UC-NRLF ^g UPU pn'=i Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/dialecticalstudiOOprimrich l/pt/WVUl-- P l lI i Yltki 'i l / 27 PE5IO large pulsating aortic arches. These arches are sometimes MAt-fKi called "primitive hearts." These experiments were performed with large strong worms desigoated as A. B. C. The temperature was raised or lowered as seen by the table with the following results: 1. Change of temperature causes great irritability. 2. After a short time the worm becomes accustomed to change of temperature, and the aortic arches tend to revert to the original beat. See specimen A, temperature 19°; beats 14 16 14. A, " 10°; " 8 11 8. B, " W; " 8 10 9J. 3. The pulse beats with greater force at a low tempearture. 4. Tendency to same rate of beat in same temperature. 5. The upper limit is reached at 85°, when the pulsations cease. Table Showing Pulsations in the Aortic Akches of the earth.worm. Time. Tempera- ture C. Beats per minute. A. B. C. A.M. 10.40 ir 14 18 20 10.45 19^ 16 16 14 10.52 19= 14 14 14 11.15 10° 8 8 10 11.20 10' 11 10 9 11.30 10° 8 9* 9.V 11.45 5° 7 6 6 11.50 5° 7 6 6 ^ 11.55 5=^ 7 6 6 12.15 12° 11+ 12 10 12.35 22° 26 22 19 12.50 29° 28 26 30 p. M. 1.07 35° 411404 • • • • • •«•-•• • e • • • •• • • « • • •, • • • . .'. • e • « • • ( • •• « a.1'^ DIALECTICAL STUDIES IN WEST VIRGINIA. BY SYLYESTER PRIMER. In studying the language or pronunciation of any section of the country, it is necessary first of all to trace back the history of the people inhabiting it to the earliest beginnings in order to explain understandingly the dialectical peculiarities of its grammar or pronunciation. I shall, therefore, preface my remarks on the linguistical peculiarities of this region with a brief sketch of its earliest settlement and later development. The early history of Western Virginia, now known as West Virginia, begins a century later than that of Eastern Virginia, or Virginia proper. In 1710 Alexander Spotswood, a Scotch- man, was the deputy-governor of the Colony of Virginia.. In 1716 he "gathered a party of the choice spirits of the Old Dominion, and set out on an exploration of the country beyond the Blue Ridge and AUeghanies, advancing as far as the fertile fields of Kentucky. " As far as we know, he was " the first white man to enter the Great Valley, which Avas soon thereafter occupied by large numbers of Scottish, and some German and English settlers." In 1774 Virginia purchased from the ludians the right to make settlements to the Ohio, and built a fort where Pittsburg now stands. In 1752 Robert Dinwiddle, then deputy-governor of Virginia, began active relations with the great western country. " He encouraged trade and exploration with this region, and the Virginia traders swarmed across the mountains to traffic with the Indians, and there met with the French, which finally led, as you remember, to the attack on Fori Duquesne (now Pittsburg) and Braddock's defeat At about this time the Ohio Company of Virginia began to take Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 29 steps to settle the western region, and encouragement was given both before and after the revolutionary war to settlers in this region." In 1738 Augusta was the frontier county, and then extended westward indefinitely. To the north lie Kockingham, Shenandoah and Frederick counties. Nearly all this region was settled by Germans and Swedes. "A Swedish congregation was here collected, and the Eev. Peter Muhlenburg, son of the Kev. Mr. Muhlenburg, father of the Lutheran Church in America, was sent to take charge of it." To the south lie Eockbridge, Botetourt and Montgomery counties. Botetourt became in 1769 the western frontier. From here the emigrants pushed forward to the westward, and soon settled the whole of what is mow West Virginia. History tells us that the Presbyterians were first in this field, and the fact that the people are of Scotch and Scotch-Irish descent would lead to the same conclusion. But it must not be forgotten that a greater part of the population of West Virginia were emigrants from Maryland and Virginia. A comparison of the names also will indicate in a general way the national charac- teristics of the inhabitants, and show whether there has been an intermixture of outside elements with the original settlers. However, too great stress should not be placed on mere names, as they might not always show the true nationality of the section from which their bearers came. Yet they are not to be dis- carded altogether, but must be taken into account in dialectical studies. They wil] show approximately whether the population has remained pure from the earliest times. On examining the names of the vestrymen of the earliest Episcopalian churches of this region, my only