TARR & MSMURRY'S 
 
 GEOGRAPHIE, 
 
 FIRST 
 BODIES 
 
 HOME 
 GEOGRAPHY i 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OF THK 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Accession _.8.455.8 ....... Class 
 
HOME GEOGKAPHY 
 
 AND THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 
 
 FIRST BOOK 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 AND THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 BY 
 
 RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 
 
 it 
 PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 AND 
 
 FRANK M. McMURRY, PH.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS 
 COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 WITH MANY COLORED MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
 CHIEFLY PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 
 
 gorfc 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. 
 
 1900 
 
COPYKIGHT, 1900, 
 
 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 -Press 
 
 J. S. Gushing & Co. Berwick & Smith 
 Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THIS is the first of a series of three volumes ; the sec- 
 ond deals with North America ; the third, with Europe 
 and the other continents. Since Part I of the present 
 volume is a radical innovation, it perhaps needs an 
 explanatory foreword. 
 
 NECESSITY OF HOME GEOGRAPHY. The final basis for 
 all study of geography is actual experience. Yet text- 
 books on that subject rarely treat Home Geography at 
 all, and those that do, devote but few pages to it. This 
 subject should, we think, receive far more careful attention. 
 
 NECESSITY OF OTHER BASAL NOTIONS. Home experi- 
 ence alone, however, cannot offer a complete basis for the 
 later study of geography, because no one locality presents 
 all the features required. From this it happens that the 
 best books have contained some definitions and illustra- 
 tions, as of mountain, river, valley, harbor, and factory, 
 and have planned to build the later text with the ideas 
 these gave as a foundation. Such conceptions are cer- 
 tainly necessary in the early part of geography ; but mere 
 definitions fail to produce vivid, accurate pictures. The 
 average pupil who has pursued geography for a year, has 
 little notion of the great importance of soil, of what a 
 mountain or a river really is, of the value of good trade 
 routes, and why a vessel cannot find a harbor wherever 
 
 _84558 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 it will cast anchor along the coast. Yet such ideas are 
 the proper basis for the study of geography in the higher 
 grades. The fact that they are so often wanting is proof 
 that our geography still lacks foundation. 
 
 How THESE NEEDS ARE MET. The first 110 pages of 
 this volume attempt to supply this foundation by treating 
 first, such common things as soil, hills, valleys, industries, 
 climate, and government, which are part of every child's 
 environment ; and secondly, other features, as mountains., 
 rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which, though absent from 
 many localities, are still necessary as a preparation for 
 later study. Definitions, however, are not relied upon 
 for giving the child this extra knowledge, but detailed 
 descriptions and discussions instead. This by no means 
 involves neglect of the child's own environment from the 
 time the unfamiliar matter is introduced, for through- 
 out the three volumes home experiences are frequently 
 used. We believe that our plan gives a fuller guarantee 
 of fitness for advanced study than has heretofore been 
 furnished. 
 
 RELATIONSHIP TO MANKIND. According to the defi- 
 nition of geography, which treats of the relation be- 
 tween man and the earth, a hill or a lake is worthy 
 of mention only because it bears a relation to us, the 
 men upon the earth ; considered by itself it is not a part 
 of geography. Therefore each chapter which takes up 
 one- of the above subjects, either closes with the bearing 
 of the given topic upon mankind, or it deals with the 
 human relationship throughout. 
 
 EARTH AS A WHOLE. The most difficult portion of 
 our task has been that which presents the Earth as a 
 Whole. That a bird's-eye view should be given at an 
 
PREFACE Vll 
 
 early period in the child's instruction is not questioned ; 
 but it is not easy, in limited space, to support the prin- 
 cipal facts with sufficient detail to produce vivid and 
 interesting pictures. The authors have found that some 
 topics commonly included in the early study, such, for 
 instance, as latitude and longitude, should be omitted. 
 They have also found that many other minor subjects 
 usually presented are comparatively irrelevant to the 
 geographical knowledge necessary to a pupil. By setting 
 these aside for the time, space has been secured for a 
 physiographic basis, and for a fairly close sequence in 
 tracing the effects of physical conditions upon plants and 
 animals, and also upon mankind. Throughout each 'chap- 
 ter much care has been taken to present a closely related 
 chain of thought, and at the same time to keep the leading 
 facts in their proper foreground. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER HOME STUDY. A study 
 of books alone can never furnish an adequate knowl- 
 edge of geography. Therefore it has been thought ex- 
 pedient to add numerous suggestions at the end of each 
 section, in order to remind both teacher and pupil of 
 suitable excursions, experiments, etc., and to show at the 
 same time the breadth of the subject. In this way physi- 
 cal activity the love of exercise may be employed 
 in the service of the study, and a habit of investigating 
 the home environment encouraged. 
 
 FREQUENT REVIEWS. Believing in the value of fre- 
 quent reviews, the authors have suggested review material 
 in frequent comparisons and contrasts, and in introduc- 
 ing new topics through others that have already been pre- 
 sented. This method has been used throughout this book, 
 and more extensively still in the volumes that follow. 
 
Viil PREFACE 
 
 MAPS. The succeeding volumes in the series are of 
 the same size as the present one. Our reasons for this 
 marked innovation are that the old form is both unneces- 
 sary and unwieldy. The main excuse for the size of the 
 common geography is the supposed need of large maps, a 
 need which should be supplied by atlas and wall maps. 
 This supposed requirement has led to the introduction of 
 so many names, entirely unnecessary to pupils, that the 
 purpose of a school book has generally been sacrificed to 
 that of a cheap atlas. Why should a map, intended for 
 school children, contain such Servian names as Valievo, 
 Kragouye'vatz, Ushitze, and Kruchevatz, four neighboring 
 words upon an overcrowded map in one of the much-used 
 geographies? Such piling up of names, which carry no 
 meaning to the pupil and are distinguished by no idea, 
 merely distract attention from the important names and 
 features. Aside from that, the old form of geography is 
 distinctly objectionable because of its size, which makes 
 it difficult to handle and to carry. When open, it occu- 
 pies nearly the entire surface of the desk ; and, being so 
 unwieldy, it is the most easily damaged of all the school 
 books in use. 
 
 The most pertinent inquiry in regard to the maps of 
 a text-book of geography should refer not to their size, 
 but to their quality. In respect to the excellence of maps 
 we challenge comparison. We believe that our maps are 
 the best thus far printed in an American geography. 
 While thoroughly artistic, they cause the essential fea- 
 tures to stand out with surprising distinctness. Contrary 
 to the usual custom, the political maps include the prin- 
 cipal physical features, so that any place is always seen 
 in connection with its physiographic surroundings. The 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 colors have been so selected as to secure harmony, and at 
 the same time to show the boundaries clearly. Unimpor- 
 tant names are excluded, even where space might have 
 permitted their introduction ; and, to an unusual degree, 
 the size of print is proportionate to the importance of 
 places, so that the names of leading divisions, cities, etc., 
 can be distinguished at a glance. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. The illustrations have been selected 
 with great care to illustrate specific points ; and for the 
 sake of accuracy, photographs have in most cases been 
 employed. They are not inserted merely for the purpose 
 of entertainment, but in every case bear a direct relation- 
 ship to the text. They are not intended as mere pictures, 
 but as illustrations ; and being numbered and referred to 
 frequently, they pay for their space by contributing mate- 
 rially to the book's fund of instruction. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The photographs have been ob- 
 tained from many sources ; the globe drawings were made 
 by Mr. Murray of the Matthews-Northrup Co. ; and the 
 other drawings were mostly prepared by Mr. C. W. Fur- 
 long, instructor in Cornell University. The maps have 
 been prepared by the Matthews-Northrup Co. of Buffalo, 
 who have obtained an enviable reputation as map engravers 
 for the Century Atlas. 
 
 The authors of this book are responsible for any short- 
 comings that it may prove to have. They have had the 
 benefit of much criticism of the best sort. Space does 
 not permit them to refer to each one who has kindly 
 extended aid; yet mention should be made of the ex- 
 ceedingly valuable criticisms and suggestions of Mr. 
 Philip Emerson of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 PART I. HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 PAGE 
 
 SECTION I. THE SOIL ........ 1 
 
 SECTION II. HILLS 10 
 
 SECTION III. MOUNTAINS 17 
 
 SECTION IV. VALLEYS 28 
 
 SECTION V. RIVERS 39 
 
 SECTION VI. PONDS AND LAKES . . . . . . .53 
 
 SECTION VII. THE OCEAN 62 
 
 SECTION VIII. THE Am 71 
 
 SECTION IX. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE ..... 81 
 
 SECTION X. GOVERNMENT ........ 92 
 
 SECTION XI. MAPS 102 
 
 REFERENCES TO BOOKS, ETC 108 
 
 PAET II. THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 SECTION I. FORM AND SIZE OP THE EARTH . . . . .111 
 
 ITS FORM, 111. SIZE OF THE EARTH, 113. 
 
 SECTION II. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH AND ITS RESULTS . 115 
 THE Axis AND POLES, 115. THE EQUATOR, 116. GRAVITY, 
 116. SUNRISE AND SUNSET, 117. DAY AND NIGHT, 117. 
 
 SECTION III. THE ZONES 120 
 
 BOUNDARIES OF THE ZONES, 120. TORRID ZONE, 121. TEM- 
 PERATE ZONES, 121. FRIGID ZONES, 122. HEMISPHERES, 123. 
 SECTION IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH AND ITS EFFECTS . . 124 
 HEAT IN MINES, 124. MELTED ROCK, 125. THE EARTH'S 
 CRUST, 125. CAUSE OF MOUNTAINS, 125. CAUSE OF CONTI- 
 xi 
 
 -84558 
 
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 NENTS AND OCEAN BASINS, 126. CHANGE IN THE LEVEL OP 
 THE LAND, 126. 
 
 SECTION V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS ..... 128 
 LAND AND WATER, 128. The Continents, 128. NORTH AMER- 
 ICA, 129. SOUTH AMERICA, 129. EURASIA, 131. AFRICA, 
 
 132. AUSTRALIA, 132. The Oceans, 133. THE ARCTIC 
 AND ANTARCTIC, 133. THE ATLANTIC, 133. THE PACIFIC, 
 
 133. THE INDIAN, 134. THE OCEAN BOTTOM, 134. MOUN- 
 TAINS IN THE OCEANS, 135. CORAL ISLANDS, 135. 
 
 SECTION VI. MAPS 137 
 
 SECTION VII. NORTH AMERICA 138 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 138. POLITICAL DIVISIONS, 139. 
 
 SECTION VIII. THE UNITED STATES 141 
 
 SECTION IX. NEW ENGLAND 142 
 
 NAMES, 142. SEAPORTS, 142. FISHING, 143. FARMING, 143. 
 QUARRYING, 144. LUMBERING, 144. MANUFACTURING, 146. 
 COMMERCE, 147. 
 SECTION X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES ...... 149 
 
 THE COAST LINE, 149. THE SEAPORTS, 149. Reasons for the 
 Great Size of New York City, 149. CITIES NEAR BY, 149. 
 WATER ROUTE TO THE INTERIOR, 150. LUMBERING, 151. 
 FARMING, 151. SALT, 152. MANUFACTURING, 152. COM- 
 MERCE, 153. Reasons why Philadelphia has become a 
 Great City, 153. CITIES NEAR BY, 153. FARMING, 153. 
 IRON, 154. COAL, 154. OIL* AND GAS, 155. COMMERCE, 156. 
 Other Cities, 156. BALTIMORE, 156. WASHINGTON, 156. 
 VIRGINIA AND WEST VIRGINIA, 157. 
 
 SECTION XL SOUTHERN STATES 159 
 
 RELIEF, 159. COAL AND IRON, 160. COTTON, 160. RANCH- 
 ING, 161. SUGAR AND RICE, 162. FRUITS, 162. LUMBER- 
 ING, 162. MANUFACTURING, 163. NEW ORLEANS, 163. 
 OTHER SEAPORTS, 165. OKLAHOMA AND INDIAN TERRITORY, 
 165. CLIMATE, 166. 
 
 SECTION XII. CENTRAL STATES 167 
 
 RAW PRODUCTS, 167. THE MANUFACTURING AND TRADE CEN- 
 TRES, 170. REVIEW AND COMPARISONS, 175. 
 
 SECTION XIII. WESTERN STATES 176 
 
 REASONS WHY THERE ARE so FEW PEOPLE, 176. WONDERFUL 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 SCENERY, 178. MINING, 179. RANCHING, 181. THE DESERT, 
 182. IRRIGATION, 182. FRUIT RAISING, 183. INDUSTRIES 
 ALONG THE PACIFIC COAST, 184. THE ClTIES OF THE PACIFIC 
 COAST, 185. 
 
 SECTION XIV. ALASKA 188 
 
 SECTION XV. CANADA AND OTHER COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 190 
 
 Canada and Newfoundland, 1 90. INDUSTRIES, 190. CITIES, 
 192. THE FAR NORTH, 192. Islands North of North 
 America, 193. 
 
 SECTION XVI. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES . . 195 
 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA, 195. THE WEST INDIES AND 
 
 BERMUDA, 197. 
 SECTION XVII. SOUTH AMERICA ....... 199 
 
 RELIEF, 199. .CLIMATE, 200. HISTORY, 200. BRAZIL, 201. 
 VENEZUELA AND GUIANA, 202. LA PLATA COUNTRIES, 203. 
 ANDEAN COUNTRIES, 204. 
 
 SECTION XVIII. EUROPE 207 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES, 207. NORSE COUNTRIES, 211. RUSSIA, 
 212. GERMANY, 214. HOLLAND, 216. BELGIUM, 217. 
 FRANCE, 217. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL, 219. ITALY, 220. 
 SWITZERLAND, 222. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 223. GREECE, 224. 
 TURKEY, 225. 
 
 SECTION XIX. ASIA 230 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 230. SOUTHWESTERN ASIA, 231. SIBE- 
 RIA, 234. THE CHINESE EMPIRE AND KOREA, 235. JAPAN, 
 237. INDIA AND JNDO-CHINA, 238. 
 SECTION XX. AFRICA ......... 242 
 
 THE DARK CONTINENT, 242. NORTHERN AFRICA, 243. CEN- 
 TRAL AFRICA, 246. SOUTH AFRICA, 246. 
 SECTION XXI. AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIPPINES, AND 
 
 OTHER ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC ...... 249 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 249. THE EAST INDIES, 252. THE PHILIPPINE 
 ISLANDS, 253. ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC, 254. 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE . , 256 
 
 APPENDIX TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC 262 
 
LIST OF MAPS 
 
 FIGURE FACING PAGE 
 
 91. TO ILLUSTRATE THE MEANING OF MAPS ..... 107 
 
 119. THE HEMISPHERES . 137 
 
 120. MERCATOR MAP OP THE WORLD 137 
 
 121. RELIEF MAP OF NORTH AMERICA .... On page 138 
 
 123. NORTH AMERICA . . * ...... 140 
 
 124. UNITED STATES 141 
 
 125. NEW ENGLAND 142 
 
 132. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES ....... 149 
 
 140. SOUTHERN STATES 159 
 
 148. CENTRAL STATES 167 
 
 157. WESTERN STATES 176 
 
 177. SOUTH AMERICA 199 
 
 183. EUROPE . 207 
 
 203. ASIA 230 
 
 214. AFRICA 242 
 
 221. AUSTRALIA, EAST INDIES, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, AND ISLANDS 
 
 OF THE PACIFIC . .... . 249 
 
 xv 
 
PAET I 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 I. THE SOIL 
 
 You have often played in the dirt. Did you ever stop 
 to think what it is made of? It was not always what it 
 now is. You know that the wood in your desk was not 
 always a part of the desk ; it used to be part of a tree, 
 and has a long story to tell about itself before it was 
 brought to your school. So all the dirt or soil that 
 you have ever seen has a long story to tell about how 
 it became what it is now. Let us see what that story 
 is. 
 
 When mud dries upon your hands and you rub them 
 together, you can notice an unpleasant, gritty feeling. 
 This is caused by the scraping together of hard bits of 
 something in the soil. If you rub some of this dirt 
 against a smooth piece of glass, you can often hear it 
 scratch the glass. This shows that these little bits must 
 be very hard, for if they were not, they could not scratch 
 anything so hard as glass. They must be even harder 
 than a pin, for you cannot scratch glass with a pin. 
 
 It will help you to find out what these bits are if you 
 examine some sand. The grains in it are tiny bits of 
 rock, large enough to be clearly seen. When they are 
 
2 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 rubbed 'against glass, they scratch it, because they are 
 hard and sharp. 
 
 Sand is made of rock that has been broken up into 
 very fine pieces. Soil is also made of rock, but the 
 pieces are finer still. The soil that you have seen, such 
 as that in the schoolyard, or by the side of the walk, was 
 once rock. 
 
 Soil has bee^^ made from rock. 
 
 Since soil is found almost everywhere, you may wonder 
 how so much rock has been changed to it. The answer is 
 not hard to find. Did you ever pound a brick up into 
 bits until you made brick-dust? You can change a stone 
 to dust in the same way. Break one into small bits and 
 see how much it resembles dirt. 
 
 Sometimes one sees men drilling holes into stone ; the tiny pieces 
 that are broken off collect in and round the hole, and look much like 
 dirt. When a grindstone is used to sharpen tools, small pieces of the 
 stone are ground off, and if water is poured upon it, this dust makes 
 the water muddy, just as soil would. 
 
 Much rock has been changed to dirt by the rubbing of 
 pieces of stone against one another. In this way tiny 
 bits have been worn off, as chalk is worn away when 
 rubbed against the blackboard, or slate pencils against the 
 slate. Perhaps some of the dirt that you have seen has 
 been made in this manner. Later you will learn about 
 the glaciers which have caused much of this rubbing. 
 
 The grinding, of rocks together has made much soil. 
 
 But this is not the only way in which rock has been 
 changed into soil. Much of it has decayed and fallen to 
 pieces as wood does. You know that, after a long time, 
 stumps of trees, and the boards in sidewalks, grow so 
 
THE SOIL 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 A decaying stump of a tree. 
 
 soft that they fall to pieces. Perhaps you have called 
 
 it rotting, but this means the same as decaying. The 
 
 picture (Fig. 1) shows such a 
 
 stump. 
 
 Other things even harder 
 
 than wood decay in much the 
 
 same way, although perhaps 
 
 more slowly. Hard nails, at 
 
 first bright and shiny, decay 
 
 until they become a soft, yel- 
 low fust. Iron pipes and tin 
 
 pails rust until holes appear in 
 
 them and they leak. 
 
 You may not have thought that stones also decay, but 
 
 they do. The headstones 
 in old graveyards are 
 often so crumbled that 
 the letters can scarcely be 
 read, and sometimes the 
 stones have even fallen 
 apart. The decay of rock 
 may also be seen in old 
 stone buildings, boulders, 
 and rock cliffs. Have you 
 ever noticed this ? 
 
 Soil has been formed, 
 also, by the decay of 
 rocks. 
 
 A rocky cliff containing many cracks. There are several thin S s 
 
 Point to some of them. that help to cause this decay. 
 
 All rocks have cracks in them 
 
 (Fig. 2). Usually some of these are so large that they can be plainly 
 seen; but there are many others so tiny that they cannot be seen 
 
HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 without a magnifying glass. When it rains, the water steals into 
 them, and by eating and rotting the rock, very slowly changes it to 
 a powder. 
 
 The water may also freeze in these cracks and pry the stone apart. 
 If you have seen iron water pipes, or water pitchers, burst in cold 
 weather, you know how this is done. Some of the pieces of rock 
 pried off in this way are very small, others quite large (Fig. 3). 
 
 Plants help the 
 water in th is 
 work. In search 
 of food they push 
 their hair - like 
 roots into the 
 cracks, and there 
 remain until they 
 grow so large 
 that they also pry 
 off pieces. 
 
 The earth- 
 worms that you 
 may often see 
 
 after a heavy rain 
 Pieces of rock broken from a cliff by the weather. Can , , , . ' 
 
 you also see the cracks in the rock of the cliff? 
 
 Find some broken pieces in Fig. 2. "ling the rock. 
 
 In order to get 
 
 food, they take soil into their bodies and grind the coarse bits together 
 until they become very fine. 
 
 Water stealing into the cracks causes rock to decay 
 and crumble. Plants and earthworms also help to break 
 it up. 
 
 Rock changes to soil most rapidly near the surface ; 
 for the rain, roots of plants, and earthworms can reach 
 it more easily there than elsewhere. So the deeper into 
 the earth one goes, the less the rock is changed (Fig. 4) ; 
 and, no matter where you live, if you should dig deep 
 enough, you would come to solid rtfck. 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
Til K SOIL 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 A section, as if the earth were sliced through, like a loaf of bread, so that the 
 part below the surface is seen. Tell what you see in this picture. Notice 
 the roots of the tree on the left side. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows soil about one and one-half feet deep. 
 Sometimes there is much more than this, and men may 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 A picture showing solid rock beneath the soil. Notice the cracks in the rock. 
 
6 HOME GEOGEAPHY 
 
 even dig deep wells without finding rock ; but in many 
 places there are only a few inches of soil, or, sometimes, 
 not even enough to hide the rock. 
 
 'One reason for such differences in the depth of soil is that some 
 rocks decay more easily than others. Another reason is that in some 
 places the rain washes the bits away as fast as the rocks crumble. 
 This may leave the rock quite bare in one place and make the soil 
 very deep in another. 
 
 There is solid rock beneath all soil. 
 
 How different it would be if no rock had ever changed 
 into soil ! There could then be no grass, flowers, or trees 
 around your home, because they grow by means of the 
 food that they get from the soil. 
 
 Without grass there could be no cattle, horses, or sheep ; 
 in fact, few animals such as are found upon the land could 
 live ; for what would they eat ? What, then, could you 
 yourself find to eat ? There would be no vegetables, no 
 bread, butter, and milk, and no meat. You see that, if 
 there were no soil, few people could live ; so that the 
 dirt under our feet is a very valuable substance. 
 
 Without soil, few plants, animals, or people could live 
 on the land. 
 
 Soil is needed by plants because it holds water. They 
 become thirsty as well as you. Where the dirt is only 
 a few inches deep, it may dry out on hot summer days, 
 and then the plants die ; but where it is deep, the roots 
 may reach down several feet till they find damp earth. 
 
 It is surprising how long the roots of some small plants are 
 (Fig. 6). For example, the clover in the picture is less than a foot 
 high, but its roots are longer than you are tall. They reach so deep 
 down that even in dry weather the clover is green while other plants, 
 with shorter roots, are withered and dry. Some trees push their roots 
 
THE SOIL 
 
 down a greater distance still. Can you find out how long the roots 
 of any weeds are ? 
 
 The soil holds food, as well as water, for plants. In it 
 is found something which plants need, and which they 
 take up through their roots ; it 
 is a part of the soil itself, and 
 is called plant food. Each 
 blade of grass and each limb 
 of a tree contains some of it ; 
 and when a piece of wood is 
 burned, some of this food is left 
 behind in the ashes. 
 
 Every person even has a quan- 
 tity of it in his body ; your 
 bones and teeth are partly made 
 of it. But you did not take it 
 directly from the soil ; the plants 
 took it for you, and you received 
 it from them in flour and other 
 foods that you have eaten. 
 
 Soil furnishes water and food 
 to plants. 
 
 All plants do not need the 
 same kind of food any more 
 than all animals do. Horses 
 eat hay and grain, while dogs 
 eat meat ; so some plants need 
 one kind of food, others another. These different kinds 
 of plant food are found in the different kinds of soil, of 
 which there are very many. 
 
 For example, some soils are fine, while others are coarse, because 
 some rocks have crumbled to finer bits than others. Then, too, there 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 Some of the roots of the clover 
 that the hoy is picking have 
 reached out into the air 
 through the side of the bank. 
 They were seeking water. 
 
8 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 are many kinds of rock, such as granite, marble, and sandstone ; and 
 when they decay they make different kinds of soil. 
 
 In some places great numbers of plants have grown up and died/ 
 During their growth they took substances from the air, as well as 
 from the soil, and when they died and decayed they returned some 
 of these to the soil. These plant remains have become mingled with 
 the soil, making it dark and sometimes almost black. In some places 
 this dark-colored layer may be several feet deep, as in forests, or in 
 swamps, where plants have been growing and decaying for hundreds 
 of years. This is an excellent soil for farming, because it produces 
 large crops. 
 
 TJiere are many different kinds of soil. 
 
 Soil that has much plant food in it is said to be rich or 
 fertile ; if it has little, it is said to be poor or sterile. The 
 plants are taking away some of this food; they are really 
 robbing the soil. But when weeds and trees fall and 
 decay on the spot where they grew, they pay back what 
 they took away. In fact, some of this food is returned to 
 the earth every autumn when the leaves fall from the trees. 
 
 But if plants are carried away from the spot where 
 they grew, there is danger lest fertile land shall be robbed 
 of so much plant food that it will become sterile. Now 
 this often happens; for farmers send away their wheat to 
 make flour, and haul their corn, hay, and oats to market. 
 Some farmers have done this for so many years that they 
 are no longer able to support their families on their land, 
 but have been obliged to move away to find other farms 
 where the soil has not been robbed of its plant food. 
 
 The wise farmer takes care to put some plant food back upon the 
 soil to pay for what he has taken, so that he may continue to raise 
 good crops. That which he puts back upon the soil is called a 
 fertilizer, because it keeps the soil fertile. People in the city often 
 use a fertilizer to feed the grass of their lawns and keep it green. 
 
 Fertile soil may be robbed of its food and become sterile. 
 
I X 
 
 THE SOIL 9 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Of what is the soil made ? (2) How can 
 you show that the little bits in it are hard like rock V (3) What hap- 
 pens when rocks are rubbed together? (4) If you have ever seen 
 rocks that were decaying and crumbling, tell about it. (5) How 
 does water enter rocks? (6) What happens when water freezes in the 
 cracks? (7) What else helps to crumble the rocks and soil? (8) What 
 is beneath the soil? (9) Make a drawing, like Figure 4, showing the 
 rock beneath the soil. (10) Tell about the depth of the soil. (11) Why 
 is there no soil in some places ? 
 
 (12) Why is the soil w r orth studying? (13) Name two things that 
 plants take from it. (14) Of what advantage is a deep soil? (15) Do 
 all plants want the same kind of food? (10) What causes the different 
 kinds of soil ? (17) What has made some soils so black ? (18) What 
 is fertile soil? (19) Sterile soil? (20) How are some soils robbed of 
 their plant food ? (21) What is used to make them fertile once more ? 
 (22) Tell what you see in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AT HOME AND OUT OF DOORS. 
 Here are things, some of -which, at least, you will be able to 
 see or do for yourselves : (1) Find a place where men are dig- 
 ging a ditch or cellar, to see how the dirt looks below the surface. 
 (2) Find a boulder, cliff, old stone wall, or an old headstone in a grave- 
 yard, and see if the stone is crumbling. (3) Break some pebbles 
 open to see whether or not they are decayed on the outside and 
 fresh within. (4) Change a stone to dust. (5) Collect several dif- 
 ferent kinds of soil. (6) Plant beans in each kind, at the same time, 
 and see in which one they grow best. (7) See what the effect would 
 be if no water were given to some of them. (8) Find out what trees 
 and vegetables grow best near your home. (9) W T hat do the farmers 
 prefer to raise? (10) Go to a hot-house to find out what kind of 
 soil is used there, and what is done to keep it fertile. (11) Visit a 
 gardener or a farmer to find out how he cultivates the soil. (12) How 
 many articles can you name, as crockery, for example, that are made 
 of soil or clay? (13) Write a short story about the soil. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 108. 
 
II. HILLS 
 
 THE soil that lias been formed from rock has not been 
 left smooth and level like a floor. The surface of the 
 land is usually uneven or rolling ; and even those places 
 which at first sight appear level, are really sloping 
 (Fig. 7). Beside such gentle slopes, there are many 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 A very level plain ; but since a stream is flowing through it, there must be 
 
 slope. 
 
 others steep enough to allow coasting in winter, and 
 others still that are much too steep for this purpose. In 
 other words, hills, some gently sloping, some steep, are 
 found almost everywhere upon the surface of the earth 
 (Fig. 8). 
 
 These hills have not always been here. Even the ones 
 you may have seen and climbed have been slowly made. 
 Let us see what has caused them. 
 
 When it rains slightly, the water soaks into the ground 
 and disappears; but when there is a heavy rain, all of the 
 
 IQ 
 
HILLS 11 
 
 water cannot sink into the soil as rapidly as it falls. Some 
 then begins to flow away. One little stream, perhaps 
 hardly an inch f wide, begins at one point; another joins 
 it ; quickly several of them unite, and soon a good sized 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 A picture in a hilly country. The surface of the lake is level ; but the hills, 
 some steep, others gently sloping, are very irregular. 
 
 brook or creek is formed. Have you not noticed this 
 flowing water in the school yard, in the roads, and on the 
 sides of hills ? 
 
 But did the water flow off without taking something 
 with it ? Was it not muddy ? This means that soil had 
 become mixed with the water and was being borne away. 
 Every heavy rain bears along much soil, cutting out little 
 channels, washing out roads, and perhaps even destroying 
 the beds of railways, so that trains must stop running for 
 a time. 
 
 During such a rain little channels, or valleys, and tiny 
 hills and ridges are carved in the soil (Fig. 9). No 
 doubt you have seen these formed very many times. If 
 not, you can easily make them by pouring water from a 
 sprinkler upon a pile of loose dirt. 
 
 There are many heavy rains every year, and in a life- 
 time their number is very large. During many hundreds 
 of years, then, the water could wash away an enormous 
 
12 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 amount of soil and rock which the large streams and 
 rivers would carry away to the sea. By this means deep 
 valleys have been formed, with hills between them, much 
 as the tiny channels in the school yard are cut in the dirt 
 by the rain water. 
 
 Then, also, some rocks are not so hard as others, and 
 the softer ones, as they break up, are naturally carried 
 away faster than those that are harder. This leaves high 
 ground where the rocks are hardest. 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 Little hills and valleys cut in the soil by heavy rains. Point to some of them. 
 
 What a change water must have made in the appear- 
 ance of the surface of the earth ! No doubt, in the 
 very beginning there were hills and valleys ; but every 
 year, for thousands of years, these have been slowly 
 changing, so that they are now very different from what 
 they were long ago. And after many more years they 
 will be very different from what they now are, for they 
 are even now changing. 
 
 Most hills have been carved out by running water. 
 
 In every neighborhood there are hills, although they may not be 
 very high. The picture shows one with a somewhat gentle slope 
 
HILLS 
 
 13 
 
 (Fig. 10). If a person were to walk up this hill, going from its base 
 to the top, or summit, he would walk more than a mile ; but this, of 
 course, does not mean that the hill is a mile high. 
 
 For example, in 
 Figure 11 you see a 
 board ten feet long, 
 with one end resting 
 on the ground and 
 the other on a fence 
 four feet above the 
 ground. If a person 
 starts at the lower 
 end and walks to the 
 upper end, he travels 
 
 To show the difference between the slope of a hill 
 and its height. 
 
 ten feet; but he is 
 then only four feet 
 above the ground. 
 
 The height of a hill is much less than the length of 
 its slope. 
 
 Perhaps you have heard that it is colder on the summit, 
 or crest, of a high hill than at its base. If one takes a 
 thermometer with him when going to the top of the 
 
 FIG. 11. 
 
14 
 
 HOME GEOGEAPHY 
 
 Washington Monument (Fig. 85), which is 550 feet high, 
 he finds that it is about two degrees colder at the top 
 than at the base. One might not notice any difference 
 in climbing low hills, but it can be easily noticed on high 
 ones ; and if your home is near one, you can prove this. 
 
 People who live where there are high hills often observe 
 -that it snows upon them while it rains upon the lower 
 ground at their base (Fig. 12). Explain why this is so. 
 
 It is colder at the crest of a hill than at its base. 
 
 Do you see any reason for thinking that it is colder near the summit of this 
 high mountain than at its base? This is Mount Chimborazo in South 
 America, where it is very hot in the lowlands. 
 
 Many people prefer to build their houses upon hills, 
 partly because the air is cooler and fresher in summer ; 
 but another and more important reason is, that it is more 
 healthful to live on this high ground. Where the land 
 is low, the slope is often so gentle that the water cannot 
 flow off readily, so it stands, sometimes making wet places 
 called swamps (Fig. 33). Houses in such places often 
 have cellars and foundation walls that are damp, and the 
 people who live in them are in danger of fever, and of 
 other kinds of sickness caused by this dampness. 
 
HILLS 
 
 15 
 
 But the water usually runs quickly away from a hill, 
 so that even after a heavy rain the ground soon becomes 
 dry. In large cities, where land is very expensive, people 
 build almost anywhere ; but in these cities there are so 
 many drain pipes, or sewers, to carry off the water, that 
 even the low places are quite dry. 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 A castle built upon the brow of a high hill. Describe the view from there. 
 
 In times past some men were in the habit of building great 
 castles, with thick walls, on the crests of hills (Fig. 13). From 
 these they could look out over the country for a long distance and 
 spy approaching enemies in time to prepare for them. Then, too, 
 the steep sides of the hills were difficult for the enemy to climb, so 
 that the people living in castles on hilltops were quite safe. 
 
 Some of the Pueblo Indians built their towns upon the tops of 
 steep hills in order to be safe from the more savage Indians who 
 attacked them. For much the same reason the Puritans, many years 
 ago, were in the habit of building their churches upon the hilltops. 
 
16 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Hills at present are little needed for such a purpose; but there 
 is another reason why people like to live upon them. From their 
 tops they can look out over the fields for long distances and enjoy the 
 beautiful views. Have you yourself ever enjoyed such a view? 
 
 People like to build their houses upon hills, because 
 it is healthful there and the views are beautiful. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Is there much land that is really level? 
 (2) What do you understand by rolling land ? (3) Were the hills 
 that you know always there ? (4) Have you seen water carrying away 
 soil? If so, tell about it. (5) Explain how hills have been made. 
 
 (6) What is the base of a hill? (7) The summit ? (8) Tell what 
 you learn from Figure 10. (9) From Figure 11. (10) Make a draw- 
 ing somewhat like Fig. 11. (11) On what part of a hill is it coolest? 
 (12) How could you prove it? (13) Why does it often snow on hills 
 while it rains on lower land near by ? 
 
 (14) What is a swamp? (15) Why should not houses be built on 
 swampy ground ? (16) Why are hills liable to be dry ? (17) Why 
 is the lowland in cities usually so dry ? (18) Why have castles often 
 been built on hills? (19) Why did the earlier settlers place their 
 churches on hills? (20) What other reasons can people have for 
 wishing to look far out over the country ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AT HOME AND OUT OF DOORS. 
 (1) Find some ground about your home that seems nearly level. 
 Is it really level? (2) Where is the longest slope in your neighbor- 
 hood? The steepest one? (3) Watch the water carrying off: soil 
 after a rain. Where does the soil go ? (4) Write a story about it. 
 (5) Hunt for a washout after a heavy rain. (6) Wliere is your 
 highest hill? (7) In what season of the year is it especially pleasant 
 to live on a hill ? Why? 
 
 (8) Can you find any houses built on low, wet soil? (9) Are 
 their cellars ever very damp? (10) Ask some doctor why one should 
 not live in such places. (11) Find some pictures of castles, showing 
 their location. (12) Is your schoolhouse upon a hill ? (13) Name any 
 houses in your neighborhood that stand on a hill. (14) Where is 
 your most beautiful view? (15) Do your friends agree with you that 
 it is the most beautiful one ? 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 108. 
 
III. MOUNTAINS 
 
 You may never yet have seen mountains, but you 
 have certainly seen something that looks much like them. 
 Often, on a summer evening, the sun sets behind great 
 banks of clouds that reach far up into the sky. Some of 
 them have rough, steep sides, and great, rugged peaks, 
 
 FIG. 14. 
 A scene among the White Mountains of New Hampshire. 
 
 while others have more gentle slopes, and rounder tops. 
 Oftentimes there are many of them together, and they are 
 so real that it seems as if one might climb their sides if 
 he could only reach them. 
 
 This is very much the way snow-covered mountains 
 appear in the distance ; in fact, the resemblance is so 
 close that, when one is at a distance from mountains, he 
 must often look carefully to note whether he is looking at 
 real mountains, or only at clouds in the sky. 
 
 The mountains in Fig. 14 are much like hills, except 
 that they are larger. Hills are seldom more than a few 
 c 17 
 
18 
 
 HOME GEOGEAPHT 
 
 hundred feet high, while these mountains rise two or three 
 thousand feet in height. Some mountains are so low, and 
 
 their slopes so 
 gentle, that one 
 is able to climb to 
 their tops with- 
 out much trou- 
 ble. Such moun- 
 tains are often 
 called hills. But 
 many others are 
 even two or three 
 miles in height. 
 Their peaks rise 
 far above the 
 clouds and are 
 often wholly hid- 
 den by them, as 
 in Figure 15. 
 
 Usually where 
 there is one 
 mountain peak there are others near by (Fig. 16). They 
 often extend a long distance, perhaps hundreds of miles, 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 A mountain peak in Switzerland, with snow on its 
 sides and base, and a small cloud hiding the very 
 summit. 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 A number of lofty mountain peaks near together. 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 19 
 
 forming what is called a mountain chain, or a mountain 
 range. 
 
 Such great ranges have not been carved out by running water, 
 as hills have been. In fact, real mountains are found only where 
 parts of the land have been slowly raised or lowered until some 
 portions are much higher than the surrounding country (Fig. 17). 
 Among these moun- 
 tains, as elsewhere, 
 running water has 
 of course cut out 
 many valleys. 
 
 You can imitate 
 mountain folding by 
 crumpling a num- 
 ber of sheets of pa- 
 per. The reason for 
 this folding of the 
 rock layers will be 
 found stated on 
 
 FIG. \\ 
 
 This is a drawing of a mountain range sliced through 
 so as to show the layers of rock that have been 
 pushed upward. 
 
 page 125. 
 
 Mountains are masses of rock that have been pushed 
 above the level of the surrounding country. 
 
 Men often climb to the tops of mountains. It might 
 seem that this would not take a very long time, nor be 
 very difficult ; but to go to the crest of even a low moun- 
 tain is often quite a task. Upon a level road one can 
 easily walk a mile in less than half an hour. But it might 
 require a whole day of steady climbing to reach the sum- 
 mit of a mountain only one mile high. 
 
 It would be a long journey even if one could go in a 
 straight line to the top. It has already been stated (page 
 13) that to climb a hill two or three hundred feet high 
 it is necessary to walk a longer distance than this. The 
 same is true of mountains. 
 
20 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Most mountains are so steep that one would grow 
 very tired climbing directly up their slopes ; so a much 
 longer, zigzag path is usually followed. Then, too, there 
 are often steep cliff's, or precipices, that could not be climbed 
 (Fig. 18), and one must travel round these to find a place 
 where the slope is gentle. This makes the path still 
 
 longer, so that to 
 climb a moun- 
 tain one mile 
 high it might 
 be necessary to 
 walk ten miles, 
 or even more. 
 
 If the air is 
 colder at the 
 crest of a hill 
 than at its base, 
 one might expect 
 that it would be 
 very much colder 
 on the top of a 
 high mountain, 
 and this is true 
 (Fig. 12, p. 14). 
 
 A mountain precipice in the Yosemite Park among 
 the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. No 
 one could possibly climb the face of this steep 
 rock cliff. 
 
 FIG. 18. 
 
 In fact, it grows 
 so much colder 
 near the summit 
 
 of the higher mountains that it never rains there, but snows 
 
 instead; and it may even be so cold that trees cannot 
 
 grow there (Fig. 20, p. 23). 
 
 It is a long distance to the top of a high mountain, 
 
 and the air is cold there. 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 21 
 
 Many people cross the ocean to visit the Alps Mountains in Switzer- 
 land ; but while they enjoy climbing about on the sides, and looking 
 at the beautiful views, very few ever reach the summit of the higher 
 peaks. Mont Blanc is one of the best known of these, and is nearly 
 three miles in height. (The picture, Fig. 20, shows views of Mont 
 Blanc.) 
 
 It is very difficult, and even somewhat dangerous, to climb to the 
 summit of this mountain. When a person wishes to do so, he must 
 employ guides to help him over the difficult places. 
 
 The round trip usually takes two nights and three days; as there 
 is no place to obtain food high up on the mountain side, it is neces- 
 sary to carry it. Overcoats and blankets are also necessary ; for even 
 though the journey be made in the hottest summer weather, it will be 
 bitterly cold upon the mountain top. 
 
 Suppose that we are making such a journey. We start early in 
 the morning so as to have a long day. Each of us carries a few 
 light articles, but 
 
 the guides and por- 
 ter carry most, for 
 they are strong and 
 used to climbing. 
 
 At first we walk 
 along a pleasant 
 path in a beautiful 
 wood. A house is 
 occasionally passed 
 (Fig. 20, G), and 
 perhaps a green field. 
 But soon there are 
 no more houses and 
 fields, and the trees 
 become smaller and 
 smaller, until the 
 line is reached above which it is so cold that no trees can grow. 
 This is called the tree line or timber line (Fig. 19). 
 
 From this point on, no plants larger than bushes are seen, and after 
 a while even these disappear. Meanwhile the soil and the grass have 
 become more scarce, while here and there banks of snow are found in 
 
 FIG. 1'J. 
 
 A picture of the timber line on the snowy slopes of 
 a mountain in Colorado. 
 
22 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the shady hollows. Soon we have climbed to the snow line. This is 
 the line above which snow is found all the year round. Now, no 
 matter in what direction we look, rock and snow are everywhere to 
 be seen, the latter often being hundreds of feet deep (Fig. 20, F). 
 
 What a beautiful view before us ! It repays us for all the hard 
 work. We look down upon the woods through which we have just 
 passed; then, over beyond them, to the deep valleys, with the green 
 fields, pretty houses and villages far below us; and, beyond these, 
 to the other steep mountains upon the opposite side of the valley. 
 
 The guide takes his place in front of us, and often tells us to 
 stop while he goes ahead to examine the way. It may be that the 
 snow has bridged over and hidden a deep and narrow chasm, so that 
 if one were to step upon this snow he might fall through. 
 
 Sometimes the guides lift one of us over a dangerous place ; and, when 
 it is steep or slippery, fasten all the members of the party together 
 with ropes (Fig. 20, E), so that if one falls, the others may hold him. 
 
 As we advance higher and higher, it is often necessary to take a 
 narrow path on the steep side of the mountain. On the right you 
 can look hundreds of feet almost directly downward ; on the left are 
 great stones and masses of snow almost directly overhead. 
 
 The snow sometimes falls, forming snow slides or avalanches, 
 which are very dangerous. They come tearing down the sides of 
 the mountains with a terrible roar, burying whole villages beneath 
 them. You have seen the same thing, on a much smaller scale, when 
 snow has slid from the roofs of houses on warm winter days. 
 
 After one night spent in a little house about half way up the 
 mountain side, and after much hard work on the next day, we 
 reach the summit (Fig. 20, A). Here, in spite of our wraps, we are 
 all shivering; for upon high mountain summits there are fierce winds 
 which seem to go through even the thickest cloth. 
 
 On this barren mountain top there are no birds, no trees, no grass : 
 nothing but snow and rock; but if it is a clear day, and there are 
 no clouds clinging to the mountain sides below, we may be able to 
 look down into the beautiful green valleys, only a few miles away. 
 There the birds are singing, flowers are blossoming, and men, working 
 in the fields, are complaining of the heat. 
 
 It is a difficult and dangerous journey to the top of 
 a high mountain. 
 
FIG. 20. 
 
 Seven photographs taken on a journey to the summit of Mont Blanc. See if 
 
 you can find in these pictures any of the scenes described. 
 
 23 
 
24 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 It is by no means so difficult to reach the summits 
 of all mountains. Many of them (Fig. 14, p. 17) are 
 
 so low that there 
 is no snow upon 
 them in summer, 
 and trees live and 
 thrive even at the 
 top. Roads may 
 have been made 
 to the summit, 
 so that one may 
 drive up instead 
 of walking. 
 
 Among some of 
 these mountains 
 hotels are built 
 (Figs. 21 and 24), 
 to which people go in summer to escape the hot weather. 
 There they may walk through the woods, and climb to 
 many inter- 
 esting places, 
 where fine 
 views are to 
 be had. 
 Mountains 
 are impor- 
 tant sum- 
 mer resorts. 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 A hotel at the base of a lofty mountain at Banf, 
 on the Canadian Pacific Railway, in British Co- 
 lumbia, Canada. 
 
 Perhaps 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 you already Here men are digging gold ore deep in the mountain side. 
 
 know that 
 the rocks in- 
 
 The ore is hoisted to the surface and crushed to bits 
 in these buildings, so that the particles of gold can be 
 separated from the rock. 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 25 
 
 FIG. 23. 
 
 This man is deep down in the earth in an iron mine. He is preparing to load 
 the car with ore which other miners have been digging in a tunnel just 
 above, on the right-hand side. 
 
 side the mountains sometimes contain gold and silver (Fig. 
 22). Iron, lead, and other metals are also found there. 
 When they are dug out from the rocks they are ores, which 
 do not look much like these metals as we know them. But 
 the metal in the rings, watches, and silver dollars that you 
 have seen, and even the iron parts of your school desk, may 
 have come from the rocks of some mountain (Fig. 23). 
 
 The trees in the mountain forests are also valuable. The most 
 common kinds are evergreens, such as the pine, hemlock, and spruce, 
 which are green even through the winter, and which can live on the 
 cold mountain sides as far up as the timber line. 
 
26 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The land upon a mountain side is usually too steep and rocky for 
 farms. But even where farms are not possible, trees often grow 
 finely, covering the mountain for miles and miles with dense forests. 
 This is fortunate, for the trees may be cut down and sawed into 
 lumber, from which all sorts of wooden articles are made. Possibly 
 the very seat in which you are sitting was once a part of a tree that 
 grew on the side of a mountain. 
 
 Mountains are of further use because of the abundance of water 
 that they supply. We have already seen that there is much ice and 
 
 FIG. 24. 
 
 The forest on the sides of the White Mountains, New Hampshire. The large 
 buildings are the hotels of a summer resort. 
 
 snow upon some of them ; in fact, there is so much upon the higher 
 ones that it can never all melt away, no matter how hot the summer 
 may be. 
 
 During hot weather many streams dry up ; but at such times the 
 ice and snow of the mountains only melt the faster, so that the streams 
 which flow forth from these mountains are even more swollen than 
 usual. This water may run along for many miles until it finally 
 reaches towns and cities where people need it to drink. Do you know 
 of any city that gets its drinking water from such a river ? 
 
 Mountains furnish metals, lumber, and water. 
 
MOUNTAINS 27 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What can you say about the height 
 of mountains? (2) How have they been made? (3) What is a 
 mountain chain or range? (4) How long might it take to climb a 
 mountain a mile high? (5) Wliy so long? (6) What can you tell 
 about the cold at the summit? (7) How do the trees change in 
 appearance as one mounts higher and higher? 
 
 (8) What would you need for a journey up Mont Blanc? 
 (9) Describe the first part of the journey. (10) What is the timber 
 line? (11) What is the snow line? (12) What are avalanches? 
 
 (13) Describe the view from the top of the mountain. 
 
 (14) Mention some reasons why mountains are favorite summer 
 resorts. (15) What kinds of mines are found in mountains ? (16) Why 
 is it fortunate that trees grow so well on mountain sides ? (17) What 
 is done with them ? (18) Tell what you can about the streams that 
 flow from mountains. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Watch for clouds that resemble mountains. 
 Make a drawing of them. (2) Find pictures of mountains; note the 
 timber line, the snow line, and other points of interest. (3) Repre- 
 sent a mountain in sand. Show the tree line ; the snow line ; steep and 
 gentle slopes. (4) Represent a mountain range in sand. (5) In 
 what direction are the nearest mountains? What are they called? 
 How far away are they ? Find out an interesting fact about them. 
 
 (6) Ask some one who has climbed a mountain to tell you about 
 it. (7) Would you care to climb one yourself ? Why? (8) Write a 
 story relating the adventures you would expect in mountain climbing. 
 Describe some of the views you would expect to find. (9) Why do 
 few people live high up on the mountain sides? 
 
 (10) Examine a piece of ore (in some museum) and find out how 
 the metal is taken from the rock. (11) Start a collection for the 
 school by bringing some ores. (12) Hunt for pictures of woods on 
 mountain sides. You will find several in this book. (13) Find some 
 pictures which show gorges cut in the mountains by running water. 
 
 (14) Find out some facts about glaciers. 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 108, 
 
IV. VALLEYS 
 
 WE have seen how water is always washing away soil, 
 making hills and changing their appearance. Wherever 
 
 hills are found 
 there are al- 
 ways low places 
 or hollows, and 
 these are called 
 valleys. 
 
 Some very 
 small valleys 
 you have al- 
 ready seen in 
 Figure 9. They 
 are only a few 
 FIG ' 25 ' inches wide, 
 
 A beautiful stream in a wooded valley. ] fl f' 
 
 hills or ridges between them are only a few inches high. 
 
 Every stream of water, whether great or small, when 
 flowing over soft earth, is carrying some of it away and 
 forming valleys. Even when flowing over hard rock, the 
 water is doing the same thing, but more slowly. It grinds 
 the rock away by dragging pebbles and grains of sand over 
 it, thus scouring it out. This work of the water is never 
 finished, for every rain is slightly changing the valleys. 
 
 Are there any valleys in your neighborhood? Do you 
 live in one ? If you have travelled on the railway, you 
 have certainly seen many of them. Figs. 11, 14, and 25 
 
 28 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 29 
 
 show valleys. Can you find others in the book ? In Fig- 
 ure 25 is shown a small stream with the land on either 
 side gently sloping toward it. 
 
 Since there are very few places without slopes and 
 hills of some kind, there must be few places without 
 valleys. Although some of these are narrow, others are 
 so wide that one cannot see across them. 
 
 Wherever two downward slopes come together, a valley is formed, 
 whether the slopes be long or short. In those that you can find, 
 notice the difference in the slopes. If in one of the valleys there is 
 a stream, notice the direction in which it flows. Why does the water 
 flow at all ? Which way is down the valley ? Point up the valley. 
 
 You see, of course, that valleys have not only width, but length. 
 Many of them are only a few inches long, and you can certainly find 
 some of these. Perhaps your 
 home is in a valley that is 
 many miles in length. Find 
 out if this is true. 
 
 Most valleys have been 
 cut out of the land by 
 running water. 
 
 Jf>& 
 
 FIG. L'(i. 
 
 The dotted lines show the divides be- 
 tween the valleys. Trace them. What 
 else do you see in the picture ? 
 
 In the picture (Fig. 
 26) you see several val- 
 leys. Rain falls into each 
 of these, some of it sink- 
 ing into the soil and some 
 running off down the 
 slopes. Into which valley will the water flow that falls 
 on the top of the ridge ? 
 
 When it rains upon the roof of a house (Fig. 27), the 
 water is divided along the highest part, some flowing 
 down one side, some down the other. The same thing 
 happens when water falls on the land. Because the water 
 
30 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 parts, or divides, at the highest place between two valleys, 
 this place is called a divide or water-parting, or sometimes a 
 
 watershed. The 
 dotted lines in 
 the picture 
 (Fig. 26) show 
 some divides. 
 How irregular 
 the lines are ! 
 
 A divide some- 
 times stands out 
 sharply, as on 
 the roof of a 
 house ; but in 
 many places it 
 is difficult to 
 find, for the 
 
 A house roof, to show that the water is divided along 
 the highest part. 
 
 FIG. 27. 
 
 land there may 
 appear to be 
 
 flat. Can you point out such a place in Figure 26 ? 
 
 If you wish to know how wide one of these valleys is, where 
 
 would you begin to meas- 
 ure ? Would it not be from 
 
 the divide on one side to the 
 
 divide directly across on the 
 
 other side? Of course it 
 
 would, for the divides form 
 
 the boundaries of the valley 
 
 (Fig. 28). 
 
 A divide or ivater- 
 shed is the highest 
 ground separating two 
 valleys. 
 
 FIG. 28. 
 
