1F 0 1754 - NER AL EDITION N fr COMPANY $ THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIFT OF Estate of Ernst and Eleanor van LSben Sels Digitizé^ by the Internet Archive in 20&8 with funding from Microsoft Corporation COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY BY ALEX EVERETT FRYE AUTHOR OF “CHILD AND NATURE,” “BROOKS AND BROOK BASINS,” “ PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY," ETC. BOSTON, U.S.A., AND LONDON GINN & COMPANY, PUBUSHERS 1895 Entered at Stationers’ Hall Copyright, 1895 • By ALEX EVERETT FRYE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED W8C.- PSYCH, L1BRARY Q/a? F&9 EDUO- PSYCH. LIBRAW P R E F A C E. Commerce. A work on geography that seeks to lay a broad basis for the study of nations must throw a strong search-light upon their commercial relations. Commerce and the related industries take a leading place in this book, — those of our own country being illustrated by twenty-two colored maps prepared expressly for this work. The intelligent study of a country’s natural resources must be based on knowledge of its physical features. For this reason the surface-forms and the climate of the various parts of the world receive full treatment in the text, the maps and the pictures. The natural regions of the United States are made to serve as a basis for the comparative study of otlier lands. Order of Lessons. Though most teachers using this book will doubtless present the lessons in the order in which they appear, yet those who wish to complete the study of the United States in detail, before showing the broader relations of our country to otlier lands, can readily do so. The work is so arranged that pupils can go directly from the early lessons on the physical features and resources of our country ( pages 30 to 52) to the study of its people, its government and its industries ( pages 123 et seq.). Sizes of Type. The subject-matter which needs the most careful study is in large type. The explanatory and descriptive matter in small type does not call for close study, but may be used for supplementary reading. Teachers who wish to sh orten the course in geography can easily do so by laying little stress on the notes in small type. Illustrations. Nearly all the pictures in this book were engraved directly from photo- graplis. To the selection of subjects for the pliotographs, the author has given fully as much time and care as to the text itself. The aim has been to present characteristic forms that are educative. Many of the views are from the Gardner collection in Harvard University. Spelling of Geographic Names. This book follows the rulings of the United States Board on Geographic Names , — the highest authority in our country. 192 IV PREFACE. Study and Reference Maps. All teachers of geography liave felt the need of simple study maps and full reference maps. No single map can serve both purposes. If it is simple enough for study, it is of little value for reference. For tliis reason, two series of maps are used in tliis book, — the one containing such details as are needed in connection with the text ; the other being the most complete series of reference maps ever placed in any text-book. Among the latter, in the supplement, are several historical maps showing geograpliical discoveries, Greece in the time of Pericles, Italy in the time of Augustus, Palestine in one of the most important periods of Biblical liistory. Teachers’ Manual. The suggestions in the Teachers ’ Manual are the outgrowth of experience in the class-room. Acknowledgments, William Morris Davis, Professor of Physical Geography in Harvard University, has given very valuable assistance in the preparation of tliis work. The treatment of the atmosphere and the elementary land-fonns is based on manuscripts of Professor Davis. He has also given many broad criticisms on other parts of the work. The author takes pleasure in expressing his gratitude to Mr. Justin II. Smith, of Boston; Mr. Cyrus C. Adams, of New York; and Mr. Frank F. Murdock, of Bridgewater, Mass., for many helpful criticisms; — also, to Mr. J. F. Ricliardson, of Boston, for the care wliich he has bestowed upon the wood-engravings. The relief maps were modeled under the direction of the author, by Miss Gertrude Beatrice Wright, of the Normal Art School, Boston. The industrial maps were drawn by Mr. Henry Gannett, Chief Topographer of the United States Geological Survey. Boston, May, 1895. ALEX E. FRYE. TABLE OF CONTENTS. THE EARTH. Introduction Form and Size of the Earth The Land and the Sea .... Directions ....... Directions on the Earth .... The World Ridge or Primary Highland . CONTINENTS OR GRAND DlVISIONS The Oceans ....... The Waste of the Land .... Rainfall ....... SPRINGS AND STREAMS .... Land Waste on the Way to the Sea Work of the Winds ..... Snow and Ice ....... Rivers and River Systems River Basins and Divides . . . . Young and Old Lands .... Flood Plains and Deltas .... Coastal Plains and Lake Plains . Mountains ....... VOLCANOES ....... Waves ........ Shore Fosms ...... Belts of Heat ...... Changes of Season ..... The Zones of Light ..... Seasons of the Heat Belts Latitude and Longitude .... Winds and Rainfall .... Winds and Rains of Winter and Summer Ocean Currents ...... The Moon and the Tides .... NORTH AMERICA. North America The Rocky Mountains The Sierra Nevada The Cascade Range PAGK The Great Basin 33 The Colorado Plateaus 37 The Columbia Plateau . 38 The Coast Range and Yalleys ..... 38 The Yukon Region 39 Highland of Mexico 40 Central America 41 The Appalachian Highland ...... 41 Old Appalachian Range and Piedmont Belt . . 42 The Great Yalley and Alleghany Ridges . . 43 The Alleghany Plateau . 44 The Laurentian Highland 45 The St. Lawrence Basin 45 The Western Plains 47 The Prairies 48 The Northern Plain 49 Gulf Coastal Plain . » 50 Atlantic Coastal Plain . . . . . . 51 SOUTH AMERICA. South America 53 The Southern Andes 56 The Middle Andes 56 The Northern Andes . 57 The Highland of Brazil 58 The Guiana Highland 59 The Selvas 59 The Gran Chaco and the Pampas .... 60 The Llanos 61 ASIA. Asia 63 The Altai Highland 64 Central Basin Region .64 The Highland of Tibet 65 Highlands of Southwest Asia 66 The Arctic and Caspian Slopes 67 The Pacific Slope 69 PAOE 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 17 17 18 18 19 20 22 22 24 25 26 27 30 32 33 VI TAKLE OF CONTENTS. India ........ Asiatic Islands EUROPE. Europe ........ Region oe the Alps ..... The Spanish Peninsula The Po and the Apennines The Balkan Peninsula . . . . . The Plain of Hungary .... The Scandinavian Peninsula . . . . The British Isles ...... Low Europe, — Western Part L ow Europe, — Eastern Part AFRICA. Africa ........ Egypt and the Nile Northern Africa and the Sahara Desert . Sudan . The Kongo Basin ...... Southern Africa ...... AUSTRALIA. Australia ........ New Zealand, Papua and other Islands . RACES OF MEN. Homes of the Races . . . . . The Negro or Black Race .... The American or Red Race . . . . The Malay or Brown Race The Mongolian or Yellow Race . The Caucasian or White Race . Religions ........ Governments ....... Review of the Races . ... . PLANTS. Where Plants Grow ..... Soil, Water and Heat . _ . Plants of the Hot Belt .... Plants of the Warm Belts . . . . Plants of the Cool Belts .... Plants of the Northern Cold Belt PAGfi ANIMALS. Animals, — Their Habits and Uses . . 111 Animals and their Homes . 111 South American Realm . • . 113 Northern Realm ..... . 114 African Realm .... • . 116 Oriental Realm ..... . 117 Australian Realm .... . 118 Other Products of the Sea 118 COMMERCE. Domestic and Foreign Commerce 119 Highways of Trade, — Water Routes . . . 119 Railroads .......... 121 Aids to Commerce 121 Time Belts and International Date Line . . .122 THE UNITED STATES. Distribution of People ...... 123 Government ......... 124 Climate, — Temperature ...... 127 Climate, — Winds and Rainfall 129 Cotton 130 Wheat .......... 131 Indian Corn 131 Oats, Barley and Rye 132 Tobacco 132 Forests .......... 133 Fruits .......... 134 Horses, Mules and Hogs 134 Cattle and Dairy Products 135 Sheep 135 Fisheries 136 Coal 137 Iron .......... 138 Petroleum and Natural Gas ...... 139 Gold and Silver 140 COPPER AND OTHER METALS ...... 141 Building Stone 141 New England States 142 Middle Atlantic States 144 Southern States, — Eastern Section .... 146 Southern Group, — Western Section .... 148 Central States, — Eastern Section .... 150 Central States, — Western Section .... 153 PAGE 70 72 75 76 77 78 80 80 81 82 84 86 87 89 91 92 93 94 95 97 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 105 106 107 107 108 109 110 111 TABLB OF CONTENTS. vii South western Group PAGE . 154 SOUTH AMERICA. PAGE Northwestern Group 156 Countries of South America . . . . • . 168 CANADA, MEXICO, WEST INDIES. Countries of ASIA. Asia 170 Canada and Newfoundland . . . . . 158 Mexico, Central America, West Indies 159 AFRICA. Countries of Africa . . 172 EUROPE. • The British Isles . 162 AUSTRALIA. Countries of Low' Europe, — Western Part 164 Colonies OF Australia .... • . 174 Mediterranean Countries ..... . 166 Other Countries of Europe .... 166 SUPPLEMENT. ■ . POLAR SCENE . LAPP AND / SCIND ElftjÆ Introduction See Teachers ’ Manual of Methods in Geography. y . ' HIPPOPOTAl^sl MP-A^ese V v This book describes the earth as our home. We ought to know a great deal about the earth, because we live on it and use many of its products. The earth supplies us with food, clothing and all other useful things. Do you not wish to know where wheat and corn grow ? — where grassy plains are covered with cattle, horses and sheep ? — where fields are white with cotton or blue with flax ? — where trees are cut down, floated to the mills and sawed into lumber ? — where coal, iron ore and granite are taken out of the earth ? All these products, and many more, are found in various parts of the United States, our own country, but some of the things which we use are raised by people fn other lands. From this book we are to learn what kind of country those people live in, how they dress, what work they do, what they buy of us and what they seil to us. We shall also learn why the same kinds of products are not found in all parts of the earth. Our study will lead us to the cold land of the Lapps, where the sun shines low in the sky for several weeks each summer without setting. In that region, the warm sea- son is too short to ripen much grain, but the flesh, milk and skins of reindeer supply food and clothing. In other cold parts of the earth, there are vast fields of ice and snow, upon which Eskimos hunt the seal or the polar bear. How different is their life from ours ! They see no grain ripening in fields, no cattle grazing in pastures, no fruit hanging on trees. This book describes wide regions of shifting sand, where no rain falls and no plants grow, except near a few springs. There the people travel mostly on the backs of camels. Do you know how tea leaves are dried and how silk is woven into fine cloth ? You will learn how, when you read about the yellow people in Japan and China. There are warm lands where coffee berries and many kinds of spices grow. Do you not wish to learn about the people who send us coffee, cloves and nutmegs ? Every day as we study this book and look at its pictures, we shall learn something about the earth, — its forms of land and water, its plants, its animals or its people. Geography treats of the earth as the home of man. 2 FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH. 1. Form and Size of the Earth. 1 The earth is a great ball of land and water, surrounded by a shell of air. We see so small a part of the earth at a time that it earth is about 25,000 miles. Many millions of people live on the earth, and yet a large part of the land is not used. If a train of cars were to travel day and night at the rate of thirty miles an hour, how long would it take to go 25,000 miles ? America. does not look like a ball, but there are many proofs that the earth is round. Here are a few of them : 1. Many persons have gone around the earth. 2. As ships sail out to sea, their hulls are often lost to sight while their sails are clearly seen. 3. When travelers go day after day towards the north or the south, new stars rise over the horizon before them, while the stars behind sink beneath the horizon. 4. Sometimes the earth moves between the sun and the moon and casts a shadow on the moon. The edge of this shadow always looks like part of a circle. Coral— J. The sun and the moon are round, like the earth. The moon is smaller than the earth, but the sun is many times larger. The shadow of the earth on the moon is called an eclipse of the moon. There may also be an eclipse of the sun, when the moon is between the earth and the sun. The great body of salt water which surrounds the land is called the sea. Various parts of the sea are known as oceans. The oceans lie in broad hollows on the earth. The two maps above show the land and the water on both sides of the earth. Sea-Urohln— j. The earth is so large that the distance from side to side, through the center, is nearly 8000 miles. The greatest distance around the 1 For pronunciation of difficult words, see the Vocabulary in the Supplement. The Old World. The greater part of the earth is a mass of rock. On the land most of the rock is covered with soil. Fine mud, or ooze, covers the rock un- der the sea. Many parts of the land do not rise very high above the sea, but other parts are lofty and rugged. Some moun- tains rise higher than most of the clouds which we see, — even four or five miles into the air. Most parts of the sea near the land are shallow. Far from the shores the sea is in many places two miles deep, and in some places the bottom is four or five miles below the surface. The land and the surface of the sea have light by day and darkness by night. They have also warm and cold seasons. No sunshine reaches the deep parts of the sea. The deep water is always cold and dark. The land has many val- leys and mountains, but a large part of the sea-bottom is a great smooth plain. Deep -sea s P iruia- } . The wind blows sand and dust over the land and also makes waves on the surface of the sea, but the deep sea is »* very still. Part of the rain falling on the land feeds brooks and rivers which carry or ivash loose soil down the slopes and help to wear valleys in the land. Thus the form of the land is slowly changed. Nearly all the soil which is washed into the sea settles in the shallow water near the shores. The smooth bottom of the deep sea hardly changes at all, for there are no streams to wear valleys in s P onge — j. it, and very little soil from the land reaches these quiet waters. 2. The Land and the Sea. DIRECTIONS ON THE EARTH. 3 Animals and plants, or parts of them, are often buried in the layers of sand and mud which are formed in the sea. During long ages, many layers form and gradually harden to rock. The remains of animals or of plants bedded in the rock are called fossils. Plants and animals of many kinds live on the land. Seaweeds, fish and otlier kinds of creatures abound in the shallow waters near the seashores, but the cold and dark depths of the sea have only a few, if any, plants and not nearly so many kinds of animals as live either in the shore waters or on the land. Fish abound in many rivers and lakes. Some kinds of fish are found in fresh water only, but others from the salt water go into the rivers to spaivn, or deposit their eggs. Some of the small pictures on this page and that opposite show a deep-sea fish and a few other forms of deep-sea life. We shall study the land more than the sea, because we live on the land and get from it most of the things we use. 3. Directions. In our country all shadows east by the sun at midday point due north. When you stand with your back to the midday sun, you face the north. Your back is then towards the south. Have you ever seen the noHh star ? Do you know how to find it by means of the two stars called pointers, in the “ Dipper ” ? North is the direction along the earth’s surface towards the north star. South is the opposite direction, towards the midday sun. Which is the north side of your schoolroom ? Which is the south side ? Name some objeets north of your schoolhouse. Name some objeets south of it. Here is the pieture of a mariner' s compass. Under its glass cover is a round card, naming the points of the compass, — N., S., E., W., N.E., S.E., etc. On the under side of the card is a steel mag- net in the form of a needle or bar that swings on a pivot. The needle generally points almost north and south . 1 By means of the compass, the sun or the stars, sailors can at all times tell the direction in which they are moving. With- out this simple magnet-needle, the task of steering vessels from port to port would be very difficult. 4. Directions on the Earth. The earth is always turning round like a ball spinning as it flies through the air, but the earth turns only once in twenty-four hours, — a day and niglit. The sun can light and warm only a little more than one half 2 of the earth at a time. As the earth turns, or rotateSj some parts of it are turning into the sunlight while other parts are turning away from it. One side of the earth has day while the other side has night. As the earth rotates, its surface moves from west to east. The sun seems therefore to “ rise ” in the east and “ set ” in the west. 1 The needle points to the magnetic pole of the earth. Find this pole on the colored map of North America. A Fossil Shell. Mariner s Compass. When you face the north, east is on the right side, and west is on the left. When you face the south, which direction is on the right ? Which is then on the left ? Only twice each year 1 the sun rises due east of us and sets due west, but it always rises in the eastem part of the sky and sets in the western part. Name some objeets east of your schoolhouse. What street near by runs about east and west ? Point midway between north and east. This direction is called northeast and may be written N. E. Where will you look for southeast ? Where will you look for S.W. ? For N.W. ? 1 About March 21 and September 22. Waves on the Seashore. 2 If there were no air the sun would light exactly one half of the earth at a time. There would then be no twilight, and the sun would not be visible after it had aetually sunk beneath the horizon line. 4 THE WORLD RIDGE OR PRIMARY HIGHLAND. Bright daylight would be tiresome, if it lasted all the time, with no dark hours for rest and sleep. Endless night would be cold and dismal, if there were no sunshine to heat and light the earth. No person has yet reached the poles. They are in regions of ice and snow. could see the sun overhead, or nearly so, at noon every day. The regions near the equator have no winter. The hot season lasts all the year. Snow and iee are not found there, except on the tops of high mountains. By clixnbing any very high mountain near the equator, a person may find the same changes in climate as in going from the equator to either polar region. The lands in the hot belt teem with life. Dense forests cover many parts of the surface. Birds, in- sects and large animals also abound. In later lessons we shall read about some of these animals. We shall see maps of the earth in many positions, but we shall always be able to tell the directions on them, if we remember that north and south are towards the poles, while east and west are parallel with the equator. In our land every midday shadow points towards the north pole, and so all north lines that we may imagine on the earth meet at that point. Going in the opposite direction, all south lines meet at the south pole. East-and-west lines go round the earth in circles. The largest of these circles is midway between the poles and is called the equator, because it divides the surface of the earth into two equal parts. Al l east-and-west lines run parallel with the equator. When we face the north pole, east is along the lines to the right, and west to the left. How south ? Map D. Key to the World Ridge Map, page 5. many arrows on map A point north ? How many point Which arrows point north on map B ? On map C ? Which arrows are flying south on map B ? On map C? How many arrows on map A point east ? Which fly east map B ? On map C ? Which arrow points west on map A ? On map B ? On map C ? A map of half a globe, or spliere, is called a hemisphere. Hemi means half. One of the little hemispheres on this page shows the side of the earth having the most water. The other shows the side having the most land. How many lines on the Land Hemisphere are drawn nortli-and-south ? Which pole is not shown on map D ? How many north-and-south lines are shown on this map? Knowing how to tell the directions on the earth, we may now study the positions of the great bodies ' . of land and water. Far away in the north, there is a point on the earth, known as the north pole. It is under the north star, which is often called the pole star. Opposite the north pole, on the other side of the earth, there is a point called the south pole. The word pole means pivot, or point on which a thing turns. The earth does not rest on any- th ing, but turns in space as if held by a line run- ning from pole to pole. We can tliink of such a line, and we will call it the axis of the earth. Of course there are no real circles to be seen on the earth, but we may imagine such lines and name or number them. We shall find that these lines are very useful in helping to locate places on the globe. The equator is far south of us. If we were near it we 5. The World Ridge or Primary Highland. Most of the lands on the earth are in large bodies, instead of being scat- tered in small islands. The land is not evenly distributed over the earth. Most of it is north of the equator and therefore much nearer the north pole than the south pole. About one fourth of the earth’s surface is land, — the rest is water. Only a small Water Hemisphere. Land Hemisphere. Map C. CONTINENTS OR GRAND DIYISIONS. 