 
 above chief staples, a variety of minor articles of 
 produce are annually exported. The following were 
 the principal items during 1879: — Tallow, 1,559 tons, 
 ^^42,687 ; sheepskins, ^30,000 ; bark, 3,740 tons, 
 ;^26,ooo; wine, 47,000 gallons, ^16,000; horses and 
 sheep, each,^ 1 1 ,000 ; eggs, ^9,000 ; jams, 3 2 7,ooolbs., 
 leather, ^8,000 ; fresh fruit, ^6,000 ; preserved 
 meat, gum, and hay and chaff, each ^5,000; hides, 
 ^4,000; biscuits and reaping-machines, each ^2,000; 
 soap and potatoes, each ^1,800 ; almonds, ^1,500 ; 
 slate, salt, and other articles to a small value. 
 
 3.—JVatiire of J-mports. 
 Full information of the nature of the import trade 
 will be found in the "Statistical Eegister," lying on the 
 table in the Court, The chief heads in order of value 
 are — Between ^200,000 and ^300,000, raw sugar, 
 apparel and slops. Government stores, greasy wool, 
 drapery, cotton piece goods; between ^/^ 2 00,000 and 
 ;^ 100,000, washed wool, tea, bags, deals and battens, 
 boots and shoes, coal; between^ 100,000 and^50,ooo, 
 gold specie, galvanized iron, beer, tweeds, spirits, 
 hardware, malt, books, fancy goods, furniture, drugs;
 
 IMPORTS— DIRECTIOJ^ OF TRADE. 57 
 
 between ^50,000 and ^20,000, tools, woollen piece 
 goods, potatoes, oats, candles, preserved fish, bar and 
 rod iron, stationery, tobacco, boards, horses, machinery, 
 printing paper, moleskins, wine, earthen and china 
 ware, butter, cheese, musical instruments, ammunition, 
 clocks and Avatches, copper, carpeting and druggcting, 
 flannel piece goods; between ^20,000 and ^10,000, 
 raw coffee, hops, leather, horned cattle, pearl shells, 
 blankets, jewellery, kerosine, ploughshares, glassware, 
 woodware, canvas, engines, cements, tanks, paints, 
 sewing machines, brush ware, carriages, rope and 
 cordage, dried currants, pickles, and rum. 
 
 4'— Direction of Trade. 
 
 Of the total imports in 1879, over a half (^2,7 1 9,000) 
 came from the United Kingdom ; nearly three- 
 quarters of a million worth from Victoria; ^623,000 
 from New South Wales ; nearly a quarter of a million 
 from Mauritius; ^129,000 from Western Australia; 
 ^245,000 from India and from the United States of 
 America; between ^90,000 and ^50,000 worth came 
 from China, New Zealand, Tasmania, ?nd Norway 
 and Sweden ; about ^30,000 from Queensland and 
 Canada ; ^20,000 from Java ; ^8,000 from Bourbon; 
 ^2,000 from Germany; ^1,000 from Egypt; and 
 minor values from Port Darwin, the Cape, Hong 
 Kong, and Natal. 
 
 Of the total exports in 1879, ^learly two-thu*ds
 
 58 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 (;^2, 845,000) went to the United Kingdom; ^800 
 to Canada; ^700,000 to New South Wales; ^400,000 
 to Victoria ; under a quarter of a million to the Cape 
 and to Queensland ; ^ 1 1 6,000 to Western Australia ; 
 ^65,000 to Natal; ^50,000 to Mauritius; ^43,000 
 to New Caledonia; ^35,000 to New Zealand; 
 ;^25,ooo each to India and to Java ; ^15,000 to Port 
 Darwin; ^7,000 to Peru; ^4,500 to Hong Kong; 
 ^2,500 to Tasmania and to St. Helena; ^1,700 to 
 Ceylon ; and small values to the United States and to 
 Singapore. 
 
 5.— Shipping. 
 Eleven hundred vessels, representing 468,000 tons, 
 entered inwards at ports in the province in 1879, ^s 
 against 1,040 vessels, with 465,000 tons, cleared out- 
 wards. Direct steam communication between London 
 and Adelaide is maintained by the Orient and P. & O. 
 Companies, each of which dispatches one of their 
 magnificent steamers — ranging from 2,500 to 5,000 
 tons — fortnightly; besides which, other steamers visit 
 Adelaide occasionally. Steamers run twice a week 
 between Adelaide and Melbourne, and there are now 
 two more going to Sydney, one of which calls at 
 Tasmania en route. Three lines of fine clipper ships, 
 ranging from 800 to 1,800 tons register each, trade 
 regularly between London and Adelaide, and there 
 are also a large number of barques, schooners, and 
 other craft in the intercolonial trade.
 