 The line A-B shows the width of this val- 
 ley. Observe that the valley is much 
 wider than the stream. 
 
n * ft v s. 
 
 r v M J 
 
 VALLEYS 
 
 While the valleys that one usually sees are both narrow 
 and short, there are some so long and wide that one could 
 not travel their whole length or width, even if he were to 
 spend all day and all night upon a fast train (Fig. 29). 
 In our own country there is such a one, called the Missis- 
 sippi Valley, which is over three thousand miles long and 
 many hundred miles wide. 
 
 FIG. 29. 
 Picture of a river winding through a broad and very long valley. 
 
 When valleys are so large as this, their slopes must be 
 very gentle. On that account many people who live in 
 the Mississippi Valley scarcely know that they are in a 
 valley. The river flows through the lowest part, and the 
 homes of these people may be so far away that they have 
 never seen it. All about them the land appears so level 
 that it does not seem to form a part of a slope. It is 
 
32 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 therefore called a plain. But when rain falls there, it 
 immediately flows toward the river, thus proving that 
 the plain is a part of the great Mississippi Valley slopes. 
 
 Such an immense valley was not cut out by running 
 water. You have learned that hills are made in that way, 
 but that mountains are formed by the rising of great masses 
 of rock. Some of the great valleys, like the Mississippi, 
 have also been made by changes in the level of the land. 
 But even the valleys that have been formed in this way 
 have generally been greatly changed by the water that 
 has run through them. 
 
 Some great valleys have been formed by the rising or 
 sinking of the land. 
 
 FIG. 30. 
 
 A valley sliced through to illustrate how valleys may be formed by the fold- 
 ing of the rock layers. 
 
 People generally choose the valleys for their homes. 
 Even among high mountains, where it is impossible to live 
 on the steep and cold sides, they often dwell in the bottom 
 of the valleys. Here they are surrounded by lofty peaks 
 which appear to shut them in almost entirely (Fig. 31). 
 
 Hills are often too cool, or else have too shallow a soil 
 for farming. The rains have washed the dirt down the 
 steep slopes into the lower part of the valleys, making a 
 deep and fertile soil there. In the valleys, therefore, the 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 33 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 A city near some mines in a valley among the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 best farms are found, with their great fields of corn, oats, 
 wheat, and grass. Here, also, cattle and horses are raised, 
 (Fig. 32), many large cities have sprung up, and railways 
 have been built. 
 
 FIG. 32. 
 
 A herd of cattle grazing on the clover that is growing in the deep, rich soil 
 in a valley bottom. 
 
 D 
 
34 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Most of the land is really made up of slopes, and we 
 are living upon them. It may not seem that your home 
 is upon one, but it probably is. Your house may even be 
 upon a hill-top, and yet you may be living in a broad 
 valley. 
 
 Most people live in some part of a valley. 
 
 FIG. 33. 
 A ditch dug to drain a swamp. 
 
 The soil is all the more valuable because of the slopes 
 of valleys. Were it not for them the water, after a heavy 
 rain, would stand in a thin sheet upon the ground. But 
 where there are slopes down which the water can freely 
 run, it quickly flows off and does not drown the crops or 
 make the region unhealthful for man and animals. 
 
VALLEYS 35 
 
 The great importance of this matter is shown when farmers buy 
 land. One of the first things that they inquire about is drainage, 
 that is the slopes, which allow the water to run off quickly. 
 
 If the water does not freely flow away, they even dig ditches in 
 order to carry it off (Fig. 33). Sometimes these ditches are left open, 
 as in the picture; but, more often, tiles are placed in the bottom, 
 forming a kind of pipe, and then the earth is thrown back again. 
 The water finds its way into the pipes, through small openings that 
 are left for this purpose, and flows away. Good drainage is so im- 
 portant that men are often willing to incur great expense in order to 
 secure it. 
 
 In some places the land is so nearly level that the 
 standing water produces swamps. There are thousands 
 of swamps in this country, and great sums of money are 
 spent in digging ditches to drain them. This makes the 
 swamp dry ; and since the soil in such places is very fer- 
 tile, a great deal of land that was once of little value is 
 now changed to rich farms. 
 
 The slopes of valleys are valuable for drainage. 
 
 Valleys have had a great influence upon the roads of a 
 country. For instance, in going across mountains men 
 generally follow a valley, going higher and higher until 
 they come to what is called a mountain pass (Fig. 34), 
 which is nothing more than a valley between mountain 
 peaks. After crossing this, they go down another valley 
 on the other side of the mountain. 
 
 Railroadaalso cross mountains through the valleys and 
 over the lower passes ; they wind in and out, often mak- 
 ing sharp curves in order to avoid cutting directly through 
 the rock. 
 
 Even in hilly regions it is usually easier to get from 
 one place to another by travelling in the valleys. In the 
 
36 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 lower parts, near the streams, the land is most nearly level ; 
 but as soon as one attempts to go directly across the coun- 
 try, the roads become rough and hilly. 
 
 On that account, when white men first came to this 
 country, and settled among the hills and mountains, they 
 built their roads in the valleys, often quite near the 
 streams. Men do the same thing still. 
 
 FIG. 34. 
 A mountain pass among the lofty Rocky Mountains of Colorado. Point to it. 
 
 Where the country is more level, as upon a plain, it is 
 not so difficult to travel directly forward ; but even in 
 such places both the wagon roads and the railways are 
 often built round a small hill rather than over it. 
 
 The location of wagon roads and railways depends 
 on the valleys* 
 
 We have seen that hills and mountains afford many beautiful views. 
 But it is not necessary to go to the mountains to see fine views. 
 You may see them in almost any valley or plain. Even a field of 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 37 
 
 green grass, such as 
 may be seen in city 
 parks, and in the 
 country, is beautiful. 
 This is particularly 
 true in the early 
 spring, after the long, 
 cold winter. 
 
 Those who live in 
 small towns or cities 
 may find streets 
 where the trees have 
 grown so tall that 
 they droop and meet 
 overhead (Fig. 35). 
 As one, looks down 
 such a street, he can 
 
 FIG. 35. 
 
 A beautiful New England roadway in Northfield, 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 scarcely help exclaiming, " What a magnificent archway ! " 
 
 In the country, also, there are many beautiful sights, such as the 
 variously colored fields, the waving grain, the graceful trees, and the 
 shady roads. 
 
 H^v'. : ' f 'W '/ />' Tne views 
 
 | v :'''' i change from 
 
 V^ ' |B jj j^ time to time. 
 
 , V; , M" if gf! They are not 
 
 ^t-'4 N .^ V' . ^ ..__ 1 j/f -XT" the same at 
 
 noon as in the 
 late afternoon 
 when the sun 
 is casting long 
 shadows. In 
 the spring the 
 plants are fresh 
 and bright ; 
 
 F 
 
 I 
 
 FIG. 30. 
 
 A scene in Boston Common after a heavy fall of damp 
 snow, 
 
 in the autumn 
 they are pret- 
 tily colored ; 
 in the winter 
 
38 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the damp snow clings to the trees, bushes, fences, arid houses until 
 everything is robed in white (Fig. 36). Again, the rain freezes to 
 the trees, and when the sun appears, everything sparkles in the bright 
 light as if it were covered with a thousand jewels. 
 
 It is not necessary, then, to travel far in order to find beautiful 
 views ; they are to be found everywhere, not only among the moun- 
 tains, but on the hills, in the valleys, in the country and in the city. 
 
 The hills, mountains, and valleys are very beautiful. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What makes the little valleys ? (2) Tell 
 why they must change from year to year. (3) Describe some of those 
 that you have crossed on the railway. (4) How many slopes are 
 necessary to make a valley? (5) What is a divide? (6) Tell how 
 large some of the largest valleys may be. (7) How have these very 
 large valleys been formed ? (8) What is a plain ? 
 
 (9) In what parts of mountains do most people live? Why? 
 (10) What is meant by drainage? (11) How do farmers sometimes 
 provide drainage? (12) What is a swamp? (13) Why do roads 
 and railways among the mountains follow the valleys? (14) What 
 is a mountain pass ? (15) Where is the most level land usually 
 found? (16) What fields or yards near you are beautiful ? (17) Are 
 there any walks or drives that you greatly enjoy? (18) How do the 
 views change from time to time? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Find a tiny valley and watch to see if it is 
 changed in any way by a heavy rain. (2) Find a still larger valley 
 in your neighborhood. (3) Find the divide on each side of it. 
 (4) Show that streets and roads are so made that they have a water- 
 shed. (5) Make some valleys in clay or sand and show the divides. 
 (6) Where is the largest valley in your neighborhood ? (7) Is your 
 home in one of the very large valleys, or in a small one ? (8) Show 
 by a drawing like Figure 30 how the largest valleys have been made. 
 (9) Can you show it in any other way ? (10) Why should swamp 
 land that has been drained raise uncommonly good crops? (11) Do 
 you know of any roads or railways that follow valleys and wind about 
 the hills? Tell about them. (12) Find some beautiful views in 
 your neighborhood. (13) Make a collection of pictures of valleys. 
 (14) Write a story telling how valleys have been formed. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 109. 
 
V. RIVERS 
 
 EVERY heavy rain causes the water to collect, here and 
 there, and flow down the slopes. At first only tiny rills 
 are formed ; but these unite to form the little streams 
 and brooks. 
 
 In some places a brook is narrow and deep, in others 
 broad and shallow ; here it flows swiftly, and there slowly. 
 Place a chip or a boat 
 in such a brook, and it 
 floats quietly in some 
 places, and then, com- 
 ing to a rapid, it is 
 whirled along swiftly 
 and perhaps upset 
 (Fig. 37). Or it may 
 float to a waterfall, 
 where the water tum- 
 bles down from the 
 top of a ledge, and 
 then it is surely over- 
 turned (Fig. 38). 
 
 There are large riv- 
 ers in the world much 
 like these little brooks, the main difference being in their 
 size. But even such rivers are generally small at their 
 beginning or source. Some of the largest have their sources 
 far up in the mountains, where they are so small that a 
 person can easily step across them. 
 
 39 
 
 FIG. 37. 
 
 A noisy brook in the Adirondacks of New 
 York, tumbling over its rocky bed. 
 
40 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The water of these rivers 
 may come from the melting 
 snows; and, as it dashes along, 
 beating itself into foam by 
 striking against the rocks, it 
 is joined by other streams like 
 itself. Often the water must 
 rush round or leap over large 
 boulders which lie in its path; 
 and often it falls directly 
 downward for many feet with 
 a great roar (Fig. 75). 
 
 Great rivers at their source 
 are usually no larger than 
 a brook. 
 
 The water of a mountain 
 stream seems to be quite help- 
 less, with the great, hard 
 rocks all about it ; but it 
 never gives up its struggle 
 with them. Rocky Cliffs may 
 reach far up into the sky on 
 either side, and the slopes may 
 be so steep that loose pieces 
 of stone often fall into the 
 water. But the torrent dashes 
 these against one another, and 
 grinds them against its rocky 
 bed, until they are worn into 
 pebbles. These pebbles are borne down stream and are 
 slowly ground up into grains of sand and bits of clay. 
 
 Copyrighted, 1889, by S. R. Stoddard. 
 
 FIG. 38. 
 
 A mountain torrent leaping over 
 the ledges in rapids and water- 
 falls. Point to one of the 
 falls. Find others in the other 
 pictures of the hook. 
 
41 
 
 If we should travel down such a stream, starting near 
 its source among the wild mountains, we should find it 
 constantly changing. In the first place, it gradually grows 
 larger, because other streams, called branches or tributaries, 
 enter it (Fig. 39). The banks become lower and the 
 river grows broader and deeper. In places there may still 
 be rapids and falls, but the country on either side is not 
 
 FIG. 39. 
 
 Two streams, the Allegheny and Monongahela, uniting at the great city of 
 Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. 
 
 so steep and rocky as it was among the mountains. Now, 
 houses, farms, and men are seen, and horses and cattle are 
 grazing in the fields near the banks (Fig. 40). 
 
 At first, the slope of the stream bed was so great that 
 the river hurried along faster than you could run. Now 
 the water no longer flows rapid] y enough to drag boulders 
 or even pebbles; but it can st ; il carry the sand and mud 
 brought by the rain from the soil of the hillsides. 
 
 It has now been many days since this water left the 
 
42 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 FIG. 40. 
 
 The Connecticut River in Massachusetts, flowing through a splendid farming 
 
 country. 
 
 mountains. The river has become so wide that a long 
 bridge is needed to cross it (Fig. 41), and so deep that 
 one cannot touch its bed even with a long pole. 
 
 At last, per- 
 haps weeks after 
 it started, the 
 water approaches 
 
 the 
 
 ocean 
 
 and 
 
 FIG. 41. 
 
 The long bridge across the Mississippi River at St. 
 Louis. Notice how small the horses appear near 
 the river. This will show how very large the 
 bridge is. 
 
 now the down- 
 ward slope of the 
 river bed is so 
 gentle that the 
 current cannot 
 drag even grains 
 of sand; but it 
 still carries fine 
 bits of rock-mud 
 
RIVERS 
 
 43 
 
 with it. These bits may be so tiny that if you were to 
 place some of the muddy water in a glass, it would take 
 hours for all of them to settle and leave the water clear. 
 When the river enters the quiet waters of the ocean, even 
 this mud, or sediment, settles. 
 
 We have followed the river from the source to the 
 mouth where it empties its waters into the great ocean. 
 At first it was a little stream,, but by the addition of water 
 from many tributaries, it has grown larger and larger, 
 until at its mouth it may be more than a mile in width. 
 
 A great river is broad and deep at its mouth, and 
 its current is very slow; but it carries sediment even 
 to the ocean. 
 
 We have been describing a large river that had its source in the 
 mountains ; but others are much smaller, and many do not start in 
 the mountains. Some empty their water into other rivers, being 
 tributaries, and others enter lakes rather than the sea. They may 
 also have low, 
 soft banks in- 
 stead of high, 
 rocky ones, and 
 there may be no 
 rapids and falls. 
 But no matter 
 where their 
 sources and 
 mouths may be, 
 or what other dif- 
 erences may ex- 
 ist, they are, in FIG. 42. 
 
 many ways, much A pebbly brook bed which is filled with water when 
 like this river. 
 
 the rain falls or the snow melts, but is often dry in 
 summer. 
 
 Where does so much water come from? Taken up 
 from the ocean, it falls from the sky in the form of rain 
 
44 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 or snow. But we all know that small streams dry up 
 and disappear soon after a rain. Even large brooks may 
 become quite dry in summer (Fig. 42). Why, then, do 
 not great rivers also dry up ? 
 
 One reason is that many rivers have a constant supply 
 at their source. That this is true of a stream starting in 
 a high mountain is clear, because we have seen (p. 26) 
 that the snow in such places never entirely melts away. 
 It is also true of streams that have their sources in lakes 
 and swamps. 
 
 Then, again, not all of the rain-water flows off, but some 
 sinks down into the ground. There is a great deal of 
 water in the ground, and it is this which men find when 
 they dig wells. This underground water trickles through 
 the soil, and through crevices in the rocks, often bubbling 
 forth as a spring, weeks after it has fallen as rain some- 
 where else. Most large rivers are supplied with water 
 from hundreds and even thousands of such springs. 
 
 It is to be remembered, too, that a great river, with its many trib- 
 utaries, flows through a very large tract of country, so that when it is 
 not raining in one part, the rain may be falling in another. Thus, 
 while one tributary carries little water, heavy rain may keep others 
 full, and this flows into the main stream, preventing it from drying 
 up. 
 
 If a heavy rain falls, or if the snow melts rapidly, so 
 much water may flow into a river that it rises and over- 
 flows its banks (Fig. 43). Those who live near such 
 streams are in danger of being drowned by the floods, and 
 in some places men have built banks of earth, called levees, 
 to keep the water from overflowing the towns and farms. 
 
 The supply of river water comes from rain or melting 
 snow, from lakes and swamps, and from underground, 
 
RIVERS 
 
 45 
 
 Every one has seen muddy water flowing in gutters, or in rills on 
 the hillsides. Great quantities of soil are washed away in this man- 
 ner, as has been shown (p. 11). But what becomes of it all? 
 
 If you have seen a sidewalk or a field flooded with water, you per- 
 haps remember that when the flood disappeared, a thin layer of fine 
 mud was left. This mud was carried along by the current until it 
 reached a place where the water stood almost still, then it slowly set- 
 tled. The same thing will happen if some muddy water is allowed to 
 stand in a glass for a time. Try it. 
 
 In much the same way, when there is a river flood (Fig. 43), the 
 water spreads out on either side of the river in a great, thin sheet, flow- 
 
 FIG. 43. 
 
 Photograph of a river flood on the Ohio, which has forced the people to move 
 out of their homes. Tell what you see in this picture. 
 
 ing slowly along and depositing a thin layer of mud. Each flood adds 
 a layer, making the land higher, until, after many years, it is lifted con- 
 siderably above the usual level of the river. Such land is generally 
 a level plain ; and since it is made by river floods, it is called a flood- 
 plain. 
 
 Many pieces of land have been made in this manner, and ydu have 
 perhaps seen some of them. Near the banks of streams the valley is 
 often flat, and the hillsides that bound the bottom of the valley begin 
 to rise at a considerable distance from the water (Fig. 44). This level 
 land is usually a flood-plain. Near small streams such plains are gener- 
 
46 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ally narrow ; but in the Mississippi and Nile valleys the flood-plains are 
 many miles in width. Farmers like this soil because it is very fertile. 
 Some of the sediment carried by rivers forms flood- 
 plains. 
 
 FIG. 44. 
 A small flood-plain between steeply sloping valley sides. 
 
 Much of the sediment is carried on until it reaches a 
 lake or the ocean. Here, opposite the river mouth, the 
 water is generally quiet, so that the mud sinks to the 
 
 bottom. At first only 
 enough sediment is 
 collected to form low, 
 swampy land ; but 
 this is gradually lifted 
 higher and higher, by 
 layers of mud from 
 each flood, until it 
 becomes high enough 
 to make dry land. 
 These plains at the 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 This picture shows a river delta. What else 
 do you see in the picture ? 
 
 mouths of rivers form 
 
RIVERS 
 
 47 
 
 what are called deltas (Fig. 45). Many streams have 
 such wide deltas that one cannot see across them, most of 
 the sediment having come from fields, hills, and moun- 
 tains, perhaps hundreds of miles away. The surface of 
 the delta is a plain, because it cannot be built any higher 
 than the floods themselves have reached. 
 
 From year to year more sediment is brought down, and 
 the land is built further and further into the water, so 
 that deltas are constantly 
 growing. The slope of the 
 river bed is usually so gentle 
 that all of the water cannot 
 flow out in a single channel. 
 For this reason it enters the sea 
 through several arms, cutting 
 the delta into several parts. 
 
 Some of the sediment car- 
 ried by rivers builds deltas 
 at their mouths. 
 
 A river entering the sea may re- 
 ceive water brought by hundreds of 
 tributaries. Thus the rain that falls 
 in places even hundreds of miles 
 apart may at last be brought together 
 in a single main stream. Such a 
 main stream with all of its tributa- 
 ries is called a river system (Fig. 46) . 
 For instance, we speak of the Missis- 
 sippi River system, meaning the Mis- 
 sissippi and its many tributaries. 
 
 All the country which is drained by a single main stream is called 
 a river basin. Thus all the land drained by the Mississippi River is 
 included in the Mississippi basin. 
 
 One should not think of this as a true basin. A real basin, as a 
 
 FIG. 46. 
 
 Picture of a river system and 
 river basin. Point to some 
 of the tributaries ; to their 
 source ; to the mouth ; to the 
 delta. 
 
48 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 wash basin, has a rim extending all around it. The rim of a river 
 basin is the divide ; but there is no divide, or rim, near the mouth of 
 a river, since the water runs out into the sea. If it were a true basin, 
 with a rim all around it, the water would collect and form a lake. 
 
 All the land whose waters are drained by a single 
 river is called a river basin, and all these streams 
 together form a river system. 
 
 Some ways have already been suggested in which rivers 
 are of much use. They build flood-plains and deltas, thus 
 making some of the most fertile land in the world. Rivers 
 also furnish water to plants, animals, and man. 
 
 On page 6 it was shown that plants sometimes wither during hot 
 weather, because the soil is dry. But near rivers the soil is usually 
 kept so moist that plants grow well even in dry weather. 
 
 There are some places in the world where there is no enough rain 
 for crops to grow. The people in such regions sometimes lead the 
 water out of the rivers into ditches, through which it flows for long 
 distances. Then it is spread out over the thirsty soil, so that plants 
 can thrive. This is called irrigation, and in some places no crops can 
 be raised without it. 
 
 Many animals and people depend on rivers for all the water they 
 use. Even whole cities obtain their drinking water solely from rivers. 
 
 Streams not only bring water where it is needed, but 
 they also carry it away when it is not wanted. A river 
 is really a great ditch for draining the land, so that when- 
 ever the snow melts rapidly, or a heavy rain falls, the 
 rivers quickly remove the water. They also carry off the 
 filthy water, or sewage, of many towns and cities. 
 
 Rivers supply water where needed, and remove it 
 when not wanted. 
 
 The water of rivers is also used for turning wheels to 
 help make many articles, such as cloth and flour. 
 
 You have perhaps noticed how windmills work (Fig. 
 
RIVERS 49 
 
 08). The wind blows the large wheel round and round, 
 and it is so connected with other wheels that it can pump 
 water, or turn a saw for sawing wood, or grind corn. 
 Likewise steam is used to turn the wheels of a railway 
 engine, so that it drags the heavy cars along. 
 
 River water is made to do work in much the same man- 
 ner. Where there is a swift current, or where there are 
 
 FIG. 47. 
 
 A picture of an old mill and old-fashioned wheel. Much smaller wheels are 
 now used, and they are usually kept out of sight. 
 
 falls, as the Niagara Falls (Fig. 135), it is often easy to 
 run some of the water off to one side through a ditch or 
 pipe. The water, racing rapidly along, strikes a wheel 
 (Fig. 47) and makes it whirl round. This wheel, being 
 connected with others, causes them to turn also, much as 
 one wheel in a clock causes others to revolve. 
 
 Thus machinery is set in motion by which logs are 
 sawed into lumber, grain is ground into flour, cotton is 
 made into cloth, and many other kinds of work are done. 
 
50 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The water that furnishes the power to turn the wheels 
 is called the water-power, and the buildings in which such 
 manufacturing is carried on are called factories or mills." 
 
 In many places the river water does not flow fast enough 
 to strike a wheel with much force ; water-power is found 
 mainly in rivers with swift currents, and especially near 
 rapids and falls. Here mills have been built, and then 
 great cities have often sprung up (Fig. 75, p. 85). 
 
 Rivers also supply water-power for manufacturing. 
 
 There is still another way in which rivers are extremely 
 valuable. It has always been difficult to find a conven- 
 ient means for carrying goods from one place to another. 
 In some places there are no roads ; and even where there 
 are, they are often hilly, rough, and muddy. 
 
 Yet most of the articles that we use every day, like sugar, 
 flour, oil, meat, coal, lumber, and clothing, have been car- 
 ried long distances, sometimes thousands of miles. Even 
 if the roads were excellent, it would take a great deal 
 of time, and cost much money, to bring these things in 
 wagons. To carry them by railway takes less time, but is 
 expensive. 
 
 A broad, deep river is really one of the finest roads in 
 the world. To be sure, no wagons or cars can be drawn 
 over it, but boats move there with ease. A river boat 
 can carry as much as scores of wagons or cars (Fig. 48), 
 arid many may be going and coming at the same time, so 
 that a large river is equal to several railroads : it costs 
 little, too, to keep it in repair. 
 
 For these reasons carrying goods by boat upon rivers, 
 or river navigation, is a very important business. Indeed, 
 it is so important that in many places broad ditches, called 
 
RIVERS 
 
 51 
 
 canals, have been cut in the soil and rock in order to carry 
 goods by boat. 
 
 Before the railways were built, which is no longer 
 ago than when your grandfathers were boys, boats were 
 used for carrying all sorts of articles from place to place. 
 Even to-day, when there are so many good wagon roads 
 and railways, it is cheaper to carry crops and other prod- 
 ucts on boats than in cars, and this is often done. 
 
 FIG. 48. 
 
 A view across the broad Mississippi at New Orleans. The other bank is seen 
 dimly in the distance. A loaded river boat is just coming in, and others 
 are tied up to the levee. 
 
 We see, then, why many people have preferred to build 
 their homes near rivers. A farmer prefers to live near a 
 good wagon road, or near the railway station, so that he 
 may easily send his crops away ; and, for the same reason, 
 people have always liked to live near a river, which is a 
 good road or waterway. It is partly on this account that 
 many of the large cities of the world stand on the banks 
 of large rivers. Do you know of any such cities ? 
 
 Elvers are also of value for navigation. 
 
52 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Describe a stream that you have seen. 
 (2) What are rapids and falls ? (3) Describe a small stream in 
 the mountains. (4) What does it do with the rocks in its way? 
 (5) What are tributaries? (6) Does the current grow more or less 
 swift as one goes further down stream ? (7) How does the country 
 change in appearance ? (8) What becomes of the pebbles ? Why ? 
 
 (9) What is meant by the source of a river? By its mouth? 
 
 (10) Where do rivers obtain their water? (11) What is a spring? 
 (12) What effect has a heavy rain upon a stream ? (13) Why do 
 not large rivers dry up in summer? (14) Why does not sediment 
 sink where the current is swift? (15) What is a flood-plain ? Why 
 is it level? (16) Explain how a delta is made. (17) What is a 
 river basin? (18) A river system? (19) Why do plants grow well 
 on the banks of a river ? (20) What is irrigation ? (21) How are 
 rivers useful for drainage? (22) What is water-power? (23) In 
 what ways is a river a fine road? (24) Give some of the reasons 
 why many cities have sprung up near great rivers. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) After a heavy rain, follow a small stream 
 from its source to its mouth. (2) Throw a chip into the water, and 
 follow it as far as you can. (3) Why are the rocks in river beds 
 usually so smooth and round? (4) If there is a brook or river near 
 you, examine its banks. Is it a tributary of another stream? 
 (5) How deep and how wide is it ? (6) Trace a brook to its source, 
 if possible. Find several tributaries. (7) What large river is nearest 
 your home? What are its largest tributaries? (8) What is meant 
 by "up a river"? By "down a river"? By right bank? By left 
 bank? By river channel? By river bed? (9) Find a spring. 
 Why is its water cool? (10) Watch a well that is being dug, 
 to see if underground water is found. (11) Find a floo'd-plain 
 along the side of a stream. (12) Find a delta. (13) Do you 
 know of a city that gets its water from a river? (14) Make a 
 small water-wheel, and arrange for a stream of water to turn it round. 
 (15) Visit a mill that is run by water-power. (16) Find out more 
 about canals. (17) Make a collection of pictures of rivers, and 
 notice as many things as you can about them. (18) Find some 
 poems describing brooks and rivers. (19) Write a story of a journey 
 from the source to the mouth of a river. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 109. 
 
VI. PONDS AND LAKES 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 A dam of dirt, built in order to form 
 a pond or reservoir. 
 
 RIVERS supply towns and cities with water, and also 
 turn the wheels of factories ; but some streams become 
 so low in summer that they lack water for these pur- 
 poses. To prevent this diffi- 
 culty men often build dams 
 of wood, earth, or stone across 
 the rivers, and in this way 
 collect sufficient water to 
 make ponds (Fig. 49). When 
 the rivers are high, these 
 ponds are filled, and enough 
 water gathers to last through 
 the dry season. 
 
 Probably you have seen such a pond as this. Or you 
 yourself may have made small ponds by building dams 
 of mud or leaves across brooks and gutters (Fig. 50). 
 
 Lakes may be made in a similar manner, for they are like ponds, 
 only larger. Sometimes they are several hundred miles in length, 
 and perhaps one hundred miles in width. Some of the largest in the 
 world, the Great^Lakes in the northern United States, were made by 
 dams formed ages ago across parts of the great St. Lawrence River 
 system. 
 
 Most ponds and lakes have been made in much the 
 same way. That is, the water has gathered behind dams 
 across streams. 
 
 53 
 
54 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY- 
 
 But in most cases these dams have not been built by men. Beavers 
 have made a few of them. There used to be a great many of these 
 little animals in this country, and some are still left. Since they pre- 
 fer quiet, shallow ponds in which to live, they gnaw down trees and 
 build dams with the logs ; then they build their homes in the water 
 thus collected. 
 
 In other places, where the sides of a valley are steep, great masses 
 of rock and earth have sometimes fallen, in the form of avalanches, 
 and blocked or dammed the streams. 
 
 FIG. 50. 
 A boy building a dam to form a pond in the gutter. 
 
 Also it was stated (p. 19) that the earth has been warped or bent 
 upward in some places, forming low ridges, or even lofty mountain 
 ranges. In this way the ground has sometimes slowly risen across 
 river valleys, making high dams ; in such cases large lakes have been 
 formed. 
 
 There are many other ways in which dams have been built, espe- 
 cially by means of glaciers, which you will study about later. 
 
 Most ponds and lakes have been formed by dams 
 across valleys. 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 55 
 
 Since a lake is generally a part of a stream, it is evident 
 that water must flow into it. The river that flows into 
 a lake is called the inlet, and that which flows out is 
 called the outlet. There are also many streams entering 
 from the sides. Each of these brings sediment, which set- 
 tles in the lake, slowly filling it. At first deltas are built 
 opposite to the stream mouths ; then, in time, the whole 
 lake is filled and changed to a swamp. Many a swamp is 
 really the last stage in the life of a lake. 
 
 The surface of a lake appears to be level ; but one part 
 is really slightly higher than the other, otherwise the 
 water would not flow out of it. The higher part of the 
 lake, near the inlet, is called the head of the lake, the lower 
 part, near the outlet, the foot of the lake. It is correct, 
 then, to speak of going up or down a lake, just as we 
 speak of going up or down a river. 
 
 Some lakes have no outlets, because there is so little water that 
 the basin cannot fill up and overflow. This has a very peculiar effect 
 upon the water, for in time it becomes salt. Probably you have heard 
 of the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah. These are salt lakes 
 of this kind, and no one would drink their water, even if he were 
 dying of thirst. 
 
 But why do such lakes become salt ? There is some salt in all watef , 
 even in that which we drink, although so little that we do not notice it. 
 When water flows into a lake, the salt is carried with it. If there is 
 no outlet, the salt can go no further ; but each day some of the water 
 is changed to vapor and carried away in the air. As the bits of salt 
 cannot go off in this way, they remain, and increase in number, until, 
 in time, the water becomes so salt that we have a salt lake. 
 
 Most lakes have inlets and outlets; but some, having 
 no outlets, become salt. 
 
 The land at the margin of a river is called the lank, 
 but that along the margin of a lake is called the shore. 
 
56 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 FIG. 51, 
 A sandy beach oil a lake shore. 
 
 Sometimes the lake shore is low and wet, being over- 
 grown with swamp plants. Again, it is pleasant to walk 
 upon, being made of sand and pebbles brought there by 
 the waves. This kind of shore is called a beach (Fig. 51). 
 
 FIG. 52. 
 A view on Moosehead Lake in Maine. Learn what each of the names means. 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 57 
 
 Many lake shores are regular, but many more are irreg- 
 ular. In some places points of land, called headlands, ex- 
 tend into the water (Fig. 52). If small, these are called 
 points or capes; if large, peninsulas. A narrow neck 
 of land joining two larger pieces is an isthmus. Bodies of 
 land entirely surrounded by water are known as islands. 
 
 The water that is partly shut in between two headlands 
 is called a lay. When a bay has deep water, and is so 
 nearly surrounded by land that vessels can enter it and 
 be protected from the wind and waves, it is called a 
 harbor. A narrow strip of water connecting two larger 
 bodies of water is known as a strait. 
 
 FIG. 53. 
 
 How many of the features just mentioned can you find in this picture? Find 
 some also on Fig. 60. 
 
 "When the water gathers behind a dam to form a lake, it enters 
 many valleys, forming bays and harbors, with capes, and perhaps 
 islands between. This is the chief reason for the irregular shores 
 of many lakes. If yon will make a little valley in clay, with two or 
 three tributaries entering, then put a dam across it and fill it with 
 water, you will see just how this is done. 
 
 The shores of lakes are often irregular, producing 
 bodies of land and water of many shapes. 
 
58 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Ponds and lakes are useful in many of the same ways 
 as rivers. They help to keep the ground moist ; they 
 furnish water to cities, and they supply water to turn the 
 wheels of factories. Beside this, many valuable fish are 
 caught in lakes, and much ice is cut from their surface. 
 
 Again, like rivers, lakes are important waterways. 
 Upon large lakes, like the Great Lakes, hundreds of ves- 
 sels are going and coming, carrying men, grain, coal, lum- 
 ber, and countless other things. On this account many 
 people have settled on the shores of large lakes ; and, as a 
 result, many towns and cities have been built there. Do 
 you know of any ? 
 
 The shores of lakes are often very beautiful, and many persons go 
 to them in summer to hunt, fish, and canoe. There are hotels there, 
 too (Fig. 52), and some lakes are important summer resorts. 
 
 Lakes supply drinking water, waterpower, fish, and 
 ice. They are also useful for navigation and for summer 
 resorts. 
 
 How are vessels loaded with goods ? And again, how 
 can these cargoes be unloaded? Wagons may be driven 
 beside a railway car, and be filled or emptied speedily. 
 
 But a large 
 boat sinks 
 down many 
 feet into the 
 water (Fig- 
 54), so that if 
 it came near 
 the shore, it 
 might strike 
 FIG. 54. the bottom and 
 
 A picture to show how deep a vessel sinks in the water. be wrecked. 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 
 
 59 
 
 FIG. 55. 
 
 A small harbor on an island on the coast of 
 California. 
 
 Fortunately, here and there along the lake shore, there 
 are small bays with deep water. The opening is large 
 enough for 
 vessels to en- 
 ter easily, but 
 small enough 
 to keep out the 
 fierce waves. 
 Here we have 
 a fine harbor 
 (Fig. 55). 
 
 From the 
 shores of the 
 harbor men 
 
 build piers of wood or stone, called wharves. These reach 
 into the deeper water, where ships may be fastened or 
 moored to them. Wagons can be driven on to the wharves, 
 so that this forms a convenient and safe place for loading 
 and unloading vessels. Such a harbor often determines 
 the location of a city. 
 
 Large cities are sometimes found on parts of a lake shore where there 
 are no such natural harbors. In that case harbors have to be made, 
 even though it is expensive to do so. Walls of rock, or of posts driven 
 deep into the ground, are built in such a way as nearly to inclose a 
 body of water, very much as capes inclose the water of a natural harbor. 
 Such a wall is called a breakwater (Fig. 56), because it breaks the 
 force of the waves, and prevents them from entering the space behind. 
 
 When a harbor is not deep enough for vessels to enter, it is neces- 
 sary to dig out the dirt and rock from the bottom. This is quite 
 often done in the inlet and outlet streams at the ends of a lake. 
 
 Harbors are places where vessels find safety from 
 storms and where cargoes are loaded and unloaded 
 with ease. 
 
60 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 FIG. 56. 
 A breakwater built in a place where the coast has no natural harbor. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Why are dams built in rivers ? (2) Ex- 
 plain how ponds are made. (3) How do lakes differ from ponds? 
 (4) How are lakes made ? (5) Tell what you can about beaver 
 dams. (6) In what other ways may lake dams be made ? (7) What 
 is the inlet of a lake? The outlet? The head? The foot? (8) How 
 does it happen that some lakes have no outlet? (9) What about 
 the water then? Why? 
 
 (10) What is meant by shore? By beach? (11) What do you 
 understand by a regular lake shore? (12) Make a drawing of a 
 cape; peninsula; isthmus; island; bay; strait. (13) Tell in words 
 what each of these is. (14) What is the cause of these irregularities? 
 (15) Mention a few uses of ponds and lakes. (16) What is a harbor? 
 (17) Why must the water be deep? (18) How can a harbor protect 
 ships from storms ? (19) What is a wharf? (20) How are harbors 
 often made? (21) What is a breakwater? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Build a dam in some small stream and note 
 how rapidly the water collects. (2) Find out more about beavers. 
 
 (3) Look for a pond or lake and examine the darn that caused it. 
 
 (4) See if there are both an inlet and an outlet. (5) Walk up the 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 61 
 
 lake ; walk down the lake. (6) Examine the shore and notice the 
 different forms of land and water. (7) Find a small harbor. Would 
 every bay make a good harbor? (8) Make a small, irregular hollow 
 in clay and fill it with water to form capes, harbors, and islands. 
 (9) Find some of these in the pictures and maps of this book. 
 
 (10) How do men get ice from a lake ? (11) In what ways do men 
 catch fish? What kinds of fish have you seen caught? (12) Find 
 pictures of good harbors. Look for the wharves and the breakwater. 
 (13) Build a breakwater to form a little harbor in a small stream or 
 pond. (14) Find just how many feet some of our largest ships sink 
 into the water. 
 
 (15) Walk toward the nearest large lake. What are some of its 
 tributaries? Where is the inlet stream? The outlet? What are 
 their names? (16) Name some cities that are on lake harbors. 
 (17) Write a story telling what you would expect to see along a 
 lake shore. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 109. 
 
VII. THE OCEAN 
 
 THE great rivers, starting as tiny brooks, grow into 
 larger and still larger streams, until, after days and per- 
 haps weeks, they mingle their waters in the ocean. No 
 doubt much of the rain falling in your neighborhood 
 finally reaches the sea in this way ; and if you could float 
 along upon it in a light boat, in time you too would reach 
 
 FIG. 57. 
 
 A view of the great ocean. Notice the sailing vessel in the distance on the 
 right-hand side. 
 
 the ocean. How large is this body of water, and what 
 are some other interesting facts about it ? 
 
 We can see across most lakes, and can sail across even 
 the largest in a day or two ; but the ocean is far larger. 
 One could sail upon it in a straight line for weeks with- 
 out coming to any land (Fig. 57). It is so great that it 
 surrounds all the land on which people live, and no matter 
 in which direction you might travel, if you went far 
 enough you would come to it. 
 
 62 
 
THE OCEAN 63 
 
 If you were to start out to reach the ocean, the journey 
 might last many days. It might be necessary to go up 
 hills and across valleys, to pass around lakes, and possibly 
 over great ranges of mountains. You would be surprised 
 to find how much land there is, and how many farms, 
 villages, towns, and cities there are. 
 
 But there is far more water than land." In fact, the 
 water covers about three-fourths of the earth's surface and 
 the land only one-fourth. If one were to travel entirely 
 around the earth, he would probably spend much more 
 than one -half of his time upon the ocean. 
 
 The ocean is so immense that the great rivers in all parts of the 
 earth pour their water into it. Their mouths may be thousands of 
 miles apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to reach them all. 
 
 The water of the ocean is too salt to drink; but river water is 
 fresh. Since there are many thousands of rivers entering the sea, 
 would you not expect that their water would make the ocean less salt? 
 It does do so near the mouths of great rivers ; but soon it becomes 
 mixed and swallowed up in the salt water. This is another way of 
 showing the size of the ocean, for all the river water that enters it is 
 not enough to make ifc fresh. 
 
 The salt water of the ocean surrounds all the land. 
 
 Different parts of the ocean have different names. For 
 instance, the Atlantic Ocean is the part lying between the 
 United States and the land called Europe, where the 
 English, German, and other peoples live. We buy many 
 articles from these countries, such as woollen cloth, knives, 
 oranges, and olives; and they likewise purchase other 
 articles from us, such as wheat, cotton, and meat. The 
 way to reach these people is to cross the Atlantic Ocean. 
 The fastest steamers need five or six days for the voyage. 
 
 In all parts of the earth, the ocean is a great highway. It is so 
 large that thousands of ships are travelling upon it in all directions, 
 
64 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 carrying people, cattle, grain, fruit, iron, different kinds of machines, 
 and many other things. Although there are so many ships, the ocean 
 is so large that one ship may sail for days without seeing another. 
 
 Ocean navigation is therefore a great business, and many 
 thousands of men are engaged in it. Most of the ships 
 used are larger than the vessels upon lakes, and they sink 
 deeper into the water (Fig. 58). Very large ones, when 
 loaded, reach down about thirty feet below the surface. 
 
 FIG. 58. 
 
 A large ocean steamer, one that sails between the United States and Europe. 
 See how small the men appear. 
 
 Of course the ships meet with storms upon the ocean, as upon lakes. 
 In fact, the ocean waves are at times so high that they sweep over and 
 almost cover up the largest vessels (Fig. 59). 
 
 The coast of the ocean resembles the lake shore in hav- 
 ing capes, peninsulas, islands, isthmuses, straits, and bays 
 (Fig. 60). We have learned (pp. 19 and 32) that the 
 land in places has been raised or lowered. When it is 
 lowered near the seacoast, the water enters the valleys 
 
THE OCEAN 
 
 65 
 
 and partly drowns the land, as it does in lakes (p. 57). 
 This of course makes an irregular coast. 
 
 FIG. 59. 
 Ocean waves during a storm. 
 
 Naturally, on such an irregular coast there are harbors 
 which large vessels enter, and in which they are safe from 
 storms. For example, New York harbor is so broad and 
 deep that hundreds of ships (Fig. 61) are found in it at 
 all times, either loading or unloading their cargoes, or 
 waiting for storms to pass. 
 
 
 FIG. 60. 
 
 A picture of Castine harbor on the irregular coast of Maine. Here the land 
 has been lowered so that the salt water of the ocean has entered the val- 
 leys, covering their bottoms, but leaving the hill-tops as islands, capes, etc. 
 
66 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Goods are brought to New York, not only from Europe, but also 
 .from China and Australia, and in fact, from all parts of the world. It 
 is quite possible that the tea and coffee which are used on your 
 table, and the bananas and oranges which you have eaten, were 
 brought over the ocean and unloaded in this harbor. If not, they 
 were unloaded in some other fine harbor, such as Boston, San Fran- 
 cisco, or Philadelphia. 
 
 Since the ocean easily connects such harbors with all 
 parts of the world, it is natural that great cities should 
 
 FIG. 61. 
 
 A view among the ships along the wharves of New York Harbor. The great 
 Brooklyn Bridge is seen behind the masts. 
 
 spring up where the best ocean harbors are found. It is 
 partly on this account that New York, Philadelphia, Bos- 
 ton, and San Francisco have become such large cities. 
 
 Vessels come toward these seaports from all parts of the world ; 
 but it is often difficult to tell just where to enter the harbors, espe- 
 cially at night. Ships are in danger of going out of the way, and of 
 running upon rocks, or reefs, in the shallow water near the coast 
 (Fig. 62). On that account, tall lighthouses are built on many 
 
THE OCEAN 
 
 67 
 
 Fio. 62. 
 A vessel wrecked by running aground upon a shallow reef. 
 
 islands and capes, so that captains may know by their lights which 
 way to go in order to enter the harbors (Fig. 63). 
 
 The ocean is a great watemvay, connecting different 
 parts of the world. 
 
 Not only are goods carried on vessels, but many men go out in 
 them, often out of sight of land, in order to catch the fish which 
 live in such great numbers in the sea. Instead of hooks and lines, 
 long nets are often used, and in them so many fish are caught that 
 
 A lighthouse on a rocky point. 
 
 tower so that it may be seen far away. 
 
 FIG. 03. 
 A bright light is placed at the top of the 
 
68 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the vessel is loaded down with them. No doubt some of the mackerel 
 that you have eaten have been caught in this way. Picture 67, p. 73, 
 shows a vessel that is used to catch ocean fish. 
 
 In summer the ocean shore is cooler than the land far- 
 away from the sea. This is because the air is cooled as 
 it passes over the water. Many people therefore go to 
 the seashore to avoid the hot weather, just as others go 
 to the mountains. Here they spend day after day climb- 
 ing about over the rocks or walking upon the clean, 
 
 FIG. 04. 
 
 Old Orchard Beach on the New England coast. Notice the large numher of 
 summer visitors strolling over the cool, hard beach, or bathing in the 
 shallow water. 
 
 sandy beach, breathing the fresh air, enjoying the beauti- 
 ful scenery, and bathing in the cool salt water (Fig. 64). 
 
 ,On this account many houses, and even towns, have been built at 
 those places along the seashore where people wish to spend their vaca- 
 tions. There are large hotels to accommodate the visitors; and in 
 the summer these places are crowded ; but very few people remain at 
 the summer resorts during the winter. 
 
 There is another way in which the ocean is even more 
 useful to man. It is the sea-water which supplies us 
 
THE OCEAN 
 
 69 
 
 with moisture, so that there can be rain. If it were not 
 for the great ocean, very little rain would fall. So every 
 one is deeply indebted to the ocean, even though he may 
 live thousands of miles from it. Soon you will learn 
 (p. 74) how its water reaches us in the form of rain. 
 
 The seashore is a popular summer resort; the ocean 
 water supplies food and makes rain possible. 
 
 Rivers, lakes, and the ocean present many beautiful views. You 
 may have observed that in cities, where people plan for fine parks, 
 they arrange, if possi- 
 ble, to have a lake or 
 stream as part of the 
 scenery. A body of 
 water, even if but a 
 brook, greatly im- 
 proves a view. 
 
 A brook is a beau- 
 tiful object (Fig. 65). 
 How pleasant to see 
 its green banks, to 
 listen to its rippling 
 waters, and to watch 
 
 its tiny rapids, whirl- 
 pools, and falls, as it 
 travels onward to the 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 A quaint New England bridge across a beautiful 
 
 brook, 
 ocean ! 
 
 Rivers are not less attractive ; like the brooks, their rushing waters 
 seem to tell a story, and one loves to linger by them, to listen and to 
 look. At times, when swollen by floods, they are wild and savage ; 
 again they are quiet, peaceful, and beautiful. They wind in and 
 out among the steep and wooded hills ; now they flow along noise- 
 lessly, then they rush over rapids and falls with a roar ; here their 
 banks are low and green, there they are high, steep, and rocky. 
 
 The lakes and the ocean are sparkling sheets of silvery water, often 
 dotted here and there with white sails. Sometimes the color is green, 
 again it is blue ; and when the clouds hang over it, it is dark and 
 
70 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 gloomy. There are beautiful sunrises and sunsets to watch; and 
 one can see the storms come and go, with the waves dashing into 
 the whitest of foam. In fact, the water, the sky, and the coast are 
 always changing in appearance, so that the lake shore and the sea- 
 shore are among the most attractive of places. 
 
 TJie land and the water together furnish many beau- 
 tiful views. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What place does the water of brooks 
 and rivers finally reach ? (2) How much of the earth's surface is water ? 
 (3) What other facts show that the ocean is very large ? (4) Tell 
 about ocean navigation. (5) What is the cause for irregular ocean 
 shores ? (6) Tell what you can about New York harbor. (7) Why 
 are large cities found on the fine ocean harbors ? (8) Of what use 
 are lighthouses? (9) Name some foods obtained from the ocean. 
 (10) Why do many people go to the seashore in summer ? 
 
 (11) Do you know of any park or meadow with a stream or lake 
 in it? If so, describe it. (12) Did you ever enjoy watching the 
 water? Where was it? (13) How does the surface of a lake or 
 ocean change at different times? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) In what direction would you go to reach the 
 ocean? How far is it? (2) Find pictures of large harbors with 
 ships in them. (3) Name several seaport cities. (4) Have some one 
 tell you about a journey across the ocean. (5) Name as many arti- 
 cles as you can that come from over the ocean. (6) How does the 
 captain of a vessel know in what direction he is going, after losing 
 sight of land ? (7) How are s-hips made to move through the water? 
 (8) What use is made of whales? (9) Find out how fish are caught. 
 (10) Ask some one who has visited a summer resort on the seashore 
 to tell you about it. (11) Is there any brook or river that you enjoy 
 visiting? Where is it most beautiful? (12) Tell about some of the 
 storms on the ocean described in Robinson Crusoe. (13) Do you 
 know of any views that are made more beautiful by the presence 
 of water? If so, where are they? Describe them. (14) Collect, 
 from magazines, pictures of beautiful views with water in them. 
 (15) Write a story, telling what you would expect to see in crossing 
 the ocean. (16) Make a drawing of a ship. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 109, 
 
VIII. THE AIR 
 
 SINCE air cannot be seen, people often forget that it 
 really is something ; but a fire will not burn without it, 
 and plants, animals, and men must have it to breathe. In 
 fact, drowning means nothing more than sinking under 
 water, where there is not enough air to breathe. 
 
 This is proof that the air is really something, even 
 though it cannot be seen ; and you can prove the same 
 thing in other ways. For instance, if you stand with 
 your face to a breeze, you feel the air moving. Some- 
 times this movement of the air, which we call wind, is so 
 rapid that it blows down trees and houses. 
 
 Here is an experiment to prove that the air is something and that 
 it fills space. 
 
 Find an empty bottle without a cork and sink it in water with the 
 open end up. Notice the gurgling noise as the bubbles of air rise to 
 the surface, while the bottle slowly fills. Where does this air come 
 from ? And why does not the bottle fill more quickly ? You see that 
 although we called the bottle empty, it was really filled with air which 
 could not be seen. The water could not enter the bottle until it pushed 
 the air out, because the bottle could not be filled with two substances 
 at the same time. So, as the air was leaving, the water was entering. 
 
 If the bottle is turned bottom upward, and pushed perfectly straight 
 into water, the air will be given no chance to slip out, and then the 
 bottle cannot be filled with water. 
 
 Air is something real and occupies space. 
 
 There is air all around the earth, and it extends many 
 miles above us. This air, often called the atmosphere, is 
 
 71 
 
72 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 usually in motion, now in one direction, now in another, 
 and it often moves fast enough to cause a breeze, or wind. 
 
 Even when the wind is not blowing near the ground, it may be 
 doing so far above, where the clouds are. You can see that this is 
 so, if you watch the clouds as they are driven along by the winds. 
 
 Let us see what causes the air to move. Heat has 
 much to do with it. If you watch smoke in a room where 
 
 there is a lighted 
 lamp, you will see 
 that it moves toward 
 the lamp, and then 
 rises above it (Fig. 
 66). Hot air also 
 rises above a stove, 
 or above a furnace 
 through the regis- 
 ters ; and during the 
 winter, when there 
 is a hot fire, the air 
 near the ceiling of 
 a room is much 
 warmer than that 
 near the floor. 
 
 FIG. 66. 
 
 The smoke of a cigar rising from the table above 
 the lighted lamp. 
 
 The reason for all this is, that when air is warmed, it 
 is expanded and made lighter. Light objects, such as 
 wood, will rise and float in water. So, also, when air is 
 warmed and made light near a lamp, the cooler, heavy air 
 all around flows toward the lamp and the warm air is 
 forced to rise. It is, in fact, pushed up by the current of 
 heavy, cool air. 
 
 Now we can understand the cause of winds. The at- 
 
THE AIR 
 
 73 
 
 mospliere in one place, perhaps to the north of you, is 
 colder than that where you are. This cold air, being denser 
 and heavier than the warm air, begins to push it away, 
 and thus moves toward you, forming a cold north wind. 
 
 People on the sea or lake shore often have such winds in summer, 
 when, during a hot day, the air over the land becomes heated, while 
 that over the water remains cool. The cool air then commences to 
 move landward, and a cool sea breeze begins to blow. 
 
 Whenever the air is heavy in one place, and light in 
 another, winds will blow toward the place where it is 
 light. Since this lightness of the air is usually caused by 
 heat, we say that 
 
 Most winds are caused by differences in the tempera- 
 ture of the air. 
 
 Winds are useful in many ways, 
 vessels through 
 the water, and 
 they turn wind- 
 mills (Fig. 68), 
 which are often 
 used to pump 
 water from wells. 
 But what is most 
 important, they 
 carry water all 
 over the earth. 
 At all times 
 there is enough 
 water in the at- 
 mosphere to fill 
 many large lakes. 
 
 They drive sailing 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 A sailing vessel driven through the water by the 
 wind. This is a fishing schooner going out of the 
 harbor of Gloucester, Massachusetts, after a load 
 of fish. 
 
74 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 You know that there must be some water in the air, for 
 wet clothes hung out on a line become dry as the water 
 passes off into the air. 
 