5 on the outer side of this highland, descend to narrow lowlands along the shores. Mark on the map the place where you live. On which side of the equator are the ends of the primary highland ? In how many places does the equator cross the highland? Which part of the pri- mary highland is nearest the north pole ? Nearest the south pole ? 6. Oontinents or Grand Divisions. Each of the great highlands in the world ridge forms the backbone of a large body of land. These lands are North America, South America, Eurasia and Africa. Southeast of Eurasia lies a great body of land called Australia. Which of these bodies of land are north of the equator ? Which are crossed by the equator ? There are two parts of Eurasia, — Asia on the east, and Europe on the west. Which part is the larger? Map showing the World Ridge. part of the surface south of the equator is land. The sea is not wholly cut into separate oceans by the lands, but it spreads in one large body around them. Through the great bodies of land, we can trace a long chain of highlands, somewhat in the shape of a horseshoe. We will call this chain of highlands the world ridge , or th e primary highland of the world. The greater part of the world ridge consists of long and wide plateaus, broken by mountains and val- leys. In many places it is hundreds of miles in width. Some parts of the world ridge are not very high. On both sides of the primary high- land, the land slopes away to the shores and there dips beneath the sea. Most of the longer slopes are on the inner side of the horseshoe-shaped highland. These slopes make wide plains between the primary highland and the sea. In many places the shorter slopes, North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia are called continents, or grand divisions. Which of these continents is wholly south of the equator ? Bering strait cuts through the primary highland and separates the Old World from America, or the New World- Which continents are in America ? Which are in the Old World ? What isthmus connects the two parts of America ? Where is the isthmus of Suez ? What seas does it separate ? Which is the larger, — Africa or Eurasia ? Africa or North America ? Australia or North America ? Which continent is farthest from your home ? 6 THE OCEANS. 7. The Oceans. The oceans cover about tliree fourths of the earth’s surface and wholly or part- ly separate the continents from one another. We may think of the vast area of water around the south polar regions as the main body from which all other parts of the sea extend like arms. Tlius, the Pacific is a broad arm lying partly between Amer- ica and the Old World, on the outer side of the primary highland. The Atlantic ocean is a long and crooked arm reaching northward between America and the Old World, on the inner side of the primary highland. The Arctic ocean is like a large gulf at the northern end of the Atlantic ocean. The Indian ocean is a short but broad arm partly between Africa and Australia. The Antarctic ocean spreads round the south pole. What three oceans extend northward from the Antarctic ocean ? Which ocean is east of America ? Which is west of America ? Which of tliese two oceans is the larger ? . On which side of the Old World is the Atlantic ocean ? On which side is the Pacific ocean ? What small ocean adjoins the Atlantic on the north ? Which pole is near the middle of that ocean ? What ocean is south of Asia ? What lands partly surround that ocean ? Name the continents which border on the Pacific ocean; on the Atlantic ocean; on the Arctic ocean. What oceans border on North America ? On Asia? Australia? Africa ? South America ? Let us now learn how the rain, the ri vers, the winds and the ice change the surface of the continents^ 8. The Waste of the Land. As the weather changes from warm to cold, or from wet to dry, all rocks exposed to the air and the rain slowly decay, but many years may be needed to loosen only a few grains. As rocks decay or crumble they are said to weather. The loosened parts weather finer and finer, forming rock waste or land waste. In some places the rock waste is thirty or forty feet in depth, but in most places it is thinner. Finely crumbled rock mixed with plant and animal mat- ter is called soil. Year after year, plants grow and decay, while myriads of insects and worms live and die in the fine rock waste. The remains of the plants, the insects, the worms and other creatures mingle with the fine rock waste to form the dark ricli topsoil. The roots of most plants grow in the topsoil. When it is moist, the plants take from it part of the food needed for their growth. If rocks were so firm that they would not weather, the plants which require soil could not grow. There would be no trees to supply lumber or fuel, and no cotton fiber to weave into cloth. RAINFALL. — SPRING S AND STREAMS. 7 In lands that have but little rain and frost, rocks weatker very slowly. In our own country, where rains are common and where winters bring frosts and thaws, the decay of rocks is more rapid. The monument shown in the pic- ture stood for thousands of years in a warm land, where rain seldom falls. There its surface showed but few signs of decay. Not many years ago, this monu- ment was brought to our country. The rock then crumbled so fast that it became necessary to protect the surface from the weather. 9. Rainfall. Weathered Rock. Vapor rises from the oceans, and the winds carry it about. The vapor forms clouds from which rain sometimes falls on botli the continents and the oceans. On steep hillsides, much of the rainfall is quickly shed into rills, brooks or larger streams, washing away soine of the surface soil. The streams are thus filled with rapid currents of muddy water and often overflow their banks. On flat land, a large part of the rain sinks into the ground, instead of running away. If the soil is loose and sandy, almost all the rainfall sinks into it. When the rain ceases and the sky clears, some of the water which is then left on the grpund rises in vapor. The drying of the ground is often quickened by winds and sunshine. Water that changes to vapor is said to evaporate. In windy summer weather, many of the large clouds which are seen on the day after a rain are made of water that has evaporated from the ground. Rain water that stands till it evaporates does not help in washing soil down the slopes. The water which soaks into the ground does but little of that work. The rain water which runs off the surface washes away the greatest amount of soil. 10. Springs and Streams. Water that soaks into the ground is called ground water. It creeps slowly through the soil towards the lower land. It is the ground water which makes the soil of meadows wetter than that of hillsides. Ground water often creeps slowly through loose rock beneath the soil. In this way the water may travel underground for many miles. In some dry countries, pipe wells are driven or sunk to reach a supply of ground water. These wells are often drilled through layers of rock, beneath which the water is creeping. Water may often be seen coming out of the ground through little crev- ices, thus forming springs. Many springs are found at the foot of hill- slopes. Others appear along borders of brooks or rivers. In many places the ground water is found rising' in the beds of streams or lakes. The spring which is farthest up the valley trough is called the source, or head, of the stream that it feeds. Surface water is often muddy, but nearly all ground water is clear, because it moves too slowly to carry waste. Spring water is therefore much better than surface water for drinking. Wells also are supplied by ground water. Most springs llow so slowly that the supply of ground water from one rain lasts till rain again falls. Such springs flow in both rainy and fair weather. In long dry spells, or drouths, springs yield less and less water, or they may even cease to flow. The streams then become very low, or perhaps dry up. When soil is frozen, water cannot sink into it, In lands that have long freezing seasons, plentiful rains are needed in autumn to give a good flow of water before the s e v e r e frosts harden the soil. This monu- ment is called C leopatra' s Needle. It was brouglit from Egypt and now stands in Cen- tral Park, New York. Rainy Weather. Dry Weather. In winter, when the ground is frozen, the rain water and the melt- ing snow run quickly to the streams and often flood them. They then cut away their banks and wash the rock waste down their valleys, spreading it over the flooded lands or even carrying it to the sea. The flooded rivers often carry down large blocks of ice and trunks of trees. These do much damage in break- ing down bridges and clogging the beds of the streams. 8 LAND WASTE ON THE WAY TO THE SEA. 11. Land Waste on the Way to the Sea. slopes at the foot of the crags. The finer waste is washed into the lowlands. We have learned that in rainy weather the surface waste is washed down the slopes, but in both wet and dry weather the whole sheet or layer of soil and coarser rock waste is very, very slowly creeping down- hill. With every cliange from wet to dry, from warm to cold, or from frost to thaw, the rock When waste is washed down from gulleys on mountain slopesi\ it sometimes forms great fan-shaped heaps. These may grow so large that they push away streams wliich flow in the valleys at the base of the mountain slopes. These heaps of waste are called alluvial fans. They often be- come very large in dry countries where the streams are not strong enough to wash the waste down the val- leys. Coarse waste forms steep alluvial fans, but the slopes are more gentle where the waste is On gentle slopes, the soil moves very slowly and be- comes deep and fine. There the rocks may decay for many feet below the surface, thus making plenty of soil for the roots of plants. In order to reach the firm rock, the. waste must be dug away to a great depth. The topsoil in valleys consists mainly of fine waste that has been washed from . the higher land. Most of the ground water flows into the valleys and helps to keep the soil moist. Rock waste at F 0 r these reasons many of the best f arms are in Foot of CUff , , , n (Spitsbergen), lowland valleys. Steep Alluvial Fan. 12. Work of the Winds. waste is weathering finer and finer as it moves down the slopes. The fine and light surface waste creeps fastest. The undersoil scarcely moves, and the firm rock beneath stands still. The steeper the slope, the faster the waste creeps. On many steep hillsides the fine waste creeps and washes away nearly as fast as it forms, and only the coarser rock waste is left. The roots of grass and trees do much to prevent the soil from being rapidly carried away. On rough hills, there are often rocky ledges from which the waste is washed or blown nearly as soon as it forms. On some mountains, bare crags cover much of the surface. The coarse rock waste rolls down, Gently-Sloplng Alluvial Fan (Cbamounlz, Alpa). making steep v Strong winds cannot reach soil that is covered with grass or trees, but in dry lands where there are but f ew plants the winds sweep over the ground and scatter fine rock waste far and wide. Coarse sand is drifted along like dry snow in winter. The particles of sand are blown against one an- other and against bare rocks. Thus both the sand and the rocks are ground to dust. Waterspout. In deserts, where the drifting sand is plentiful, it gathers in SNOW AND ICE. hills called dunes. Some of these sandy hills are from three hundred to six hundred feet high. Dunes are also found on sandy sliores. Waves throw sand upon the beaches, and the winds may then blow it inland. Fields, forests and villages are sometimes buried by drifting sand. Desert whirlwinds take up fine dust, which may then be blown many miles away. Some of the dust falls into the sea, and the winds thus help along the work of rivers. Sails of ships on the ocean west of the desert of Sahara are often covered witli reddish dust from that barren region. Locate tliis great desert on the map of Africa. Whirlwinds at sea are generally formed under heavy clouds from which whirl- ing funnel-sliaped spouts seem to descend and join the spray raised from the waves. The long whirling funnels are called waterspouts. Waterspouts occur most frequently over the oceans near the equator, but they are also seen east of our country, over the warm parts of the ocean. The whirling winds of waterspouts are some- times strong enough to dismast Winds not only blow dust and sand about, but they also sweep over the sea and make waves. The waves which roll against the land wash stones and sand back and forth on the seashore, grinding them very fine. Winds inix the different parts of the atmosphere and keep it fresh and pure. They carry water vapor from the sea to the land, and thus help to determine which parts of the land shall yield grain and fruits and which parts shall remain iceberg. barren . Winds scatter the seeds of some kinds of plants, and also aid in the flight of birds by lifting them, somewhat as kites are lifted. If it were not for currents of air there would be no sailing- vessels nor wind- mills. Winds are some- times sd violent that they wreck vessels and blow down trees and Desert Dunes. buildings. In later lessons we shall learn more about the work f winds. Wlnd-Swept Desert of 13. Snow and Ice. /On some mountains, snow lies all the year and becomes very deep in the high valleys. Rain soaks into the snow, making it more compact. The heavy mass slowly Rock Waste at the End of a Glacier. changes into ice. As the layers of ice on a mountain grow thicker they creep down the slopes. When the ice enters the lower and warmer valleys, it gradually melts and forms brooks or rivers. Such a body of ice slowly moving down a slope is called a glacier. 10 RIVERS AND RIVER SYSTEMS. Glaciers carry along rock waste that rolls on to them from higher ground. They drag along stones, gravel, sand and clay also, beneath the ice, — scraping the sur- face over which they creep. The ice sometimes liollows out basins in the bottoms of valleys. Coarse rock waste is left in uneven heaps near the melting ends of glaciers, but most of the finer waste is carried away by the glacier streams which flow into the lowlands. See picture on page 9. Sometimes the heaps of waste make bar- riers across river valleys, and lakes then water lies in the basins scraped out by the ice, or behind the bar- riers which the rock waste formed across old river valleys. One of the pictures on this page shows a rocky ledge, smoothed and rounded by the action of ice. Another picture shows a long low hill built of coarse rock waste that was left in this form by an ancient ice-sheet. Such a hill is called a drumlin. There are many old glacial lakes, smoothed rocks and drumlins in the north- east portion of our country. When glaciers push their way into the ocean, huge blocks of ice break off and float away. These floating masses are called icebergs. They carry stones, gravøl and fine rock waste into the sea. When the icebergs melt, what becomes of this rock waste ? See picture on page 9. Icebergs chill the damp air around them and thus cause dense fogs. Many vessels have struck blocks of floating ice and have been sunk or partly wrecked. Far away in the north is a land called Greenland. The interior of that land is covered with a thick sheet of ice and snow that moves very slowly towards the ocean on either side. Wide and deep glaciers from this ice-sheet creep into the sea, where huge blocks of ice break off and form icebergs. 14. Rivers and River Systems. Some rivers start from springs. Others flow from lakes, swamps or melting ice and snow. The beginning of a river is called its head or source. While on the way to the sea, a river becomes larger and larger as it is joined by other streams from side valleys. form above the barriers. Rock waste mov- ing on a glacier, or left in a heap at the end of a glacier, is called a moraine. The side or lateral moraines are formed of waste that is scraped from the sides of the glacier trough or that falls onto the border of the moving ice. When two branches of a glacier unite, the moraines along the sides which meet form a medial moraine. The picture of a glacier on this page shows both medial and lateral moraines. The heap of waste at the end of a glacier is a terminal moraine. In former times there were glaciers in some parts of the world, where none are now found. Lakes abound in such regions. The Large eities are often built near rivers. If the water flows swiftly, it may be used to turn mill wheels. If the rivers are deep enou^li, steam- ers and other vessels may go from place to place, carrying passengers and freight. In dry countries where no branches join the rivers, they become smaller and smaller as they flow along, and they may even disappear before they reach the sea. The water often continues as ground water much farther than it can be traced in the surface streams. Many wells in dry regions are fed by ground water thus supplied by vanishing streams. In some deserts, travelers can reach the ground water by scraping away the sand in the valley troughs. The water may be only a few feet beneath the surface. During long periods of drouth, trees may be kept alive by the ground water which reaches their roots deep in the rock waste. RIVER BASINS AND DIVIDES. 11 The lower end of a river, where it flows into the sea or into some other body of water is known as the mouth of the river. Many of the largest cities in the world are built near the mouths of rivers. These cities carry on trade with one another, and collect and distribute merchandise for the people in the inland valleys. A river and all its branches form a river system. The largest or the longest stream in a system is known as the main river. How many river systems are shown in the above picture ? River Systems and River Basins. There are many river systems in each of the continents. of the main l America. navigable for many hundred miles from the sea. Some rivers flow three or four thousand miles from source to mouth. On the way they receive many branch streams called tributaries. Large rivers are some- times tributaries of still larger rivers. The deep parts of ri vers, where steamers and other crafts may gofrom place to place, are said to be navi- gable. Some rivers are,* lower the slopes of their basins are worn. Some of the most important divides on the earth cross wide plains whose slopes are too gentle for the eye to detect. The Amazon basin in South America is the largest in the world. Its main river pours into the ocean more water than any other stream. This basin is crossed by the equator and covers more than two million square miles. Steamers can go for thousands of miles up and down the many branches of the Amazon system. The Mississippi basin is the largest in North America, but is only about one half as large as the Amazon basin. The map on this page shows where these great basins are. Plooded Connecticut River. 