 THE RIVER 3IURRAY TRADE— THE TARIFF. 59 
 
 6.— The River Murray Trade. 
 South Australian enterprise opened the River 
 Murray to navigation in 1853, and, subsequently, 
 its great tributaries, the Darling and Murrumbidgee. 
 Since the opening of these rivers, the whole of the 
 immense tract of pastoral country known as the 
 Riverina has been heavily stocked, producing 
 now about 200,000 bales of wool annually. Of this 
 river wool, over 30,000 tons were brought into South 
 Australia in 1879, partly by the railroad from Morgan 
 to Port Adelaide, partly by small steamers through 
 the mouth of the Murray, partly by tramroad from 
 Goolwa, at the Murray mouth, to Port Victor. The 
 producing power of the Riverina country is capable 
 of considerable expansion. The mouth of the Murray 
 has been pronounced unimprovable, except at much 
 cost; but, to facilitate the trade, large harbor works 
 are being constructed at Port Victor, connected with 
 the Murray mouth by a railroad some nine miles long. 
 
 7 -The Tariff. 
 Although the highest duties have for the most part 
 been placed on articles which can be manufactured 
 in the colony, the existing tariff was passed for the 
 purpose of raising revenue, and not with a view to 
 protection. Most articles of drapery, furniture, car- 
 riages, drugs, earthenware, jewellery, certain kinds of 
 leather and leather goods, stationery and fancy goods, 
 and fish and meat in pickle or brine, are charged
 
 60 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 lO per cent, ad valorem^ while engines not exceeding 
 60 horse power and agricultural implements pay 5 
 per cent. A number of articles are placed on the 
 free list. 
 
 For the benefit of merchants and other persons 
 wishing to trade with the colony the following com- 
 plete list of dutiable goods is subjoined : — 
 
 The Tariff of South Australia. 
 (Act No. 34 of 1876.— July 25, 1876.) 
 
 iVrrowroot, maizena, cornflour, sago, tapioca ; pearl barley, s. d. 
 split peas ; biscuits ; candles ; dried, preserved, and 
 salted fish and meats (excejit in brine or other jiickle) ; 
 preserved vegetables ; blue ; starch ; glue — per lb. . . o i 
 Ale, porter, S2)ruce, or other beer ; cider, perry ; vinegar, 
 
 limejiiicc cordial (not being spirituous) — per gallon .. o g 
 Eags and sacks (being new), viz., bran, gunny, ore, un- 
 
 enumerated — per dozen . . . , . . ..00 
 
 Corn and flour (three bushels and over) — per dozen . . 06 
 Woolpacks — per dozen . , . . . . , . ..30 
 
 Candied fruits, confectionery ; dried fruits (except cocoa- 
 nuts) ; bacon, cheese, hams ; jams, jellies, preserves, 
 cordials (not being spirituous), syrups ; maccaroni, 
 vermicelli, mustard, pepper, spices — per lb. or pint . . 02 
 Coffee (raAv), cocoa, chocolate; hops; tea; sporting powder 
 
 (except in casks) — per lb. . . . . . . ..03 
 
 Cement, plaster of paris — per barrel . . . . ..20 
 
 Chicory, coffee (roast or ground) — per lb . . . . ..04 
 
 Doors and fi-ames — each . . . . . . . . ..26 
 
 Sashes — per pair . . . . , . . . . . ..26 
 
 Fruits (bottled), pickles, sauces, salad oils — per dozen re- 
 puted qviarts . . . . . . . . . . ..20 
 
 Fruits (bottled), pickles, sauces, salad oils — per dozen re- 
 puted pints . . . . . . . . . . ..10 
 
 Fruits (bottled), pickles, sauces, salad oils (smaller sizes) — 
 
 per dozen . . . . , . . . . . . . ..09
 
 THE TxVRIFF. 
 
 61 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Iron, corrugated, galvanized (including galvanized iron 
 "sviie) — per ton . . 
 
 Iron, galvanized, manufactures — per cwt. . . 
 
 Iron pipes, gates, fencing, and posts — per ton 
 
 Iron wire, iron girders — per ton 
 
 Kerosine — per gallon . . 
 
 Lead (pipe and sheet), shot— per cwt. 
 
 Malt — per bushel 
 
 Nails, screws, paints —per cwt. 
 
 Cordage, rope, spunyarn (except raw yarn, used for manii- 
 factures) — per cwt. 
 