 Some of the water in the atmosphere enters 
 it after every rainstorm, when the muddy 
 roads and wet fields are drying ; but most of 
 it comes from rivers, lakes, and the ocean. 
 We have already learned (p. 63) that the 
 ocean covers about three-fourths of the sur- 
 face of the earth. The air is taking water 
 from all parts of it, so that each minute 
 enough water to fill thousands and thousands 
 of barrels is leaving the ocean and floating 
 away in the atmosphere. 
 Another reason why we know that there must be much 
 water in the air, is that much comes out of it in the form 
 of rain, snow, hail, dew, and frost. 
 
 The air takes up water from one place and holds it, per- 
 haps for many days, during which time the winds may 
 have carried it hundreds of miles ; it may then be allowed 
 to fall. Thus it is by the help of the wind that rocks are 
 wet and caused to change to soil, plants are made to grow, 
 rivers are furnished with water, and animals and people 
 are given water to drink. 
 
 Persons living where there is plenty of rain perhaps do 
 not realize how important it is ; but there are some parts 
 of the earth where the air is so dry that very little rain 
 can fall from it. In these places, called deserts (Fig. 69), 
 only a few kinds of plants and animals can live, while men 
 generally avoid them. 
 
 The air takes water from the ocean, and the winds 
 carry it about, 
 
THE AIR 
 
 75 
 
 What causes water to rise into the air ? And why can 
 we not see it there ? If you watch a boiling kettle, you 
 will see that " steam " rises from it. In a short time all 
 the water will be boiled out of the kettle, passing into the 
 air, where you can no longer see it. 
 
 The water in the kettle was a liquid, which could be seen ; 
 but heat has changed it to a gas, which, like air, is colorless 
 and cannot be seen. Then, too, it is so light that it floats 
 
 Fio. 09. 
 
 Camels crossing the desert. Notice how barren it is. 
 
 round in the air. This water gas is called water vapor, and 
 the change from liquid water to vapor is called evaporation. 
 
 It is not necessary to boil water to make it evaporate ; 
 for all over the earth, where there is water, vapor is rising 
 from it into the air. You can prove this for yourself by 
 placing a pan of water on a table and leaving it for some 
 days, and then noticing how much of it has evaporated. 
 It is in this way that the great amount of water, which 
 every moment is rising from the ocean, is able to pass 
 into the atmosphere. 
 
 Water vapor is obtained by evaporation. 
 
76 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 When it falls from the sky as rain, the water vapor has 
 changed back to liquid water. What causes it to do 
 this? 
 
 Have you ever noticed a glass or pitcher of ice water 
 "sweat" on a hot summer day (Fig. 70)? The water 
 that collects on the glass has not leaked through, for there 
 are no holes in the glass. What has really happened is 
 that the air near the dish has 
 been cooled so that the vapor has 
 collected in drops on the cold sur- 
 face of the glass. Drops would 
 gather there just the same, even if 
 no water were in the glass, pro- 
 vided the surface remained just as 
 cold. 
 
 On wash day, when a great 
 deal of water vapor rises from the 
 boiler, the windows are often cov- 
 ered with drops of water, because 
 the vapor has been changed back 
 to liquid, or condensed, on the cold 
 window pane. Your own breath 
 contains vapor, and you can change 
 it to water by breathing on a cold 
 window pane. So you see that if 
 air loaded with vapor is cooled, some of the vapor gas is 
 changed back to water. 
 
 There are several ways in which air may be cooled. 
 You know that mountains are colder than the lower 
 lands (p. 20) ; so that winds blowing over them are often 
 chilled, and their vapor condensed. It is evident from 
 this that mountains are an important help in causing rain. 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 Little drops of water con- 
 densed from the vapor of 
 the air on the outside of 
 a glass of cold water. 
 
THE AIR 
 
 77 
 
 Vapor may also be condensed when a cold wind blows 
 against a warm one. Again, during summer the sun may 
 shine down so hot that the air near the earth becomes 
 warm. This makes it so light that it often rises high into 
 the sky, where the air is so cold that the vapor condenses 
 into rain. The summer thunder showers, which often 
 come on hot afternoons, are caused in this way. 
 
 Yapor is condensed l>y the cooling of the air. 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 Clouds formed upon the mountain sides because the air has been chilled. 
 
 There are several different forms of condensed vapor. 
 When you breathe into the air on a cold, frosty morning, 
 your breath forms a little fog or cloud. The cold air has 
 made the vapor change to tiny particles of water, so small 
 that you cannot see a single one, though many of them 
 together make a thin mist. You have no doubt seen fogs 
 in A r alleys, on lakes, or over the ocean. These are always 
 made of tiny drops of water condensed from vapor in 
 the air. 
 
 Most clouds are also made of tiny fog and mist parti- 
 cles. These, too, are caused by the cooling of the air, 
 
78 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 sometimes when it moves against mountain slopes (Fig. 
 71), sometimes when cold winds blow against warm ones, 
 and sometimes when warm air rises high in the heavens 
 
 and becomes cool (Fig. 
 72). 
 
 Another form of con- 
 densed vapor is the rain- 
 drop which falls from 
 the clouds. These drops 
 begin as tiny mist or 
 fog particles, and then, 
 becoming larger and 
 
 larger, grow so heavy 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 
 A summer cloud, often called a "thun- 
 der head," formed by the rising of that they can no longer 
 
 warm air to such a height that the fl oat ^ut must fall to the 
 vapor is condensed. 
 
 ground. 
 
 We have seen that water may be either a liquid or a 
 gas. There is still another form, the solid, which is pro- 
 duced when vapor con- 
 denses in a temperature 
 below 32, or the freezing 
 point. Then snow or hail 
 is formed instead of rain 
 (Fig. 73). 
 
 At night, drops of water 
 often collect on the cold 
 ground, on grass and 
 leaves, somewhat as it does 
 on an ice pitcher or the 
 window pane. This is dew, which gathers because the 
 ground cools quickly after the sun sets, so that the warm, 
 vapor-laden air is chilled until the vapor is condensed. 
 
 FIG. 73. 
 
 Photographs of snowflakes. Some- 
 time, when light, feathery snow is 
 falling, notice what beautiful forms 
 it takes. 
 
THE AIR 79 
 
 If the temperature is below the freezing-point, frost is 
 formed instead. 
 
 You will notice that raindrops, fog particles, and snow- 
 flakes form in the air, while dew gathers on grass and the 
 drops of water on window panes. Keally the raindrops 
 and fog particles also gather on solid substances ; for 
 there are many tiny, solid particles of dust floating in the 
 air, which you can often see dancing in a beam of sun- 
 light, and it is around these that the rain, fog, and snow 
 form. 
 
 It is condensed vapor that forms fojj>, mist, rain, 
 snow, hail, dew, and frost. 
 
 Usually winds from certain directions, as from the 
 ocean, are liable to bring rain, while others indicate fair 
 weather. By keeping a daily record of the direction of 
 the wind, and of the kind of weather it brings, you will 
 be able to find out for yourself which of your winds 
 cause fair weather and which rainy. You might also 
 look at the thermometer at the same time and note the 
 temperature. By these means you can learn something 
 about the weather around your home. A record of this 
 kind, which would be called a weather record, might be 
 kept somewhat as follows: * 
 
 DATE AND TIME OF DAY. 
 
 DIRECTION OF WIND. 
 
 KIND OF WEATHEK. 
 
 TEMP. 
 
 Aug. 17, 1899, 8 A.M. 
 Aug. 17, 1899, 8 P.M. 
 Aug. 18, 1899, 8 A.M. 
 
 Southeast. 
 Calm. 
 West. 
 
 Cloudy. 
 Gentle Rain. 
 Clear. 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 68 
 
 1 If it is practicable, the teacher should at this point introduce an ele- 
 mentary study of weather maps and have the pupils read them each day. 
 
80 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Of what use is air? (2) How can you 
 prove that air is something ? (3) Describe the experiments with 
 the bottle. (4) What do they prove? (5) What are winds? 
 (6) Prove that there are winds high above the ground. (7) Why 
 does the air rise over a lighted lamp ? (8) What causes winds ? (9) In 
 what ways are winds useful? (10) How can you prove that there 
 is water in the air? (11) Where does most of it come from? 
 (12) What do the winds do with this water ? (13) Of what service 
 is the rain ? (14) What becomes of water as it boils ? (15) What is 
 water vapor? (16) What is evaporation ? 
 
 (17) What happens to vapor when cooled? (18) Tell some 
 ways in which you can see condensed vapor. (19) In what ways can 
 the vapor in the air be condensed? (20) Why can you "see your 
 breath " on cold mornings? (21) How are clouds formed? (22) How 
 cold must it be to form snow ? (23) How is dew caused ? Frost ? 
 (24) Of what importance are the dust particles in the air? (25) Tell 
 how you would keep a weather record. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Why are stoves made so as to let in air for the 
 fire? (2) What becomes of the air after it enters? (3) How does 
 air reach the wick of a lamp ? (4) Try a common drinking glass, 
 instead of a bottle, to show that air takes up space. (5) Heat some 
 muddy water and watch its movement. (6) W T hy does smoke go up, 
 and not down, the chimney? (7) Show how a hot stove causes a 
 movement, or circulation, of the air in a room. (8) Find out how 
 your schoolhouse is ventilated. (9) How many examples can you 
 give of evaporation of water ? (10) Cool a piece of glass or iron and 
 notice the vapor condense upon it, when the air is "muggy" or when 
 steam is passing into the air. (11) Why do clouds frequently sur- 
 round mountain tops ? (12) See how early in the evening the dew 
 begins to collect upon the ground. (13) What causes fogs to dis- 
 appear? (14) W r hich winds usually bring rain to you? (15) How 
 far have they probably carried the vapor ? How long would it take 
 them to do this, if they travelled at the rate of eight miles per hour ? 
 (16) Write a story, giving the history of a raindrop. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 109. 
 
IX. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 EVERY man is expected to engage in some kind of 
 work, or industry, in order to earn a living. For instance, 
 farmers raise stock and grain, while gardeners produce 
 vegetables and fruit. The crops they raise vary with 
 the locality. 
 
 Some men, instead of working in the soil, are engaged 
 in manufacturing such articles as shoes, cloth, and ma- 
 terials used in building and furnishing houses. Are 
 there any of these men in your vicinity ? If so, what do 
 they make ? You can at least find a blacksmith shop, or 
 a tin shop, or a house that is being built. Notice how 
 many different materials are used by the workmen. 
 
 Storekeepers do neither of these two kinds of work. 
 What, then, do they do ? Notice how many articles the 
 grocer keeps in his store, also the dry-goods merchant, 
 and others whose stores you visit. Where do they get 
 them all ? 
 
 At the present time it is eas} r , where most of us live, to 
 buy almost anything, and to find men who can do almost 
 any kind of work. We are so accustomed to all this 
 that we are apt to forget that it has not always been so. 
 
 Not many hundred years ago there were no stores or 
 houses in this country ; and each family, as it settled 
 here, was obliged to find its own food, make its own 
 clothing, and build its own house. 
 G 81 
 
82 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Let us study more fully how people lived in those days, 
 and how changes have gradually been made until the 
 present manner of living was reached. 
 
 The first persons who left Europe, and crossed the 
 Atlantic Ocean to live in this country, naturally settled 
 along the coast, because that was the first place reached. 
 
 But soon men began to push into the wilderness 
 further west. Often several families settled together, 
 miles away from other people. Sometimes a single 
 family would go off alone, and make a home ten or 
 twelve miles from the nearest neighbor. Most of the 
 United States was first settled by these scattered pioneer 
 families. 
 
 Of course when a man started out he took some articles 
 with him, as a gun, with powder and bullets, some cloth- 
 ing, and some blankets ; but upon arriving at his new 
 
 home he was obliged, 
 like Robinson Crusoe, 
 to rely upon himself. 
 
 In 1816, when Abraham 
 Lincoln was seven years of 
 age, his father moved to 
 Indiana. He had to cut 
 down trees in order to make 
 room for a house, which he 
 built of logs with mud be- 
 tween the cracks (Fig. 74). 
 It had no floor except the 
 earth, and only one room. Abraham slept in the loft, climbing up 
 each night by pegs fastened in the logs. The beds were some posts 
 driven into the ground with cross-pieces ; the chairs were three-legged 
 stools, and the table was a part of a log supported upon four legs. 
 When a young boy, Abraham wore trousers of deerskin, and when 
 he was not barefooted he probably used moccasins for shoes. 
 
 FIG. 74. 
 
 A log house, such as the pioneers used to 
 build in the forests. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 83 
 
 His father raised enough corn for corn bread ; their tea was often 
 made from roots in the forest, and meat was obtained by shooting 
 wild game. Abraham was very fond of books ; but at night he read 
 by the light of burning wood, for he had no candle or lamp. He 
 wrote with ink made from brier-root, and with a pen made from the 
 quill of a large feather. Almost everything that the family used was 
 raised or made by the father and mother, so that they had to do 
 many kinds of work. 
 
 Other pioneers lived in much the same manner. Usu- 
 ally they raised their grain and wheat for bread. They 
 kept sheep and made the wool into yarn, blankets, and 
 cloth. If a boy needed a new suit of clothes, his mother 
 would make the cloth, cut it, and sew it. They were 
 obliged to do nearly everything for themselves. 
 
 As a rule, each man raised more of some things than 
 his own family could use, as wheat, wool, or hogs ; but 
 there were others that he had to buy, as powder, sugar, 
 salt, pepper, and coffee. 
 
 It was the custom, therefore, to drive two or three times 
 a year to the nearest large town, perhaps a hundred miles 
 away, taking the products of the farm and exchanging 
 them for necessary articles. 
 
 These trips had to be few, for the roads were often 
 rough, muddy, and dangerous. It might require two 
 weeks or more to haul a load of grain to town and bring 
 back the coffee and other materials the family wanted. 
 In parts of the world, where there are few settlers, people 
 are still living in this manner. 
 
 But one family did not usually live long alone, for soon 
 others came and settled near them. Perhaps several built 
 their houses near together, forming a little village. 
 
 Now that there were more people, the kind of work 
 
84 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 that each did began to change. Perhaps one of them 
 built a saw-mill, and sawed lumber for the others when 
 they needed it. Another spent part of his time at car- 
 pentry work for his neighbors. A third built a grist-mill, 
 and occasionally ground grain into flour. A fourth made 
 shoes, or clothes, a part of his time, or he doctored the 
 sick, or preached, or taught school. 
 
 Perhaps the blacksmith spent all of his time in his shop, shoeing 
 horses, making ploughs, etc., while the storekeeper did nothing but 
 buy and sell goods. He went to the city and bought the supplies that 
 he thought his neighbors would need, such as matches, boots, shovels, 
 calico, and drugs, and these he kept in his store for sale. 
 
 It was not then necessary for the farmer to go to the 
 distant town, because he could usually find what he wanted 
 at the store ; and if he raised more potatoes than he needed, 
 he could take them to the storekeeper and get coffee in 
 return. Or he would receive money for them, and with 
 this pay the blacksmith who had shod his horses, or the 
 doctor, or teacher. In many of the less settled parts of 
 the country this is the way people are still living. 
 
 Each year more people took up land, until most of it 
 was carefully cultivated, and towns and cities grew up 
 (Fig. 75). Then they began to live in the way that is 
 now so common. That is, each man now confines himself 
 to one or a very few kinds of work, and depends upon other 
 men for the other things that he needs. Those who live 
 in the country are chiefly farmers, and raise the food that 
 we eat. Others work in mines, digging coal, iron, lead, 
 copper, silver, or gold out of the ground. 
 
 Many, instead of raising crops or working in mines, are 
 employed in mills and factories. One saws logs into 
 lumber, or makes doors ; another manufactures cloth, 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 85 
 
 another needles, another shoes. Others follow the indus- 
 try of tailoring-, tanning hides for leather, making clocks, 
 etc. 
 
 Still others are engaged in a third kind of work. They 
 do nothing but buy and sell such articles, and among these 
 
 are all the merchants , , 
 
 that we see in the 
 stores. 
 
 Under these conditions 
 the work that one man 
 does is not only of one 
 kind, but it may be of a 
 very narrow kind. For 
 example, a man may do 
 nothing but drive a team. 
 Or he may make shingles, 
 or drive nails, or tie jip 
 sacks of flour, or put in 
 the heads of barrels. How 
 different this is from the 
 work of the pioneers ! 
 
 As a rule, each 
 town or city is spe- 
 cially interested in 
 one or a few kinds of 
 business. For exam- 
 ple, a town surrounded by extensive woods is liable to 
 have an important lumbering industry. Another, in the 
 midst of mountains, may make mining its especial work ; 
 or another, near great wheat-fields, may have immense flour 
 mills. 
 
 Thus each town, like each man, is apt to be interested 
 in the production of few things ; what they raise or man- 
 
 FIG. 75. 
 
 The city of Rochester, in New York, has grown 
 up near these beautiful falls on the Gen- 
 esee River. Some of the factories that use 
 the water power are seen in the picture. 
 
86 
 
 HOME GEOGEAPHY 
 
 ufacture is sent away in all directions, and the other arti- 
 cles, that the people in the town want, are brought to them 
 from the many places in which they are produced. Find 
 out what is made in your own town, and some of the 
 substances that are brought to it. 
 
 When people are so dependent upon others for most of 
 the materials that they use, it is clear that roadways be-' 
 come of great importance. For if the best wheat for flour 
 is raised in Dakota, if the best shoes and cloth are made 
 in New England, and if the thousand other things that 
 we must have are produced in a thousand other places, 
 what good will they do us if they cannot be brought to us ? 
 The pioneers had no roads at first. When Lincoln's 
 father moved to Indiana, he settled fifteen miles north of 
 
 the Ohio River. 
 There was no 
 road from his 
 place, and one 
 of the hardest 
 pieces of work he 
 ever did was to 
 cut one through 
 the dense for- 
 ests. 
 
 One of the 
 early customs 
 was to follow a 
 trail, or narrow path, and, instead of using a wagon, to 
 carry goods strapped upon one's own back, or else upon 
 horses or mules. A number of horses carrying packs 
 formed a pack train (Fig. 76). Pack trains are still com- 
 mon in some places. 
 
 FIG. 76. 
 
 A pack train, on a mountain road, carrying supplies 
 to a mine on the mountain side. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 87 
 
 Later, when roads were more common, they were often 
 rough and muddy ; and as there were few bridges, streams 
 often had to be waded or forded. 
 
 A great deal of labor has been spent in making good 
 roads. Not only must trees be cut down and stumps and 
 stones be re- 
 moved, but 
 steep places 
 must often be 
 levelled. 
 Bridges are al- 
 so necessary, 
 and much work 
 must be done 
 to keep the 
 roads in re- 
 pair. In some 
 places where 
 there is much 
 
 travel, as in eastern Massachusetts, great sums of money 
 are spent in making excellent roads. 
 
 There is so much carting in cities that their streets 
 must be paved. Bricks are often used ; or stones larger 
 than bricks are laid down side by side ; and in many 
 cities, asphalt pavements are common. What kind of 
 streets have you seen, and how were they built ? 
 
 We have already (p. 50) considered the importance 
 of rivers as roadways. When Abraham Lincoln was a 
 young man, it was the custom to carry goods from his 
 section of the country down the Ohio and Mississippi 
 rivers, all the way to New Orleans. These rivers were, 
 in fact, the only good roadways to that great city. The 
 
 FIG. 77. 
 
 A long freight train, on the Northern Pacific Railway, 
 crossing the Rocky Mountains. There is another 
 engine in the middle of the train and a third on the 
 rear end. 
 
88 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 goods were shipped upon flat-boats, and Lincoln himself 
 made two such journeys. 
 
 But railways are, in many respects, the best roads. 
 Even with the finest of wagon roads, people and goods 
 cannot usually be carried more than twenty to forty miles 
 in a day. Boats are somewhat faster ; but railway trains 
 travel from four hundred to a thousand miles per day, 
 and they take both passengers and freight much more 
 cheaply than they can be carried in wagons. 
 
 FIG. 78. 
 A view in a freight depot at St. Paul, Minnesota. 
 
 As we ourselves travel on passenger trains, we are in- 
 clined to think that the chief business of railways is to 
 carry people ; but this is not generally the case. Their 
 main business is to carry freight, such as grain, cattle, 
 groceries, and machinery ; and by doing this they have 
 had a great influence upon the development of the 
 country. 
 
 For example, a few years ago it would have done little 
 good to raise sheep, wheat, and fruit in the far west, be- 
 cause they could not be sent to the great cities to be sold ; 
 but as soon as railways were built, these industries, and 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 89 
 
 many others, have become 
 of great importance. 
 There is therefore much 
 more buying, selling, and 
 carrying that is, much 
 more commerce than be- 
 fore the railways were 
 built. 
 
 Letters, newspapers, 
 and express packages are 
 now carried very rapidly 
 on the trains. Formerly they were sent in stage coaches 
 or on horseback; but now many passenger trains have 
 one or two cars used for these purposes alone. 
 
 FIG. 79. 
 A freight yard with many freight cars. 
 
 FIG. 80. 
 A view in New York harbor showing the vessels coming and going. 
 
 It is clear that good roadways, whether made of soil, 
 water, or iron, are a great help to trade. In fact, without 
 them there could be very little commerce. The wagon 
 
90 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 roads in the country and city are of great value in carry- 
 ing goods for short distances as, for instance, to the river 
 wharf or the railway station. Then boats and trains are 
 used to carry them further. 
 
 Not only is there commerce on the land, but, as we have 
 already seen (p. 63), thousands of vessels are engaged in 
 carrying freight on the ocean. They are constantly pass- 
 ing up and down the coast of the United States, going 
 from one city to another (Fig. 80) with loads of cloth, 
 iron, grain, lumber, and hundreds of other articles. 
 
 Vessels are also going and coming at all times between 
 the United States and foreign countries, bringing materials 
 which we need and taking back some of our products. 
 This is known as foreign commerce. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What do merchants do? (2) Who are 
 pioneers? (3) Describe the house in which Abraham Lincoln lived 
 when a boy. (4) Mention some of the different kinds of work that 
 his father and mother had to do. (5) Tell about the trips to the 
 nearest large town. 
 
 (6) How did the work of each man change when the people began 
 to live in villages? (7) Give some examples. (8) What would you 
 expect to see in a general store? (9) Make a list of articles that 
 are manufactured. (10) Name several industries. (11) How has 
 the work of each man changed as great numbers of them have settled 
 together ? (12) In what ways have men become dependent upon one 
 another ? Give examples. 
 
 (13) Show that roads are of great importance. (14) What kind 
 of roads did the early pioneers have ? (15) How did they cross the 
 streams ? (16) Why must streets in cities be paved ? (17) In what 
 respects are railways better than other roads ? (18) Tell how rail- 
 ways have helped to develop our country. (19) What is meant by 
 commerce? (20) By foreign commerce ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Make a list of the crops grown in your neigh- 
 borhood. How is the work done ? (2) Do the same for manufactured 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 91 
 
 articles. (3) Have you read the life of Daniel Boone, the pioneer? 
 (4) What were some of the things Robinson Crusoe had to do for him- 
 self? (5) Write a story describing an early pioneer's journey to the 
 nearest large town. (6) Read more about the boyhood of Abraham 
 Lincoln. 
 
 (7) Visit a general store in the country. (8) Visit a factory, a 
 blacksmith shop, or a mill. Describe the visit. (9) Make a list of 
 articles that you use which were probably brought from a distance on 
 the railroad or on water. (10) Find out where some of them came 
 from. (11) What is meant by a ford? The last syllable in the name 
 of a great many towns is ford, as Hartford, Stamford, and Rockford ; 
 what does that suggest to you? (12) Visit a street where pavement 
 is being laid. (13) Have improvements been made in any river near 
 you? 
 
 (14) What freight goods have you seen carried on the nearest rail- 
 way? (15) Visit a freight house to see what is inside. (16) Find 
 out where the boxes, etc., come from. (17) Count the number of 
 freight cars and of passenger cars that run over the railway during 
 one day. (18) Name as many substances as you can that come from 
 over the ocean. (19) Write a story giving the history of the mate- 
 rial of your dress or coat. Of your shoes. (20) Find out some facts 
 about bananas as, for instance, where they are grown and how they 
 are brought to you. Do the same for coffee, tea, sugar, and other 
 articles of food. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 110. 
 
X. GOVERNMENT 
 
 EVERY boy and girl has heard men talk about voting, 
 and has noticed how interested they often become as 
 election time approaches. 
 
 But do you know what voting is for ? Do you know 
 why the day for voting is called election day? Find out 
 what you can about voting and election. 
 
 Laws and officers are frequently mentioned when men 
 are talking about election. Can you name some laws ; 
 and do you know any officers ? You have certainly seen 
 a policeman : what does he do ? You have heard of 
 judges, and of the President : can you state anything 
 about them ? Can you mention any other officers ? 
 
 In our study of commerce we saw that it required a 
 long time to reach our present way of living and carrying 
 on trade. So it is with our government. At present we 
 have many laws and officers, while long ago there were 
 very few of each. Let us see why this is so. 
 
 The farmer manages his farm nearly as he pleases. He 
 puts up fences, sells his grain, or feeds it to stock, as seems 
 to him best ; and when repairs are needed, he looks after 
 them himself. The miller builds a large or small mill, 
 uses old or new machinery, grinds much or little corn, and 
 makes repairs, as he chooses. In each case, one man owns 
 and uses the property. 
 
 But there are some things that no one man owns and 
 that all wish to use. This is .true, for instance, of roads. 
 
 92 
 
GOVERN MEN T 93 
 
 All people drive or walk over them, yet they belong to no 
 one person. Who, then, should build roads in the first 
 place, and who should make necessary repairs on them ? 
 
 This was one of the first questions that the pioneers of 
 New England had to answer. The best way they saw of 
 doing it, was for those who used the roads in a small 
 section to meet together and decide, or vote, as to what 
 should be done. That is, they made rules or laws about 
 the roads; then they elected men who should make it a 
 part of their business to see that the roads were built, and 
 that repairs were made, according to these laws. Such 
 men were known as officers. 
 
 Schools also are not owned by one person, and yet many wish to 
 use them. Large yards, good buildings, and good teachers are all de-. 
 sirable; but who should provide for them? The pioneers of New 
 England settled this matter also by voting and by electing officers to see 
 that the schools were properly managed. 
 
 Many other important matters were attended to in much the same 
 manner. For example, there are usually some persons in every com- 
 munity who are liable to take things that do not belong to them, or 
 who are noisy and quarrelsome. The pioneers passed laws in regard 
 to such offenders and elected officers, called constables, to arrest them 
 when necessary. 
 
 Thus far we have been considering only matters which 
 could be settled by a small group of people living near 
 together in a village or small town (Fig. 81). But there 
 are some matters that cannot be settled in this manner, 
 because other people, living far away, are also interested 
 in them. 
 
 For example, the managers of a railway company may 
 charge too much for passengers and freight. In such 
 cases laws may need to be passed, compelling them to 
 charge reasonable rates. But as these railways are scores, 
 
94 HONE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 or even hundreds, of miles long, the people of a single 
 town could do very little with them. In that case it 
 would be necessary for those living perhaps hundreds of 
 miles apart to unite in some Avay in order to make laws. 
 
 Again, it is important that there be buildings in which blind people 
 may be properly cared for, in which the deaf and dumb may be edu- 
 cated, and insane people confined. There must also be strong prisons 
 where criminals may be sent. But in any one town there are not 
 many such persons, and it would prove very expensive to take proper 
 
 FIG. 81. 
 
 A small New England town, nestled in a valley among the hills, fields, and 
 forests. Tell what you see in this picture. 
 
 care of only a few. This is another reason why a number of people 
 should unite to make laws on some matters. 
 
 We have seen why there must be a town government, 
 and now we see why there must also be a state government ; 
 for a state is nothing more than a large section of country 
 in which all the people unite to make and enforce laws. 
 
 All the men of a state cannot assemble at one point, 
 from. a distance of one or two hundred miles, in order to 
 attend to such matters. Even if they could make the 
 journey at the time appointed, there would be so many of 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 95 
 
 them that they could not hear one another speak, and 
 little business could be carried on. 
 
 For these reasons it is necessary for one man to be 
 elected to represent many others. Where there are a 
 great number of people, he may represent many thou- 
 sands. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, that there are a million people living in a 
 state and that one man is elected to represent every ten thousand ; 
 there will then be one hundred such men chosen, and it will be their 
 duty to meet together to make laws for the whole million. 
 
 Such men, being chosen to represent the others, are 
 often called representatives; and because they legislate 
 (which means " make 
 laws "), they are to- 
 gether called the legis- 
 lature. 
 
 In order to meet to- 
 gether, these men must 
 assemble in a certain 
 place, and that place is 
 called the capital (cap- 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 
 The state capitol of Indiana at Indian- 
 apolis. 
 
 ital means head city) of 
 
 the state. This is a city, 
 
 often near the centre of 
 
 the state, in which there is a fine building, called the state 
 
 capitol (Fig. 82), where the representatives hold their 
 
 meetings. 
 
 We saw that in the town the people not only made 
 laws, but elected men to see that they were enforced. Such 
 men are necessary for the state also. The leading officer, 
 chosen to enforce or execute the laws, is .the governor, 
 sometimes called the chief executive. 
 
96 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 In large cities (Fig. 83) there are so many people that they must 
 also be governed by representatives, as the people of the whole state 
 are governed. The men who make the laws are often called alder- 
 men and councillors, and the 
 highest officer, elected to 
 execute the laws, is known 
 as the mayor. The building 
 in which these representa- 
 tives meet, and in which 
 the mayor has his office, is 
 the City Hall. While a city 
 is governed by its own offi- 
 cers in some matters, it is 
 still a part of a state, and 
 elects representatives to the 
 state legislature. 
 
 In our country there 
 are many states, and 
 there are some matters 
 that no one state can 
 decide alone, because 
 all the others are equal- 
 ly interested in them. 
 For instance, it would 
 be a great hindrance 
 to travel and trade if 
 each state made its own 
 money; for then each 
 one might have a dif- 
 ferent kind, with coins 
 of different names and weights. Every time a traveller 
 passed from the state of New York to Pennsylvania, or 
 Massachusetts, he might be obliged to take the time and 
 trouble to exchange his money for a new kind. 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 A crowded street in the great city of New 
 York. Notice the high buildings and busy 
 streets. Many officers are needed in such 
 a city. Indeed, there are more police- 
 men in New York City than there are 
 men, women, and children in some towns. 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 97 
 
 Again, in case of war it would be impossible to make much prog- 
 ress if each state acted independently. Perhaps you can give some 
 of the reasons why. Mail is another matter that concerns all the 
 states, and there are still others besides. Can you mention some? 
 
 So it is evident that we need a United States Govern- 
 ment, as well as state, city, and town governments. The 
 reason for calling it the United States Government is also 
 plain ; for the states have really united in order to have 
 one central government for some of their most important 
 affairs. 
 
 If the people of a single state cannot meet in a body 
 to make laws, certainly those of the entire United States 
 cannot do so. Representatives are 
 elected and sent, from all the states 
 of the Union, to one place where 
 they consider the affairs of the 
 whole nation. The place where 
 they meet is the city of Washing- 
 ton, and it is on that account the 
 capital of the United States. Here 
 is a magnificent capital building 
 (Fig. 85) in which the meetings 
 are held ; and there are many other 
 great government buildings be- 
 sides. (See Fig. 85.) 
 
 The representatives from all the 
 forty-five states of the Union form 
 what is known as Congress. /This corresponds to the legis- 
 lature of the states, the congressmen making laws for the 
 nation, as the legislators do for the state. The members 
 of Congress are called senators and representatives. The 
 executive officer of the United States, corresponding to 
 
 FIG. 84. 
 
 A picture of George Wash- 
 ington, after whom the 
 capital is named. Find out 
 what you can about him. 
 
98 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 
 
 the mayor of a city and the governor of a state, is called 
 the President. He lives in Washington, and his residence 
 is called the Executive Mansion, or the White House, 
 since it is painted white (Fig. 85). 
 
 Besides these officers who are elected by the people, 
 there are a great many others appointed by the President 
 to carry on the government work. Many live in Wash- 
 ington, but some, as postmasters, live in other places. 
 
 We have seen how the people in small towns arrange 
 for their home government, and how, uniting with those 
 in other towns, they elect some men to represent them at 
 the state capital and others to represent them at the 
 national capital. These representatives are elected by 
 means of votes that are cast for them. 
 
 Because the people make their own laws, our govern- 
 ment is called a democracy. The first part of this word 
 means "people," and the last part " government," so that 
 the whole word means "government by the people." Be- 
 cause the people do not make all the laws themselves, but 
 allow their representatives to make them, it is often called 
 a representative government or a republic. 
 
 It is often said that our form of government makes us 
 free and equal. People are by no means so free and equal 
 in all countries. Under some governments, in Europe 
 and Asia, the people have very little to say about the laws 
 that shall govern them. Nor do the laws protect them 
 all equally, for the high officers say freely what they think, 
 while others do not dare to do this. They must obey 
 their rulers blindly, just as little children are expected to 
 obey their parents. 
 
 Such a government cannot be called a democracy or a 
 republic ; it is indeed a despotism, or an absolute monarchy. 
 

 <B O 
 
 2 'I- 
 h 5 
 
 a S 
 
 3 3 
 
100 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 This means that the ruler is a despot, or a monarch, hav- 
 ing complete or absolute power to do what he chooses. 
 For instance, he puts men to death without any trial, a 
 thing that the laws of our country do not allow. China 
 and Turkey are examples of this kind of government. 
 
 There are other nations in which the people have more 
 freedom than this, but not so much as we have. They 
 are allowed freedom to do some things which they wish, 
 while in other matters they are compelled to obey, with- 
 out even asking any questions. Spain has a govern- 
 ment of this kind. Since the people have some rights by 
 which the monarch's power is checked or limited, this 
 government is called a limited monarchy. Some limited 
 monarchies, however, like England, allow a very con- 
 siderable freedom. 
 
 KEVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Name a few things that no one person 
 owns and that all wish to use. (2) How did the pioneers arrange 
 for roads? (3) Why was a constable necessary? (4) What are 
 laws? (5) Why must a great many towns and villages unite in order 
 to make laws? (6) Name some of the objects for which they must 
 unite. (7) What is a state? (8) How are laws made in states? 
 
 (9) Why are the men that are elected called representatives? 
 
 (10) What is a legislature? (11) Where does it meet? In what 
 building? (12) Where does the governor live? (13) Why must 
 large cities also be governed by representatives? (14) Name some 
 of the city officers. Where do they meet? 
 
 (15) Why should not each state make its own money? (16) Why 
 are these states called the United States? (17) Where do the repre- 
 sentatives of the United States meet? In what building? (18) What 
 is Congress? (19) What is the White House? (20) What does the 
 word democracy mean ? (21) Why is this government called a repub- 
 lic ? (22) How are people in many other countries less free and equal 
 than we are? (23) What is a despotism? An absolute monarchy ? 
 Give examples. (24) What is a limited monarchy? Give an example. 
 
GOVERNMENT 101 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) What persons repair the roads or streets where 
 you live ? (2) Plow are they chosen ? (3) What officers look after 
 the schools? (4) How is your constable or policeman uniformed? 
 (5) Attend a trial to see how it is conducted. (6) What are taxes? 
 (7) In what state do you live? (8) What is the name of your state 
 capital ? (9) How far is it from your home, and in what direction ? 
 (10) Who is the governor of your state? (11) If you live in a city, 
 who is the mayor? Where is the City Hall? (12) Ask some friend 
 who has travelled in foreign countries if he had much trouble with 
 the different kinds of money. (13) What does U. S. stand for? 
 (14) In what direction is the city of Washington from you, and how 
 far is it ? (15) Who is living in the White House now ? (16) Where 
 are the nearest polls for voting? (17) Have some one show you how 
 he votes. (18) What is meant by the statement that a " majority 
 rules " ? 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 110. 
 
XI. MAPS 
 
 Picture of a schoolroom which is 32 feet long 
 and 32 feet wide. 
 
 We often wish to represent a country upon a map so as 
 to tell, at a glance, its shape, and where the mountains, 
 
 rivers, and cities are 
 located. Such a draw- 
 ing can be made of any 
 place, no matter how 
 large or small it is. 
 
 Suppose we desired 
 to draw only a school- 
 room (Fig. 86), which 
 is perhaps 32 feet long 
 
 FlG - 86 - and 32 feet wide. It 
 
 would not be easy to 
 find a piece of paper 
 so large as that, and it would not be necessary to do so. 
 A small piece would do, because 1 inch upon it could be 
 allowed to represent several feet in the room. 
 
 In this case let an inch stand for 16 feet. Since the room is 32 
 feet on each side, and there are two 16s in 32, the drawing will be 
 just two inches long and two wide. To place the desks and aisles 
 properly, we will need to use a ruler divided into sixteenths, for one 
 foot in the room represents T V of an inch 011 the ruler. 
 
 The ends and sides are marked (Fig. 87) north, east, south, and 
 west. The teacher's desk is 3i feet in front of the north wall. There 
 is a row of desks about 4 feet from the west wall. The desks are 
 just 2 feet long, with eight in a row 1^ feet apart. There are seven 
 rows ; and the aisles between them are each 1 feet wide. Here is a 
 
 102 
 
MAPS 
 
 103 
 
 SIDE 
 AISLE 
 
 SICE 
 AISLE 
 
 map of the schoolroom 
 (Fig. 87). Measure 
 each part to see if it has 
 been drawn correctly, 
 using a foot rule that 
 shows the sixteenths 
 of inches. How large is 
 the desk? The piano? WEST 
 
 When a person 
 draws in this way, 
 letting a certain 
 distance on the 
 paper represent a 
 much greater ons, 
 he is said to use a 
 scale, or to make a 
 map according to a 
 scale. In the school- 
 room just described (Fig. 87), the scale is 1 inch to 16 feet. 
 
 In the next drawing, that of the school yard (Fig. 88), 
 the scale must be much larger, because the yard is so 
 
 a a a a a a 
 a a a a a a a 
 LJ a a aa a a 
 a a a a a a a 
 a a a a a a a 
 a a a a a a a 
 a a a a a a a 
 a a a a a a a 
 
 02 4 G 8 10 12 14 10 
 
 SCALE OF FEET: 1 INCH. = 16 FEET 
 
 OR X OF AN INCH = I. FOOT 
 
 FIG. 87. 
 A map of the schoolroom shown in Figure 8G. 
 
 FIG. 88. 
 Picture of a school yard. Figure 8 1 J shows a map of this. 
 
104 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 much larger than the room. Here one inch represents 
 140 feet. According to that scale, find out how large 
 the yard and the school building are (Fig. 89). Find 
 how far the trees are from each other, from the nearest 
 fence, and from the building. 
 
 Can you not make a map of your own schoolroom? What scale 
 will you use? Put in your own desk, but omit the others, if you 
 wish. 
 
 You might also draw a map of your school yard. If you prefer to 
 do so, find its size by stepping or pacing it off, making each of your 
 NORTH steps about two 
 
 feet long. Meas- 
 ure the building 
 in the same way. 
 After having fin- 
 ished these two 
 
 iST 
 
 maps, draw a 
 third one, includ- 
 ing in it not only 
 the school yard, 
 but also a few 
 of the neighbor- 
 ing streets and 
 
 WEST 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 105 
 
 140 
 
 Scale in feet: 1 inch equals in 140 feet. 
 FIG. 89. 
 
 A map of the school yard shown in the picture, Fig. 
 
 houses. The scale 
 for this might per- 
 haps be 1 inch for 
 every 500 steps. 
 
 All maps are drawn to a scale in this way, whether they represent 
 a school yard, a state, the United States, or even something still larger. 
 Opposite page 140 you will find a map of North America. On what 
 scale is it drawn ? Look at some other maps to find out the scale. 
 
 Maps are used a great deal to show the direction of one 
 place from another. But a person must first understand 
 what is meant by north, south, east, and west. Probably 
 you already know that. 
 
MAPS 
 
 105 
 
 One of the easiest ways to find the direction is by a 
 compass (Fig. 90). This is simply a piece of steel, called 
 a needle, that swings about easily arid always points to 
 the north. It is magnetized, like the horseshoe magnets 
 that you have seen, and it points north- 
 ward, because something draws it in that 
 direction ; but no one knows certainly 
 what this "something" is. 
 
 When the stars are shining, one can 
 tell which direction is north by the help 
 of the Great Dipper. The two stars on 
 the edge of the Dipper point toward the 
 North Star. It is so bright that it can 
 be easily picked out, and it is always to FIG. 90. 
 
 the north of US. A compass. The 
 
 One can also find direction by the help ^^ what^o 
 of the sun ; for, as you know, it rises in the other letters 
 the east and sets in the west. Accord- 
 ingly, when one faces the rising sun, his 
 right side is to the south and his left to 
 the north. Which direction is on his right and left when 
 he faces the west? The south? The north? 
 
 Northeast means half way between north and east. Southeast 
 means half way between south and east. What, then, do northwest 
 and southwest mean ? 
 
 Point north, east, west, south, southwest, northeast, northwest. 
 Walk a few feet in each direction. What direction is your desk 
 from that of your teacher ? From the desks of your friends ? From 
 the door? What direction is your home from the schoolhouse ? From 
 other houses ? In what directions do some of the streets extend ? 
 
 Now let us tell directions on the map. Lay your draw- 
 ing of the schoolroom upon your desk, so that the line 
 
 stand for ? Notice 
 that the needle 
 is pointing north 
 and south. 
 
106 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 representing the north side of the room is toward the 
 north. Also place yourself so that you are facing di- 
 rectly north as you look at the map. If your desk faces 
 the wrong way for this, turn round, or put your map 
 upon the floor. Now, north on the map is also north in 
 the room, and the other directions on the map correspond 
 with those in the room. In which direction, on the map, 
 is the door from your desk? From the teacher's desk? 
 Place your map of the school yard in the same position 
 and give the directions. 
 
 You see that the north side of this map is the side fur- 
 thest from you ; the east side is on your right, the south 
 next to you, and the west is on your left. When a map 
 is lying before us, we usually look at it from this position. 
 
 But it is not always convenient to have a map lying 
 down, especially in the schoolroom, where it must be hung 
 up so that the whole class may see it. 
 
 Let us hang up one of these maps and take particular 
 pains to put it upon the north wall. Which direction on 
 the map is north now ? It is evident that north must be 
 up, while east is on the right, south is down, and west is on 
 the left. It could not be otherwise. These are always the 
 directions on a map when it is hanging, and you should 
 drill yourself so that you will never forget it. 
 
 Give the directions of objects from one another while the map is 
 hanging up. Put up the map of the school yard, and any others that 
 you have, and tell the directions from one place to another. 1 
 
 1 After the children are quite at home in using the map when it is 
 hung on the north wall, hang it on other sides of the room and have them 
 give the directions. This is easy work if properly graded ; but the fact 
 that many children studying geography are confused in regard to direc- 
 tions on the map suggests that caution be exercised. 
 
OCEAN 
 
 FIG. 91. 
 
 To show what maps mean. The left-hand figures show the country as if you were 
 looking down upon it; the right-hand figures represent the same country on 
 maps. Tell what you see in each of these. 
 
MAPS 107 
 
 It is clear now what a map is. It is a drawing telling 
 something about a country, just as a letter may be some 
 writing telling something about a friend. When you 
 read such a letter, you think about your friend, how he 
 looks, what he has been doing, etc. So when you look at 
 a map, you should think about the country, how it looks, 
 how far apart the places are, etc. 
 
 There is more than one kind of map. On page 138 there 
 is a picture of North America. It shows how that conti- 
 nent might appear if you looked down upon it from some 
 point far above. A picture like this, showing the moun- 
 tains and valleys, is called a relief map. That is, it gives 
 you some idea of the relief or height of the land. 1 
 
 The maps that you have been drawing do not show this. 
 They are flat maps, representing the country as if it were 
 a flat surface. Opposite page 140 you will find a flat 
 map of North America. Compare it with the relief map 
 on page 138 to see the difference. 
 
 In Figure 91 you will see the way in which flat maps are 
 made to represent the land and water. No attempt is 
 made on the flat maps to show just what the country 
 looks like, that is, to represent its relief. They represent 
 the position and direction of towns, rivers, lakes, etc., just 
 as if the country were perfectly flat. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 110. 
 
 1 If it seems desirable, the teacher may introduce the study of contour 
 maps at this point. The children could draw a contour map of their own 
 neighborhood, and then possibly make a relief map from it by cutting out 
 pieces of pasteboard that correspond to the spaces between the lines. 
 Relief maps may also be constructed by modelling in sand. 
 
REFERENCES TO DESCRIPTIONS, IN PROSE AND POETRY, 
 OF TOPICS TREATED IN HOME GEOGRAPHY. FOR 
 TEACHER AND PUPIL 
 
 McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
 Mass. ; A. B. C., The American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C., Silver, Burdett 
 & Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Section I. The Soil. King, "The Soil" (McM., $0.75); Tarr, 
 "Elementary Geology," Chapters VI, XI, and pp. 475-487 (McM., 
 $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in Geology," pp. 24-29 (Heath, $0.60). 
 Also other geologies. Nature Study Quarterly, No. 2, October, 1899 
 (Cornell University, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y. Free on 
 application); Kingsley, "Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter IV, 
 " The Transformation of a Grain of Soil " (McM., $1.00) ; Wilson, 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools. Teacher's Manual," p. 177 
 (McM., $0.90); Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," section on "How 
 Soil is made and carried" (Ginn, $0.58); Strong, "All the Year 
 Round," Part II, sections 7 and 8 (Ginn, $0.30). 
 
 Section II. Hills. Whittier, "Among the Hills" (poem); Whit- 
 tier, " The Hilltop " (poem) ; Hutchinson, " The Story of the Hills " 
 (McM., $1.50). 
 
 Section III. Mountains. Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," 
 Chapters V and VI (the former on forests) (McM., $1.50) ; Jordan, 
 "Science Sketches," section on "The Ascent of the Matterhorn" 
 (A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.50) ; Whymper, " Chamonix and 
 Mont Blanc" (Scribner, New York, $1.20); Whymper, "Travels 
 amongst the Great Andes " (Scribner, New York, $2.50) ; Tarr, " Ele- 
 mentary Geology," Chapter XVII (McM., $1.40) ; Tarr, " Elementary 
 Physical Geography," Chapter XIX (McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First 
 Book in Geology," Chapter V (Heath, $0.60) ; Kingsley, "Madam How 
 and Lady Why," Chapter V, "The Ice Plough" (McM., $1.00). 
 
 108 
 
REFERENCES 109 
 
 Sections IV and V. Valleys and Rivers. Tarr, "Elementary 
 Geology," Chapters Vi-X; "Elementary Physical Geography," Chap- 
 ters XV and XVI (each, McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in 
 Geology," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.60); Payne, "Geographical Nature 
 Studies," sections on "Valleys," "Plants of the Valleys," and "Animals 
 of the Valleys" (A. B. C., $0.25); Kingsley, "Madam How and Lady 
 AVhy," Chapter I, "The Glen" (McM., $1.00); Frye, "Brooks and 
 Brook Basins" (Ginn, $0.58); Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," 
 Chapters VII and VIII (McM., $1.50). Poems: "The Brook," Ten- 
 nyson ; " The River," Samuel G. Goodrich ; " The Mad River," Long- 
 fellow ; " The Falls of Ladore," Southey ; " The Brook and the Wave," 
 Longfellow; " A Water Song," E. G. W. Rowe ; " The Endless Story," 
 A. K. Eggleston ; " The Impatient River," E. G. W. Rowe ; the last 
 three in Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies" (A. B. C., $0.25). 
 
 Section VI. Ponds and Lakes. Shaler, "First Book in Geology," 
 pp. 125-129 (Heath, $0.60) ; Tarr, "Elementary Geology," pp. 188-193, 
 and "Elementary Physical Geography," pp. 298-304 (each, McM., 
 $1.40) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapter VIII (McM., 
 $1.50) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," section on " Pools, 
 Ponds, and Lakes" (A. B. C., $0.25); "The Lakeside," poem, by 
 Whittier. 
 
 Section VII. The Ocean. Shaler, " Sea and Land " (Scribner, New 
 York, $2.50); Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geography," Part III 
 (McM., $1.10); Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," Chapter IX 
 (McM., $1.50); Andrews, "Stories Mother Nature Told Her Chil- 
 dren," section on " Sea Life " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Holland, " The Sea 
 Voyage," in " Arthur Bonnicastle " ; Dickens, " David Copperfield," 
 Chapter V; "Robinson Crusoe," Chapter III; Taylor, "The Waves," 
 "Wind and Sea," in "Nature Pictures by American Poets" (McM., 
 $1.25) ; Coleridge, " The Ancient Mariner." 
 
 Section VIII. The Air. Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geog- 
 raphy," Part II (McM., $1.10); "A Summer Shower," "Cornell 
 Nature Study Bulletin," No. 1, June, 1899 (free on application to 
 Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.) ; Murche, " Science Reader," Book 
 III, sections on " Air," " Vapor in the Air," " Vapor : What becomes 
 of It?" "What the Atmosphere Is," "Ice, Hail, and Snow " (McM., 
 $0.40); Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," sections on "Forms of 
 Water " and " The Atmosphere in Motion " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Strong, 
 
110 JIOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 " All the Year Round," Part IT, sections 33-39 (Ginn, $0.30) ; Andrews, 
 " Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on " The Frost 
 Giants" (Ginn, .$0.50); Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies,". 
 many excellent stories and poems (A. B. C., $0.25) ; " Nature Pic- 
 tures by American Poets " : " Summer Shower," Dickinson ; " Rain," 
 De Land; "Song of the Snowflakes," Cheney; "Cloudland," Cheney 
 (McM., $1.25) ; Wilson, " Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Sec- 
 ond Reader, the following poems : " The Rain Shower," " The Wind 
 Song," " The Bag of Winds," " The Sunbeams," " Snowflakes," " Signs 
 of Rain," "The Rainbow" (McM., $0.35); Lovejoy, "Nature in 
 Verse," the following poems : " Merry Rain," " The Clouds," " The 
 Dew," " The Fog," " The Rain," " The Snow," " The Frost," " Jack 
 Frost," " Little Snowflakes " (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Shelley, " The Cloud " ; 
 Whittier, "The Frost Spirit"; Bryant, "The Hurricane"; Whittier, 
 "Snowbound"; Irving, "The Thunderstorm" (prose). 
 
 Section IX. Industry and Commerce. Payne, " Geographical Nature 
 Studies," sections on "Occupations," "Trade or Commerce," "Trans- 
 portation by Land," " Transportation by Water " (A. B. C., $0.25) ; 
 Andrews, " The Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on 
 " The Carrying Trade " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Whittier, " Songs of Labor." 
 
 Section X. The Government. Brooks, " Century Book for Young 
 Americans " (Century Co., New York, $1.50) ; Brooks, " The Story of 
 the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., Boston, $1.50) ; Wil- 
 son, " Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Second Reader, section on 
 " Boyhood of Lincoln " (McM., $0.35) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature 
 Studies," section on " Government " (A. B. C., $0.25). 
 
 Section XI. Maps. Excellent outline maps of states and conti- 
 nents, costing 1^ to 2 cents each, can be purchased from D. C. Heath 
 & Co., Boston, Rand, McNally, & Co., Chicago, and other publishers. 
 Maltby, "Map Modeling" (E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York, $1.00); 
 Kellogg, " Geography by Map Drawing " (same publishers, $0.30) ; 
 Redway, " The Reproduction of Geographical Forms " ($0.30) and 
 " Teacher's Manual of Geography " ($0.65) (both by Heath) ; Frye, 
 "The Child and Nature" (Ginn, $0.80); Frye, "Sand and Clay 
 Modeling" (Butler, Sheldon & Co., New York, $0.10); Frye, " Teacher's 
 Manual of Met/hods in Geography " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Kellogg, " How to 
 Teach Clay Modeling " (E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York, $0.25); King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, Lesson XIII 
 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 
 
PAET II 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 I. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 1 
 
 Its Form. Hundreds of years ago, before America 
 was discovered, men thought the earth was flat. They 
 travelled so little that they had no idea of its form or of 
 its size. 
 