15. River Basins and Divides. 16. Young and Old Lands. All the land wliich sheds water into a single river system forms a river basin. The basin generally takes the same name as the main river in the system. Find the line wliich bounds the basin of the river marked C in the picture at the top of this page. This line runs along the top, or crest, of the ridges, aud separates the slopes in basin C from those in the other basins which adjoin it. Such a line is called a divide or a water parting. It divides the slopes of the basins. A river system drains all the land which forms its basin. From the slopes of the basin, the streams carry the land waste towards their mouths. Thelonger the streams continue to flow, the A swift river rolls stones and sand along in its bed and thus wears it deeper and deeper. After long ages the bed in which the river flows may be worn down almost to the level of the sea. Then the slope of the stream will be gentle. Its current will be slow and its wearing power very slight. Most large rivers flow slow- ly, because they have already worn their beds down to gen- tle slopes. The slow current favors the use of boats on rivers. While a stream is deepening its bed, the rock waste all over its basin is weathering finer and finer. This waste is always creep- ing and washing into 12 YOUNG AND OLD LANDS. quickly from the uplands and carries away much land waste. In the old land, most of the upland is worn down and only a few hills remain. In time, even the hills will waste away. Tlien the streams will become sluggish, but they may be useful as water ways. We cannot watch a land grow to old age, for the cliange is very , ^low, lasting many hundred thousand years. 7 17. Flood Plains and Deltas. Narrow Valleys in a Young Land (Colorado). the valley bottom or into streams that carry it away. Tlius the valley grows wider and its side slopes become more gradual. The uplands or hills on either side become | smaller and lower, as they slowly waste away. In a very long time, even a highland may be worn away to a lowland. Thousands of years are needed for this great work, but the earth is very old, and highland after highland has been worn down. Lands whose valleys are not yet widened may be called youruj, even though their streams have been working for thousands of years. The picture at the top of this page shows a young land in which rivers have cut only narrow valleys. The uplands between thé valleys are almost level and the rock waste creeps slowly down the gentle slopes and tlien falls into the valleys. Many small streams are gnaw- ing into the upland and after a time it will not be so smooth as it now is. We may know that this is a young land, because the streams have not yet carried much of it away. After heavy rains, or after much snow has quickly melted, great volumes of water run down the brooks and into the rivers. Then the rivers often overflow their banks and spread over the flat meadows, called flood plains, on either side. Flooded rivers are very muddy, for they not only cut their own banks, but their swollen branches also bring them a great deal of land waste from the sides of their Lands whose valleys are greatly widened, and whose hills or mountains are almost worn away, may be called old. Middle-Aged Land. valleys. The water moves slowly on the flood plains and deposits thin layers of mud, called silt. When the flood is over, this silt gives fresh food to plants. In narrow valleys the flood plains extend for only a sliort distance on either side of the river. In broad valleys the flood plains may be several miles wide. Old Land. In the middle-aged country, the uplands are deeply and widely cut by valleys. The rain water runs Many people live on flood plains because they are so fertile. In dry countries, flood plains are the best places for people to settle, because the river water can be led in canals and ditches across such plains. Most of the sflt borne along by rivers is slowly washed down the Mountalnous Region and Coastal Plaln. COASTAL PLAINS AND LAKE PLAINS. 13 i COASTAL PLÅlfJ . N . J The settlings, called s ediment , form low and flat plains in which the rivers often divide into many branches, called distributaries. The distributaries sometimes change their course, cutting new chan- nels across the plain. Lowlands thus formed at the mouths of rivers are known as deltas . Most del tas are the lower ends of flood plains built out into the sea. The soil of delta plains is generally fine and fertile. In the far east, about half- way round the earth from us, there is a large delta plain on which millions of Chinese people live. delta was made by the Yellovv river. This river sometimes takes a new course across its delta plain. Fields, villages and cities are then flooded or swept away, and many people are drowned. The Mississippi river, in our own country, has made a flood plain several miles wide and hundreds of miles long. Its lower part is a very large delta plain. These lowlands built by the great river are / very fertile. ' Coastal Plains and Lake Plains. City on a Narrow Flood Plain. (Ems, Prussia.) smooth by layers of silt washed from the land. When evenly uplifted, the smooth bottom forms plains having very gen tie slopes. Fossil sea- shells are often found in the rocky layers of such land. A plain that was once part of the sea-bottom and that is now near the coast is called a coastal plain. Before the Coastal plain shown in the picture on the opposite page was raised from the sea, the shore Most of this Many parts of the land were formerly under the shallow water -?*?■: of the ocean border. Ages ago they were slowly raised from beneath the sea and became dry land. The sea- bottom near the shores of the continents is slowly made was nearer the high land. The mouths of the rivers were then at the old shore line. The rivers now flow across the young coastal plain. The rivers A and B were at one time in separate systems but are now joined into one. Every continent has coastal plains at some parts of its border. These plains vary in width from a few miles to hundreds of miles. The surfaces of coastal plains quickly weatlier into fine soil and often make good farming lands. The map on the next page shows a large coastal plain in our own country. Near the coast the plain is still 14 MOUNTAINS. teaus. Most of the rocky layers in plateaus were made very long ago beneath the sea. Some plateaus are so old that broad valleys have been worn in them, thus making many small plateaus out of each large one. The map on this page sliows a high and wide plateau region in our own country. Low plains can have only shallow valleys, but plateaus are often broken by deep valleys, making travel very difficult. 19. Mountains. Mountains (Jungfrau, Alps). smooth, but farther inland it is already much worn by streams. Pine forests cover parts of the plain, while cotton and tobacco grow in the more fertile districts. Some plains were formed under lakes and were laid bare when the water was drained away. One of the pictures on page 13 shows a great lake plain, with broad harvest fields. This pTåin ls~so young that hardly any valleys are worn below its level surface. Find the lake plain on the map below. Many lake plains are found in val- leys among mountains. These plains are small, but in regions where the steep slopes have only a thin and stony soil left on them, the meadows in the old lake bottoms are of great value for farming. Plains that stand high above sea level are called pla- Mountains are rugged parts of the earth’s surface that rise high above the surrounding country. They are generally formed by the wearing of deep valleys in regions that have been greatly uplifted. The mountains are the high parts not yet worn away. While the great masses are being lifted, their rocks sometimes fold or break underground. Every snap or slip in the rocks causes the surrounding region to tremble. The trembling is called an ea rthr/uak e. Some earthquakes are very faint, but others are violent enough Valleys cut in a Plateau. to throw down houses. The next lesson tells another cause of earthquakes. The United States. Some mountain regions are worn away to sharp rocky peaks. The mountains of other regions are rounded like domes. Still others have flat tops and steep sides. A high and rugged ridge, or several such ridges near one another, may be called a mountain range. Some ranges are hundreds of miles long. Find five ranges on the map. Which of these ranges lie along the border of the great plateau region in our country. A number of ranges having the same general direction in one great highland form a mountain system. All the ranges in the western part of our country belong in the Rocky Mountain system. This mountain region was very unevenly lifted VOLCANOES. 15 and is now so greatly worn away that its surface has gone down to beds of rock that were once deeply buried. It is in such deep jq layers of rock that veins yielding gold and silver ore are found. When the surface is worn down near them they can be mined. High mountains reach into the upper air which is cold, even when the air in low valleys not many miles away is very warm. On the lofty peaks, three miles or more above sea level, the air is so light or thin that persons find it difficult to breathe there. The lower air, near the level of the sea, is dense because it is pressed down by all the air above or upon it. Winds are active around high mountains, and clouds form quickly in the cooled air as it rises to cross the ranges. When the air is cooled enough, it gives out snow or rain. Snow often falls on the mountains, while rain is falling in the lower valleys. Great snowslides or landslides sometimes rush from the mountain sides into the val- leys, uprooting trees and burying houses. A slide of snow or of rock waste is called an avalanche. Some plateaus, deeply cut by streams, are called mountains, but many mountains are higker than plateaus and are not so evenly raised above the sea. ) 20. Volcanoes. In some parts of the world, melted rock, or lava, has been pushed up from beneath the surface through breaks in the surface rocks, and has cooled in great cone-shaped heaps or in broad sheets. In some places this work is still going on. Steam and gases sometimes burst forth witli the lava, shaking the surrounding country and thus causing severe eartli- quakes. The lava is then blown into frag- ments called ashes, or even into fine dust that may be carried many miles by the wind. Cones built of lava and ashes have steep sides, with hollows or craters in the top, where the gases and ashes were blown out. Lava often escapes through cracks, or fissures, in the sides of cones as well as from the craters. When the lava is pushed out quietly, it does not form such steep-sided cones. The molten rock then runs in long streams or sheets, and sometimes covers many square miles of country. The more liquid-like the lava, the farther it flows and the gentler the slopes of the cone become. Each of tliese cone-shaped masses is called a volcano. may be no larger than a hill, or it may be two or three miles in lieight. The bursting forth of lava from a volcano or a fissure is called an eruption. Many erup- tions must take place to build up a great volcanic cone. The molten rock from volcanoes sometimes spreads out in wide plains. In some places, lava has poured from long fissures in the earth’s surface and has formed plains that cover many thousand square miles. The picture marked “ Lava Plain, Idaho,” shows part of a great lava plain in our country. The lava has weathered slightly and its scanty soil now supports sagebrush. The plateau shown in the picture on the opposite page is built of many thick lava sheets. 1 It is older than the lava plain shown on this page, for the surface of the former is more deeply cut by valleys. The lowest picture in the group shows a stump, or neck, of lava which may have supplied an ancient volcano. This neck filled the passage in the rocks through which the molten lava rose from its deep source. At that time the surface of the country was much higher than at present. It has since worn away, and the hard lava of the neck remains standing above it. Deep fissures filled with hard lava have been laid bare, when the softer rock about them has been worn away. These old lava- filled fissures sometimes rise like long rocky walls, and are known as dylces. There are many lava necks and dykes in the western part of our country. Most volcanoes are found not many miles from the coasts of the continents, or on islands not far offshore. Many more volcanoes are found near the Pacific coast than near the Atlantic. Besides these, a large number of small islands have been wholly built by volcanic action, sometimes even growing from the deep floor of mid-ocean. Some eruptions have also taken place on the continents several hundred miles from the seacoast, as in the Eocky mountains of our country, but such eruptions are rare. As we study the different countries, we shall learn more about volcanoes, some of which have destroyed cities and towns. 1 This plateau is in the Western Ghats, India, and is part of the Deccan lava flow. In that region, the lava has spread over an area of about 200,000 square miles. 16 SHORE FORMS. WORK <>' STO R M S SANDY SHORE WAVES. — SHORE FORMS. 17 ff ,-A J 21. Waves. Breakers or Surf. Winds blowing over the sea make waves. Under strong winds the waves are sometimes thirty or forty feet high, from trough to crest. If a hanging rope is struck or shaken, waves glide along it. The rope simply bends to form the waves. The water in waves only rises and falls, like the waves in the rope, but the wave-forms travel forward. The larger they are, the faster they move. In the open sea some waves travel at the rate of more than a mile a minute. Storms at sea are dangerous chiefly on account of the waves. They pitch vessels about and sometimes wreck them. The great waves produced in a storm may spread far across the ocean. They lose height as they go, and are then ealled smell. When the swell approaches shallow water near shores, it increases in height again and rolls forward in the form of breakers or surf on beaches. Waves on beaches often wash pebbles and sand up and down, grinding them liner and finer. Great storm-waves are strong enough to move large blocks of rock. When severe earthquakes occur near coasts or at the bottom of the sea, they produce broad waves, ealled earthquake waves, that travel with great speed. Such waves rolling upon shallow shores become very high and strong. Vessels in harbors are sometimes dragged from their moorings and carried by earthquake waves far up the shores. . / 22. Shore Forms. ^ Straight or regular shores are found where smooth bottoms have been slowly raised from the sea. Along such shores there are but few bays in wliich vessels can find shelter from winds and waves. People living near regular shores are seldom good sailors. A neck of land joining a peninsula with another body of land is ealled an isthmus. A stra it is a body of water joining two larger bodies of water. A strait may be many miles in width, but it is always narrower than the bodies of water wliich it connects. The word s trait means narroio. Some long and shallow straits are ealled sounds. The name sound may also be given to any body of water partly inclosed by islands. Sounds and straits are often only drowned valleys. Some of them are very deep Large arms of the sea are ealled bays, cjidfs or seas. Some of these are hundreds of miles long and wide. Bodies of water that afford shelter to vessels are known as harbors. Many fine harbors are found in the mouths of rivers or in drowned valleys. Along ir- regular coasts vessels find shelter in bays or behind is- lands. Men living near such coasts generally be- come good Sailors. A Flord, Norway. hhhhhhbhi Storm-waves slowly wear away parts of some coasts. The waves beat most violently on headlands that jut far out into the sea. As these are worn back, their steep faces form sea-cliffs. Irregular shores occur where hilly or mountainous lands have partly sunk beneath the sea. Valleys that have sunk beneath the sja are said to be drowned. The drowned valleys form bays. Deep, long and narrow bays are known as fjords . The ridges, hills, or other parts of the land between the drowned valleys, may form islands or peninsulas. The pieture at the bottom of this page shows seyeral fiords formed by the partial drowning of the mountainous region shown in a pieture on page 12. Some fiords are many miles long and are very deep. There are many fiords along the northwest coasts of North America and Europe. The word p eninsul a means al- most an island. Peninsulas are only partly surrounded by water. Low and sandy shores may be so rapidly worn that houses are undermined and washed away. In cold regions floating ice helps to change the shore lines. Tons of sand, pebbles and large rocks become imbedded in the ice and are thus borne out to sea. Ice is also driven by waves against the shores, where it helps to grind even the rocky cliffs. Rock waste from headlands often forms beaches at the foot of the cliffs. Part of the waste is also carried by waves along the shores, where it is spread out into beaches or built into bars, cutting off parts of bays. In this way the shores become straighter. W aves often gather sand from shallow bottoms and throw it up in bars off low shores, thus partly inclosing bodies of water, ealled lagoons. Fine waste from the land settles in the quiet lagoons, and Fiords or Drowned Valleys. 18 BELTS OF HEAT. water-plants then grow there. In time the lagoons may thus be filled, forming marshes. There are rnany thousand acres of marsh land formed in this way along the eastern coast of our country. Sometimes the beaches and bars are made of cobblestones or of pebbles worn round and smooth, by being rolled against one another. Many beaches and bars are made of sand. More than one half the shores of the United States are low and sandy. 23. Beits of Heat. The sun is a hot globe more than a million times as large as the eartli. This great globe is very far away, yet it keeps the eartli warm enougli to support life. If, when Columbus set sail on his first voyage to America, some object could have left the sun and traveled at the rate of twenty- five miles an hour towards the earth, that object would still be several million miles away from the earth. The average distance of the earth from the sun is about 93,000,000 miles. hot belt lies a belt of land and sea on which the sun’s rays fall with but little slant. We will call these two beits the warm beits. Between the warm belt and the cold belt, on eacli side of the equator, lies another belt on which the rays fall with a great deal of slant. These two beits are the cool beits. EQUA aE! TOR Pigure 1. In later lessons we shall learn why the lines between the beits are somewhat irregular. Between the heat beits, there are no sudden changes from hot to warm, from warm to cool, or from cool to cold. All the way from the belt of greatest heat to the places of greatest cold, there is only a very gradual change. Heat Beits. There is very little land in the cool and cold beits south of the equator. Name in order the heat beits which would be crossed in going from pol$ to pole. 24. Changes of Season. Once a year the earth moves, or revolves, in an almost circular path round the sun. This path is called the earth’s orbit. 1 The earth is one of many bodies, called planets, that revolve round the sun. The diagram on the oppo- site page shows which part of the orbit the earth moves through each The sun’s rays shine through clear air without warming it very much, but they warm the clouds and the dust in the air, and also the surface of the land and the sea. All these help to warm the air about them, but the land and the seas warm the air much more than the clouds and the dust do. Figure 1 shows how the sun shines on different parts of the earth. Over the line B all the rays are nearly vertical. Over the line A the rays strike the earth with greater slant. As many rays shine on B as on A, but the slanting rays spread over the greater surface, and therefore cannot heat it so much. The more nearly vertical the rays are, the greater their heating power. Near the equator the sun’s rays are vertical, or nearly so, at noon every day. There the air is hot all the year, except high above sea level. That region of hot air is called the hot belt. Around the poles the rays are very slanting, and the air is always cold or cool. The polar regions are known as the cold beits. Between the hot belt and the cold beits, there are other beits neither so hot nor so cold. On eitlier side of the month. The arrows indicate the direction in which the earth moves. The eartlTs axis does not stand upright from the plane of its orbit, but slants so that the strongest sunshine falls north of the equator during about one half of the year, and south of the equator during the other half. All the year the axis of the earth points toicards the north star and is therefore called a fixed axis} Every moment the earth changes its own posi- tion with regard to Pigure 2. the sun, but the 1 The orbit is an ellipse, with the sun near the center. 