 Oils (except cod and whale oils), turpentine, naphtha, var- 
 nish — per gallon . . . » 
 
 Opium — per lb. 
 
 Paper, wrapping (brown and whitey-brown), and paper 
 bags — per c^vt. . . 
 
 Playing cards — per dozen packs 
 
 Potatoes — per cwt. 
 
 Sarsaparilla (if not containing more than 25 per cent, of 
 proof spirit) — per liquid gallon 
 
 Salt (except rock salt), saltpetre ; soda (except caustic and 
 silicate), soap — per ton. . 
 
 Spii-its — Brandy, nun, gin, whisky, geneva, or strong 
 waters of any kind or strength, including sjiirituous 
 compounds, bitters, cordials, or strong waters sweetened 
 or mixed with any article not exceeding the strength 
 of proof by Sykes's hydrometer, and so on, in pro- 
 portion, for any greater strength than the strength of 
 proof — per gallon 
 
 Spirits —Wine, containing more than 35 per cent, of proof 
 spirit in proportion to strength — per gallon . . 
 
 Spirits — Methylated — per gallon 
 
 Sugar, molasses, and treacle ; rice — per cwt. 
 
 Tobacco, manufactm-ed — per lb. 
 
 Tobacco, unmanufactvu*ed — per lb. . . . . . . , . 
 
 Tobacco, destroyed for sheeiDwash — per lb. . . 
 
 Tobacco, cigars, snuff — per lb. 
 
 "Wine, sparkling— per gallon. . 
 
 "Wine, other — per gallon 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 o 
 
 o 6 
 
 10 o 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 o 
 
 o 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 + 
 

 
 62 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Wood — Battens, deals, and planks, spar — per 40 cubic feet 2 6 
 
 Wood — Ai'cliitraves, skii'tings, mouldings — per 100 lineal 
 
 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . ..16 
 
 Wood — Boards, 3/3 to i^/zin., rough, or planed, tongued 
 
 and grooved — per 1 00 superficial feet . . . . ..16 
 
 Wood — Laths — per 1,000 .. .. .. .. ..10 
 
 Wood— Shingles — per 1,000.. .. .. .. ..06 
 
 Wood — Palings — per 100 .. .. .. .. ..06 
 
 On all imported goods included in the following list an ad valorem 
 duty of 10 per cent., viz. : — 
 
 Drapery (except cotton and linen piece goods and woollen piece 
 goods, not otherwise enumerated), haberdashery, hosiery, furs, 
 gloves ; millinery ; hats, caps, bonnets ; apparel and slops 
 (except moleskin clothing) ; blankets, rugs, quilts, towels ; 
 boots, shoes, goloshes, portmanteaus, leather and carpet bags ; 
 umbrellas, parasols. 
 
 Furniture, carpeting, hearth rugs, mats, matting, oil and floor 
 cloth ; cornices, gilt mouldings, looking glasses ; mantel- 
 pieces ; papex'hangings ; iron bedsteads, safes, and doors; 
 grates, stoves, ovens, fenders, fireirons ; arms, ammunition ; 
 cutlery ; tiuAvare, japannedware ; woodware (including bellows, 
 picture frames, and washing-machines), turnery, and carved 
 wood. 
 
 Carriages, carts, Avagons, and vehicles of every description ; 
 wheels. 
 
 Drugs (except gum arable), druggists' w^are, chemicals (except 
 bluestone and sulphuric acid), patent medicines ; perfumery, 
 brushes, combs, scented and fancy soaps, essences (not being 
 spirituous compovmds) . 
 
 Earthenware, broAvnware, china ; glass, glassware, glass bottles 
 (except ordinary wine, beer, ginger beer, and sodawater bottles, 
 and syi^hous), lamps; marble, stone, slate (wrought), tiles and 
 bricks (except fire and bath bricks). 
 
 Jewellery, plate, plated goods ; clocks, watches ; musical instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Leather (except patent and enamelled, and kid, hogskins, levant, 
 morocco, roans, satins, and skivers), saddlery and harness 
 (made up), whips, Avalking-sticks ; tents, tarpaulins ; boot 
 ujipcrs and leggings.
 
 THE TARIFF-MANUFACTURES. 03 
 
 Stationery, manufactured (including account books, printed cheques 
 and forms, bill-heads, and other printed or ruled paper) ; fancy 
 goods, toys, brushware ; basket and wickerware ; tobacco pipes, 
 tobacconists' ware. 
 
 Fish and meat, in pickle or brine. 
 
 On all imported goods included in the follo\A'ing list an ad valoi-em 
 duty of 5 per cent., viz. ; — 
 
 All cloths and tweeds in the piece. 
 
 Implements, viz. : — Engines not exceeding sixty horse-power, iron 
 and brass castings, and wrought iron ; forged work used in the 
 manufacture of steam engines ; pumps, iron and brass, exceeding 
 3in. bore ; boilers for steam engines and steam purposes ; 
 chaifcutters ; corn-crushers, grain-sowers ; horse-powers ; 
 mowing-machines ; reaping-machines, scarifiers, horse-rakes, 
 ploughs, harroAvs, moulding-boards, ploughshares. 
 [N.B. — In all cases -where duty is charged at per gallon, one dozen reputed 
 
 quart hottles will he taken as t-wo gallons, and one dozen reputed pint hottles as 
 
 one gallon.] 
 
 8. —Manufactures. 
 
 Within the past few years local industries have 
 largely increased in number and efficiency. Most of 
 them have their raw material at hand in the produce 
 of the country, and are engaged in supplying local 
 demands rather than in exporting. 
 
 The chief manufactories are — Steam mills, 113; 
 winemaking establishments, 100; agricultural im- 
 plement works, 43 ; tanneries and fellmongeries, 40; 
 boot and shoe factories, brickyards, and breweries, 
 each 25 ; sawmills, a?rated water and cordial factories, 
 and coachbuilders' shops, each 20 ; limekihis, 6 ; 
 clothing factories, 13 ; besides soap and candle fac- 
 tories, bone-dust mills, glue and size works, shiji and 
 boat building yards, potteries and tile and pipe works,
 
 64 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 gas works, dye works, rope-walks, brush manufac- 
 tories, biscuit bakeries, jam and preserve and con- 
 fectionery manufactories, dried fruit and olive oil 
 factories, and ice works. 
 
 Among other miscellaneous local productions and 
 manufactures are — Barilla, billiard tables, baking 
 powder, blacking, cayenne pepper, cement, cigars, 
 fibre, plaster of paris, washing-machines, sauces and 
 pickles, salt, safety fuses, gas stoves, iron safes, bed- 
 steads, galvanized iron, tinware, and nickel-plating.
 
 st.^^.i^©^ 
 
 ©IF 
 
 IN 
 
 'SOt/'TM A t/STiZAZIA 
 
 ^s:^^ 
 
 FOR TEN YEARS 
 
 
 e 
 
 M i w ; e9 ' '^ 1 m 
 
 ;o !» ao 
 
 ft 
 
 OCCUPATION 
 
 
 K 1 !>. 
 
 l>a 
 
 00 
 
 90 
 
 1^ 
 
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 00 00 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 ■4 
 
 p4 vN 
 
 •a4 
 
 ■N 
 
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 -. -« I M -< 1 
 
 DOMESTIC 
 
 ^ 
 
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 _, 
 
 CENERAl S£RVANTS .|T> lotai >•• loicoc ^/<>.«>« 
 
 «0 
 
 40 40 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 43 45 43 
 
 43 
 
 Do D> ri»tl xra •. 
 
 26 
 
 26 27 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 i 29 1 28 
 
 28 
 
 COOKS .Alt <•»» «« 
 
 zs.o 
 
 30.0 35.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 36.0 
 
 36.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.0 27.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 Db rt»*ie 
 
 14.0 
 
 1S.0 IS.O 
 
 IS.O 
 
 16.0 
 
 17.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 16,0 16.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 HOUSE « KITCHEN MAIDS 
 
 9. 
 
 9.0 10.0 
 
 10. 
 
 10.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 10.0 
 
 10.0 10.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 LAUNDRESSES 
 
 12. 
 
 12 . 12.0 1 12.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.0 14.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 FARM «. DAIRY 
 
 _, 
 
 _, ^ '- J 
 
 _, 
 
 _, 
 
 _, 
 
 ^ \ . 
 
 _, 
 
 MAN « WIFE •<!• loiii ••> wioi ^r«>.»i» 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 SS 1 58 
 
 58 
 
 SINGLE MEN 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 4S 
 
 50 
 
 S2 
 
 49 
 
 50 48 
 
 48 
 
 HARVEST HANDS «/* 'rn 
 
 1 .10 
 
 1 .10 
 
 1 .10 
 
 1 .10 
 
 1 .10 
 
 1.15 
 
 1 . 5 
 
 1 . 8 1 . S 
 
 1. 8 
 
 MILKMEN 
 
 15 . 
 
 a ^ 
 
 IS . 
 
 a # 
 
 16 .0 
 
 a d 
 17 . 
 