source of information, I find among the settlers from Eastern Virginia such names as Ballenger, Maury, Burton, Scott, Eucker, Godwin, Taliafero, Cabell, etc. Among the Scotch and Scotch-Irish names can be mentioned Bal- maire, Quarrier, Dunlap, etc., while Bittenger, Swearingen, Muhlenburg, show a sprinkling of German and Swedish names. The names of the present day afford the same testimony and 30 Colorado College Studies. show tliat the earliest settlers are fairly well represented by the present inhabitants. I am well aware, as above remarked, that this is not always a safe guide, but may, like tradition, some- times mislead; still, in lieu of a better one it renders tolerably efficient service. In the earlier days of these settlements the educational advan- tages were naturally slight, but later the conditions for educa- tion were about the same as those described in my article on the Pronunciation of Fredericksburg, Ya., printed in the Publi- cations of the Modern Language Association of America, Vol. 5, p. 188ff. In the same article (pp. 192-195 ) I have compiled two Vowel Tables, one representing the vowel sounds of the Vir- ginia English of the seventeenth century, and the other the vowel sounds of to-day. In the present article I shall con- stantly refer to them. I will here begin with the vowel a as heard in father (Sweet's mid-back-wide).* Here, as in Fredericksburg, Va., we find the clearer, lighter sound of a as in calm, psalm, palm, half, etc. The other sound of these words {i. e., koeoem, sceoem, pceoem, hoeoef, etc., that is, Sweet's low-front-wide) is heard, though less frequently than in Fredericksburg, Va., or in Charleston, S. C. This sound of a in father (raid-back-wide) is also very common in words like ask, demand, pass, trespass, etc., though the ten- dency to the palatal a is strong. The two words ant and aunt are both generally pronounced (cent, that is, low-front-wide), though the latter is often pronounced ( aant, that is, mid-back- wide). The same remark applies to words like gaunt, haunt, jaunt, etc., where Sweet's low-front-wide (= a in man) is commonly heard, thus (gceoent, Hoeoent, Dzhceoent, etc). Oc- casionally one hears the mid-back- wide (= a in father); that is phonetically represented (gaant, Haant, Dzhaant), but I have never heard Sweet's low-back-narrow-round ( = a in law; * The signs of Sweet's Primer of Phonetics are used in this article, except in quotations. Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 31 gAAnt, HAAnt, Dzh AAnt, etc. ) Among all classes here, and especially among the uneducated, the mid-back-wide sound of a is retained in a large class of words where it either reflects the older pronunciation or shows the influence of the negro ele- ment. The negro is very fond of this a-sound, but I am in doubt whether it is natural to him or whether he may not have acquired it in early times from the whites themselves and re- tained it pure and uninfluenced by the change which this vowel has undergone in the progress of the language, just as the Irish have retained the older pronunciation of English. According to EUlis, E. E. P., this was the usual sound of the vowel a in the sixteenth century. In this list we find words like clear, pair, there, where, fair, learn, prepare, queer, hear, square, were, rearguard, search, swear, etc., in all of which the mid- back-wide is heard (klaar, paar, dhaar, whaar, etc.); we sel- dom hear the low-front- narrow (dhaer, etc.) as in Charleston, S. C, but more usually the low-front-wide (= a in man), I am inclined to think that this sound is midway between the low-front- wide and the low-front-narrow. The negro pronunciation of^ here is (^Hj'ar). Among the white popu- lation two pronunciations obtain: both ('ji'r) and ('ja'r) are common. Under Sweet's mid-front- wide (our e in mei, either long or short) we must class one peculiarity not yet noticed elsewhere, though found in England, viz., the pronunciation of the word make as mek, that is, mid-front-wide instead of mid-front- narrow. In the 17th century we find the same sound in Eng- land in the words main (meen), major (meedzhar), mayor {meev), naked (neeked), nature (neetwr). Dryden has pains of hell (peenz of Hel) and {mee) for may. Garth has distress rhyming with place (plees). In the 16th century this word make was pronounced (maak), that is. Sweet's mid-back-wide 32 Colorado College Studies. as we see in Shakespeare's Henry VIII., in tlie speech of Car- dinal Woolsey to Cromwell: Neglect him not; make use now and provide Eor thine own future safety. which according to Ellis, E. E. P., 3,991, is to be pronounced Neglekt Him not; maak yys nau and provaid For dhain oouu fyytyyr saaft^. The Anglo-Saxon form is macian where this vowel has the short sound of a in father^ that is. Sweet's mid-back-wide. In Mid. Eng. the form is still makien and retains this mid-back- wide sound. But in 1766 Buchanan in his conjectured pronun- ciation of Shakespeare has: " Meed tu Hiz m/stris aibrau, and Kenrick, 1773, giving the pronunciation of the same passage has: " Meed too H?