2 Although the earth's axis makes no perceptible change from year to year, yet in long ages a great change takes place. In about 12,500 years the bright star Vega, in the constellation of Lyra, will be the north star. In about double that length of time, the axis will again point towards the present north star. Even now the north star is not exactly in line with the earth’s axis. THE ZONES OF LIGHT. 19 direction of the axis remains the same. The northern end of _ the axis leans towards the sun in June, when the sunsliine is strongest north of the equator; and away from the sun in December, when the sunshine is strongest south of the equator . 1 As the earth moves round its orbit, the sun’s rays are strongest north of the equator during our spring and summer, but south of the equator during our autumn and winter. Half the year, the vertical rays fall north of the equator, but they fall farthest north on the twenty-first day of June. At that time the northern summer and the Southern winter begin. See figure 8. During the other half of the year the ver- tical rays shine south of the equator, but they shine farthest south on the twenty-first day of December, — at about Christmas time. Then the northern winter and the Southern summer begin. See figure 4- Our spring opens on the twenty-first day of March, when the vertical rays fall on the equator, and the days and nights are every- where of equal length. The earth is then moving in that part of its orbit which brings the vertical rays farther and farther north of the equator and makes our days longer than the nights. The spring is the warming season between winter and summer. See figure 2. The first day of our autumn brings the earth to that part of its orbit where the sun again shines over the equator, but the vertical rays are each day moving southward, making our nights longer than our days. The northern autumn, or the cooling season between summer and winter, begins on the twenty-second day of September. See figure 2 . 2 about one fourtli the distance from the equator to the poles. The belt of land and water lying between or within the tropics is called the torrid 4 zone. It includes the greater part of the hot belt. When the sun is over the equator, the line between daylight and darkness passes through botli poles. See figure 2. 25. The Zones of Light. The line around the earth, upon which the vertical rays | fall when farthest/ north, is called the tropic of Cancer. The line upon which the vertical rays fall when farthest south is called the tropic of Capricorn? pigure 3. The tropics are at 1 Owing to the fact that the sun is not in the center of the earth’s orhit, and that the earth does not move at the same rate of speed in all parts of its orbit, the vertical rays fall north of the equator for about 185 days, and south of the equator for about 180 days. 2 For soine purposes, the seasons are divided at the beginning of March, June, September and December. Thus, the average temperature of summer is based on the temperature of the entire months of June, July and August. 8 The word tropic means the turning place, and applies to the line over which the sun seems to turn backward on its journey. Cancer, the Crab, and Capricornus. the Goal, are names of groups of stars through which the sun once seemed to pass when over the tropics. Diagram sti owing the Position ol the Earth in its Orbit each Month. When the sun is over the tropic of Cancer, the light extends far beyond the north pole, but does not reach the south pole, because only one half the earth is lighted at once. See figure 8. When the sun is over the tropic of Capricorn, a region all around the south pole is in the light, but the north polar region is in dark- ness. See figure 4- These figures show that at all times the lines between light and dark- ness are just as far from the poles - as the sun is north or south of the equator. When the sun is over either tropic, the lines between light and darkness must therefore be at about one fourth of the distance from the poles'to the equator. When the sun is over the equator, every place from pole to pole has twelve liours of day and twelve hours of night. As the earth moves along that part of its orbit which brings the vertical rays farther and farther north of the 4 Torrid means parched ; frigid, cold ; temperate, moderate. Figure 4. 20 SEASONS OF THE HEAT HF.T.TS equator, the days in the northern hemispliere become longer and the nights shorter. The farther north a place is, the longer its day light then lasts. As the sun shines farther north of the equator, there is a growing cap around the north pole, within which there is no dark- ness. When the sun is farthest north, the cap of constant dayliglit is bounded by the Arctic circle. As the earth moves in that part of its orbit which carries the vertical rays away from the tropic of Cancer, the cap of constant dayliglit in the far north grows smaller, and it finally disappears when the sun crosses the equator. As the sun moves south of the equator, a cap of constant darkness grows around the north pole, while a cap of constant dayliglit around the south pole grows till it reaches the Antarctic circle. The Arctic and the Antarctic circles are known as the polar circles. Which of these lines bounds the north frigid zone ? Which bounds the south frigid zone ? The frigid zones include almost all parts of the cold beits or cold caps. Wliat circles bound the temper- ate zones ? These zones include most parts of the cool beits and the warm beits. Thus we see that at the north pole, daylight lasts for six months, or while the sun is north of the equa- tor. During that time the south pole is in darkness. While the sun is south of the equa- tor the south pole is in constant day- Ferns growing on Trees, India. light, and the nortli pole is in darkness. At the polar circles the longest period of light or of darkness is twenty-four hours. The Arctic circle has its longest daylight when the sun is over the tropic of Cancer. When do places on the Antarctic circle have their longest period of light? Between the Arctic circle and the north pole the longest periods of daylight vary from twenty-four hours to six months. Each place within this circle has continuous light for a day, or for some greater length of time not more than six months. Each place has only one of these long days yearly, but it has also many days, or periods of light, less than twenty- four hours long. The nearer the pole, the longer the great period of daylight lasts. The south frigid zone has the same number of light and of dark periods as the north frigid zone. The longest period of daylight in any place within either of the polar circles lasts during the longest period of darkness in some place just as far within the other polar circle. X . ^ 26. Sealsons of the Heat Beits. The open oceans and the air over them do not warm mucli in summer nor cool much in winter. The greatest changes in heat take place over wide lands. These heat very quickly in the strong sunshine of the long summer days, and they cool very quickly in the long winter nights. The larger the land area, the more extreme its seasons are. Cold Beits. The seasons in the Map of the Zones. cold beits are a long and extreme] y O cold winter, and a short cool summer. During the long winter nights, how cold the air of these beits must become ! Ice and snow cover the land and almost all parts of the polar seas. Only a few places in the Arctic ocean are kept onen by water drifting from the warmer parts of the Atlantic. Even during the long daylight of summer, the air of the cold beits cannot become very warm, because snow and ice cover most of the land and sea near the poles and a large part of the sunshine is taken to melt a portion of this snow and ice. The few people living within the northern cold belt are found mostly near the shores past which the warmer waters drift from the south. These people get their food mainly by hunting and fishing, or by tending herds of reindeer. No people live in the Southern cold belt. Brilliant lights, called the aurora , 1 sometimes appear in the polar skies, and are also seen from places far beyond the frigid zones. The auroras diminish the darkness of the long polar night. Cool Beits. In the northern cool belt the lands are wide. There the winter days are short, Caught in an Ice Floe in Balfin Bay. Eskimo Boy. and the sunshine of that season is slanting and weak. The winters are therefore very cold, especially in the 1 The northern lights are called the aurora borealis. The Southern lights are called the aurora australis. •SEA SONS OF THE HEAT BELTS. 21 nortliern half of the belt, where snow covei’s the ground for several months eacli year, and where heavy frosts are common in the late spring and the early autumn. In spring and summer the days of this cool belt are long and the sun’s rays are not very slanting, except in the northern part of the belt. The summers thus become very warm, especially in the Southern half of the belt. In the cool belt of the south there is not much land, and the climate therefore changes but little. The air over the oceans remains steadily cool, while over the narrow lands it varies only from warm to cool. Warm Beits. The lands in the northern warm belt are wide, but the days and nights do not differ greatly in length, and the sun’s rays are never very slanting. The winters on the lands are cool but not cold. The summers are very hot. On the northern oceans, both in the cool and the warm beits, the change of seasons is much less than on the lands. The winters and the summers of the lands in the Southern warm belt are well marked, but these lands are small compared with the oceans in the same belt. The change of seasons is greatest on the small land interiors, and least near the coasts and on the oceans. Hot Belt. In the hot belt the slant of the sunshine varies but little, and the days and nights are always about twelve hours long. There the change of seasons is very slight, and there is no winter. The air is hot nearly all the year. The line of greatest heat around the earth is called the heat equator. It shifts north and south once a year, always towards the places where the sunshine is strongest. The line of greatest heat therefore follows the movement of the sun. of tlie year, the heat equator moves slowly southward aeross the same belt. The heat equator moves farther from the true equator on the lands than on the sea, because the land warms much more quickly than Northern Ughte. the wate r. As the heat equator shifts north and south, the weather of all the heat beits shifts with it, back and forth once a year, following the sun. During our summer, hot weather spreads into the northern warm belt ; the warm weather shifts into the cool belt ; the cool weather shifts into the cold belt; the cold weather dwindles away and perhaps disappears from the north polar region. Heat Beits and thelr Seasons. 1 In all the heat beits, the highlands are cooler than the lowlands. Even near the equator, the tops of very high mountains are covered with snow all the year. Range ol the Heat Equator. 1 Figure 5 shows the plan on which the above map of the Heat Beits is made. It is as if the places on the globe were lifted out- ward, away from the center of the globe, and drawn upon the paper cyiinder, which is then cut apart and spread out as in the above map. In such a map, the cold and the cool beits appear much too large, for the polar circles are stretched to the full \ length of the equator. Figure 5. The positions of the heat equator in our winter and our summer are shown on this little map. The Southern edge of the shaded belt is the heat equator for January. The northern edge is the heat equator for July. Let us not forget that our winter months are the summer months in places south of the hot belt. During the time between January and July, — the first half of the year, — the heat equator shifts slowly northward, through the entire width of the shaded belt on the map. During the latter half During our winter, the cold weather of the northern cold belt spreads far southward over the cool belt ; the cool weather shifts to the warm belt ; and warm weather only is felt at the border of the hot belt. South of the equator, the opposite changes are meanwhile taking place. When the warmer weather swings northward from the equator, the cooler weather shifts towards that line from regions south of it ; but owing to the smallness of the Southern lands and the vastness of the oceans, the seasons south of the equator do not present great extremes of heat or cold. 22 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. . and is marked 0° on the maps. See colorecl map of British Isles. The meridians which show degrees are generally numbei’ed from 1 to 180 east from Greenwich, and also 27. Latitude and Longitude. Every circle, both large and small, may be divided into 360 parts, each of which is called a degree. 1 How many degrees are there in one fourth of a circle ? In half a circle ? In one sixth of a circle ? The distance from the equator to either pole is ninety degrees (90°), or one fourth of a great circle running north and south around the earth. The tropic of Cancer is 23^° north of the equator, and the tropic of Capricorn is just as far south of the equator. How far are the polar circles from the poles ? How far are those circles from the equator ? The tropics and the polar circles are parallel with the equator, and are therefore called parallels. We may think of other parallels at 1°, 10°, 30°, or any number of degrees as high as ninety, from the equator. Parallels show how far places are north or south of the equator. Thus the city of New Orleans is 30° north of the equator, — written 30° N. That city is at one third the distance from the equator to the north pole. See colored map of North America. There are many other places on the same parallel, or at the same distance from the equator. All places on any one of the north-and-south lines running from pole to pole have midday at the same time. These lines are therefore called me- ridians, meaning midday lines. We may think of any number of me- ridians and number them, beginning with either of them. The line with which the numbering begins is called the prime meridian, meaning the first. The prime meridian most com- monly used by sailors passes through Greenwich, near London. This is known as the meridian of Greenwich 1 A 60th part of a degree is called a minute. A 60th part of a minute is called a second. Ten degrees, thirty minutes and forty seconds may be written — 10° 30' 40". from 1 to 180 west. These numbers count the degrees around the equator or the parallels. New Orleans is on the meridian 90° west of Greenwich, — written 90° W. Knowing both the parallel and the meridian of that city, we may locate it at 90° W. and 30° N. The number of degrees at which any place lies north or south of the equator is called the latitude of that place. The number of degrees at which any place lies east or west of a given prime meridian is called the longitude of the place. Latitude means the broad way ; longitude means the long way. In ancient times, when nearly all the shipping in the world was on the Mediterranean sea, the long way was east and west ; the broad way was north and south. What is the latitude of New Orleans ? What is its longitude ? Find out the latitude and longitude of the town or city in which you live. What is the latitude of the tropics ? Of the polar circles ? 28. Winds and Rainfall. Winds. Cold air, being heavier tlian hot air, flows to- wards and creeps under the hot air, pushing it upwards. As all parts of the earth are not heated alike, the air is kept in motion. Some of the currents of air move along the earth’s surface, and others flow far above it. The ivinds, or sur- face currents, are the more important to know, as they gather moist- ure for the lands and do many other kinds of useful work. Wide currents of air flow into the hot belt from the regions on both sides. If the earth did not rotate, each of these currents would flow due south or north, towards WINDS AND RAINFALL. 23 the heat equator. The turning of the fearth on its axis turns these winds westward, so that they flow into the hot belt from the northeast and the southeast. These winds are called the trade winds. On the oceans they are very steady, and blow with little change by day or by night. The trade winds are seldom interrupted by bad weather or storms. Every wind takes the name of the di- rection from which it blows. The trade windsblow from an easterly direction and are therefore called easterly winds. The word trade (compare tread ) once meant a trail or path. The trade winds took their name from the steadiness with which they follow a path across the sea, and not from the fact that they are help- ful to commerce or trade. Between the northeast and the southeast trade winds there is a narrow belt where the winds are weak and irregular, often dying away to a calm. Tliis narrow belt of weak winds lies along the heat equator and shifts north and south with it. This belt is the region where the air from the trade winds becomes hottest and lightest and is therefore slowly lifted up into the upper atmosphere. on the way. Lowlands in the path of these winds are generally dry, but the windward sides of highlands in the trade wind beits receive abundant rainfall . 