 2*0.0 
 
 a d 
 20.0 
 
 IS . 
 
 18.0 lis .6 
 
 a d 
 IS .6 
 
 DAIRYMAIDS 
 
 10 . 
 
 10 . 
 
 10 .0 
 
 10 . 
 
 10 .0 
 
 1 1 .0 
 
 12 . 
 
 11 .0 
 
 11.0 
 
 11 .0 
 
 DAIRY WORK 
 
 23. 
 
 23. 
 
 23. 
 
 23. 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 27. 
 
 27.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 GOOD CHEESEMAKERS 
 
 ID . 
 
 10. 
 
 10.0 
 
 10. 
 
 12 .0 
 
 12 .0 
 
 12 . 
 
 12.0 
 
 12 . 
 
 12 .0 
 
 HOTEL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BARMEN •IT. loan ••• igici«c r,.;ti, 
 
 22.0 
 
 21 . 
 
 21 .0 
 
 25.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 28. 
 
 28.0 
 
 28. 
 
 28. 
 
 BARMAIDS 
 
 14. 
 
 IS . 
 
 15.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 17 .0 
 
 17.0 
 
 17. 
 
 17.0 
 
 17. 
 
 17 
 
 .0 
 
 BOOTS « MEN SERVANTS 
 
 14. 
 
 15 . 
 
 16.0 
 
 17. 
 
 18.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 >8.0 
 
 18. 
 
 18 
 
 , 
 
 OSTLERS 
 
 IS. 
 
 15 . 
 
 16. 0! 17 . 
 
 IS.O 
 
 20.0 
 
 IS. 
 
 18.0 
 
 IS. 
 
 18 
 
 .0 
 
 STABLE HELPS YOUTHS 
 
 12. 
 
 12 . 
 
 12. 
 
 14. 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 12 . 
 
 12.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 12 
 
 .0 
 
 SHEEP &. CATTLE STATIONS 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 _, 
 
 _, 
 
 _, 
 
 ^ 
 
 _, 
 
 _, 
 
 SHEPHERDS •>•■»• la. toaiK ■.r,„i ,» ..,^, 
 
 SO 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 Do ii.iil > >»T>iirii o.f •>i.o<i lie. 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 Do ■!>»£ lEIFOOItOa >UT • KtlOKl 
 
 39 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 HUTKEEPtRS liTa •iT.om 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 LAMIMINDERS •toi'iiii tiouT a •»Tiii • g. 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 MAN « WIFE B. •. 2 t. 
 
 SO 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 6S 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 MEN FOR GENERAL WORK aiTi ■•Iiom 
 
 40 
 
 4.0 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 SO 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 SO 
 
 SUSH CARPENTERS 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 78 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 MEN COOHS 
 
 4S 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 S2 
 
 TEAMSTERS 
 
 4S 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 SHEEPDROVERS 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 6S 
 
 65 
 
 STOCKMEN 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 SS 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 COITBREAKERS 
 
 60 
 
 SS 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 6S 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 WATER DRAWERS 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 45 
 
 4S 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 
 ^ rf 
 
 J 4 
 
 ^ rf 
 
 a J 
 
 , rf 
 
 a J 
 
 t J 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 a rf 
 
 J ^ 
 
 WELL SINKERS A.iiici IiaaiKI .. .» •r» 
 
 35.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 37.0 
 
 42.0 
 
 42.0 
 
 42.0 
 
 42.6 
 
 42.6 
 
 HUT BUILDERS 
 
 35.0 
 
 30. 
 
 30,0 
 
 35.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 40.0 
 
 WOOL PRESSERS 
 
 35. 
 
 3o!o 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 3S 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 35. 
 
 SHEEP SHEARERS .. I'm 100 
 
 ■ 5.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 20,0 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 18 .6 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BAKERS •.!• loan A.B LOIc.ac Km lum 
 
 4. 6 
 
 4 .6 
 
 4.6 
 
 5. 
 
 5.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 \ 5 
 
 6 
 
 5.6 
 
 BLACKSM'THS aiTaoiT a. 
 
 ' . 6 
 
 ' .6 
 
 8.0 
 
 e. 6 
 
 9.0 
 
 9. 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 BRICKLAYERS 
 
 B. 
 
 8 .0 
 
 9. 
 
 9. 
 
 9. 
 
 9. 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 BRICKMAKERS ,•» 1000 
 
 12 . 
 
 12 .0 
 
 12.0 
 
 12 . 
 