*z mistris aibrau." Both agree in the pro- nunciation of (meed) for made, so that this mid-front-wide sound of a in the verb make must have obtained in England to some extent in the 18th century. Benjamin Franklin, also, in his remarks on pronunciation in 1768 indicates the pronuncia- tion of makes as (meeks). I am also informed that in at least two counties of England, Lancashire and Derby, the pronun- ciation (meek) is still heard. The character e in the word well has a sound between Sweet's mid-back-wide {father) and low-front- wide {man), but inclin- ing to the latter (wt>l), possibly Sweet's low-back- wide, Swed. mat. The word ancient belongs also to this class as it is here often pronounced (anshent) Sweet's mid-back-wide again. In addition to the two pronunciations (agen, agenst) and (ageen, ageenst) we find the pronunciation {agin, agmst), though only as vulgarisms. Foment {fornenst, pr. frnent) may have led to the pronunciation of (bi-jent). Sweet's mid-back-narrow {but) is very common to this region. It is what Sweet and Ellis call the American sound of the u in but, not the English. Here belong words like took, look, cook, shook, book { ?), put, and others, all of which have nearly the sound of our u in but A sound between Sweet's mid-mixed- Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 33 ivide-round (o, Fr. homme) and his higli-mixed-wide-round (ti. Swed. t4pp),is heard in couldy would, should; in cool, good, school, ivho, though preceded by the i-umschla^ (kittd, wiwd, shiwd; kitd, skiwl, Hiu). I hardly know whether this sound is to be attributed to the Scotch element among the early settlers or not. It certainly comes very near the Scotch sound as heard , in guide (gi«d). It is, however, possible that it developed on this soil independently of the Scotch influence. This pronun- ciation is also peculiar to Fredericksburg, Ya., and is heard in various places in the state of South Carolina. In the Upland region we have also a Scotch influence to some extent, so that even here it may be due to this element. I have noticed it more- over in other localities in the pronunciation of individual people. This sound of ii in bid is often heard in fche pronunciation of careless, thus (karles). Care itself is often pronounced either (kir) but more often however (kear). Here belongs also that peculiar pronunciation of room (rium) and iomh in rhyme with perfume {iium., parfittm). In studying the pronunciation of Fredericksburg, Ya., I noticed two cases of the short (i) in the words (hill) and (mill). In West Yirginia I found another example of the same sound in an individual pronunciation of the preposition In (iin). The word ear is often pronounced (jiir or even (jar). Mischief is accented on the ultima and pronounced (mistshilf). The past participle of hear is pronounced either (Hiirn or Harn; or Hiird or Hard), according to the form used. The sound {i) and {e) are often interchangeable, as (led) for lid, (red) for rid, (ef ) for if', (git) for get, (j/t) for yei, (jistardef) for yester- day, (kitl) for kettle. To these we may add (dzhinereshan) for generation, ( sper it ) for spirit, ( resen'kshan ) for reserection. The word muskmelon is here often pronounced (maskmiljan), which pronunciation goes back as far as 1685; for Cooper, in his list of words like and unlike, gives melon, melo, million, 1,000,000 sive centum myriades, which would indicate that the two words were nearly alike in sound. In miracle the i-sound often follows the 34 Colorado College Studies. analogy of vowels before r and we hear not infrequently (marikl). I feel convinced that we hear the open o-sound (Sweet's mid- mixed-wide-round =0, Fr. encore) in the word poor (pr. poor), and we also hear the long o-sound (Sweet's mid-back-narrow- round =0, Germ, so; pr. poor). 