 A few men who had studied the matter believed that 
 the earth was a round ball, arid that if one travelled 
 straight on in any direction, he would in time return to 
 the place from which he started. You can understand 
 this by pushing your finger around on the outside of an 
 orange, until it comes back to the starting-point. 
 
 Christopher Columbus believed this, and went to Spain, hoping to 
 obtain money to secure ships for a long voyage to prove it. 
 
 Men were at that time in the habit of going to a land, called India, 
 for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they travelled 
 thousands of miles eastward; but Columbus said that if the earth 
 were round, like a ball, India might be reached by going westward 
 across the ocean, and the distance would be much less. He therefore 
 asked the king of Spain for ships and men to make such a journey. 
 
 The king refused the request, because the idea seemed ridiculous; 
 but the queen came to his aid, and, at last, on August 3, 1492, he 
 
 1 The use of a globe in this study is very important. Small globes 
 may be obtained from dealers in school supplies at a very slight cost. 
 
 Ill 
 
112 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 sailed westward on a voyage from which many thought he would 
 never return ; but, after a journey of several weeks, land was reached 
 on October 12th. 
 
 Thinking he had reached India, he called the natives Indians ; but 
 instead of that he had discovered Cuba and other islands near the 
 coast of North America ; a continent and large ocean still lay between 
 him and India. These newly discovered lands became known as the 
 New World, to distinguish them from the Old World, where all white 
 men then lived. 
 
 FIG. 92. 
 
 Columbus landing in America and taking possession of it in the name of the 
 king of Spain. 
 
 After Columbus returned in safety, other men dared to 
 explore the New World. One of them, named Magellan, 
 started to sail round the earth ; and though he was killed 
 when he had reached the Philippine islands, his ships 
 went on and completed the journey. Since then many 
 people have made the voyage in various directions, and 
 the earth has been studied so carefully that every one 
 now knows it is round. 
 
 The great, round earth is also called the globe or sphere. 
 
FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 
 
 113 
 
 SOUTH POLK 
 
 The reason that it does not seem round to us, is that we 
 see so little of it at a time. 
 
 If you see very little of an orange, it will not look round either. 
 To prove this, place upon an orange a piece of paper with a small hole in 
 it, so that none of the surface is seen 
 excepting that which shows through 
 the hole. This part does not appear 
 round, but flat. 
 
 If we could get far enough 
 
 away from the earth to see a 
 
 large part of it at once, as we 
 
 are when looking at an orange, 
 
 or at the moon, we would easily 
 
 be able to observe its roundness 
 
 (Fig. 93). 
 Size of the Earth. Our 
 
 sphere is so large that even the 
 
 highest mountains, when compared to the whole earth, 
 are no larger than a speck of dust 
 when compared to an apple. Lofty 
 mountains are rarely more than three 
 or four miles high ; but the diameter 
 of the earth, or the distance from one 
 side to the other, through the centre 
 of the earth, is nearly eight thousand 
 miles. 
 
 The circumference of the earth, or the dis- 
 tance around the outside of it, is about twenty- 
 ^ IG - ^- five thousand miles. This is a little more than 
 
 Figure of the earth three times the diameter, and you will find 
 cut in two, to show that the c i rcuni f er e n ce of any sphere is always 
 tt the diameter, the 
 
 line passin- thro ugh a "*" more than three times its diameter, 
 the centre (c). Prove this with an orange. 
 
 FIG. 93. 
 The sphere. 
 
114 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What did people formerly know about 
 the shape of the earth? (2) What is its form? (3) Tell the story 
 of Columbus. (4) Why did he call the savages Indians ? (5) Why 
 was the land he discovered called the New World? (6) Tell about 
 Magellan's voyage. (7) Explain why the earth does not appear to 
 us to be a sphere. (8) What is the diameter of the earth? The cir- 
 cumference ? (9) The latter is how many times the former ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Read something about the life of Columbus. 
 (2) Read about Magellan. (3) Find the names of some other early 
 explorers and read about them. (4) Trace Columbia's journey on a 
 globe to see where he actually went. Find India in order to see 
 where he thought he had gone, and notice how one can go to India 
 by travelling eastward as well as westward. (5) Make a sphere in 
 clay. Measure its diameter with a needle. (6) How many proofs 
 can you find that the earth is round? Find out how we know that 
 it is like a ball and not like a cylinder. (7) Write a story about 
 Columbus. (8) Trace on a globe the route followed by our soldiers 
 who went to the Philippines. Of Admiral Dewey when he returned 
 by way of the Mediterranean. How many days are required for such 
 a journey? (9) Obtain a telescope or an opera glass and look through 
 it at the moon. 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 257. 
 
II. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH, AND ITS 
 RESULTS 
 
 The Axis and Poles. The earth seems to us to be 
 motionless, while the sun appears to move round it each 
 day, rising in the east and setting in 
 the west. But in reality neither of 
 these things happens. 
 
 Instead of being without motion, 
 the earth is whirling round with 
 tremendous speed. You have per- 
 haps watched a wheel spin about 
 upon a rod or pin, and have noticed 
 that the outside goes rapidly, while 
 the part near the pin moves much 
 more slowly. It is the same with 
 the earth; and just as we speak of 
 the wheel turning upon a pin, so we 
 speak of the earth turning upon its 
 axis. 
 
 But the axis of a wheel is something real, while the axis 
 of the earth is merely a line that we think of as reaching 
 through the earth's centre and extending to the surface 
 in both directions. 
 
 The two ends of this axis are called the poles of the earth, 
 one end being the north pole, the other the south pole. 
 
 Allowing an apple to represent the earth, a knitting needle or a 
 stick pushed through its centre would represent its axis, and the two 
 
 115 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 
 A drawing of the earth 
 cut through to show 
 the axis and poles. 
 
116 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 North Polo 
 
 ends on the surface, the two poles. You can then spin the apple, 
 very much as the earth spins (Fig. 97). 
 
 If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you 
 would in time come to the north pole ; or, if far enough south, to the 
 south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy seas (Fig. 100) that 
 surround the north pole. If one ever reaches that point, he will not 
 find a pole ; but the north star, toward which the axis points, will be 
 almost directly overhead. 
 
 The Equator. Midway between these poles, we think 
 of another line drawn around the earth on the outside. 
 
 This is called the equator, be- 
 cause all parts of it are equally 
 distant from each of the poles. 
 On page 118 the distance 
 around the earth was given ; 
 what, then, is the length of the 
 equator ? 
 
 As the earth spins on its axis, all 
 points on the surface must go with 
 it, as every part of the skin of an 
 apple turns with it. Since the earth 
 makes one complete turn each day, a 
 man at the equator travels twenty- 
 five thousand miles every twenty-four 
 hours. What a whirling motion that 
 is ! It is at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour, while the 
 fastest trains run little more than sixty miles an hour. 
 
 Why do not places considerably north or south of the equator move 
 as rapidly as those at the equator ? 
 
 Gravity. What, then, is to hinder our flying away 
 from the earth, just as, when a stone is whirled about on 
 a string, it flies away the moment the string breaks ? And 
 why is not all the water hurled from the ocean? 
 
 FIG. 96. 
 
 That half of the sphere contain- 
 ing the New World, to show 
 the position of the poles and 
 the equator. 
 
DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 117 
 
 The reason is that the earth draws everything toward 
 it. If you push a book from your desk, it falls to the 
 floor; and when you spring into the air, you quickly 
 return to the ground. All objects are drawn downward, 
 because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them 
 much as a horseshoe magnet attracts pieces of iron. 
 
 The force with which the earth draws all objects toward 
 it is called gravity ; arid it is because of gravity that the 
 water, trees, houses, and we ourselves, do not fly off when 
 the earth is turning at such a tremendous speed. 
 
 Sunrise and Sunset. The sun seems to rise in the east 
 and set in the west. This could not be the case if the 
 earth did not turn or rotate toward the east ; for all 
 heavenly bodies must first appear in the direction toward 
 which the earth turns. This eastward rotation of the 
 earth, therefore, explains why the sun seems to rise and 
 set as it does. 
 
 Hundreds of years ago people thought that the sun actually rose, 
 and, after moving across the heavens, set in the west. We still use 
 the words "sunrise" and "sunset" which they used, although we 
 know that the sun appears to rise only because the earth rotates. 
 
 Day and Night. It is this rotation that causes day 
 and night. A lamp can light only one-half of a ball at 
 a time, as you know. So the sun can light only half of 
 the great earth ball at one time. That being the case, if 
 our globe stood perfectly still, there would always be day 
 on the half next to the sun, and night on the other half. 
 
 But since the earth rotates, the place where it is day 
 is constantly changing ; and while the sun is setting for 
 people far to the east of us, it is rising for those far to 
 the west. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight 
 on the other side of the earth. Thus each place has its 
 
118 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 period of daylight and darkness ; and as the earth makes 
 one complete rotation every twenty-four hours, the day 
 and night together must last just that length of time. 
 
 FIG. 97. 
 
 An apple lighted by a candle on one side, to illustrate the cause of day 
 
 and night. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What motion has the earth? (2) What 
 is the axis of the earth? (3) The north pole? The south pole? 
 (4) Represent the axis and poles by using an apple. (5) Walk toward 
 the north pole. Toward the south pole. (6) What is the equator? 
 (7) How long does it require for the earth to turn completely around 
 once? (8) What rate of travel is that, for a point upon the equator? 
 (9) Why are we not thrown away from the_earth ?, (10) Give sev- 
 eral examples showing what is meant by gravity. (11) In what 
 direction is the earth rotating? (12) How does that explain sunrise 
 and sunset? (13) What causes night? (14) What would be the 
 result if the earth did not rotate? (15) When it is noon here, what 
 time is it on the other side of the earth? (16) How long must the 
 day and night together last ? Why ? 
 
DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 119 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Point out the axis of a wheel; of a top; of a 
 rotating ball ; of a spinning globe. (2) Mark the two poles on an 
 apple or ball, and then draw a line for the equator. (3) Mould a 
 sphere in clay, and show the poles and the equator. Cut it in half, 
 and mark a line for the axis. (4) Find exactly how many miles a 
 point on the equator moves each hour. (5) Use a horseshoe magnet 
 to attract pieces of iron. (6) Use a globe, or apple, and a lamp to show 
 why the sun appears to rise and set, and why it is day on one side 
 while it is night on the other. (7) Watch the stars in the east some 
 night, to see which way they appear to move. (8) Why do not the 
 clouds appear to move westward also ? (9) Is the sun always shin- 
 ing during the day ? Why, then, do we not always see it? (10) Who 
 was Atlas? Who was Aurora? (11) Find out what the ancients 
 supposed became of the sun each night. (12) When it is noon here, 
 what time is it one-fourth of the distance around the earth to the 
 east? To the west? 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 258. 
 
III. THE ZONES 
 
 Boundaries of the Zones The sun's rays feel warmer 
 
 at noon than in the early evening because the sun is more 
 
 nearly overhead at noon, and 
 the rays then reach -us nearly 
 vertically. 
 
 For the same reason the sun 
 seems hotter in summer than in 
 winter, and in some parts of 
 the earth than in others. 
 
 The hottest part of the earth 
 . is near the equator, for in that 
 region the sun at midday is di- 
 rectly over the heads of the 
 people. That is the case, for a 
 part of the year, as far north as 
 the line on the map (Fig. 98) 
 marked tropic of Cancer, and as 
 far south as the one marked 
 tropic of Capricorn. Point to them on Figures 119 and 
 120. These lines are more than three thousand miles 
 apart, a distance greater than that across the United States 
 from Boston to San Francisco ; and over that vast area 
 the heat is intense, or torrid. Those who live there wear 
 only the very lightest clothing, and the savages have 
 almost none (Fig. 99). 
 
 But further north and south the heat becomes less and 
 
 120 
 
 V ZOSE 
 
 SOI'TH POLB. 
 
 FIG. 98. 
 
 A map of the zones. The colors 
 suggest sharp differences be- 
 tween the zones on the two 
 sides of the boundaries ; but 
 you should remember that the 
 changes are very gradual. 
 
THE ZONES 
 
 121 
 
 less intense, because the rays of the sun, even at noon, 
 approach the earth at a greater slant. There is a region, 
 then, on each side of this broad hot belt, where it is neither 
 very hot nor very cold, but temperate. 
 
 Finally, near the poles, the rays are very slanting, as 
 they are in our early morning or late afternoon. There 
 it is so cold, or frigid, that the ground never thaws out, 
 the ice never entirely disappears, and very little vegeta- 
 tion can grow. 
 
 Torrid Zone. Thus one part of the earth has a hot 
 climate. There the noonday sun is always so directly 
 over the heads of the 
 inhabitants that they 
 never have winter. 
 
 This hot region ex- 
 tends entirely around 
 the earth, like a great 
 belt, and the equator 
 is in the middle of 
 it. This is called the 
 tropical belt, or the 
 tropical or torrid zone, 
 and sometimes the 
 equatorial belt. Why 
 the latter name ? 
 
 Temperate Zones. 
 On the north and 
 south sides of this 
 are the two temperate 
 zones. People living 
 
 FIG. 99. 
 
 Philippine savages hunting; their home is in 
 the torrid zone, and they need almost no 
 clothing. 
 
 in the north temperate zone find the sun to the south of 
 them at noon, even in summer ; and their shadows always 
 
122 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 fall toward the north. But in the south temperate zone the 
 midday sun is always in the north. Which way must the 
 shadows fall in that zone ? 
 
 Notice the position of the sun at midday where you live, and also 
 the direction and length of your shadow at that time. In which of 
 the temperate zones do you live ? 
 
 FIG. 100. 
 
 Cape York Eskimos, Greenland, in their summer dress, standing by their 
 sleds 011 the ice-covered sea. 
 
 Frigid Zones. North of the north temperate zone, and 
 south of the south temperate, are the frigid zones, where 
 the sun is never high in the heavens, but even at midday 
 is near the horizon. There the shadows are very long, as 
 they are with us in the late afternoon. In consequence, 
 while at the equator there is never any winter, near the 
 poles there is never any real summer weather. 
 
 The northern of these zones is called the north frigid 
 
THE ZONES 123 
 
 zone (Fig. 100) ; the southern, the south frigid zone. They 
 are also known as the polar zones; since they surround the 
 poles. 
 
 It is so cold that no one has ever been able to reach either of the 
 poles. These are surrounded by miles and miles of snow and ice, and 
 vessels hundreds of miles away from them are in danger of being 
 crushed by ice, or held by it so that they cannot move. 
 
 Hemispheres. The half of our sphere north of the equator is 
 called the northern hemisphere (or half sphere), the southern half, the 
 southern hemisphere. The earth is also divided into halves by a circle 
 running north and south through both poles, the western half, con- 
 taining the New World, being called the western hemisphere, and the 
 eastern half, containing the Old World, the eastern hemisphere. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What is the cause for the great heat in 
 the torrid zone ? (2) What are its boundaries ? (3) What other zones 
 are there ? What are their boundaries ? (4) In which direction does 
 the midday sun lie in each zone? (5) In which direction do the 
 shadows then fall? (6) Why should the heat grow less, the farther 
 one travels from the equator? (7) Why has no one ever been able to 
 reach either pole? (8) Which part of the earth has no cold weather? 
 (9) Which part has no hot weather? (10) Point out the zones in 
 Figure 98. (H) Represent them in a drawing of your own. 
 (12) Name the hemispheres and tell where each is. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Find out more about the reason why the sun's 
 rays are hotter when the sun is overhead than when it is low in the 
 heavens. (2) Write a story telling about the changes in clothing 
 you would need to make in passing from the north to the south pole. 
 (3) In which direction would you look to see the sun at noon on such 
 a journey? (4) How might the changes in heat affect the growth of 
 trees and other plants ? (5) How would the direction of your shadow 
 change? Its length? (6) If there were no watches or clocks, how 
 could you tell the time of day from the sun? (7) Find out about 
 some of the men who have tried to reach the north pole. (8) In 
 which zone should you prefer to live ? Why? (9) Explain how some 
 places in the temperate zone are warmer than some in the torrid 
 zone. For references, see p. 258, 
 
IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH, AND ITS 
 EFFECTS 
 
 Heat in Mines. While much is known about the sur- 
 face of the earth, very little is certain about its interior. 
 The reason for this is that people cannot go far down 
 below the surface in order to see what is there. 
 
 FIG. 101. 
 
 Melted rock, from a volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, flowing over the face 
 of a precipice into the water. 
 
 In some places there are mines reaching fully a mile 
 below the surface. This may seem a great depth ; but 
 when it is remembered that it would be necessary to go four 
 thousand times as far to reach the center, it is plain that 
 this is really a short distance. A mile below the surface 
 of the earth is not so much as the thickness of the skin of 
 an apple, compared with the thickness of the apple itself, 
 
 124 
 
HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 
 
 125 
 
 In all of these mines, and in many deep wells, men find 
 solid rock, usually covered at the surface with soil ; but 
 no one has ever gone beyond this rock. 
 
 It is interesting to note that the farther miners have 
 dug down into the earth, the warmer they have found it. 
 The thermometer rises about one degree for every fifty or 
 sixty feet, and some mines, as they have been deepened, 
 have become so hot that men could no longer work in them. 
 
 Melted Rock. This has led to the belief that, if it were possible 
 to go still deeper, the earth would be found to grow hotter and 
 hotter, until, several miles below the surface, it might be hot enough 
 to melt rocks. 
 
 Another fact leading to the same belief is that, in some regions, 
 melted rock, called lava, actually flows out of the earth, and then 
 cools to form solid rock (Fig. 101). In some places so much lava has 
 flowed forth at different times, and collected about the opening called 
 the crater, that a mountain 
 peak has been built. Such 
 peaks are called volcanoes 
 (Fig. 102), and some of them 
 are many thousand feet high. 
 
 The Earth's Crust. 
 From a study of the 
 earth it seems certain 
 that, although the out- 
 side is now cold, it was 
 once hot, and that the 
 mass within is still hot. 
 It may be compared to a biscuit that is still hot inside, al- 
 though its crust has become cool. In fact, this cold out- 
 side part of the earth is generally called the earth's crust. 
 
 Cause of Mountains. It was stated on page 19 that 
 some parts of the earth have been raised to form mountain 
 
 FIG. 102. 
 
 Vesuvius, in Italy, sending out lava, ashes, 
 and steam during an eruption some 
 years ago. 
 
126 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 ranges, while others have been lowered to form valleys. 
 We are now ready to explain how this has happened. 
 
 You have, perhaps, seen a blacksmith put a tire upon a 
 wheel. He heats the tire so hot that it expands, and it is 
 then easily placed over the wheel. But when the iron 
 cools it shrinks, so that the tire then fits the wheel tightly. 
 The hot interior of the earth is under- 
 going a similar change, since every year 
 it is slowly growing cooler, and, there- 
 fore, shrinking or contracting. This al- 
 lows the cool crust to settle ; but, being 
 too large, it wrinkles, or puckers, causing 
 the rocks to bend and break, and form- 
 ing great mountain ranges and valleys. 
 
 One sees something of the same kind in an 
 apple that has become dry and wrinkled (Fig. 
 
 103 )' Tt has dried because Some of the water 
 beneath the tough skin has gone into the air as 
 
 vapor ; thus the inside has been made smaller. The skin of the apple, 
 like the crust of the earth, has then settled down and become wrinkled. 
 
 Cause of Continents and Ocean Basins. The mountains 
 and valleys are riot the largest wrinkles on the earth's 
 surface. As the crust has settled, some portions have 
 been lowered several miles further than others, and in 
 these great depressions the waters have collected, forming 
 the oceans, which in places are four or five miles deep. 
 
 Those great portions of earth's crust which rise above 
 the ocean are called continents ; and the highest mountain 
 peak upon them is fully eleven miles above the deepest 
 part of the ocean. 
 
 Change in the Level of the Land. The contracting of the earth 
 has caused many changes, and is still causing them, Some parts of 
 
II EAT WITHIN THE EAllTII 
 
 127 
 
 the land have risen out of the ocean, and other parts have sunk 
 beneath it. Perhaps the place where you live, even though it be 
 among the mountains, was once below 
 the ocean. This can be proved, in 
 some places, by finding certain shells, 
 called fossils, in the rocks. 
 
 Ages ago these shells were parts of 
 animals living in the ocean ; but on 
 the death of their owners they became 
 buried in the mud and lay there for 
 centuries until the layers of mud be- 
 came slowly hardened into rock. This 
 was later lifted above the water, and 
 then frost, rain, and rivers wore the 
 upper layers away, bringing the fossils 
 to light. 
 
 We have already seen (page 2) how rock is changing to soil and 
 being washed from the land into the ocean. We now learn that this 
 settles upon the ocean bottom, hardens into rock, and then, perhaps, 
 is lifted into the air. These changes are very slow, but they are going 
 on all the time. Places once inhabited by men are now beneath the 
 sea, and others where they now live have risen above it. 
 
 FIG. 104. 
 
 A rock containing many fossil 
 shells. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What is known about the tempera- 
 ture of the earth below the surface? (2) What does that suggest? 
 (3) What other proof of this conclusion is there? (4) What is a 
 volcano? (5) What is the crust of the earth? (6) What happens as 
 the interior cools? (7) Compare this with the drying of an apple. 
 (8) How have the ocean basins and continents been formed? (9) What 
 do fossils in the rocks prove ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Collect pictures of volcanoes. Of earthquakes. 
 Read about some volcanic eruption. (2) Make a drawing of a vol- 
 cano. (3) Dry an apple and notice the change. (4) Not all rocks 
 contain fossils; but examine those in your section to find if they do. 
 (5) If you live near a beach, notice how shells are covered by the 
 sands. (6) If a mine were a mile deep, what would be the tempera- 
 ture at the bottom, if the average temperature at the surface is 45 d . 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 258. 
 
FIG. 105. 
 
 Land (on left-hand side) and water (on right-hand side) hemispheres. 
 Hemisphere means half sphere ; that is, half of the earth. 
 
 V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 Land and Water. The greater part of the land is found 
 in the northern hemisphere, the greater part of the water 
 hi the southern. (Figs. 106 and 112.) 
 
 It is possible to divide the earth 
 into halves, in one of which the 
 land hemisphere nearly all the land 
 is situated, while in the other the 
 water hemisphere there is very little 
 land. From Fig. 105 you see that 
 much more than half the earth's sur- 
 face is water. 
 
 FIG. 106. 
 
 The northern hemisphere, show- 
 ing the land about the north 
 pole, Eurasia in the eastern 
 hemisphere, and America in 
 the western. 
 
 THE CONTINENTS 
 
 In Figure 106, or, better, on 
 a globe, notice that two great 
 masses of land extend from the 
 north polar zone. One of these 
 
 128 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 129 
 
 lies in the western hemisphere, and is the land on which 
 we live ; the other is in the eastern hemisphere. 
 
 North America. The western land, which is better 
 shown in Fig. 107, is broad near the north pole, and tapers 
 down nearly to a point iust 
 
 * f i Horth Pole 
 
 north of the equator, having 
 the form of a triangle. What 
 is the name of this part ? 
 
 Show where New York, Washing- 
 ton, and Chicago should be on this 
 map. (See the map, Fig. 120.) Point 
 also to your home. Find some rivers, 
 mountains, peninsulas, gulfs, and other 
 forms of land and water. 
 
 FIG. 107. 
 
 The half of the sphere containing 
 the New World. 
 
 South America. South of 
 North America, and connected 
 with it by a long neck of land, 
 the Isthmus of Panama, lies the 
 continent of South America. The two continents together 
 are called the two Americas, forming the New World 
 which Columbus discovered (p. 111). Notice how much 
 alike they are in shape ; draw triangles to show this. 
 
 Through what zones does North America extend? (See Fig. 98, 
 p. 120.) South America? Point to the places where there is snow all 
 the time ; to the part where there is never any snow. Where must 
 the Eskimo girl, Agoonack, one of the Seven Little Sisters, have 
 lived ? Read about the Eskimos on p. 192. 
 
 Tell how the climate would change if you were to travel from the 
 northern end of North America to the southern end of South America. 
 What changes would you expect to find in the plants? In the cloth- 
 ing of people ? Write a story about such a journey. 
 
 On the next page are pictures of some of the wild animals of South 
 America (Fig. 108). What wild animals live in North America? 
 Collect pictures of them. Have you ever seen any of them? 
 
FIG. 108. 
 Some of the animals of South America. 
 
A hemisphere showing a part of 
 Eurasia and Africa. 
 
 THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 Eurasia. East of us, across 
 
 the Atlantic Ocean, is the Old 
 
 World (Figs. 109 and 113). 
 
 More land is found there than in 
 
 the New World, and the largest 
 
 mass of it is called Eurasia. 
 The northern part of Eurasia 
 
 is in the North Frigid zone, on 
 
 the opposite side of the north pole 
 
 from North America (Fig. 106), 
 
 and extends a great distance east 
 
 and west. Find for yourself 
 
 how far south it reaches, and through what zones it passes. 
 Long ago, before Columbus made his voyage to the New 
 
 World, all the 
 civilized people 
 lived in Europe, 
 the western part 
 of that great 
 continent. 
 
 The homes of 
 Jeannette and Lou- 
 ise, two of the Seven 
 Little Sisters, were 
 in that country. If 
 you have read the 
 story, can you not 
 tell some things 
 about each of them? 
 
 The eastern 
 Fl - no. part of the con- 
 
 The home of Jeannette, among the Swiss mountains, tinent is Called 
 Find other pictures of these mountains on pages 18 
 and 23. Asia. 
 
132 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Read in the " Seven Little Sisters " about Gemila, the child of the 
 desert, and of Pen-se, the Chinese girl, whose homes were in Asia. 
 
 Europe is usually considered one continent and Asia an- 
 other, although, as you can see from the maps, especially 
 Fig. 105, they are not so clearly separated as the other 
 continents are. For this reason Europe and Asia are 
 often called one continent, Eurasia, the name being made 
 up of "Eur," from Europe, and "Asia." 
 
 Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably 
 its warmest part? 
 
 FIG. 111. 
 The tiger, one of the wild animals of Africa and Asia. 
 
 Africa. South of Europe is the continent of Africa. 
 
 Here lived the little dark girl, Manenko, one of the Seven Sisters, 
 and this is the place the negroes came from. 
 
 In what zones does Africa lie ? How does it compare 
 with South America in temperature ? In shape ? In what 
 direction would you start in order to go directly to Africa? 
 
 Australia. South of Asia are many large islands called 
 the East India Islands (Fig. 119). Find the zone in which 
 they lie. Southeast of these is a large island known as the 
 continent of Australia (Fig. 119). In what zones is it? 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 133 
 
 THE OCEANS 
 
 The Arctic and Antarctic. There seems to be a great 
 deal of land ; but, as we have learned (p. 63), three- 
 fourths of the earth is covered by ocean water. The 
 water around the north pole (Fig. 106) is called the Arctic 
 Ocean. Find it on a globe. 
 
 There are many islands in this 
 ocean, and the water between them is 
 covered with ice. The climate is so 
 cold that there are very few people, 
 and no crops of any kind can be raised. 
 Here the Eskimos live, hunting the 
 polar bear, seal, and walrus to obtain 
 meat for food, fur for clothing, and 
 oil for fuel and light (see p. 192). 
 
 FIG, 112. 
 
 The southern hemisphere, show- 
 ing the water surrounding the 
 south pole. Notice that the 
 Antarctic is not separated by 
 land from the other oceans. 
 
 Much less is known about 
 the Antarctic Ocean (Fig. 112), 
 which surrounds the south pole, 
 and on which there is also a 
 great deal of floating ice. 
 
 The Atlantic. Extending from the Arctic to the An- 
 tarctic is the Atlantic Ocean, hav- 
 in the Old World on the east 
 and the New World on the west. 
 This is the water that we cross 
 in going to Europe, and many of 
 the things we eat and wear are 
 brought across it. Can you name 
 some of them ? Find what con- 
 u tinents the Atlantic bathes. 
 
 TIGRIS The Pacific. The water west 
 
 The Atlantic Ocean. of North America is called the 
 
134 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 NORTH POT.F, 
 
 SOUTH POLE 
 
 FIG. 114. 
 
 The eastern part of the Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 NORTH POLE 
 
 Pacific Ocean, which is the larg- 
 est of all oceans, covering more 
 than one-third of the earth's 
 surface. What continents does 
 it bathe ? Walk toward it. 
 
 The Indian. There is still an- 
 other great body of water called 
 the Indian Ocean (Fig. 109). It 
 lies south of India in Asia, and 
 between Africa on one side and 
 Australia and the East Indies on 
 the other. 
 
 The Ocean Bottom. - - The 
 depth of the ocean water varies 
 considerably ; on the average it 
 is a little over two miles, but in 
 some places it is more than four 
 miles deep. In this immense 
 body of water are millions of 
 animals, some of them, as the 
 whale, shark, codfish, and seal, 
 being of use to man. 
 
 The bed of the ocean is 
 mainly a great plain, where it 
 is as dark as our darkest night, because the sunlight 
 
 cannot pass 
 through so 
 much water. 
 In conse- 
 quence, the 
 FIG. lie. fish living 
 
 One of the deep-sea fish. there have 
 
 SOUTH 1'Ol.E 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 
 A part of the glohe. What con- 
 tinents and oceans are shown ? 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 135 
 
 little use for eyes, and some that have been brought to the 
 surface have none. 
 
 The inud which covers the bottom is in many places 
 made up of the shells of tiny animals, many of them even 
 smaller than a pinhead. Some of the chalk used in 
 schools was just such mud before it was raised to form 
 rock layers on the dry land. 
 
 Mountains in the Oceans. While most of the bottom 
 of the sea is a plain, some parts are not so level. Here 
 and there are mountain peaks, and chains of islands, 
 extending above the sea far away from the continents. 
 Many of these are portions of mountain chains rising 
 above the water, having been 
 lifted to such a height by 
 the wrinkling of the earth's 
 crust through contraction ; but 
 many, like the Hawaiian Is- 
 lands, are volcanoes which have 
 been built up by lava flowing 
 from the interior of the earth 
 (see pp. 124 and 125). 
 
 Coral Islands. In the open 
 ocean there is another inter- 
 esting kind of island known as the coral island (Fig. 118). 
 Some very tiny creatures, called coral polyps, build hard, 
 limy coral, such as you have no doubt seen. Where the 
 ocean water is warm, as in the torrid zone, these little 
 animals live in immense numbers. Millions of them may 
 be found around a single island, and every one is busy 
 building its tiny skeleton of lime. 
 
 Each polyp resembles a fully blossomed flower; and 
 they vary greatly in color, being white, pink, purple, red, 
 
 FIG. 117. 
 
 A piece of coral, with the polyps 
 projecting from the hard coral 
 like a hunch of flowers. 
 
136 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 yellow, brown, and many other col- 
 ors. It is a truly beautiful sight to 
 see them spread out in the water, 
 looking like a flower garden in the 
 sea (Fig. 117). 
 
 When these coral animals die, 
 the hard coral part remains. Then 
 other polyps build upon these skele- 
 tons, and this is continued until 
 the surface of the water is reached 
 and coral islands are formed. 
 
 FIG. 118. 
 
 A ring-like coral island, 
 called an atoll, in the 
 open ocean. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Name the five continents, counting 
 Eurasia as one. (2) Write their names. (3) Walk toward each of 
 them. (4) Tell what you can about each. (5) Where is the Arctic 
 Ocean ? The Antarctic ? (6) Tell something about the people and 
 animals of the Arctic region. (7) What oceans touch North Amer- 
 ica? (8) Name five oceans. Which is the largest? (9) How deep 
 is the ocean water? (10) Name some of the animals that live in it. 
 (11) What are the conditions on the ocean bottom? (12) In what 
 ways are islands in the open ocean formed? (13) Explain how coral 
 islands are made. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Make an outline drawing of each of the con- 
 tinents. (2) Of each of the oceans. (3) Collect pictures of the 
 animals, people, and scenery of the different continents. Many such 
 pictures are printed in the magazines. (4) Write a story about one 
 of the pictures. (5) Write a story about something that you have 
 learned concerning one of the continents. (6) Obtain pieces of coral 
 for the school collection. (7) Study the maps, Figs. 119 and 120, to 
 learn more about the continents and oceans. 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 258. 
 
North Pole s> 
 
VI. MAPS 
 
 THE maps that have been thus far used are all hemi- 
 spheres, and represent the earth as it would appear if 
 we looked down upon it from above. Such maps are 
 especially desirable because they call attention to the 
 roundness of the earth ; but they are so difficult to make 
 that it is customary to represent the earth on flat maps 
 instead. 
 
 In Figure 119 you can see the difference between the 
 two. While the lower ones show the roundness of the 
 earth, the upper two represent it as quite flat. Although 
 they are unlike, the latter show the position of the land 
 and the water quite as plainly as the former. Since this 
 is true, and since it is much easier to make the flat maps, 
 these will be the ones chiefly used hereafter in this book. 
 But in studying flat maps one should always remember 
 to think of the earth as round, and not as a flat surface. 1 
 Examine Figure 120 also. 2 
 
 1 The teacher should see that this is done by frequent use of a globe. 
 It is advisable to have one large globe and several small ones, so that each 
 pupil may have one for frequent use. 
 
 2 These maps (Figs. 119 and 120) should be carefully studied, the 
 pupil following map questions given by the teacher to cover form, loca- 
 tion, etc., of continents, oceans, and important places. 
 
 137 
 
FIG. 121. 
 Relief map of North America. 
 
 VII. NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Physical Geography. Here is a relief map of the con- 
 tinent on which we live. What great highland do you 
 find in the west? In the east? In what direction does 
 each extend ? One is much broader and higher than the 
 other; which is it? Where is the lowest land between 
 
 138 
 
NORTH AMERICA ' 139 
 
 these two highlands ? Trace the Mississippi River. Name 
 some of its largest tributaries. (You will find these 
 names on the map, Fig. 123.) Find the Rio Grande River 
 in the south ; the St. Lawrence River in the northeast ; 
 the Mackenzie and the Yukon in the northwest. 
 
 What two great rivers flow westward from the Rocky 
 Mountains to the Pacific Ocean ? Notice the slope east of 
 the Appalachian Mountains. Is it longer or shorter than 
 that west of the Rockies ? What, then, are the main 
 slopes in North America? 
 
 Upon which of these slopes do you live? Point as 
 nearly as you can to the place where your home is. Show 
 where your, nearest large river should be, even if it is not 
 represented on this map. 
 
 Find New York and San Francisco on Figure 123. If you were to 
 go westward from the former to the latter, you would travel over 
 many hills, valleys, and mountains. Some of the slopes would be 
 
 F E 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 
 Section across United States, from east to west, to show mountains, plains, 
 and principal slopes. 
 
 short and gentle ; others would be very long, and sometimes gentle, 
 sometimes steep. Here is a drawing showing the chief slopes you 
 would cross in making that journey. Point on the map to the slopes 
 A,B, C, D, E, and F, of the drawing. Draw a section like this. 
 
 Political Divisions. You will remember that Spain 
 was the nation that helped Columbus make his discovery 
 of America. The Spaniards afterward settled in the 
 southern part of the continent, and introduced the Span- 
 
140 -THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 ish language there. That is still the .chief language 
 spoken in Mexico, in the southern part of North America. 
 Mexico used to belong to Spain, but became independent 
 many years ago. f 
 
 After Columbus had proved that there was land to the 
 west of Spain, other nations sent explorers and made 
 settlements. Among these were the English, who settled 
 chiefly along the Atlantic coast^and finally came to own 
 the great'er part of the continent north of Mexico. 
 
 In time the English w T ho lived in the centraUportion of 
 eastern North America, waged* wa'p^gainst England, and 
 chose George Washington as their leader. Oiithe 4th of 
 July, 1776, they declared their independence <| England, 
 and finally won it completely. This part became known 
 as the United States; but the region to the north, which 
 England was able to keep, and which she still possesses, is 
 called Canada. Find each of these countries on the map 
 (Fig. 123). Point toward Cajiada and Mexico. Walk 
 toward each. 
 
 Besides these three large nations, several Smaller ones 
 occupy that part of the continent, s<mth of Mexico, which 
 is called Central America. . 
 
 Of course there must be some place where one country ends and 
 another begins. Such a place is called a boundary, and the boundary 
 lines between the different nations are shown on this map by heavy 
 lines. . Point them out. 
 
 In some parts you see that a natural boundary has been chosen, 
 such as a river or a chain of lakes; but it is often only a straight line, 
 cutting across rivers, lakes and mountains. Examine the boundary 
 of the United States to determine how much of it is natural. 
 
 Where the boundary is only a straight line, it is marked by a row 
 of posts or stone pillars a few rods apart, and if you were to cross 
 from one country to another you could easily see them, 
 
Comparative Area 
 PEXN. 
 
 45,215 Square Miles. 
 
3r^xS^..!t?i 
 
 sr^feX5 
 

 VIII. THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ]\IAP QUESTIONS. (1) What waters border the United States? 
 (2) What countries? (3) What is the greatest distance across the 
 United States, east and west ? (Notice the scale of miles on the map). 
 North and south? (4) Where are the main divides? (5) Do you see 
 any part that has very few streams ? What does that suggest to. you ? 
 (6) Find New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, 
 Chicago, New Orleans, St. Louis, Denver, and San Francisco, and tell 
 where each is. 
 
 When our war for independence began there were thir- 
 teen large settlements, called colonies, which at the close 
 of the war became known as states. Our flag still has its 
 thirteen red and white stripes to remind us of them. 
 
 There were at first only thirteen stars in the blue field of the flag; 
 but one has been added for each new state until now there are many 
 more. Count the stars on a flag to see how many states there are. 
 
 For a long time after the war for independence, the in- 
 terior and western parts of what is now the United States 
 formed an unknown wilderness belonging to other nations, 
 and inhabited chiefly by Indians. The United States has 
 obtained part of this land by war, and part of it by pur- 
 chase, so that the country is now several times as large as 
 it was at first. Many large states have been added ; but 
 there are still some parts, called territories, which have 
 not yet been made into states. 
 
 In order that they may be more easily studied, the 
 states are usually Divided into groups. Let us take first 
 the northeastern group called the New England States; 
 and afterwards, others. 
 
 141 
 
IX. NEW ENGLAND 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Name the six states included in New Eng- 
 land. (2) Which is largest? (3) Which smallest? (4) Which has 
 noseacoast? (5) What mountains are found in these states? What 
 rivers? (6) Remembering what was said on pp. 66 and 90, where 
 would you expect to find the largest cities ? (7) What is the capital 
 of each state? (8) Point to Cambridge in Massachusetts, where Long- 
 fellow lived. (9) To Boston. Walk toward Boston. (10) In what 
 direction would one sail from there to reach England? (See Fig. 119.) 
 
 FIG. 126. 
 
 A view of Boston, the largest city in New England, showing its harbor and 
 some of the ships in it. 
 
 Names. The settlers who came to this part of North 
 America called it New England. Several names on the 
 map also commence with New, as New Hampshire and 
 New Haven. Find others. What reason can you give 
 for their using that word so often ? j 
 
 Seaports. If you examine the map you will notice that 
 the coast is very irregular, with many small bays, promon- 
 
 142 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES 
 
 100 
 
NEW ENGLAND 
 
 148 
 
 tories, and fine harbors. Draw the coast line showing 
 some of these. 
 
 The excellent harbors have determined the places where 
 great cities should grow up. The largest of all is BOSTON, 
 and two others are PORTLAND and PROVIDENCE. Point 
 them out. What direc- ._ _____ m ______ _ ._ . ....... . , 
 
 tion is each from the 
 others, and in what 
 state is each? 
 
 Fishing. Some of the 
 towns are located on the 
 coast because the men who 
 live in them are fishermen, 
 and must have their homes 
 near the water. In the early 
 days, cod, mackerel, and 
 halibut were easily caught 
 near the shore ; but now it 
 is often necessary to sail far 
 from land, the men being 
 gone perhaps for weeks be- 
 fore filling their vessels 
 (Fig. 67, p. 73) with fish. 
 
 PORTLAND, BOSTON, and GLOUCESTER l are important fish markets, 
 the latter being the largest fishing port in the country. Fish are sent from 
 there to all parts of the United States, and even to foreign countries. 
 
 Farming. A fine harbor by itself cannot make a great 
 city. As you remember (p. 59), this is important simply 
 because it renders the loading and unloading of vessels 
 both easy and safe. But unless there were many people 
 supplying and needing materials, there would be little 
 need of using these harbors. 
 
 1 Whenever a city, river, etc., is mentioned in the text, the pupils 
 should be required to locate it on the map, giving state and position. 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 Fishermen hoisting halibut from a fishing 
 vessel at Gloucester. Notice that these 
 fish are as large as a man. 
 
144 THE EASTS AS A WHOLE 
 
 Let us see, then, if there are many people living farther 
 inland and what they do. 
 
 One might expect that there would be much farming 
 there ; but there are so many hills and mountains, and the 
 soil is often so thin and stony, that the farms are usually 
 small, supplying only vegetables, milk, butter, and other 
 products to be used in the cities near by. Some of them, 
 far from the cities, have been abandoned because the land 
 is so hilly and the soil so poor. 
 
 FIG. 128. 
 Lumbermen engaged in floating logs down-stream from the forest. 
 
 Quarrying. But while the rocky hills and mountains hinder farm- 
 ing, they often furnish excellent granite, which is used for buildings 
 and street pavements. White marble, used in monuments, is also 
 found among the mountains near RUTLAND, Vermont ; and slate, for 
 roofs of houses, and for writing slates, is obtained both in Vermont 
 and Maine. 
 
 Lumbering. Since many of the hills and mountains 
 are still covered with forests, much lumber is obtained 
 from them, especially from the mountainous part of north- 
 ern Maine. As you can see from the map (Fig. 125), 
 
NEW ENGLAND 
 
 145 
 
 there are very few towns in this section, most of the 
 country being wooded. 
 
 During spring freshets, when the winter snows are melt- 
 ing, the logs are floated down-stream, often to a place where 
 ocean steamers 
 can reach them. 
 Here they are 
 sawed into lum- 
 ber and loaded 
 upon vessels to 
 be carried in all 
 directions. BAN- 
 GOR, on the Pe- 
 nobscot River, 
 has become a 
 large city, chief - 
 
 , ., FIG. 129. 
 
 ly because of its 
 
 lumber industry. Other towns on the Kennebec and the 
 
 Androscoggin rivers have grown in the same way. 
 
 LUMBER DISTRICTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UMTED STATES. 
 
 CD Most Important Districts. 
 CH Less Important Districts. 
 
 FIG. 1130. 
 
 Lumber ships loading boards from the great piles that can be seen on the 
 wharf. Here are also many logs ready to go to the saw-mill to be made 
 into boards. 
 
146 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Manufacturing. But we have not yet come to the most 
 important occupation of the New England people. The 
 short rivers, having their sources in the uplands, flow with 
 swift course to the sea, and are often interrupted by rapids 
 and falls. In one way this is a disadvantage, because 
 vessels cannot go far up-stream ; but in another way it is 
 a great advantage. Can you see how ? 
 
 On page 50 you learned that streams with swift cur- 
 rents and waterfalls furnish the best water-power. Where 
 such power is abundant, wheels can be turned and great 
 factories be run. This makes it clear why the chief in- 
 
 FTG. 131. 
 Great cotton-mills on the Merrimac River at Manchester, New Hampshire. 
 
 dustry of New England is manufacturing. In fact, the 
 New England states are among the most important manu- 
 facturing states in the Union. 
 
 The principal rivers that furnish water-power are the 
 Merrimac, Connecticut, and the three in Maine already 
 mentioned (p. 145). Find each of these, and trace its 
 course from source to mouth. Make a drawing to rep- 
 resent each one, and locate upon it some of the large 
 cities. 
 
 There is so much manufacturing in New England, by 
 the use of water-power and steam, that shiploads of cotton 
 
NSW ENGLAND 147 
 
 are sent there to be made into cloth at such cities as MAN- 
 CHESTER (Fig. 131), LOWELL, NEW BEDFORD, and FALL 
 RIVER. Great quantities of wool are brought to be made 
 into woollen goods at LAWRENCE and PROVIDENCE, which 
 also manufacture cotton goods ; and thousands of hides of 
 cattle and other animals to be made into boots, shoes, gloves, 
 and leather of all kinds at LYNN and other cities. Iron 
 and other metals are also brought to be made into knives, 
 needles, watches, firearms, machines, and hundreds of 
 other articles at WORCESTER, BRIDGEPORT, SPRINGFIELD, 
 NEW HAVEN, and HARTFORD. In Boston itself there is 
 also a vast amount of manufacturing of different kinds. 
 
 Find each of these cities ; tell in what state it is and upon what 
 river, if the name is given 011 the map. Most of the other cities 
 marked on the map are also engaged in some kind of manufacturing. 
 Perhaps the shoes or some of the clothing that you wear were made 
 in one of these places. 
 
 Commerce. Some of the manufactured articles are 
 shipped to all parts of the United States, and even to 
 other countries. It is to a considerable extent this im- 
 mense amount of manufacturing that furnishes employ- 
 ment to the people along the coast, and has caused the 
 large cities to grow about the best harbors. 
 
 Not only do the persons living in the interior produce 
 great quantities of goods to be shipped away, but they 
 require others to be shipped in. Much of their food and 
 also the cotton, wool, and hides must be brought to them. 
 The amount of shipping is therefore very great, and this 
 is one of the chief reasons why BOSTON, PORTLAND, and 
 PROVIDENCE have become large cities. To the first two 
 goods are sent by rail from the far West to be shipped 
 abroad. 
 
148 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Why is it an advantage to New Eng- 
 land that its coast is so irregular? (2) Mention some of the larger 
 seaports. (3) Name the principal fishing port in the country. (4) Tell 
 what you can about the farming. (5) What kinds of stone are found, 
 and for what are they used ? Where are they found ? (6) Describe 
 the lumbering. Which state produces most lumber? (7) Explain 
 how the lumber trade has determined the location of Bangor. On 
 what river is it situated ? (8) Why cannot vessels go far up the New 
 England rivers ? (9) How are the rivers useful for manufacturing? 
 Name several that furnish water-power. (10) What goods are manu- 
 factured there? In what cities? (11) What articles must be shipped 
 to this section? Why? (12) Tell how such commerce affects the 
 size of the coast cities. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) What stories of New England do you know? 
 (2) Read about the Puritans. (3) Go into a fish store to see a cod- 
 fish, mackerel, halibut, etc. (4) Examine some granite so that you 
 will know it the next time you see it. (5) Find a monument made 
 of white marble. (6) Find a house whose roof is covered with slate. 
 (7) Start a collection for the school by bringing specimens of use- 
 ful stones. (8) Try to find out more about lumbering in Maine. 
 Hunt for pictures illustrating this work. (9) Start a school collec- 
 tion of pictures from magazines, etc. (10) How many articles can 
 you mention that are made of wood? (11) Get some friend to take 
 you through some kind of a factory, and tell the class what you saw. 
 (12) Draw a sketch-map of New England, locating the rivers, capital 
 cities, and principal towns. 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 259. 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 Capitals of Countries: 
 Capitals of States: 
 Other Cities: 
 Canals : .. 
 
 O H T) 
 
 .ZauesvilleS " wheel Me 
 Columbus 
 
X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Which of the Middle Atlantic States bor- 
 der on the Atlantic Ocean? (2) Which does not? (3) Which is 
 smallest? (4) How does Pennsylvania compare in size with New 
 England? (You will find the scale on each map.) (5) Name the 
 chief rivers and tell where they are. (6) Which state extends far- 
 thest east? Which farthest west ? (7) What natural boundaries do 
 you find between them ? (8) What are the names of the mountain 
 ranges? (9) Which state has no mountains? 
 
 The Coast-line. Observe that, as in New England, 
 the coast-line of the Middle Atlantic states is very irregu- 
 lar. At three places the sinking of the land has caused 
 the ocean water to reach far into the land, forming Chesa- 
 peake, Delaware, and New York bays. Find each ; also 
 draw the coast-line to show these bays. 
 
 The Seaports. The largest cities in New England 
 were found along the coast on bays similar to these, though 
 smaller. The same is true here. NEW YORK on the first 
 named bay, is the largest city in the United States and 
 next to the largest in the world. Southwest of it is PHIL- 
 ADELPHIA on the Delaware, just as far up the river as 
 large ocean vessels can go. Farther south, near the head 
 of Chesapeake Bay, is a third great city, named BALTI- 
 MORE, in the state of Maryland. 
 
 REASONS FOR THE GREAT SIZE OF NEW YORK CITY 
 
 Cities near by. Near New York harbor we find not only 
 NEW YORK, but JERSEY CITY, NEWARK, and BROOKLYN, 
 
 149 
 
150 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 which has lately become a part of GREATER NEW YORK. 
 Other cities like PATERSON are not far away. That is, 
 not only one, but several great cities have grown up here 
 very near together. Let us see why more people should 
 have crowded together here than in any other part of the 
 New World. 
 
 One reason is that from New York harbor, where hun- 
 dreds of vessels may enter at one time, goods can be 
 
 shipped over the At- 
 lantic Ocean to vari- 
 ous parts of the world. 
 Water-route to the 
 Interior. A second 
 reason is that goods 
 may also be shipped 
 westward by water. 
 Looking at the map, 
 you see that New 
 York Bay is at the 
 mouth of the Hudson 
 
 FIG. 133. 
 
 The broad Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, 
 where a railway bridge crosses it. 
 
 River. The sinking of the land has caused the ocean 
 water to enter this river, and thereby to make it so broad 
 and deep that large vessels can ascend it as far as ALBANY. 
 
 A few miles from Albany the Mohawk River enters the 
 Hudson from the west, having its source far over toward 
 SYRACUSE. 
 
 Long ago people saw that if they could construct a 
 water-way from the Hudson River to BUFFALO, they 
 could go by water all the way from New York to Buffalo ; 
 and then, since the Great Lakes are connected with one 
 another, they could go all the way to the western end of 
 Lake Superior. Use the scale of the map (Fig. 124) 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 151 
 
 to find how many miles that is. Through what lakes 
 would the route lead ? 
 
 The scheme was finally carried out by building the Erie 
 Canal from BUFFALO, on Lake Erie, to the Mohawk Valley, 
 then down that valley to ALBANY. (See map, Fig. 132.) 
 
 As the Western country became settled, more and more 
 goods were shipped to and from New York. When rail- 
 ways began to be built many of them also led there. In 
 this way New York has become a great city, and the chief 
 shipping-point for a large part of the United States. Let 
 us see what some 
 of the goods are 
 that are sent to 
 New York. 
 
 Lumbering. 
 On the map 
 (Fig. 132) you 
 will find the Ad- 
 irondack Moun- 
 tains north of 
 the Mohawk, 
 and the Catskill 
 Mountains south 
 of it. Among 
 these there are still forests, as in Maine, so that lumbering 
 is an important industry there. 
 
 Farming. These mountains do not cover all of the 
 state ; most of it is more level, and has a rich soil upon it. 
 Farming is therefore much more important than in New 
 England. Besides butter and cheese, considerable hay 
 and grain are produced, and an abundance of fruit, such 
 as apples, pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. 
 
 FIG. 134. 
 
 In a salt mine, a thousand feet beneath the surface, 
 in central New York. The walls and sides of these 
 tunnels are glistening* white salt. 
 
152 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Salt. An extensive bed of salt is found deep down 
 in the earth, in the central part of the state. Salt is taken 
 from it in many places, and it was the important salt in- 
 dustry that determined the location, and much of the 
 early growth, of SYRACUSE. 
 
 Manufacturing. Again, in this state, as in New Eng- 
 land, there are many streams with waterfalls. Manufac- 
 turing has therefore become extensive. 
 
 FIG. 135. 
 Niagara Falls, the greatest cataract in the world (160 feet high) . 
 
 In ROCHESTER, at the falls of the Genesee River (Fig. 75, p. 85), 
 are many flour mills. The cities on the Mohawk are also engaged in 
 manufacturing. What are their names? In BUFFALO, the second 
 city in size in New York* State, much use is made of power from the 
 Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. TROY, near ALBANY, makes 
 shirts, collars, and cuffs. These cities, as you see, are situated along 
 the water-route already mentioned. Why ? What others do you find 
 along this route ? 
 