 12 .0 
 
 12 . 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 BUTCHERS iiT. aoaaa aaa laeciao n. ,„. 
 
 4 . 6 
 
 4 .6 
 
 4.6 
 
 5 . 
 
 5 . 
 
 ■5 .0 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 CABINET MAKERS ..T.oal ». 
 
 6.0 
 
 8 .0 
 
 8.0 
 
 8 . 
 
 9 . 
 
 9.6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 CARPENTERS 
 
 B . 
 
 8 .0 
 
 8.0 
 
 8. 
 
 8.6 
 
 9. 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 CARRIAGE BUILDERS 
 
 9.0 
 
 9 . 
 
 8.0 
 
 9. 
 
 9.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 CIGAR MAKERS 
 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 •7 . 
 
 7 
 
 7 . 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 C9OPERS 
 
 e .0 
 
 8 .0 
 
 8. 
 
 8. 
 
 7 .6 
 
 7 .6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 COLLAR MAKERS 
 
 10 , 
 
 10 :0 
 
 10. 
 
 10 , 6 
 
 10 .6 
 
 10 . 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 DAY LABORERS 
 
 5 .8 
 
 6 .0 
 
 6.0 
 
 7 . 
 
 7 .6 
 
 7 .6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 FRENCH POLISHERS 
 
 S. 
 
 8 .0 
 
 8.0 
 
 8. 
 
 8.0 
 
 8. 
 
 7 
 
 s 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 GALVANIZED IRON WORKERS 
 
 B .0 
 
 8 .0 
 
 8.0 
 
 8 . 6 
 
 9 . 
 
 9.0 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 HARNESS MAKERC 
 
 9 .0 
 
 9 .0 
 
 8.6 
 
 8 . 6 
 
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 SURVEYOR GENERALS OFFICE . ADELAIDE Frxatr S. Cnurford. Pholo~lU}uympl,t
 
 Chap. VI.— Finance. 
 
 l.—The MtUonal Debt. 
 
 From time to time moneys have been raised by 
 loan for the carrying out of reproductive public works 
 (page 44). Many of these will, no doubt, ultimately 
 not only pay for maintenance, working expenses, and 
 interest on outlay, but will also yield a profit. At 
 first it is impossible they can do so. In the meantime, 
 however, they are of direct advantage to the country 
 in increasing the value of property, and extending the 
 margin of cultivation and of settlement. 
 
 The amount of the Public Debt outstanding at end 
 of 1879 ^"^^^ over 9 Y^ millions sterling (^9,882,900); 
 see " Statistical Register." The earlier debentures 
 issued, to the amount of nearly a million and a half, 
 bore interest at 6 per cent. Susequently ^400,000 
 worth were issued at 5 per cent. ; but of late years 
 only 4 per cent, has been paid. Over eight millions 
 have been raised at tliis rate. The mean price of 
 South Australian 4 per cents, during the first six 
 months of the present year has been 97. The currency 
 of the bond is generally tliii'ty years. Redemptions 
 to the amount of ^850,000 have been made since the 
 first issue of bonds in 1854. The total rate of in- 
 debtedness per head of the population is about ^21. 
 
 E
 
 66 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Against this indebtedness of nearly ten millions may 
 be set nearly five millions due to the Government 
 by credit selectors, and public works to the value of 
 nearly eight millions. 
 
 2.— Revenue and Expenditure. 
 
 Exclusive of the Public Loan Account, wliich is 
 kept separately, the General "Revenue for the financial 
 year ending June 30, 1880 amounted to over a million 
 and a thi'ee-quarters sterling (^1,831,1 64), as against 
 an almost equal expenditure, ^1,853,1 13. 
 
 The chief heads of receipt were — Sale of Crown 
 Lands and Literest on Credit Sales, ^531,610; 
 Customs and Excise, ^510,796 ; Probate and Succes- 
 sion Duties, ^12,200; Railways and Tramways, 
 ^364,855; Post and Telegraphs, ^130,929 ; Water- 
 works, ^48,727 ; Marine, ^12,592 ; Eents of Crown 
 Lands, ^74,243 ; together with education fees, busi- 
 ness licences, and reimbui'sements-in-aid. 
 
 The cliief heads of expenditure were — Public 
 Works ^293,457; Immigration, ^24,951 ; Interest 
 and Pedemption of Bonds, ^397,364 ; Survey of 
 Crown Lands, ^^70,421. — The above items are paid 
 for out of the sums derived from the sale of Crown 
 Lands; Railways and Tramways, ^260,530; Post 
 and Telegraphs, ^167,369; Education, ^103,1 14. 
 The balance is made up by the ordinary expenses 
 necessary to the maintenance of Government in all 
 civilised communities.
 