1 When air rises to cross highlands, it expands and cools. Some of its vapor may then be condensed into clouds which inay yield rainfall on the slopes of the highlands. Some of the great deserts in the world are lowlands in the path of the trade winds. In desert regions the winds gather so much dust that the sky is pale-blue or even gray. There is a very large amount of vapor in the equatorial belt of weak winds, and almost every afternoon or evening, when the warmer air rises most actively, rains pour down, with thunderstorms and squalls. This rainy belt is called the equa- torial rain belt. The rains of the equatorial belt on the land often occur late at night, as if condensed by the cooling of the tops of the clouds which last over from the afternoon. So much rain falls in the equatorial rain belt that the surface water of the oceans in this belt is a little less salt than the oceans under the drying trade winds. General Plan of the Winds. (The dotted areas indicate rain.) Outside the trade wind path, the winds of the warm and the cool beits vary in direction from time to time and are often stormy, but they blow mostly from the west and are therefore called the westerly winds. Between the westerly winds and the trade winds there are weak, irregular winds that generally have dry weather. The storms of the westerly wind beits are great wliirls, or eddies, that drift along to the eastward over the sea and the land. In these eddying winds are broad areas of clouds, often yielding rain or snow. The round map on this page illustrates some of the eddying storms on their way across the cool and the warm beits on both sides of the equator. In the cold beits, the winds are variable and often stormy. They generally blow in about the same direction as the trade winds, — most fre- quently from the northeast in the north polar region, and from the southeast in the south polar region. These are called polar winds. / Rainfall. When the air is cooled it can- not hold so 'much vapor as when warmer. When cooled enough, the vapor in it forms clouds, often with rain or snow. When the air grows warmer it can hold more vapor, and no clouds then form in it. The trade winds blow towards the heat equator and therefore do not give out rainfall unless they are chilled On highlands and on windward coasts the rainfall from the storms of the westerly winds is very heavy. Far inland the rainfall is much lighter. Eddying Storm movlng eastward across the United States. The above map shows a storm eddy Crossing our country. As the cloudy and rainy eddy drifts eastward, clear weather follows it. 1 The term rainfall includes rain, snow, hail and all other forms of falling water or ice. Note. — The arrowheads show that the winds are eddying towards the storm center, where the dark shading shows the rain area, and the lighter shading the cloud area. The winds, rains and clouds are whirling eastward. The small map on this page shows several of these storm eddies. See maps on the next page also. 24 WINDS AND RAINS OF WINTER AND SUMMER. The winds in an eddy whirl faster than the storm center moves forward in its path. Waves caused by the whirling winds run ahead of the storm and often give warning of its approach. Winds and Rains of January — Northern Winter. The westerly winds blowing inland from over the oceans are neither hot in summer nor cold in winter. The great bodies of water over which they blow, and from which they get their moisture and warmth, have nearly the same temperature both in winter and in summer. The westerly winds, therefore, give an even temperature to the western coasts of the as it goes south. Sucli places have two wet seasons and two dry seasons yearly. Lowlands that are reached by the equatorial rain belt when it is farthest north or south have a short wet season and a long dry season. Wetweatherprevailsonly while the rain belt is over tliese places. Dry weather comes when the rain belt moves away and the trade winds prevail. In the lowlands having the single rainy season each year, grass and flowers grow in abun- dance while the wet weather lasts, but in the dry months tho vegetation withers away. In some places the ground then becomes parched and dry, like a desert. The trade winds blow towards the heat equator. Where these winds cross the true equator to reach the heat equator, they change their direction, as shown on the maps. When the heat equator reaches Southern Asia, the southeast trade winds cross the equator and flow as Southwest winds towards that continent. While the heat equator is in the south, the northeast trade winds blow from Asia, and on Crossing the equator become northwest winds, as shown on the above map. Winds that reverse their direction in opposite seasons are called monsoons, or season winds. continents in the warm and the cool beits. The western coast of our own country owes the mildness of its climate to the westerly winds from over the Pacific ocean. Western Europe also has a more even temperature than the inland regions farther east. 29. Winds and Rains of Winter and Summer. The equatorial rain belt lies\ along the heat equator and ' shifts north and south with it. This rain belt is north of the true equator in July, and mostly south of it in January. When the heat equator and the ram belt Winds and Rains ol July — Northern Summer. mo ve away from^ a region, the drying trade- wrpds blow there, and a dry season Since the beits of trade winds shift north and south at follows the wet season. about the same time that the heat equator shifts, the Some places on or near the true equator are visited by the outer borders of these beits are farther from the true rain belt twice each year, — once as it moves north, and again equator in summer than in winter. OCEAN CURRENTS. 25 During the northern summer, when the border of the trade wiud belt is farthest north, the regions south of the equator have their winter, and therefore the Southern border of the trade wind belt is then nearest the equator. As the Southern summer approaches, the Southern border of the trade wind belt moves away from the equator. The westerly wind beits shift north and south with the beits of trade winds. As a result, some places feel the steady trade winds in summer and the stormy westerly winds in winter. Such places have dry summers and wet winters. In winter a large part of the west coast of North America and all the west coast of Europe receive rainfall from the stormy westerly winds. In summer the trade winds extend over the Southern parts of these coasts and cause drouths. ' Parts of the west coasts of the three Southern continents have similar changes from winter to summer. The westerly winds and their storm eddies are strong- est in the winter season. That is the time when the coasts and the mountains on which they blow receive the most rainfall, — rain or snow. The western coast lands of continents in the cool and the warm beits, therefore, have their heaviest rainfall in winter. During the summer season, the westerly winds are less active and their storms are weaker and fewer. In winter the air over the northern continents is cold and heavy. 1 In that season, therefore, the winds from over the sea do not reach the interior of the continents so easily as in summer when the air over the land is warm and light. For this reason, the interior regions of the northern continents receive their rainfall chiefly in summer. 30. Ocean Currents. Winds blowing day after day for a long time against waves in the sea cause the surface water to drift slowly along and thus form ocean currents. These currents move much more slowly than the winds or the waves. In each ocean the currents move in the general direction of the winds over them. The trade winds blow tfiej^pean 1 The places of greatest cold in winter are not over the Arctic ocean, but at some distance southward from the Arctic coasts of Asia and North America. In that season therefore the polar winds do not flow inland over the continents, to any great extent, but are pushed out from the lands. In summer, when the inland regions are very warm and when the air over them is light, the polar winds reach farthest into the northern lands. currents westward, and the westerly winds blow them eastward. The lands prevent the currents from moving round and round the earth and require them to circle around, or eddy, in each ocean. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans have eddies both north and south of the equator. The Indian ocean has a large eddy south of the equator, but the ocean currents north of the equator flow back and forth with the season winds, or monsoons, which prevail over that ocean. The ocean eddies north of the equator move slowly in the direc- tion in which the hands of a clock turn. The ocean eddies south of the equator move in the opposite direction, or against the hands of a clock. In the Southern cool belt the oceans spread all the way round the earth. There the drifting waters on the Southern sides of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian eddies unite to form a great current sweeping slowly towards the east. This current flows entirely around the Antarctic ocean and may be called the Antarctic eddy. It receives cold water from the south polar ocean. Ocean currents that move slowly over a broad surface are called drift currents. These seldom flow more than a mile an hour. Cur- rents that are driven through narrow passages may move three or even four miles an hour. These rapid currents are called streams. Part of the water of the North Atlantic eddy flows between the island of Cuba and the mainland of North America. The current issuing from this passage is called the Gulf stream. Joining the rest of the eddy, the Gulf stream spreads as a broad drift far to the northeast. Part of this drift turns back southward into the hot belt, and part branches towards the Arctic ocean. The large brancli of the North Atlantic eddy which runs northeastward into the Arctic ocean bears much warmth to it. A cold current from the Arctic ocean flows south- ward along the northeast coast of North America. As we study the different continents we shall learn of other cur- rents that warm or cool the air flowing towards the land. Chart oi the Ocean Currents. 26 THE MOON AND THE TIDES. The Bore or Tldal Wave (Seine River, France). It is important to know when high or low tides occur in different harbors, for the tidal currents are of great assistance to vessels såiling in or out. At the mouths of some harbors the water at low tide is not deep enough for vessels to epter. They must then wait for the high tide. 31. The Moon and the Tides. Tvvice each day, 1 the ocean slow ly rises and falls on its shores. For about six hours, the water creeps up the beaches and against the foot of clilfs. During the next six hours, it slowly settles back. This rise and fall of the water is called the tide. The tide is not felt at sea and is seldom very strong on headlands, but in narrowing bays the water may rise ten, twenty or thirty feet. 2 There is a tide on the side of the earth to- wards the moon and an- Tides on the The moon goes round the earth from west to east in about a month. The long diagram on this page shows the path of the earth and the moon for nearly one month, on their way round the sun. The larger circles, half light and half dark, indicate the posi- tionof the earth each day; while the smaller circles indicate the position of the moon. The days of the month are numbered, — 1, 2, 3, etc. The groups of arrows pointing downward repre- sent the sun’s rays and show why the upper sides of the earth and the moon in the diagram are light. At the outset, the dark face of the new moon is turned towards the earth. The little arrow flying upwards between days 7 and 8 shows the point where one half of the light side of the moon may be seen from the earth. The arrow pointing upwards near the figure which marks the end of the fifteenth day, shows the position of full moon , when all the light side is turned towards the earth. From this time on, the moon shows less and less of its light side, till the new moon again appears. Tides cause currents to flow in and out of bays. Tidal currents help to scour the mud and sand from the bottom of shallow bays and to wash the rock waste farther away from the shores. Twice a day these currents carry sea water into and out of the bays and thus keep them pure. The flowing in of the tide is called its Jiood ; the flow- ing out is its ebb. Seacoast. other on the opposite side. The tides are caused chiefly by the attraction of the moon, but partly also by the sun At all times there are two faint bulges of high tides whose broad wave-forms travel swiftly across the oceans. In the open oceans the tides follow the movements of the moon, but on reaching the shallow waters near the margin of the lands, the tides increase in height and advance much more slowly, — lagging far behind the moon. As the earth turns on its axis, the moon seems to revolve round it from east to west. The moon holds in place the great tidal wave-forms, while the earth turns on its axis. Thus, it is the turning of the earth which makes the two tides appear daily, just as it makes the sun rise and set. If you will note the time of the moon’s setting, you will find that it is nearly an hour later each day, sliowing that the moon’s position is farther east each successive night at a given hour, and that the earth must rotate almost an hour longer than a day, in order to make the moon set. This is the reason why the tides are nearly an hour later each day The Crescent Moon. 1 More exactly, in 24 hours and 50 minutes. ln some narrowing bays and river mouths, the tide forms a high Some places have but one tide a day, and others have more than two wave followed by several smaller waves. These roll in with great tides in that time. • speed and often do much damage. Such a wave formed by the 2 In rare cases it rises sixty feet. tide is called a bore. NORTH AMERICA. 32. North America. 1 North America is broad in the north, but it tapers towards the south. This continent covers nearly one twentieth of the earth’s surface. 2 North America consists mainly of a great western highland, a lesser eastern highland and a central plain. This continent crosses the warm and cool beits, and also enters the cold helt on the north and the hot belt on the south. Only a small part of the continent is in the hot or the cold regions. Far the greater part is in the beits having cold or cool winters and warm or hot summers. In the warm belt the winter is short and mild, but northward the cold season lengthens, till near the Arctic coast there are only a few weeks of mild weather each summer. The extreme north of the continent is cold and dreary. 1 The Map Studies on page 29 are to precede this lesson. Refer often to the relief maps. Locate every place named in the text. 2 The area of the earth’s surface is about 200,000,000 square miles, — more exactly, 197,000,000. Only the southernmost part of North America is reached in summer by the equatorial rains. The high- land of Mexico receives rains from the trade winds on its eastern slopes, but the western slopes are not well- watered. The wide middle portion of the continent is in the path of the eddying storms of the westerly winds. The westerly winds from over the North Pacific eddy give a mild and even climate to the greater part of the west coast of North America, for the seasons over the broad ocean change but little. In the interior of the continent, far from the sea, the summers are very warm and the winters very cold: There the change of seasons is much greater than near the coast. On the east coast the winter weather is mild when the southeast wind blows from over the Gulf stream, but is very chilling when the northeast wind from over the Arctic current reaches the land or when cold air flows out from the interior of the continent, When the cold heavy air of winter covers the interior of North America, not much moist air can flow in, and the inland rainfall is therefore not heavy. When the warm light air of summer spreads over the interior, the moist winds from the sea flow inland and give plentiful rains, except on the lowlands among the western mountains and on the plains along the eastern base of the Rocky mountains. RELIEF MAP OP NORTH AMERICA. MAP STUDIES. 29 0 v°^ pt < v 1 ' b 33. Map Studies. 1 On the relief map of North America locate the place where you live. See opposite page. What oceans border on North America? VVliat continent adjoins it on the south ? In what direction is Europe from North America ? Which part of our continent lies nearest Asia ? Turn to the map of the heat beits and tell what you can about the seasons in North America. See map on page 21. Which part of North America is in the path of the westerly winds ? Of the trade winds ? See ma ps on page 2 4 . In what direction does the Rocky Mountain highland extend ? Along which side of the continent does it lie ? Which part of this highland looks the liighest ? The widest ? Into what gulf does the Colorado river fiow? Name a large river flowing into Bering sea. Where is the Appalachian highland ? In what direction does it extend ? Is it higher or lower than the Rocky Mountain high- land ? Is it longer or shorter ? Wider or narrower ? On which side of the Rocky mountaius are there vast plains ? Name the largest river flowing into the gulf of Mexico. What liighlands are on the east and west sides of the Mississippi basin ? Which part of the central plain is drained by the Mississippi river and its branches ? 1 For drawing and modeling, see guide map in the Supplement. Note : Whenever the name of a city or a country is used, locate it at once on the colored map of the continent which is being studied. All places named in the text can be found either on the kei/ maps or on the simple colored maps in the body of the book. The maps in the Supplement probably contain the names of all places to which you will need to refer in anv part of your school work. What river forms the outlet of the Great L akes r What high- lands are separated by the valley of this river ?.. ' . Which portion of the central plain is in the basin of the Nelson river ? , Into what bay does this river flow ? Describe the course of the Mackenzie river. Which part of the central plain does it drain ? What bodies of water partly surround the peninsula of Florida ? The peninsula of Labrador ? The peninsula of Alaska ? The peninsula of Lower California ? Sketch the general outline of North America, — using only tliree straight lines. In what general direction does the east coast extend? The west coast? The north coast? Which coast is the longest ? Draw the north coast of this continent ; the west coast ; the east coast. Which is the most irregular ? Maps showing the Posltlon ol North America among the Continents and Oceans. 30 THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. rious ranges lying along this plateau are known 34. The Rocky Mountains. 1 The widest part of the Rocky Mountain highland is about midway between the isthmus of Panama and Bering strait. In this broad portion, lofty ranges almost inclose a vast plateau, about a mile above sea level and several hundred miles wide. The va- the eastern side of as the Rocky moun- tains. This chain extends far north- ward into the basin of the Yukon river, and southward to the Rio Grande, at the is spread over the lower land. The plains along the eastern base of the Rocky mountains are made of the waste which in past ages has been washed from the great range. Many of the Rocky mountain peaks are over two miles and a half high. Where are the Laramie plains ? See map on page 32. These plains are in a high plateau region that interrupts the Rocky mountain chain. The route of the first railroad built across our country leads over the Laramie plains. South of the Laramie plains the Rocky mountains con- sist of parallel ranges, running mostly Yellowstone PaUs. n0rth and S01lth ; AlJtOUg these lie many high plains known as parks. The parks are lofty basins sliut in by ranges on riearly all sides. Among these are the North, the Middle, the South, and the San Luis parks. Each of these contains several hundred square miles of land that is quite level and is covered with rock-layers made of waste washed from the surrounding mountains. Some parts are wooded, and other parts are grassy or rocky. The parks are drained by rivers that have cut deep and narrow valleys, or canyons, through the ranges. The sources of the Platte, Mammoth Hot Springs. place where that river forms the boundary between our country and Mexico. In the Rocky mountains, as in all high mountains, bare crags stand out near the summits, and coarse stony waste creeps down the slopes into the Valleys. The finer waste is washed farther and 1 The surface of the United States, occupying a broad belt across the middle part of North America, is treated much more at length than any other part of the earth, not only because we ought to know the geography of our own country, but also because the full knowledge of the surface and resources of our land affords the best key to its history. THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 31 the A rkans as, the C olora do and the Rio^Qjande are in this park~region. Railroads through this rough country often folTow the canyons, but the wagon roads generally lead over the passes in the mountains. Among the famous mountains of this region are Pikes peak and Longs peak. These rocky masses, patched with snow, may be clearly seen from the plains on the east of the great chain. The W asatc h range rises along the western part of the Rocky mountains. The Colo- rado river receives streams from the east slope of the Wa- satch r ang e. From the region of the Lara- mie plains the Rocky mountains bend towards the northwest and there the great western highland of the continent be- comes narrower. Where is the Wind River range ? This high range contains sources of streams that belong in three large river systems, — the Co lorad o, the Columbia and the Mississippi. 