 In NEW YORK CITY itself there is a vast amount of manufacturing, 
 steam being used for power. In fact, in many places, even where 
 there is water-power, factories now often use steam ; but when the 
 manufacturing began, people could not use steam because they did 
 not know how, and the first manufacturing towns were built where 
 there was water-power. 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 153 
 
 Commerce. So much manufacturing, together with 
 the farming and other industries of the state, helps to 
 explain the great amount of commerce. People are con- 
 tinually sending goods to New York and receiving others 
 from there. It should be remembered, too, that cities 
 hundreds of miles farther west, in the neighborhood of 
 the Great Lakes, are connected with New York by water 
 and rail, and are engaged in trade with it. 
 
 From this it is plain why the largest city in America is 
 situated where it is, and why other cities have grown up 
 about New York harbor. 
 
 REASONS WHY PHILADELPHIA HAS BECOME A GREAT 
 
 CITY 
 
 Cities near by. PHILADELPHIA, like New York, has 
 other important cities near by. Directly across the Dela- 
 ware is CAMDEN in New Jersey ; and to the northeast, 
 also in New Jersey, is TRENTON, where a clay is found 
 that is made into dishes and earthenware. To the south- 
 west is WILMINGTON in Delaware, where many ships and 
 railway cars are built. 
 
 Farming. The soil and climate in this neighborhood 
 are well adapted to fruit-growing, especially peaches, pears, 
 apples, grapes, and berries. On this account there are 
 many factories for canning fruit in some of these cities. 
 
 To the northwest of Philadelphia are the Appalachian 
 Mountains. Note the direction in which they extend 
 across the state. The valleys among the mountains, and 
 the plateaus and lowlands east and west of them, are fer- 
 tile enough for good farming, especially wheat raising, 
 sheep raising, and dairying ; but lumbering is still carried 
 on among the mountains. 
 
154 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 FIG. 136. 
 
 The forest-covered slopes of the Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania, at 
 Mauch Chunk. 
 
 Iron. Several substances found beneath the soil in 
 Pennsylvania are its most important products. 
 
 In the first place, a great amount of iron ore is found 
 there. When dug out of the ground this often resembles 
 reddish earth, and it never looks exactly like iron ; but 
 by melting the ore, iron is obtained from it, and is then 
 shipped to many places to be made into stoves, engines, 
 guns, ships, knives, and a thousand other things. PITTS- 
 BURG and ALLEGHENY are noted for such manufacturing ; 
 also READING and HAERISBURG, the capital, as well as 
 Philadelphia and its neighboring cities. See how long a 
 list you can make of articles made of iron and steel. 
 
 Coal. It requires an immense amount of fuel to pro- 
 duce the heat necessary to obtain iron from the ore and 
 to make it into the many articles mentioned. Fortunately 
 great quantities of coal are also found in this state, soft 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 155 
 
 FIG. 137. 
 
 In a Pennsylvania coal mine, where the walls are black instead of white as in 
 the salt mine (Fig. 134) . 
 
 coal being mined in the western part near PITTSBUHG 
 and ALLEGHENY, and hard or anthracite coal in the east- 
 ern part near SCRANTON and WILKES BAKRE. 
 
 Much coal is needed for stoves and furnaces in houses, and also 
 for producing steam for factories. There is, therefore, a great 
 demand for it, and 
 every year it is 
 shipped by thou- 
 sands of carloads 
 to New York, Phil- 
 adelphia, and else- 
 where, often to be 
 loaded upon ships 
 to be sent to Boston 
 and many other 
 cities. 
 
 Oil and Gas. 
 Gas, much like that 
 used jn lighting 
 
 ^t!?L^&r 
 
 PRINCIPAL COAL FIELDS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UMTED STATES. 
 
 THE M.-N. CO. 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
156 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 houses, and petroleum, the oil from which kerosene is made, are also 
 found beneath the soil in the western part of Pennsylvania. There is 
 so much gas in some places that it is burned as a fuel in manufac- 
 turing glass and other articles, as at Pittsburg and elsewhere. 
 
 Commerce. The products of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
 and Delaware, principally fruity grain, lumber, iron, coal, 
 gas, and oil, together with the manufacture of iron goods, 
 have helped to make Philadelphia a great city. As in 
 the case of New York, many of these substances are sent 
 to Philadelphia to be manufactured ; and, like New York, 
 Philadelphia is one of the great manufacturing cities of 
 the country. Many other materials are sent there to be 
 shipped away by water ; and many shiploads of goods, for 
 people living in other cities farther west, are unloaded at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 OTHER CITIES 
 
 Baltimore. BALTIMORE has grown in much the same 
 way. Its harbor is excellent, and both coal and iron can 
 easily reach it from Pennsylvania. Like Philadelphia, 
 Boston, and New York, it has an important commerce and 
 much manufacturing. 
 
 Oysters abound in the shallow waters of Chesapeake Bay, and are 
 shipped from NORFOLK, ANNAPOLIS, and BALTIMORE. 
 
 Washington. Another large city in this section is 
 WASHINGTON, on the Potomac River in the District of 
 Columbia. Although large vessels are able to reach it, 
 it owes its importance not to commerce, but to the fact 
 that it is the National Capital, where there are many great 
 government buildings (Fig. 85, p. 99), and thousands of 
 men and women employed in the service of the govern- 
 ment. Can you describe some of their work? (See 
 pp. 97 and 98 in Part I.) 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 157 
 
 Virginia and West Virginia. RICHMOND, on the James 
 River, is the capital and most important city of Virginia, 
 the state in which Washington and Jefferson lived. The 
 western part of the state is mountainous, as is the eastern 
 part of West Virginia, the mountains furnishing lumber and 
 iron. Also in West Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, there is a 
 great amount of coal, oil, and gas. This leads to extensive 
 manufacturing, especially at WHEELING on the Ohio River. 
 
 FIG. 139. 
 
 A picture of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, with the National Capitol 
 building standing at the farther end. 
 
 Farming is the chief work in Virginia. The climate is 
 so mild that tobacco can be raised much more profitably 
 than in the states farther north. The tobacco plant, which 
 white men found the Indians smoking, has a large leaf 
 that is picked and dried, and then made into cigars and 
 other forms in which tobacco is used. Factories are 
 needed for such work, and they represent one of the main 
 industries of RICHMOND, which is a great tobacco market, 
 as Gloucester is a great fish market. 
 
158 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Name the chief seaports. Walk tow- 
 ard each as you name it. (2) What reasons can you give for the 
 great size of New York City? (3) Make a drawing of the Hudson 
 and Mohawk rivers. (4) What cities do you find on the Erie Canal? 
 
 (5) What can you say^about the farming in New York State? 
 
 (6) Where is the salt found? (7) What about manufacturing in 
 New York ? (8) What are the chief farm products near Philadelphia 
 and Wilmington? (9) Why is iron manufacture- so important in 
 Pennsylvania? (10) Tell why Philadelphia has become a great city. 
 
 (11) Where- are Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, and Wilkes Barre? 
 
 (12) For what is Baltimore noted? (13) Washington? (14) For 
 what industry is Richmond noted? (15) Where are Richmond and 
 Wheeling? (16) In which state is each of the cities mentioned? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Make a list of all the cities named. (2) Are 
 any of them not located either upon the seashore, on rivers, or lakes? 
 (3) Which is farther north, Buffalo or Boston ? (see Fig. 124, oppo- 
 site p. 141.) (4) Find what some of the chief difficulties are in build- 
 ing canals. (5) Examine some iron ore and add it to the school 
 collection. (6) Visit a factory where iron goods are manufactured. 
 
 (7) Why does Buffalo promise to be a growing city ? (8) Why have 
 Pittsburg and Allegheny a good location? (9) Give two reasons why 
 Wilmington is a good place for shipbuilding. (10) Collect some 
 pieces of anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, and com- 
 pare them. (11) Read the story of Rip Van Winkle. The mountains 
 described are the Catskills. (12) Draw an outline map of these 
 states and include the capitals. (13) Draw each of the states from 
 memory. (14) Find out some facts about Washington, its build- 
 ings, the people who live there, and what they do. (15) On the map 
 (Fig. 124, opposite p. 141) the word Delaware is not spelled out be- 
 cause there is not room, but Del. is put in its place. All the states 
 have abbreviations like this, which we use in writing letters. Find 
 out the abbreviation for each state in this group and in New England. 
 Also for the other states as you study about them. 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 259. 
 
sA^l 
 
 ^ f i 3 v I- ,.h- x^r-*-|^ - T.T 
 
 Fig. 140, Facing p. 159 
 
XL SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS'. (1) Where are the mountains in this group of 
 states ? (2) Where are the plains ? (see map, Fig. 140.) (3) Notice 
 the direction in which the land slopes. (4) Name the gulf on the 
 south side. (5) How is Texas separated from Mexico ? (6) What 
 large peninsula do you find on this map ? (7) Which is the largest 
 state V (8) How does it seem to compare with South Carolina in size? 
 With Pennsylvania ? (9) About how many miles is it by sea from New 
 Orleans to Boston? (see map, Fig. 124, opposite p. 141.) (10) Notice 
 how near these states are to the Tropic of Cancer (see map, Fig. 123, 
 opposite p. 140). What does that tell you about their climate? 
 
 Relief. The Appalachian Mountains extend into Ala- 
 bama, passing across several of the Southern states. 
 Name them. There are also some low mountains in west- 
 ern Arkansas and Missouri, and a portion of the Rocky 
 Mountains in western Texas. 
 
 But this part of the country is mainly a great region of 
 plains. Near the mountains, the plains are quite high 
 above the sea ; but near the coast there is a strip of low, 
 level land known as the coastal plains. 
 
 Other low land is found along the Mississippi River, 
 where there are broad flood-plains protected from the river 
 floods by banks, called levees. Notice especially the Mis- 
 sissippi delta, and explain how it happens that the land 
 projects so far into the gulf (see pp. 46 and 47). 
 
 We observe, then, that in this group of states are some 
 mountains; between these and the coast are high plains 
 or plateaus ; then along the coast are low plains. Let us 
 see what these three sections produce. 
 
 159 
 
160 
 
 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Coal and Iron. Coal and iron are found among the Ap- 
 palachian Mountains here, as in Pennsylvania. You would 
 
 expect from this 
 to find manufac- 
 turing centres 
 near the moun- 
 tains ; and BIR- 
 MINGHAM, AT- 
 LANTA, CHAT- 
 TANOOGA, and 
 KNOXVILLE 
 are engaged in 
 manufacture. 
 
 FIG. 141. 
 
 Negro children cm a cotton plantation. The white spots 
 are cotton bolls. 
 
 Find each and 
 tell what state 
 it is in. 
 
 Cotton. On the plains the soil is usually fertile, the 
 climate is warm, and there is plenty of rain everywhere 
 excepting in western Texas and Oklahoma. For these 
 reasons farming is 
 the chief occupa- 
 tion. The south- 
 ern farms are 
 commonly called 
 plantations, and 
 the principal crop 
 on the higher 
 plains, away from 
 the coast, is cot- 
 ton. 
 
 FIG. 142. 
 
 A small cotton-field and a negro home. The cot- 
 ton bolls look like white flowers. 
 
 The cotton plant grows to a height of two to four feet. It has a 
 white blossom, and after the flower is gone a small pod grows. This 
 
SOUTHERN STATES 161 
 
 pod enlarges until it ripens and bursts into a white ball, called the 
 cotton boll, which looks somewhat like a milkweed pod after it has 
 burst open. 
 
 The cotton bolls are picked in the autumn, usually by men, women, 
 and children, and then placed in a machine called the cotton gin; this 
 removes the cotton seed, and also separates or combs out the threads 
 of cotton. The cotton is then packed in bales, like hay, and shipped 
 away to be made into thread, cotton cloth, and other goods. Name 
 more of them. Name some of the cities in New England where this 
 manufacturing is carried on (see p. 147). 
 
 Corn and wheat are also grown upon these higher plains, 
 and tobacco, especially in the northern part of this section. 
 
 FIG. 143. 
 Great bunches of cattle feeding on the ranches of the arid plains of the west. 
 
 Ranching. The drier plains of western Texas are 
 covered with grass, which furnishes food for herds of 
 horses, cattle, and sheep. The work of raising these 
 animals is, therefore, one of the most important industries 
 of this state. The section of land over which a man's 
 cattle roam is not called a farm or plantation, but a cattle 
 ranch, and the business is known as ranching. 
 
 Since a few men can look after several thousand horses, cattle, or 
 sheep, few people are needed to carry on ranching. On that account 
 there are not many towns in the western part of Texas, as you can see 
 on the map. Many cattle are sent eastward from DALLAS by rail to 
 be used as food. 
 
162 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 Negro women cutting sugar-cane in Louisiana. 
 
 Sugar and 
 Rice. On the 
 low, swampy 
 plains near the 
 coast and along 
 the lower Missis- 
 sippi River, rice 
 and sugar-cane 
 are raised. Rice 
 seeds grow on a 
 grasslike plant in 
 
 wet soil. Sugar-cane looks much like corn ; but the juice 
 
 of the stalk is so 
 
 sweet that it can be 
 
 made into sugar and 
 
 molasses. 
 
 Fruits. Besides the 
 crops mentioned, the low 
 plain of Florida produces 
 fruits. It is so far south 
 that its climate is warm 
 enough for oranges, lem- 
 ons, and pineapples; prob- 
 ably your grocery store 
 has such fruits from that 
 state. 
 
 Lumbering. Some of 
 these plains, both the high 
 and the low ones, are still 
 wooded. It is from them 
 that the hard or Georgia 
 pine, so often used in 
 floors, is obtained. There are forests also in the mountains, so that 
 there is an abundance of timber in this region. Which Northern 
 
 FIG. 145. 
 A pineapple field in Florida. 
 
SOUTHERN STATES 163 
 
 state already studied has a large amount of timber? In what section 
 would you expect the climate to prevent the growth of forests? 
 
 Manufacturing. Knowing what is produced in the 
 Southern states, we might expect that there would be a 
 great deal of manufacturing. There are coal, iron ore, 
 corn, wheat, sugar-cane, cattle, sheep, cotton, and lumber, 
 from each of which useful articles can be made. Tell what 
 they are. There is also water-power in some places. 
 
 But it requires much skill to handle machinery, and 
 until recently most of the labor in the South was done by 
 negro slaves who had little education. Therefore, before 
 the war which freed the slaves, there was almost no manu- 
 facturing in the South. Now the negroes are learning to 
 work with machinery, and many white men from the North 
 have carried manufacturing to these Southern states, so 
 that the cities near the coal and iron section have grown 
 to be manufacturing centres. Name them once more. 
 
 There are also numerous lumber mills ; and the sap of the pine tree 
 is manufactured into turpentine and rosin. In some places tobacco 
 is made into cigars, sugar-cane into molasses, the hides of cattle into 
 leather, cotton into cloth, and cotton seed into cotton-seed oil. The 
 number of these factories is increasing every year. 
 
 But even now many of the products of the mines and 
 the soil, called raw products, are shipped away to be manu- 
 factured into useful articles in other places, as New Eng- 
 land. Then, after the articles' are finished, some of them 
 are brought back for use in the South. 
 
 New Orleans. Since farming is the main occupation, 
 many of the people must live some distance apart upon 
 their plantations. We need not expect, then, to find 
 many large cities in these states. The principal ones will 
 be those that have grown up at the best shipping points, 
 
164 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 that is on the ocean harbors, on the rivers, or on some of 
 the great railways. 
 
 The greatest city in this entire section is NEW ORLEANS, 
 in Louisiana, on the Mississippi River about one hundred 
 miles from its mouth. It is about the size of Pittsburg. 
 
 FIG. 146. 
 
 Loading and unloading goods on the levee at New Orleans. Notice the mules, 
 one af the most common draft animals of the South. 
 
 Like New York it can be reached not only by railway, 
 but also by vessels from across the Atlantic Ocean, and by 
 others from distant inland cities. Ocean ships are able to 
 pass up the river from the Gulf; and river boats can reach it 
 from cities far up the Mississippi and its tributaries. Find 
 some of these cities, such as Pittsburg and St. Louis (Fig. 
 124) . Measure the distance from New Orleans to Pittsburg. 
 
 These facts help to explain why New Orleans is a great cotton- 
 shipping port. Quantities of cotton-seed oil, sugar, molasses, and rice 
 are also sent from there. Manufactured goods, as cloth and shoes, 
 and foods, as meat and corn, are brought to this centre, and there 
 distributed in all directions. Further up the river are VICKSBURG 
 and MEMPHIS, which are important river ports. 
 
SOUTHERN STATES 1C>5 
 
 Other Seaports. Not many large cities are found on 
 the Gulf coast. One reason is that the entrances to the 
 harbors are often blocked by sand-bars. Also, since there 
 are so few people and cities inland, there is no reason for 
 having many great cities on the coast. 
 
 The largest seaport west of New Orleans is GALVESTON, 
 which is somewhat larger than Lynn, Mass. What goods 
 are probably shipped from this harbor ? Remember the 
 low coastal plains and the high dry plains to the west. 
 
 Along the coast east of New Orleans are MOBILE, a great cotton 
 port, TAMPA, and PENSACOLA, a lumber port. Why lumber? On 
 the Atlantic coast are JACKSONVILLE, the chief shipping port for 
 Florida oranges, SAVANNAH, CHARLESTON, and WILMINGTON. Find 
 each of these and tell what state it is in. 
 
 FIG. 147. 
 Some of the Indians who live in Indian Territory. 
 
 Oklahoma and Indian Territory. A few years ago the section north 
 of Texas, now called Indian Territory and Oklahoma, were known 
 under the one name of Indian Territory, a place set aside by our gov- 
 ernment as a home for some of the tribes of Indians. But later, these 
 Indians were collected in the part now called Indian Territory ; then 
 Oklahoma was opened up to white people for settlement. Now many 
 thousands of white men are living in the territory of Oklahoma. 
 
166 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Climate. The climate of the Southern states is so mild that many 
 Northern people go South in winter to escape the cold. In the South- 
 ern part it rarely snows, and flowers are in blossom in midwinter. 
 Do you know why the song-birds of the North go there in winter ? 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) In which Southern and Northern states 
 are the Appalachian Mountains found? (2) Tell what you can 
 about the Southern plains. (3) Near what cities are coal and iron ore 
 mined ? (4) Name and describe the chief crop on the higher plains. 
 (5) What is done with the cotton after it is picked? (6) What is 
 the occupation of the people in western Texas ? Why ? Why so few 
 towns there ? (7) What two products are raised on the warm coastal 
 plains and flood-plains ? Describe each. (8) W 7 hat fruits are raised 
 in Florida ? Why raised there ? (9) What about the lumber indus- 
 try? (10) Why should one expect to find much manufacturing there? 
 (11) What kinds are there? (12) Why not more? (13) Why are 
 there so few large cities? (14) Which is the largest of all? AVhy? 
 (15) W^hat goods reach this port? Why? (16) Name and locate 
 the principal seaports. (17) Make a list of the Southern cities studied, 
 and locate each. (18) Tell the direction of each from New Orleans. 
 (19) Tell something about Indian Territory and Oklahoma. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Draw the coast-line of these states. Add the 
 rivers, the state boundaries, and principal cities. Put in the capitals. 
 
 (2) Represent the group in sand, showing the mountains and plains. 
 
 (3) Examine some cotton. Make a collection of articles made 
 from cotton and add them to the school collection. (4) Inquire of 
 your groceryman where his oranges and other fruits were grown. 
 (5) Examine some rice. (6) You can plant and grow not only 
 wheat, but rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and other plants in the schoolroom, 
 especially if you can induce some one who has a hothouse to allow 
 you to start them there. (7) Why is not New Orleans as large as 
 New York? (8) How are the people of New England and those of 
 the Southern states dependent upon each other in the work that they 
 do? (9) Beginning with the New England states, name those thus 
 far studied that have mountains in them. (10) Name and locate 
 the chief cities in all these states. (11) Draw the entire Eastern 
 coast-line, and put in the larger cities and rivers. 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see page 259. 
 
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 CENTRAL STATES 
 
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 East SyXouis 
 
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 Greenwich 85 
 
XII. CENTRAL STATES 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Name the states in this group. (2) Which 
 ones border on the Great Lakes? How can goods be shipped from 
 them by water to New York? (3) Name the Great Lakes. Which 
 is highest above the level of the ocean ? Which is lowest ? (4) Into 
 what do they empty? (see Fig. 123.) (5) What are the chief rivers 
 in this group? (6) Into what do their waters empty? (see Fig. 124, 
 opposite p. 141.) (7) Which states drain mainly into the Missouri 
 River? (8) Into the Mississippi? (9) Into the Ohio? (10) Which 
 one into the Great Lakes? (11) Find Chicago. Can you think of 
 any reason why it should be a great city the greatest in this sec- 
 tion? (12) In which of these states did Abraham Lincoln live ? 
 
 Raw Products. This group of states has five cities 
 larger than New Orleans, two that are almost as large, 
 and several others that are not very much smaller. These 
 facts tell us that there are many more people here than in 
 the Southern states, 
 and that the indus- 
 tries must be far 
 more extensive. Let 
 us see what they are. 
 
 The entire sec- 
 tion, as you see, is 
 mainly a great plain, 
 whose soil is favor- 
 able to farming. 
 
 In the western part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the two 
 Dakotas this plain is dry, like the western part of Texas. 
 
 167 
 
 FIG. 149. 
 A bunch of cattle on a farm in western Kansas. 
 
168 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The reason for this is that the winds from the Pacific 
 Ocean lose their moisture as they pass eastward over the 
 mountains, while those from the Gulf of Mexico and At- 
 lantic rarely reach so far as this region. On that account 
 the men of this section, as in western Texas, are princi- 
 pally engaged in* raising cattle (Fig. 156), sheep, and horses. 
 
 The eastern part of the two Dakotas and Minnesota have 
 more rain; and since the soil and climate are favorable, 
 it is a great wheat region, the best in the entire country. 
 
 FIG. 150. 
 
 Harvesting wheat on one of the great wheat fields of the Red River Valley of 
 North Dakota. 
 
 In Kentucky, as in Virginia, tobacco is one of the most 
 important products ; but in the Central states perhaps 
 the most valuable farm crop is corn. A great deal of 
 that grain is raised in every one of these states, although 
 Iowa and Illinois produce the largest amounts. In many 
 localities so much is raised that the cornfields extend as 
 far as the eye can reach. 
 
 In all of these states there is much stock, each farmer usually 
 keeping a few horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs. Each state, likewise, 
 produces wheat and other kinds of grain, as well as wool, hay, fruit, 
 vegetables, arid other crops. Ohio is especially noted for its sheep 
 and wheat. 
 
CENTRAL STATES 
 
 169 
 
 Underneath the soil in several of the states, especially 
 in Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana, coal is mined. Look on 
 
 FIG. 151. 
 
 Iron mining in the famous Mesabi district of Minnesota, where they shovel 
 out car-loads of the ore with great steam shovels, as gravel is often 
 shovelled. 
 
 the map (p. 155) to see in what states coal occurs. In 
 Ohio and Indiana, petroleum and natural gas are found. 
 
 On the north- 
 western shore of 
 Lake Superior, 
 in Minnesota, 
 and also on the 
 southern side, in 
 Wisconsin and 
 Michigan, iron 
 ore is mined, as 
 in Pennsylvania 
 and Alabama. 
 In fact, that re- 
 gion produces 
 more iron ore 
 
 PRINCIPAL 
 
 WHEAT REGIONS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 TMTED STATES. 
 
 FIG. 152. 
 
 Make a list of the wheat producing states. 
 
 than any other in the world. A great 
 quantity of copper is also mined in Michigan. 
 
170 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michi- 
 gan also have large forests, so that many kinds of lumber 
 are secured from them. 
 
 Now we know the principal raw products of the soil 
 and mines of this region. We find cattle and sheep in the 
 dry western section, wheat in the northwest and in Ohio, 
 copper and iron ore along the shores of Lake Superior, 
 
 lumber in the north, 
 tobacco in the south, 
 corn in the centre, 
 and a vast amount of 
 coal in several of the 
 states. Many of the 
 people of these states 
 are engaged in ob- 
 taining these raw 
 products. 
 
 The Manufacturing 
 and Trade Centres. 
 From this it is easy 
 to see the reason for 
 
 so many people and 
 great cities in this 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 Market Street in the great city of Chicago. 
 
 region. The statement was made at the beginning of this 
 section that five cities here were larger than New Orleans, 
 and several others about as large. Where should they be 
 located ? Heretofore we have found the great cities where 
 goods can be shipped by water ; accordingly we would 
 expect to find them either on the shores of the Great 
 Lakes or along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. 
 
 Let us study about some of these cities, starting first 
 with CHICAGO. It is next to New York in size, and is 
 
CENTRAL STATES 
 
 171 
 
 situated on the southwestern end of Lake Michigan in 
 Illinois. It has water connections with New York City, 
 as you know, and also with the cities along the St. Law- 
 rence River ; for there is a canal leading from Lake Erie 
 to Lake Ontario in order to avoid the Niagara Falls. 
 
 Aside from that, since Lake Michigan extends so far south, the 
 railways from the Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Iowa, and 
 Illinois must swing around this southern end in going east and south- 
 east. This makes that point a great railway centre. 
 
 FIG. 154. 
 Cattle in the Chicago stock-yards. 
 
 MILWAUKEE, farther north on the lake shore, is much 
 smaller than Chicago, but it is one of the two cities nearly 
 as large as New Orleans. 
 
 What, now, are likely to be the industries of these two 
 cities and the others along the Great Lakes. Quantities 
 of the raw products named are- sent to Chicago. It is the 
 greatest meat-market in the world ; and cattle and sheep 
 from the Western plains, and hogs from all over the Central 
 states, are shipped to the Chicago stock-yards (Fig. 154), 
 
172 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 where thousands of men are employed in preparing them 
 for food. The business of packing, canning, and shipping 
 the meat requires a great number of workmen, and the 
 tanning of the hides to make leather, which is done in 
 Milwaukee, also keeps many men busy. 
 
 Some of the wheat of the Dakotas and Minnesota is 
 sent to Chicago and Milwaukee to be ground into flour 
 for bread, the latter city being specially noted for its 
 flour-mills. But there are also great flour-mills nearer 
 the wheat fields. In southeastern Minnesota are falls in 
 
 FIG. 155. 
 
 St. Anthony Falls, in the Mississippi, around which Minneapolis has grown. 
 These falls furnish power for a number of great flour-mills. 
 
 the Mississippi River (Fig. 155) which furnish excellent 
 water-power, so that flour-mills have been built there and 
 the city of MINNEAPOLIS has grown up about them. 
 
 Only a few miles away, at the head of navigation on the Missis- 
 sippi, is ST. PAUL, which owes its growth partly to the fact that it is 
 a centre for the sale of machinery, clothing, and other articles needed 
 by the farmers who raise the wheat. Name some of the articles they 
 need to buy. 
 
 While much flour is made in the West, a great deal of the wheat 
 is sent to DULUTH, on the western end of Lake Superior, and there 
 shipped over the Great Lakes, whence it goes to New York and even 
 to Europe. Why should Duluth be selected? 
 
CENTRAL STATES 173 
 
 Chicago has no water-power for manufacturing, but it 
 is the nearest lake port to the Illinois coal-fields, and draws 
 upon them for fuel to produce steam for factories. Thus 
 it is made a great centre for the manufacture of iron goods 
 and furniture, receiving both iron ore and lumber in lake 
 vessels. But the other lake ports share in this work, espe- 
 cially the great cities of CLEVELAND, DETROIT, and TO- 
 LEDO, which are within easy reach of the raw products. 
 
 Another important product that reaches Chicago is corn. There 
 it is ground into corn-meal or made into hominy, starch, and other 
 substances. So much corn and wheat are carried there that Chicago 
 is a great grain as well as meat market. 
 
 Locate the principal cities along the Great Lakes. Named in order 
 of size they are Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Toledo, and 
 Duluth. In what state is each of these? Also find SAGINAW and 
 GRAND RAPIDS, two important lumber manufacturing cities. 
 
 We said that the other great cities should be looked for 
 upon the water ways formed by the Mississippi River and 
 its largest tributaries. The greatest of these tributaries 
 is the Missouri River, and a very large city, ST. Louis, is 
 situated near where it enters the Mississippi. 
 
 St. Louis is connected with the country far to the 
 northwest by the Missouri River ; with Minneapolis by 
 the Mississippi ; with Pittsburg by the Ohio ; and on the 
 south with Memphis, New Orleans, and the ocean. Natu- 
 rally, as people settled here, railways were built, until, 
 like Chicago, it has become one of the great railway 
 centres in the country. Like Chicago, also, it draws to 
 itself all the products that have been named. 
 
 Although a great many cattle and sheep reach St. Louis and Chi- 
 cago, making them important meat-markets, many of these animals 
 are slaughtered near the plains on which they are raised, and that 
 
174 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 PRINCIPAL 
 
 Cattle Raising District 
 
 OF THE 
 
 'UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE M.-N. CO. 
 
 fact explains the importance of OMAHA and KANSAS CITY. Both 
 these noted meat-markets are on the Missouri River. Horses and wool 
 
 ^_^ are also shipped 
 
 from these cities. 
 
 Much wheat and 
 corn are brought 
 to St. Louis, mak- 
 ing it an impor- 
 tant grain-market. 
 A great deal of to- 
 bacco also goes to 
 St. Louis ; but since 
 Kentucky is the 
 chief tobacco rais- 
 ing state in the 
 Fm 156 Mississippi Valley, 
 
 its leading city, 
 
 LOUISVILLE, is the great tobacco market of that section, as Richmond 
 is for Virginia. It is also an important manufacturing centre. 
 
 The manufacture of clothing is an important industry 
 in CINCINNATI on the Ohio River, and much machinery 
 is made there from iron ore sent from Pennsylvania and 
 West Virginia. Why from these states rather than from 
 Lake Superior ? 
 
 One of the largest cities in these Central states, INDIAN- 
 APOLIS, the capital and largest city in Indiana, is located 
 away from the great waterways. But it is in a rich farm- 
 ing country, and as railways enter it from all directions, 
 it has become the chief trade centre of that state. COLUM- 
 BUS, the capital of Ohio, is another great trade centre. 
 
 Locate the principal cities on the large rivers and tell 
 for what they are important. Ranked in order of size they 
 are, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Minneapolis, Kansas 
 City, St. Paul, and Omaha. In which state is each of these ? 
 
CENTRAL STATES 175 
 
 Review and Comparisons. We have seen that the farm products 
 and manufactures of the Central states are quite different from those 
 of the Southern states. Make a list of these for each of the groups 
 and compare them. Compare them in the same way with those of 
 New England. With those of the Middle Atlantic states. Explain, 
 as well as you can, the causes for these differences. 
 
 Make a list of the six largest cities in each of these four groups of 
 states. When in doubt as to whether one city is larger than another, 
 look up the population in the tables on page 265. Add together the 
 populations of each group of cities and compare the results. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Describe the surface of the Central 
 states. (2) What four states are dry in the western part? Why? 
 
 (3) Compare the products of these with those of western Texas. 
 
 (4) Where is our greatest wheat region ? (5) Where in this group of 
 states are copper and iron ore mined? (6) Where is lumber found? 
 
 (7) Tobacco? (8) Corn? (9) Coal? (10) For what products is 
 Ohio noted? (11) Give some reasons why Chicago has become so 
 great a city. (12) Also St. Louis. (13) Name and locate the chief 
 cities along the Great Lakes, giving the main industries of each. 
 (14) Do the same with the cities along the great rivers. (15) What 
 was said about Indianapolis and Columbus? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Draw the Mississippi River with its two main 
 tributaries. Add to the drawing the Great Lakes and the Atlantic 
 and Gulf coasts. Make a cross where each of the large cities is 
 located, and write its name. (2) Locate your own home on this map 
 and notice its direction and distance from some of the large cities. 
 (3) Add some wheat and corn to the school collection. (4) Grow some 
 of each in the school. (5) Tell from what animals wool, beef, pork, 
 mutton, lard, and leather come. (6) Find out about the buffalo and 
 Indians that used to live on the plains. (7) Read about the early 
 French explorers. About the pioneers who first settled these plains. 
 
 (8) According to the scale of the map (Fig. 124) how does Kansas coin- 
 pare in size with Connecticut? (9) With the whole of New England? 
 (10) Estimate the entire length of the Mississippi River according to 
 the scale on Figure 124. (11) Draw a map of the Central states 
 similar to that of New England, and put in the capitals. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 259. 
 
XIII. WESTERN STATES 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) In what directions do the mountains ex- 
 tend? (2) Xame the principal ranges. (3) Which are the chief 
 rivers ? (4) Make a drawing of them. (5) In what sections do 
 there seem to be few rivers ? (6) What does that suggest about rain- 
 fall? (7) Some rivers empty into lakes that have no outlet. What 
 does that suggest (see p. 55) ? (8) How far is it across the United 
 States from the northern to the southern boundary? (9) Measure 
 the length of California. Compare its size with Pennsylvania ; with 
 Texas; with Massachusetts. (10) Compare the coast-line with that 
 of New England. What does that suggest about harbors and cities? 
 (11) Where are Denver and San Francisco? 
 
 Reasons why there are so Few People. This group of 
 states is much larger than either of the other four, form- 
 ing about one-third of the entire United States. But 
 they are thinly settled, having only about one-fourth as 
 many people as the Southern states alone. Two divi- 
 sions, Arizona and New Mexico, are still territories, like 
 Oklahoma, because they have so few inhabitants. 
 
 One reason they have so few people is that most of the 
 early settlers came from Europe, and naturally located in 
 the Eastern and Southern states. It was only after these 
 parts were fairly well occupied that many people moved 
 farther westward. 
 
 Another important reason is the mountainous condition 
 of the country. Much of this section is a vast, dry pla- 
 teau, usually more than a mile above the level of the sea. 
 Extending across the plateau from north to south are 
 
 176 
 
T^%^^ 
 
 4_iH n <j*m 
 
 s^4?^\^*^V\ / ! V T, 
 
 c ^^^ X x ^^-^^S^ 
 
 \ \ f ^<C - \ I ^a. /itl.ir.iui'rqu 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 177 
 
 several great mountain ranges. The mountains along the 
 Pacific coast are called the Coast Ranges, those in eastern 
 California the Sierra Nevada', and those farther north, in 
 Oregon and Washington, the Cascade Ranges. Far east 
 of these long chains are others called the Rocky Mountains. 
 All of these mountains together are known as the Western 
 Cordilleras. 
 
 The Cordilleras are far higher and steeper than the Appa- 
 lachians in the East, and they are very rocky, so that farm- 
 
 FIG. 158. 
 A geyser in eruption in the Yellowstone National Park. 
 
 ing is impossible on much of the land. Indeed, in many 
 parts they are so rough that it is difficult to travel among 
 them ; this is indicated by the name Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Still another reason why there are so few people is that, 
 even where the soil is fertile, the climate is usually too 
 dry for farming, because the winds that reach it do not 
 carry much vapor. 
 
178 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 
 
 FIG. 159. 
 
 A view in the great Colorado Canyon, where the Colorado River flows in a 
 deep gorge cut in the plateau, to a depth of over a mile. 
 
 Wonderful Scenery. Some of the places in this section 
 are among trhe most interesting in the world. For exam- 
 ple, in northwestern Wyoming are hundreds of springs 
 where the water is so hot that it boils. At some points 
 boiling water and steam occasionally shoot upward with a 
 roar, from holes in the ground, and rise frequently to a 
 height of one or two hundred feet. These are called 
 geysers (Fig. 158), and there are scores of them in this 
 region. 
 
 Here, too, is the Yellowstone River, whose waters tum- 
 ble 308 feet in a single fall, which is nearly twice as high 
 as the Niagara Falls in New York. In the deep gorge 
 that the river has cut below the falls, the rocky banks are 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 179 
 
 in places fully one-fourth of a mile high and beautifully 
 colored. Our nation has set aside this wonderful region 
 as a park, naming it the Yellowstone National Park; and 
 each year hundreds of people travel there to see it. 
 
 There are many other interesting places to visit in this 
 western country ; but none are more wonderful than the 
 Colorado Canyon (Fig. 159), an immense river valley Cut 
 in the rocks of the plateau, in places to a depth of over a 
 mile. Trace its course on the map. 
 
 Mining. Although so rocky and so arid, there are 
 some very important industries in the Western states ; 
 and in order to find out what they are, let us first study 
 the mountains. You remember that iron ore and coal are 
 found in the Appalachians ; do you remember in what 
 states ? Some coal and iron ore are also mined in the 
 Cordilleras ; but even more valuable minerals than these 
 are found in the mountain rocks. 
 
 In 1848 gold was discovered in 
 California. Bits of this heavy metal 
 lay in some of the stream beds, and 
 could be obtained by carefully wash- 
 ing the lighter dirt away (Fig. 160). 
 News of the discovery quickly 
 spread throughout the world, and 
 men hastened to the gold fields by 
 thousands. Ever since then Cali- 
 fornia has been one of the leading 
 states in the production of gold. 
 
 There were no railways then in 
 the West, so that some men from the East crossed the 
 plains and mountains in wagons, in which they were in 
 danger of being attacked by savage Indians ; others made 
 
 FIG. 160. 
 
 Miners washing, or " pan- 
 ning," gravel to see if 
 there is any gold in it. 
 
180 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 the long journey in vessels. What route must they have 
 taken? The best harbor on the Pacific coast was San 
 Francisco Bay, where a small Spanish town had existed 
 for years. Soon people crowded in so rapidly that the 
 town of SAN FRANCISCO became a great city and the chief 
 trade centre in the West. 
 
 The metal was also found under the soil in the midst of 
 solid rock. Rock with gold in it is called gold ore, and 
 must be crushed into fine bits before the gold can be 
 
 collected. This 
 requires much 
 machinery, and 
 is one of the im- 
 portant parts of 
 mining (Fig. 
 22, p. 24). A 
 great deal of 
 this kind of ore 
 is now mined in 
 California. 
 
 Gold is also 
 found in Colo- 
 rado, and many men have been attracted to that state, as 
 formerly to California. Indeed more gold now comes from 
 Colorado than from California. DENVER, the largest city 
 in Colorado, and PUEBLO, owe their growth partly to the 
 gold mines near them. Find these cities on the map. 
 
 Silver is another precious metal mined in the West, and 
 Colorado produces more of it than any other state. With- 
 out doubt some of the gold and silver that you have seen 
 came from the mountain rocks of California or Colorado. 
 For what purposes are these metals used ? 
 
 'Arizona 
 CHIEF 
 
 Iron, Gold, Silver and 
 Copper Districts 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CMTED STATES. 
 
 CZJIron ^Gold &, Silver 
 
 FIG. 161. 
 In what states is each found ? 
 
STATES 
 
 181 
 
 Large quantities of both metals are also mined in the 
 other states and territories of this section, especially in 
 the Black Hills of South Dakota, in Montana, Nevada, 
 and Utah. 
 
 Much copper is mined in the West, especially at BUTTE, 
 Montana, where the greatest copper mines in the world 
 are located, and 
 in the territory of 
 Arizona. Lead is 
 a fourth impor- 
 tant metal ob- 
 tained from these 
 Western states. 
 
 Cities have 
 grown up near 
 some of these 
 mines ; but there 
 are many mines in the mountains far away from the cities. 
 In some parts of the country travellers may see, from the 
 car windows, scores of little tunnels dug into the sides of 
 the mountains, by men who were hunting for ore. It 
 is a hard, lonely life, and many find little ore ; but one 
 occasionally makes a discovery that brings him a fortune. 
 
 Ranching. The mountains, therefore, are chiefly val- 
 uable for their ores; but the high plains and plateaus also 
 have some worth. There is little rain upon them ; but, 
 as in the western part of the two Dakotas, Nebraska, Kan- 
 sas, and Texas, there is often grass enough for raising 
 cattle, sheep, and horses. The animals raised are finally 
 shipped eastward to furnish meat, leather, and wool. In 
 these states the cowboys live, spending most of their 
 days upon their horses. 
 
 FIG. 162. 
 
 These piles of dirt and rock are the waste dumped 
 aside by miners as they have dug into the earth 
 for ore. 
 
182 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The Desert. In 
 
 some parts of this 
 dry, or arid, region 
 there is so little rain 
 that it is a true des- 
 ert. One can travel 
 for scores of miles 
 and see scarcely any 
 vegetation except- 
 ing cactus, a little 
 grass, and such 
 plants as grow in 
 arid regions. There 
 are no trees; there 
 is no water ; in fact, 
 there is little but 
 sand and rock to be 
 seen ! No wonder 
 that many a family, 
 with their horses or oxen, died of thirst and hunger in 
 attempting to cross this desert waste in search of Cali- 
 fornia gold fifty years ago. 
 
 Irrigation. However, by irrigation (see p. 48) parts 
 of these deserts are changed into gardens. To irrigate 
 the thirsty soil, which is usually fertile, men dig ditches 
 and lead the water from streams that are fed by the rain 
 and melting snow of the high mountains. 
 
 The Mormons of Utah, a people who were driven out 
 of the Eastern states many years ago, and who settled in 
 that barren region, have changed the desert to a garden 
 by means of irrigation. They have also built the beauti- 
 ful SALT LAKE CITY near Salt Lake ; and not far away 
 
 FIG. 163. 
 A western cowboy. 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 183 
 
 from this is OGDEN, a busy railway centre, where there 
 are not so many Mormons. Find these places on the 
 map. 
 
 People living near the eastern base of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains raise much of their food by the aid of irrigation. Near 
 Denver is a great irrigation ditch leading from the moun- 
 tains ; and while the land just above the level of the ditch 
 is fit for nothing but grazing, that below it, which can be 
 flooded with the water, produces excellent crops. 
 
 FIG. 164. 
 
 The desert of Utah, near Great Salt Lake, where there is no fresh water, 
 where it rarely rains, and where there is very little vegetation. 
 
 Irrigation is growing more common every year, and by 
 the aid of it people often raise food for stock, as well as for 
 themselves. They even build great reservoirs to collect 
 the water for use in the summer (Fig. 49, p. 53); but 
 most of this barren waste can never make good farm land, 
 because there is not enough water. 
 
 Fruit Raising. We have been studying the moun- 
 tains, high plains, and plateaus, finding mining and graz- 
 ing to be the chief industries, with farming where the soil 
 is irrigated r 
 
184 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Let us now examine the land nearer the coast. South- 
 ern California also has an arid climate where farming 
 cannot be carried on without irrigation. But since the 
 climate of the region is warm, as in Florida, the fruits that 
 
 grow in southern 
 countries, such as 
 oranges, lemons, 
 peaches, olives, 
 and figs, are easily 
 raised. 
 
 In the midst of 
 this beautiful fruit 
 country, where the 
 climate is so fine, 
 is the beautiful 
 city of Los ANGE- 
 LES, an important 
 railway centre, sur- 
 rounded by thriving towns and orange groves (Fig. 165). 
 Everywhere in that vicinity the main work is fruit 
 raising by aid of irrigation. Without it a piece of land 
 produces no crops, while a well-irrigated orchard by its 
 side thrives wonderfully well. Visitors are usually sur- 
 prised to see such a striking difference. 
 
 Industries along the Pacific Coast. Farther north, 
 toward San Francisco and beyond it, the rainfall is heav- 
 ier ; but irrigation is necessary in many places. The most 
 common fruits are grapes, plums, peaches, and apricots. 
 Considerable wheat is also raised, and sheep are numerous. 
 This is the country of " big trees," too, the largest in the 
 world being found in the vast forests among the moun- 
 tains* 
 
 FIG. 105. 
 
 An orange grove near Los Angeles in Southern Cali- 
 fornia, the irrigation ditch being seen between 
 the two rows of orange trees. 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 185 
 
 Still farther north, between Oregon and Washington, 
 you will find a large river on the map. What is its name ? 
 Here the moist winds from the ocean cause heavy rainfall, 
 so that irrigation near the coast is unnecessary. On the 
 mountain slopes are extensive forests, and there are large 
 lumber mills, especially in Washington along Puget Sound. 
 Find this sound (Fig. 124). 
 
 In this section there are many cattle and sheep ranches, 
 and quantities of wheat are raised. Fruit raising, espe- 
 cially peaches and apples, is also an important industry. 
 Salmon are abundant in the Columbia River, so that the 
 fishing industry is 
 important there, as 
 at Gloucester, Mas- 
 sachusetts. What 
 kinds are caught 
 there? (seep. 143.) 
 
 The Cities of the 
 Pacific Slope. The 
 largest city north 
 of San Francisco is 
 PORTLAND, on the 
 Columbia River. 
 Like New Orleans 
 it is about one hun- 
 dred miles above 
 the mouth of the 
 river, and can be 
 reached by ocean 
 vessels. The other large cities are TACOMA and SEATTLE 
 on Puget Sound, and SPOKANE, a manufacturing centre, 
 at the falls in the Spokane River. 
 
 FIG. 166. 
 
 One of the " big trees." Notice that through a 
 hole cut in the trunk a large wagon can be 
 driven. 
 
186 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Comparing the Pacific with the Atlantic coast, one sees 
 some striking differences. The Atlantic coast is low and 
 extremely irregular, having many bays and fine harbors, 
 with numerous great cities about them. But the Pacific 
 coast has steep mountains in many places, and, except in 
 the very north, is regular, having few fine harbors and 
 large cities. San Francisco is the most important, being 
 larger than New Orleans. Los Angeles is twenty-five 
 miles away from the coast ; but Portland, Tacoma, and 
 Seattle are all seaports. 
 
 From the four coast cities and from Los Angeles, goods 
 are shipped over the Pacific Ocean to Japan, China, Aus- 
 tralia, and even around South America to the Atlantic 
 coast. This is an important trade, but it is by no means 
 so extensive as the ocean commerce of the Atlantic coast 
 cities. The fact that we now control the Philippine and 
 Hawaiian islands will cause this trade to increase; and 
 when the Nicaragua Canal is finished, there will be still 
 more ocean commerce. Why ? 
 
 At present the greater part of the products of the 
 Western states, even of the coast cities, instead of being 
 shipped by water, are sent eastward by rail. There are 
 railway lines connecting each of the large Western cities 
 with all portions of the Eastern states. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Compare the size of this group of states 
 with that of the other groups. (2) What about the number of people 
 there? (3) Give three reasons why there are so few. (4) Name 
 each of the mountain ranges, finding each on the map, Fig. 124. 
 (5) Tell what a visitor may see in the Yellowstone Park. Where is 
 it? (6) Where is San Francisco? What caused its early rapid 
 growth? (7) Where is Denver? Give a reason for its importance. 
 (8) What metals are obtained in the West? (9) W r here is each found? 
 
WESTERN STATES 187 
 
 (10) Tell what you can about each. (11) What is the principal in- 
 dustry on the high plains and plateaus? Why? (12) Why cannot 
 the whole desert be irrigated? (13) W T hat city have the Mormons 
 built? Where is it? (14) Where is Los Angeles? (15) What is 
 raised near there? Why? (16) What is raised in other parts of 
 California? (17) Name the products of Oregon and Washington. 
 (18) Where is the chief city in Oregon? Why there? (19) What are 
 the chief cities in Washington? (20) Name the cities on the Pacific 
 coast having excellent harbors. Name several on the Atlantic. 
 (21) How do the two coasts differ? (22) Where are the products of 
 the Pacific coast sent ? How ? 
 
 (23) Make a list of the principal cities studied in the United 
 States. (24) In what direction is each from Chicago ? (25) Make 
 a map of the United States, placing on it each of the states with their 
 names. Put on the map the names of the capitals. (26) Which 
 states have a sea-coast? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Write a story describing a journey across the 
 plains and mountains to California in the early days. (2) Make a 
 list of articles made of gold; of silver; of copper; of lead. Collect 
 some ores of these for the school. (3) What stories have you read 
 about the life of cowboys? About the Western Indians? (4) Find 
 out something about the Yosemite Valley. (5) Ask a storekeeper 
 what California fruits he keeps. (6) Visit a fish-market to see some 
 salmon. Find a picture of one in the dictionary. (7) Add together 
 the population of the five largest cities on the Pacific coast. Compare 
 that number with the population of the five largest on the Atlantic 
 coast. You will find a table giving population of cities on page 265. 
 (8) Make a drawing of the Pacific coast, showing the cities. Add 
 the rivers. (9) Find out what large animals live among the moun- 
 tains. (10) What is the distance from San Francisco to New York? 
 
 (11) Past what cities must the waters of the Yellowstone River run, 
 in flowing to the Gulf of Mexico? Through what states? (12) Write 
 to some Western railway, as the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe 
 office in Chicago, the Northern Pacific office at St. Paul, or the Denver 
 and Rio Grande at Denver, for their illustrated circulars, in which 
 there are many views of Western scenery. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 260, 
 
XIV. ALASKA 
 
 ALASKA, which you see on the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
 p. 140), although a part of the United States, is a great 
 distance from us. Our country purchased this cold, bar- 
 ren land from Russia. It is so far north that it is partly 
 in the Arctic Zone, and many people thought that our 
 government wasted the $7,200,000 that were paid for it. 
 
 FIG. 167. 
 
 A street in Sitka, Alaska. Although it is summer, notice the snow on the 
 
 mountains. 
 
 But Alaska has proved valuable in several ways. Dur- 
 ing the last few years thousands of men have gone there in 
 search of gold, just as years ago thousands rushed to Cali- 
 fornia. You have probably heard of the famous Klon- 
 dike region where so much gold has been found. The 
 
 188 
 
ALASKA 
 
 189 
 
 Klondike is a stream flowing into the Yukon River just 
 east of the boundary line between Alaska and Canada. 
 Find it. The Klondike region itself is in Canada. 
 
 Much gold is also mined on the coast just north of SITKA, the cap- 
 ital of Alaska, and in other places as well. But the country is so far 
 north that little food can be 
 raised, and mining in many 
 parts is not only difficult 
 but dangerous. 
 
 Much sealskin for cloaks 
 and caps conies from Alaska . 
 A few hundred miles south- 
 west of the mouth of the 
 Yukon River are the small 
 Pribilof Islands, to which 
 thousands of seals come 
 every spring to rear their 
 young. Seal hunters are 
 allowed by the government 
 to capture some of these for 
 their fur, which is warm Fl(J 1(;8 
 
 and beautiful, but very ex- 
 Some of the fur-seal on the Pnbilof 
 pensive because the annuals Islands. 
 
 are not abundant. 
 
 There are great forests in some parts of Alaska, and the fishing is 
 good. Not only is Alaska valuable at present, but it will probably be 
 even more valuable in the future. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Where is Alaska? (2) In what zones? 
 (3) How did we obtain it ? (4) \Vhat is done there ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Draw the Yukon River. (2) Measure its 
 length and compare it with that of the Mississippi. (3) How does 
 the coast compare with that of California? Of Maine? (4) Read 
 something about the fur seal. Examine some fur. (5) Find out 
 something about a journey to the Klondike. 
 
 Fou REFERENCES, see page 260, 
 
XV. CANADA AND OTHER COUNTRIES NORTH 
 OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) How far are Detroit, Buffalo, and Chicago 
 from Canada? (See map opposite p. 167.) (2) What Falls in the 
 river between Lakes Ontario and Erie? (3) What effect have they 
 upon shipping? (4) In what part of Canada would you expect to 
 find most of the people? Why? (5) What large bay in northeastern 
 Canada? (See map opposite p. 140.) (6) What can you say about 
 the climate of the country north of this? (7) Which of the Great 
 Lakes is entirely within the United States? (8) Into what large 
 river do the Great Lakes empty ? 
 
 CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 Industries. Canada is a British colony ; and New- 
 foundland and Labrador also belong to England, but are 
 separate from Canada. 
 
 Much of this region is cold and bleak ; but the south- 
 ern part resembles the northern United States in climate 
 and soil, so that the products on the two sides of the 
 boundary may be expected to correspond. 
 
 Fishing was found to be an important industry along 
 the New England coast (p. 143) ; so it is, also, in Nova 
 Scotia and Newfoundland. 
 
 Maine in the East and Washington in the West are cov- 
 ered with vast forests. Forests extend into Canada, cover- 
 ing a large part of it, and in fact they reach northward 
 for several hundred miles until the climate becomes so 
 cold that trees can no longer grow. 
 