1?he former is the same sound we often hear in the last syllable of felloiu and follow, though the latter is the more common sound. The two words horn and home are both pronounced alike ( b^rn ). Forward is frequently pronounced (farard). The words only and onhitch (unhitch) belong here, as they are often pronounced (on-h', on-hitsh). I can here repeat my remarks on the diphthongs in my article on the pronunciation of Fredericksburg, Ya. " The sound (au, as in German Haus) is heard among a select few in house, now, etc., though the usual pronunciation is here (eu), never (eu). This latter diphthong (eu) is long (eeu) in towHy coiu and some other words, and short (eu) in most words, as house, out, ahout, south, pound, etc. Often (EEe) is heard in- stead of long (eeu), and (Ee) instead of short (eu). The diph- thong (iu) is very common and the first element is often length- ened (iiu). Sometimes, however, the vanish is prolonged (iu^ ). Instead of (iu), (m) is often heard, especially among the lower classes. Fruit may be classed here also, or the sound often comes nearer the Swedish u in hus (frlJt), or (yw). The same sound seems to be peculiar to people from the middle and upper parts of South Carolina." The diphthong (ai) is often changed to (oi), as in title (toitl). On the other hand (oi) often be- comes (ai), as hoil {hail), joint (dzhaint), etc., but this is a vul- garism common to all parts of the country. The word eive (jiu) has frequently the pronunciation (joo), a pronunciation very common in Western New York. We also find (rai-at) for (rait), that is, right. The consonants offer a few peculiarities. The h is often fol- lowed by they-sound in the word here (Hjeer); in this case the h frequently becomes silent, or rather a mere breathing ('jeer). Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. Sb- W is exchanged for v in very (weri) and a few other words. The r is heard here more than in other parts of Yirginia, but is often silent when final. We occasionally hear (kjart, gjardn, etc.), but not so commonly as in Yirginia proper oy in Charles- ton, S. C. After s a Hs often added, as close, pr. dost. The g disappears in words like length, strength, etc., which are pro- nounced (lenth and strenth, etc.). The / between the s and I of words like apostle, epistle, etc., is sounded. The accent of words is often changed, either as a general rule or by individuals. Idea frequently has the accent on the first syllable (aid?, or aldie). Mischief often transfers the accent to the last syllable (mistschiif ), though this is considered a vulgarism. Difficulty sometimes has the accent on the ante- penult (di-f/k-al-t?). Trespasses sometimes takes the accent on the penultimate (tres-pad-sez). Contrary, when it means per- verse, froward, wayward, always has the accent on the penulti- mate (k/^ntre^rz). Elizabeth often has the principal accent on the ultima (IKzEb^TH). Geihsemane is often accented (Geth-se-me6n). Turning to the grammatical peculiarities we find the great- est variety in the verb. The tendency here is to form peculiar past tenses and past participles. Often one is exchanged for the other without any apparent reason. This is especially the case with the irregular verbs. The following list contains alt those which I have observed: 1. Blow blowd blowd 2. Climb climm or clomb climm or clomb 3. Fight fit fit 4. Freeze frozed frozed 5. Hear (Hiird),(Hiirn),(Harn ) (Hiird) heard 6. Heat het het 7. Help helped (holp, pr. Hop) helped (holp) 8. Know knowd knowd 9. Hide rid rid 10. , See saw (seen, see, seed) seen (seed, saw) 11. , Take took (taken) taken (took) "36 Colorado College Studies. I find also a few lexicographical peculiarities which I shall give promiscuously, as it is not possible to arrange them in any definite order. Reverent is used in the sense of genuine, thorough, as a reverent scolding, that is a thorough scolding. Satisfactual is a vulgarism for satisfactory. Shoot is very com- mon for shot, as " he made a good shoot." Arter for after is ■common all over the land. Bold is used in the sense of strong, vigorous, as a hold spring is one whose waters bubble up strongly. A hunch of cattle, is the only proper expression here in the West, but I never heard it in the East except in West Virginia. Webster's International, and the other dictionaries do not give this meaning for the word, though the Century gives a hunch of ducks. May not this meaning have started in West Virginia and passed to the West? Gradjate and sosation are vulgarisms. An amusing popular etymology is found in the name of one •of the valleys on Indian Greek. It is knowm as the Tuckahoe valley, and takes its name from the Indian tribe of that name, or it is at least an Indian name. The people living in this Talley are of the lowest class, and have a peculiar dialect of which I have already noticed the most prominent features. Not being able to explain the word Tuckahoe they have based the derivation on the peculiar pronunciation of the past participle of take (took, p. tak), and ahoe is then made to mean a hoe, "he took a hoe." To this derivation the following legend has been attached: An inhabitant of this valley once became so poor that he was at last reduced to stealing, and he tooJc a hoe, that is, ;stole a hoe. This will compare favorably with the English cor- ruption of the name of the ship Hirondelle into Iron Devil, or