'J. ' J . Locate the Y park has been reserved for the and is therefore called a “ national park.” It is famous for its geysers, hot springs, falls and canyons. Some of the geysers throw streams of hot water more than two hundred feet into the air. Steam escapes with loud roaring and makes the ground tremble. The water in some of these fountains falls back into basins, to be belched forth again. In other geysers the water is broken into fine spray and is carried away by the wind. In many basins the water does not spout but only rises and forms pools, or hot springs. These often overflow and make terraces of stone, like those in one of the pictures on the opposite page. In Yellowstone park is a small body of water known as Two-Ocean pond. In ordinary weather this pond finds an outlet to the gulf of Mexico, through branches of the Mississippi river; but in times of heavy rains, part of the overflow from the pond reaches the Pacific ocean, by way of the Snake and Columbia rivers. Two-Ocean pond is on the continental divide , — the divide between the slopes which descend to the Atlantic ocean and the Pacific. The rainfall is not very hea^y on those parts of the Rocky mountains which are in the United States, because the great chain lies far away from the sea, and much of the moisture brought by the eddying storms of the westerly winds from over the Pacific ocean is lost on high ranges near the Pacific coast. The rainfall in the Rocky moun- tains, as in other parts of the earth, is heavier on the ranges than on the neighboring lower lands. Streams from the mountains feed many of the rivers, and canals from these are often led out to water the In summer, thunderstorms some- times start over the high mountains and drift eastward, watering the plains east of the ranges. Snow often falls on the mountains, while rain is falling on the lower lands. Only small parts of the Rocky mountains are forest- clad, but even the light sup- ply is valuable, because the lower lands of this region are almost treeless, on account of the dryness. This deep - worn highland yields more silver ore than any other part of our country. Gold is another valuable product. The city of Den- ver has had very rapid "growth because it is in the midst of a great grazing country On the plains and is near rich mines in the mountains. Northward from the border of the United States, the Rocky mountains are not very far from the Pacific coast, and therefore receive plentiful rain- fall. For a great distance the range is still lofty. Its summits are heavily snow-clad, and large glaciers are found on its slopes. The mountains, as well as the lower parts of the highland, are heavily wooded. Owing to the vegetation on the slopes of the Rocky mountains in Canada, ore-bearing' rocks are not so easily found there as in our own country. 32 THE SIERRA NEVADA. Copyright, I 895, by Alex E. Frye. Key to Relief Map on pages 34 and 35. 1 35. The Sierra Nevada. Where are the mountains tliat form the Sierra Nevada ? This name rneans snowy range. Ages ago the Sierra Nevada was greatly worn down. When the surface reached the deeply-buried layers, veins of rock containing gold were then uncovered. There were grains and nuggets of gold in the waste which was washed from the mountains and wliich The lofty Sierra Nevada rises in steep slopes from the plateau on the east, bnt descends in gentle slopes to the low valley plain on the west. This range receives heavy winter snowfalls from the storm s of the westerly winds. In summer, the rains are not plentiful, because the trade winds then reach farther north, and storms are fewer. The summer streams from the Sierra are fed by the melting snow. The broad uplands of the west slope of the range are heavily wooded. The east slope is drier, and its forests are therefore lighter. Most of the Sierra forests consist of cone trees, — pine, spruce and fir. They supply lumber to the cities and towns in the low- lands west of the range. On the mountain slopes are found groups of the famous "big trees.” Some of these are more than a thousand years old and have a height of over three hundred feet. They are the largest trees known in the world. Mt. Wliitney, near the Southern end of the range, is higher than any known peak in the Rocky mountains. formed beds of gravel along their western base. In that ancient time, volcanoes among the mountains poured forth lava that flowed down the valleys and buried the gravel of the river beds. In the ages which have since passed, the mountain region has again been uplifted and the volcanoes and the lava-flows have been greatly worn away. New valleys have been cut, and in many places the gold- bearing gravel under the lava has been laid bare. The gravel beds are now dug out for the gold which they contain. The picture on page 12tUdiows how miners sometimes use water to wash down a gravel bed. The water forces the gravel down a trough, across the bottom of which are small cleats or grooves holding quicksilver. The gold is gathered by the quicksilver, and the gravel is washed away. 1 Key to figures and letters on the map : The heights of peaks are given in the Supplement. 1. Yellowstone Park. 4. South Park. California “ Big Tree.” H = Mt. Ilood. J = Mt. Whitney. L = Longs Peak. 2. North Park. 3. Middle Park. M = Mitchells Peak. P= Pikes Peak. R = Mt. Rainier. 5. San Luis Park. D = Death Valley. S=Mt. Shasta. V=Mt. San Francisco. Y=Yosemite Valley. THE CASCADE RANGE. 33 The lava-flows blocked many river valleys and thus formed lakes. In time, many of these were drained and their beds became meadows, making the best farming lands now to be found among the mountains. One river has cut a deep valley from east to west aeross the northern part of the Sierra Nevada. Elsewliere the range can be crossed only over high passes. The Yosemite valley is on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Nevada. See vicip on page 32. The depth of tliis wonderful valley is so great, and its sides are so steep, that hundreds of people visit it every year. In some places, its steep sides are about half a mile in height. Beautiful streams from the upland leap over cliffs into the valley. In wet seasons, one small river falls more than a fourth of a mile, but during summer drouths it often dries up. Southward from the Sierra Nevada, broken ranges extend into the peninsula of Lower California. This peninsula is in the dry belt along the outer border of the trade winds and is too far south to feel the westerly storms, even in winter. 36. The Cascade Range. From the great volcanic cone of Mt. Shasta, the Cascade range extends far nortliward. As a wliole, it is not so high as the Sierra Nevada. A large part of the Cascade range is built of lava, and the highest peaks in this range are volcanoes. The sides of most of them are deeply worn, showing that a long time has passed since their lava flowed. Some of the peaks bear large glaciers. Mt. Hood is one of the highest. westerly winds reach this range at all seasons, but the winter is the time of heaviest rainfall, as on all other coast regions in the path of the westerly winds. The mountains are covered witli forests of valuable timber. The Frazer river drains a rugged region between the Cascade and Rocky mountains vF Like the Columbia river, the Frazer has cut a deep valley through the Cascade range. 37. The Great Basin. Between the W a- satch r ang e and the Sierra Nevada lies a wide plateau region known as the G reat Basin . The central part is almost a mile liigher than sea level. The surface of the Great Basin is broken by many north-and-south ranges, between which lie long tr ough s not many miles in width. The region is dry, be- cause the high Sierra Nevada lies along its windward side. There is more rain on the mountains than in the troughs, and streams have carved many valleys in the steep slopes of the ranges. The rock waste has been washed into the troughs, making gravelly and sandy plains. See picture at the bottom of page 36 The rainfall being light, many of the mountain ranges are bare of trees, and the plains are almost deserts. In these plains, there are shallow hollows, or sinks. Winter rains flood the sinks and thus form lakes, but summer drouths cause the lakes to shrink. Some of the places covered by lakes in winter are smootli dry plains in summer. In these desert plains, the wind drifts the sand into dunes which often cover the surface for many miles. In recent years a few peaks in the Cascade range have sent out small jets of steam, and at least two craters have given forth showers of ashes, but no lava-flow has been known to take place since white men first went to the region. The lava on some peaks is very firm and has flowed so recently that it has hardly begun to weather. At the place where the Columbia river breaks through the Cascade range, the stream has cut a gorge down almost to sea level, draining the interior country where there was once a large lake. This deep gorge lays bare the edges of many lava sheets and sliows them to be very tliick. Rapids break the flow of the Columbia river, at the place where it passes through the range. These rapids mark the limit to which vessels can ascend from the sea. The Cascade range is so far north that even in summer the trade winds do not reach it. The storms of the Yosemite Valley, California. The streams of the Great Basin dry up on the plains or enter lakes from which the water evaporates, for there is not enough water to overflow and cut valleys in the slopes to the sea. Copyright, 1895, by Alex E. Frye. RELIEF MÅP OF THE ■ UNITED STATES. 36 THE GREAT BAS IR. Great Salt Lake, Utah. The plains in the Great Basin are so dry that they are seldom covered with grass, exeept along the streams running from the mountains. Canals have been made to lead water from these Young Mountains or TUted Blocks, — Nor th west Part ol Basin Region, streams to irrigate parts of the plains. A few cities and towns have grown up along the streams and canals. Some of the deep-worn ranges in this region have rich mines of gold and of silver ore. These have led ,;to the building of other small cities and towns, but the Basin region is only thinly settled. The streams of this region, like nearly all other streams on the earth, wash salt from the soil. The salt is formed by the weathering of certain kinds of rocks. The amount of salt carried by a river during an entire season may be very small, but if the river flows for ages into a basin having no outlet, much salt gathers there. Water standing in such a basin forms a salt lake. There are many salty valleys and salt lakes in the Great Basin. One of these, Great Salt lake, covers an area of about two thousand square miles. This lake widens in rainy weather and sh miks 'i n time of drouth. A cupful of its water contains a table- spoonful of salt, — more than four times the quantity in a cupful of ocean water. Salt Lake City , the largest city in the Great Basin, is near the shore of this lake. Many centuries ago, when there was a wetter climate, a much larger body of water filled the basin in which Great Salt lake lies. The old lake tlien overflowed northward at the lowest pass in the enclosing mountains and discharged to a branch of the Columbia river. The old shore lines may still be seen on the mountain sides, nearly 1000 feet above the level of Great Salt lake. In what_direction does the Humbqldt river flow? This is one of the streams which run into sinks and form salt lakes. The first railroad built across the continent follows the Humboldt river past the ends of about fifteen ranges. In the low Southwest part of the Great Basin, there is a sink that dips below the level of the sea. This is known as Deatli Valley andisnoted for its dry- ness and its intense summer heat. Still f arth e r south lies the Mohav.e d e s e r t , stretching from the Sierra Ne- vada to the Colorado river. A region extending northward from the gulf of California was once covered by that body of water, but was cut off by the delta of the Colorado river. The region being very dry, the water in the old head of the gulf has long since dried away, leaving a desert plain. Some- times a distributary from the Colorado river flows into the hollow and forms a temporary lake. The Basin region includes not only the Great Basin, but also two smaller districts that are partly drained to the sea. One of these is southeast, and the other northwest, of the Great Basin. On the m ap (page 32) they are separated from the rest of the Basin region by lightly-dotted lines. In the northwest part of the Basin region, the mountains are so young that no deep valleys are yet worn in their sides. These mountains are edges of huge blocks, tilted like those shown in the picture. The shape of the blocks has hardly changed since the region was thus broken up. Lakes lie in the troughs between the tilted blocks. Most of the lakes have no overflow to the sea. Colorado Plateau Region (page 37). Basin Ranges and Troughs, — Wet Season. THE COLORADO PLATEAUS. 37 38. The Colorado Plateaus. A broad region southeast of the Great Basin consists of loftj plateaus in which rivers have cut long and deep canjons. This highland region is known as the Colorado plateaus. The rainfall on the Colorado pla- teaus is light, because high ranges lie to w i nd w ard. near the Pacific coast. The higher and cooler parts of the plateau receive the most rainfall. The largest rivers in this region are fed by rains and melting snow on the Rocky mountains. These plateaus were formed ages ago by tlie slow uplifting of great blocks of land, inany miles long and wide. The surfaces of some of the blocks are a mile or a mile and a half above sea level. The edges of the higher blocks form cliffs a thousand or more feet high. In rnany places the rocky layers rise one over another, in broad benches, as shown in a picture on the opposite page. Across these plateau blocks, the Colorado river has cut a great the lavas came are now to be seen. These necks form steep hills, or buttes. Some of the lavas which flowed from the volcanoes to the lower land now form small table-lands, or mescis, — the surrounding surface having been worn away. The Colorado plateaus are thinly settled, for most Canyon I Colorado. RT -.;/ .>' I ■ 1 Lower Colorado. parts of them are dry and barren, or covered with sage- brush. On several of the higher parts and near the Young Volcano. canyon, with steep sides all rugged with spurs and ravines. There one may see the rocks, layer on layer, of which the plateaus are made. For a long distance the Colorado canyon is about a mile deep. Its sides consist of rocks of many colors, — gray, brown, red, yellow and purple. At times of sun- rise and sunset, first one color and then another catches the light or is tlirown into shadow, — m aking a marvelous display. The Colorado canyon is a young river valley. Unlike most valleys, it does not serve as a place to live in or as a route of travel. The rapids in the river prevent navigation ; the canyon is so deep and narrow tliat it can be followed only with great danger; and travel across it from cliff to cliff is almost impossible. Several large volcanoes have been built on the Colorado plateaus, and many lava- flows have spread over their surfaces. Some of the volcanoes have wasted away, so that only the necks through which Anclent Cliff Dwelllngs. a and Volcanic Neck. streams there are groves and grassy tracts. On some of the me sas , tribes of Indians make their homes. The steep sides of the mesas afford protection from enemies. Ruins of strange dwellings are found in shallow caves under the cliffs in some of the canyons of the Colorado plateau region. The Indians who made these dwellings disappeared before the white men set foot in that country. The people of that ancient race are now called “ Cliff- dw ellers .” They knew how to weave coarse cloth and to make pottery. Their villages were built in the cliffs in order that the tribes might be safe from attack. Many kinds of cactus plants thrive in this dry plateau country. Some of these are small, but others grow to trees. 1 1 On the next page there are pictures of two species of cactus trees and also of a Iree yucca, or Spanish bayonet. The latter has stiff bayonet- like leaves. 38 THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU. 39. The Columbia Plateau. 40. The Coast Range and Valleys. What large river drains the region on the north of the Great Basin ? Name the largest south branch of this river. What mountains are on the east and the west sides of the Columbia plateau. See map on page 32. The Columbia plateau is about half as high as the Colorado plateau region. The north and east parts of the Columbia plateau are broken by rugged mountains. Great lava plains form the south and west parts. This plateau is in the path of the westerly winds, and receives more rainfall than the Great Basin, for the Cascade moun ta ins are lower than the Sierra Nevada. In the northeast portion of the Columbia plateau there are many fertile valleys. Some of these are wooded with pi ne an d fir tx ees. Other parts have deep and rich soil which in recent years has yielded lar ge cro ps of whe at. The lava pla ins in the southwesLare mostly dry and barrem except near the streams. Long ages ago, the great lava-floods of this region were poured into a broad lowland where the lava cooled and formed an inunense plain between high ranges on the east and the west. A picture on page 15 shows part of the lava plain, and one of the cuts on page 31 shows a cooled lava wave. The lava plain of the Columbia region covers many thousand square miles, 1 and in places is hundreds of feet deep. Ages have passed since the great flows of lava took place. Rivers have now worn eanyons in the lava beds. The narrow flood plains are fertile and afford fine soil for the growth of wheat, but most of the region is barren and theref ore thinly settled. The Snake river has cut the longest and deepest of these eanyons. Near the head of its canyon, the river plunges over the edges of some of the lava beds, making falls of great size and beauty. These are known as the Shoshone falls. Along the sides of the canyon, both above and below the falls, can be seen the lava and ashes ; layer on layer, through which the river has cut its channel. ) 1 The lava-flows in this part of the continent cover from 150,000 to 200,000 square miles, — an area equal to about one twentieth that of our whole country. Part of the lava-flows took place in Canada. They are the greatest in the world, except perhaps those of the Deccan peninsula, in India. West of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountains lie several mountain ridges form- ing a low Co ast rang e. Being near the ocean, and in the path of the westerly winds, this range has a milder and more uniform climate than the regions in the interior of the con- tinent. Most parts of the range are wooded. Near the foggy coast north of San Francisco bay grow the giant red- wood trees which yield valuable lumber. The redwoods are almost as large as the “ big trees ” of the Sierra and belong in the same family. In the moun- tains south of the bay, there is one of the few places in the world where quicksilver is found. One of the largest telescopes yet made is located on Mt. Hamilton, in the Coast range south of San Francisco. The objeet glass of the telescope is a yard in diameter. Seen through this great instrument, the moon appears to be only a few miles away. The long lowland plain between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast range is called the volley of California. It is covered with waste washed from the mountains. This great valley has plentiful winter rains, but its summers are dry. Its principal produets are wheat and fruit. Many streams from the Sierra are still building up the floor of the valley plain with their flood deposits. The streams flow in shallow channels and are easily turned aside to irrigate the land. The great port of San F rancisco. on the fine bay of the same name, owes its rapid growth to the discovery of uy 'i Orange Grove, Caliiomla. San Francisco bay is the W V V * drowneel valley of a river that once cut through the mountains. It is the only break in the Coast range west of the Sierra Nevada, and forms one of the best harbors in the world. The streams which flow THE YUKON REGION. 