 19Q 
 
COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 191 
 
 New York and Ohio are noted for their fruit, dairying, 
 and farming. Ontario, or that part of Canada just north 
 of these states, has the same products. 
 
 The best wheat fields in the United States are in Min- 
 nesota and the two Dakotas; so Manitoba is the best 
 wheat region in Canada. And since the dry plains of 
 the Far West also extend into Canada, cattle and sheep 
 raising are important industries on the plains of western 
 Canada, even to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The western mountains of the United States contain 
 much gold, silver, and other metals ; it is the same with 
 the mountains of Canada. The Klondike region should 
 be remembered as a part of Canada, although it was men- 
 tioned in connection with Alaska (see p. 188). 
 
 Since we know the principal products, let us locate the 
 chief lines of transportation and cities. Canada, like the 
 United States, 
 has a water- 
 route to the 
 ocean. This is 
 partly along the 
 Great Lakes 
 and partly along 
 the St. Law- pio 
 
 rence Kiver, One The Lachine Rapids on the St. Lawrence, just above 
 
 of the great riv- Montreal. There is one place down which a steamer 
 
 . can come; but no vessel can go up the rapids. Do 
 
 ei'S OI the COn- you see h ow t ^\ s i ias helped to determine .the loca- 
 
 tilient; but 111 tion of Montreal ? 
 
 some places, as at Niagara, it is necessary to pass for short 
 distances through canals. One of the largest of these is 
 the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Erie and On- 
 tario. Point it out on the map opposite p. 167. 
 
192 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Cities. The eastern part of Canada is most thickly 
 settled, like the eastern part of the United States, and for 
 the same reasons. What are they? Along the water- 
 route just mentioned are some very large cities, as in the 
 
 ^s^^^- .._ United States. The 
 
 largest is MONTKE- 
 AL, which is nearly 
 as large as New Or- 
 leans. Like that city, 
 Montreal is situated 
 on a river at a point 
 where ocean vessels 
 can reach it. Far- 
 ther down the St. 
 Lawrence is the old 
 city of QUEBEC, 
 founded many years 
 ago by the French. OTTAWA, the capital, is west of 
 Quebec, on Ottawa River, and TORONTO is across Lake 
 Ontario from Niagara Falls. Find all these (Fig. 123). 
 
 As there is much water-power and coal in eastern Can- 
 ada, there is a great deal of manufacturing in the cities, 
 especially in Montreal and Toronto. 
 
 The cities not on this water-route are smaller. HALIFAX, in Nova 
 Scotia, has an excellent harbor. WINNIPEG, the main city in the 
 wheat region of Manitoba, is connected with the Pacific coast at VAN- 
 COUVER and the Atlantic at ST. JOHN by the great Canadian Pacific 
 Railway. From Vancouver and VICTORIA, as from Seattle, Tacoma, 
 Portland, and San Francisco, goods are shipped to Australia and Asia. 
 
 The Far North. In the vast forests of northern Canada live 
 few other people than hunters, trappers, and Indians. 
 
 Along the northern coast are found scattered groups of Eskimos, 
 who get their living almost entirely from the sea. Their food is 
 
 FIG. 170. 
 
 Waterfall at Ottawa. The city is seen behind 
 the fall. How has the fall helped to deter- 
 mine the location of Ottawa ? 
 
COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 
 
 193 
 
 obtained from the seal, walrus, polar bear, and reindeer ; their clothes, 
 summer tents, and boats are made from the skins of these animals; 
 and their oil for light and heat 
 during the long winter night 
 also comes from them. Their 
 winter houses are snow huts, 
 and long journeys over the ice- 
 covered seas are made on sledges 
 drawn by wolf-like dogs. 
 
 ISLANDS NORTH OF 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 The islands north of North 
 
 America are desolate lands. In 
 
 winter the sea is frozen ; and 
 
 even in summer floating ice is 
 
 usually in sight. Some of the 
 
 ice is that which has frozen on 
 
 the surface of the sea during the 
 
 winter; but rising above this 
 
 are many great blocks of ice, or 
 
 icebergs, sometimes two hundred 
 
 or three hundred feet in height. 
 
 They have broken off from the 
 
 streams of ice, called ylaciers, 
 
 that move down from the land and enter the sea. The immense island 
 
 of Greenland is almost all 
 covered by such glaciers. 
 No land can be seen except- 
 ing near the coast, where 
 some Eskimos live and 
 a few Europeans, called 
 Danes, from Denmark. 
 The island belongs to the 
 Danes, who purchase skins, 
 
 FIG. 171. 
 
 An Eskimo boy from Baffin Land, 
 dressed in his summer furs. 
 
 FIG. 172. 
 
 An iceberg from the great Greenland glacier. 
 o 
 
 oil, etc., from the Eskimos. 
 
194 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Show how the products of Canada 
 correspond with those of northern United States. (2) Where is the 
 St. Lawrence River? Walk in the direction in which it flows. 
 (3) Where does the water come from? (4) Through what waters 
 must a vessel pass in going from Duluth to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
 
 FIG. 173. 
 
 Cutting ice from the St. Lawrence River opposite Montreal. What effect 
 should you think this thick ice would have on the commerce of Montreal ? 
 
 and the ocean ? (5) Name and locate the chief cities along this route. 
 (6) Where is the largest city? Why there? (7) Where is Ottawa? 
 Halifax ? (8) Name two cities on the western coast. (9) Tell about 
 the people living in northern Canada. (10) How are icebergs caused ? 
 (11) Make a drawing of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, 
 putting in the cities. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) What difficulty do you see in building the 
 Welland Canal? How is it overcome ? (2) What difficulties should 
 you think the Canadian Pacific Railway would have in running trains 
 upon it in winter? (3) Why is not Hudson Bay an important outlet 
 for goods by water from Canada? (4) How can you explain the 
 fact that there are no large cities along the great Mackenzie River? 
 (5) Find out something about Quebec. (6) Write a story about 
 the Eskimos. (7) Collect pictures of scenes in Canada. (8) Read 
 Longfellow's poem, " Evangeline " ; the land of Evangeline is in Nova 
 Scotia. 
 For REFERENCES, see page 260. 
 
XVI. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) What does the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
 p. 140) tell you about the highlands and lowlands in Mexico ? (Notice 
 the rivers.) (2) Find the capital of Mexico. (3) Why is Central 
 America a fitting name for the region southeast of Mexico ? (4) Point 
 toward Cuba. (5) How far is Havana from Florida? From New 
 Orleans ? (6) What large islands in the West Indies ? In what zone 
 are they ? (7) What large peninsulas are in Mexico ? 
 
 Mexico and Central America. As Canada is colder than 
 the United States, so the countries south of us may be ex- 
 pected to be warmer. 
 Notice that a large 
 part of Mexico is 
 south of the tropic 
 of Cancer and that 
 Central America is 
 entirely south of it. 
 
 Near the seacoast 
 of Mexico the land 
 
 FIG. 174. 
 
 is low and the cli- 
 mate hot ; but in the 
 interior are many 
 mountains and broad, 
 arid plateaus. They 
 are a continuation of those in Our Western states, and are 
 so high that the climate is cool. 
 
 195 
 
 Popocatepetl, an extinct volcano, not far from 
 Mexico City, and one of the highest moun- 
 tain peaks on the continent. Notice that 
 the top is white with snow, although in the 
 torrid zone. 
 
196 
 
 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Some of the highest mountain peaks are old volcanoes made of lava 
 that has poured forth from the earth. These peaks are so high that 
 they are always covered with snow, in spite of the fact that they are 
 in the torrid zone. 
 
 With such a variety of climate we shall of course find a 
 variety of products. Much of the mountain region is too 
 
 cold and rocky 
 for farming ; 
 but, as in Col- 
 orado, these 
 mountains yield 
 valuable metals, 
 especially sil- 
 ver. 
 
 Part of the 
 Mexican plateau 
 is dry, like west- 
 ern Texas and 
 some of the 
 other Western 
 states. Name some of them. Like these, its value con- 
 sists largely in wild grass, on which great herds of cattle, 
 sheep, and horses feed. Of what use are these animals ? 
 In other parts of the plateau there is enough rainfall 
 for farming ; but in most places crops can be raised by 
 the aid of irrigation only. 
 
 Along the lowlands of the coast, the rainfall is heavy, 
 and the products are much the same as on the low, damp 
 plains of our own Southern states. What are they ? (See 
 pp. 160 and 162.) Besides these, much coffee is grown on 
 the slopes between the coastal plain and the high plateau. 
 Have we found that product before in North America ? 
 
 FIG. 175. 
 A street in a Mexican town. 
 
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF UNITED STATES 197 
 
 There is very little manufacturing in these countries, for two rea- 
 sons. One is that coal is lacking. Why is that a good reason? The 
 other is that many of the people are too ignorant to manage machinery. 
 
 The Spaniards once owned this part of North America, and their 
 language is still spoken there. Most of the people living in Mexico 
 and Central America are either pure Indians, or else Spaniards with 
 Indian blood in their veins, called half-breeds. Only about one man 
 in six is a full-blooded Spaniard. 
 
 Mexico is now a republic, like the United States, and 
 its capital is the city of MEXICO. The coast on the east 
 is regular, as you can see, so that there are few harbors. 
 VERA CRUZ is the chief port, but the harbor is poor. 
 
 Central America is made up of several republics, each 
 having a capital of its own. Many of the people are very 
 ignorant, and there are frequent revolutions when ambi- 
 tious generals try to overthrow the government. 
 
 At the present time Central America and the Isthmus of Panama 
 are of interest because canals are being dug there, to save vessels the 
 long journey around South America. Examine the map (Fig. 120, 
 opposite p. 137) to see how much distance will be saved in this way 
 between New York and San Francisco. In Central America are dense 
 tropical forests from which hard woods, dyes, rubber, and other valua- 
 ble products are obtained. 
 
 The West Indies and Bermuda. Besides the countries on 
 the mainland of the continent there are numerous islands, 
 some of which form an archipelago called the West Indies. 
 They are really the highest parts of mountain ranges pro- 
 jecting above the sea and so arranged as to separate the 
 Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico and from the At- 
 lantic Ocean. All of them have a tropical climate. 
 
 The largest island is Cuba, where sugar, tobacco, and 
 tropical fruits, such as bananas, are raised. HAVANA is its 
 capital and largest seaport. Cuba belonged to Spain until 
 
198 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 our recent war with Spain, and so did Porto Rico, which 
 now belongs to the United States. 
 
 The other large islands are Jamaica, belonging to England, and 
 
 Haiti, where there are two 
 negro republics. The large 
 islands are called the Greater 
 Antilles ; and the small is- 
 lands, extending in a chain 
 from near Porto Rico to the 
 South American coast, are 
 called the Lesser Antilles. 
 These belong to England, 
 France, and other European 
 nations. 
 
 Off the eastern coast of 
 Florida are the low Bahama 
 Islands ; and in the open 
 Atlantic, far to the north- 
 east of these, is a tiny clus- 
 ter called the Bermuda Islands. Both belong to England, and are 
 made of coral sand, as described on page 135. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Tell about the climate and relief of 
 Mexico. (2) About the industries. (3) About the inhabitants. 
 (4) What cities are there ? (5) For what is Central America espe- 
 cially important at present? (6) Tell what you can about the West 
 Indies. (7) The Bahamas. (8) The Bermudas. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) What reason can you see for digging the Nica- 
 ragua Canal at the place where it is shown on the map ? (2) Why 
 are there no large rivers in Mexico? (3) Find out about the Panama 
 Canal. (4) Tell some of the events that happened in Cuba during 
 our war against Spain. (5) Find out what you can about Cuba; 
 about Porto Rico. (6) In what time of year would it be best for 
 people to visit these islands? (7) Why can potatoes, onions, and 
 other vegetables be grown in Bermuda so early as to reach us in 
 March ? (8) Ask some one who has been to the Bermuda or Bahama 
 Islands to tell you what he saw there. 
 
 FOR REFERENCES, see p. 260. 
 
 FIG. 176. 
 
 A field of Easter lilies in the Bermuda Islands, 
 where these lilies are raised for export 
 to the United States at Easter. 
 
Longitude West HO from Greenwich 50 
 
 i . X^.4 HK /> Rio de 
 
 m "\ ^^vNAl J A$ SaoP !lul 
 
 o de Janeiro / -N 
 
XVII. SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Compare the shape of South America 
 with that of North America. (2) What great mountain ranges are 
 there along the western side ? (3) Which part of South America has 
 no cold winter? (4) Which part has a climate much like that where 
 you live? (5) What is the name of the longest river? (6) Where 
 do you expect to find the most fertile regions ? (7) Name the coun- 
 tries of South America. 
 
 Relief. Great mountain chains were 
 western part of North America. What are 
 Through what countries 
 do they extend? In 
 South America there are 
 also high mountains on 
 the western side, called 
 the Andes. The peaks 
 of the Andes are higher 
 than those in the United 
 States, and there are 
 many active volcanoes 
 among them (Fig. 12). FJG 
 
 found in the 
 their names ? 
 
 Two tunnels on a railway line that crosses 
 the high Andes of Peru. 
 
 Besides the Andes, the 
 map shows a highland re- 
 gion in eastern Brazil and a smaller one between the Amazon and 
 Orinoco rivers, forming the divide between them. 
 
 The remainder of South America is mainly lowland, drained by 
 three mighty rivers. What are their names? Where does each rise? 
 In what direction does each flow ? Which drains the longest slope ? 
 
 199 
 
200 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Climate. The products of the three valleys greatly 
 depend upon their climate ; let us, therefore, see how 
 much heat and moisture they have. 
 
 Where does the equator cross the continent ? Where 
 does the tropic of Capricorn cross it ? How much of 
 the continent, then, is in the torrid zone ? Where is the 
 coldest part ? In which zone ? 
 
 From this we see that much more than half the 
 continent must have a warm climate ; but that the south- 
 ern part has a temperate climate more like our own. In 
 which months does summer come to this region ? 
 
 As for the moisture in the torrid or tropical part of 
 South America the rains are very heavy. The reason 
 for this is that the air becomes heated and is thus made 
 very light ; it is then forced to rise to such a height that 
 the vapor is condensed, causing heavy showers. (See 
 p. 77.) 
 
 There is less rainfall in the south temperate zone, and 
 still less in the narrow strip west of the central part of 
 the Andes, in Chile and Peru. There the climate is quite 
 arid because the principal winds are from the east, so 
 that the air loses its vapor in passing over the mountains 
 and descends upon the Pacific slope as dry, parching 
 winds. 
 
 History. Knowing now the chief facts about the 
 relief and climate, let us look at the countries themselves. 
 After the discovery of South America by Columbus the 
 Spaniards settled in many parts, obtaining great quanti- 
 ties of gold and silver, especially in the Andes. Nearly 
 all of South America once belonged to Spain, excepting 
 Brazil, which was settled and for a long time owned 
 by the Portuguese. Although these countries are now 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 201 
 
 independent nations, the Spanish language is still spoken 
 there. 
 
 Brazil. This is the largest country, being even larger 
 than the United States without Alaska ; but it has only 
 about one-third as many inhabitants. Much of the 
 great Amazon valley consists of forest-covered plains, 
 called silvas, in which the trees are so close together, and 
 there is such a mat of vines and underbrush, that it is 
 
 FIG. 179. 
 A path through the dense tropical forest of South America. 
 
 extremely difficult for one to make his way through. 
 From what was just said about the climate, you may be 
 able to give the reason for such rank growth. 
 
 You will find pictures of some of the wild forest 
 animals in Figure 108, page 130. What are their 
 names ? 
 
 Of course this forest is not a good home for men, 
 especially since much of the land is frequently flooded ; 
 
202 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 in fact, Indians are almost the only people living there. 
 They make a living by hunting, fishing, and selling rub- 
 ber from the rubber tree that grows in the woods. 
 
 Rubber is obtained by cutting a hole in the bark and 
 catching the milky fluid that flows forth. After being 
 warmed over a fire to make it more solid, it is sent down the 
 river in boats to PABA and then shipped to many parts of 
 the world. Bicycle tires and overshoes are made from it. 
 See how long a list of other rubber articles you can name. 
 
 Another common tree is the cocoa tree, on which grow 
 the beans from which cocoa and chocolate are made. The 
 rivers are almost the only roadways in this great section, 
 so that it is mainly a great wilderness. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants of Brazil live in the eastern 
 part along the coast. Some of them are white people, 
 but many are either Indians or negroes, or of mixed 
 blood, as in Mexico. You will notice several cities on 
 the coast, of which Rio BE JANEIRO, the capital, is the 
 largest, being about twice the size of New Orleans. It 
 has a splendid harbor. 
 
 There must certainly be some important industries in 
 this region to cause a city to become so large. Besides 
 the raising of cattle upon the plateau of eastern Brazil, 
 farming is an important industry there. The principal 
 crops are the same as those already found in warm coun- 
 tries: namely, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. The 
 last is most important, and Rio de Janeiro is the chief 
 export town, which is the reason why some of our coffee 
 is called Rio coffee. 
 
 Venezuela and Guiana. North of Brazil is Venezuela, 
 which includes most of the Orinoco valley. Here are 
 broad plains, called llanos, which produce excellent grass, 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 203 
 
 FIG. 180. 
 
 Native Indian women washing clothes in Vene- 
 zuela. Do you see in the picture any reason 
 for thinking it is warm there ? 
 
 so that cattle raising is one of the important industries. 
 
 Coffee and cocoa 
 
 are also raised. 
 
 The capital and 
 
 largest city is 
 
 CARACAS, which 
 
 is located several 
 
 miles from the 
 
 coast upon land 
 
 more than half a 
 
 mile above the sea. 
 
 What advantage 
 
 do you see in such 
 
 a position? 
 
 Just north of the mouth of the Orinoco River is Trini- 
 dad Island, which belongs to Great Britain. On that 
 island is a great pitch lake, from which much of the 
 asphalt used in our street pavements is obtained. 
 
 All of the countries of South America are republics 
 excepting Guiana, east of Venezuela, which belongs to 
 three European nations. What are their names ? And 
 what is the capital of each section of Guiana ? The prod- 
 ucts of these countries are much the same as those of 
 Brazil and Venezuela. 
 
 La Plata Countries. The country south of Brazil, 
 drained by the Plata River and its tributaries, is one 
 of the most productive parts of South America. Here, 
 at the mouth of the Plata River in Argentina, is BUENOS 
 AIRES, the largest city on the continent. Across the 
 wide river mouth is MONTEVIDEO, another large city, 
 in Uruguay. What other small country lies between 
 Argentina and Brazil? 
 
204 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The. plains in this section of the country are called 
 pampas; and because of their excellent grass one of the 
 chief industries is ranching. Since most of the country 
 is in the temperate zone, corn and wheat are important 
 farm products ; and in the warm northern part, near the 
 tropics, tobacco and sugar-cane are raised. This is the 
 part of South America that most nearly corresponds in 
 climate and products to the United States. 
 
 FIG. 181. 
 A scene on the pampas of Argentina. 
 
 Goods are still carried upon the rivers in Argentina, 
 but there are also many railways in that country, more, in 
 fact, than in any other part of South America. 
 
 Andean Countries. The countries in the western part 
 of South America are very mountainous, since each of 
 them includes a part of the Andean chain. As you might 
 expect, then, one of the principal industries is mining ; 
 and immense quantities of gold and silver have been 
 found there. What are the names of these countries ? 
 
 Observe that most of the cities are not upon the coast. 
 This is partly because they have grown up in the mining 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 205 
 
 districts among the mountains, and partly because there 
 are so few good harbors. Many of the interior cities have 
 seaports, as CALLAO in Peru, the seaport of LIMA. Find 
 others. 
 
 VALPARAISO, in Chile, is the largest port on the Pacific 
 coast ; but SANTIAGO, the capital, situated fifty miles in- 
 land, and about one-half mile above the sea, is more than 
 twice as large. Notice how long and narrow Chile is ; 
 what reason can you give for that ? 
 
 FIG. 182. 
 A scene among the lofty, snow-capped mountains of Chile. 
 
 Farming is possible in the northern part of the western 
 coast, where the rainfall is heavy ; but farther south, as 
 in Peru and northern Chile, agriculture is impossible with- 
 out irrigation. In southern Chile, however, the rainfall 
 is moderate, and many people have settled there because 
 the farming and grazing are excellent. 
 
 Which of the Andean countries has no seacoast ? Is 
 that any disadvantage ? One country is called Ecuador, 
 which is the Spanish word for equator. Why is that a 
 fitting name ? Notice that Colombia has seacoast on the 
 two oceans and includes the Isthmus of Panama. What 
 
206 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 cities do you find on the two sides of the Isthmus ? They 
 are connected by a railway. Why is this important ? 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Describe the highland regions of South 
 America. (2) What three great valleys are there? (3) In what 
 zones are the different parts of the continent ? (4) Which is the rainiest 
 region? Why? (5) What about the rainfall elsewhere ? (6) Com- 
 pare Brazil with the United States in size and number of inhabitants. 
 (7) Tell about the silvas and the valuable products obtained from 
 them." (8) Where are the chief cities in Brazil? Which is the largest? 
 (9) Name the main industries in that section. (10) Where is Vene- 
 zuela. (11) Tell about the industries there. (12) Where is Cara- 
 cas? (13) For what is Trinidad noted? (14) Which is the most 
 productive part of South America? What are the products? 
 (15) Name and locate the largest city on the continent. (16) Name 
 the countries along the western side of South America. (17) Why 
 are most of the cities not directly on the coast? (18) Which is the 
 largest port? (19) What are the products of these countries? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Draw the outline of South America. Put in 
 the drawing the mountains, chief rivers, and cities. Add the country 
 boundaries. (2) Make a sand model of the continent, showing the 
 highlands and lowlands. (3) What large cities were found in the 
 interior of North America? How about South America in that 
 respect? What are the causes for the difference? (4) Brazil is in 
 the torrid zone, while the United States is in the temperate zone. 
 Which country has the advantage in temperature ? Why ? (5) Write 
 a story telling of a journey by land and river from the mouth of the 
 Orinoco to the mouth of the Plata. (6) Find some pictures from 
 South America and add them to the school collection. (7) Read 
 something about coffee raising. Read about Pizarro. About Boli- 
 var. (8) From the table on page 268 find the five largest cities in 
 South America. Add the populations together and compare the result 
 with the total of the five largest cities in North America (see p. 
 264). (9) The Hartford Tire Company, Hartford, Mass., issues a 
 pamphlet with illustrations of rubber making. You could probably 
 obtain one if you wrote for it. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 260. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 Scale of Miles, 
 
FIG. 
 
XVIII. EUROPE 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) On page 131 it was stated that Eurasia con- 
 sisted of two continents, Europe and Asia. Trace the boundary line 
 between them, naming the mountains and waters that form it. 
 (2) One of the seas has no outlet; which one is it? What kind of 
 water would you expect to find in that sea? (3) How does the coast 
 line of Europe compare with that of South America? Of North 
 America? (4) Would you expect to find many good harbors? 
 (5) Name the largest peninsulas and draw an outline map to show 
 them. (6) Where are the highest mountains? (7) One of the 
 Alpine peaks is Mt. Blanc. What have you already learned about 
 it? (See p. 21.) (8) Where are the plains? Which very large 
 country is made up mainly of plains? Find Sicily and Sardinia. 
 (9) In what zones is Europe? (10) How do you think its climate 
 would compare with that of the United States? (11) With which 
 of these countries have we recently been at war? (12) What other 
 countries in Europe do you know something about? (13) By what 
 route would you go from New York to one of them? (See Fig. 120.) 
 
 Europe is only a little larger than the United States 
 with Alaska, but contains more than five times as many 
 inhabitants, who .are separated into a score of nations 
 with a different language for nearly every one. 
 
 I. The British Isles. The people in Europe to whom 
 we are most closely related live on the small group of 
 islands, called the BRITISH ISLES, which lie just west of 
 the mainland. This is often called our " mother coun- 
 try." Can you tell why ? 
 
 There are two islands, Ireland and Great Britain ; what 
 are the names of the three parts of Great Britain ? 
 
 207 
 
208 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 On these islands are fine harbors and many great cities, 
 LONDON, in the southern part of England, on the Thames 
 River, being the largest city in the world. Let us see 
 what the people do. 
 
 Judging from their position one might expect these islands to be 
 too cold for agriculture, for they are farther north than the mouth of 
 
 the St. Lawrence 
 River; but the cli- 
 mate is no colder 
 than that of the 
 northern United 
 States. The reason 
 for this is that the 
 western coast of 
 Europe is warmed 
 by a broad cur- 
 rent, or drift, of 
 warm ocean 
 water, known as 
 the Gulf Stream, 
 which flows north- 
 
 FIG. 184. 
 
 London bridge, across the Thames, over which a busy 
 throng is almost constantly passing. 
 
 east in the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean from the warm southern seas. The air over it becomes 
 warmed ; and, since the winds of Europe blow chiefly from the west, 
 they carry this warmth with them and produce a climate much milder 
 than one would otherwise expect. 
 
 Wales and most of Scotland are too hilly to be well 
 suited to agriculture ; but many sheep and cattle are 
 raised. In England there is much more farming, and hay 
 is one of the chief crops, since the damp air and the rain 
 cause the grass to grow well. This is a reason, also, why 
 sheep are raised in great numbers. 
 
 But agriculture and stock raising are not the chief oc- 
 cupations. Having much wool, the people long ago 
 
EUROPE 209 
 
 learned to make woollen cloth. In addition to that, they 
 purchased cotton from distant countries, as New Eng- 
 land does to-day from the Southern states, and made cot- 
 ton goods. Thus extensive manufacturing industries have 
 been developed, which have been made possible because of 
 the vast beds of coal found there, as in Pennsylvania, Illi- 
 nois, and neighboring states. 
 
 The centre for this manufacturing is MANCHESTER, and 
 the nearest port is LIVERPOOL, thirty-five miles away. 
 Recently a ship canal, called the Manchester Canal, has 
 been built, connecting these two cities. Find them. 
 
 The coal has helped to make another great industry 
 possible. Beds of iron ore occur in England, and by 
 the use of coal it is made into iron and steel, especially 
 at BIRMINGHAM, which is the greatest centre for iron 
 manufacturing in Great Britain. Where else have we 
 found a city called Birmingham ? What can you tell 
 about it ? 
 
 The lowland portion of Scotland, about EDINBURGH 
 and GLASGOW, is likewise noted for its cotton and wool- 
 len factories, and for its iron manufacturing. Glasgow 
 is the greatest centre for steel shipbuilding in the world. 
 What city in the United States is noted for shipbuild- 
 ing? 
 
 Great numbers of people are employed in all this work, 
 so that enough cloth, knives, needles, engines, and so forth 
 are made to supply many parts of the world. 
 
 Ireland is not so much interested in manufacturing, al- 
 though linen is an important product, being manufactured 
 especially at BELFAST. It is really to a great extent a 
 farm for the English, furnishing them butter, eggs, pota- 
 toes, and also meat. The air is so moist that the grass 
 p 
 
210 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 is kept fresh and green, and on that account Ireland is 
 often called the Emerald (or Green) Isle. The two largest 
 
 cities are naturally 
 on the side next to 
 England. What are 
 their names ? 
 
 So many manu- 
 factured goods must 
 be shipped away 
 from Great Britain, 
 and so much food 
 imported, that the 
 shipping business is 
 very important. For 
 this reason there are 
 many skilful sailors 
 
 FIG. 185. 
 Thatched cottages in Ireland. 
 
 in Great Britain, and that nation has more ships upon the 
 sea than any other in the world. 
 
 Having so many ships, the British have been led to explore coun- 
 tries in all parts of the world. Whenever they discovered new lands, 
 they laid claim to them in the name of their government, and in that 
 way England has come into possession of Canada, Australia, and a 
 large part of Africa, and scores of islands besides. These are called 
 colonies, and the British have more colonies than any other .nation in 
 the world. Indeed, these colonies cover one hundred times as much 
 surface as the British Isles and have ten times as many inhabitants. 
 
 LONDON, the capital and the central port for vessels, 
 has an excellent harbor on the Thames River, where hun- 
 dreds of ships can be accommodated at one time. 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, together with their many 
 colonies, form the British JZmpire. Its government, un- 
 like our own, is a monarchy ; but it is very liberal, and 
 
EUROPE 211 
 
 as in our own country, the people have an important share 
 in the making of laws. 
 
 II. Norse Countries. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. These 
 two countries together occupy the Scandinavian peninsula, 
 and are about as far north as southern Greenland. Were 
 it not for the Gulf Stream, which flows past Norway, this, 
 like Greenland, might be a barren, frozen country. As it 
 is, however, many people live there. 
 
 FIG. 186. 
 The Thames River and Windsor Castle, where the Queen of England resides. 
 
 As in Scotland, most of the country is too hilly and 
 rocky for farming, although some grain, cattle, and sheep 
 are raised, especially on the lower land of southern Sweden 
 along the Baltic. Few people live in the highlands, and 
 about one fourth of Norway is covered by forests. 
 
 The coast is very irregular, and many deep, narrow bays, or fjords, 
 reach into the land, making fine harbors. As a result, Norwegians 
 and Swedes are skilful sailors. In the early days these Northmen 
 were the best sailors in the world, and they came to the American 
 shores long before Columbus discovered America. Fishing for cod 
 and herring is now one of their important industries. 
 
212 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The principal cities are STOCKHOLM and CHRISTIANIA. 
 Find each. They are the capitals of Sweden and Norway, 
 
 but the entire peninsula 
 is ruled by one king, 
 the government being a 
 monarchy. 
 
 DENMARK, just south 
 of Norway and Sweden, 
 is inhabited by people 
 similar to those in Scan- 
 dinavia ; in fact, these 
 three are often called 
 FIG. 187. the Worse nations, or the 
 
 One of the deep, narrow fjords of Norway. nations of the Northmen . 
 
 The Danes, also, have been great sailors, and now have possession 
 of Iceland and the west coast of Greenland. Their country presents 
 a very different appearance from Norway and Sweden, for the land is 
 low and level, and farm- 
 ing is the occupation of 
 about one-half the peo- 
 ple. Fishing is also an 
 important industry. 
 
 The government 
 is a monarchy, the 
 capital and largest 
 city being COPEN- 
 HAGEN, situated on 
 an island. 
 
 III. Russia. The 
 Russian Empire not 
 only includes great plains in Europe, but extends sev- 
 eral thousand miles beyond the Ural Mountains to the 
 
 FIG. 188. 
 Danish women selling fish. 
 
EUROPE 213 
 
 eastern coast of Asia ; it is nearly as large as the whole of 
 North America and contains a greater number of inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 Most of Russia in Europe is a level country. The northern part, 
 like northern Norway, is in the frigid zone, and so far away from the 
 Gulf Stream that the climate is extremely cold. The plains there, 
 called tundras, are too cold for trees, and the frost never leaves the 
 ground except at the very surface in summer. Nevertheless, a moss 
 flourishes and supports numbers of reindeer, which are used as draft 
 animals by the natives. 
 
 The southeastern plains, called steppes, are so far from 
 the ocean that the west winds can bring them little rain. 
 They are therefore dry like the arid region in our West- 
 ern States. But the central and western parts are well 
 suited to farming, and there most of the people live. As 
 in the northern United States, one of their main crops is 
 grain, especially wheat ; and vast numbers of cattle and 
 sheep roam over the broad, grassy steppes. 
 
 The rivers are excellent waterways, the largest of all 
 being the Volga, the greatest river in Europe. What 
 others do you find ? 
 
 Since the Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the Arctic 
 Ocean on the north side is frozen much of the time, the 
 chief ports for foreign commerce must be either on the 
 Baltic or the Black Sea. This explains the location of 
 ST. PETERSBURG, the capital and largest city, which is 
 about the size of Philadelphia. ODESSA, on the Black 
 Sea, contains many flour-mills and is an important port 
 for the export of wheat. With what two cities northwest 
 of Chicago may it be compared? 
 
 The, chief railway centre is Moscow in the interior, 
 which is nearly twice as large as Boston. 
 
214 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The great mass of the people, called peasants, are not allowed to 
 take any part in the government, and, unlike most of the Euro- 
 peans, are kept in 
 ignorance and sub- 
 jection. They are 
 ruled by a man 
 called the Czar, 
 who makes and ex- 
 ecutes laws very 
 much as he pleases. 
 That kind of gov- 
 ernment is called 
 an absolute mon- 
 archy, or despot- 
 ism, and is very 
 different from the 
 limited monarchies 
 thus far studied. 
 
 FIG. 189. 
 A family of Russian peasants. 
 
 IV. Germany. The general slope of the land in Ger- 
 many is shown by the rivers ; in what direction do most 
 of them flow? The southern part of the country consists 
 of mountains and highlands, but the northern part is a 
 great plain, a continuation of the plains of Russia. 
 
 As in Russia, there is much agriculture, one of the 
 chief products being grain. Much of their bread is made 
 from a grain called rye, and is so dark that it is called 
 "black bread." Beets are grown in enormous quantities, 
 and sugar is manufactured from them as it is from sugar- 
 cane in Louisiana. Grapes flourish along the upper Rhine 
 River, and from these wine is made ; and more hops for 
 making beer are raised in Germany than in any other 
 country of the world. 
 
 Both coal and iron ore are mined in abundance ; and many 
 articles are manufactured, such as the famous Krupp guns 
 
EUROPE 
 
 215 
 
 and many kinds of machinery. Germany is noted also for 
 its manufacture of cotton, woollen and linen goods, ranking 
 
 next to England as 
 
 a manufacturing 
 country of Europe. 
 The chief seaport 
 is HAMBURG on the 
 Elbe River, a city al- 
 most the size of St. 
 Louis. Why should 
 the chief port be at 
 this point rather 
 than farther east on 
 the Baltic Sea? A 
 ship canal has re- 
 cently been dug FlG - 19 - 
 across the peninsula 
 south of Denmark. What are the advantages from it ? 
 
 FIG. 191. 
 The Royal Museum at Berlin. 
 
 The schools, universities, and museums of Germany are among the 
 best that exist, and many Americans go to Germany each year to 
 
216 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 study music, painting, and other subjects. The largest university is 
 in BERLIN; LEIPZIG also has one, and there are many others. MU- 
 NICH and DRESDEN are noted for their fine picture galleries, and so is 
 BERLIN, which also has other large museums. Find these cities. 
 
 BERLIN, the capital of Germany, is the largest city. 
 The government is a limited monarchy, and the present 
 ruler is Emperor William II. 
 
 V. Holland, or the Netherlands (a word that means 
 lowlands), is a low, flat country, much of it being lower 
 
 than the neighbor- 
 ing sea. 
 
 The inhabitants 
 have built embank- 
 ments, called dykes, to 
 keep the sea out, and 
 have dug canals across 
 the country to drain 
 it. The water that 
 collects inside the em- 
 bankments is pumped 
 out by windmills, or 
 by steam, into the 
 canals, and these ca- 
 nals are the chief 
 roads, being used in 
 summer by boats and in winter by people on skates or on sleds. 
 
 The damp soil furnishes excellent grass, so that cattle raising and 
 dairying are the principal occupations. 
 
 The Hollanders, or Dutchmen, living so near the sea, have become 
 great sailors and explorers, like the Englishmen. For this reason 
 they have come into possession of some of the richest islands in the 
 East Indies, from which are obtained valuable products, such as 
 coffee, spices, and precious stones. On the map, Figure 221, facing 
 page 250, find the names of some of the Dutch East Indies. Find 
 out about the early Dutch settlements in America. What great city 
 did they settle V 
 
 FIG. 192. 
 A canal in Holland. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 217 
 
 The chief city is AMSTERDAM, which is about the size 
 of Boston. The government is a monarchy, and the laws 
 are made at THE HAGUE, on the coast. 
 
 VI. Belgium, like Holland, has some land that is lower 
 than the sea and protected by dykes ; but the eastern 
 part is much higher. 
 
 The people are crowded 
 together more closely than 
 in any other country of Eu- 
 rope. Many live on farms and 
 raise much the same prod- 
 ucts as those of Holland and 
 Germany. What are these ? 
 
 Flax is an important farm prod- 
 uct. It is a plant about two feet 
 high, whose fibre is used in mak- 
 ing linen and fine laces. The Bel- 
 gians have long been skilful in 
 such work, and it was from them 
 that the English received some of 
 their knowledge about manufac- 
 turing. BRUSSELS, the largest city, is famous for its fine laces, linens, 
 and Brussels carpets, the latter being made of wool on a mat of linen. 
 
 There is a great amount of coal and iron in this little 
 kingdom, so that the iron industry is extensive, as in 
 Germany. 
 
 The government is a monarchy with BRUSSELS for its 
 capital. ANTWERP is the chief seaport. 
 
 VII. France. The slope of the land in France you see 
 by the course of its rivers. What are their names ? 
 Where do they rise and in what direction do they flow? 
 
 In the cool northern part the crops are similar to 
 those of Germany ; but in the southern portion the 
 
 FIG. 193. 
 
 A windmill, in Belgium, like those 
 so common in Holland. 
 
218 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 climate is warmer and the crops somewhat different. 
 Besides grapes, which are grown in great quantities in 
 the region of BORDEAUX, and made into wine that is sold 
 in many parts of the world, much silk is also produced. 
 
 Silk is manufactured from cocoons spun by a caterpillar called the 
 silkworm. Each one of the cocoons is made of a fine thread several 
 thousand yards long, looking somewhat like the thread of a spider's 
 web. 
 
 After the cocoons have been softened in hot water the threads are 
 unwound and then wound upon spools. They are later made into 
 thread and woven into silk cloth, ribbons, handkerchiefs, and other 
 silk goods. 
 
 Much depends upon the proper care of the silkworm. Their 
 principal food is the leaf of the mulberry tree, which is planted in 
 great groves in the Rhone Valley, in southern France. The leaves 
 are plucked and fed to the worms. 
 
 LYON, the centre for the silk industry, and the great- 
 est silk market in the world, is next to the largest 
 
 city in France. 
 
 PARIS, the larg- 
 est city in France, 
 is the third in 
 size in the world, 
 and probably the 
 most beautiful. 
 Like several cities 
 in Germany, it 
 
 has fine picture 
 galleries and mu- 
 
 FIG. 194. 
 A view of the great city of Paris. 
 
 seums, and many foreigners go there to study painting, 
 music, and other subjects. It is situated upon the Seine 
 River, and its chief port is HAVRE, at the mouth of the 
 Seine. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 219 
 
 FIG. 195. 
 The harbor of Marseille. 
 
 BORDEAUX, already mentioned, is an important ship- 
 ping port for wine, and MARSEILLE the principal port upon 
 the Mediter- 
 ranean coast. 
 From these 
 three harbors 
 France ships 
 goods to and 
 from her sev- 
 eral colonies 
 and other coun- 
 tries. 
 
 The French 
 
 government was formerly a monarchy, but is now a re- 
 public with PARIS as its capital. 
 
 VIII. Spain and Portugal. The Pyrenees Mountains 
 form the boundary between France and Spain, rising like 
 a great wall to separate the two countries. 
 
 You remember that Magellan was a Portuguese and that 
 it was to Spain that Columbus went for help. These 
 were once among the most powerful nations in the world, 
 and they once ruled much of North America and most of 
 South America. Little by little they have lost their colo- 
 nies in the New World, the last to be taken being Cuba 
 and Porto Rico. 
 
 Like Mexico, which was settled and for a long time 
 owned by the Spanish, Spain has a dry, mountainous 
 plateau or table-land in the interior, with low land along 
 the coast. 
 
 Being so much like a desert, one would expect few 
 people to make their homes in the interior ; and this is 
 the case, although, strange to say, the greatest city, 
 
220 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 FIG. 196. 
 
 A view of a part of Madrid and the great plateau 
 on which it is situated. 
 
 MADRID, is found in the centre of this table-land. Its im- 
 portance is due to the fact that it is the capital of Spain. 
 
 As upon our dry 
 Western plains 
 and plateaus, cat- 
 tle and sheep rais- 
 ing are important 
 industries on this 
 highland. But 
 the rocks of this 
 region contain its 
 chief wealth, for 
 Spain produces 
 more quicksilver and lead than any other nation, and more 
 copper and iron than most others. 
 
 There is considerable farming in the mountain valleys and on the 
 low lands along the coast. One of the most valuable crops is grapes ; 
 you have doubtless seen Malaga grapes, named from the city of 
 MALAGA on the southern coast. Many grapes are made into wine ; 
 others are dried to make raisins. Other fruits grown here are olives, 
 lemons, oranges, and figs ; besides this much cork is obtained from 
 the bark of the cork oak. 
 
 BARCELONA, on the eastern side, ^s the chief port of 
 Spain ; and the principal city of Portugal is LISBON, the 
 capital. 
 
 Both governments are limited monarchies, like those 
 of most European countries. 
 
 IX. Italy was once the most powerful country in the 
 world. Its principal city was ROME, and the Romans 
 ruled nearly all the other countries then known. But, 
 like Spain, it has lost much of its importance. 
 
 ROME is still the capital and the residence of the king ; 
 
EUROPE 
 
 221 
 
 also of the 
 Pope, who is 
 the head of the 
 Roman Cath- 
 olic Church. 
 The city is es- 
 pecially noted 
 for its many 
 ruins of build- 
 ings erected 
 hundreds of 
 years ago. 
 
 FIG. 197. 
 
 St. Peter's Cathedral on the left, and the Vatican, the 
 residence of the Pope, on the right. 
 
 VENICE, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is another interesting 
 city. It is built upon many islands joined by hundreds of bridges, 
 and its chief streets are canals, where boats, called gondolas, are used 
 in place of wagons and carriages. 
 
 FIG. 198. 
 One of the canals of Venice with a gondola floating upon it. 
 
 NAPLES, which is on the coast southeast of Rome, and 
 near Mt. Vesuvius, is the largest city in Italy. The steam 
 
222 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 rising from the crater of Vesuvius is easily seen from the 
 city (Fig. 102). Volcanic ash from Mt. Vesuvius has en- 
 tirely buried some of the towns near by, such as the ancient 
 city of Pompeii, from which the ashes have been dug away 
 so as to bring to light the buried buildings and streets. 
 
 The best farm land is in the valley of the Po River in the northern 
 part, where wheat, and other grains, and mulberry trees for silk- 
 worms are raised. MILAN, like Lyon in France, is a great centre for 
 silk. 
 
 The climate is mild enough to produce the same fruits that are 
 grown in Florida and Southern California. Name some of them. 
 
 X. Switzerland. 
 Any one who has 
 heard the story of 
 William Tell, or 
 who has read about 
 the St. Bernard 
 dogs kept by the 
 monks, has some 
 idea of how Swit- 
 zerland looks. Here 
 are the snow-capped 
 Alps, with many 
 lakes and fertile valleys between them, and views so 
 beautiful that thousands of people go every year to enjoy 
 them (p. 21). One of the occupations of the Swiss is to 
 provide for these visitors in hotels and restaurants. 
 
 The green grass in the low lying valleys and on the mountain sides 
 provides excellent food for cattle and goats, so that butter and cheese 
 are made, as in Holland. Probably you have heard of Swiss and 
 Dutch cheese. 
 
 Wood carving is also an important industry. During the long 
 
 FIG. 199. 
 
 The snow-capped Matterhorn, one of the Alpine 
 peaks. 
 
223 
 
 winters the wood grown upon the mountains is carved into toys, 
 clocks, and many other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock? 
 
 Name the countries on each side of Switzerland, and notice that it 
 is surrounded by people who speak German, French, and Italian. In 
 consequence, instead of having one language of their own, the Swiss 
 have these three, those living in each part speaking the language of 
 the foreign country nearest to them. 
 
 The Swiss government has long been a republic, like 
 our own, and BERNE is the capital. Find the chief cities, 
 ZURICH and GENEVA. 
 
 FIG. 200. 
 A view in Austria. 
 
 XI. Austria-Hungary. Austria and Hungary are 
 united under one monarchy, although they have differ- 
 ent customs and languages. Many of the Austrians are 
 closely related to the Germans ; but the Hungarians are 
 a very different race. The capital and largest city is 
 VIENNA, the fourth in size in Europe. It is situated on 
 the Danube River, so that it has water connection with 
 many other places. 
 
 BUDAPEST is next to Vienna in importance. Like Minneapolis, it 
 is in the midst of a great wheat region, and is a flour-milling centre. 
 
224 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The cultivation of flax leads to another manufacturing industry. 
 What is it? 
 
 Which parts of Austria-Hungary are mountainous? Much coal 
 and iron are found in the northwestern part near Germany, and 
 PRAGUE is noted for the manufacture of hardware. The chief harbor 
 is on the Adriatic coast; what is its name? 
 
 XII. Greece. The country in Europe which has per- 
 haps had the greatest influence upon the rest of the world 
 is Greece. The Romans received many of their beliefs and 
 
 FIG. 201. 
 
 The Acropolis with its ruins on top, and the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter on 
 the right, both in ancient Athens. 
 
 customs from the Greeks; and since many of ours come from 
 the Romans, we also are greatly in debt to the Greeks. 
 
 The centre of this influence was ATHENS, once the most 
 famous city in the world. Many years later, at the time 
 of Christ, it was still an important place. Both Athens 
 and Corinth, near by, are mentioned in the Bible. 
 
 The country is mountainous, producing raisins and other fruits, 
 and much grass for grazing. But there is little mining and manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 At one time the Greeks were conquered by the Turks and very 
 
EUROPE 
 
 225 
 
 cruelly treated by them ; but they obtained their independence, and 
 their government is now a monarchy with ATHENS for its capital. 
 
 XIII. Turkey. The largest city in southeastern Eu- 
 rope is CONSTANTINOPLE, which is about one-half as 
 large as Chicago. Notice what an excellent location it 
 has. It is the capital of Turkey, which, like Russia, is a 
 country partly in Europe and partly in Asia. 
 
 The Turkish govern- 
 ment is the worst in Eu- 
 rope. The ruler, called 
 the Sultan, is an absolute 
 despot, who governs his 
 people so badly that they 
 are kept extremely igno- 
 rant and poor. In all the 
 other nations of Europe 
 the Christian religion, 
 either Catholic or Prot- 
 estant, is followed ; but 
 the Turks are Moham- 
 
 FIG. 202. 
 
 A mosque, or Mohammedan church, in 
 Constantinople. 
 
 medans, followers of Mohammed, like many other people 
 in Asia and Africa. They are religious fanatics, and dis- 
 like Christians very much. 
 
 One proof that the Turkish government is bad, is the fact that the 
 people in many parts of the Empire have rebelled against it and 
 fought for their freedom. For example, Roumania, east of Austria, 
 used to belong to Turkey, but it is now an independent kingdom. 
 The same is true of Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro; Greece has 
 already been mentioned. 
 
 The people in all these countries are largely engaged in 
 farming and herding, the Danube Valley being especially 
 fertile. Grain, wine, and raisins are important products. 
 
226 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 I. The British Isles. QUESTIONS. (1) What are the divisions of 
 the British Isles? Where is each? (2) Why have not the British 
 Isles a colder climate? (3) Tell about the agriculture. (4) What 
 kinds of cloth are manufactured? Where? (5) Where is the iron 
 manufacturing carried on. (6) Of what value are the coal-beds? 
 (7) Tell about Ireland. (8) Explain how Great Britain has come to 
 have so many ships. (9) So many colonies. Name some of them, 
 including several islands near North America. (10) What is the 
 British Empire? What kind of government has it? (11) Locate all 
 the cities mentioned. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (12) What books have you read whose authors lived 
 in Great Britain ? (13) Examine pocket-knives and table-knives to see 
 if you can find some made in England. (14) The iron manufactories 
 of England remind you of what states in this country? (15) When 
 did our country cease to be a colony of Great Britain ? (16) What 
 are the people from the four divisions of the British Isles called? 
 (17) Make a drawing of the British Isles. 
 
 II. Norse Countries. QUESTIONS. (18) What about the climate 
 of Norway and Sweden? (19) Tell about the agriculture; the other 
 industries. (20) What are the Norse nations? (21) What colonies 
 have the Danes? (22) Name the chief industries of Denmark? 
 (23) What kind of government have these Norse countries? and 
 what is the capital of each ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (24) Find out something about Iceland. (25) In 
 what other section that you have studied is fishing important? 
 
 (26) Find out about the length of days and nights in Norway. 
 
 (27) Draw a map of the Scandinavian peninsula. 
 
 III. Russia. QUESTIONS. (28) Tell about the size of Russia. 
 (29) .What parts of Russia in Europe are not fitted for farming? 
 Why? (30) What is the main occupation of the people? Name the 
 important products. (31) What are the tundras? The steppes? 
 (32) Which is the largest river in Europe? (33) Where are the lead- 
 ing Russian ports ? (34) Locate three of the largest cities, and state 
 why each is important. (35) Tell about the government. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (36) Why would you not expect Russian sailors 
 to be as numerous as the English sailors? (37) Name some city of 
 
EUROPE 227 
 
 the United States which is about as far north as Odessa. (38) How 
 does the northern location of St. Petersburg interfere with its com- 
 merce by sea? (39) What city on the St. Lawrence has the same 
 difficulty ? (40) Show the route a vessel would take in going from 
 Odessa to London. From Odessa to St. Petersburg. 
 
 IV. Germany. QUESTIONS. (41) Where is the highest land in 
 Germany? The great plains? (42) Tell about the chief farm prod- 
 ucts. (43) What are the principal manufactures in Germany? 
 (44) Where is Hamburg? (45) For what is Berlin noted? Leipzig? 
 Munich? Dresden? Locate each. (46) Tell about the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (47) Do you know any songs or stories about the 
 Rhine River? (48) Make a drawing showing the course of this river. 
 (49) Do you know of any German paintings ? Of any music written 
 by Germans? (50) Make a collection of German pictures. 
 
 V. Holland. QUESTIONS. (51 ) Tell about the dykes and canals of 
 Holland. (52) What is the principal industry ? Why? (53) What 
 important colonies has Holland ? (54) What are the main cities? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (55) Write a story telling what you think might 
 result if a dyke were to give way. (56) Find a picture of a Dutch 
 windmill. (57) Tell what you would expect to see in crossing Hol- 
 land on a railway train. 
 
 VI. Belgium. QUESTIONS. (58) What are the farm products of 
 Belgium ? (59) Tell what you can about flax. (60) Name and lo- 
 cate the two principal cities. (61) What about coal and iron? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (62) Examine a piece of Brussels carpet ; a piece 
 of lace also. 
 
 VII. France. QUESTIONS. (63) Describe the chief slopes of 
 France. (64) What are the products in the northern part? In the 
 southern part ? (65) Tell about the silk industry. (66) What can 
 you say about the capital? (67) About each of the other cities? 
 (68) What kind of government has France? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (69) Examine a cocoon and a piece of silk. Ob- 
 tain a caterpillar, if possible the silkworm, and raise it in the school 
 to see how the silkworm forms silk and what happens to the 
 "worm." (70) Why would the value of a cocoon be destroyed if 
 the chrysalis inside were to break through in order to get out? 
 (71) Can you find any pictures of Paris? 
 
228 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 VIII. Spain and Portugal. QUESTIONS. (72) Where are the 
 Pyrenees Mountains? (73) Tell about the former power of these 
 countries. (74) Describe the relief and climate. (75) What are the 
 industries on the plateau? (76) W T hat minerals are found there? 
 
 (77) Where is most of the farming ? What are the chief products ? 
 
 (78) Name and locate the most important coast cities. The two 
 capitals. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (79) Would you expect the rivers to be naviga- 
 ble for any considerable distance from the Spanish coast? Why? 
 
 (80) Make a sand map of Spain, showing the high and low land. 
 
 (81) Examine some quicksilver. For what is it used? (82) Can 
 you find out anything about the Moors and the Alhambra in south- 
 ern Spain? Perhaps you can find pictures from there. Washington 
 Irving has written some beautiful stories about the Alhambra. 
 
 IX. Italy. QUESTIONS. (83) Where is Rome? Venice? Na- 
 ples? Mt. Vesuvius? Milan? (84) Tell something about each of 
 these. (85) Where are the mountains ? (86) Where is the Po Val- 
 ley ? (87) What is raised in Italy ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (88) Find pictures of some of the ruins in Rome. 
 (89) Of some of the buildings in Venice. (90) Look on a globe to see in 
 which direction Rome is from New York. (91) Draw a map of Italy. 
 