 BANKING. 67 
 
 The total taxation in 1879 ^^'^^ about ^2 per head 
 of the population. Nearly the whole of it is raised by 
 Customs Duties, which amounted to ^i 19s.; the 
 balance being made up by Probate and Successiou 
 Duties. 
 
 3.— Banking. 
 
 Eight banking institutions carry on business within 
 the province, viz.: — The Bank of South Australia, 
 National Bank of Australasia, Union Bank of Aus- 
 tralia, Bank of Australasia ; English, Scottish, and 
 Australian Chartered Bank; Bank of Adelaide, Bank 
 of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of 
 South Australia. All of these have their head quarters 
 at Adelaide, and there are over 100 branches and 
 agencies in the principal sea-port and inland town- 
 ships. 
 
 At the end of June, 1880, (quarterly return) the 
 total average liabilities of the eight banks amounted 
 t0;^455555O45; assets, ^7,370,531 ; amount of notes 
 in circulation, not bearing interest, ^474,570 ; bills 
 in circulation, ^12,944 ; balances due to other banks, 
 ;^56,oi2; deposits, ^4,01 1,518 ; capital stock, paid- 
 up. 
 
 The assets consisted of coined gold, silver, and other 
 metals, ^922,849 ; gold and silver in bullion or 
 ingots, ^8,551 ; Government securities, ^25,000; 
 landed property and bank premises, ^261,694 ; notes 
 and bills of other banks, ^50,199; balances due 
 from other banks, ^184,529; notes and bills dis-
 
 68 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 counted and other debts due to banks not enumerated, 
 ^5,917,706. 
 
 The rate of interest allowed to depositors varied 
 from ^5 per cent., at thirty days' notice, to ^6 los., 
 and more usually ^6, for twelve months. 
 
 The course of exchange was i per cent, premium for 
 drafts on London at twenty days' sight, and '/^ to i per 
 cent, premium for drafts at sight on neighboring 
 colonies; on private bills purchased on London at 
 sixty days '/^ per cent, discount, and on neighbouring 
 colonies at sight Yg and i per cent. 
 
 The rate of discount on local bills is — under 65 
 days, 8 per cent. ; 65 to 95 days, 8 per cent. ; 95 
 to 125 days, 9 per cent.; and over 125 days, 10 
 per cent.
 
 Chap. VII. -The Northern Territory. 
 
 1. Settlement. 
 
 The successful crossing of the centre of Australia 
 from south to north by John McDouall Stuart, in 
 1862, led in due course to the annexation to South 
 Australia of the extensive region between the 26th 
 parallel of the southern latitude and the Indian 
 Ocean, containing an area of 531,000 square miles. 
 
 The first settlement was at Adam Bay, at the 
 mouth of the Adelaide River. These early attempts 
 at colonising were unsuccessful, and later on Port 
 Darwin was chosen as the nucleus of settlement. 
 
 2. Climate. 
 The climate of the Northern Territory is tropical, 
 and there are but two seasons. The wet season 
 begins towards the end of October, and lasts about 
 five months. During January and February the 
 rainfall is very heavy, and it is during this period 
 that the heat is also most intense. The maximum 
 temperatiu'e recorded at this time of year is 96°, 
 and the minimum during the night 65°. During 
 the remainder of the year the temperature is equable 
 and cool, except just prior to the setting in of the 
 rainy season. The sun is rarely shadowed by a cloud,
 
 70 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 and day after day there is a clear bright sky. During 
 June and July the maximum temperature registered 
 was 84°, and the minimum 56°. The annual rainfall 
 registered at Port Darwin during the last nine years 
 varies from 5 lin. to 8oin., while the wet season rainfall 
 for the same period ranges from 47in. to 77in. The 
 sickness most prevalent amongst the settlers is a kind 
 of intermittent fever, accompanied by ague. This 
 complaint is very trying, though not really dangerous. 
 
 S, Physical Features, 
 North Australia is remarkable for the number and 
 size of its rivers. The chief of these are the Adelaide, 
 wliich empties itself into Adam Bay, and is navigable 
 for a distance of 50 miles; the Roper, flowing 
 westerly into the Gulf of Carpentaria, and is navi- 
 gable for nearly 100 miles; the Victoria, in the 
 western portion of the Territory, which can be 
 navigated by small crafts at least 100 miles, and 40 
 by large ones; the Liverpool, the South and East 
 Alligators, the Daly, which emptier itself into Adam 
 Bay, and many others. 
 