39 from the west slope of the Sierra run along the valley, then unite and enter San Franciso bay. In the south the valley of California ends where the Coast range and the Sierra Nevada bend towards each Puget sound is a drowned valley that leads searwater through the Coast range and forms many fine harhors. The region about the sound is in the path of the westerly storm eddies and is one of the leading lumber districts in the world. Its mountain slopes are covered with pine, fir and spruce. Calilornia Vineyard. other and meet. Still farther south are many small but fertile valleys. In that region the summers are hot and dry, but the winters are mild and rainy. During the dry season, water for the fruit groves is led in ditches from the mountains. OrangeSj lemons, grapes, and many other kinds of fruit thrive in the valleys. ... Owing to the mild- ness of the climate, the cities of Southern California have be- come well known as health resorts. The Wi Hårnett, e valley lies between the Cascade and Coast ranges. This L«ick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton. • • n region is well watered and is very fertile. Portland has a fine harbor on the Willamette river and has therefore grown to be the leading center of trade in the region. Sand bars form at the mouth of the Columbia and make entranee difficult for large vessels. Massive stone walls, ealled jetties, have been built to narrow the channel and thus deepen the mouth of this great stream. The San Francisco — Golden Gate. Col umbia river is famous for its salmon fisheries. Where is Puget sound? What larce isTand partly incloses this great sound? See map of United States in the Supplement. Old Clift House and Seal Rocks. Fur Seals, Pribilof Islands. Rivers bearing plentiful waste from the mountains have built del tas at the heads of many of the jiards,- thus forming smooth-floored valleys only a little above sea level. 41. The Yukon Region. Northward from the Columbia region the country is mountainous but not very high nor very wide, except in the border ranges. What mountains border this region on the east ? What range is on the west ? In the far northwest, the ranges of the Rocky Mountain liighland spread apart in the great penin. sula of Alaska. The main range bends westward along the coast, to the end of the Alaskan peninsula. The greater part of Alaska is drained by the Yukon river. This is one of the largest streams in America. Most of its basin is cold, dreary and little known. The Southwest shore of Alaska has a mild climate, although so far from the equator. The ocean winds are For a long distance northward from the head of Puget sound, the mountainous coast region is broken by deep valleys, now partly sunk beneath the sea. The drowned valleys form many fiaxds running far inland, and also long sounds behind islands. Puget sound is the most important of thesé drowned valleys. St eam ers can follow the quiet waters of these sounds and thus avoid the rough ocean outside. 40 HIGHLAND OF MEXICO. there warmed by the drift from the Japan current. Warm moist winds from the sea are chilled in rising over the mountain slopes in Alaska and therefore yield very heavy snowfall. Among tlie high peaks of this region are Mt. Lo ga n and Mt. St. Elias. For a long time Mt. St. Elias was thought to be the highest peak on the continent, but Mt. Logan, recently discovered a few miles farther inland, is '"'y ; more \ ( than " ' ' "" = ““ a fourth of a mile higher, — a little more than three miles 1 and two thirds above sea level. Alaska belongs to the United States, but these high peaks are just east of the border line between Alaska and Canada. From the s n o w y mountains in Alaska, many glaeiers descend to bords and yield countless icebergs. Streams flowing from beneath the glaeiers build deltas in front of the ice. The delta shown in the picture on page 13 was thus made. One of the pictures on this page shows the melting end of an Alaskan glacier. As the great stream of ice slowly creeps down from the upper snow-belds, rock waste falls upon it, and near the lower end trees grow in the soil on the ice. In the picture. the face of the glacier looks like a cliff almost hidden by the trees in front of it and upon it. The shore-waters and many of the streams of Alaska abound in fish. The people in this district prepare great quantities of salmon for market. Where is Bering sea? In summer large herds of seals visit the Pribilof islands, in Bering sea, to rear their young. Many of these seals are killed for their bne fur. The islands on the south, partly inclosing this sea, eontain many volcanoes now active. What lands are separated by Bering strait ? 1 Mt. Logan, 19,500 feet ; Mt. St. Elias, 18,010 feet. 42. Highland of Mexico. West of the gulf of Mexico rises the lofty highland of Mexico. This great mass of land is narrow in the south but broad in the north where it merges into the Basin region and the Rocky mountains. The highest range of mountains running northward in Mexico is the Sier ra Madr e. The narrow Southern end of the platepu of Mexico is about a mile and a half above sea level. A cliain of large volcanoes extends east and west across this end of the highland. Some of the craters are more than twice as high as the plateau. Orizaba is the highest of these peaks, but its summit is more than a thousand feet lower than that of Mt c Log an. Popocatepetl is another high peak in this volcanic region. Indians that live on the sides of Popocatepetl take sulphur in large quantities from the crater. Northward from this chain of vol- canoes stretches the lofty plateau. Below it, on the east, lie narrow marshy Coastal plains. The region west of the Sierra Madre resembles the Basin region of our country. Mexico lies north of the equatorial rain belt but is in the track of the trade winds. The wet season on the plateau and in the eastern Coastal plain prevails in summer wlien the moist air from over the sea blows in- land. Most of the western slope of the highland of Mexico is dry, because the winds that blow over it are warm- ing on their way towards the heat equator. The region is too far north to be reached by the equatorial rains and too far south for the moist westerly winds. See maps on page 2b. The highland of Mexico is so near the coasts that there are no large river basins on either side. In times of heavy rainfall, many small streams on the east slope rush down gorges that they are wearing in the side of the plateau, and overflow parts of the narrow Coastal plain. • Several low ranges divide the high plain into shallow troughs like those in the Great Basin. The rainfall is so light that from most of the basins there is no overflow to the sea, and therefore no deep canyons have been cut in these parts of the plateau. In rainy seasons water collects in the basins and forms lakes. When the rains are over, the water in many of the lakes dries away. The eastern coastal plains of Mexico are hot and unhealthful. They consist largely of swampy land, densely wooded. There are no good harbors, because there are no drowned valleys nor large river mouths. The gulf coast of Mexico is fringed with long sand bars built offshore by the waves. Vera Hauung a SALMON SEINE CENTRAL AMERICA. 41 Cruz, the chief port, is on the narrow Coastal plain, and sand bars partly protect the harbor from storms. Because of height and nearness to the equator, the climate of the plateau of Mexico is mild all the year, and there are no long periods of great heat or cold. Tliis plateau produces oaks, cedars and other tregs, as well as many smaller plants like tliose in the Southwest part of our country. Millions of Indians and white people live on the plateau of Mexico. The chief city is called Mexico . It is situated in a beauti- ful hill-encircled valley nearly a mile and a half above sea level. 43. Central America. Which part of North America is called Central America ? Popocatepetl, Mexico. IS Water Carrier, Mexico. Mexican cart. Most of this region rugged country. Its highest parts are volcanic ranges rising mainly along the Pacific b orde r, but hranching inland. These ranges are not nearly so high as the great volcanic range in Mexico. The Pacific coast of this region is bold and rocky. Central America is in the belt of the trade winds and receives rains chiefly on the east slqpe. In summer this land hag also the equatorial rains which water the west as well as the east coast. The eastern Coastal plaiu of Central America is a continuation of that in Mexico. These damp lands are densely wooded and are covered with jungles in which many wild beasts live. Plants grow so quickly there that it is difficult to keep the lands cleared for farming. Among the ranges of Central America are broad plains, or upland valleys, that average about half a mile in height. The soil of these plains consists mainly of weathered volcanic ash, very fine and fertile. Many white people, Indians and Negroes ’’ in these upland valleys. Locate Lake Nicaragua. This lake is part of a route that has been se lecte d for a canal between the two ocea ns. On an island in the lake there is a volcano whose sides were at one time laid out in beautiful ganjens. Not many years ago, great streams o f la va and aslies burst from the cr ater and flowed down the sides of tlie cone, burying the gardens many feet deep. Another volcano in Central ^America poured a flood of water over a town Mexican vmage. and washed away its houseg. The water came from a lake that had formed in the crater. There are many crater lak es in thi s regio n. In many parts of Central America are ruins of temples and idols made by I ndians who held the land when the white menjirst_we»t there. Most of the ruins are now overgrown with trees. 'jA 44. The Appalachian Highland. East of the Rocky mountains spreads the great central plain of North America. This plain reaches from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic ocean. The Appalachian highland is east of the Southern half of the central plain. This highland extends Southwest from the gulf of St. Lawrence nearly to the gulf of Mexico. The Appalachian highland is well supplied with rain- fall at all seagons. Moist winds reach it from over the gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ocean. The slopes of the highland are wooded with oak, maple, cone-bearers and many other kinds of trees. The Appalachian highland consists of several regions which may be named as f ollow s : The Old Appalachian range, — including the New England highland, the Blue ridge, the Carolina highland, and other ridges having various names. The Piedmont Belt. The word piedmont means foot of the mountains, and is here applied to the rolling or hilly land along the eastern foot of the Old Appalachian range. The Gr eat Valle n. - — a long and- narrow lowland on the west of the Old Appalachian range. The Alleqhany ridges, — rising on the west of the Great Valley. The Alleghany plateau, — a broad upland region next on the northwest. The boundaries of these regions are shown by lightly-dotted lines ,L1 ~ - map. See page 32. Century Plants, Mexico. Note : The large island of Newfound- land, though beyond the gulf of St. Lawrence, may be treated as part of the Appalachian highland. This island has sunk partly beneath the sea, making a very broken coastline. In the ocean so utheast of the island are shallow places known as the banks of New- foundland. These. banks abound in cod, halibut and other kinds of fish. The ridges of the Ozarlc highland resemble the Alleghany ridges. See lesson Jfl. 42 OLD APPALACHIAN RANGE. of this region are nearly all on the seacoast or near the falls in the rivers. Boston is the greatest seaport in this reg ion. The surfaee of the New England highland was lieavily scoured by the ancient ice-sheet from the Laurentian highland. The weaker rocks were worn away, and rock waste was left unevenly spread over the region. When the ice inelted, the streams were held back in the scoured basins and behind the barriers of drift, or rock waste, thus forming numerous lakes. Many of the streams were pushed aside from their old valleys and were made to flow over ledges from which they now fall in rapids and cascades. Since the ice melted, there has not been time for the streams to cut down the ledges and drain the lakes. Towns and cities have growp up fine farming lands, lies between this group and the Green mountains. Mt. Washington, one of the White mountains, is the highest peak in the northeast part of our country. , 45. Old Appalachian Range and Piedmont Belt. The portion of the Old Appalachian range known as the New Englancl highland stretches from the gul f of St. Lawrence to the Hudson river. 1 This highland consists of a broad and rolling upland, above which rise hills and mountains. The surfaee is also broken by many valleys in which lakes abound. The highest group of peaks in this highland is known as the White mountains. The Connecticut valley, with its The rolling or liilly pie dmon t slope of the New Eng- land highland reaches to the sea. The cities and towns 1 The New England states occupy only part of this highland. at the falls and rapids where water power is supplied to many mills and factories. The eoastline of this piedmont slope is very irregular, for the land has sunk partly beneath the sea, forming deep bays or fiords which separate headlands and islands. Waves THE GRE AT VALLE Y. 43 Still farther Southwest, on the exposed shores are cutting cliffs 1 but the rocks are so hard that they wear away very slowly. For some distance Southwest of the Hudson river, the Old Appalachian range is neither so high nor so wide as in the New England highland. This lower part looks like a long and narrow plateau. the old range becomes liigher and wider and is there called the Blue ridge. On the south, the Blue ridge runs into the Carolina highland which contains the highest peaks in the whole range. Mt. Mitchell, one of the Black mountains in the Carolina highland, is about a mile and a fourth high and overtops all other peaks in the Appalachian highland. The piedraont slope east of the Blue ridge and Carolina highland is a hilly region gradually descending to the wide Coastal plain, with its farm lands, its pine forests and its cypress swainps. This part of the piedmont is a fine farming district and is noted for its large crops of cotton and tobacco. 'ste ^ 46. The Gre^t Valley and Alleghany Ridges. The Great Valley in the Appa lach ian highland is a l ong lowland, with mountains on the east and the west. At the north, the Great Valley opens into the St. Lawrence basin ; and at the south, into the Gulf Coastal plain. The greater part of the long val- ley is covered with farms. The largest rivers rising in the Appalachian region do not run along the Great Valley but across it, and escape by deep and narrow gorges worn through the inclosing highland. The Hud- son, Delaware, Susque- hanna, Potomac and James rivers rise in the highland westoi the Great Valley and flow across the valley and the Old Appa- lachian range. See colored map of Middle Atlantic states. The Ten ness ee river rises in the old range east of the long valley, but flows westward across the valley and reaches the Ohio The most important of these cross-gorges in the Ap- palachian range is that of the Hudson river, for it unites with other valleys to make an open highway northward to the St. Lawrence basin and westward up the M oliavy k river towards the Great Lakes. Northward the valley route leads through Lake George and Lake Champlain. New York and Brooklyn. Erle Canal. river. ( A large part of the Hudson gorge has been slightly drowned, making a fine water way far in- land from the seacoast. Nearly three fourths of a century ago, the long a cypress swamp. Brie cmial was built along 'H _ the Mohawk branch of the Great Valley, from Lake Erie to the Hudson river. This canal furnishes a cheap route of trade between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seacoast- Railroads now follow closely along the same route. The great port of New York owes its growth largely to its position on an excellent harbor at the mouth of the Hudson val- ley, where trade can easily be carried on, botli inland and across the oceans. The other gorges which cross the highland are also used as lines of travel. Water slowly dissolves lime- stone and tlius forms caves or caverns. There are many of these in the Appalachian region. The Caveru of Luray, in the Great Valley of Virginia, is one of the most beautiful. 2 See picture on page The roofs of caves sometimes fall, making deep gorges; or only a small part may remain standing in the form of an arch. The Natural Bridge sliown in the picture on page 42 is in the Great Valley. This rocky arch is over 200 feet high. See colored map of Middle Atlantic states. The long even-crested ridges or folds west of the Great Valley, as far north as the Hudson gorge, may be called the 1 See pictures of Grand Manan, page 16. 2 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, is larger than that of Luray. 44 THE ALLEGHANY PLATEAU. Alleghany ridges. They often extend for many miles in a straight course, without any peaks. See note to picture below. These ridges are all forested, and the valleys between them are good farming lowlands. The streams which gather in these inner valleys escape through narrow notches, or gaps, in the ridges. The chief rail- roads and wagon roads enter the inner valleys through these gaps. The northern part of the Alleghany ridges supplies almost all the hard coal and some of the iron ore in our country. 47. The Alleghany Plateau. The eastern side of the Alleghany plateau falls by steep slopes into valleys next to the Alleghany ridges. On the west and south, the plateau descends gradually to the prairies and the Gidf Coastal plain. The rocky layers of the plateau contain beds of soft coal and iron ore. The many valleys cut by branch streams expose these valuable beds on the slopes, so that they can be easily found and mined. The northern half of the plateau yields great quan- tities of petroleum and natural gas. Pittsburg has grown up at the place where two rivers unite to form the Ohio. This city is noted for its coal trade, iron mills and glassworks. The Ohio river forms a fine water way from Pittsburg to the Mississippi river. The Southern half of the Alle- ghany plateau is mostly drained by two large tributaries of the Ohio river. These streams and their branches have worn deep valleys, making a very rugged region. Travel is difficult and this part of the plateau is not so thickly settled as that farther north. Tliis plateau is so greatly worn by branching streams that it is known to be older than the smoother plateau of the Columbia basin, where the valleys are narrower. The rivers of the Alleghany plateau receive water so quickly from the many steep valley-slopes that they often rise thirty or forty feet in floods. Nearly all these rivers flow into the Ohio. Most of the higher parts of the Alleghany plateau are forested and yield valuable timber. The lower western portions of the upland have been cleared of trees and now form rich farming and graz- ing districts, — famous for wool and for dairy products. The Oza rk hig hland. west of the Mississippi river, resembles parts of the Appalachian highland. The Southern part of the Ozark region has many straight and even-crested ridges through which the rivers have cut gaps like those in the Alleghany ridges. The northern half of the Ozark highland is a plateau whose main slopeis towards theMissouri river. This plateau is greatly worn by streams and in form resembles the Alleghany plateau ; but many of the even uplands in the Ozark region are open prairies. Note : This picture shows part of one of the Alleghany ridges. The folded rock-layers were once covered by many others, but they have long been exposed to the weather and have therefore wasted away. THE LAURENTIAN HIGHLAND. 45 48. The Laurentian Highland. The St. Lawrence river flows in a valley that separates the Laurentian highland from the Appalachian. The Laurentian highland extends from the Labrador peninsula South- west towards the Great Lakes ; tlience running north of these bodies of water, the highland bends to the northwest and approaches the Arctic coast not far from the west shore of Hudson bay. Northwest of the St. Lawrence gulf and river the highland is a desolate region strewn with boulders and broken by val- leys. Bare rocky hills rise in some places, but no part deserves the name of moun- tain range. This region was once more mountainous than it now is, but ages ago it was worn down. It is not so rich in valuable minerals as many old deep-worn mountains are. The northeast part of our continent has sunk partly beneath the sea, making the coast line very irregular. The St. Lawrence val- ley was thus partly drowned, forming a broad gulf and carrying the navigable waters far inland. Eider Duck and Nest. Similar rounded and scratclied rocks are found all over the Laurentian highland and over the northern part of the Appalachian highland. It is therefore believed that these regions were once covered with an ice-sheet like that which now covers Greenland. Their many lake basins were made chiefly by the scraping of the ice and by the uneven heaping of the waste, or drift ^ which the ice left. In these regions many streams were turned aside from their old valleys by barriers of drift, and were thus made to flow over rocky ledges where we now find falls and rapids. If it had not been for this' action of the ifee-sheet, there would be no lakes and but few falls in countries as old as the Laurentian or the New England highland. In the Southern part of the Appalachian high- land, where ice has not worked, there are no lakes, and falls are The streams there have had time to rare on the larger rivers. deepen their channels and thus drain the ancient lakes. V- 49. The St. Lawrence Basin. In the valleys of the low plateau are many lakes and swamps through which streams flow. Near these grow tliick forests that make traveling very difficult. The people travel mostly in canoes through lakes and streams, thus avoiding the swamps and forests. The winter winds which reach the peninsula of Labrador, from over the northern lands, are cold and piexcing. The winds which blow over it from the sea are always chilly, for a cold polar current sweeps past this part of the Atlanti c coa st. Many fur-bearing animals are found in this desolate region. Among these are beavers, foxes, martens and muskrats. Two species of large deer, the moose and the caribou, graze on mosses and tender shoots of trees in this cold country. See pictures on poge 50. IJucks, geese and other seafowF abound along the rocky sliores. As the winters are severe, the rocky uplands rugged and the valleys swampy, the old highland is thinly settled. The few thousand Indians and still fewer white people who make their hornes in that cold country live by hunting. South and west of Hudson bay, the highland rises but little above the neighboring plains. Far to the north and northeast of the Laurentian highland are many large islands. Ages ago these were probably part of the continent and were after- wards separated from it by the sinking of the land. The largest of these islands is Greenland. What have you read about the great ice-sheet of Greenland ? The creeping ice scrapes away the rock waste beneath, and rubs the rocks round and smooth, — scratching tliem with stones and sand that are dragged along. See picture of rounded rocks, page 10. The Great Lakes fill hollows on the southward slope from the Laurentian highland. These lakes and the St. Lawrence river, with all the streams flowing into them, form the St. Lawrence system. The basins of the Great Lakes were deepened, though not wholly formed, by the rubbing or icouring of the ancient ice-sheet which moved across them from the Laurentian highland. Work ol Beavers. No long slopes send large rivers to the Great Lakes, Much of their water supply comes di- rectly from rain and snow. The bottoms of all the lakes, except Erie, de- scend below sea level. The surface of Lake Superior is about an eighth of a 46 THE ST. LAWRENCE BASIN. mile higher than the mouth of the St. Lawrence. The outlet of this lake is known as St. Marys strait. It is not navigable, because it descends in rapids to the level of Lake Huron. Rapids in St. Marys Strait. Lock in the " Soo ” Canal. The so-callecl St. Marys strait is a river about sixty miles long. Wliich picture shows the rapids in this river ? Vessels avoid these rapids by going through the “Soo” canal. One of the pictures shows a steamer ready to come from the canal lock. There are no rapids to prevent vessels from såiling between lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie, but between lakes Erie and Ontario there is an abrupt descent of the upland country, in a low bluff. Niagara river, the outlet of Lake Erie, originally fell over the northern edge of this upland, thus forming the falls of Niagara. Since then the river has slowly cut a deep gorge back into the bluff, — the falls always keeping at the head of the gorge. They are now about six miles back from the edge of the bluff. The falls of Niagara are about three fourths of a mile wide and one liundred and fifty feet high. Below the falls, the river rushes through its long gorge, making rapids of great size and grandeur. The eliffs of Niagara consist of layers of limestone on softer rock. From time to time, as the lower rock is worn away, huge masses of limestone break off and fall into the gorge. The stream must have worked thousands of years to cut this great valley, yet that time is short compared with the period during wliich the Hudson river was cutting its long gorge. A large water way, known as the Welland canal, has been made to join lakes Erie and Ontario. From Lake Ontario the St. Lawrence river forms a water way to the sea. The river has rapids, but canals have been built past tliem. Going down the stream, many steamers pass over the rapids. The city of Montreal is below the lowest rapids, near the head of the drowned part of the valley. That city marks the limit of navigation for ocean steamers on the St. Lawrence river. Where is Lake Champlain ? Into wliat river does its outlet flow ? What group of mounfains is west of this lake ? The rocks of theAdiron- dack moun- tains and of the highland south and west of Lake Superior are like those in the Lauren- tian highland. Nlagara Gorge ' They are roots of old worn-down mountain ranges, and the land surface wliich long ago was high above the mineral layers is now brought down close to them. Tjotli these small highlands yield large quantities of iron ore. The rocks of the old region south of Lake Superior contain not only the richest known deposits of iron ore, but also much copper. The lightly-dotted line shown a little south of Lake Superior on the map, page 32, marks off a district that is drained by streams of the Mississippi system, yet the district is part of the old deep-worn highland described above. A lightly-dotted line has also been placed round the Adirondack highland, yet parts of it belong to the Hudson and St. Lawrence basins. Niagara Falls. The slopes around the upper three Great Lakes form the leading lumber district in our country. The forests yield both hard and soft woods, such as are used in making furniture and in building houses. The St. Lawrence system is the best inland water way in the world. Hundreds of large steamers and other vessels help carry on trade between the lake ports and bear away many of the products of the mines, the farms, the forests and the workshops. The largest of all these ports is Chicago. This city has grown very rapidly, because it is witliin easy reacli of THE WESTERN PLAINS. 47 In some places, bench lands rise high above the general level of the country. ”~ Describe the eourse of the Missouri river. This stream from its mountain source to the gulf of Mexico is thought to be the longest on the earth. The nanie of the stream is often written MissourirMississippi, because the Missouri joins the Mississippi long before the latter reaches the gulf of Mexico. Describe the eourse of the Arkansas river. Large rivers like the Missouri and the Mississippi often do much damage when flooded. They sometimes cut into their banks, — destroying fields and washiug away railroads. Jetties are built in some places to protect the river banks. One of the pietures on this page shows a simple form of jetty. It consists of branches woven among stakes that are driven into the These plains are far inland and therefore receive little rain. The westerly winds lose most of their moisture in Crossing the Rocky Mountain highland. The northern part of the region ineludes the frozen plqxps near the Arctic ocean. See Lesson 52. South of the frozen portion are the ivoode d plain s in Canada. The rainfall there is not heavy, but it has time to sink into the soil, for the hot season is short and the cold ground dries slowly. Snow lies in the forests for several months each year. Large streams flow eastward from this region. In our own country, south of the wooded plains, lie the dry Wes tern plain s. Parts of these plains, near the mountains, are more than a mile above sea level. F rom the Rocky mountains many Targe rivers flow east- ward aeross the dry_plains. These streams run swiftly down their sandy valleys and c arry an immense quantity of land waste. Dry upland plains stretch froinnne valley to another. Most of these uplands are gently rolling. river bed. The jetties not only prevent the swift currents from striking the bank, but they also cause the muddy water to eddy into still places between them and there degosit mud or sand. Some river banks are protected by interwoven branches, making mattress work like that shown in the pieture. Powerful force pumps are first used to slope the banks. Then the mattress is made and sunk, — reaching from flood level far down upon the river bed. Swift currents cannot cut through the mattress work till it is worn out. The dry plains are not a desfert, nor are they fertile. Sagebrusli thrives in many places, and scanty grass grows almost everywhere. The best lands are in the large river valleys, or near the mountains where many small streams flow. There are good farms where canals and ditehes have been made to turn aside river-water over the land. forests around the upper lakes, of farms and pasture lands in the central plain, of iron mines near Lake Superior, and of coal fields in the plain on the south. Locate Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit and Milwaukee. These lake ports are smaller than Chicago, but they resemble it in their trade. 50. The Western Plains. Except in the far north, the part of the great central plain lying next east of the Rocky mountains has a long gradual slope eastward 48 THE PRAIRIES. Many attempts have been made to get water from wells to jrri - gate the dry plains, but the supply of ground water is so small that a great part of the plains cannot be i rrigate d. Large herds of cattle graze on the western plains. Kansas City, Kansas, has grown to be a leading market for these cattle, and that city sup- plies large quantities of beef to other parts of the country. Denver is the leading city of the plains. about as fast as a railroad train, give brief rains to beits of country from fifty to two hundred miles wide, but leave dry regions on either side, until other storms come to water them. Yiolent squalls usually blow out from the storms, in front of the rain. Destructive tornadoes sometimes occur beneath the storm- clouds. Houses are often blown down, and trees are uprooted. The soil over much of the prairie region is line, deep and rich. It has been made in various ways. In the South- ern part of the prairies, the sur- face has The Black hills form a small mountain area rising out of the plains. There are valuable gold mines in the old rocks of these so-ealled hills. The Southern end of the dry plains is known as the Stcikecl- plain. 1 This is a broad sinooth upland, high enough to be called a plateau. In summer, hot Southwest winds often blow from over the Staked plain. They are dry and parching. Crops west of the Mississippi river are sometimes greatly injured by these hot blasts. What river forms part of the Southern boundary of our country ? The Western plains are thinly settled, because so little of the land receives water enough to make it productive. 51. The Prairies. The lowlands in the upper Mississippi valley consist of level or rolling grassy plains, called prairies. They merge into forest lands on the east and south, into dry plains on the west, and into colder plains on the north. The chief r iver s in the prairie region have cut shallow valleys in the upland through which they flow. The v alieys are w ider and more numerous in the Southern prairies than in the northern. Most of th g rain which falla in the prairies is brought by su mmer winds from over the warm gulf of Mexico. The heaviest rains fall on the parts of the prairies east of the Mississippi. For some distance west of the r iver there is plenty coyote. of rain ; but still farther west, towards the dry plains, the crops often suifer in periods of drouth. The summer rains of the prairies generally fall from thunder- storms. Great cloud-masses several miles high, moving eastward 1 Years ago, stakes were set in the plain, to guide travelers across it. for long ages been ’' a.' . exposed to the weather. ~ dry plains The slopes being gentle, the soil moves away very slowly and therefore has time to form to a great depth. The northern part of the prairie region was once covered by the great ice-sheet which moved from the Laurentian highland across the St. Lawrence valley. This ice-sheet dragged much rock waste into the prairies, spreading it out as a deep layer of soil. The waste was scraped from rocks of many kinds, and was ground and mixed under the ice. Soil of this kind is called till. The sheet of till has buried many old valleys and has made the northern part of the prairies smoother than it was before the ice-sheet came, and smoother than the Southern parts of the prairie region now are. A third kind of prairie soil is the sediment of shallow lakes that covered parts of the surface, after the ice-sheet had melted back. Some of the finest and richest prairie soils are of this kind. The prairies in the valley of the Red river of the North were thus formed. These prairies lie partly within the United States and also extend northward far beyond the border of our country, into Canada. Ages ago a great lake covered the region now known as the Red river prairies. Muddy streams flowed into the lake, and fine soil settled evenly over the bottom. When the lake was drained, the smooth bottom became a levef plain. The water flowed off long ago, and yet the plain is so young that streams have hardly cut its surface. The Red river prairies form part of the Nelson river basin. THE NORTHERN PLAINS. 49 This region is famous for its wheat. One of the jyctures below, marked Dakota farm, shows a part of the lake plain that is in the United States. SouflTof each of the Great Lakes there are beits of low hills made of rock waste dragged there by the ancient ice-sheet which erept from- the snowy Laurentian highland. These hills are old moraines heaped on the surface of the country at the melting front of the ice-sheet. Many small lakes lie in hollows among the hjlls. Farther south, where the ice did not reach, lakes are rare. West of Lake Michigan are found a great number of (Irumlins, or rounded glacial hills. These were formed under the ice-sheet which~TnTilt thehilly moraines a little farther south. Another remarkable group of drumlins occurs south of Lake Ontario , 1 along the line of the Erie canal. The prairies form one of the richest grain regions in the world. Wheat and corn are leading products. The former is hardy, but the latter is easily killed by frost ; hence, the warmer prairies in the south yield the more corn, while those in the cooler half lead in harvests of wheat. Few trees grow wild in the prairies, except along the streams, but many trees have been set out on the prairie farms. Most forest trees thrive best in loose and coarse soil, like that found on hills or on old mountain slopes. The prairie soil is very fine and firm, but yields readily to the plow. Water sinks slowly into this compact soil. Heavy rains therefore swell the streams. In springtime, before the frozen soil has thawed, rains and melting snow often cause the rivers to spread far and wide over their flood plains. These floods often do much damage, but they also leave coatings of fine soil on the plains. 1 In riding between Rochester and Syracuse, south of Lake Ontario, many drumlins may be seen. Most of the cattle and liogs in our country are raised on the prairies, where there is plenty of grass and corn. In the prairies Southwest of Lake Michigan/ are extensive coal fields yielding immense quantities of so £t coal . Chicago has grown to be the greatest meat-packing center and grain market in the world, because the city is so near the fertile prairies, and because the railroad and steamer lines centering at Chicago reach so large a part of our country. Minneapolis has fine water power and is near the wheat regions. This city therefore leads the world in making flour. The great agricultural region of the middle Mississippi valley has its chief trade center at St. Louif^/ This city has a very large traffic by railroads on all sides and by boats down the great river. Besides the prairies of the Mississippi basin there is a region east of the Staked plain, known as the Texas prai- ries. Much of this prairie region is tree- less but not barren like the dry plains west of it. The Texas prai- ries are used more for farming than for grazing. Their surface is more varied than that of the prairies of the upper Mississippi valley. 52. The Northern Plain. The Northern plain of North America extends from the prairies to the Arctic coast, and lies mostly in tiie cold belt. The summers are short ; the winters are long and severe. Near the Arctic shore, the daylight of summer is contihuous for six or eight weeks. The darkness of winter lasts for an equalTength of time. In the far north the soil is frozen to a great depth. In summer it thaws for only a few inches below the sur- face. The region is cold and desolate nearly all the year. Along the Arctic shore~there are low ancl level plains, called tundrasj from seventy to one hundred miles wide. During the short summer these plains become swampy, and are then covered witli mosses and lichens, rushes and ferns, as well as with several kinds of small flowering plants, but there are no forests in the tundras. 50 GULF COASTAL PLAIN. The Mackenzie river flows from the cool belt far into the cold belt. When the spring thawing begins in the Southern part of the Mackenzie basin, the water runs northward till checked by the ice which at that time clogs the channels. The streams then spread far over their flood plains, which remain covered till the ice-jams in the north melt away and allow the flood-water to rurTTJff. Floods of this kind occur each year, not only in the Mackenzie basin, but also in every river valley whosé main stream flows northward into the Arctic ocean. Large herds of reindeer, ealled c aribou . roam over the cold plain in the far north. In summer they feed on the lichens, mosses and stunted shrubs which grow along the sh ores of the Arctic ocean. Many thousand caribou live in the so-called Barren Lands west of Hudson bay. As the cold season approaches, the deer travel southward into forest regions where they can find food and shelter. 53. Gulf Coastal Plain. The broad lowland which follows the seacoast from the Rio Grande to the Hudson river 1 forrns one great Coastal plain. The part which borders on the gulf of Mexico slopes mainly towards the south, but the Atlantic Coastal plain slopes towards the southeast. REINOEEB In all parts the streams flow mostly at right angles with the coast, because that is the direction of the slope which the land took when it rose from the sea. The Gulf Coastal plain is known as the Southern plain. The greater part of this plain is low rolling upland. It is cut into eastern and western parts by the wide flood plain of the Mississippi river. Small tribes of Indians live on the bleak Northern plains, and small bands of Eskimos are found along the shores of the Arctic ocean and Hudson bay. To these people, the deer are of great value. The flesh of the caribou is one of the chief sources of food, and the skins are used in making clothing and tents. Even the bones are shap^d into simple tools and weapons. The basin of the Nelson river is mostly in the cool belt. The Southern part of that basin includes the wide fertile prairies of the Red river valley, — famous for their crops of wheat; for although the winters are ve rv co ld, the summers have long days of strong sunshine, and plants' grow there very rapidly. It is chiefly from this broad interior region that the eastern and Southern parts of our country receive cold winds in winter. In that season the wide cover of snow over the interior plains becomes intensely cold. The lower air is then greatly ccoled and tends to flow outward to the warmer regions. The cold waves are especially severe when one of the whirling westerly storms moves to the Appalachian highland, and the cold winds flow rapidly southward beliind it. Freezing air may then be carried even to the gulf of Mexico and to the southeast coast of our country. The western and nor1