 X. Switzerland. QUESTIONS. (92) What are some of the in- 
 dustries of the Swiss? (93) What languages are spoken? (94) Name 
 the principal cities. (95) What is the kind of government? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (96) Read the story of William Tell. (97) Find 
 other stories about Switzerland. (98) What disadvantages do you 
 see in having so many languages ? (99) What large rivers rise in 
 Switzerland? (100) Write a story describing a visit to the Alps. 
 You will get some suggestions from Figure 15, page 18, Figure 110, 
 page 131, and Figure 20, page 23. 
 
 XI. Austria-Hungary. QUESTIONS. (101) Name four leading 
 cities in Austria-Hungary. (102) Tell why each is important. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (103) Trace the Danube River from its source to 
 its mouth. (104) How far is Trieste from Venice ? (105) Through 
 what waters would a vessel pass in sailing from New York to Trieste ? 
 (106) By using the scale on the map, find out how far Vienna is from 
 Munich. From Leipzig. From Berlin. From Paris. From St. 
 Petersburg. (107) In what direction is it from each of these? 
 
EUROPE 229 
 
 XII. Greece. QUESTIONS. (108) What can you say about the 
 influence of Greece upon the world ? (109) Find Athens. (1.10) Tell 
 about the climate and products. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (111) Where can you read about Ulysses? 
 
 (112) Have some one tell you the story of the Trojan War. 
 
 (113) Find some other stories about the ancient Greeks. 
 
 XIII. Turkey. QUESTIONS. (114) Where is Turkey? What is 
 its capital? (115) Tell about its government. (116) What is the 
 chief occupation of the people ? (117) What countries have gained 
 their independence rom Turkey ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (118) What is the boundary line between Tur- 
 key in Europe and Turkey in Asia? (119) Examine a Turkish rug. 
 (120) What reasons can you give why Russia would like to own 
 Constantinople ? 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 
 
 (121) Do you know of any persons who have come from one of 
 these countries of Europe ? If so, ask them to tell you about them. 
 Also have them speak in their native language. (122) Ask your 
 storekeeper to show you some goods from Europe. (123) What diffi- 
 culties would you expect to meet if you were to travel through Europe 
 without knowing any foreign languages? (124) Bound each of the 
 countries of Europe. (125) Draw an outline map of Europe, putting 
 in these boundaries and the principal rivers. (126) Make a dot to 
 represent Berlin ; also locate the other large cities. Mark the capitals 
 with stars. (127) Collect pictures of Europe for the school collection. 
 (128) Cut out scraps, from the magazines and papers, relating to the 
 people, animals, plants, cities, etc., of different parts of Europe and 
 present them to the school to be kept for use in the geography class. 
 They can be arranged by countries and will be very useful. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 261. 
 
XIX. ASIA 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Through what zones does Asia extend? 
 (2) What climate would you expect to find? (3) Where are the 
 highest mountains and plateaus ? (4) What rivers have their sources 
 in that region ? (5) What large inland seas do you find? (6) What 
 three large peninsulas on the southern side? (7) What three were 
 found on the south side of Europe? (8) How does Asia compare in 
 size with Europe? (9) Find Asia on a globe. (10) How could you 
 reach it, if you wished to go there ? 
 
 Physical Geography. Like Europe, the coast of Asia 
 is very irregular, with many peninsulas and islands. 
 Draw an outline map of it, showing these, with the larger 
 bays and seas enclosed by them. 
 
 Note the direction in which the many mountain ranges 
 extend. The loftiest among them, and in fact the highest 
 in the world, are the Himalaya Mountains (Fig. 204), 
 the highest peak, Mount Everest, being over twenty-nine 
 thousand feet, or about five and one-half miles, above the 
 sea. Where is it ? How does it compare in height with 
 Mt. Blanc ? (See p. 270.) 
 
 North of the Himalayas are lofty plateaus, one of them, 
 the plateau of Tibet, being about three miles in height. 
 How does that compare with the Spanish plateau (see 
 p. 271) and with our western plateau (see p. 271) ? 
 It is so high that the winter climate is very cold ; and 
 since the winds from the ocean have lost their moisture 
 in passing over the mountains, these plateaus are also 
 
 230 
 
- 
 
ASIA 231 
 
 dry. Farther north it is drier still, and we find there 
 the great desert of Gobi. 
 
 These mountains and plateaus form the watershed of the conti- 
 nent. Find three great rivers that flow northward from the watershed 
 through the vast plain of Siberia. Name three that flow eastward 
 into the Pacific Ocean. What others flow southward ? 
 
 The southwestern portion of Asia is mainly a desert, 
 because the winds blowing over it come from the land 
 instead of from the sea, and therefore have little vapor. 
 
 FIG. 204. 
 The snowy range of the lofty Himalayas. 
 
 From what has been said about the climate it is plain that the 
 inhabitants of this continent must be found chiefly in the eastern 
 and southern parts. There they live in vast numbers along the coast 
 and the large rivers; in fact, nearly one-half of all the people in the 
 world are found in these regions. 
 
 I. Southwestern Asia. Rome and Athens have been 
 mentioned as cities that have had a great influence upon 
 other countries. But the part of the world which has 
 probably had the greatest influence of all is that at the 
 eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Here is the land 
 
232 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 that used to be called Palestine, the home of the Jews ; 
 and here is still the city of JERUSALEM (Fig. 205), near 
 which Christ was born about 1900 years ago, and in which 
 He was crucified. The Christian churches and Christmas 
 are in His memory. The home of Christ, where the 
 Christian religion was founded, is now a part of the 
 Turkish empire which extends into Asia. 
 
 Turkey extends down the western coast of the Arabian peninsula, 
 and includes another famous city called MECCA. The Turks are not 
 Christians but Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, who was 
 
 FIG. 205. 
 A picture of a part of Jerusalem. 
 
 born at Mecca nearly fourteen hundred years ago. The Moham- 
 medans believe in God, and their holy book is called the Koran. A 
 great many other people in Asia and northern Africa are followers of 
 Mohammed. 
 
 The western part of Asia, including Turkey, Arabia, 
 and Persia, has a very dry, arid climate. This is par- 
 ticularly true of Arabia, which is mainly a desert plateau 
 much more arid than Spain. 
 
 In this desert country agriculture is not a very impor- 
 
ASIA 
 
 tant industry ; but dates and coffee are raised there, espe- 
 cially near the rivers and along the coast. You have 
 perhaps heard of MOCHA coffee, and if you look on the 
 map you can find the place from which it gets its name. 
 
 FIG. 206. 
 The home of a group of Persian nomads. 
 
 Although so much of this region is desert, there are places, called 
 oases, where water is found. As these are usually too small to fur- 
 nish water and grass for large herds during a long time, the Arabs are 
 forced to wander from place to place, having no fixed homes. On 
 that account they are called nomads or wanderers (Fig. 206). They 
 take special pride in raising horses, which have become famous through- 
 out the world. They also keep cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. 
 
 Much of Persia is also a desert ; but some parts are 
 well suited to grazing, and the climate is warm enough 
 for such fruits as figs and dates. What is the capital? 
 The ruler of the Persians is a despot called the Shah. 
 
 The people of these countries are not civilized enough to carry on 
 much manufacturing, although beautiful carpets, rugs, and shawls 
 are made in great numbers, especially in Persia and Turkey. The 
 
234 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 work is done by hand, and though it is well done, it requires a great 
 deal of time, while in our great factories carpets are quickly made by 
 machinery. Railways are almost unknown, and even carriage roads 
 are usually lacking. Goods are carried upon camels in groups, called 
 caravans, and men travel upon the backs of horses and camels. 
 
 II. Siberia. Siberia belongs to Russia. It is a region 
 of extensive plains and is much larger than the whole of 
 Russia in Europe. Like northern Canada, much of it is 
 so cold that few people can live there, and it has been 
 made a prison for many Russians who have committed 
 crime, or who have offended their despotic rulers. 
 
 A large portion of southwestern Siberia is a desert having numerous 
 lakes without outlets. Would you expect them to be salt or fresh ? 
 Between this arid section and the bleak northern plains, or tundras, 
 which resemble those of northern Europe, is a region where there 
 are extensive forests, and broad plains suited for grazing and farming. 
 
 FIG. 207. 
 A Siberian three-horse wagon. 
 
 One of the chief sources of wealth of Siberia is in the gold mines 
 
 of the Ural Mountains. Graphite, from which the "lead" in lead 
 
 pencils is made, is also found there. Many of the prisoners from 
 Russia are compelled to work in these mines. 
 
ASIA 235 
 
 The Russian government has built a great railway all the way 
 from St. Petersburg eastward to PORT ARTHUR in China on the 
 Pacific coast. How far is that? 
 
 III. The Chinese Empire and Korea. Some of the most 
 important arts that we have ever learned first came from 
 the Chinese. For instance, they made porcelain dishes 
 long before Europeans knew how, and on that account 
 
 FIG. 208. 
 Houseboats on the Tientsin River of China. 
 
 those dishes are still called chinatvare, even though 
 manufactured in the United States. They invented 
 gunpowder, and our firecrackers for the Fourth of July 
 used to come from China. They also discovered how to 
 make silk and paper, and they invented the art of printing. 
 
 But while this strange-looking, yellow race was once among the 
 foremost nations of the earth, it is now very much behind. This is 
 explained partly by the fact that their religion causes them to worship 
 their ancestors, so that whatever their fathers did, they must do. 
 Since their fathers had no railways, telegraphs, or telephones, none 
 are wanted now. Owing to their fear of new things, they have 
 neither travelled abroad much nor allowed foreigners to visit them, 
 
 But recently many Chinese have come to this country, working 
 as servants, especially on the Pacific coast ? and as laundrymen in all 
 
236 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 parts of our country. Besides that, they now allow foreigners to 
 live in some of their coast cities and trade with the people. 
 
 CANTON in the southern part, which is considerably 
 larger than Chicago, and SHANGHAI, a city nearly as 
 large as Baltimore, are the principal ports for trade with 
 Americans. HONGKONG is a British port. 
 
 Much of the northern and western portions of the Chinese Empire 
 are so high and dry that few persons can live there. Find the names 
 of those parts. But the lower plains near the coast, especially the 
 fertile flood plains and deltas of the great rivers, support a vast 
 population, because the soil is fertile, and abundant rainfall is sup- 
 plied by the damp winds from the Pacific. Here live nearly one- 
 fourth of all the inhabitants of the globe, crowded together so closely 
 that many thousands dwell in boats on the rivers. 
 
 Iii the northern part a great deal of wheat is raised ; 
 but farther south rice, millet, tea- and silk are important 
 
 products. China 
 produces more 
 raw silk than any 
 other country in 
 the world. What 
 other regions are 
 noted for these 
 same products ? 
 
 The govern- 
 ment is an abso- 
 lute monarchy, 
 with the capital at 
 PEKING, which, 
 like TIENTSIN, its 
 seaport, is nearly twice as large as Boston. The govern- 
 ment is so weak and corrupt that European nations are 
 
 FIG. 209. 
 Temple in Peking. 
 
ASIA 
 
 237 
 
 able to seize and hold parts of the country, so that the 
 once great empire is in danger of being destroyed and the 
 different parts made subject to various European nations. 
 
 Korea is also a very unprogressive nation which, until recently, 
 would not permit foreigners to enter. 
 
 IV. Japan. The Japanese live upon islands east of Asia, 
 as the British do west of Europe. Their territory is but 
 slightly larger than 
 the British Isles, and 
 there are not many 
 more inhabitants. 
 Many of the islands 
 are small, but there 
 are five large ones, the 
 southernmost being 
 Formosa. They are 
 really the crest of a 
 mountain range ris- 
 ing above the sea, and 
 some of the mountain 
 peaks are volcanoes. 
 
 FIG. 210. 
 
 A Japanese woman being carried in a travelling 
 chair by two Japanese men. 
 
 The Japanese used to be much like their neighbors, the Chinese ; 
 that is, they believed in ancestor worship, and wanted nothing to do 
 with foreigners. But in 1853 an American naval officer, with several 
 war-ships, entered the harbor of Yokohama and persuaded the Jap- 
 anese to allow us to trade with them. 
 
 Before many years had passed the Japanese not only allowed 
 foreigners to enter, but they invited them to come as teachers, and 
 even sent some of their own young men abroad to study. There have 
 been many Japanese students in the colleges and universities of the 
 United States during the last twenty years. 
 
 The result is that Japan is now far in advance of China, and in 
 
238 
 
 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 fact of all other parts of Asia. Railways, telephones, and newspapers 
 are common, and there are many good schools, while rapid progress 
 has been made in manufacturing. 
 
 That the Japanese are very skilful in many kinds of 
 handiwork is suggested by the Japanese fans, parasols, 
 napkins, dolls, and screens so often seen in this country. 
 
 * . Whatever they 
 
 make they try to 
 make beautiful, be- 
 ing one of the most 
 artistic races in 
 the world. 
 
 Japan, like 
 China, produces a 
 great amount of 
 silk, rice, and tea. 
 There is also con- 
 siderable mining. 
 
 The principal 
 city and capital is 
 TOKIO, which is 
 as large as Phila- 
 delphia, and is the 
 home of the em- 
 peror, called the 
 Mikado. Its seaport is YOKOHAMA, a city as large as 
 Rochester. 
 
 V. India and Indo-China. India, the central one of 
 the three peninsulas on -the southern side of Asia, is the 
 country that Columbus thought he had reached when he 
 discovered America. Hence the name " Indians " for the 
 savages whom he met. 
 
 FIG. 211. 
 
 The way Japanese babies are carried by the 
 young girls. The baby leaning back is asleep. 
 
ASIA 
 
 239 
 
 FIG. 212. 
 Idols in a cave near Bombay. 
 
 The damp winds from the Indian Ocean furnish the plains and 
 mountains of India with so much rain that in places the forests form 
 a perfect tangle or jungle 
 of luxuriant vegetation, 
 in which live tigers, ele- 
 phants, and many other 
 wild animals. Have you 
 ever read Rudyard Kip- 
 ling's "Jungle Book," 
 which tells of this region ? 
 Several very large rivers 
 rise in the Himalayas and 
 flow across the plains. 
 One is the Indus, from 
 which the word India comes, and also the word Hindoos, as the in- 
 habitants are sometimes called. 
 The river flowing southeast is the 
 Ganges, on which is the capital 
 and largest city, CALCUTTA. The 
 next city in size on this eastern 
 coast is MADRAS, far to the south, 
 while the largest city on the 
 west side is BOMBAY, which has 
 the best harbor of all. 
 
 Nearly all this peninsula, to- 
 gether with the part of Indo- 
 China called Burmah, belongs to 
 England, through whose influ- 
 ence roads and railways have 
 been built and manufacturing 
 carried on. 
 
 One of the chief reasons 
 why England holds India 
 is for the important crops 
 
 FIG. 213. . ^ 
 
 raised there. Cotton, one 
 
 A view in the palace grounds at Bang- . , , 
 
 kok, Siam. f the principal products, 
 
240 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 is shipped to England to be made into cloth, and then 
 some of this cloth is shipped back to India and sold. 
 Where else have we found a similar situation ? 
 
 Wheat is another great product, and since England 
 cannot raise enough of that food for herself, she secures 
 some of it from India. Other crops are poppies, from 
 which opium is made, silk, rice, tea, coffee, and sugar. 
 
 The peninsula east of India, called Indo-China, and the East In- 
 dian Islands south of it, are other places that Columbus wished to 
 reach. Here are found precious stones, pepper, such spices as nutmeg 
 and cinnamon, and other valuable products, which were carried by 
 caravans to Europe long before the time of Columbus. Many of 
 these products are now shipped from SINGAPORE, an English city on 
 an island at the southern end of the Malay peninsula. The greatest 
 city in Indo-China is BANGKOK, the capital of the kingdom of Siam. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 I. Southwestern Asia. QUESTIONS. (1) What part of Asia has 
 had the greatest influence upon the civilized world V Tell about it. 
 (2) To what nation does Palestine belong? (3) What other parts 
 of Asia belong to it? (4) Tell about Mecca. (5) Describe Arabia. 
 (6) How do the Arabians live ? (7) What do you know about Per- 
 sia? (8) How do people travel in those countries ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (9) What is meant by the date 1900? (10) What 
 buildings in your neighborhood have been erected in the memory of 
 Christ? (11) What stories in the Bible have you read that tell about 
 places mentioned in this book or on the map? (12) What reasons 
 can you suggest why the Turks have not taken possession of the inte- 
 rior of Arabia, as well as of the coast ? (13) Does your grocer sell 
 Mocha coffee ? (14) Examine a Persian or Turkish rug. (15) Learn 
 how camels are especially fitted to live in desert countries. 
 
 II. Siberia. QUESTIONS. (16) Point toward Siberia. (17) Tell 
 about the climate. (18) In what occupations are the people engaged? 
 (19) How does Siberia compare in size with Russia ? 
 
ASIA 241 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (20) What advantage will the railway be to Rus- 
 sia? (21) How does that railway compare in length with those reach- 
 ing across the United States? (22) What object do you see in having 
 the eastern terminus, Port Arthur, so far south? 
 
 III. Chinese Empire and Korea. QUESTIONS. (23) Name some of 
 the arts that we have learned from the Chinese? (24) What has 
 made them so backward ? (25) What special ports are open to 
 American traders ? (26) In what part of China do most of the peo- 
 ple live? Why there? (27) What are the principal products? 
 (28) What kind of a government has China? (29) Tell about Korea. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (30) How can you distinguish a Chinaman from 
 other men? (31) How does the number of people in China compare 
 with the number in the whole of Europe? (See the table on p. 262.) 
 (32) Write a story telling some of the differences between life in 
 America and in China. (33) Draw the two chief rivers in China. 
 (34) How might railways in China help to prevent the awful famines 
 that they have there ? (35) Find out about Confucius. About the 
 Great Wall of China. 
 
 IV. Japan. QUESTIONS. (36) Where is Japan ? (37) In what 
 way have the Japanese been like the Chinese? (38) How have they 
 differed? (39) Why are they called an artistic race? (40) What 
 are their chief products? (41) Name and locate the chief cities. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (42) Make a collection of Japanese articles, as 
 paper napkins, fans, etc. (43) Examine them to see in what respect 
 they are artistic. (44) Collect pictures of Japanese houses and people. 
 
 V. India and Indo-China. QUESTIONS. (45) What nation owns 
 India? (46) AVhat rivers in northern India? (47) Locate the chief 
 cities. (48) What are the products? (49) What advantages does 
 England enjoy in owning India ? (50) Name the peninsula east of 
 India. (51) What comes from there ? (52) Find Singapore. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (53) How far was Columbus from India when he 
 discovered America? (54) What route should he have taken if he 
 had continued his voyage to India ? (55) What is the shortest route 
 from Bombay to London ? Through what waters would a vessel pass? 
 
 VI. REVIEW. (56) Draw an outline map of Asia and put in the 
 boundary lines of the principal countries ; also the rivers, mountains 
 and cities. (57) Find out about foreign missions to Asia. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 261. 
 
XX. AFRICA 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) What continent does Africa most resem- 
 ble in shape? (2) In what parts are the chief mountain ranges? 
 
 (3) Find the main slopes on the continent by a study of the rivers. 
 
 (4) Name and trace the three largest rivers. (5) About how much 
 of Africa lies in the torrid zone ? (6) How does its coast line com- 
 pare with that of Europe as to regularity? (7) What influence must 
 that have upon the harbors ? 
 
 The Dark Continent. Although Africa is so near 
 Europe that they almost join at the Strait of Gibraltar, 
 and although it is one of the oldest continents that history 
 tells about, it is the least known of them all. 
 
 There are several reasons for this. In the first place, 
 south of the Mediterranean Sea is a broad desert, extend- 
 ing entirely across the continent. This, a part of which is 
 called the Sahara Desert (Fig. 69), is about a thousand 
 miles wide, and very difficult to cross. 
 
 South of this desert for more than a thousand miles 
 the country is covered with a forest where the rainfall 
 is heavy ; and near the equator the vegetation is so rank 
 that an almost impenetrable jungle is formed, like the 
 Amazon jungle. It is inhabited by large and fierce 
 animals, such as the elephant, tiger (Fig. Ill), and lion. 
 
 The rivers offer further obstacles to travel. The 
 continent is mainly a plateau, varying from one-fourth to 
 one and one-half miles in height; and its rivers on 
 approaching the ocean have numerous rapids and falls, 
 so that boats cannot make their way up-stream. 
 
 242 
 

AFRICA 
 
 243 
 
 The Great Pyramid aiid the Sphynx. What animals are those standing on the 
 desert sands near the Sphynx ? 
 
 Not only are there deserts, unnavigable rivers, and dense 
 forests with fierce animals, but there are hordes of savages 
 belonging to the black race. It was from Africa that 
 negroes were first brought to our country as slaves, and 
 on that account those now here are often called Africans. 
 
 Here, then, are several reasons why we know so little 
 about Africa, which, because of this, and because so many 
 blacks live there, is sometimes called the "dark conti- 
 nent." 
 
 Northern Africa. The African side of the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, being so close to Asia and Europe, has long 
 been settled by the white race. Many of the inhabitants 
 
244 
 
 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 are Arabs, who, being believers in Mohammed, still make 
 pilgrimages to Mecca in Arabia, like other followers of 
 that prophet. 
 
 The best-known country in this section is Egypt, and 
 CAIRO, its capital, is the largest city in Africa, being 
 about twice the size of New Orleans. ALEXANDRIA is 
 the chief Egyptian port. 
 
 This is the country over which the Pharaohs, the kings of Egypt, 
 used to rule ; and the ruins of the immense pyramids and monu- 
 ments that they built thousands of years ago may still be seen. 
 Here, the Bible tells, Moses once lived; and Joseph also. What 
 stories do you remember about them ? 
 
 Most of Egypt is a desert country, like Arabia on the one 
 side and the Sahara Desert on the other. The Nile River 
 flows through this desert, and every year the heavy floods, 
 from the mountains of Abyssinia and the forest country 
 near the equator, cause it to rise higher and higher until it 
 overflows its banks. These floods, spreading out over the 
 flood plain and level delta of the Nile, irrigate the land. 
 
 As in other rivers, the water carries with it an abundance 
 of mud, which settles in a thin layer of rich soil upon the flood 
 
 plain, making it so 
 fertile that excel- 
 lent crops of cotton, 
 sugar-cane, and 
 grain can be raised 
 after the water is 
 gone. By this 
 means millions of 
 people obtain food, 
 
 FIG. 216. although they live 
 
 A ship passing through the Suez Canal. in a desert region. 
 
AFRICA 
 
 245 
 
 The eastern part of Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, which con- 
 nects Africa with Asia. Because of this narrow neck of land, ships sail- 
 ing from Europe to Asia were compelled to go all the way round Africa ; 
 but in 1869 a canal one hundred miles long was completed across the 
 isthmus, so that vessels can now make a short cut. Estimate how many 
 miles are saved by the Suez Canal in going from London to Calcutta. 
 
 Name the countries west of Egypt along the Mediter- 
 ranean coast. What are their capitals ? Most of them, 
 like Egypt itself, are controlled by countries of Europe. 
 Their products are similar to those on the northern side 
 of the Mediterranean. What are some of them ? 
 
 FIG. 217. 
 A family camped on an oasis in the desert of Morocco. 
 
 On the desert of Sahara few people are able to live. Some parts 
 are sandy plains, while others are rocky and hilly, and in places 
 even mountainous. But here and there, as in Arabia, are oases where 
 water comes from underground, so that grass and date palms are able 
 to grow. Sometimes these oases are so large that villages are built 
 upon them ; and the caravans that cross the desert to bring ivory and 
 other products from the south, make their stops at these places. Some 
 of these caravans consist of hundreds of camels, so that there is need 
 of much food and water. 
 
246 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Central Africa. Until a few years ago this was a wil- 
 derness that no civilized man had ever visited ; but now 
 much of it has been explored. The natives are mainly 
 savage blacks ; and the Arabs, who go there to purchase 
 ivory, still carry large numbers of them away as slaves. 
 
 The northern part is called the Soudan. Near the 
 borders of the Sahara the country is a desert ; but this 
 condition gradually changes until, farther south, the land 
 is covered with a dense tropical forest, for the rains are 
 heavy near the equator. In this region live the lion, 
 rhinoceros, giraffe, and elephant, the latter being killed 
 for the sake of its ivory tusks. Some of the forest woods 
 are valuable, and since the rubber tree nourishes there, as 
 along the Amazon, rubber is another product. See p. 200. 
 
 The two great rivers of this region are the Niger, north of the 
 equator, and the Kongo, south of it. They are the main roads leading 
 
 . inland, although their falls 
 
 and rapids greatly interfere 
 with travel. Throughout that 
 entire region there are almost 
 no wagon roads, so that goods 
 must be carried either on the 
 rivers or over paths or trails 
 in pack trains. But this sit- 
 uation is improving as the 
 nations, of Europe obtain 
 more and more control. At 
 the present time, several Eu- 
 ropean countries claim parts 
 of Africa, England having 
 the largest share, as you will see from the map, and they are intro- 
 ducing civilized laws, railways, and other improvements. 
 
 South Africa. Southern Africa is the best developed 
 section of the continent. It was originally settled by the 
 
 FIG. 218. 
 Kaffirs, South African savages, in full dress. 
 
AFRICA 
 
 Dutch, though England has taken possession of a portion 
 of it. Part of it is a high plateau, with a warm temperate 
 
 FIG. 219. 
 A group of ostriches in South Africa. 
 
 climate, having many of the same products as our own 
 country. Most of the people are engaged in farming and 
 ranching, producing grain, wool, and hides. Ostrich 
 farming is an impor- 
 tant industry in Cape 
 Colony, the beautiful 
 feathers of the male 
 
 bird being very valua- 
 ble. 
 
 JOHANNESBURG is 
 the centre of the richest 
 gold-mining region in 
 the world, and more 
 diamonds are obtained 
 from near KIMBERLEY than from any other part of the 
 globe. Portions of southern Africa have long been settled 
 
 FIG. 220. 
 A picture of a diamond mine at Kimberley. 
 
248 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 by Europeans and much of it is now owned by England, 
 the oldest colony being Cape Colony, the capital of which 
 is CAPE TOWN. Consequently many railways and good 
 wagon roads have been built, and many other advances 
 have been made. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Why is so little known about Africa? 
 (2) Why is it called the " dark continent " ? (3) Which is the best- 
 known country in northern Africa ? (4) Name and locate its two 
 chief cities. (5) Tell about the Nile River. (6) About the Suez 
 Canal. (7) About the Sahara Desert. (8) Where is the Soudan? 
 What animals live there? (9) What two great rivers are in Central 
 Africa? (10) How are goods carried from place to place? (11) 
 What influence are the nations of Europe having upon Africa? 
 (12) What climate lias southern Africa? What are the occupa- 
 tions of the people ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (1) What reasons can you give why Timbuktu 
 should be an important trade centre ? (2) The caravans composed 
 of camels travel at the rate of about sixteen miles per day. How 
 long would it probably take for a caravan to travel from Timbuktu 
 to Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast? (3) One camel can carry 
 about four hundred pounds. How many tons could a caravan of 
 six hundred camels carry? (4) W T hat are some of the dangers of a 
 journey across the desert ? (5) Beginning with the western Sahara, 
 trace the desert country that extends across Africa and Asia. (6) Why 
 should the two largest cities in Africa be located at or near the mouth 
 of the Nile River? (7) Find some object made of ivory and show 
 it to the class. (8) Examine an ostrich feather and a diamond. 
 (9) Why are there no tributaries to the northern half of the Nile? 
 What part of the river, then, probably has most water? (10) Find 
 out about the war between the Boers (those living in the South Afri- 
 can Republic and Orange Free State) and the British. (11) Draw 
 an outline map of Africa and put in the main rivers and cities. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 261. 
 
XXI. AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIP- 
 PINES, AND THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE 
 PACIFIC 
 
 MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Find Australia on a globe and show how 
 you would reach it from New York in a vessel. Through what waters 
 would you pass? (See Fig. 120.) (2) From San Francisco? From 
 London? (3) In what part are most of the mountains? (4) The 
 rivers? (5) The cities? (6) In what zones is Australia? (7) Will 
 there be any cold winter on this continent? (8) Look on a globe to 
 see what other continents are in the same zones. 
 
 (9) What are the principal islands of the East Indies ? Find Ba- 
 tavia. (10) In what direction are the Philippine Islands from Austra- 
 lia? (11) Estimate the distance. (12) Find the Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 I. Australia. The names of the three eastern divi- 
 sions of Australia Victoria, New South Wales, and 
 Queensland suggest the country to which this continent 
 belongs. Which is it ? As has been done in Canada, the 
 various sections of Australia are being joined into one con- 
 federation similar to our own confederation of states. 
 
 Australia is the smallest of the continents, being about 
 the size of the United States, not including Alaska. It 
 is a low plateau, with the chief mountain range on the 
 eastern side. These mountains have much influence on 
 the climate ; for, since the prevailing winds are from, the 
 southeast, as they reach this range, and rise to pass over 
 it, they grow cooler and lose most of their moisture. If 
 the mountains were on the western side, as the Andes are 
 
 249 
 
250 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 in South America, nearly the whole country might be well 
 watered, like the Amazon Valley. As it is, however, the 
 eastern coast of Australia has abundant rain, while farther 
 westward it becomes drier, until, at a distance of one 
 hundred and fifty miles from the coast, farming is almost 
 impossible. 
 
 What about the country farther west ? With what part 
 of Africa should it be compared ? Where must the chief 
 
 FIG. 222. 
 A forest of tree ferns in Australia. 
 
 rivers be? Where might we expect to find salt lakes? 
 The best farm land ? The principal cities and most of the 
 people ? 
 
 Now examine the map to see if you are right. Where 
 is the large desert? (It is dotted.) What is the name 
 of the main river? There is often so little rain, even on 
 the lower part of the Murray River Basin, that the river 
 grows smaller toward its mouth ; and its chief tributary, 
 the Darling, dries up almost entirely. 
 
AUSTRALIA 251 
 
 When the English began to colonize this country, they found it 
 inhabited by a very low class of savages ; and the plants and animals 
 were found to be different from those elsewhere. A great part of the 
 interior was covered with a low bush, called "scrub," having hard, 
 prickly leaves and often growing so dense that it was difficult for one 
 to make his way through it. It caused the country to 
 look desolate indeed. 
 
 There were none of the fierce animals common to 
 other countries, the largest being the kangaroo, which is 
 furnished with a sack or pouch for carrying its young. 
 Instead of running on all fours, it jumps along on its 
 hind legs, using its tail for support. 
 
 Finding the plants and animals of 
 little use, the English began to im- 
 port some. Sheep were taken 
 there and found to thrive ; for 
 the temperature is so mild that 
 they are not exposed to cold, 
 and some of the plants 
 furnish excellent 
 food. Conse- 
 quently, great 
 sheep ranches 
 or sheep runs, as 
 they are called FlG - 223 - 
 
 there, have been An Australian kangaroo, 
 
 established. The best sections for this purpose are Vic- 
 toria and New South Wales, where wool has become one 
 of the chief exports. Indeed, Australian wool is the best 
 in the world. 
 
 The imported cattle have likewise multiplied, so that hides and 
 meat are produced in abundance. "Wheat and corn also flourish, and 
 many fruits, such as we know, are now plentiful in that region. 
 
252 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The presence of mountains suggests that metals might 
 exist there, which is the case. For many years Australia 
 has ranked as one of the most important gold-producing 
 countries of the world. 
 
 Since these industries have become very extensive, 
 especially in the rainy southeastern part, we see why 
 several great cities have grown up in that section. The 
 largest is MELBOURNE, the capital of Victoria, which is 
 nearly as large as Boston. The next is SYDNEY, the capi- 
 tal of New South Wales, nearly as large ; and the third 
 is ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia. 
 
 An island, Tasmania, just south of Australia, is owned 
 by the British, and has almost the same industries as Vic- 
 toria. 
 
 The New Zealand Islands are also British, and in the 
 climate and the customs of the people they resemble 
 Australia. What is the capital ? What other city is 
 found there ? Do you remember the geysers for which 
 the Yellowstone National Park is noted (p. 178) ? New 
 Zealand and Iceland are the only two other parts of the 
 world where geysers are found. 
 
 Manufacturing is not yet greatly developed, so that 
 quantities of wool, hides, metals, etc., are exported, going 
 mainly to England, since these are colonies of Great Brit- 
 ain. Some of the imports that must be received in return 
 you can probably name. 
 
 II. The East Indies. Between Australia and Asia are 
 a large number of islands, many of them too small to 
 place upon the map. What are the names of some of the 
 largest of this group, or archipelago, known as the East 
 Indies? The one that you have probably heard about 
 most often is Java, from which the Java coffee comes. 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 253 
 
 Among the forests of these islands are many different 
 kinds of valuable tropical woods. Sugar, tobacco, pepper, 
 spices, and precious stones are other valuable products. 
 
 These islands, like those of the Japanese Empire, are 
 the crests of mountains in the sea. Among them are 
 many very active volcanoes, some of them having caused 
 terrible destruction by their frightful eruptions. The 
 islands belong to European countries, and you will find 
 the names of these countries marked on the map. 
 
 III. The Philippine Islands. The principal city on the 
 Philippine Islands is MANILA, on Luzon Island, where 
 Admiral Dewey de- 
 stroyed the Spanish 
 fleet. 
 
 Notice (Fig. 203) 
 that they lie between 
 the Japanese Islands 
 and the East Indies, 
 both of which were 
 said to be mountain 
 ranges in the sea. 
 The Philippines are 
 also mountains, form- 
 ing a part of the 
 same chain. 
 
 There are valuable 
 kinds of wood in the forests, and many mineral deposits ; 
 but these were never much used by the Spaniards. The 
 chief products have been sugar, tobacco, and hemp, which 
 is used in making ropes. Now that the United States is 
 in control of the islands, it is probable that their mineral 
 and other resources will be developed. 
 
 FIG. 224. 
 
 A native house in Manila. In order to be well 
 above the damp ground, the people live in 
 the upper part. Notice the bamboo fence. 
 
254 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 On these islands dwell several different races. There 
 are still many savages there, especially in the dense for- 
 ests of the interior (Fig. 99). Some of them are called 
 Negritos or little negroes. On the Sulu Islands are 
 Mohammedans called Moros. The Tagalogs belong to 
 the more advanced tribes, who have learned the arts of 
 civilization from the Spaniards. 
 
 IV. Islands of the Pacific. There are many hundreds 
 of islands in the Pacific Ocean, some of them being tiny 
 coral islands, others large and mountainous. They are 
 all located where mountain ranges or volcanic peaks rise 
 from the great plain of the ocean floor. 
 
 Find the Fiji Islands. They are also British. What 
 other group of small islands do you see in that region? 
 Find the Samoan Islands. One of these belongs to the 
 United States. What large island is just north of Aus- 
 tralia ? In what zone does it lie ? One part is British, 
 one part Dutch, and one part German. All of its prod- 
 ucts are tropical, and it is covered with a dense forest 
 and inhabited by fierce savages. Very few Europeans 
 live there. 
 
 Among the islands of the Pacific we must not forget to 
 mention the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, for they now form a 
 part of our own country. They are situated in the mid- 
 Pacific on the way from San Francisco to Australia, and 
 consist of a number of islands, the largest being Hawaii. 
 All of them are volcanic, and on Hawaii are two of the 
 largest volcanoes in the world (Fig. 101). Being in the 
 torrid zone, their climate is warm enough for sugar raising, 
 and this is one of the principal industries of the islands. 
 Where else have we found this industry ? HONOLULU is 
 the capital and largest city. 
 
AUSTRALIA 255 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 I. Australia. QUESTIONS. (1) To what country does Australia 
 belong? (2) How does it compare in size with the United States? 
 
 (3) How does the mountain range on the east affect the climate? 
 
 (4) Which, then, is the most valuable part of the country? (5) Tell 
 about the native plants and animals. (6) What animals and plants 
 have been imported ? (7) Wh at industries have resulted ? (8) Name 
 the principal exports. (9) Locate the chief cities. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (10) Sketch Australia, putting in the Murray 
 River and the principal cities. (11) What other places in the world 
 are noted for sheep and cattle raising? (12) For gold mining? 
 (13) Read about the great trouble the imported rabbits have caused 
 in Australia. (14) Where are the desert countries of the world? 
 Make a sketch map to show them. 
 
 II. East Indies. QUESTIONS. (15) Name several of the larger 
 islands of the East Indies. (16) What are the products ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (17) W T hy were they named the East Indies? 
 (18) Find what spices are used in cooking at your home. (19) Make 
 a collection of spices, trying to find where each kind came from. 
 (20) See on the map (Fig. 221) to what European countries each of 
 the larger islands belongs. (21) Find where the tea and coffee used 
 at your home came from. By what route are they probably brought? 
 
 III. Philippine Islands. QUESTIONS. (22) Where are the Philip- 
 pine Islands ? (23) Name the principal city. (24) What has re- 
 cently made it famous? (25) What are the names of the largest 
 islands? (26) How far is Manila from China? (27) What races 
 occupy these islands ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (28) Collect some Manila hemp rope. (29) Find 
 out about the battle of Manila Bay and also about the war with the 
 Filipinos. (30) Collect pictures from the Philippines. 
 
 IV. Islands of the Pacific. QUESTIONS. (31) Find Tasmania ; 
 New Zealand ; the Fiji Islands. (32) What large island lies north 
 of Australia? Tell about it. (33) Tell about the. Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. (34) Find out something about the -Fiji Islands. 
 (35) About the Hawaiian Islands. (36) Find out some events that 
 have happened on the Samoan Islands. 
 
 For REFERENCES, see page 261. 
 
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1 
 
 McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
 Mass. ; A. B. C., American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C., Silver, Burdett & 
 Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass.; E. P. C., Educa- 
 tional Publishing Co., Boston, Mass.; Scribner, C. Scribner & Sons, New 
 York. 
 
 METHODS, AIDS, ETC. 
 
 Geikie, "The Teaching of Geography" (McM., $0.60); King, 
 "Methods and Aids in Geography" (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $1.20); 
 Parker, " How to Study Geography " (D. Appleton & Co., New York, 
 $1.50); Nichols, "Topics in Geography" (Heath, $0.65); Trotter, 
 "Lessons in the New Geography" (Heath, $1.00) ; McMurry, "Spe- 
 cial Method in Geography " (Public School Publishing Co., Blooming- 
 ton, 111., $0.50) ; McCormick, " Suggestions on Teaching Geography " 
 (same publisher, $0.50) ; McMurry, " A Course of Study in Geogra- 
 phy " (Herbartian Society, University of Chicago) ; Frye, " The Child 
 and Nature " (Ginn, $0.80) ; Frye, " Teacher's Manual of Methods 
 in Geography " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Redway, " Manual of Geography " 
 (Heath, $0.65) ; Morton, " Lessons on the Continents " (E. L. Kellogg 
 & Co., New York, $0.20); McCormick, "Practical Work in Geog- 
 raphy" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 111., $0.80). 
 
 Journal of School Geography (R. E. Dodge, Teachers' College, 
 Columbia University, New York City, $1.00 per year) ; National 
 
 1 These references are not intended to be exhaustive, but, rather, sug- 
 gestive. Most, if not all, are to first-class sources. The attempt has been 
 to make few references, assuming that the teacher will have others in 
 mind. While there may seem to be many here, a careful examination 
 will reveal the fact that really few books are referred to. Some of those 
 mentioned at the end of Part I will be found useful for Part II also. 
 
 256 
 
REFERENCES 257 
 
 Geographic Magazine (Washington, D. C., $2.00; includes membership 
 to Society) ; Bulletin, American Bureau of Geography (Winona, Minn., 
 $1.00; includes membership to Bureau); "The Statesman's Year 
 Book," published each year, gives latest statistics, etc. (McM., $3.00) ; 
 Mill, " Hints to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical 
 Books " (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.25) ; Ritter, " Com- 
 parative Geography" (A. B. C., $1.00); Shaler, "Nature and Man in 
 America" (Scribner, $1.50); Guyot, "Earth and Man" (Scribner, 
 $1.75) ; Champlin, " Cyclopedia of Common Things " (H. Holt & Co., 
 New York, $2.50); Champlin, "Cyclopedia of Persons and Places" 
 (same publisher, $2.50) ; Murche, " Science Readers " (McM., I and 
 II, $0.25 each, III and IV, $0.40 each, V and VI, $0.50 each) ; Lange, 
 " Handbook of Nature Study " (McM., $1.00) ; Yonge, " Little Lucy's 
 Wonderful Globe" (McM., $0.50); Strong, "All the Year Round" 
 (Ginn, three volumes, $0.30 each) ; Carpenter, "Geographical Readers" 
 (A. B. C., Vol. II, Asia, $0.60 ; volume on North America, $0.60) ; 
 Guyot, " Geographical Reader " (A. B. C., $0.60) ; Conner, " Commer- 
 cial Geography " (McM., $0.75) ; Tilden, " Grammar School (Com- 
 mercial) Geography " (T. R. Shewell & Co., Boston, $1.25) ; Chisholm, 
 " Commercial Geography " (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.00) ; 
 Mill, "General Geography" (McM., $0.90) ; Lyde, "Man and His Mar- 
 kets" (McM., $0.50); Herbertson, "Man and His Work" (McM., 
 $0.60) ; Pratt, " American History Stories " (E. P. C., four volumes, 
 $0.36 each) ; Pratt, Stories of Colonial Children " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; 
 Shaler, "First Book in Geology" (Heath, $0.60); Davis, "Physical 
 Geography" (Ginn, $1.25) ; Tarr, "Elementary Geology" (McM., 
 $1.40) ; Tarr, "Elementary Physical Geography "(McM., $1.40) ; Tarr, 
 "First Book of Physical Geography" (McM., $1.10). Excellent 
 selections may also be found in many school readers. 
 
 Section I. Form and Size of the Earth. Andrews, " Seven Little 
 Sisters," section on " The Ball Itself " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Irving, " Life 
 and Voyages of Christopher Columbus" (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New 
 York, $1.75) ; for Columbus, Magellan, etc., see various school 
 histories. Also, poem on " Columbus " by Tennyson D'Anvers, 
 " Science Ladders," Vol. I (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Gee, " Short Studies 
 in Nature Knowledge," section on " The Great Globe Itself " (McM., 
 $1.10); Ritter, "Comparative Geography," First Part (A. B. C., 
 
258 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results. Redway, 
 "Manual of Geography," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.65); "Daybreak" 
 (poem), Longfellow. 
 
 Section III. The Zones. Eggleston, "Stories of American Life 
 and Adventure," section on "Adventures in Alaska" (A. B. C., $0.50) ; 
 Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," sections on " The Little Brown Baby," 
 " Agoonack, the Esquimau Sister," and " How Agoonack Lives" (Ginn, 
 $0.50) ; Schwatka, " The Children of the Cold " (E. P. C., $1.25) ; 
 Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX and XXX (Ginn, 
 $1.00) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, 
 Part 2 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 
 
 Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Results. Tarr, "First 
 Book of Physical Geography," Chapters I (p. 8), XIX, and XX 
 (McM., $1.10) ; Trotter, "Lessons in the New Geography," pp. 16-17 
 (Heath, $1.00) ; Redway, "Manual of Geography," Chapter VII 
 (Heath, $0.65) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," section on 
 " Volcanoes " (McM., $1.00) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- 
 edge," Chapter XI (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's 
 Story Book," Vol. Ill, "The Records of the Rocks" (E. P. C., $0.40). 
 
 Section V. The Continents and Oceans. Andrews, " Seven Little 
 Sisters" (Ginn, $0.50); Ballou, "Footprints of Travel" (Ginn, 
 $1.00) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge," Chapter IV, 
 "The Sea" (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's Story 
 Book," Vol. Ill, " A Visit to the Bottom of the Ocean " (E. P. C., 
 $0.40); Shaler, "The Story of Our Continent," "Section on Coral 
 Reefs" (Ginn, $0.75); Tarr, "Elementary Geology," p. 251 (McM., 
 $1.40) ; D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. Ill, Lesson VIII (E. P. 
 C., $0.40). Poems: Shelley, "A Vision of the Sea"; Longfellow, 
 " The Secret of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Wreck of the Hespe- 
 rus"; Holmes, "The Chambered Nautilus"; Byron, "The Ocean." 
 
 Section VI. Maps. For References, see bottom of page 110. 
 
 Section VII. North America. Shaler, "The Story of Our Conti- 
 nent " (Ginn, $0.75) ; Lyde, " North America " (McM., $0.50) ; King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
 ard, Boston, $0.72). 
 
 Section VIII. The United States. Brooks, "Century Book for 
 Young Americans " (The Century Co., New York, $1.50) ; Brooks, 
 "The Story of the United States" (The Lothrop Publishing Co., 
 
REFERENCES 259 
 
 Boston, $1.50) ; Channing, " Students' History of the United States " 
 (McM., $1.40) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters I and XXV 
 (Ginn, $1.00) ; Gannett, " The United States," Stanford's Com- 
 pendium of Geography (Scribner, $4.50) ; King, " The Picturesque 
 Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72) ; 
 " Our Country " (poern), Holmes. 
 
 Section IX. New England. Eggleston, " Stories of American Life 
 and Adventure," " Stories of Whaling " and " A Whaling Song " (A. 
 B. C., $0.50); Rocheleau, "Great American Industries," Book I, 
 "Granite," "Marble," and "Slate"; Book II, "Cotton Manufactur- 
 ing" and "Lumbering" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, each $0.50); Chase 
 and Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I, " Lumbering," " Ship Build- 
 ing," "Marble and Granite," "Slate and Brick"; Vol. II, "Manufac- 
 turing," " Fisheries," and " Whaling " (E. P. C., each $0.40) ; King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books 
 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, each $0.56) ; Wilson, " Nature Study in 
 Elementary Schools," Second Reader, "The Tree," by Bjornsen 
 (McM., $0.35). Poems: Whittier, " Mogg Megone " ; "Pentucket"; 
 " The Bridal of Pennacook " ; The Merrimack " ; " The Norsemen " ; 
 Longfellow, " The Woods in Winter"; "The Building of the Ship"; 
 " The River Charles " ; Emerson, " Boston." 
 
 Section X. Middle Atlantic States. Chase and Clow, " Stories of 
 Industry," Vol. I and Vol. II, various stories on Iron, Coal, Mining, 
 Manufacturing, Farming, etc. (E. P. C., each $0.40) ; Rocheleau, 
 " Great American Industries," Book I, sections on " Coal Mining," 
 "Natural Gas," "Petroleum," and "Iron" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
 $0.50) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," sec- 
 tion on "A Story of Niagara" (A. B. C., $0.50) ; King, " The Pictur- 
 esque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books (Lee & 
 Shepard, Boston, each $0.56). 
 
 Section XI. The Southern States. Rocheleau, " Great American 
 Industries," Book II, section on " Cotton and Sugar " (A. Flanagan, 
 Chicago, $0.50); King, "The Picturesque Geographical Readers," 
 Fourth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). 
 
 Section XII. The Central States. Garland, "Boy Life on the 
 Prairie " (McM., $1.50) ; McMurry, " Pioneer Stories of the Missis- 
 sippi Valley" (Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111., $0.50) ; 
 Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book II, sections on " Grain 
 
260 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Raising," " Wheat Raising," and " Milling " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
 $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fourth Book 
 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). Poems: "When the Frost is on 
 the Punkin," Riley; "Knee Deep in June," Riley; "The Prairies," 
 Bryant ; " The Hunter of the Prairies," Bryant. 
 
 Section XIII. The Western States. Ballou, "Footprints of 
 Travel," Chapter XXV (Ginn, $1.00); Eggleston, "Stories of Ameri- 
 can Life and Adventure," sections on "How Fremont Crossed the 
 Mountains," "The Finding of Gold in California," "Descending the 
 Grand Canon," and several Indian stories (A. B. C., $0.50) ; Chase and 
 Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I, several sections on " Mines and 
 Mining " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical 
 Readers," Fifth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56) ; " The Pass of 
 the Sierra" (poem), Whittier; "In the Yosemite Valley," Joaquin 
 Miller. 
 
 Section XIV. Alaska. Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapter 
 XXVI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Ad- 
 venture," "Adventures in Alaska" (A. B. C., $0.50). 
 
 Section XV. Countries North of the United States. Coe, "Our 
 American Neighbors," Chapters I-XII (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Lyde, " A 
 Geography of North America " (McM., $0.50) ; Dawson, " Canada 
 and Newfoundland," Stanford's Compendium (Scribner, $4.50) ; An- 
 drews, " Seven Little Sisters," the two sections on Agoonack (Ginn, 
 $0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C., $1.25); 
 Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge " (McM., $1.10) ; King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
 ard, Boston, $0.72) ; " An Arctic Vision," Bret Hart ; " Evangeline," 
 Longfellow. 
 
 Section XVI. Countries South of the United States. Coe, " Our 
 American Neighbors," Chapters XIII-XVII (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Conk- 
 lin, " Guide to Mexico " (D. Appleton & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Lyde, 
 " A Geography of North America " (McM., $0.50) ; Ballou, " Foot- 
 prints of Travel," Chapters XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, and 
 XXVIII (Ginn, $1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical 
 Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72). 
 
 Section XVII. South America. Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," 
 Chapters XXIX-XXXI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Coe, " Our American Neigh- 
 bors" (S. B. C., $0.60). 
 
REFERENCES 261 
 
 Section XVIII. Europe. Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., 
 $0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters X-XXII (Giun, 
 $1.00) ; Coe, "Northern Europe" (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Pratt, "Northern 
 Europe " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Lyde, " A Geography of the British Isles " 
 (McM., $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Sixth 
 Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " 
 (E. P. C., $0.40); Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," "The Little 
 Mountain Maiden," and "Louise" (Ginn, $0.50). Poems: Alice 
 Carey, " The Leak in the Dike " ; Longfellow, " Venice " ; " The Bel- 
 fry of Bruges"; "Nuremberg"; "To the River Rhone"; "To the 
 Avon." Joaquin Miller, " Sunrise in Venice " ; " In a Gondola " ; " To 
 Florence " ; Shelley, " Ode to Naples." 
 
 Section XIX. Asia. Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters 
 III, VIII, and IX (Ginn, $1.00); Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," 
 "The Story of Pen-se," also "Gemila" (Ginn, $0.50); Smith, "Life 
 in Asia" (S. B. C., $0.60); Pratt, "Stories of India" (E. P. C., 
 $0.40); Pratt, "Stories of China" (E. P. C., $0.40). Poems by 
 Whittier: "The Holy Land"; "Palestine"; "The Pipes of Luck- 
 now." 
 
 Section XX. Africa. Lyde, " A Geography of Africa" (McM., 
 $0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters IX and X (Ginn, 
 $1.00); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C., $0.72); Andrews, 
 " Seven Little Sisters," section on " The Little Dark Girl " and 
 "Gemila" (Ginn, $0.50). 
 
 Section XXI. Australia, etc. Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," 
 Chapters II, IV, V, VI, VII (Ginn, $1.00); Kellogg, "Australia and 
 the Islands of the Sea" (S. B. C., $0.68); Pratt, "Stories of Aus- 
 tralasia" (E. P. C., $0.40). Poem, "Western Australia," O'Reilly. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 
 
 NOTE. The figures 1897, 1890, etc., refer to the year in which the 
 estimate was made. Most of the figures are obtained from the " States- 
 man's Year Book" for 1899, or from the " Century Atlas." 
 
 Area in Square Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 6,446,000 
 
 1897 
 
 94,000,000 
 
 United States (with Alaska) 
 
 3,602,990 
 
 1890 
 
 62,840,835 
 
 Mexico .... 
 
 767,005 
 
 1895 
 
 12,619,959 
 
 Canada .... 
 
 3,653,946 
 
 1891 
 
 4,833,239 
 
 Central America . 
 
 175,696 
 
 1897 
 
 3,271,426 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 6,837,000 
 
 1897 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 Brazil 
 
 3,209,878 
 
 1892 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 Argentina .... 
 
 1,778,195 
 
 1895 
 
 3,954,911 
 
 
 449,000 
 
 1897 
 
 3,000.000 
 
 Chile 
 
 290,829 
 
 1895 
 
 2,527,320 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 3 850,000 
 
 1897 
 
 374,000,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 2,095,616 
 
 1897 
 
 106,191,795 
 
 German Empire . 
 
 208,830 
 
 1895 
 
 52,279,901 
 
 Austria-Hungary . 
 
 240,942 
 
 1890 
 
 41,359,204 
 
 France ..... 
 
 204,092 
 
 1896 
 
 38,517,975 
 
 British Isles .... 
 
 120,979 
 
 1891 
 
 38,104,975 
 
 Italy 
 
 110,646 
 
 1898 
 
 31,667,946 
 
 Spain 
 
 197,670 
 
 1887 
 
 17,565,632 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 62,744 
 
 1898 
 
 5,711,000 
 
 ASIA (with islands) . 
 
 17,255,890 
 
 1897 
 
 831,000,000 
 
 Chinese Empire . 
 
 4,218,401 
 
 1897 
 
 402,680,000 
 
 India ..... 
 
 1,559,603 
 
 1891 
 
 287,123,350 
 
 Japan 
 
 147,655 
 
 1896 
 
 42,708,264 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 650,097 
 
 1898 
 
 16,823,500 
 
 Siberia 
 
 4,833,496 
 
 1897 
 
 5,727,090 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 11,508,793 
 
 1897 
 
 170,000,000 
 
 Kongo Free State 
 
 900,000 
 
 1898 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 Egypt 
 
 400,000 
 
 1897 
 
 9,734,405 
 
 Cape Colony 
 
 276,925 
 
 1891 
 
 1,766,040 
 
 South African Republic 
 
 119,139 
 
 1898 
 
 1,094,156 
 
 
 262 
 
 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 263 
 
 Area in Square Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 AUSTRALIA .... 2,946,691 1891 
 
 3,036,570 
 
 New South Wales . . 310,700 1898 
 
 l.:M5,800 
 
 Victoria .... 87,884 1898 
 
 1,169,434 
 
 Queensland . . . 668,497 1897 
 
 484,700 
 
 South Australia . . . 903,690 1897 
 
 358,224 
 
 SIZE OF THE EARTH 
 
 
 LENGTH OF THE EARTH'S Axis at equator (miles) . 
 
 7,926 
 
 LENGTH OF THE EQUATOR (miles) .... 
 
 24,902 
 
 THE EARTH'S SURFACE (square miles) 
 
 196,940,000 
 
 Pacific Ocean (square miles) .... 
 
 55,660,000 
 
 Atlantic Ocean (square miles) .... 
 
 33,720,000 
 
 Antarctic Ocean and the great southern sea sur- 
 
 
 rounding the south pole (square miles) 
 
 30,605,000 
 
 Indian Ocean (square miles) .... 
 
 16,720,000 
 
 Arctic Ocean (square miles) .... 
 
 4,781,000 
 
 The sea (square miles) ..... 
 
 141,486,000 
 
 AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Area in Square Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Alabama .... 52,250 1890 
 
 1,513,017 
 
 Alaska .... 577,390 1890 
 
 31,795 
 
 Arizona .... 113,020 1890 
 
 59,620 
 
 Arkansas .... 53,850 1890 
 
 1,128,179 
 
 California .... 158,360 1890 
 
 1,208,130 
 
 Colorado .... 103,925 1890 
 
 412,198 
 
 Connecticut . . . 4,990 1890 
 
 746,258 
 
 Cuba 41,655 1894 
 
 1,631,696 
 
 Delaware .... 2,050 1890 
 
 168.493 
 
 District of Columbia . . 70 1890 
 
 230,392 
 
 Florida .... 58,680 1895 
 
 464,639 
 
 Georgia .... 59,475 1890 
 
 1,837,353 
 
 Hawaiian Islands . . 6,640 1897 
 
 102,020 
 
 Idaho .... 84,800 1890 
 
 84,385 
 
 Illinois .... 56,650 1890 
 
 3,826,351 
 
 Indiana .... 36,350 1890 
 
 2,192,404 
 
 Indian Territory . . 31,400 1890 
 
 186,490 
 
 Iowa 56,025 1895 
 
 2,058.069 
 
 Kansas .... 82,080 1895 
 
 1,334,734 
 
 Kentucky .... 40,400 1890 
 
 1,858,635 
 
 Louisiana .... 48,720 1890 
 
 1,118,587 
 
264 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Maine 
 Maryland . 
 Massachusetts . 
 Michigan . 
 Minnesota . 
 Mississippi . 
 Missouri . 
 Montana 
 Nebraska . 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 New Jersey 
 New Mexico 
 New York . 
 North Carolina . 
 North Dakota . 
 Ohio . 
 Oklahoma . 
 Oregon 
 Pennsylvania 
 Philippine Islands 
 Porto Rico . 
 Rhode Island 
 South Carolina . 
 South Dakota . 
 Tennessee . 
 Texas . 
 Utah . 
 Vermont 
 Virginia 
 Washington 
 West Virginia 
 Wisconsin 
 Wyoming . 
 
 Area in Square 
 
 Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 33,040 
 
 1890 
 
 661,086 
 
 12,210 
 
 1890 
 
 1,042,390 
 
 8,315 
 
 1895 
 
 2,500,183 
 
 58,915 
 
 1890 
 
 2,093.889 
 
 83,365 
 
 1895 
 
 1,574,619 
 
 46,810 
 
 1890 
 
 1,289,600 
 
 69,415 
 
 1890 
 
 2,679,184 
 
 146,080 
 
 1890 
 
 132,159 
 
 77,510 
 
 1890 
 
 1,058,910 
 
 110,700 
 
 1890 
 
 45,761 
 
 9,305 
 
 1890 
 
 376,530 
 
 7,815 
 
 1895 
 
 1,673,196 
 
 122,580 
 
 1890 
 
 153,593 
 
 49.170 
 
 1890 
 
 5,997.853 
 
 52,250 
 
 1890 
 
 1,617,947 
 
 70,795 
 
 1890 
 
 182,719 
 
 41,060 
 
 1890 
 
 3,672,316 
 
 39,030 
 
 1890 
 
 61,834 
 
 96,030 
 
 1890 
 
 313,767 
 
 45,215 
 
 1890 
 
 5,258,014 
 
 114,326 
 
 1897 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 3,550 
 
 1887 
 
 813,937 
 
 1,250 
 
 1890 
 
 345,506 
 
 30,570 
 
 1890 
 
 1,151,149 
 
 77,650 
 
 1895 
 
 330,975 
 
 42,050 
 
 1890 
 
 1,767,518 
 
 265,780 
 
 1890 
 
 2,235,523 
 
 84,970 
 
 1890 
 
 207,905 
 
 9,565 
 
 1890 
 
 332,422 
 
 42,450 
 
 1890 
 
 1,655,980 
 
 69,180 
 
 1890 
 
 349,390 
 
 24,780 
 
 1890 
 
 762,794 
 
 56,040 
 
 1890 
 
 1,686,880 
 
 97,890 
 
 1890 
 
 60,705 
 
 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED 
 STATES 
 
 NOTE. The great increase in size of New York is due to the joining 
 of Brooklyn and other cities to it, making Greater New York. 
 
 1. New York, N. Y. 
 
 2, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Estimated Population, 
 Jan. 1, 1899 
 
 ., 3,549,558 . 
 . 1,950,000 . 
 
 Population, 
 Census of 1890 
 
 . 1,515,301 
 
 . 1,099,850 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 3. Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 4. St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 5. Boston, Mass. . 
 
 6. Baltimore, Aid. . 
 
 7. Cincinnati, O. . 
 
 8. Cleveland, O. . 
 
 9. Buffalo, N. Y. . 
 
 10. San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 11. Detroit, Mich. . 
 
 12. Pittsburg, Pa. . 
 
 13. New Orleans, La. 
 
 14. Washington, D. C. 
 
 15. Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 16. Newark, N. J. . 
 
 17. Louisville, Ky . 
 
 18. Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 19. Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 20. Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 21. Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 22. Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 23. St. Paul, Minn. . 
 
 24. Providence, R. I. 
 
 25. Denver, Col. 
 
 Estimated Population, 
 January 1, 1899 
 
 . 1,350,000 . 
 
 . 623,000 . 
 
 . 530,000 . 
 
 . 500,000 . 
 
 . 405,000 . 
 
 . 400,000 . 
 
 . 400,000 . 
 
 . 350,000 . 
 
 . 350,000 . 
 
 . 315,000 . 
 
 . 300,000 . 
 
 . 280,000 . 
 
 . 280,000 . 
 
 . 250,000 . 
 
 . 225,000 . 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 177,000 . 
 
 . 175,000 . 
 
 . 167,000 . 
 
 . 165,000 . 
 
 Population, 
 Census of 1890 
 
 1,046,964 
 451,770 
 148,477 
 
 434,1 :;!/ 
 296,1M)S 
 261, .",:>:; 
 255,664 
 298,997 
 205,876 
 238,617 
 242,039 
 230,392 
 204,468 
 181,830 
 161,129 
 164,738 
 163,003 
 132,716 
 105,436 
 133,896 
 133,156 
 132,146 
 106,713 
 
 CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPEND- 
 ENCIES MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK 
 
 Albany, N. Y. . 
 Allegheny, Pa. . 
 Annapolis, Md. 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 Baltimore, Md. . 
 Bangor, Me. 
 Birmingham, Ala. 
 Boston, Mass. . 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 Buffalo, N. Y. . 
 Butte, Mont. . 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 Camden, N. J. . 
 Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Estimated Population, Mainly 
 January 1, 1899 
 
 . 100,000 . 
 
 . 125,000 . 
 
 . 118,000 . 
 
 . 500,000 . 
 
 27,000 . 
 
 60,000 (1897) 
 
 . 530,000 . 
 
 . 75,000 . 
 
 . 400,000 . 
 
 50,000 . 
 
 89,276 . 
 
 . 65,000 . 
 
 65,000 . 
 
 Population, 
 Census of 1890 
 
 94,923 
 
 105,287 
 
 7,604 
 
 65,533 
 
 434,439 
 19,103 
 26,178 
 
 448,477 
 48,866 
 
 255,664 
 10,723 
 70,028 
 58,313 
 54,955 
 
266 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 
 Estimated Population, 
 
 Population, 
 
 
 January 1, 1899 
 
 Census of 1890 
 
 Chattanooga, Term. . 
 
 . 40,000 . 
 
 29,100 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 . 1,950,000 . 
 
 . 1,099,850 
 
 Cincinnati, O. . 
 
 . 405,000 . 
 
 . 296,908 
 
 Cleveland, O. . 
 
 . 400,000 . 
 
 . 261,353 
 
 Columbus, O. 
 
 . 135,000 . 
 
 88,150 
 
 Dallas, Tex. 
 
 . 50,000 . 
 
 . 38,067 
 
 Denver, Col. 
 
 . 165,000 . 
 
 . 106,713 
 
 Detroit, Mich. . 
 
 . 350.000 . 
 
 . 205,876 
 
 Duluth, Minn. . 
 
 60,000 . 
 
 33,115 
 
 Fall River, Mass. 
 
 . 103,000 . 
 
 74,398 
 
 Galveston, Tex. 
 
 71,250 . 
 
 . 29,084 
 
 Gloucester, Mass. 
 
 29,000 . 
 
 . 24,651 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. 
 
 . 100,000 . 
 
 60,278 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa. 
 
 60,000 . 
 
 . 39,385 
 
 Hartford, Ct. 
 
 75,000 . 
 
 53,230 
 
 Havana, Cuba . 
 
 . 200,000 (1894) . 
 
 
 
 Honolulu . 
 
 . 28,920 (1896) . 
 
 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 105,436 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla. 
 
 . 35,000 . 
 
 17,201 
 
 Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 163,003 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 132,716 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn. 
 
 50,000 (1897) . 
 
 . 22,535 
 
 Lawrence, Mass. 
 
 58,000 . 
 
 44,654 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal. 
 
 . 115,000 . 
 
 50,395 
 
 Louisville, Ky. . 
 
 . 225,000 . 
 
 . 161,129 
 
 Lowell, Mass. . 
 
 87,000 . 
 
 . 77,696 
 
 Lynn, Mass. 
 
 67,000 . 
 
 55,727 
 
 Manchester, N. H. . 
 
 60,000 . 
 
 44,126 
 
 Manila, Philippines . 
 
 . 154,062 (1887) . 
 
 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 . 110,000 . 
 
 64,495 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 . 280,000 . 
 
 . 204,468 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. . 
 
 . 200,000 . 
 
 . 164,738 
 
 Mobile, Ala. 
 
 40,000 . 
 
 31,076 
 
 Newark, N. J. . 
 
 . 250,000 
 
 . 181,830 
 
 New Bedford, Mass. . 
 
 59,000 . 
 
 . 40,733 
 
 New Haven, Ct. 
 
 . 115,000 . 
 
 81,298 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 . . . 300,000 . 
 
 . 242,039 
 
 New York, N. Y. . 
 
 . 3,549,558 . 
 
 . 1,515,301 
 
 Norfolk, Va. . 
 
 65,000 . 
 
 . 34,871 
 
 Ogden, Utah 
 
 
 
 14,889 
 
 Omaha, Neb. 
 
 . 160,000 . 
 
 . 140,452 
 
 Paters on, N. J. . 
 
 . 97,344 (1895) . 
 
 . 78,347 
 
 Pensacola, Fla. 
 
 16,000 . 
 
 11,750 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 . 1,350,000 . 
 
 . 1,046,964 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa. . 
 
 . 315,000 . 
 
 . 238,617 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 267 
 
 
 Estimated Population, 
 
 Population, 
 
 
 January 1, 1899 
 
 Census of 1890 
 
 Portland, Me. . 
 
 45,000 . 
 
 . 36,425 
 
 Portland, Ore. . 
 
 . 100,000 . 
 
 . 46,385 
 
 Providence, II. I. 
 
 . 167,000 . 
 
 . 132,146 
 
 Pueblo, Col. 
 
 28,250 (181)7) 
 
 24,558 
 
 Reading, Pa. 
 
 90,700 . 
 
 58^661 
 
 Richmond, Va. . * .' 
 
 . 100,000 . 
 
 81,388 
 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 . 177,000 .. . 
 
 . 133,896 
 
 Rutland, Vt. 
 
 
 
 11,760 
 
 Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 60,000 . 
 
 46,322 
 
 
 623 000 
 
 451,770 
 
 St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 . 175,000 . 
 
 . 133',156 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 
 
 48,076 (1895) . 
 
 . 44,843 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. . 
 
 . 350,000 . 
 
 . 298,997 
 
 Savannah, Ga. . 
 
 66,000 . 
 
 . 43,189 
 
 Scranton, Pa. . 
 
 . 125,000 . 
 
 75,215 
 
 Seattle, Wash. . 
 
 85,000 . 
 
 . 42,837 
 
 Sitka, Alaska . 
 
 
 
 1,190 
 
 Spokane, Wash. 
 
 45,000 . 
 
 19,922 
 
 Springfield, Mass. 
 
 57,676 . 
 
 . 44,179 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 . 130,000 . 
 
 88,143 
 
 Tacoma, Wash. 
 
 52,000 . 
 
 36,006 
 
 Tampa, Fla. 
 
 15,634 (1895) . 
 
 5,532 
 
 Toledo, O. 
 
 . 145,000 . 
 
 81,434 
 
 Trenton, N. J. . 
 
 62,518 (1895) . 
 
 57,458 
 
 Troy,N.Y. . . . 
 
 65,000 . 
 
 60,956 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss. 
 
 20,000 . 
 
 13,373 
 
 Washington, D. C. . 
 
 . 280,000 . 
 
 . 230,392 
 
 Wheeling, West Va. 
 
 . 40,000 (1897) . 
 
 34,522 
 
 Wilkes Barre, Pa. . 
 
 57,000 . 
 
 37,718 
 
 Wilmington, Del. 
 
 . 70,000 . 
 
 61,431 
 
 Wilmington, N. C. . 
 
 . 27,000 . 
 
 . 20,056 
 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 . 105,000 . 
 
 84,655 
 
 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE WX)RLD 
 
 1. London, England, 1898 
 
 2. New York, United States, 1899 
 
 3. Paris, France, 1896 . 
 
 4. Canton, China 
 
 5. Chicago, United States, 1899 
 
 6. Berlin, Germany, 1895 
 
 7. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, ,1890 
 
 Population 
 
 4,504,766 
 3,549,558 
 2,536,834 
 2,500,000 
 1,950,000 
 1,677,304 
 1,364,548 
 
268 APPENDIX 
 
 Population 
 
 8. Philadelphia, United States, 1899 . . 1,350,000 
 
 9. Tokio, Japan, 1896 1,299,941 
 
 10. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1897 . . . 1,267,023 
 
 11. Moscow, Russia, 1897 988,614 
 
 12. Tientsin, China, 1898 950,000 
 
 13. Peking, China, 1898 . . . . . 900,000 
 
 14. Constantinople, Turkey, 1885 . % . . 873,565 
 
 15. Calcutta, India, 1891 ..'... 861,764 
 
 16. Bombay, India, 1891 . . . . . 821,764 
 
 17. Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1898 . . . 753,000 
 
 18. Glasgow, Scotland, 1898 . . . 724,349 
 
 19. Bangkok, Siam, 1898 700,000 
 
 20. Warsaw, Poland, 1897 638,209 
 
 21. Liverpool, England, 1898 . . . . 633,645 
 
 22. Hamburg, Germany, 1895 . . . . 625,552 
 
 23. St. Louis, United States, 1899 . . . 623,000 
 
 24. Cairo, Egypt, 1897 570,062 
 
 25. Brussels, Belgium, 1897 .... 551,011 
 
 OTHER IMPORTANT FOREIGN CITIES 
 
 Population 
 
 Adelaide, South Australia, 1897 .... 146,125 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt, 1897 319,766 
 
 Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1897 .... 503,285 
 
 Antwerp, Belgium, 1897 271,284 
 
 Athens, Greece, 1896 111,486 
 
 Bangkok, Siam, 1898 700,000 
 
 Barcelona, Spain, 1887 272,481 
 
 Belfast, Ireland, 1891 255,950 
 
 Berlin, Germany, 1895 . - . . . . 1,677,304 
 
 Berne, Switzerland, 1897 49,030 
 
 Birmingham, England, 1898 510,343 
 
 Bombay, India, 1891 821,764 
 
 Bordeaux, France, 1896 256,906 
 
 Brussels, Belgium, 1897 551,011 
 
 Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1890 . . . 505,763 
 
 Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1898 .... 753,000 
 
 Cairo, Egypt, 1897 570,062 
 
 Calcutta, India, 1891 861,764 
 
 Callao, Peru, 1890 . 35,492 
 
 Canton. China 2,500,000 
 
 Cape Town, Cape Colony, 1891 .... 51,251 
 
 Caracas, Venezuela, 1891 72,429 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 209 
 
 Population 
 
 Christiania, Norway, 1897 200,000 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey, 1885 . . . . 873,565 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark, 1890 .... 312,859 
 
 Dresden, Germany, 1895 336,440 
 
 Dublin, Ireland, 1891 245,001 
 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, 1898 295,628 
 
 Geneva, Switzerland, 1897 86,535 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland, 1898 724,349 
 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1891 38,556 
 
 Hamburg, Germany, 1895 625,552 
 
 Havre, France, 1896 . ... . . . 119,470 
 
 Hongkong, China, 1898 248,710 
 
 Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia, 1885 .... 41,000 
 
 Johannesburg, South African Republic, 1896 . 102,078 
 
 Kimberley, Cape Colony, 1891 .... 28.718 
 
 Leipzig, Germany, 1895 399^963 
 
 Lima, Peru, 1891 103,956 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal, 1890 301,206 
 
 Liverpool, England, 1898 633,645 
 
 London, England, 1898 4,504,766 
 
 Lyon, France, 1896 466,028 
 
 Madras, India, 1891 452,518 
 
 Madrid, Spain, 1887 470,283 
 
 Malaga, Spain, 1887 134,016 
 
 Manchester, England, 1898 539,079 
 
 Marseille, France, 1896 442,239 
 
 Mecca, Turkey in Asia, 1885 .... 60,000 
 
 Melbourne, Victoria, 1897 458,610 
 
 Mexico, Mexico, 1895 344,377 
 
 Milan, Italy, 1897 470,558 
 
 Mocha, Turkey in Asia 5,000 
 
 Montevideo, Uruguay, 1897 249,251 
 
 Montreal, Canada, 1891 216,650 
 
 Moscow, Russia, 1897 988,614 
 
 Munich, Germany, 1895 407,307 
 
 Naples, Italy, 1897 536,073 . 
 
 Odessa, Russia, 1897 405,041 
 
 Ottawa, Canada, 1891 44,154 
 
 Para, Brazil, 1892 . 65,000 
 
 Paris, France, 1896 2,536,834 
 
 Peking, China, 1898 900,000 
 
 Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1890 .... 184,109 
 
 Quebec, Canada, 1891 63,090 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1890 522,651 
 
 Rome, Italy, 1897 487,066 
 
 St. John, NBW Brunswick, 1891 .... 39,179 
 
270 APPENDIX 
 
 Population 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia, 1897 1,267,023 
 
 Santiago, Chile, 1897 302,131 
 
 Shanghai, China, 1897 457,000 
 
 Singapore, Malay Peninsula, 1891 . . . 160,000 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden, 1897 288,602 
 
 Sydney, New South Wales, 1897 .... 417,250 
 
 Teheran, Persia, 1897 210,000 
 
 The Hague, Netherlands, 1897 .... 196,325 
 
 Tientsin, China, 1898 950,000 
 
 Tokio, Japan, 1896 1,299,941 
 
 Toronto, Canada, 1891 181,220 
 
 Trieste, Austria-Hungary, 1SDO .... 158,344 
 
 Valparaiso, Chile, 1897 139,038 
 
 Vancouver, Canada, 1891 ..... 13,685 
 
 Venice, Italy, 1897 155,899 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1895 88,993 
 
 Victoria, Canada, 1891 16,841 
 
 Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1890 .... 1,364,548 
 
 Warsaw, Poland, 1897 638,209 
 
 Winnepeg, Canada, 1891 25,642 
 
 Yokohama, Japan, 1896 179,502 
 
 Zurich, Switzerland, 1897 151,994 
 
 HEIGHT OF A FEW MOUNTAIN PEAKS 
 
 Feet 
 
 Mt. Everest, Himalaya Mountains, Asia . . 29,002 
 
 Aconcagua, Andes Mountains, Chile . . . 22,860 
 
 Mt. McKinley, Alaskan Mountains, Alaska . . 20,464 
 
 Mt. Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada .... 19,500 
 
 Mt. Elburz, Caucasus Mountains, Russia . . 18,200 
 
 Orizaba, Sierra Madre, Mexico .... 18,314 
 
 Mt. St. Elias, Coast Ranges, Alaska . . . 18,100 
 
 Mt. Blanc, Alps Mountains, France . . . 15,781 
 
 Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains, California 14,898 
 
 Mt. Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington . 14,526 
 
 Mt. Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California . . 14,380 
 
 Pikes Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado . . 14,108 
 
 Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands .... 13,675 
 
 Fremont Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming . 13,790 
 
 Fujiyama, Japan 12,365 
 
 Mt. Mitchell, Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina 6,711 
 
 Mt. Washington, White Mountains, New Hampshire 6,293 
 
 Mt. Marcy, Adirondacks, New York . . . 5,344 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 271 
 
 SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Name 
 
 Missouri-Mississippi 
 
 Nile . . 
 
 Amazon 
 
 Ob ... 
 
 Yangtse 
 
 Kongo . 
 
 Lena 
 
 Hoang-Ho . 
 
 Niger . 
 
 Plata . 
 
 Mackenzie . 
 
 Volga . 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 Yukon 
 
 Indus . 
 
 Danube 
 
 Country 
 
 United States 
 
 Africa 
 
 South America 
 
 Siberia 
 
 China 
 
 Africa 
 
 Siberia 
 
 China 
 
 Africa 
 
 South America 
 
 Canada 
 
 Russia 
 
 North America 
 
 Alaska 
 
 India 
 
 Europe 
 
 Lriiirth 
 
 lln-in area 
 
 Ocean 
 
 in miles 
 
 
 
 4,300 
 
 1,257,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 3,400 
 
 1,273,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 3,300 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 3,200 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Arctic 
 
 3,200 
 
 548,000 
 
 Pacific 
 
 2,900 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 2,800 
 
 950.0()<) 
 
 Arctic 
 
 2,700 
 
 570,000 
 
 Pacific 
 
 2,600 
 
 563,300 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 2,580 
 
 1,200.000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 2,000 
 
 590,000 
 
 Arctic 
 
 2,400 
 
 563,300 
 
 Caspian 
 
 2,200 
 
 519,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 2,000 
 
 440,000 
 
 Pacific 
 
 1,800 
 
 372,700 
 
 Indian 
 
 1,770 
 
 300,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 TEN OF THE GREAT LAKES OF THE WORLD 
 
 Name 
 
 Caspian 
 
 Superior 
 
 Victoria Nyanza 
 
 Aral 
 
 Huron 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Tanganyika 
 
 Baikal * 
 
 Erie 
 
 Chad (a shallow lake 
 very large in the 
 and shrinks in the 
 
 Length Breadth 
 
 Area in Square 
 
 Country 
 
 in Miles in Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 
 680 270 
 
 169,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 390 160 
 
 31,200 
 
 U. S. and Canada 
 
 230 220 
 
 30,000 
 
 Africa 
 
 225 185 
 
 26,900 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 250 100 
 
 17,400 
 
 U. S. and Canada 
 
 335 85 
 
 20,000 
 
 U. S. and Canada 
 
 420 50 
 
 12,650 
 
 Africa 
 
 397 45 
 
 12,500 
 
 Siberia 
 
 250 58 
 
 10,000 
 
 U. S. and Canada 
 
 which grows 
 
 
 , 
 
 rainy season 
 
 about 
 
 
 dry season) 
 
 10,000 
 
 Africa 
 
 APPROXIMATE AVERAGE HEIGHT OF SOME PLATEAUS 
 
 Tibet 
 
 Bolivia .... 
 Abyssinia .... 
 Mexico .... 
 Western United States Plateau 
 Brazil .... 
 
 Feet 
 10-15,000 
 
 10-13,000 
 
 5-7,000 
 
 5-6,000 
 
 5-6,000 
 
 2,000-2,500 
 
INDEX OF PLACES AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 
 
 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 a, as in fat ; a, as in fate ; a, as in far ; 9, as in fall ; e, as 
 in pen ; e, as in mete.} e, as in her ; z, as in pin ; i, as in pine ; o, as in 
 not ; o, as in noe ; o, as in ?nove ; w, as in ^& ; w, as in wwe ; w, as in 
 pwZZ ; g, as in #e ; g, as in ^em ; c, as in cat ; , as in cerc. 
 
 A double dot under a or o (a, q) indicates that its sound is shortened to 
 that of u in but. 
 
 Italicized letters are silent. The sign ; tells upon which syllable the 
 accent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book excepting where 
 Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the book. 
 
 Ab-ys-sin'-i-a, 244. 
 
 A-con-ca'-gua (gwa), Fig. 177. 
 
 A-crop'-6-lis, 224. 
 
 Ad'-e-laide, 252. 
 
 Ad-i-ron'-dacks, 39, 151. 
 
 Ad-ri-at'-ic, 221, 224. 
 
 Af-g/ian-is-tan', Fig. 203. 
 
 Af'-ri-ca, 132, 242. 
 
 Al-a-ba'-ma, 159. 
 
 A-las'-ka, 188. 
 
 Al'-ba-ny (ni), 150. 
 
 Aleutian (a-lu'-shun), Fig. 203. 
 
 Al-ex-an'-dri-a, 244. 
 
 Al-ge'-ri-a, Fig. 214. 
 
 Allegheny .(al'-e-ga-na), 41, 154, 
 
 155. 
 
 Alps, 21. 
 
 Am'-a-zon, 199, 201. 
 Am'-ster-dam, 217. 
 Amur (a-moor'), Fig. 203. 
 Andes (an'-dez), 199, 204. 
 An-drps-cog'-grin, 145. 
 
 T 273 
 
 An-nap'-o-lis, 156. 
 Antarctic (an-tark'-tik), 133. 
 An-til'-les (lez), 198. 
 Ant'-werp, 217. 
 Ap-pa-lach'-i-ans, 139, 153, 154, 
 
 159, 160. 
 A-ra'-bi-a, 232. 
 Ar'-al, Fig. 203. 
 Ar'-a-rat, Fig. 203. 
 Arctic (ark'-tik), 133. 
 Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 203. 
 Ar-i-zo'-na, 176. 
 Ar'-kan-sas (saw), 159. 
 Asia (a'-shia), 131, 230. 
 AU-a-bas'-ca, Fig. 123. 
 Ath'-ens (enz), 224. 
 At-lan'-ta, 160. 
 At-lan'-tic, 63, 133. 
 Aw-gus'-ta, Fig. 125. 
 Aus-tra'-li-a, 132, 249. 
 Aus'-tri-a, 223. 
 A-zores' (zorz'), Fig. 214. 
 
274 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Baf'-/in Land, 193. 
 
 Ba-ha'-ma, 198. 
 
 Baikal (bi'-kal), Fig. 203. 
 
 Bal'-tic, 211, 213. 
 
 Bal'-ti-inore, 149, 156. 
 
 Ban'-gor, 145. 
 
 Bang-kok', 240. 
 
 Bar-ce-lo'-na., 220. 
 
 Bat'-on Rouge (r8ozh), Fig. 140. 
 
 Bel'-fast, or (fast), 209. 
 
 Bel'-gi-um, 217. 
 
 Ben-gal', Fig. 203. 
 
 Be'-ring Sea, Fig. 203. 
 
 Ber-lin', 216. 
 
 Ber-inu'-da, 198. 
 
 Berne, 223. 
 
 Bir'-m ing-ham (Ber), Ala., 160. 
 
 Bir'-ining-ham (urn), Eng., 209. 
 
 Bo-go-ta', Fig. 177. 
 
 Boise (boi'-ze), Fig. 157. 
 
 Bo-k/ia'-ra, Fig. 203. 
 
 Bo-liv'-i-a, Fig. 177. 
 
 Bom-bay', 239. 
 
 Bordeaux' (bor-do'), 218, 219. 
 
 Bor'-ne-o, Fig. 221. 
 
 Bos'-ton, 37, 66, 142, 143, 147. 
 
 Braft-ma-pu'-tra (poo), Fig. 203. 
 
 Bra-zil',"200. ' " 
 
 Bridge'-port, 147. 
 
 Brit'-ish Isles, 207. 
 
 Brooklyn (lin), 149. 
 
 Brus'-sels, 217. 
 
 Bu'-da-pest (Boo), 223. 
 
 Buenos Aires (bwa'-nos I'-res), 
 
 203. 
 
 Buf'-fa-lo, 150, 151, 152. 
 Bul-ga'-ri-a, 225. 
 Burma (be'r'-ma), 239. 
 Butte (but), 181. 
 
 Cairo (kl'-ro), Egypt, 244. 
 Cal-cut'-a, 239. 
 Cal-i-for'-ni-a, 179. 
 Cal-la'-o, 205. 
 
 Cam'-bridge, 142. 
 Cam'-den, 153. 
 Can'-a-da, 140, 190. 
 Can'-er, Tropic, 120. 
 Can-ton', 236. 
 Cape Town, 248. 
 Cape Verde Islands, Fig. 214. 
 Cap'-ri-corn, Tropic, 120. 
 Ca-ra'rcas, 203. 
 Car-ifc-be'-an, 197. 
 Cas-cade' Range, 177. 
 Cas'-pi-an, 213. 
 Cas-tine' (ten), 65. 
 Cats'-kiUs, 151. 
 
 Caucasus (ka'-kti-sus) , Fig. 183. 
 Cayenne (ka-yen'), Fig. 177. 
 Celebes (sel'-e-bez), Fig. 221. 
 Qen'-tral -Amer'-i-ca, 140, 197. 
 Ceylon' (se-lon'), Fig. 203. 
 Chad, Fig. 214. 
 Cham-plam' (sham), Fig. 132. 
 Charles'-ton (charlz), 165. 
 Chat-a-noo'-ga, 160. 
 Ches'-a-peake, 149. 
 Cheyenne (shi-en'), Fig. 157. 
 Chi-ca'-go (She), 170, 171. 
 Chile (Chil'-a), 205. 
 Chim-bo-ra'-zo, 14. 
 Chi-na, 100, 235. 
 Chris-ti-a'-ni-a (ne-a), 212. 
 Qin-gm-na'-ti, 174. 
 Cleve'-land, 173. 
 Coast Ranges, 177. 
 Co-lpm'-bi-a (be-a), 205. 
 Col-0-ra'-d5, 180." 
 Col-o-ra'-do Can'-ypn, 178. 
 Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) District, 156. 
 Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) River, 185. 
 Co-lum'-bus, 174. 
 Con-nect'-i-cut, 146. 
 Con-stan-ti-no'-ple, 225. 
 C5-pen-ha'-gen, 212. 
 Cor-dil-ler'-as, 177. 
 Cor'-inth, 224. 
 
INDEX 
 
 275 
 
 Cor'-si-ca, Fig. 183. 
 Crete, Fig. 183. 
 Cu-ba, 112, 197. 
 
 Dal'-Za.s, 161. 
 
 Dan'-ube, 223, 225. 
 
 Dar'-ling River, 250. 
 
 Dead Sea, 55. 
 
 Del'-a-ware, 149. 
 
 Den'-mark, 212. 
 
 Den'-ver, 180. 
 
 Des Moines (de-moin') , Fig. 148. 
 
 De-troit', 173. 
 
 Dnieper (ne'-per), Fig. 183. 
 
 Dniester (nes'-ter), Fig. 183. 
 
 Dres'-den (drez), 216. 
 
 Dub'-lin, Fig. 183. 
 
 Duluth (Do-looth'), 172. 
 
 Dwina (dwe'-na), 183. 
 
 East In'-di-a Islands, 132, 252. 
 Ecuador (ek'-wa-dor) , 205. 
 Edinburgh (ed'-n-bur-o), 209. 
 E'-gypt, 244. 
 El'-be, 215. 
 
 El-burz' (boorz), Fig. 183. 
 England (ing'-land), 100, 208. 
 E'-rie, Lake, 161. 
 Es'-ki-mos (moz), 122, 193. 
 Eurasia (u-ra'-she-a) , 131. 
 Europe (u'-rop), 131, 207. 
 Ev'-er-est, Mt., 230. 
 
 FaH River, 147. 
 Fiji (fe'-je), 254. 
 Flor'-i-da, 162. 
 For-mo'-sa, 237. 
 France (frans), 217. 
 Fu-ji-ya'-ma (foo), 270. 
 
 Gal'-ves-ton, 165. 
 Ganges (gan'-jez), 239. 
 Gen-e-see', 152. 
 Ge-ne'-va, 223. 
 
 Geor-gi-a., 162. 
 
 Ger'-ma-ny (na), 214. 
 
 Gi-bral'-tar, 242. 
 
 Glas'-gOw?, 209. 
 
 Gloucester (glos'-ter), 73, 143, 185. 
 
 Gobi (g5'-b6), 231. 
 
 Grand Rap'-ids, 173. 
 
 Great Britain (brit'-n), 207. 
 
 Great Lakes, 63, 58. 
 
 Great Salt Lake, 55, 182, 183. 
 
 Greece (Gres), 224. 
 
 Green'-land, 193. 
 
 Guam (Gwam), Fig. 221. 
 
 Guiana (ge-a'-na.), 203. 
 
 Guth'-rte, Fig. 140. 
 
 Haiti (ha'-ti), 198. 
 
 Hal'-i-fax, 192. 
 
 Ham '-burg (berg), 215. 
 
 Har'-ris-burg (berg), 154. 
 
 Hart'-ford, 147. 
 
 Ha-van'-a, 197. 
 
 Havre (a'-vr),218. 
 
 Hawaii (ha-wa'-e), 254. 
 
 Hawaiian (ha-wa'-yan) Islands, 124, 
 
 135, 186, 254. 
 Hel'-e-na, Fig. 157. 
 Him-a-la'-ya, 230. 
 Ho-ang-ho', Fig. 203. 
 Hol'-Zand, 216. 
 Hoiig'-kong, 236. 
 H6-no-lu'-lu (loo'-loo),254. 
 Hud '-son River, 150. 
 Hun'-ga-ry (ray), 223. 
 Hu'-ron, Lake, Fig. 148. 
 
 iQe'-land, 212. 
 I'-da-ho, Fig. 157. 
 Illinois (il-i-noi'), 168, 169. 
 Iloilo (e-lo-e'-lo), Fig. 221. 
 In'-di-a, 238. 
 In'-di-an, 134. 
 In-di-an'-a, 169. 
 In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 95, 174. 
 
276 
 
 INDEX 
 
 In'-di-an Ter'-ri-to-ry, 165. 
 
 In'-do Chi'-na, 240. 
 
 In'-dus, 239. " 
 
 P-6-toa, 168. 
 
 Ireland (I'-er-land), 207. 
 
 Ir-kutsk' (kotsk), Fig. 203. 
 
 It'-a-ly (la), 220. 
 
 Jack'-son-viUe, 165. 
 Jamaica (ja-ma'-ka), 198. 
 Ja-pan', 237. 
 Ja'-va, 252. 
 
 Jersey (jer'-zi) City, 149. 
 Je-ru'-sa-lem (ro), 232. 
 Johannesburg (y o-han'-es-berg) , 
 247. 
 
 Kam-chat'-ka, Fig. 203. 
 Kan'-sas (zas), 167. 
 Kan'-sas (zas) City, 174. 
 Ka-ta/i'-dm, Fig. 125. 
 Ken-we-bec', 145. 
 Ken-tuck'-y, 168. 
 Kim'-ber-ley, 247. 
 Klon'-dike, 188, 191. 
 JTnox'-vilZe, 160. 
 Kon'-go, 246. 
 Ko-re'-a, 237. 
 
 Lab-ra-dor' (door), 190. 
 Lachine (La-shen') Rapids, 191. 
 La-drone', Fig. 221. 
 Lawrence (la'-rens), 147. 
 Leipzig (lip'-tsig), 216. 
 Le'-na, Fig. 203. 
 Li'-ma (le) , 205. 
 Lis'-bon (liz),220. 
 Liv'-er-pool, 209. 
 Loire (Iwar), Fig. 183. 
 Lon'-don (lun), 208, 210. 
 Los An'-ge-les, 184, 186. 
 Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'-a), Fig. 140. 
 Louisville (lo'-is-vil), 174. 
 Loic'-eU, 147. 
 
 Lu-zon' (lo), 253. 
 Lynn (lin), 147. 
 Lyon (ll'-on), 218. 
 
 Mackenzie (ma-ken'-zi) , 139. 
 Mad-a-gas'-car, Fig. 214. 
 Ma-dei'-ra, Fig. 214. 
 Ma-dras',"239. 
 Ma-drid', 220. 
 Mame, 144. 
 Mal'-a-ga, 220. 
 Ma-lay', Fig. 203. 
 Man'-ches-ter, Eng., 209. 
 Man'-ches-ter, N.H., 146, 147. 
 Man-clm'-ri-a, Fig. 203. 
 Ma-nil'-a, 253. 
 Man-i-to'-ba, 191. 
 Marseille (mar-sal'), 219. 
 Maryland (rner'-i-land), 149. 
 Mas-sa-cM'-set^s, Fig. 125. 
 Mat'-er-horn, 222. 
 Mau'-na L5'-a, 270. 
 Mec'-ca, 232. 
 
 Med'-i-ter-ra'-ne-an, 231, 242. 
 Me-kong' (ma), Fig. 203. - 
 Mel'-bourne (bern), 252. 
 Mem'-phis (fis), 164. 
 Mer'-ri-mac, 146. 
 Me-sa'-bi, 169. 
 Mex'-i-co, 140, 195. 
 Mex'-i-co City, 197. 
 Mich'-i-gan (mish), 169. 
 Mich'-i-gan (mish), Lake, 171. 
 Mi-Ian', 222. 
 Mil-waw'-kee, 171. 
 Min-da-na'-o (men), Fig. 221. 
 Min-do'-ro (men), Fig. 221. 
 Min-ne-ap'-o-lis, 172. 
 Min-we-so'-ta, 168, 169. 
 Mis-sis-sip'-pi, 172. 
 Mis-sis-sip'-pi River, 31, 42, 46, 51, 
 
 139, 159. 
 
 Mis-so^-ri, 159, 173. 
 Mo-bile' (bel), 165. 
 
INDEX 
 
 277 
 
 M5'-c/ia, 233. 
 
 M5-ham'-me-dan, 225, 232. 
 M6'-hat0k, 150, 161. 
 Mon-g5'-li-a, Fig. 203. 
 M5-non-ga-he'-la, 41. 
 Mon-ta'-na, 181. 
 Mont Blanc, 21, 23. 
 Mon-te-ne'-grd (nfi), 225. 
 Mon-te-vid'-e-5, 203. 
 Mont-pe'-li-er (Iyer), Fig. 125. 
 Mont-re-al', 192. 
 Moose-head Lake, 56. 
 Mo-roc'-co, Fig. 214. 
 Mo'-ros, 254. 
 Mos'-cow, 213. 
 Mu'-nicft, 216. 
 Mur'-ray River, 250. 
 
 Nan-tuck'-et, Fig. 125. 
 
 Na'-ples (plz), 221. 
 
 Nash'-viHe, Fig. 140. 
 
 Ne-bras'-ka, 167. 
 
 Ne-gri'-tos (gre'-toz), 254. 
 
 Neth'-er-lands, 216. 
 
 Ne-va'-da, 181. 
 
 New'-ark, 149. 
 
 New Bed'-ford, 147. 
 
 New Cal-e-do'-ni-a, Fig. 221. 
 
 New Eng'-land (ing'), 93, 142. 
 
 New'-found-land, 190. 
 
 New Guinea (gin'-i), Fig. 221. 
 
 New Hamp' -shire, 142. 
 
 New Ha'-ven, 142, 147. 
 
 New Heb'-ri-des (dez), Fig. 221. 
 
 New Jersey (jer'-zi), 153. 
 
 New Mex'-i-co, 176. 
 
 New Or'-le-ans, 51, 87, 163, 164. 
 
 New South Wales (Walz), 249. 
 
 New York, 65, 66, 89, 96, 149", 152. 
 
 New Zea'-land, 252. 
 
 Ni-ag'-a-ra Falls, 152. 
 
 Nic-a-ra'-gua (gwa), Fig. 123. 
 
 Ni'-ger, 246. 
 
 Nile, 46, 244. 
 
 Nor'-foZk, 166. 
 
 North A-mer'-i-Cft, 129, 138. 
 
 North Car-5-l!'-na., Fig. 140. 
 
 North Da-kO'-ta, Fig. 143. 
 
 North'-ft6ld, 37. 
 
 Nor'-way, 211. 
 
 NO'-va Sco'-tia (Sc6'-sha), 190. 
 
 Ob, Fig. 203. 
 
 O-des'-sa, 213. 
 
 Og'-den, 183. 
 
 O-hl'-o, 45, 168, 169. 
 
 Ok-la-ho'-ma, 160, 165. 
 
 O-lym'-pi-a, Fig. 157. 
 
 O'-ma-ha, 174. 
 
 On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, Figs. 132, 171. 
 
 Or'-e-gon, 185. 
 
 O-ri-no'-co, 199, 202. 
 
 O-ri-za-ba, 271. 
 
 Ot'-a-wa, 192. 
 
 Pa-?if'-ic, 133. 
 
 Pa-la-wan', Fig. 221. 
 
 Pal'-es-tine, 232. 
 
 Pan-a-ma' Canal, 186. 
 
 Pan-a-ma' Is^-mus, 129, 197, 205. 
 
 Panay (Pa-nl'), Fig. 221. 
 
 Pa-ra', 201. 
 
 Par'-a-guay (gwi), 199. 
 
 Par-a-mar'-i-bo, Fig. 177. 
 
 Par'-is, 218. 
 
 Pat-a-go'-ni-a, Fig. 177. 
 
 Pat'-er-son, 150. 
 
 Pe-king',"236. 
 
 Penw-syl-va'-ni-a, 149. 
 
 Pe-nob'-scot, 145. 
 
 Pen-sa-co'-la, 165. 
 
 Per'-sia (sha), 232. 
 
 Pe-ru' (ro), 205. 
 
 Petchora (pech-o'-ra), Fig. 183. 
 
 Phil-a-del'-phi-a, 66, 149, 153, 156. 
 
 Phil'-ip-pine, 121, 186, 253. 
 
 Phoe'-nix, Fig. 157. 
 
 Pierre (pe-ar'), Fig. 148. 
 
278 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pitts'-burg (berg), 41, 154, 155, 156. 
 
 Pla'-ta, 203. 
 
 Po-po-cat-e-pe'-tl, 195. 
 
 Port Ar'-thur, 235. 
 
 Port'-land, Me., 143, 147. 
 
 Port '-land, Oregon, 185, 186. 
 
 P6r'-to' Ri'-co (re'-ko), 198. 
 
 Por'-tu-gal, 219. 
 
 Pp-to'-mac, 156. 
 
 Poughkeepsie (po-kip'-si), 150. 
 
 Prague, 224. 
 
 Pribilof (pre'-be-lof) Islands, 189. 
 
 Prov'-i-dence, 143, 147. 
 
 Pueblo (pweb'-lo), 15, 180. 
 
 Pu'-get Sound, 185. 
 
 Pyrenees (pir'-e-nez) , 219. 
 
 Quebec (kw6-bek'), 192. 
 Queens'-land, 249. 
 Qui-to (ke'-to), Fig. 177. 
 
 Rainier (ra'-ner), Fig. 157. 
 
 Raleigh (ra'-li), Fig. 140. 
 
 Read'-ing, 154. 
 
 RAine, 214, 215. 
 
 R/iode Island, Fig. 125. 
 
 Rich'-mond, 157. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro (re'-o da zha-ne'-ro) , 
 
 202. 
 
 Rio Grande (re'-o), 139. 
 Roch'-es-ter, 85, 152. 
 Rock'-y Mountains, 33, 36, 139, 177. 
 Rome, 220. 
 Rou-ina'-ni-a, 225. 
 Russia (rush'-a), 212. 
 Rut'-land, 144. 
 
 Sac-ra-men'-to, Fig. 157. 
 
 Sag'-i-naic, 173. 
 
 Sa-ha'-ra, 242. 
 
 St. An'-tho-ny (ni) Falls, 172. 
 
 St. John, 192. 
 
 St. Law'-ren^e, 53, 139, 192. 
 
 St. Louis (lo'-is), 42, 173. 
 
 St. Paul, 88, 172. 
 
 St. Pe'-ters-burg (berg), 213. 
 
 Salt Lake City, 182. 
 
 Sa-mar', Fig. 221. 
 
 Sa-mo'-a, 254. 
 
 San Fran-gis'-co, 66, 180, 185, 186. 
 
 San'-taFe" (fa), Fig. 157. 
 
 San-ti-a'-go (te), 205. 
 
 Sar-dm'-i-a, Fig. 183. 
 
 Sa-van'-?za/i, 165. 
 
 Scot'-land, 208. 
 
 Scran'-ton, 155. 
 
 Se-at'-le, 185, 186. . 
 
 Seine (san), 218. 
 
 Seoul (sol), Fig. 203. 
 
 Ser'-vi-a, 225. 
 
 Shang-hai' (hi), 236. 
 
 Shas'-ta, Fig. 124. 
 
 Si-am', 240. 
 
 Si-be'-ri-a, 234: 
 
 Si-er'-ra (se) Mad'-re (ra),Fig. 123. 
 
 Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da., 20, 177. 
 
 Sin-ga-pore, 240. 
 
 Sit'-ka, 188, 189. 
 
 Sow-dan', 246. 
 
 South A-mer'-i-ca, 129, 130, 199. 
 
 South Car-o-ll'-na, 159. 
 
 South Da-ko' -ta, Fig. 148. 
 
 Spam, 100, 219. 
 
 Spo-kane', 185. 
 
 Spring'-fzeld, 147. 
 
 Stock'-holm, 212. 
 
 Sucre (soo'-kra), Fig. 177. 
 
 Su-ez' (so), 245. , 
 
 Sulu (so-lo'), 254. 
 
 Su-ma'-tra (so), Fig. 221. 
 
 Su-pe'-ri-or, Lake (so), 150, 169. 
 
 Swe'-den, 211. 
 
 Swit'-zer-land, 131, 222. 
 
 Syd'-ney, 252. 
 
 Syr'-a-cuse, 150, 152. 
 
 Ta-co'-ma, 185, 186. 
 Ta-gal'-ogs, 254. 
 
IXDEX 
 
 279 
 
 Tal-7a-has'-s6e, Fig. 140. 
 
 Tam'-pa, 165. 
 
 Tan-gan-yi'-ka (y6), Fig. 214. 
 
 Tas-ma'-ni-a (taz), 252. 
 
 Te-heran', Fig. 203. 
 
 Ten-nes-seV, Fig. 140. 
 
 Tex'-as, 159, 161. 
 
 Thames (teinz) , 208. 
 
 The Hagii (hag), 217. 
 
 Tib'-et, Fig. 203. 
 
 Tientsin (te-en'-tsen'), 236. 
 
 Ti-er'-ra del Fue'-go (fua), Fig. 177. 
 
 Tim-buk'-tu (to), 248. 
 
 Ti-ti-ca'-ca (te-te),Fig. 177. 
 
 To'-ki-o (ke), 238. 
 
 T6-le'-do, 173. 
 
 To-pe'-ka, Fig. 148. 
 
 To-ron'-to, 192. 
 
 Tren'-ton, 153. 
 
 Trieste (tre-est'), Fig. 183. 
 
 Trin-i-dad', 203. 
 
 Trip'-o-li, Fig. 214. 
 
 Troy, 152. 
 
 Tu'-nis, Fig. 214. 
 
 Tur-kes-tan' (Ter), Fig. 203. 
 
 Turkey (ter'-ki), 100, 225. 
 
 U-ni'-ted States, 97, 140, 141. 
 U'-ral Mountains, 212, 234. 
 U-ru-guay (6-ro-gwl'), 203. 
 U'-ta^, 181. 
 
 Val-pa-rai'-so, 205. 
 Van-cou'-ver (ko), 192. 
 Ven-e-zue'-la (zwe), 202. 
 Ven'-ige, 221. 
 Ve'-raCruz (kroz),197. 
 
 Ver-mont', 144. 
 Ve-su''-vi-us (so), 125, 221. 
 Vicks'-burg (berg), 164. 
 Vic-tO'-ri-a., Australia, 249. 
 Vic-tO'-ri-a, Canada, 192. 
 Vic-to'-ri-a Ny-an'-z a , Fig. 214. 
 Vi-en'-na, 223. 
 Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157. 
 Vis'-tu-la, Fig. 183. 
 Vol'-ga, 213. 
 
 Wales (walz), 208. 
 War'-saw, Fig. 183. 
 Wash'-ing-ton (city), 97, 98, 99, 
 
 156, 157. 
 
 W,sh '-ing-ton (state), 185. 
 West Indies (in'-diz), 197. 
 West Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157. 
 Wheel'-ing, 157.' 
 White Mountains, 17. 
 Wilkes Barre ( wilks ; -bar-a) , 165. 
 Wil'-ming-ton, Del., 153. 
 Wil'-ming-ton, N. C., 165. 
 Win'm-peg,"l92. 
 Wis-con'-sin, 169. 
 Worcester (wus'-ter), 147. 
 Wy-o'-ming (wl), Fig. 157. 
 
 Yang'-tse-ki-ang' (ke), Fig. 203. 
 
 Yel'-?6ic-stone, 177. 
 
 Yenisei (yen-e-sa'-e) , Fig. 203. 
 
 Yo-ko-ha'-ma, 238. 
 
 Yo-sem'-i-te, 20. 
 
 Yu'-kon, 139, 189. 
 
 Yu-ca-tan', Fig. 123. 
 
 Zii-rich (zo'-rik) , 223. 
 
FIRST BOOK OF 
 
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