 4.. Agriculture. 
 The character of the soil in so large an area 
 is necessarily variable, but its general fertility is 
 unquestionable. No difficulty is experienced in 
 finding large blocks of rich land capable of growing 
 tropical products in luxuriance. Maize grows pro-
 
 NORTHERN TEHRITORY. 71 
 
 fusely, and the experiments made justify the belief 
 that such articles as sugar, cotton, and indigo 
 would also prosper in many situations. Nearly all 
 kinds of tropical fi'uits and vegetables thi-ive and 
 flourish in these latitudes. The plaintain and banana 
 grow wherever they are stuck in the ground, and 
 produce excellent fruit. Cocoa-nut trees and pine- 
 apples, together with lemon and orange trees, flourish 
 in the Palmerston Botanic Garden. The " custard- 
 apple," the ** papaya," the tamarind tree, the guava, 
 and the rosella all thrive well. Splendid specimens 
 of the mango are obtained at Port Essington. In 
 vegetables the melon tribe succeeds admirably, and 
 grows as weeds in some places. The yam and sweet 
 potato have been cultivated with gi*eat success. 
 Arrowroot has been tried on a small scale and thrives 
 exceedingly well. It is believed that the tea plant 
 would grow well in certain districts, and the same 
 may be said of spices, but none have yet been planted. 
 Excellent sugar-cane is grown at the Government 
 Garden, and cotton raised there obtained the first 
 prize at the Sydney Exhibition. The cultivation of 
 Indian corn promises well, and couch grass and 
 buffalo grass both grow rapidly. 
 
 5. Pastuj'e. 
 
 As to the pastoral capabihties of the Territory 
 there can be no doubt. Within the last three years 
 nearly 200,000 square miles of country have been
 
 72 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 taken up by squatters. The existing regulations pro- 
 vide that the person who shall describe any country 
 not previously applied for without the settled districts 
 for pastoral purposes shall be entitled to a preferential 
 right to a lease, for any period not exceeding 2 5 years, 
 of any portion in one block of not less than 25 
 square miles nor more than 400 in extent, at an 
 annual rental of 6d per square mile for the first seven 
 years, and los. per square mile for the remainder of 
 the term, on condition that the run is declared stocked 
 within a period of three years, at the rate of two head 
 of great cattle, or ten head of small cattle for every 
 square mile of country. 
 
 6. Gold Mining. 
 
 Gold mining has hitherto been the only industry 
 carried on to any extent. Some splendid nuggets 
 have occasionally been obtained from the alluvial 
 diggings, and the quartz-crushing returns have in 
 many cases shown from four to six ounces to the ton. 
 The principal reefs at present open are the Stapleton 
 Creek, Howley, John Bull, Yam Creek, Union, 
 Extended Union, and Pine Creek. 
 
 The distance of these reefs from Port Darwin is 
 over 100 miles, and the want of a good road has 
 hitherto greatly impeded the development of the mines. 
 That desideratum has at length been supplied, and 
 now, by a steamer to Southport (25 miles), and thence 
 to Yam Creek (90 miles) by an excellent road, com-
 
 NORTHERN TERRITORY. 73 
 
 munication is open; and a weekly coach, can-ying 
 nine persons, runs from Southport to Yam Creek. 
 
 A new alluvial diggings has just been started 
 (July, 1 880) on the Margaret River, seven miles from 
 Yam Creek, where the Government Resident (Mr. E. 
 W. Price) reports " large quantities of gold are being 
 found" (13th July, 1880), indicating, he thinks, 
 "rich reefs in the neighboring hills." At these 
 diggings, on the 30th July, 1,100, Chinese and 50 
 Eiiropeans were camped. " Some works were stopped 
 for want of water, but when the wet season comes a 
 large population is looked for." Trooj)er Wrinkler 
 reports a nugget of 4 2 lbs. weight. 
 
 On the 2nd of August, twenty-six teams were 
 carting on the Southport and Yam Creek Road at 
 j^i6 per ton — horses and wagons being scarce, but 
 provisions abundant. 
 
 7. Population. 
 The population of the settlement is estimated at 
 about 400 whites, 30 Malays, and 2,040 Chinese. 
 
 S. Adjiiinistration of Justice. 
 The Government Resident presides at a CiiTuit 
 Court, and has power to try all felonies (except 
 murder) and misdemeanors. A Local Court of Full 
 and Limited Jurisdiction is also held at Palmerston.
 
 74 
 
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