the route du roi into Rotten Row, or Bellerophon into Bidly Ruffian, etc. Kitiering means toppling, afore stands for before, transits means, not transits of the planets, but transient guests at a hotel. One minister, a hardshell baptist, or Ironsides as they ■call this sect there, spoke of the texes from which he preached Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 37* his sermon. I need not add that he was from Tuckahoe valley. Slick is used in the sense of slippery, heegum is used for bee^ hive. The Century Dictionary gives the word; it was at first the body of the gum tree hollowed out and. used for bees. A larger section, hollowed out in the same way, is used for a grain receptacle, and is called a gum. A band of music is called musicioners. In Fredericksburg, Ya., I found this summer the- word burr meaning gherkin, and have not yet been able to dis- cover any explanation of it. The name may have some connec- tion with burr-weed, though I doubt it. Optionary is an indi- vidualism for optional, though having the force of capricious. Pert (pr. piirt) is used in the sense o£ ivell, as I am feeling right pert to-day. The region is full of peculiar expressions, and the careful collector would be well repaid for his trouble. Like the proverbs, the quaint sayings, the peculiar expressions of a nation form an interesting chapter in its history, and give a better insight into the distinguishing characteristics of a people than long years of its civil history. Often thoughts of ages are crystallized in such expressions and the study of intellectual growth and civilization of a nation cannot be pursued more effectively than by collecting and classifying its apothegms. But it is not my intention to enter so deeply into the subject, as I have- given most of my time to the peculiarities of pronun- ciation and grammar. Besides, it would require years of study to collect all these expressions and put them in their proper order. I shall here select only a few of the most amusing and peculiar ones to show you what a rich field for such researches this section of the country affords. A right smart lilile bit is extremely common, and right smart seemingly may find a place beside it. / had laid out to go to the Dunkards to-night is a not infrequent expression; of the same signification are to go to do and to aim to do. Let on is common nearly in the whole country; and so is to get shet (shut) of. I J eel like she did not do it meaning I think she did not do it is .38 Colorado College Studies. often heard among all classes of people. Some of the more amusing ones are: I feel rather dauncy meaning I feel rather poorly. Again we have a popular derivation for dauncy, which is rather more expressive than elegant. I have been told soberly by different ones that it is a contraction of damn sick. The dictionaries give no information on the subject. As an •explanation of this word I would suggest, though with great hesitation, the French word dancetie, or the more common form is danch6 {dench6), from which we have in English the two words dancett6 and dancy. The great trouble is with the mean- ing. Both words are terms of heraldry, descriptive of escutcheons having the edge or outlioe broken into large and wide zigzags. The real meaning of the word is indented, and it probably stands for denie. Possibly the idea of being broken or notched like the teeth of a saw may have been applied figuratively to physical nature and would certainly have as much sense as the broke hone ever so common in malarial districts, and so dreaded. The most amusing expressions, however, were those heard in an Ironside sermon. But it would be impossible to reproduce them as they would lose their flavor if not delivered by the jninister in person. Often these expressions are of grammatical nature and "deserve a careful study. Here are several of that character: Would you rather have this as that? though I have heard as used for that after the conjunction than in various parts of the country. A good old construction is retained in the following: With the blood a-runniii' down his side. This corresponds to, he lay a-dying, etc. Another (bible) construction is retained in this: They looked for to see him die every day. For to instead of to is now obselete. The double comparative is not infrequent liere. I noted more pleasanter on several occasions. In ex- pressions of weather I find the following in my note-book: To Jair off meaning to clear off; to have a cloud meaning to have a shower. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. '4J^„ '491,^, LVi m 4\95A LD 21-100)»-9,'48 (BS99b16)476 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES CDM7b^DSlfl LA I 411404 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY m