LESSON PLANS FOR TEACHERS 
 
 in 
 
 Nature-Study Agriculture 
 
 .BASED UPON THE ILLINOIS 
 STATE COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 By ALICE JEAN PATTERSON 
 and LORA M. DEXHEIMER 
 
 Single Copies, Postpaid Sixty Cents 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORS 
 
 Pantagraph Printing and Stationery Co., SoJt Distributors 
 BLOOMINGTON. ILLINOIS 
 
Copyright, 1914 
 By ALICE JEAN PATTERSON 
 
 Copyright, 1911-12 
 
 By JOHN G. COULTER 
 
1 ' And he wandered away, away with Nature the dear old nurse, 
 Who sang to him night and day the rhymes of the universe, 
 
 And when the day seemed long, and his heart began to fail, 
 
 She sang a more wonderful song, or told a more wonderful tale. ' ' 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Two years ago when a course in Nature Study Agriculture became a part of 
 the new state course of study there arose on the part of teachers a demand for 
 some special help in teaching this subject. To supply this need the Lesson Plans 
 in Nature Study Agriculture were published. That these have proved of value is 
 very evident. Both teachers and superintendents speak in the highest terms of their 
 usefulness. 
 
 The first edition is now exhausted and it seems wise to publish a second edition. 
 The lessons have been carefully revised and a number that in the first edition were 
 rather meager have been rewritten in full. The arrangement of the years has 
 been changed to follow each other consecutively instead of previous plan of group- 
 ing into odd and even years. This will add to the efficiency of the book. 
 
 The lessons are planned expressly for busy teachers and especially for those 
 who have had little or no training in nature study and elementary agriculture. They 
 include how to obtain material, what to have the children observe, how to report the 
 observations, how to conduct simple experiments, etc. At the same time sufficient 
 information is given with each lesson to enable the teacher to gain the fundamental 
 facts that she should know in order to present the lesson successfully. 
 
 RELATION TO THE CHILDREN. The book presupposes that the work in the 
 schools will be real nature study, that the children will handle and observe real 
 objects, will perform experiments, will work with their hands and think while they 
 work. This will bring them into the right relation with their environment so that 
 the nature-world, their inheritance, shall become their own to understand and to 
 love. This work will enable them also to see beauty and value in everyday common 
 places especially as they put to the test some of the fundamental laws of life and of 
 physical phenomena, or as they experience the joy that comes with beautifying their 
 own school and home grounds. 
 
 RELATION TO THE TEACHER. The teacher as well as the pupils is a learner 
 in this work. No matter how much she may know about nature objects she realizes 
 that there is still much to be learned. There is no "finis" written in the book of 
 nature. Every day she finds new interest in the wayside plants, in every flying and 
 crawling insect, in the birds, and trees, and in the farm and garden crops. Her 
 life is enriched and broadened both by her own contact with the nature world and 
 by her efforts to bring her pupils into a sympathetic understanding of this world. 
 
 RELATION TO PARENTS. Since the nature study deals with the environment 
 of the children it is a strong factor in keeping home and school in close touch with 
 each other. The material used is the material of the home, the field and shop; 
 parents are interested because the children come to them with questions or informa- 
 tion about objects and phenomena that they constantly use in their daily work. 
 The special days suggested by the course such as Harvest Festival, Corn Day and 
 Arbor Day, afford an excellent opportunity to invite the parents to the school in order 
 that they may see what the children are accomplishing in the work. 
 
 CORRELATION WITH OTHER SUBJECTS. Many rural teachers find lack of 
 time the principal obstacle to nature-study and agricultural work. The daily pro- 
 gram is already full. Another subject may be the last straw. But with careful 
 correlation we believe that the nature study lessons will make the other work more 
 interesting and more effective. As the course is planned a part of the language 
 work is based upon the nature-study topics. Much of the arithmetic may be 
 correlated with the nature-study. This is also true of the drawing. In the first 
 and second grades the constructive work offers excellent opportunity for correlation. 
 Indeed, much of the constructive work may find its most interesting motivation in 
 connection with the doll house, the barn, poultry yard, etc. The plan of correlation 
 ought to make possible the working out of most of the course as outlined for the 
 first six years. 
 
 339485 
 
AGRICULTURAL PHASE OF WORK. The course is essentially agricultural 
 in its material and aims because it deals with the birds and trees, with flowers 
 and garden plants, with farm crops and animals, with soil and machinery, all of 
 which have to do with agriculture. It does not pretend to go into the science of 
 agriculture as high schools and colleges do, but it aims to make a good foundation 
 for this more advanced work. It is good agriculture as far as it goes. It helps the 
 boys and girls to appreciate the farm and its surroundings as nothing else can do, 
 and at the same time becomes an important factor in promoting better methods of 
 agriculture in our state. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. The part of the course called physiology has for its chief aim 
 the improvement of health conditions. The children should be led to form habits 
 that make for good health, to become sensitive to unsanitary conditions, and feel 
 some responsibility in making conditions better. It is only thru persistent effort and 
 constant application of the principles learned that right habits will be formed. 
 
 ALICE JEAN PATTEESON. 
 Normal, 111., May 24, 1914. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Preface 3 
 
 Table of Contents 5 
 
 Lesson plans for First Year 7 
 
 Lesson plans for Second Year 17 
 
 Lesson plans for Third Year 28 
 
 Lesson plans for Fourth Year 42 
 
 Lesson plans for Fifth Year 61 
 
 Lesson plans for Sixth Year 73 
 
 Lesson plans for Seventh Year 98 
 
 Lesson plans for Eighth Year 136 
 
 Alphabetical Subject Index 163 
 
LESSON PLANS FOR FIRST YEAR 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE SEPTEMBER. (To be used in September of odd numbered 
 t/ears, alternating with second year work. Two periods of each week devoted to 
 actual contact with materials studied. The three periods of language to ~be closely 
 correlated with the nature-study.) The home and who lives there. What does father 
 da? Mother? Sisters? Brothers? Hoiu do you help? Rooms in the house; uses 
 of each; furnishings. Make a doll house of pasteboard or box; cut furniture, rugs, 
 utensils; preserve distinction of rooms. The school house; rooms, furniture, uses, 
 care. Children assist in keeping room in order; learn use of damp cloth in cleaning; 
 a place for everything. Other public places, church, store, depot, town house, bank, 
 factory; what is done in each? 
 
 (Eighteen lessons planned. These need not be given in just the order used 
 here.) 
 
 SUGGESTED SCHEDULE. The Home, 2 lessons; The Doll's House, 5 lessons; 
 The School and Other Public Places, 2 lessons; The Garden, 3 lessons; Birds, 2 
 lessons; Trees, 2 lessons; Poems, 2 lessons. 
 
 OUTDOOR VISIT'S. In addition to the work outlined in the course, it is 
 suggested that the pupils visit and identify a few common trees of the neighborhood, 
 observe and name some of the common birds, visit a garden and compare it with 
 that at home. 
 
 THE HOME. Who lives at home? Who helps to make it comfortable and 
 pleasant? What things does mother do? (Ideas of preparation of food, clothing, 
 cleanliness, comfort, pleasure, helpfulness, will be brought out, each child being 
 encouraged to contribute his share to the conversation.) 
 
 What is father's work? (Ideas of earning, of further contact with the out- 
 side world will be added.) 
 
 What do you children do at home? How do you help? How do you play? 
 (In addition to accounts of daily tasks and pleasures, the idea of the necessity 
 of co-operation and of service is brought out.) 
 
 These talks should do much to make the beginners feel "at home" in the 
 strange environment to make a unity of interest between home and school and 
 to encourage and preserve spontaneity and freedom of oral expression. In this 
 connection pupils may learn the poem "I love you, mother," from Mrs. McMurry's 
 ' ' Treetop and Meadow, ' ' or they may learn and dramatize ' ' This is the way we 
 wash our clothes, etc. ' ' 
 
 THE DOLL'S HOUSE. This follows easily the talks about the home. The 
 playhouse may be made very simply consisting of only one or two rooms or more 
 elaborately with "cellar" and "upstairs." In any case it may be made of a 
 large pasteboard box with partitions, or of smaller boxes fastened in any desired 
 arrangement with glue or paper fasteners. The entire front should be left open 
 for easy access by the ' ' owners. ' ' If preferred a wooden box may be used, with 
 roof, partitions and window openings added by older pupils. 
 
 Furnishing should be made by the little people themselves and may be simple 
 or more elaborate as time permits. Chairs, tables, beds and cupboards may be 
 made from cardboard or folded from paper, which material can be obtained at a 
 printing office. Worst's Construction is helpful in this connection. Rugs and mat- 
 ting may be woven from cord, rags, or raffia. Curtains may be cut from scraps 
 of material brought from homes. Wallpaper njay be made at school or furnished 
 from scraps left from the home ' ' housecleaning. ' ' 
 
 Part of this work may be done as seat work. Some, like the formal construc- 
 tion, must be done under the teacher's direction to secure worthy results and correct 
 habits and ideals. Original, volunteer work should be encouraged, and surprising 
 interest and results will follow. 
 
 The pupils should be held responsible for keeping this small dwelling in order, 
 and through that work some valuable habits may be formed. They should learn 
 to dust properly; to keep the playhouse and their own desks neat, orderly and free 
 
8 
 
 from dust; to clean the blackboards without filling the air with chalk dust; to 
 clean erasers out of doors instead of at the window, and the reason why; to clean 
 mud from shoes before entering house, etc. 
 
 THE SCHOOLHOUSE. The foregoing lessons prepare the way for some ideas 
 of public institutions: Why do we have a schoolhouse? Who builds it? Who 
 should help care for it? How can this be done? Some system of appointing monitors 
 may prove helpful in promoting ideals and habits of helpful service. 
 
 OTHEE PUBLIC PLACES. Activities growing out of home and school inter- 
 ests will rapidly include a wider field, and the function of stores, depot, church, 
 factory may be discussed. In such talks the ideas of interdependence and the 
 spirit of service should be made prominent. Illustrations in free cutting or with 
 pencil to represent the various places, together with roads and streets, will prove 
 interesting. 
 
 THE GAEDEN. During this month a nearby garden should be visited if the 
 school has none, and the vegetables and flowers recognized and named. Questions 
 like these will reveal and recall facts of interest: What grows in your garden? 
 Who planted and cared for it? What have you got from it? What things have 
 helped the plants to grow? (Sun, rain, care, good soil.) What work has been 
 done in the garden? Why? What things in it are not yet ready for use? 
 
 If possible, the children should have the pleasure of gathering flowers, both 
 wild and cultivated, for school' room decoration. They should be shown how to 
 pick them with stems suitable for bouquets, and can be taught that most flowers 
 look best if each kind is put in a vase by itself. 
 
 Vegetables and flowers may be cut and colored, or pictures cut from catalogs 
 and pasted in scrap books. 
 
 BIEDS. Opportunity should be found to observe whatever birds frequent the 
 neighborhood especially robins and blackbirds. What are they doing? Find out 
 what they eat. Look for different foods birds can eat. What have the birds done 
 in summer? Can you find any young birds? Pupils relate personal observation of 
 bird life during summer. Keep a shallow pan filled with water where birds can 
 find it. Use outline pictures of birds to color, or cut them free-hand. 
 
 TEEES. At least one visit to become more intimately acquainted with one 
 or two familiar trees should be made this month. Find a tree whose name you 
 know. Where are others like it? What about it helps you to remember it? Eecall 
 how it looked last winter. When did its leaves appear? Why do we like trees? 
 Whom do they help besides people? (Nesting places for birds and squirrels, shade 
 for animals, etc.) 
 
 Tear tree-pictures from paper and color them. Make borders of leaf shapes 
 studied, as elm, maple, oak. 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE OCTOBEE. Make a cardboard wall chart to show weather 
 for each 'month. Make a blank calendar form and, on each school day, paste in a 
 colored disc showing kind of day, yellow for sunny, gray for cloudy, purple or blue 
 for rainy, and sprinkled with diamond dust for snow. In margin make sketch 
 appropriate to month. Children gradually learn days of week, character of month, 
 names of seasons, holidays, birthdays, etc. 
 
 What the garden contributes to our food. Visit garden to note autumn condi- 
 tion, harvesting; effect of frost. Collection and simple study of common vegetables 
 which grow above ground; below ground; draw and color a few. How stored for 
 winter? Provisions for food storage in doll house. Where we get vegetables when 
 we have no garden; where the grocer obtains his supply; how he keeps them. 
 Similarly, food we obtain from farm crops. From corn, breakfast foods, corn meal, 
 corn starch, hominy, popcorn. Identification and collection of samples. Similar 
 study of wheat and oats products. 
 
 SUGGESTED SCHEDULE. Calendar, 1 lesson; Garden, 5 lessons; Trees, 2 
 lessons; Birds, 2 lessons; Food Charts and Study, 4 lessons; Construction, 2 lessons; 
 Poems, 2 lessons. 
 
9 
 
 THE WEATHEE. A few moments each day devoted to a study of weather 
 conditions will help to make the children's observations definite, and will give them 
 more accurate knowledge of natural phenomena and their effects. The calendar 
 form may be drawn upon the blackboard, or upon a large sheet of cardboard, and 
 records made as suggested above. (Colored paper for this and many other school 
 purposes may be obtained of Thomas Charles Co., Chicago, 111.) If the blackboard 
 is used colored crayon will serve. If the calendar is placed upon a north wall, the 
 pupils can very early learn to use arrows to indicate the direction of the wind, 
 which should be found by careful observation. 
 
 Pupils will greatly enjoy the poem, " October's Bright Blue Weather" in this 
 connection. 
 
 THE GARDEN. The object of the first visit should be to find and name all 
 plants which contribute to our food supply. The children should tell how each is 
 to be harvested, and if possible to be given an opportunity to share in the work. 
 The effects of frost should be carefully noted. Try to see how long a list of 
 vegetables can be made from actual acquaintance and contact. The names may be 
 kept in two lists, to distinguish those which grow above and below ground. A visit 
 to a well-stocked cellar (noting the various commodities which are stored, together 
 with different methods of storing) will prove a valuable lesson. Pupils may then 
 make boxes for doll house cellar, and fill them with real vegetables, or make imita- 
 tion in clay. If the latter, they may be colored with ordinary water colors. If 
 time permits it is well now to cut paper dolls or make some clay dolls to inhabit 
 this finished dwelling. 
 
 Study of the world beyond home and school may continue by discussion of 
 the grocer's stock, paying especial attention to those supplies which come from 
 
 Gardens like our own. Where does he get so many vegetables? Why and how does 
 e keep them? Picture the farmer's wagon loaded with vegetables from the gar- 
 den. The grocer's delivery wagon, which brings them to some who have no gar- 
 dens. 
 
 Valuable information, gathered at first hand, can be gained concerning the 
 seeds of the various vegetables. In many cases the problems must be left unsolved, 
 but a wholesome attitude of inquiry will be secured which may often result in per- 
 sonal investigation by the small ' ' scientists. ' ' 
 
 FOOD FEOM THE FIELDS. What foods do the farm fields give us? Corn, 
 wheat, oats. Pupils should bring samples of various kinds of each grain, samples of 
 products made from each, together with pictures illustrating the uses of each. Very 
 interesting charts can be made showing all these facts. Manufactured products may 
 be put in tiny bottles and fastened to the large cardboard sheet with cord, and the 
 pictures may be pasted on. 
 
 Enough attention should be given to autumn flowers, both wild and cultivated, 
 to see that pupils learn the names of a few common varieties; and that they are 
 helped to appreciate their beauty both in and out of doors. Opportunity may be 
 found for lessons in coloring and in tasteful arrangement, the flower of the thistle, 
 for example, makes a very pretty unit for decorating a border for a book-cover. 
 
 TREES. In October the leaves begin to color and fall. Individual trees 
 noted last month should be observed again. What changes can we find? Any 
 further marks of recognition? Gather some twigs and see how easily the leaves 
 may be shaken off. Look carefully at the place on the twig from which the leaf 
 has dropped. What do you see? 
 
 Carefully gather and press brightly colored leaves for use indoors. Make a 
 border of them along the top of the blackboard, pin them on sash-curtains, etc. Make 
 a book and paste in all pretty kinds of leaves you know. Write the name of each 
 neatly. Rake fallen leaves in home or school yard. Learn Stevenson 's ' l Seasons. ' ' 
 
 BIRDS. Which ones are here now? Which that you have seen are not here 
 now? Why? What food can they find now? Where do birds stay at night? What 
 troubles or dangers come to them at this season ? Try to see which ones stay longest. 
 Cut pictures of flocks flying south. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION WORK. Sage and Cooley's OCCUPATIONS FOR LITTLE 
 FINGERS is recommended as a guide for the construction work done in this month. 
 
10 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE NOVEMBER. Continue chart begun in October. Thanks- 
 Outdoor studies. Note changes in trees, gardens, -fields; in outdoor activities. 
 Foods from farm crops. Collect samples of various forms made from corn, 
 wheat, oats. 
 
 Doll's house. Make more furniture, curtains, wall-paper, etc. 
 
 The pumpkin or the squash. Its parts; how it is prepared for pies; how to 
 
 Out-of-door work. What birds can you see now? What do they eat? What 
 has happened to the trees? How can you now recognize them? What is being 
 . done in the fields? 
 
 THE PUMPKIN. Have a fine ripe pumpkin at school. Where have you seen 
 pumpkins growing? What do we call the plant? How large is the vine? The leaf? 
 The flower? Tell what you remember of the flower. Where are pumpkins often 
 planted? Tell how pumpkins look when small. What helps them grow? 
 
 Why do we raise pumpkins? What animals eat them? How are they fed? 
 How do we like pumpkins? How are they prepared for pie? What happens if 
 they are left in the field until frost comes? How can we keep them for later use? 
 How may people have pumpkin pie who cannot get fresh pumpkins? 
 
 What must we do for a crop next year? Let pupils remove seeds, dry them, 
 and make envelopes in which to keep them all winter. When cut, notice skin, flesh, 
 arrangement of seeds, coloring. 
 
 What fun may we have with pumpkins? On what night? Tell a Halloween 
 story. What kind of pranks are good fun for everybody? How can we make a 
 Jacko 'lantern? If class is not too large, let the children make one, all working 
 together, at seat-work period. Or, each pupil may make one of clay, coloring 
 when dry. 
 
 Paint pumpkins for drawing lessons. Add eyes, etc., to make a "face." 
 
 Bring a squash to school. Compare with pumpkin as to shape, size, color, 
 hardness, place and method of growth, use, "keeping" qualities, manner of cook- 
 ing. Save seeds. How distinguish them from pumpkin seeds? 
 
 Paint a squash and a pumpkin to note differences. Cut them from paper. 
 
 THANKSGIVING. What holiday comes this month? Why do we have Thanks- 
 giving? Various answers will be given, by the pupils, chiefly concerning the 
 Thanksgiving dinner. These provide a point of departure for some review of 
 their knowledge of garden products. Name the things we may have for Thanks- 
 giving dinner which grow in the gardens or fields. Which of these come from our 
 own farms? Which are grown in far-away places? 
 
 Tell the story of the Pilgrims' Thanksgiving. If a program is given this story 
 may be simply dramatized. 
 
 Let the pupils mold, in clay, fruits and vegetables for the Thanksgiving dinner 
 table, keeping proportion in size. Color them, if convenient. Set the table in the 
 doll 's house. 
 
 Mention all the kinds of food that are made from corn. From wheat. From 
 oats. How are the different ones prepared? How are they cooked? Bring samples 
 for the doll's house. Make such furnishings for the doll's house as are needed 
 for storing food, i. e., cupboards, boxes, etc. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR DECEMBER. The Weather Changes since opening of fa}l 
 term. Length of days, position of sun. Effect of cold upon home activities, 
 school sports. 
 
 How we keep warm in winter. Clothing kinds, how distinguish each? Make 
 collections of pieces of cotton, woolen and silk cloths. Sources of material for 
 clothing. Describe a visit to a dry goods store. Who buys our clothes, who makes 
 them. Clothing of primitive people. Care of our clothing. 
 
 How we keep warm in winter. Clothing kinds, how distinguish each? Make 
 collections of pieces of cotton, woolen and silk cloths. Sources of material for 
 
11 
 
 clotlnng. Describe a visit to a dry goods store. Who buys our clothes, who makes 
 than. Clothing of primitive people. Care of our clothing. 
 
 Christmas tree. Simple study of evergreen. Make trimmings and gifts for a 
 Ch'-istmas tree in the doll's house. 
 
 THE SEASON. What season have we now? Name all the signs of winter 
 that you can. Short days, cold weather, snow, ice, frozen earth, leafless trees, brown 
 grass. What birds are gone? Which are here? Put out food and learn if they 
 eat it. Fasten some suet in a tree where you can watch it, and see if the birds 
 eat it. 
 
 Do you get up in time to see the sun rise? Where does it rise? At what time? 
 When and where does it set? 
 
 What difference does the cold weather make in our work? In our play? To 
 the farm animals? 
 
 CLOTHING. What difference does winter make in our clothing? Of what 
 is our warm clothing made? Where does cotton v grow? From where do we get 
 wool ? Identify cotton and woolen materials among children 's garments. Have 
 samples of each brought to class. Note use of fur, also. 
 
 Too heavy clothing should not be worn in a warm room. Comfortable wraps 
 are necessary out of doors. Too heavy wraps should not be worn when we are 
 playing actively. We should not sit with wet clothing on. How can children try 
 to avoid having wet feetl 
 
 Pupils should be taught to keep wraps carefully hung up, to keep their rubbers 
 in proper places, to clean their shoes before entering the school house, to avoid 
 unnecessary soiling of the clothing while at school. 
 
 A discussion of the kinds and sources of the clothing of Indians, Eskimos, 
 and other primitive peoples, will give a basis for a practical discussion of the need 
 of keeping the clothing and the body clean, and will aid in establishing hygienic 
 habits. 
 
 CHRISTMAS. What do we do to make Christmas a pleasant time? What 
 trees do we use for Christmas trees? Why? Where have you seen evergreens 
 growing? If you can, notice their needles, to see if they are all alike. What do 
 children like at Christmas time? Try to have a tiny tree or a branch to decorate 
 for the doll's house. Consult the Course of Study in Construction for suggestions 
 for making decorations and gifts, and in Language for appropriate poems and 
 stories. 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOR JANUARY. The weather, as last month. How our homes 
 and schoolrooms are kept warm. Storm doors, etc. Trees as windbreaks. Kinds 
 of fuel. Source and supply of wood and coal. Distinguish hard and soft wood. 
 Hard and soft coal. Make bins, and put fuel supply in doll's house. 
 
 Need and importance of fresh air. How to secure it indoors. Deep breathing, 
 good positions, sitting and standing. Cleanliness of clothing, of body, of surround- 
 ings. How to prevent and remove dust and dirt. Care of pencils, books, etc. 
 
 THE SEASON. What do we call this season? What things make it pleasant? 
 What things do we not like so well? Keep a record of stormy and pleasant days. 
 
 What must we do in winter to keep warm? How many ways do you know 
 for heating houses? What do we burn in stoves and furnaces? Where do the 
 wood and coal come from? Which kind of wood burns best? What kind of coal 
 do we have? What is the difference? Can you build a fire? Tell how it should 
 be done. Bring some samples of different kinds of wood and coal. Make some 
 bins for the cellar of the doll's house and fill with various kinds of fuel. 
 
 What besides fires helps keep our houses warm? (Storm doors, windows, 
 porches.) In what ways do trees protect us in winter? 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. What important thing besides food and water do we need 
 to keep alive? Where is the air? How do we know? How does air enter the 
 body? What makes the air in a room impure? Air that has been used by our 
 lungs for breathing is not clean, just as water which has been used for washing 
 is not clean. How can we tell if the air of a room is not pure and clean? (One 
 
12 
 
 way is to notice the bad odor when one has just come in from, the fresh air outside.) 
 How can we keep fresh air in our homes and school? (In pleasant weather keep 
 doors and windows open. In cold weather fill the rooms frequently with fresh air 
 from outside, open windows slightly, to avoid cold drafts.) Teach pupils, by 
 example, how to ventilate the school room. 
 
 How may we help the lungs to do their work well? (Plenty of exercise out 
 of doors, erect sitting and standing positions, deep breathing of pure air.) 
 
 If our bodies and clothing are not clean, they do much to make the air of 
 our rooms impure/ How often should we bathe? How can we keep faces, hands, 
 nails, hair, clean? How keep our school materials clean? (Keep pencils out of 
 mouth, avoid wetting fingers to turn leaves of books. Keep desks dusted with 
 damp cloth, etc.) 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE FEBRUARY. The calendar. The birthdays of Washington, 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Sources of food in winter, how and where stored. Describe a visit to a grocery 
 store in winter. Describe various ways in which foods are cooked boiling, baking, 
 etc. 
 
 The cow as the source of our milk supply. Its food, habits, care, especially 
 in winter. Care of milk, importance of cleanliness? Its various uses? How butter 
 is made. Milk supply of city. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. Good things for children to eat for breakfast, dinner, supper, 
 for school lunch. Eight habits of eating and drinking. Care of teeth, table manners, 
 regularity and temperance in eating and drinking. 
 
 THE CALENDAR. How many days in this month? How many weeks? In 
 what season is it? Keep record of clear and cloudy days. Record birthdays of 
 Washington, Lincoln, Longfellow. 
 
 WINTER FOOD SUPPLY. Make lists of the foods we eat in winter. Which 
 have been stored since summer? How? Where? What foods come to us from 
 far away? Who sells them to us? Describe a visit to the grocery store in winter. 
 
 In how many ways are foods cooked? Which are baked? Boiled? Fried? 
 Toasted? Which are best for us? 
 
 Name foods that are best for children to eat for breakfast. For dinner. For 
 supper. What things make good school lunches? (Teacher should give simple 
 facts regarding foods.) 
 
 If our food is to make our bodies grow and be strong, there is something 
 for us to do after it is prepared for us. (See Health Lessons for November and 
 December.) 
 
 THE COW. Think of all the useful things we get from the cow. Make a 
 list of them. Where do cows live in winter? How are they sheltered? What do 
 they eat? How provided with water? Describe the barn in which cows are kept. 
 When is the milking done? What is first done with the milk? Where is it kept? 
 How must it be cared for? Why should milk be kept very clean? Why kept cool? 
 
 How do people in cities get milk? How is it prepared and carried to them? 
 Why should they wish to have it kept clean? How can it be done? 
 
 What foods are made from milk? Tell how butter is made. Have you seen 
 cottage cheese made at home? 
 
 MARCH 
 
 OUTLINE FOR MARCH. The weather. Note changes in length of days, in 
 temperature, in a/mount of clothing. Is there as much snow as there has been? 
 What things show the coming of spring? 
 
 Animal Pets. Kinds. Their names, habits, shelter, care; how secured. 
 
 The Cat; its food, care, habits. Its means of protection, usefulness, care of 
 young. Wild relatives. 
 
 The Wind. What the wind is; what it does, harmful and helpful? 
 
 THE SEASON. At what time does the sun rise? Where? Notice when and 
 where it sets. How have these facts changed since Christmas? Is there as much 
 
13 
 
 snow as there has been? Are we having more cold, or warm days I What changes 
 are we making in our clothing? Keep on the blackboard a list of the things that 
 tell that Spring is coming. Watch for new signs each day. 
 
 AXIMAL PETS. What pet animal have you at home? What is its name! 
 How do you feed it? Where does it stay at night? In the daytime? Can it do 
 any tricks? How does it learn? Why do you keep it? 
 
 THE CAT. Why do we have cats about the home? What different things 
 do they eat? How do they drink? How keep clean? How keep warm? 
 
 Why can a cat move so quietly? Watch a cat's eyes in bright and in dim 
 light. What are a cat's whiskers for? Watch its ears and nose, when it is wait- 
 ing for a mouse. 
 
 What different noises can a cat make? What do they mean? How does a 
 cat play? Where sleep? 
 
 What enemies has a cat? How can she protect herself? What harm may 
 cats do? Who are the wild relatives of the cat? 
 
 THE WIXD. What is the wind? What do we mean when we say it blows? 
 How can we tell that it blows? Make a long list of ways. 
 
 What does a cold wind do? A warm wind? What does the wind do to wet 
 clothes, muddy roads, etc. How does the wind work for us? How help us play? 
 What harm may the wind do? Make kites, pin wheels, paper boats. Learn 
 Stevenson's "The Wind." 
 
 APRIL 
 
 (Twenty lessons planned.) 
 
 APEIL. Springtime activities at home; house cleaning; putting up screens 
 and awnings; cleaning yard. Eepairs; identification and uses of a few carpenter's 
 tools. Clean doll house and arrange for spring. 
 
 Plant nasturtium in egg shells and in window boxes at school and home; later 
 transplant to garden, border, or fence. Advantages of early planting indoors. 
 Make yard and garden for doll house. Care of house plants; what plants need, 
 soil, light, moisture, favorable temperature, air (like animals}. Identification 
 of a few common house plants. (From Conference Course.) 
 
 A series of talks upon the general subject of the coming of spring may include 
 the following topics: 
 
 THE SEASOX. What season have we now? What things tell us that spring 
 has come? (Teacher write points on board, as- given by class.) What games 
 can we play now that we could not play in winter? Why? What different kinds 
 of work can be done? Why? When does the sun rise these days? When does it 
 set? How was it at Christmas time? Why is it warmer now? What difference 
 is there in our clothing? What difference in keeping the house warm? (See 
 Language Course for appropriate verses if desired.) 
 
 CHAXGES IX WORK. a. What kinds of work are fathers making ready 
 to do, now that spring has come? Have the various kinds, especially those relating 
 to planting, described briefly; aim to make the children interested and observant, 
 and to organize a little more definitely their knowledge of man's relation to nature 
 about him. 
 
 b. What do our mothers plan to have done as soon as doors and windows 
 may be left open? Why do we wish to "clean house?" What do we do? (Clean 
 carpets, windows, remove storm doors, paint, paper, scrub, wash, air bedding, etc.) 
 What do we need to do at school? Children should perform some of the simpler 
 tasks of "house-cleaning" at school. Desks may be washed, closets put in order, 
 proper methods of dusting practiced, etc. Further work may be done with the 
 doll's house. If none is at hand, make one by setting a small shoe box on end 
 and putting a partition midway between top and bottom, cutting in some windows. 
 Some of the pupils may add a roof. It can be painted, papered, furnished with 
 cardboard furniture, woven rugs, and curtains. Much of this work can be begun 
 in class and continued as seat work. 
 
 c. Cleaning the yard. What can we do to make our schoolyard ready for 
 the spring? Clear away dead weeds and grass, remove papers and ashes. Tell 
 
14 
 
 what is done at home. Plan a yard for doll's house. Measure space, cover with 
 oil cloth or heavy paper, furnish with sod and some twigs' for trees. Lay out 
 flower beds and vegetable garden to prepare for the real garden work later. 
 
 BIRDS. The bird-arrivals should be noted, now, though no detailed study is 
 begun. Talks should center about such points as are suggested here. What birds 
 have been with us during the winter? (Sparrow and bluejay, at least, are familiar.) 
 How do they live? Why do we like them? What have you seen them do? What 
 other birds do you know 7 about? Where have they been all winter? Why? Why 
 do they return? Which ones shall we look for first? How can we help them? Let 
 us keep a list of them as we see them. How can we tell a robin from any other 
 bird? A meadow lark? A blackbird? Draw and color them. Learn poem. Imitate 
 songs of birds. 
 
 TEEES. Another source of joy in the springtime is a closer acquaintance with 
 the trees. Choose a tree of familiar species, near school, for frequent observation. 
 Visit it. Note its size; its location, if in any way significant. Tell how it differs 
 in appearance from what it was last summer. Draw 7 its outline, then cut out from 
 paper. Watch for changes. Carefully gather some twigs and keep in water to let the 
 children see at close range what is occurring in every twig of the tree. No detailed 
 study should be undertaken. 
 
 OTHER LIFE. Watch for all signs of reappearing life. Keep a list, (grass, 
 dandelions, frogs, toads, pussy willows, etc.), to which pupils can bring additions 
 each day. 
 
 EGGSHELL GARDENS. For the eggshell gardens suggested for this month's 
 work, materials are easily secured. A shallow box, partly filled with sand, is an 
 excellent container for the eggshells which each pupil brings for himself. A profit- 
 able outdoor period may be spent getting the right kind of soil. Each shell should 
 have a hole pricked in the bottom, and should be filled with soil. Two or three 
 nasturtium seeds should be planted in each. The shells should then be labeled by 
 writing name of child and the date upon each, and all arranged neatly in the tray 
 of sand which is to be placed in the window. The needs of the l ' garden ' ' are then 
 discussed, and the owners charged with all necessary care. 
 
 RADISHES. A larger box filled with earth may be planted with radish seeds. 
 If an early variety is selected the vegetables may reach maturity before school 
 closes, a particularly desirable point in work with small children. 
 
 WEATHER. One of the children's pleasures during this month is the daily 
 weather observation which is recorded upon the blackboard calendar. The state 
 of the sky, direction of wind, and rainfall, if any, should be noted each day. Count- 
 ing the number of clear, cloudy, and rainy days at the close of the month is a 
 profitable exercise in comparison and in numbers. 
 
 THOUGHT AND EXPRESSION. In all this work good thinking and clear, 
 correct expression should be closely linked together. Good nature study work will 
 demand good expression in language and vice versa. 
 
 TWENTY-LESSON PLAN. The following outline presents twenty lessons for 
 this month. The order must be decided by each teacher, to suit her own conditions. 
 A ten-minute period will secure many good results, both in nature-study and in 
 language. Some of the exercises may be given during seatwork periods, if the 
 program is very much crowded, thus making opportunity for other work by means of 
 ' ' alteration. ' ' 
 
 1. Talk. Change of season. 
 
 2. Make pinwheel. 
 
 3. Change of farm-work because of seasons. 
 
 4. Change of home-work because of seasons. 
 
 5. Change of school-work because of seasons. 
 
 6. 7, 8. Make doll's house Begin to furnish it. 
 9, 10, 11. Plan and make yard for doll's house. 
 
 12. Bird-talk; begin calendar. 
 
 13. Poem. 
 
 14. Visit tree; note signs of spring. 
 
 15. Talk on tree. Draw. Cut out drawing. 
 
15 
 
 16, 17. Plan and make eggshell gardens. 
 
 18. Plant radishes in window box. 
 
 19. Clean yard and desks. 
 
 MAY 
 
 (Twenty lessons planned.) 
 
 May, 1915. Garden studies at home, and, if possible, at school. Encourage 
 flower planting, nasturtium, four-o'clock, balsam ("lady slipper"); gourds, pop- 
 corn. 
 
 The robin, as a bird about the home. Its food habits, nesting, song, destruc- 
 tion of injurious insects. Other birds which are abundant and easily identified, such 
 as flicker and meadow -lark. 
 
 GAEDEX WORK. The lessons this month follow closely the form of those 
 preceding. Most children are interested in the garden making at home, and many 
 participate in the work. These follow the school work with greatest intelligence and 
 zest. Reports from all who do garden work at home, or who know of it there, 
 should be given freely in class, with such reasons for the processes as children can 
 understand. Next, the desirability of a school garden may be discussed. Usually 
 the activity is sufficient motive, and ' l taking things home ' ' a sufficiently desirable 
 outcome, to enlist hearty co-operation. Pupils and teachers together should plan 
 the place and size of the garden, the needful work in preparation, what, how, and 
 when to plant, care, etc. Some of the work, like first preparation of soil can best 
 be done by older pupils. Two or three outdoor lessons may suffice if the teacher's 
 time is limited, and for part of the work an older pupil may serve as guide with 
 profit to all. It is a saving of time, and will encourage a spirit of co-operation 
 if all the pupils of the school work in the garden at the same time. To do this 
 it is necessary that the work of each group should be so carefully planned before- 
 hand that no confusion results. If the school is large it may be separated into two 
 groups for outdoor work, the older pupils studying while the younger ones work, 
 and the younger ones having an extra playtime while the older group is at work. 
 
 As the weather grows warmer during May the younger pupils may frequently 
 be sent out upon independent excursions for brief periods. If careful limits are 
 set for them, and definite problems given, it is rare that such privileges are abused, 
 and usually much good results. 
 
 Preparatory to outdoor work, the children may tell of the home garden, where 
 it is, how the soil is prepared, what is planted, which seeds first whether in rows 
 or beds, and with reasons for so doing, simply given. They may bring seed catalogs 
 for descriptions of products, and perhaps the seeds for the tiny school garden can 
 be spared from the home supply. The course this month suggests four-o 'clocks, 
 balsams, gourds, and popcorn for planting. The uses and beauty of these plants 
 should be talked about and the best places for planting decided upon. (Gourds and 
 nasturtiums along walls or fences, corn where it will not hide smaller plants.) 
 Pictures are of value in the work at this time. Transplanting the nasturtiums will 
 recall the work of last month, and the advantages of indoor planting can be readily 
 appreciated. 
 
 WILD FLOWERS. The first spring flowers are always a source of interest 
 and joy to the children. The longer school sessions may be broken midway for 
 the little people by sending them out to see what wild flowers have appeared. 
 Bouquets of dandelions or violets may be brought in, pupils encouraged to note 
 where and how they grow, and taught to avoid the wanton and purposeless destruc- 
 tion of blossoms. 
 
 RAIN. One or more lessons upon rain may be given, when an appropriate 
 time comes. Why do we need rain? (Soft water for washing, cleans and cools air, 
 makes gardens grow, fills creeks and ponds, gives water to drink.) How does the 
 rain give us fun? (''Rivers" to sail boats, mud pies.) Why do we sometimes 
 not like rain? (Bad roads, muddy shoes, spoils gardens, clouds hide sun.) Where 
 does the rain go? (Soaks into ground, runs to creek, " dries up. ?> ) Learn poem, 
 fold umbrella. 
 
16 
 
 BIEDS. Several lessons need to be given to continue the interest in bird life. 
 The robin is perhaps most familiar, but the meadow lark and the flicker are very 
 common, easy to approach, and are so definitely marked as to be easily recognized 
 both by color and song. The children may go out and observe these for themselves, 
 if carefully directed by the teacher, and give their reports in class-time. Colored 
 pictures are useful in helping to remember. One child may hold a picture of a bird 
 and describe it, while others guess what it is. For description of common birds see 
 "Bird Descriptions" at the end of the seventh and eighth year lessons in this num- 
 ber. For the flicker and other woodpeckers see also pages 7 and 8 of leaflet Number 
 Two. 
 
 EOBIN. In studying the robin only such facts need be talked about as can 
 be observed, but these are many. How can we tell if a bird we see is a robin? 
 What have you seen a robin do? How long have they been here? Why did they 
 come back to us? What do they eat? How many songs, or calls, has the robin? 
 Facts regarding food, songs, nests, bathing, etc., can easily be learned by direct 
 observation, and should not be told by the teacher. Pictures of the robin may be 
 drawn and colored. Poems and songs may be learned. 
 
 TWENTY-LESSON PLAN. The following outline gives twenty lessons for 
 this month. The order must be decided by each teacher to suit her own conditions. 
 A. ten-minute period will secure many good results. Some of these lessons may be 
 given during seatwork periods, if the program is much crowded. 
 
 1. Eeports of home gardens. 
 
 2, 3, 4, 5. Plan and make school garden. 
 
 6, 7. Early wild flowers. Discussions. Gather. Draw and color. 
 
 8. Transplanting nasturtiums. 
 
 9. Eain. 
 
 10. Fold umbrella. 
 
 11. Birds. General talk. 
 
 12. Meadow lark. 
 
 13. Flicker. 
 
 14. 15, 16. Bobin. Introductory talk. Visit, Beport. 
 
 17. Picture lesson. Cut and color. 
 
 18. Poem. 
 
 19. Tree. Visit. 
 
 20. Story. 
 
17 
 
 LESSON PLANS FOR SECOND YEAR 
 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE SEPTEMBER. Discussion of summer experiences and activ- 
 ities. Conditions of gardens started in the spring. Special study of radish-root, 
 stem-s, flowers, seeck-pods, seeds. Compare with radish used for food in- the spring. 
 Save seeds. Study of pumpkin or squash plant habit of growth, leaves, flower, 
 fruit. Gather seeds of other garden plants and preserve for spring planting. Gather 
 popcorn and store. 
 
 Notice any insects that are seen in connection with garden or wild flower study. 
 What are they doing? 
 
 Devote the month chiefly to informal studies based on out-door observation. 
 Common autumn wild flowers; gather and arrange in bouquets; note windblown seeds 
 of goldenrod, aster, thistle, dandelion, etc.; make collection and chart of these 
 "fivers; " note how far the seeds travel in the wind; where they alight. 
 
 A few most common birds; what they are doing; the places they prefer; their 
 habits ; where they spend the night. 
 
 VACATION. Discuss informally the experiences of the summer. Where was 
 the vacation spent? Who went to picnics, who did some work about the home? 
 Who had a garden? Etc. 
 
 AUTUMN FLOWERS. Find the various wild flowers growing along road 
 sides and in the fields. Gather a few for bouquets. Study in a simple way some- 
 thing of the habits. Where these plants grow? How tall they are? Make a col- 
 lection of the wind-blown seeds as suggested in the outline. 
 
 GARDEN. Discuss the garden as suggested under lesson plans in September 
 of first year. Make a detailed study of a radish plant that has gone to seed. Com- 
 pare the root with the radish root that we eat in the spring. What do you think 
 has become of the soft, tender portion? Notice the color and beauty of the flowers. 
 Where are the pods? Open the pods to find the seeds. Put some of the seeds 
 in envelopes to save for spring planting. Make a special study of a popcorn plant. 
 Where the ears are borne. Gather and store some of the ears. 
 
 BIRDS. Study birds as suggested in first year 's work. 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR OCTOBER. TREES. Eeview trees studied in -first year. Add 
 two or three others. Which makes the best shade? Why? Collect autumn leaves, 
 press and make chart or border for room. 
 
 FEVIT TREES. Name those found in the neighborhood. Study, peach, pear, 
 cherry, and apple tree. How can you tell the trees apart when there is no fruit on 
 them? Bring in twigs and leaves of different kinds. WJiat shrubs bear fruit for 
 us? Gooseberry, raspberry, blackberry, currant. Identify these. 
 
 ANIMALS THAT WOEK FOE US. What each one does. Food of animals. 
 Find different kinds of grasses, clovers, grains. Make collection of these and pre- 
 serve to put in barn later in the year. Where are the different kinds of food stored? 
 Who feeds the animals? Birds a-s suggested for first year. 
 
 TREES. Follow the outline suggested in the first year for the study of trees. 
 Note the different colors of the autumn leaves. Does each kind of tree have a special 
 color ? Which ones are the brightest ? Have the children collect some of the prettiest 
 leaves, press them and make a chart by pasting them upon cardboard. A rery 
 pretty border for the room may be made from these leaves. 
 
 Fruit Trees. Discuss informally what trees bear fruit that we use for food. 
 Let each child tell what trees are found at his home. Which trees have fruit on 
 them now? Which ones ripen their fruit in the summer? Make a detailed study 
 of a peach similar to the apple study suggested in November of the second year. 
 
 Bring twigs of various kinds of fruit trees into the school room. Note the 
 
18 
 
 differences in the shape and color of leaves, and the color of the bark. Make a 
 similar study of the shrubs that bear fruit for us. 
 
 ANIMALS. Ask the children to name all the animals that work for us or help 
 us in any way. How does each help us? What do these animals eat? Who has ever 
 helped to feed the horses, or pigs or cows? Make a brief study of the different 
 kinds of food eaten by these animals. Make several collections of different kinds 
 of grasses from the pastures and meadows. Tie these up into very small bundles 
 and lay aside to use in the barn which is to be constructed in the winter months. 
 
 In a similar manner study and collect the grains eaten by animals. Make small 
 boxes out of paper and store small samples of each kind. 
 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OUTUNE FOE NOVEMBER. The apple, in connection with Thanksgiving. 
 Identify a few striking varieties, as russet, snow, greening, Jonathan; qualities of 
 each. Which keep best over winter? Significance of skin, core, pulp, seed. How did 
 the apple "start" on the tree? Problem to be solved next spring. Save seeds; label 
 kinds. How do "worms" get into apples? Decay; infection by contact. Storage. 
 Methods of preparing for eating. Make Thanksgiving pie. Dried apples. 
 
 Special study of the horse; uses, disposition, habits, fitness for service to man, 
 care. Kinds of horses (including ponies') on basis of use, as carriage horses, riding, 
 draft, racing horses. 
 
 (Eighteen lessons planned. Some possible combinations with language and 
 physiology are suggested.) 
 
 SUGGESTED SCHEDULE. The weather, and out-of-door conditions, three 
 lessons. The apple, five lessons. The horse, four lessons. Poems and stories, three 
 lessons. Health talks, three lessons. This schedule should be varied to suit the needs 
 and conditions of each particular school. 
 
 THE APPLE. Give a list of fruits which are gathered in the fall. Which of 
 these can be kept fresh for the longest time? How many kinds of apples do you 
 know? Bring as many kinds to school as you can. (Several kinds may easily be 
 identified.) We can tell the russet by its tough, brownish green skin; the snow 
 apple by its pinkish-red color, with a light green spot, and by its juicy, white pulp. 
 The greening has a green skin; it is used often for cooking. The Jonathan has a 
 deep, rich red color. Ask at home which kinds are being saved for winter use. Why ? 
 Which kinds taste best now? 
 
 Which part of the apple do we like best? What other parts are important? 
 Why? Cut an apple across, to see seed arrangement. How are the seeds protected? 
 Why? Save some seeds. Make an envelope in which to keep them. 
 
 What made the trees look pretty last spring? What becomes of the blossoms? 
 When can we watch to find out? Why do we not eat the apples when they are 
 small? What ripens the apples? 
 
 How can you distinguish an apple tree at this time of the year? Examine one 
 at home, carefully; tell us how it looks, and draw its picture. 
 
 What unpleasant things may happen to apples, while they are growing? How 
 do worms get into apples? (The moth lays the eggs on the outside. A worm 
 hatches, and eats his way into the apple.) What harm does he do? 
 
 How are apples kept for winter use? (Cool, dry place, no freezing. Experi- 
 ment, to learn effects of freezing, bruising, of keeping in the warm schoolroom.) 
 
 In what different forms do we eat apples? Eaw, baked, sauce, jelly, apple butter, 
 dried. Let pupils string and dry some. 
 
 The juice of apples is useful, when pressed out. When fresh, it is often used 
 to drink. When not fresh it is harmful. It is used in making vinegar. 
 
 THE WEATHER. This topic should be a part of each month's work. So, 
 also, should te the common out-of-door changes in nature, which are within the 
 children's comprehension; e. g., birds, trees, etc. 
 
 What month is this? What holiday occurs? How many days in November? 
 Let us count the sunny days. How are November days different from those of last 
 summer? What things out-of-doors are different? Tell how. What birds do we 
 see now? How do they take care of themselves? How may we help? (Scatter 
 
19 
 
 crumbs, or seeds, place food in trees, etc.) What changes have come to the trees? 
 Draw pictures of trees in summer, and in winter. What is beautiful about them, 
 at each season ? 
 
 THE HOESE. Name the barnyard animals. In how many ways is the horse 
 useful to us ? Why can they do the work we give them to do better than other 
 animals could? They are strong, gentle, agile, swift, willing. How are they taughr 
 to work for us? Discuss harnessing and breaking, the intelligence, docility, friend- 
 liness of the horse. 
 
 What daily care do horses need? (Water and food, regularly, bedding, brush- 
 ing.) What special care is needed at times? (Blanketing in cold weather, "rub- 
 bing down," shoeing, etc.) Try to watch a horse asleep. How does a horse get 
 up? Find out how much grain and hay different horses eat in a day. Does a horse 
 earn his food, and good care? 
 
 Watch horses that pass by, and those at home. What kinds of horses can best 
 haul heavy loads? What kind are best for running? For our carriages? Tell the 
 children, or let them tell, if they can, of the sturdy little Shetland ponies, the tough 
 pony of the Indians, the beautiful horses of the Arabs. Show pictures. Notice how 
 horses carry their heads. 
 
 HEALTH LESSOXS. Questions and suggestions as to good things for chil- 
 dren 's breakfast in winter. Eggs, milk, fruit, cooked breakfast foods with cream and 
 sugar. 
 
 Eating often between meals is harmful because it does not allow the stomach 
 to rest. If one 's breakfast is very early, he may have a lunch before the noon meal. 
 Eating slowly is more healthful and better manners. 
 
 Using a toothbrush keeps the teeth clean, helps prevent decay, makes a child 
 look much more attractive. How can a small child earn money for a toothbrush? 
 
 POEMS AXD STOE IE S. Talking in Their Sleep, Over the Elver and Through 
 the Wood, The Pumpkin, The Lark and Her Young are suggested as fitting in well 
 with this work. A Thanksgiving story should not be omitted. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR DECEMBER. Weather chart for December (see directions for 
 October, first year). The snowfall; forms of flakes; the story of tfa raindrop; 
 observation of clouds; snow as a covering for plants in winter and source of mois- 
 ture in spring. 
 
 Sky studies. Apparent path of sun and moon; changing length of day; moon's 
 changes; milky icay ; dipper; north star; Orion. Children report observations made 
 at home under guidance of parents. 
 
 Popping corn; why it pops. 
 
 (Eighteen lessons planned. The number of lessons to be devoted to each topic 
 is difficult to determine in advance. The teacher must make individual plans accord- 
 ing to particular conditions. The month's work is rich in material, and opportun- 
 ities for combinations with language and handwork are many. Time may thus be 
 planned to better advantage in all subjects.) 
 
 SUGGESTED SCHEDULE. Sky studies, seven lessons. Weather, calendar, and 
 snow, four or five lessons. Health lessons, two. Christmas stories, poems, handwork, 
 and decorations, five or six lessons. 
 
 SKY STUDIES. From observation. Describe the direction from us of the sun, 
 at its rising, at noon, at sunset. Go out of doors and trace its path by pointing, 
 and by accurate statements. What kind of days, as to length, have we now? That 
 is because the sun is with us so short a time and because it seems to travel in such 
 a low path through the sky. We must watch to see how long this will be true. 
 
 Beginning when the moon is new, give directions for watching it, then have 
 reports. Where, in the sky, did you see it? At what time? What was its shape? 
 Which way did the /'horns" point? Where was the sun on which side of the 
 moon? Why do you think it is called a "new" moon? Watch each evening, at 
 about the same time. Make a picture of the moon each time. See if it is in the 
 same place each evening. The moon shines because the sun throws light upon it. 
 
20 
 
 Does that seem strange? Try to think, or ask some one where the sun is when you 
 are looking at the moon. 
 
 When you are watching the moon look for a path of light across the sky. Ask 
 some one its name, when you have found it. Try to remember its direction, and tell 
 us next day. Notice if all the stars in this ' ' Milky Way ' ' are alike. 
 
 Look tonight for bright stars. People long ago gave names to certain groups 
 of stars. Try to find the Dipper without any help. Be ready to make a drawing 
 of it tomorrow, using the right number of stars. See if you can tell why it is also 
 called Great Bear. (The handle of the Dipper is the tail of the Bear.) Ask some- 
 one to help you find the North Star, after you have learned the Dipper. This star 
 is an important one to remember. 
 
 One of the brightest groups of stars in our sky is toward the south, in winter, 
 and is called Orion. There is a bright star above, another below, and three across, 
 midway between. Orion was a great hunter, and the middle stars are his belt. 
 Get some older person to help find him. 
 
 Interest will be added to this work, and more definite results secured, if some 
 written reports can be made. After the oral lesson, pupils may copy sentences like 
 the following, leaving blanks to be filled at home. 
 
 1. The sun set last night at o 'clock. 
 
 2. The moon was of me at o'clock. 
 
 3. The moon looked like this 
 
 4. I counted stars in the Dipper. 
 
 5. The North star was of me. 
 
 6. The direction of the Milky Way is from to 
 
 7. I saw stars in Orion's belt. 
 
 These papers may be used some day for a reading lesson. 
 
 THE WEATHEE, SNOW. Note out-of-door conditions as usual. When the 
 first snow falls, take a little time to watch it coming down. How does the sky 
 look? Where does snow come from? Tell class the story of a raindrop drawing 
 upon their knowledge and experience whenever possible. Catch some flakes upon 
 a dark cloth. Notice their shapes. How many points has each "star?" Count 
 many, to see if any differ in number. See if all are the same shape. 
 
 To cut a six-pointed star: Take a six-inch square of paper. Fold the back edge 
 to the front edge. Mark the center of the folded edge. Fold the back right corner 
 of the paper toward the left and downward past the middle; fold the back left 
 corner to the right and downward, covering the preceding fold exactly, thus making 
 three equal angles at the center point in the first folded edge. Crease. Fold the 
 resulting figure double by bringing the slanting edges together. Crease. 
 
 Next, hold the figure with the point toward you, the open edge at the right. 
 Place scissors on this open edge, one inch (or less) from the point, and make a 
 very slanting cut back to the straight edge at the left. Cut this resulting slant 
 edge into any fancy pattern. Unfold. 
 
 The teacher must work with class in making this. 
 
 What fun can we have with snow? Make cardboard sled. Can you make a 
 real one, at home? Of what other use is snow? (Makes roads smooth for sleigh- 
 ing, covers plants, furnishes moisture for soil.) 
 
 See if you find any tracks in the snow. Can you tell what animals made them? 
 
 What makes snowdrifts? Where do we find them? Watch snow on the trees. 
 Which hold most snow? Which are sometimes harmed by it? 
 
 HEALTH TALKS. Most children need frequent suggestions and help in cor- 
 rect behavior while eating. The teacher can add materially to the comfort and 
 happiness of the luncheon hour, by tactfully and sympathetically gaining the co- 
 operation of the pupils in making of it a pleasant social time, in which self-control 
 and courteous consideration go hand in hand with hygienic practice. This is also a 
 good season in which to learn that excessive use of candy is unhealthful, and that 
 the best time to eat candy is after one's meal. Much of this work can best 
 be accomplished during the noon-time, when luncheons are eaten. Some may be 
 done in more formal lessons. 
 
 THE CHEISTMAS SEASON. Poems and stories which may have a particular 
 appropriateness this month are : 
 
 While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks by Night. 
 
21 
 
 The Sun 's Travels, or Winter Time. Stevenson. 
 
 Christmas Story of the Wise Men. 
 
 Some popcorn brought to school for study makes a good lesson. It may be 
 popped and strung and used as Christmas decoration. Snowflake stars, cut and 
 colored, may be used likewise. 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE JAXUARY. Shelter for farm animals; barns, sheds, poultry 
 house, etc. Natural covering of the different animals. How wild animals spend the 
 winter; hibernation. Construct barn, poultry house, etc., and barnyard, a$ in case 
 of doll house in first year, and stock with foods collected in October. Make toy 
 animals of clay, or paper. 
 
 Our hands and arms. What they help us to do. Main parts of these members. 
 Care of hands, naite, skin. The feet and legs. How they are useful. Main parts. 
 Care. How to be strong. 
 
 SUGGESTED SCHEDULE. Shelter and construction, six or seven lessons. The 
 weather and out-door life, five lessons. Health talks, five lessons. 
 
 SHELTER. What are the ways in which we protect ourselves from cold? 
 What other beings about us need shelter? Which of these animals do we provide 
 for. How are horses and cattle sheltered from cold and storm? Tell how barns 
 are built, and arranged for horses and cattle. Tell about the mangers, floors, stalls, 
 etc. Why is a barn warm? How does fresh air enter? How may bad air escape? 
 
 What part of the time do horses and cattle spend indoors? How are they 
 protected when out-of-doors on bad days? On which side of a straw stack do they 
 like to stand? Why do they need protection more than bears do? 
 
 Tell how a hen-house differs from a barn. Why? Describe the perches, nests, 
 feeding-places. Discuss similarly the care of sheep and hogs, if time permits. 
 
 For what are the farm buildings used besides sheltering the animals? (The 
 animals are fed there. Food is stored in them.) Why? (Comfort and safety. 
 Prevents waste.) Xame the kinds of food, manner of storing and of feeding to 
 the various animals. 
 
 CONSTRUCT IOX. Any number of farm yard buildings may be made out of 
 small wooden or paste-board boxes, used as described in September, First year, for 
 the doll house. Pasteboard boxes of various shapes and sizes, are perhaps better 
 for a first attempt, as they are more easily handled. Partitions may be fastened 
 in with glue or with paper-fasteners, as the class arrange and plan for them. Pro- 
 vision should be made for storing hay, fodder and grain, and bits of each kind of 
 food should be put in proper places. The various animals may be cut from heavy 
 paper, or better made from clay. Toy animals brought from home add even more 
 interest. The tools and implements needed about a barn may be similarly provided. 
 A yard may be added, as to the doll 's house, if desired. 
 
 How are the barnyard animals given water in winter? Let different pupils 
 describe in detail. Add a toy windmill to the farm yard equipment. 
 
 Still further care is necessary the animals' shelter must be kept clean. How 
 is this done ? How does it benefit them. How does it benefit us ? 
 
 OUTDOOR LIFE. How do the wild animals that you know about spend the 
 winter? Make a list of birds and other animals that you see. What is their 
 food ? How do the rabbits, squirrels, mice, etc., live and keep warm ? 
 
 What has become of the frogs, toads and snakes? They are down in moist 
 earth away from frost, taking a long sleep, until spring comes. We call this 
 hibernating. Watch for the time when they come out. Why should they hibernate, 
 when rabbits and squirrels do not? (Think what their food is.) 
 
 THE WEATHER. Keep daily calendar on blackboard. How many sunny 
 days? How many days can you skate? Go sleighing? Play snowball? What sports 
 are best for this month ? Make pictures to show. 
 
 Watch the time of sunrise and sunset each day for a week. Keep the record 
 until next month, or longer. 
 
 HEALTH LESSOXS. Make a list of the kinds of work you can do. How 
 do your hands help? How do you use them at play? What can we do, because 
 
22 
 
 we have hands, that the animals cannot do? Try to feel how many bones in the 
 arm. How do they make it useful? Find the joints. Tell their use. Find the 
 joints in your hands. What if there were none? Try some day to see if you can 
 count them. 
 
 Feel the muscles of your arms. Why do you wish them to be strong? Good 
 food, fresh air, plenty of exercise at play, and helping at home make them strong. 
 
 Why do our hands need special care? Washing them clean, and drying them 
 thoroughly prevents them from becoming chapped and sore. 
 
 Think how useful one's finger nails are. They should be trimmed with scissors 
 or file, never torn or bitten. Biting them makes them very ugly, and one's fingers 
 are not so skillful. Diseases may be easily spread by the dust that crowds under 
 the finger nails. They should be cleaned carefully and often. 
 
 Think of the many ways in which the muscles and bones of the legs and feet 
 serve us. If we wish the feet to do their work well, and without pain, we must 
 wear comfortable shoes that have the shape of the foot. The feet need to be bathed 
 very often, because we walk in dusty or wet places, and because our thick shoes do 
 not allow the perspiration to escape. 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE FEBRUARY. Weather chart for the month. Learn cardinal 
 points. Special attention to direction of wind. 
 
 The dog ; habits, care, uses, kinds, wild relatives. 
 
 Use and care of eyes and ears. The voice. The sense of touch. 
 
 SUGGESTED SCHEDULE. The wind and the weather, five or six lessons. 
 Health lessons, five or six. The dog, five or six lessons. 
 
 THE WIND AND THE WEATHER. Go out of doors on a bright day, at 
 noon. Notice your shadow. It falls to the north. What direction is back of you? 
 At your right? At your left? The sun helps us to remember two of these directions; 
 what are they? Name familiar places north, south, east, and west of your home; 
 of school. Pupils should give these in full statements, and point as they tell. They 
 may also supply omissions in sentences like the following, then read them to the 
 class. 
 
 My home is of our school. 
 
 is east of my home. 
 
 If these four directions are very familiar, teach the semi-cardinal points. 
 
 Apply this knowledge to observation of the wind. Let each pupil keep a cal- 
 endar of his own this month, and record the direction of the wind each day by 
 using the appropriate word or abbreviations. Note also if the day is cold, cool, or 
 warm. At the close of the month, note carefully the wind-direction on cold days, 
 warm days, etc. 
 
 Keep also a record of the time of sunrise and sunset for a week. Compare 
 with last month's record. Save both for use later. How can you tell by your 
 work if the daylight time is longer ? (Supper before dark, more play-time before 
 dark, etc.) 
 
 HEALTH TALKS. The Eye. What are some things our eyes help us to do? 
 Try to do some easy thing when they are closed? (Blindfold a child; others put 
 objects in his hand for him to recognize.) What helps you when you do not see? 
 Can ears and hands take the place of eyes? How, then, should we treat our eyes? 
 (Keep them clean; read with light falling on book, and shaded from eyes, book 
 at proper distance from the eye ; do not read in fading light ; do not gaze directly 
 at the sun, even for fun; do not rub the eyes. If eyes are not strong, consult a 
 physician. ) 
 
 The Ear. What parts of the ear can we see? The outer ear helps to catch 
 sounds and send them into the opening in the side of the head. How should we 
 care for this outer part? (Keep it clean; never put anything into it, for any 
 reason; never strike a person upon the ear; do not make sudden loud noises close 
 to the ear.) 
 
 Inside the ear are wonderful tiny bones and tubes which help carry the sound 
 to the brain. Striking the ear may harm these, so that a person cannot hear well. 
 
23 
 
 See how far you can hear a watch tick, or a pin drop. If one cannot hear well, 
 it is much harder to learn. 
 
 The Vowe. Think how useful it is every day. In what ways do we use it? 
 Which of these are pleasant to hear?. What kind of tones do we use on the play- 
 ground? What kind give most pleasure at home or at school? 
 
 THE DOG. Who has a dog at home? Why do you keep him? Tell all the 
 different things your dogs do that are useful, or that give pleasure. How can one 
 teach a dog to go after the cattle, or to carry a package, or to perform a trick? 
 
 How do dogs show that they are our friends? How do dogs defend themselves? 
 What should we do if a dog seems cross? How can a dog show how he feels? 
 (Bark, growl, whine, leap up, wag his tail, etc.) Each tell a story to show a dog's 
 faithfulness, friendliness, or intelligence. 
 
 What care should we give to a dog? Clean place to sleep, coarse food, bones 
 to gnaw, water. When do dogs sleep? Why do they like to go into water? 
 
 Watch your dog when he eats. What can you learn about his teeth? How does 
 he drink? Can you tell a dog's track? How? 
 
 What kinds of dogs do you know about? Which are big and strong? Small, 
 playful? Friendly? Cross? Which can run swiftly: 
 
 Teacher may tell stories of the Eskimo dogs, the St. Bernards, or others. It 
 will be of interest to make a collection of pictures of dogs. 
 
 Story of The Dog and His Shadow, of Old Dog Tray, or of the Dog of Flanders, 
 will be appreciated by the class in this connection. 
 
 What wild animal is like the dog? How are wolves like dogs? How different? 
 
 MARCH 
 
 OUTLINE FOR MARCH. Discuss various changes in weather, in plants, and 
 in animals that indicate the approach of spring. Follow spring changes in soft 
 maple, willow, or other trees. Place twigs in water, and watch development of flower 
 and teaf buds. 
 
 Special study of a rainstorm. How rain comes down, what it does when it falls, 
 uses of rainwater. Simple story of a raindrop. 
 
 Continue observations of birds. Watch for the first robin, bluebird, blackbird, 
 and others. 
 
 Plant seeds of nasturtium, pan-sy, four -o'clock, radish, lettuce, and pumpkin in 
 window boxes. Pupils watch their growth and learn to care for them. 
 
 SUGGESTED SCHEDULE. The season, three lessons. Rainstorm, three 
 
 lessons. Birds, three or four lessons. Trees, three or four lessons. Garden, five 
 
 lessons. Each of these time-allotments may be extended by outdoor trips, written 
 work, poems and stories. 
 
 THE SEASOX. What things that grow out of doors show that spring is 
 coming? See how many signs of spring you can find. Do the barnyard animals 
 act as if they know spring is near? How do they show it? 
 
 Xame the months that we have called winter. What month is this? To what 
 season does it belong? In what ways can we tell that spring is beginning? (Longer 
 days, warmer weather, tiny bits of green in places, buds swelling, birds coming, 
 many changes in outdoor work, muddy roads, frost leaving earth, etc.) 
 
 Xote time of sunrise and sunset on various days in the month. Children may 
 ask older members of the family to help. Compare each of these with the others 
 and with the records of last month. Let pupils tell the results of the lengthening 
 days which they see. 
 
 Tell in a story, all the things which March brings us. 
 
 The lessons on this topic will be of greater value if not given consecutively. 
 
 A RAIXSTORM. Watch how the rain comes down. Think of all the places 
 where the rain falls, the fields, the roads, the ponds, the roofs, the walks. What 
 becomes of it? In what places does it soak in? What becomes of that which does 
 not soak in? How have you seen it running off? What does a rainstorm do to the 
 roads? What happens to creeks and ponds during a rainstorm? Why? 
 
 What becomes of the rain which falls on roofs? Why is some of it saved? 
 Tell all the ways in which we use rainwater. Why do we prefer it to other water? 
 
24 
 
 How does the water or rain reach the sky? There is always moisture in the 
 air about us. Did you ever put snow, or ice, or very cold water in a glass in a 
 warm room? W!hat happened to the glass? Where did the drops of water come 
 from ? See if you can prove that this is true. 
 
 Have you watched the spout of the teakettle when the water is boiling? What 
 comes out? Sometimes the teakettle "boils dry." What has become of the water? 
 Try this at home. What becomes of the water when the clothes are hung out to 
 dry? Water passes from ponds, creeks, and the ocean up into the air in the same 
 way. The sun and the wind help to take it, or dry it up, as we say. 
 
 When much of this steam or vapor rises high in the air we see clouds. Then 
 tiny particles of vapor may blow together, and grow cold, until they make drops 
 of water which are heavy enough to fall. Then we have rain. 
 
 Watch for any little pools of water on the walks or other places from which 
 you think the water dries up, or evaporates. 
 
 BIRDS. What birds may we look for that have not been with us all winter? 
 Which come first? (Bluebird, robin, songsparrow, meadow lark and blackbird will 
 probably be noticed first by the children.) 
 
 Where have the birds been all winter? Why have they returned? Where were 
 the birds when you saw them first? How did you know what they were? 
 
 Describe one of the birds that you saw, so that the class may guess what it 
 is. Do not tell its name. Tell its song, if you can. 
 
 What can the birds find to eat when they first come back? (Early insects.) 
 Where do they stay at night? (In sheltered nooks. They like evergreen trees. 
 Why?) 
 
 What harm may come to them now? How can we show that we are glad to 
 have them come? 
 
 Keep on the blackboard a list of birds, telling date on which they were seen, 
 where seen, and by whom. 
 
 Good colored pictures of birds are helpful in this work. A pupil may take a 
 picture, describe it accurately and carefully, and ask someone to guess the bird 's 
 name. This makes an interesting language lesson. 
 
 TREES. Name and locate trees of as many kinds as the pupils know. Elm, 
 maple, willow, cottonwood, oak and the fruit trees will probably be included in the 
 list. It is important to locate definitely the particular trees mentioned that the 
 teacher may be sure the pupils are talking intelligently about them. 
 
 Visit some of these trees. Choose one for special study. Note its height, the 
 shape and size of the top, direction of branches, etc. Note the picture it makes 
 against the sky. How does it differ in appearance from last summer? 
 
 Get a few twigs from the tree. Look carefully, then tell what you think may 
 happen. Put them in water, and watch them every day. 
 
 What happens to the buds? Notice where the buds are placed, what their 
 covering is, what grows from them. Are they all alike? 
 
 Keep them fresh by changing the water, and prevent their getting too warm. 
 
 What becomes of the bud scales? Watch the leaves unfold. What color are 
 they? Wfrat besides leaves grow from the buds? Which come first, leaves or flowers? 
 Watch carefully what becomes of the flowers. 
 
 Keep the twigs as long as possible. When the buds have developed get a few 
 more from the tree, and compare. 
 
 Draw and cut pictures of trees showing the early Spring aspect. 
 
 GARDEN. Before outdoor gardening is possible for the little ones their in- 
 terest may be aroused and given intelligent direction by indoor work. There is 
 perhaps no pleasanter way to begin than by making window gardens in the school- 
 room. The "eggshell" garden will probably be most attractive to the children. 
 It permits greater individuality in the work, and makes transplanting somewhat 
 safer, especially if the plants are taken home for that purpose. 
 
 The eggshell should have a hole pricked in the bottom for drainage, and then 
 be filled with soil. Two or three seeds should be planted in each shell, and care- 
 fully covered. The shells should be marked with the owner's name and the date, 
 then placed in a shallow box of sand for safe keeping. The seeds mentioned in 
 the outline are suitable for this work. 
 
 Where shall we keep the seeds now? What do they need? How can we take 
 
25 
 
 care of them ? These matters should be considered in class, and the responsibility 
 for good care should be left to the owners. 
 
 Pupils enjoy keeping a written record of this garden work, and can thus 
 practice several needed points in written forms. A record might read something 
 like this: 
 
 March 4, Monday. I planted three cabbage seeds in an eggshell. I put the 
 eggshell in a box of sand. 
 
 March 5, Tuesday. I watered my seeds. 
 
 March 6, Wednesday. I did not see anything. 
 
 March 7, Thursday. I did not see anything. 
 
 March 8, Friday. I gave the seeds more water. 
 
 March 9, Saturday. 
 
 March 10, Sunday. 
 
 March 11, Monday. I saw two sprouts. I gave them water. Etc. 
 
 In any of this work beginnings in written composition may be made by giving 
 the pupils a series of written questions, the answers to which form a connected 
 account of some subject of study. For example: 
 
 Where does the rain come from? 
 
 Why do we like rain? 
 
 What does rain do for plants? 
 
 What does rain do for animals? 
 
 The Language Course contains poems and stories which will add interest to 
 the nature study of the month. 
 
 APRIL AND MAY 
 
 OUTLINE FOR APRIL AXD MAY. Continue the study of weather, as before. 
 
 Study hen and chickens. Where do hens malce nests? Gathering eggs their 
 sizes and colors. Setting the hens. Caring for them. Chicks their food, care, 
 enemies. Make poultry house and yard. A comparative study of ducks, geese, and 
 turkeys with chicks if time permits. 
 
 Identify common wild flowers. Keep fresh bouquets at school. Plant wild 
 flower gardens at home and at school. 
 
 Begin to make plans for next fall's exhibit of flowers and vegetables. Advise 
 with pupils as to individual gardens at home. Seeds suggested for March planting 
 are good. Plant various kinds of gourds as screens for outbuildings and fences. 
 
 Make a trip to a pond to observe life in the water. Special study of frog's or 
 toad's eggs and tadpoles. Follow life history in aquarium in schoolroom. 
 
 Continue observations of birds and trees as in last month. 
 
 THE SEASON. Problems similar to those given last month may be continued, 
 and the varied out-door interests will suggest many more. A large number of 
 topics is suggested this month for use in schools which are in session during May, 
 and because we wish to put the children into active touch with the wealth of material 
 which the springtime affords. Xow the grass is growing, the leaves are out, the 
 birds are building and singing, the field work has begun, life is stirring, every- 
 where. Our calendar will scarcely afford room to record nor the day give us time 
 to discuss the riches of the season as they crowd upon us. The topics here suggested 
 are but a few of those which are easy of access and full of interest. 
 
 HEX AXD CHICKENS. A visit by the class to some poultry yard gives in- 
 terest, reality, and unity to this work, and is most desirable when it can be done. 
 
 Who of you have chickens at home? What kind are they? Tell how they look. 
 How do you care for them? 
 
 Where do the hens have their nests? Who gathers the eggs? Do you like to 
 do it? Why? Notice if the eggs are all the same size, and color. 
 
 What are some of the hens doing in the spring time? Where do they sit? 
 How many eggs are put in a nest? What must the hen do with them? What 
 does she do for food and drink? How long is it until the eggs hatch? 
 
 Describe the little chickens when they are first hatched. What is their food? 
 How do they drink ? How does the mother hen care for them ? How do people 
 usually help the hens that have chicks to care for? (Provide food and water, coops 
 for shelter.) What harm comes to chicks sometimes? (Storms, hawks, weasels, 
 skunks. ) 
 
26 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. If the barnyard construction suggested for January has 
 been preserved, a poultry yard and house may now be added. If not, it may be 
 made independently. A good-sized cardboard box of suitable shape may be used, 
 and perches with tiny boxes for nests may be made and placed in it. Small feed- 
 ing pens may be outlined, and floors covered with sand. Watering pans may be 
 made of clay. 
 
 Coops may be added by making small rectangular boxes of cardboard, leaving 
 one side open. Cut slits with a small sharp knife, opposite each other, along the 
 vertical sides of the opening. For slats cut narrow strips of cardboard and stick 
 through the slits across the opening. A triangular coop is even easier to make. 
 Fold an oblong of cardboard so that it will stand thus A. Cut slits opposite each 
 other, and stick narrow strips of cardboard through as before. The yard is now 
 ready for its occupants, which may be made from clay, cut from paper, or toy 
 chicks brought from home. 
 
 If time permits it will be very interesting at this point to study ducks, geese, 
 or turkeys in comparison with chickens. Pupils should report upon likenesses and 
 differences in habits, food, care, usefulness, etc. 
 
 WILD FLOWEES. The common wild flowers of the vicinity should be noted 
 in their natural surroundings. Violets, dandelions, etc., may be gathered for school 
 and home decoration, each kind making a bouquet by itself until pupils learn how 
 to make combinations that harmonize. Children should be taught to pick the flowers 
 with long stems, and to gather only as many as will be cared for, thus influencing 
 them against wanton destruction. 
 
 A source of great pleasure in many places where it has been tried is the mak- 
 ing of a wild flower garden. A few violets, hepaticas, bloodroots, trilliums, and 
 Dutchman's breeches brought from the woods and planted under a tree or in a 
 shady corner will amply repay with early blossoms the slight care they need and 
 will be a perennial joy to all. 
 
 GARDEN WOEK. The plants in the eggshell garden will now be ready for 
 transplanting. Whether they are put into a school garden or taken home depends 
 upon circumstances. The chief thing to secure is the children's intelligent interest 
 in the nurture of the plants. This can usually be attained best through the indi- 
 vidual garden at home, which is the result, in part at least, of interest and knowledge 
 stimulated at school. 
 
 Discuss the reasons for transplanting. What do the plants need, now that they 
 are growing so large? How can we provide more soil and room, and see that they 
 have water and sunlight 1 ? How shall the soil be prepared for the little plants? 
 What is the best time to move them? How shall they be put in their new places? 
 
 This month we should make plans for a garden exhibit in the fall. Pupils 
 should be encouraged to plant only a few vegetables or flowers; perhaps only one 
 kind, and make that as good as it can be. Tomatoes, cabbages, nasturtiums, four- 
 o 'clocks and asters are satisfactory plants for this purpose. 
 
 In class the teacher and pupils may examine pictures of these plants in cata- 
 logs, decide what each pupil will have, discuss how it is to be planted and cared 
 for. A written lesson will help impress the facts upon the memory, and a record 
 kept at school of the work each pupil does and of the progress of his plants will 
 sustain his interest and effort when the novelty of the work begins to lose its force. 
 
 An interest in maintaining the good appearance of the school premises may be 
 secured by planting gourds, wild cucumbers, or other similar vines along fences, 
 or as screens for outbuildings. This is so easy to do that the small pupils can 
 thus become helpers in the school family. They will enjoy the gourds in the fall. 
 
 POND LIFE. Make a visit to a pond and see how many live things you can 
 find. Watch for toads and frogs. Where have they been all winter? What are 
 they doing now? How many different things can you see them doing? 
 
 Some of the toads and frogs have laid eggs in the water. The eggs of the 
 toad look like long strings of black beads in a clear jelly-like substance; those of 
 the frog are in a mass, not a string, so it is easy to get the kind one wishes. 
 
 Some eggs can be kept in a low, wide, glass bowl partly filled with pond water. 
 They will hatch in a few days, and must be watched very closely or the changes 
 will escape even the sharpest eyes. Only a few should be kept as the tadpoles are 
 likely to starve if too many are in the bowl. Water plants and water from the 
 
27 
 
 pond should be used to supply food for the growing tadpoles as they subsist upon 
 the minute plant forms from the bottom of the pond. 
 
 Questions such as these should be answered as well as possible from obser- 
 vation : 
 
 How many days from the time the eggs were brought in until they hatched! 
 What is the shape of the tiny tadpole? What does it do? How does it eat? How 
 does it get the air? When do its legs appear? Which ones first? What happens 
 to its head ? What becomes of its tall ? Here again a written record is of much 
 value. It emphasizes the need to ' * be sure you are right, and then look again. ' ' 
 
 BIKDS AXD TKEES. The nest-building activities of the birds will attract 
 most attention from the children at this time. Quiet and patient watching of some 
 neighborly robin or flicker will be repaid by many unusual opportunities for close 
 acquaintance and friendship between the birds and the children. The building of 
 the nest, the feeding the young, and the teaching to fly can all be seen by a little 
 quiet effort. 
 
 Closer acquaintance with the trees comes with observance of leaf -forms. Leaves 
 may be drawn and colored, gathered for bouquets, and in various ways be identified 
 with the trees which were made familiar by earlier study. 
 
28 
 
 LESSONS FOR THIRD YEAR 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE SEPTEMBER. (Ten minutes daily; or, preferably, three 15 
 or 20 minute periods each week. Alternating with fourth year work.) The garden; 
 follow up spring work of school or home. Have each child make list of vegetables 
 grown in home garden. Special study of tomato plant; different kindte of tomatoes 
 brought from home; select the best and prepare seed for storage; note general habit 
 of plant; height; methods of supporting plants from ground. Uses of tomatoes in 
 the hom>e; how cooked; how kept for winter. 
 
 Climbing plants; morning glory, wild cucumber, sweet pea, gourds, woodbine, 
 bittersweet, etc. Identify as many as possible; study manner of clinging to supports. 
 Save seed for planting. 
 
 THE FALL ASPECT OF THE HOME AND THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 
 LESSON 1. This lesson should consist of an informal discussion of the garden. 
 Have the children recall what seeds were planted in the spring. Who of the children 
 have gardens of their own? Who have done any work in the home garden during 
 the summer? How many have grown both vegetables and flowers? Are any of the 
 flowers in bloom? Have any of them stopped blooming? If there are any flowers 
 and vegetables in the school garden, use those for special study. 
 
 Ask the children to look in the garden and flower beds at home and come to- 
 morrow ready to tell how many different kinds of vegetables and flowers they find 
 there. 
 
 LESSON 2. Ask the children to report on their observations made at home. 
 Let one of the children pass to the board and write the names of the different kinds 
 of vegetables and flowers reported. Then take up various ones for discussion. Which 
 of these plants are still green and fresh, and which ones are dry and dead? Which 
 may be stored for future use and which ones have been used earlier in the season? 
 
 LESSON 3. (For this lesson the teacher should have in class several different 
 kinds of garden and flower seeds, raised in the neighborhood.) Study different 
 methods of seed forming among the garden vegetables. Notice the flat pods of 
 the beans and peas. Open some of these to find the seeds and note how the seeds 
 are fastened to the pods. Will these pods break open if left on the vines? 
 
 Study the round pods of the radish and open up to find the seeds inside. How 
 do these differ from the pods of the beans and peas? Notice the flying seeds of 
 the lettuce. A few minutes may be given to discussing how these seeds may be 
 gathered and stored for use next spring. If there is a school garden gather and 
 store some seeds. 
 
 LESSON 4. Continue the discussion of the vegetables by having the children 
 report on the part of each used for food. Have them notice the fruit of the squash, 
 the pumpkin, and the tomato, the roots of parsnips, carrots, beets and sweet potato, 
 the tuber of the potato, the seeds of corn, beans, peas, and the leaves of lettuce, 
 cabbage and the stems of celery. A brief discussion of how some of these may be 
 stored for future use may be worth while. 
 
 THE TOMATO. LESSON 5. How many children have tomatoes in their home 
 garden? Do the plants stand up tall and straight, or do they trail upon the ground? 
 Has anyone fixed supports of some kind for the tomato plants? What is the 
 advantage of these supports? (They keep the vines from trailing upon the ground 
 so that the fruit may be held up in the sun and light.) Are there any flowers on 
 the vines, any green tomatoes, any ripe ones? Ask each child to bring at least one 
 tomato flower for study the next day. 
 
 LESSON 6. (The teacher should have in class a portion of a tomato plant 
 with some of the flowers and fruit in various stages of development.) Where are 
 the flowers? Does anyone know how early the first flower appears? (Sometimes 
 the plants begin to blossom the last of May or the first of June.) What is the 
 color of the flower? What part of the flower stays on to make the fruit which we 
 
29 
 
 eatf (This may easily be observed by looking at the tiny green tomatoes which are 
 just beginning to form. The children will see that it is the little knob-like part 
 in the center of the flower. If they wish to know the name, tell them it is the ovary, 
 the lowest part of the pistil.) Ask each child to bring one ripe tomato for the next 
 day's lesson. They may be told that the tomato is a good example of the kind of 
 fruit that we call a berry. 
 
 LESSON 7. (If the teacher can have in class two or three tomatoes of choice 
 varieties they will add to the interest of the lesson.) Have the children examine 
 the different tomatoes brought in and then decide whether or not all are the same 
 kind. Which ones are the finest looking, the smoothest, the best shape? Can we 
 tell just by looking at the outside of tomato whether or not it is the kind we 
 want to save for seed? What are the things we like to have in a tomato? (The 
 points may be brought out that we desire thick, juicy meat, of sweet flavor, and 
 very few seeds.) 
 
 Cut the tomatoes crosswise through the middle and compare different ones as to 
 the amount of meat and the number of seeds. "Where are the seeds? Are they 
 fastened to the pulp of the tomato? (If you are not sure of this, cut open a green 
 tomato, which will show how they are attached much better than a ripe one. If 
 the drawing is correlated with nature study, this cross section makes as excellent 
 object to sketch or paint.) 
 
 LESSOX 8. Let the children decide which of the tomatoes studied in Lesson 
 7 they prefer to save for seed. How shall we save the seed? How is it done at 
 home? Eemove the seeds with as little of the pulp as possible. Wash the pulp 
 out and spread the seeds on a piece of paper to dry. When dry place in an 
 envelope, label neatly, and put away for the winter. (This work may be done by 
 the pupils in a study period.) 
 
 LESSOX 9. Discuss the value and uses of tomatoesT^>Let one child write on 
 the board while others name all the different ways that tomato^are used for food. 
 They will probably name most of the following: stewed, stuffeo x and baked, fried, 
 cooked with corn, scalloped, sliced, and made into salads. How are they kept for 
 future use? Canned, preserved, and pickled. It may be worth while>p.ending a 
 short time telling the children of the canning industry. This will help them to 
 see how plants that are grown in their home garden mean the making of a living 
 to people in other localities. Perhaps some of the children have visited canning 
 factories. If so, they should be given the opportunity to tell what they have seen. 
 At least the children should know that in the vicinity of towns where canning 
 factories are located many people plant large tracts with tomatoes. These are 
 gathered and taken to the factories, where other people peel and can them. The 
 children will probably know that the cans used are made of tin. The cans are then 
 shipped to all parts of the country, where grocers sell them for people to use in 
 their homes. 
 
 CLIMBIXG PLAXTS. THE MORXIXG GLOKY. LESSOX 10. Ask the 
 children how many of them have morning glory vines at home. Where 'are they 
 growing? How high are they? How do they manage to grow so high? Look at 
 the vines to determine how they climb. (This should be an observation lesson either 
 at home or at school. The children will find that the morning glory vine climbs by 
 twining its stem around some support.) Do all the stems twine in the same direction? 
 What is the advantage to the plants of the climbing habit? Could the stems grow 
 as tall as they are and stand erect without also growing much thicker? 
 
 THE LEAVES. LESSOX 11. Are there many leaves on one stem? Where 
 are the leaves ? Do you find as many on the side of the stem next to the window or 
 the support as on the outside? Are they close enough together to make a good 
 screen? Is this a good vine to use to cover ugly buildings or fences? Is it a good 
 one to train over a window or a porch to keep the sunlight out ? Ask the children to 
 observe the vines at home to note the position of the flowers and to look at the 
 flowers in the evening and again in the morning. Ask the children to bring to class 
 a few flowers that have already opened and a few buds. What time of the year 
 does the morning glory begin to bloom? Have the children try to recall the first 
 time they saw the flowers this year. (Morning glories often begin to flower the 
 latter part of July.) Do they continue to flower all the rest of the summer? Do 
 
30 
 
 the flowers stay open all day? Did anyone ever arise early enough to see the flowers 
 open up in the morning? Why are they called morning glories? Does a flower 
 open more than once? (Leave this as a problem to be solved by observation. Mark 
 the flower by tying a string around the stem or in some other way, and then watch 
 to see if it opens more than once.) Examine one of the flower buds. Notice how 
 it is twisted up at the end. Compare this with the closed up flower. 
 
 LESSON 12. (Have in class some flowers that have just ceased blooming, 
 some that are two or three days old, some green seed pods and some that are almost 
 ripe. Have the children try to determine what part of the flower developed and 
 made the fruit or seed pod. What is the shape of the pod? Open it up to find how 
 many little apartments are in it. What is the color of the seed? Do the pods 
 break open and scatter the seeds? 
 
 (Morning glories sow their own seed, by the pods bursting and throwing the 
 seeds a short distance from the plant. The seeds lie in the ground all winter 
 and start to grow early in the spring.) Who knows the wild morning glory? This 
 is a very bad weed that is sometimes found in our cornfields, sometimes it almost 
 covers the wire fences around the fields. It blossoms in the summer, having a large 
 white flower similar in shape to that of the tame morning glory. 
 
 LESSON 13. Tell the children to look for other climbing plants about the 
 home and school. Which of these are planted each year, which ones live year 
 after year? How do these vines climb? If possible, study the sweet pea or the wild 
 cucumber to find the small tendrils which these vines use in climbing. Have the 
 children examine grape vines to see how they climb. Then have them make a 
 list of all vines they know that climb by twining and those that climb by tendrils. 
 They may find some that use both methods. Do they know some vines that live 
 from year to year? (Perhaps some may have the woodbine, wistaria, honeysuckle or 
 some other perennial vine at home. If so, spend some time identifying and study- 
 ing them.) Have the children decide which they like best of all the vines they 
 know. Which are good ones to plant in the school yard next year? 
 
 LESSONS 14-15. Make plans for the Harvest Home Festival. 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE OCTOBEE. Note seeds scattered by wind, by floating on water 
 (curly dock}, clinging to coats of animals (burs}, indigestible' seeds of edible fruits 
 scattered by birds and squirrels (berries, etc.). Make chart of various kind's of burs 
 ("stickers"); make chairs, etc., from burdock burs. Identify and observe habits of 
 social insects, bees, wasps, ants. Collect caterpillars and chrysalis or cocoon of vari- 
 ous forms and keep in schoolroom; discover food plant of caterpillars and study 
 feeding habits; note changes. 
 
 (Seventeen lessons planned.) 
 
 THE DISSEMINATION OF SEEDS. LESSON 1. Begin the lesson by call- 
 ing attention to the fact that everywhere plants are beginning to wither and die. 
 Are the garden plants as fresh as they were a month ago? Name some plants in 
 the garden that are no longer green. What have these plants done to get ready 
 to produce new plants next year? We gather the seeds from the garden plants and 
 save them to plant next spring. Do wild flowers and weeds make any preparation 
 for a new crop next year? What provisions have they made to scatter and plant 
 their seeds? Ask the children to bring to class tomorrow some seeds of weeds and 
 wild flowers. If possible, bring some milkweed pods. (The teacher should have a 
 collection of milkweed pods, thistle heads, dandelions, wild asters.) 
 
 THE MILKWEED. LESSON 2. (For this study the teacher should have an 
 entire milkweed plant, with as much of the underground portion as possible.) 
 Where do milkweeds grow? (Let the children name all the places in which they have 
 seen these plants growing.) Why are they called milkweeds? (No doubt every 
 child has seen the milky juice that has poured from the plant wherever it is broken.) 
 Have the children ever seen animals eat the milkweed? (The milky juice is bitter 
 and distasteful to most animals, hence they leave it alone.) Notice the leaves of 
 the plant. Are there many or few? Are they still green or have they stopped 
 
31 
 
 their work? Where are the pods? Are they arranged singly or in clusters? Who 
 has ever seen a milkweed flower? (This plant has a dense cluster of greenish 
 lavender flowers. It blossoms during July and August.) 
 
 LESSOX 3. Carefully open one of the closed pods. How are the seeds ar- 
 ranged? What is the color of the seeds? What is attached to one end? Take out 
 a few of the seeds and notice how the soft, silky portion spreads out. What is the 
 use of this feathery part ? Throw a seed upward, and notice how the umbrella or 
 parachute carries the seed along through the air. Watch the seed alight. Which 
 conies down first, the seed or the parachute? Is the seed attached firmly to the 
 parachute? Strike it gently to see if it will drop off. (Sometimes the seed as it 
 floats along strikes some object and drops, leaving the parachute floating onward. 
 Sometimes the seed flies far away and the parachute and the seed settle down 
 together. It is in this way the milkweed seeds are planted. Sometimes the seed 
 travels many miles from the parent plant before it settles down to produce a new 
 plant next year.) 
 
 LESSOX 4. How many seeds in one pod? (The children may count the seeds 
 in several pods to see if they vary. Look at the inside of the pod after all the 
 seeds are out and note how velvety and smooth it is. Do the milkweed plants 
 die in the fall, or do they live allVinter? (To help solve this problem examine 
 the portion of the plant that was in the ground and find the rather thick root and 
 root stock. Milkweeds live ou year after year. The stem and leaves die, but the 
 part that is in the ground lives over winter. In the spring it sends up new stems, 
 blossoms, and bears seeds another year. So you see the milkweed has two ways of 
 starting new plants every year.) 
 
 LESSOX 5. Ask the children to bring in other specimens of fly-away seeds. 
 (Among these they will find the dandelion head, the thistle, golden rod and wild 
 asters.) Look at the fluffy dandelion ball. How are the seeds fastened to the 
 rounded stem ? Xotice the long, thin stem of the parachute fastened to the small, 
 hard seeds. Watch how the seeds sail away, high up in the air. Are there many 
 dandelion seeds on one plant? Can you see why so many dandelions grow up in 
 the yards and pastures each year ? 
 
 Xow look at the thistle head. How many of the children know the flower of 
 the thistle? How many have ever seen bumble bees feeding on the purple flowers? 
 Have any seen the wild canaries or goldfinches feeding upon the seeds of the 
 thistle? (The goldfinch is very fond of thistle heads, and because of this it is 
 sometimes called the thistle bird.) Have the children pull the head apart to find 
 how the seeds are fastened to the parachutes. In the same way examine the other 
 lly-aAvay seeds. 
 
 LESSOX" 6. Start a chart of seed fliers. Procure a sheet of stiff cardboard 
 and arrange five or six seeds of each plant in a group. Stick these to the cardboard 
 with common mucilage or library paste. This may be done either in class or at 
 a study period. 
 
 LESSOX^ 7. Ask the children to think of some seeds that fly away by other 
 means than by parachutes. Recall the maple seeds studied in the spring. These 
 seeds fly with wings that carry them away from the parent plant. Make a collec- 
 tion of winged seeds for the chart and spend one day in studying them and finding 
 out how they fly. Among these they will find the box elder, ash, catalpa and hard 
 maple. 
 
 THE BURDOCK. LESSOX' 8. Some plants have other ways of distributing 
 their seeds. Can you think of some that take hold of your clothing or the fur of ani- 
 mals and are carried into new fields? How many know the burdock? Where does it 
 like to grow? (It is found in vacant lots, by the roadside, among the shrubbery and 
 sometimes in pastures.) Ask the children to bring some of the burs for the next 
 day's lesson. Tell them to notice how tall and straight the plant grows, whether it 
 has large or small leaves, and whether there are any flowers still left on the stems? 
 
 LESSOX' 9. (The teacher should have in class some of the large burdock leaves 
 and a stem, with small leaves and the burs.) Have the children report on the obser- 
 vation made outside of school. Did anyone find plants with large leaves growing 
 close to the ground? Did these plants have stems with burs onf (These plants grew 
 
32 
 
 from seeds last spring. They will send up tall stems and have flowers and burs 
 next year. Burdocks live two years before they have seeds, hence they are called 
 biennials.) Count the number of burs on one branch. Look at one of the burs and 
 determine what enables it to hold fast to your clothing. Are these hooks on all 
 
 sides ? 
 
 LESSON 10. Where are the seeds of the burdock? Look down into the center 
 of the bur and find the seeds nestling down in the middle. Remove and count the 
 seeds found in two or three burs. Do you think all of the seeds are likely to fall 
 out of the bur at one time? (They do not. When you carry a bur on your clothing 
 one seed after another falls out, so you are really sowing the seeds as you walk 
 along.) 
 
 LESSON 11. How can we get rid of burdocks? Will the plant die if you cut 
 the root oif below the surface of the ground? Here are some interesting experiments 
 worth trying: Cut one plant off just below the surface of the ground. Cut another 
 two inches below the surface. Cut the upper part from another and pour kerosene 
 on the root. On another place a little muriatic acid, and on yet another place some 
 salt. (If possible, let the children start these experiments at home, marking the 
 various ones, so that they may be identified and later report on results. Let the 
 children think of other ways to prevent new plants of burdock coming into their 
 gardens. Among these should be mentioned the fact that the plants should never 
 be allowed to go to seed. When they begin to flower, the stems should be cut down 
 and burned. 
 
 LESSON 12. Have the children bring in other seed stickers. (Among these 
 they will find the cockle bur, Spanish needles, beggars' lice, and wild carrot.) Make 
 a study of each of these, having the children determine how these seeds manage to 
 catch a ride and travel far away from the parent plant. 
 
 LESSON 13. Make a chart of seed stickers on cardboard similar to that of 
 the fly-aways. These seeds may be arranged in very pretty designs on the cardboard. 
 The children may also make out of both burdock and cockle burs very interesting 
 baskets with handles, armchairs, and even tables, sticking the burs together with 
 their hooks. 
 
 SEEDS THAT FLOAT. LESSON 14. We have found that some seeds are 
 carried out into the world by the wind and others carried by animals and people. Can 
 you think of other ways in which the seeds may travel? A few seeds that you know 
 float upon water. If the milkweed seed happens to alight in a stream of water it 
 does not sink, but floats away on the top. Look at one of the brown seeds and find 
 the thin part around the seed that enables it to float. Do you know the seeds of the 
 curly dock? You will find them in great brown bunches at the top of the dock stem. 
 Place some of these seeds in a pan of water and watch to see what they do. These 
 are very good swimmers and may be carried long distances from the parent plant by 
 little streams of water. 
 
 LESSON 15. There is still another kind of seed traveler that you will be 
 interested to know. How many of you know the pig-weed that grows so abundantly 
 in the gardens? Bring in a few of these weeds and have the children find the tiny 
 black seeds. Some of the pig weeds grow tall and straight, some creep along on the 
 ground, while others spread out like a great round ball. The round ones break off 
 close to the ground and the wind rolls them over and over, and they scatter the 
 seeds as they roll along. 
 
 Ask the children to look for tickle or Old Witch grass, that tumbles along in 
 the same fashion. Sometimes on a windy day the wind catches these up from the 
 ground and they float long distances and collect in great brown piles in the corners 
 of the hedges and fences. Have the children bring a few of these to the class and 
 examine them to find the tiny seeds that are scattered as the plant tumbles over the 
 field. 
 
 WOOLLY BEARS. LESSON 16. This is a good month to find out how some of 
 the insects get ready for winter. Ask the children to watch for caterpillars and bring 
 them to school. How many know the woolly bears? (They are the common caterpil- 
 lars with long, light tan or cinnamon brown hairs.) Place a few of these in a paste- 
 board box and feed them. They are fond of the leaves of sweet clover, smart weed 
 
33 
 
 and beets. See if the children can find how many feet these caterpillars have. What 
 is the color of the head? How does the caterpillar eat? (While the children may 
 not be able to catch the insects in the act of eating, by looking at the leaves they 
 will be able to determine that they have biting mouths.) 
 
 LESSON 17. Some of the coolly bears will spin cocoons in the box. Perhaps 
 the children may find out how the spinning is done. (The caterpillars spin a very 
 loose covering of silk \\ith their mouth, and then complete the cocoon by shedding 
 the long hairs from their body. After the caterpillars have spun their cocoons, care- 
 fully cut open one of them to find what is on the inside. (Instead of the caterpillar 
 you will find an object which we call the pupa.) What is the color of the pupa? 
 Is it longer or shorter than the caterpillar? Can it move about or eat 1 ? How does 
 it show that it is alive? (It will probably wriggle the back part of the body just 
 a little when it is disturbed. The pupa will sleep all winter inside of the cocoon. 
 In the spring it will change into a pretty whito moth. Put the boxes away where they 
 may be kept safely until spring, so that the children will have an opportunity to 
 study the moths when they emerge.) 
 
 If the children become interested in caterpillars, they will bring in a number 
 of different kinds. Among these will probably be found the Tiger Isabella. This 
 is the common black and brown caterpillar. This one will not spin a cocoon and 
 the children may be interested to know that it spends the winter in the caterpillar 
 form. It creeps into some crack or crevice, under sticks or boards, or leaves, and 
 sleeps during the winter months. Early in the spring it spins the cocoon and changes 
 into a moth in a short time. 
 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR NOVEMBER. Special study of nut trees, including oaks, if 
 possible organize a nutting parti) ; collection of nuts. Plant some in a box of sand 
 out of doors. What animals eat nuts: 1 Prices of different kino's at store. Different 
 mays in vhich nuts are used as food. Crush a nut on a piece of paper and note oil 
 spot, like butter spot. Make collection of nuts. 
 
 Av.lumn activities of farm, orchcrrd and garden, how products are exchanged. 
 How taken to market. 
 
 Children construct out of paste board and sand tables, a farm house, all other 
 farm buildings and surroundings. Some of the class may make the house, others the 
 barn, still others the poultry house, etc. 
 
 LESSON PLANS NUT TREES. The purpose of the study of nut trees is 
 to help the children appreciate more keenly the life and work of trees in general and 
 the special value of nut trees both for ornamentation and for food. Begin the work 
 by having the children name all the nut trees they know. Who has ever been nut- 
 ting? What kind of nuts did you find? Let the children tell their experiences as 
 an oral lesson in language. 
 
 Choo.se one or two nut trees in the district for special observation. In many 
 districts the walnut is abundant and this is a good type for study. Ask the children 
 to observe the tree and report. Is the trunk straight? Is the bark rough or smooth? 
 Are the furrows deep or shallow? Are rhey far apart or close together? Follow one 
 along some distance to see whether or not it meets another furrow. Do you think 
 you could draw the bark pattern of this tree? How far are the first branches from, 
 the ground? Are the branches large? Are they the same color as the trunk? Are 
 there many small branches? Where are they most numerous? 
 
 Bring in a few twigs for indoor observation. Have the children look for all 
 the things that are to be found on a twig. (They will find tiny buds for next 
 spring, leaf scars, and rings showing the year's growth.) Discuss the kind of leaves 
 that the walnut tree has. If the children do not know, try to find some of the dry 
 ieaves under the trees and bring these for observation. Did you ever see any of 
 the flowers of the walnut? We shall watch for these next spring. 
 
 Y\"hat is the use of walnut trees? The children should know at least that the 
 wood is hard and strong and a pretty dark brown in color. It takes a good polish 
 easily, which means that it is a good kind of wood to use for furniture. Years ago 
 it was used largely for furniture. Perhaps some of the children may be able to tell 
 of some ol:l walnut tables or dressers that their mothers have at home. Walnut trees 
 
34 
 
 have become so scarce that the wood is now very expensive and so people care more 
 about it in these days than they did years ago. Walnut is also good for fence posts. 
 Some farmers have walnut groves upon their farms which they allow to grow for 
 twelve or fifteen years and then use the trees for posts. 
 
 Where do you find nuts on the walnut tree? Do they remain hanging on the 
 twigs late in the fall or do they drop to the ground? Describe a walnut. What 
 is the color and thickness of the outside covering? How is this covering removed? 
 Did you ever stain your fingers in taking the hull from a walnut? Crack a few nuts 
 to find the kernel. This is the real seed that will grow and produce a new walnut 
 tree. 
 
 If there are any butternuts or white walnuts in the neighborhood make a com- 
 parative study of the butternuts and walnuts. 
 
 Let the children name all of the other nut trees that they know. Select two 
 or three for special study. Among the most interesting are the hickory and the 
 oaks. Follow the outline suggested for the walnut in the study of these trees. A 
 collection of various kinds of nuts and acorns will be found interesting and valuable. 
 Plant some of the nuts in boxes or on the school grounds. Do not cover them deeply. 
 Just a little layer of soil on top. Why is it necessary to plant the nuts in the fall? 
 The children may know that because of the hard shells all nuts must be frozen 
 before they can germinate. 
 
 AUTUMN ACTIVITIES. Spend at least two lessons on an informal discussion 
 of autumn activities. What work are the farmers doing now? What crops have 
 already been harvested? Are any left unharvested? What are the farmers doing 
 with the corn that they are gathering? How is it stored? How is it unloaded into 
 the crib? Who has gathered apples this fall? Where and how have they been 
 stored for winter use? What garden products are still left in the garden? Make a 
 list of all the products of the neighborhood that have been marketed. How have 
 they been taken to market? Who knows what is done with them in the town? What 
 people are dependent on the farmers for food? What things do the farmers get 
 in town that the farm does not produce for them. 
 
 Spend some time in having the children construct the house as suggested in the 
 outline. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE DECEMBEE. Uses of the fire about the home, methods of 
 heating, cooking. Use of wood, coal, gas, oil, electricity ; source of each; dangers. 
 Simple experiments to show how wood burns, coal. 
 
 The stove, all the parts, the draft differences in weight of cold air and warm 
 air; dampers; chimney; experiments to detect air currents near window, door, over 
 stove or register. Invert chalk box or cardboard box, cut small hole in bottom near 
 each end and place candle under one hole and with smoking match or paper discover 
 ait current into the other hole. 
 
 The thermometer; how it works; different hinds mercury and alcohol; its uses, 
 learn to read it, room temperature and freezing point. Bead thermometer in differ- 
 ent positions in the school room near the heat supply, farthest from it, near the win- 
 dow, on the door, near the ceiling, in the outer hall, etc. Daily records of outdoor tem- 
 perature for two or three weeks. Difference in sunshine and shade, morning and noon. 
 Temperature of the body. 
 
 Physiology. Why we need fresh, air in our liomes and at school. What makes 
 air impure?' How can we get and keep fresh air in our school room? In our sleep- 
 ing rooms? 
 
 LESSON PLANS USES OF FIBE, ETC. Discuss the different uses of fire 
 about the home and school. Name the different kinds of fuel used in cook stoves, 
 in heating stoves, in furnaces. Make a comparative study of the different kinds of 
 fuels, especially of the different kinds of coal. Can you name some kinds of fuel 
 that are not used in your neighborhood? Why is wood not burned as much as it 
 was years ago? 
 
 Name the parts of a cook stove. What is the draft in front for? Do you 
 leave this open or closed when you wish fire to burn brightly? Where is the damper? 
 Do you put it up or down when you wish a strong fire? If the draft is open below 
 and the damper down, why does the fire roar up the chimney? (It is enough here 
 
35 
 
 for the children to know that when air is warm it spreads out and becomes lighter 
 than when it is cold. The air in the chimney is warm and light and the air on the 
 outside of the stove is cold and heavy, hence it rushes in thru the draft and pushes 
 the warm air upward in the chimney.) 
 
 Do you know how the oven is heated? Ask your mother about this and why it 
 is that she keeps the damper up when she wishes to heat the oven. 
 
 If you should shut out all of the air from a stove will the fire burn? Name 
 some of the other uses of air in the house besides this one. (Lamps need air in 
 order that they may give us light, and we need air in order that we may live and 
 do our work.) When the air has been breathed into our lungs and then breathed 
 out again it is not good for us, neither will it make a fire burn brightly. Why do 
 we need, then, to have our school room and our rooms at home arranged so that we 
 may always get a supply of fresh air? 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE JANUAEY. Physiology, How we should breathe. What 
 prevents good breathing? What happens when we breathe? What do you see in 
 your breath on a cold 1 morning? Effect of breathing upon the air. Why we take 
 cold. Simple idea of germs. Danger of breathing dust. What are all the sources 
 of dirt in mir homes, in the schoolroom, on our clothes? How do we try to get rid 
 of dirt, sweeping, dusting, scrubbing, washing, etc. Proper methods of sweeping, 
 dusting, damp broom and cloth or oil on cloth:. Vacuum cleaner. 
 
 LESSON PLANS. By simple experiments help the children to find out what 
 movements take place in their bodies when they breathe. Place the hands on the 
 chest and take a deep breath. Notice how the breast bone moves outward. Place 
 the hands on the side, breathe deeply and note the outward movement of the ribs. 
 Watch some one else as he breathes and notice how the shoulders are lifted upward. 
 Where does the air that you breathe enter the body? Discuss proper methods of 
 breathing. Why it is more hygienic to breathe thru the nostrils than thru the mouth. 
 Study the breathing organs in your physiology. Discuss thoroly what we mean by 
 pure air. The children should get the notion that pure air means plenty of oxygen 
 and air that is free from all kinds of dust. They should realize that dust of various 
 kinds is likely to carry with it disease germs that may enter our bodies thru the 
 breathing organs. 
 
 Name all the ways in which dust may get into the air. Discuss the methods of 
 getting rid of dust. The best methods of sweeping and cleaning. 
 
 Eefer to the books on physiology for the other topics suggested in the outline. 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE FEBEUAEY. Review all previous ivork with reference to the 
 senses. How we can do good work. How rest the nerves and brain. How exercise? 
 The effect of alcohol and tobacco upon the brain and nerves. 
 
 Winter birds. Observe food habits of any birds found in the neighborhood. 
 Place beef suet or long bones with a little meat in trees and watch the birds that 
 feed there. 
 
 Special Study of English Sparrow. Where it stays, feeding, roosting, nesting, 
 disposition. Why we do not like the English sparrow as well as our native sparrows. 
 Study of feathers as a body covering. Use chicken feathers, find parts of a feather, 
 different kinds, how they grow, etc.\ Special study of pigeon. 
 
 Physiology. First aid to the injured., Bruises, cuts, sprains, etc. 
 
 LESSON PLANS. Eefer to the books on physiology for the topics suggested 
 in connection with the senses. 
 
 WINT'EE BIEDS. Encourage the children to keep a watch for birds during 
 the winter months. There are a number of birds that come to us from the far 
 north to spend the winter. There are others that stay with us during the winter. 
 Many of these may be attracted to the school ground or about the homes by placing 
 food for them in the yards. Procure a piece of beef suet, wrap strong twine around 
 it many times and fasten it up in the fork of a tree or suspend it from a branch. 
 
36 
 
 Chick-a-dees, nut hatches, downy and hairy woodpeckers, and blue jays will probably 
 come to this feeding place during the cold weather. If the English sparrow is 
 abundant in the neighborhood have the children make a special observation of this 
 bird. What it eats. Where it stays at night. Whether it is ever found carrying 
 material for nests during the winter months. State some reasons why we do not 
 like the English sparrow as well as our native birds. 
 
 F1EST AID TO THE INJUEED. Discuss the various ways in which accidents 
 are likely to occur to children. From some good physiology find out how to treat 
 a cut, a burn, or a sprain, how to make a bandage and put it on, and various 
 other things that should be done when one has met with an accident. The teacher 
 should realize that the only way to make this work of value to the children is to 
 practice doing these things. A part of the physiology time should be taken for 
 actual practice in dressing cuts, in knowing how to carry a wounded person, in 
 making and applying a bandage, etc. 
 
 MARCH 
 
 MAECH. Simple experiments with seeds and seedlings, using peas, corn, and 
 pumpkin; grow between blotters or cloth, and in sawdust, Conditions of growth; 
 vary the moisture, light, temperature, etc.; from sprouted peas remove a# much as 
 possible of the food supply (cotyledons) and compare ivith similar seedlings not so 
 treated. Distinguish root, shoot, food supply, seed coat. Plant sweet peas, sun- 
 flowers, tomatoes, at home and school. Eaise tomato plants to take home. 
 
 Special study of woodpeckers; if possible identify the five common species; 
 characteristics common to each; value to man. Other birds which search the tree 
 framework for insects, brown creeper and nut catch. 
 
 SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. LESSON 1. Begin the work with a short in- 
 formal discussion of the duties and pleasures that come with April. What special 
 work is done at home, in the house, in the yard? In the garden? In the fields? 
 What new games are played at school? 
 
 Among other things the planting of seeds will be mentioned. Have children 
 name all the seeds that we plant in April (radish, lettuce, peas, beets, oats, 
 spring wheat, etc.) Can you think why we do not plant such seeds as corn, beans, and 
 cucumbers this month? Some seeds like a warm seed bed. If we plant these before 
 the soil has become warm in the spring they are likely to rot instead of grow. 
 Besides, if they should grow, the little plants are not hardy enough to stand the 
 frosty nights that April often brings. Ask each child to bring from home two or 
 three seeds of various kinds that may be planted in April. An interesting chart 
 may be arranged in this connection. Have the children stick the seeds in groups 
 of two or three on a piece of cardboard and label neatly. Ordinary mucilage may 
 be used for this. This may be done as seat work. 
 
 LESSON 2. In preparation for the second lesson place a number of peas 
 in water and allow them to stand for at least twenty-four hours. Each child should 
 have a soaked pea and a dry one. Compare the two. How do they differ? What 
 do you think has caused the change? (The pea has absorbed some of the water 
 and has become swollen.) Would it do the same thing if it were placed in moist 
 soil? Try it. 
 
 Eemove the covering from the soaked seed. This is called the seed-coat. How 
 many parts can you now see in the seed? The two thick chunky pieces are called 
 cotyledons. Find the tiny body that holds the cotyledons together. Let us try 
 some experiments in order to find out just what all these parts of the seed are. 
 
 Put some good soil into a tin can or flower pot. If you use a tin can, be sure 
 to punch a hole in the bottom for drainage. Plant five peas and keep well-watered. 
 Place two soaked seeds on some moist blotting paper or a damp cloth. From two 
 other soaked seeds cut away as much of the cotyledons as you can without injuring 
 the tiny body that holds them together. Place these beside the others. Now watch 
 them carefully from day to day to see whether they all sprout and grow. 
 
 LESSON 3. If we plant peas or other seeds in the garden we expect them to 
 sprout and grow. Let us try to find out what conditions are necessary in order that 
 they may do their work. 
 
37 
 
 Experiment 1. Place two or three. soaked seeds on some moist cloth or paper 
 in a cup. Place the same number on dry paper in another cup. In another entirely 
 cover the seeds with water. Set the three c:..ps side by side in the room. 
 
 Experiment 2. Place three or four seeds on moist paper in a cup and keep the 
 cup in a warm place. Place three or four others in another cup and keep in the 
 coolest place you know. 
 
 LESSON 4. Do you know any seeds that we plant in the house, and later 
 transplant the plants to the garden? Among them are tomatoes. Why do we not 
 plant the tomato seeds out of doors this month? (Tomato plants are very tender. 
 A slight frost would be sure to kill them.) Why then do we not wait until May 
 and plant the seeds out of doors as we do the beans and corn? There is a good 
 reason for this, too. We should have to wait until the latter part of the summer 
 or early fall to get any tomatoes to eat. So if we want tomatoes in the summer 
 we must start the plant indoors now. 
 
 If the teacher can get a few packages of choice tomato seeds so that each child 
 in the class may have at least two plants to take home to transplant and care for, 
 it will add greatly to the interest of the work. 
 
 Let the children help to decide what they will need in order to raise some tomato 
 plants at school. (They will need a small box. Perhaps some child can provide this, 
 some good soil, and the seeds.) 
 
 LESSOX 5. Put the soil into the box and sow the seeds, covering them lightly 
 with less than half an inch of soil. Watch for the first appearance of the plants. 
 How long did it take the seeds to sprout? Compare with sweet pea in this respect. 
 How many leaves has the little plant ? Watch to see where the second pair of leaves 
 appear. Are these leaves the same shape as the first ones? 
 
 LESSOX 6. A lesson on sweet peas may well follow the lesson on the common 
 pea. How many of the children plant sweet peas at home? How many would like 
 to plant some? Encourage the children to send for penny packages of seeds for 
 their home gardens. If there is room a short row may be planted on the school 
 grounds. 
 
 These plants do well anywhere in rich mellow soil, and in plenty of sunshine. 
 They may be planted along a fence or close to a building, or out in the open gar- 
 den. We must make a drill at least six inches deep, just as early as the soil is 
 fit to work ; the earlier the better. Sow the seeds in the trench and cover with about 
 two inches of soil. When the plants have grown about two or three inches in height, 
 fill the trench almost to the top with soil leaving a slight depression to catch water. 
 After the soil is thoroughly soaked, fill to the top with loose soil, or place a layer 
 of straw on the top to hold the moisture. 
 
 LESSOX 7. It is now time to find out what our experiments have to teach us. 
 
 Experiment 1. Which of the seeds have sprouted and grown best? What is 
 your conclusion as to the effects of moisture upon the germination of seeds? The 
 seeds that were covered with water did not grow because the water shut out all the 
 air. Seeds need air in order to live just as much as animals do. 
 
 LESSOX 8. Compare the seeds that were, put in a cold place with the ones 
 that were kept warm. Is there any difference in the size of the sprouts? Which 
 favors sprouting, warmth or cold? Xow we know of at least three conditions 
 necessary for the germination of seeds. What are they? (Warmth, moisture, and 
 air.) 
 
 LESSOX 9. Examine some seeds that have sprouted well. Can you find the 
 root? From what part of the Sed did it grow? Can you find the shoot; that is, the 
 stem with the tiny green leaves on it ? Are the thick cotyledons still fastened to the 
 root and shoot? Look at the seeds from which you cut Vne cotyledons. Have they 
 grown as well as the others? Can you think why? (The cotyledons are little store- 
 houses of food upon which the plant lives until it is able to make food for itself. 
 When we use peas for food, we eat the material that was stored up for the young 
 plant.) 
 
 Dig up one of the plants that is growing in the can or flower pot. Examine 
 the cotyledon to see if the food is being used up. At the end of a week dig up an- 
 other, and continue this till all are removed. Do the little plants use up all of the 
 stored food? 
 
38 
 
 If you have a small plot in the school yard for a garden have the children plant 
 a few sweet peas. 
 
 WOODPECKERS. LESSON 10-15. The aim of bird study in any of the 
 grades is to encourage the children to form a habit of observing birds that they may 
 learn to know and love them, as well as to help protect them. Bird study usually 
 gives the best results when a few minutes are devoted to reports two or three times 
 each week, rather than an entire period spent in a formal study. 
 
 Begin the work by asking how many of the children know any of the wood- 
 peckers. The red-headed woodpecker and the nicker or yellow-hammer are common 
 in most parts of Illinois. The downy, hairy, and sap-sucker are also found in con- 
 siderable numbers. Procure some colored pictures of woodpeckers. (These may be 
 bought at cost from the publisher of this pamphlet.) 
 
 Tell the children to watch for the yellowhammer or flicker and be ready to report 
 the next day. Note the size of the bird. Is it larger or smaller than a robin? What 
 colors can you see? What is the color of the spot on the back of the head? Look 
 for the black crescent shaped spot on the breast. Note w r here the bird is and what it 
 is doing. When you are sure that the children know the bird, tell them you want 
 them to watch the flickers about their homes to see how many things they can find out 
 about these birds. Have them note especially all the different places w r here the birds 
 are seen, and what they are doing. How does the bird's flight differ from that of a 
 robin? What marks aid in identifying it when flying? (The white spot in front of 
 the tail and the golden yellow lining of the wings.) 
 
 At the end of a week, during which the interest has been kept up by occasional 
 reference to the bird, have an indoor lesson. This should be a free expression of the 
 observations made by the children. Good pictures of the bird may aid in settling 
 some points in which there is a difference of opinion. Some points may well be left 
 to be settled by further outdoor observations. 
 
 In the discussion of w T hat the children have seen, new problems will certainly 
 arise. For example, how does a flicker manage to walk up a tree trunk? The chil- 
 dren will readily see that the short, stiff feathers aid the bird in climbing and in 
 resting on the sides of trees and posts. By means of pictures, the teacher may bring 
 out the special adaptations of the toes, two pointing forward and two backward, 
 that enable the bird to cling securely to vertical surfaces. 
 
 The question of the flicker's food will come up. No doubt some of the children 
 will report that they have seen the birds feeding while on the ground. What were 
 they eating? The answer to this may or may not be found by observation. Some 
 child may be fortunate enough to find a flicker sitting at an anthill eating ants. But 
 whether the children are able to make out for themselves that flickers eat ants or not, 
 it is well to have them know that during the summer and fall months more than two- 
 thirds of the food of the flickers consists of ants. 
 
 When does the flicker make its nest? Some of the children will have a chance 
 to watch the flickers digging holes in trees for their nests. What tools do they use 
 in chipping out the wood? Their strong, chisel-like bills. Do both birds Avork in 
 making the nest? Tell the children that if they have very sharp eyes they can dis- 
 tinguish the males from the females by looking at the side of the throat. The male 
 has a black stripe on each side of the throat. How far from the ground are the nests 
 made? Compare different ones. Watch the birds caring for the young. Listen for 
 the loud hissing sound made by the young while they are still in the nest. Watch 
 them come forth from the nest. Can they fly w^ell? Few young birds can fly farther 
 than young flickers. Do the parents continue to feed the young after they have left 
 the nest? This will be easily determined since the young beg in such a noisy manner 
 for just another bite that the children will be sure to hear them. 
 
 Have the children decide whether the flickers are of any use to us. The fact 
 that they eat so many ants and other injurious insects places them among our most 
 beneficial birds. Leave unanswered the problems whether flickers use the same nest 
 year after year, and whether they stay with us all winter or go aw r ay in the fall as 
 robins and bluebirds do. A few flickers remain here over winter. They often ex- 
 cavate holes in trees or buildings and remain under shelter during the nights and 
 very cold days. On warm days they sally forth to feed upon tree borers and what- 
 ever edible thing they can find. 
 
 While a detailed study is being made of the flicker, the other woodpeckers seen 
 by the children should come in for a share of the discussions. Even in the third and 
 fourth grades something may be done with a simple comparative study of wood- 
 
39 
 
 peckers. The children will be able to point out a few characteristics that are similar 
 in all birds, as the hard bill, short stiff tail and feet with two toes forward and two 
 backward. In localities where the red-headed woodpecker is abundant, it will be 
 found fully as good for a detailed study as the flicker. 
 
 COEEELATIOX WITH LANGUAGE. The experiments and studies in this 
 month's work offer excellent material for the language work suggested in the Course 
 of Study for the seventh month. 
 
 Use good and well in the sentences that describe some of the results of the seed 
 experiments, such as "A cool temperature is not good for sprouting seeds." "The 
 dry seeds did not sprout well, ' ' etc. 
 
 For the composition, use any of the topics suggested by the work, as, ' ' How we 
 found out what seeds need to make them sprout and grow." "How we planted 
 tomato seeds. " " "What we have found out about woodpeckers. ' ' 
 
 APRIL AND MAY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE APRIL AND MAY. Care of sweet peas and tomatoes.. En- 
 courage home and school flower gardens. Discuss preparation of soil. Try to have 
 each child plant a small garden of hi-s own at home. Talk about the display of flowers 
 and vegetables that will take place next September. Plant tomatoes, sweet corn, 
 aster, phlox, touch-me-not, sunflower. 
 
 HOUSE BUILDING. If possible follow the building of a house in the neigh- 
 borhood; materials used, source of each stone, brick, cement, lumber, nails, hardware, 
 etc. Different workmen engaged architect, mason, carpenter, plumber, tinner, elec- 
 trician, painter or different processes if done by fewer men. Plan of the house; 
 identify rooms and parts joists, studding, rafters, sills.. Uses of hardwood and soft- 
 wood;; methods of "finishing woods." 
 
 VACATION PLANS. Discuss methods of caring for sweet peas, cutting flow- 
 ers, saving seed, etc. Similar plans for tomato and other plants. Continue observation 
 of birds around the home. 
 
 SWEET PEAS AND TOMATOES. LESSON 1. If sweet peas or common 
 peas have been planted at school, the study of the growing plant will be found inter- 
 esting. If the children planted seeds at home, then have reports from a study of the 
 home plant. How high are the plants? Have some grown faster than others? Are 
 the stems strong or weak? Can they stand erect without supports? (Stems of peas 
 grow rapidly, but they cannot stand alone because they have taken on the habit of 
 climbing.) Have the children decide what supports they may use for their sweet 
 peas. (They may use strings, sticks from a brush pile, or strands of wire.) Do all 
 common peas need supports as well as sweet peas? Have the children look at the 
 peas in the home garden and report. (Some of the early peas that grow about a foot 
 high are called dwarf peas. These do not climb.) 
 
 LESSON 2. How do the peas climb? (The little string-like bodies that curl 
 around the support are called the tendrils.) How do the tendrils take hold of the 
 support ? Do they ail curl in the same direction ? On what part of the plant are the 
 tendrils situated? How many can you find on one plant? Can you find any other 
 plants at home that climb by means of tendrils ? 
 
 LESSON 3. Have the children recall how they planted the tomato seeds and 
 how the little plants started to grow. How high are the plants now? If they are two 
 inches high they are ready to transplant into small flower pots, berry boxes, or tin 
 cans. If the cans are used be sure that a hole is made in the bottom of each for 
 drainage. In transplanting be careful to take up a little soil with the roots. Have 
 the can about two-thirds full of good rich soil. Hold the little plant in the middle 
 of the can with the roots resting on the soil. Now fill the space around the roots 
 with more soil and press the soil closely around the plant with your thumbs. Water 
 and keep out of a strong light for two days. 
 
 LESSON 4. Discuss how the tomato plants should be set out in the garden. This 
 should be done the first or second week in May. They should be set in rows three or 
 four feet apart. Use the same care in setting out the plants in the garden that you 
 did in transplanting into the cans. If plants have been grown at school, give each 
 child one to take home and set out in the home garden. 
 
40 
 
 BUILDING A HOUSE. LESSON 5. Begin the work by asking the children 
 how many of them have ever seen a house in process of building. Perhaps some mem- 
 bers of the class have had a new home built recently ; if so, they will be able to con- 
 tribute largely to the discussion. What is the first thing to do in building a house? 
 (The cellar or basement is dug.) Who has seen this done? (Usually horses are 
 hitched to scrapers and the dirt is scraped up and hauled off to one side.) When 
 most of the dirt is taken out in this way, men with spades shave down the sides, mak- 
 ing the dirt walls very smooth and even. What is the next thing to do? (The 
 foundation must be made.) 
 
 LESSON 6. What materials are used in making the foundation of a house? 
 (Tell the children to find out what the foundations of their houses at home are made 
 of. Some will find bricks, some cement blocks, and some stones.) What is used in 
 the foundation of the school house? How are the bricks held together? Who knows 
 out of what mortar is made? (Sand and lime or cement are mixed with water to 
 make mortar.) What is a man called whose business it is to build walls and chimneys 
 out of bricks or stones? (He is called a mason.) 
 
 LESSON 7. After the foundation is made, who then carries on the work of 
 building the house? Where do we get the lumber that the carpenter uses? Talk 
 about some of the different pieces of lumber that are used for various parts of the 
 house. WTiat are the walls made of? Look on the inside of the school room. What 
 can you see? Look on the outside of the building. How are the weatherboards put 
 on? Sometimes these boards are called siding. Is there anything between the siding 
 and the wall on the inside? (Just under the siding is another layer of boards that 
 fit closely together as the boards in a floor do.) Who knows the name of this layer? 
 It is called sheathing. What are the sheathing and the siding nailed to? Look on 
 the outside for the nail heads. Are the nails in rows? How far apart are the rows? 
 The nails tell you where the upright pieces called studding are placed. Each piece of 
 studding is two by four inches, and is placed upon the sill which rests upon the foun- 
 dation. The studding extends up to the roof. 
 
 LESSON 8. Who knows what is nailed to the studding on the inside? Some 
 of the children may have seen the lathes that are put on to hold the plaster. What 
 other part of the house do you know besides the foundation and the walls? (The 
 roof.) What is the roof made of ? How are the shingles put on? Examine a shingle. 
 Why is it thicker at one end than at the other? What are the shingles nailed to? 
 They are nailed to boards that rest upon the rafters. If you have an attic you can 
 see the rafters extending upward and meeting in the middle of the roof. Another 
 part of the house is the floor. The pieces to which the floor is nailed are the joists. 
 You can see the joists in a cellar or basement. 
 
 LESSON 9. There are many more parts to a house that a carpenter must know. 
 Look around the school room and let us make a list of the things that we see. We 
 can find the ceiling, walls, floor, doors, and windows. If you stand in an open door 
 the piece directly over your head is the lintel of the door. The side pieces that the 
 lintel rests upon are the jambs. The frame that the carpenter put all around the 
 doors and windows forms the facings. The lower part of the window that we often call 
 the sill is the window stool. The sill is the lower part on the outside. The part of 
 the window that holds the panes of glass is the sash. 
 
 LESSON 10. Sum up the work by having the children name all the different 
 materials that are used in making a house, and all the different workmen that help 
 to build it. 
 
 VACATION PLANS. LESSONS 11-13. Before the school closes a few sug- 
 gestions may be made for some observations and studies during the summer vacation. 
 
 SWEET PEAS. Watch the growth of the plants. Are they slow or rapid 
 growers? When do the first flowers appear? We must learn how to remove the 
 flowers without injuring the plants. We must cut them with a pair of scissors, not 
 pull them off. Cut the stems as long as possible. It is very necessary that you keep 
 the flowers cut if you wish to have an abundance of flowers all summer. The sweet- 
 pea flower is a good one to study. The children may be interested to know that it is 
 called a butterfly flower. The two large petals at the sides are called the wings, the 
 one at the top the banner or standard, and the two that are grown together forming 
 a little boat are called the keel. Notice the pods. See if you can find the part of the 
 flower that makes the pod. Do you ever find any insects on the flowers? 
 
41 
 
 TOMATO. Watch the growth of the plant and note when the first blossoms 
 appear. What is the color of the tomato flowers? When does the fruit begin to 
 ripen ? Can the plants stand up straight when they are loaded with fruit ? It will be 
 a good plan to use a support to help keep the fruit up in the light and air so it will 
 ripen more evenly. How many tomatoes will one plant produce ? What is the fruit 
 good for? Think of all the different dishes made from tomatoes; stews, soups, cream 
 tomatoes, salads, scallops, etc. How are tomatoes put away for winter use? Our 
 mothers can them, or they are canned in the factories and we may buy them from 
 the grocer. 
 
 BIRDS. Encourage the children to watch the woodpeckers and other birds dur- 
 ing the summer. Where do they build their nests? Do the mother and father birds 
 feed the young birds after they leave the nest ? How do the young birds differ from 
 the old birds? If the children will place pans of water in the yards in the shade of 
 trees and shrubs the birds will come to drink and bathe. 
 
 CORRELATION WITH LANGUAGE. The teacher will find abundant ma- 
 terial in these nature-study lessons for the use of them and those. Those windows 
 are large. Those birds I saw yesterday are flickers. I saw them on the ground, etc. 
 Compositions may be written upon, "How I take care of my sweet peas," "How I 
 should build my house/' etc. 
 
42 
 
 LESSON PLANS FOR FOURTH YEAR 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE SEPTEMBER GARDEN. Follow up any garden worlc started 
 the spring before. Discuss work done in the garden during the summer. Special study 
 of sweet corn; character of plant, stalk, leaves, tassel, number of ears. Compare with 
 pop corn. Uses, canning factory. Make list of kinds of corn. 
 
 SUNFLOWER HEAD ;' Identify small florets, quantity of seed raised by one 
 plant, uses of seeds, for birds, poultry. Uses of stalks for fuel. Find other plants of 
 same flowering habit, asters, cosmos, marigold, thistle, rosin weed, etc. 
 
 INSECTS. The house fly as a pest. Habits of moving, feeding, life history; 
 how flies carry disease; how to get rid of them. Children try different methods of 
 killing th&m, traps, fly paper, etc. How do flies spend the winter? 
 
 TOMATO WORM. Food, habits, enemies. Make plans for Harvest Home ex- 
 hibit. 
 
 GAEDEN. Discuss the work done by the children in the garden during the 
 spring and summer. Who have gardens of their own? Who will have some flowers 
 or vegetables to display in the Harvest Home Festival at the end of the month? 
 
 SWEET COEN. Study the entire plant. How high does sweet corn grow? 
 Does one stalk bear more than one ear? Compare with field corn in height and num- 
 ber of ears. Study the ear. Compare with an ear of field corn. What are the dif- 
 ferences you see? How does the grain differ from that of field corn? From pop corn? 
 Put some of the crinkled dry grains into water and let them remain over night. What 
 change takes place? What are the uses of sweet corn? Why do we like it better 
 than field corn? (It has much more sugar in it.) Discuss the canning of sweet 
 corn. Who has visited a canning factory? Tell all the things that must be done with 
 the corn from the time it is brought into the factory until it is in the cans ready to 
 ship all over the country. 
 
 SUNFLOWEE. Make a study of the entire plant. Note height of stem, thick- 
 ness, size of leaves. Are there any branches? -Where is the head borne? If possible 
 have a sunflower head in the class. Have the children look at it carefully and decide 
 whether it is one flower or many small flowers. One small flower is called a floret. 
 Look at it carefully and find that each floret produces one seed. Note the number 
 of seeds in one head. Which seeds ripen first? Color of ripe seeds? Discuss the 
 uses of the seeds. Who has seen birds eating the seeds? Who feeds them to chick- 
 ens? (Chickens are very fond of sunflower seeds). Break open a stalk. What is on 
 the inside? Who has ever used sunflower stems for kindling? (In some western 
 states where fuel is scarce sunflowers are raised for this purpose.) 
 
 INSECTS. House fly. Is the house fly numerous at this season? Name all the 
 places where the flies are found. Are there any in the school room? Study the move- 
 ments of the fly. How does it get around ? Find out' how many feet one fly has, how 
 many wings. Look on the head for its eyes. Can it see well? (Its eyes are so 
 large that its range of vision is very good.) How do flies eat? Watch one lapping 
 up food with its tongue. What do flies eat? Discuss how flies carry tiny germs of 
 typhoid fever upon the hairs of their feet or bodies. If a fly visits material from a 
 sick room in which some one has typhoid fever it may get some of the germs upon 
 its feet and then fly away. It may come into our homes and alight upon some food 
 and perhaps the germs may fall off. If we eat the food with the germs upon it we 
 may take the typhoid fever. 
 
 Discuss how we may get rid of flies. Have the children try various methods of 
 trapping and killing these pests. 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE OCTOBEE SPIDEES. Habits of moving, catching prey, 
 feeding, hiding. Webs, how made, different kinds. Value of spiders in catching flies. 
 Different kinds. 
 
43 
 
 HOME MAKIXG IX SECTS. Bees, wasps, ants, where they wake their homes, 
 food value to man. List of flowers that ~bees like to visit. Story of how honey is 
 made, the comb. Watch for flying ants, capture some and l-eep in bottles for study. 
 Start ant colony. 
 
 BULBS. Study of tulip lull). Pl-ant a tulip bed out of doors. Forcing bulbs. 
 
 SPIDERS. Give the children some observation work to carry on outside of 
 school to report next day. Notice in what different places spiders are found, what 
 are they doing? Where webs are thus found? How do webs differ from one another? 
 Touch different parts of a round web and note what happens. Why does part of the 
 web stick to your fingers? (The web has a sticky secretion on it that holds flies and 
 other insects fast in the web.) 
 
 Look for different kinds of webs, round ones, flat ones. Look for webs fastened 
 to grasses, trees, etc. These are made by spiders that swing out upon thread like 
 kites and fly thru the air. How many legs has a spider? What do spiders eat? (They 
 feed upon flies and other insects and are to be considered as our friends rather than 
 our foes.) 
 
 HOME MAKING INSECTS. Make a detailed study of the honey bee. Find 
 bees feeding upon the grapes or other fruit. Put one into a jelly glass or wide mouth 
 bottle. Put the stopper in and the children will be able to study the bee thru the 
 glass. Let the children find out all they can about the different parts of the bee. 
 
 Discuss the homes of honey bees. Who have ever seen a bee hive? Describe it. 
 What flowers do bees like to visit? What do bees gather from the flowers? (Two 
 things, nectar, a sweet juice from which they make honey, and pollen from which 
 they make bee-bread. Look for wasp nests and make a study of these especially 
 mud daubers and paper wasps. 
 
 BULB GARDENING. Every rural and village school should have a bulb gar- 
 den, even though a small one. Bulbs are easily grown, and they give results before 
 the schools close in the spring, which is an additional reason for growing them. For 
 schools, tulips are most satisfactory. Narcissus, daffodils, and crocuses are also good. 
 As a rule children prefer the tulip. 
 
 While the special study of bulbs is planned for the third and fourth year it is 
 suggested that the entire school participate in planting the bulbs. 
 
 LESSON 1. Discuss with the children where the bulbs should be planted. Let 
 them help to decide. If there is a fence around the yard a bulb garden a few feet 
 wide in front of the back or side fence gives a good effect. A small bed may be 
 placed in the corner of the yard, or near the coal shed, or even at the corner of the 
 school building. Care should be taken, however, not to plant the bulbs where the 
 rains will drip from the roofs upon the bed. Spend a little time discussing with the 
 children the arrangement of the beds with regard to color. Is it a good plan to have 
 several colors mixed promiscuously in one bed ? Here is a chance to help the children 
 gain some idea of harmony of color. An entire red bed, or a pink one, or either with a 
 white border gives a very pleasing and artistic effect, much prettier than if all are 
 mixed together in one bed. 
 
 LESSON 2. For this reason the teacher should have several different kinds of 
 bulbs if possible, and each child should have a bulb in hand. Compare the bulbs as 
 to size, shape, and color. Notice the papery covering of the tulip bulb. What does 
 this bulb resemble? (The children will readily see its resemblance to the onion.) 
 If we should cut this open we should see that it is also like the onion on the inside. 
 Have the children determine which end of the bulb will produce roots and which 
 the shoot. What is a bulb? (A bulb is an underground stem with many thickened 
 leaves growing closely around it.) Look for little bulbs fastened to the large one. 
 These are called bulblets. If these bulblets are planted they will not produce blos- 
 soms for two years. 
 
 LESSONS 3 and 4. How shall we plant the bulbs? They require rich, mellow 
 soil. If you have a heavy clay soil let some of the older pupils suggest how it may 
 be made more mellow. (This may be done by mixing with it some decaying vegetable 
 matter. Nothing is better than well-rotted material from around barns.) Let the 
 pupils prepare beds for the bulbs. Throw out the top soil to the depth of six or eight 
 inches. If a fertilizer is to be used put it in to the depth of two inches and mix it 
 thoroughly with the soil. Now throw back some of the top soil. Set the bulbs in this 
 
44 
 
 about eight inches apart. Each child should plant at least one bulb. Now throw in 
 the rest of the soil so that the bulbs will be covered about six or eight inches. The 
 bulbs may be planted in another way. Prepare the bed as before, putting back all 
 of the soil, then rake it until it is in fine condition. Cut off about nine inches from the 
 upper part of an old spade handle and sharpen this, or you may sharpen any round, 
 hard stick. This instrument is called a dibble. With this you may make holes in 
 the bed. Drop the bulbs into the holes, and cover with the soil. (It is suggested that 
 this work may be done on a Friday afternoon.) Bulbs may be obtained from any 
 florist. Tulip bulbs may be purchased as low as twenty cents a dozen. 
 
 LESSON 5. What do you expect the bulbs to do this fall? (The children may 
 not be able to give any definite answer to this.) Ask them where the ground is 
 warmer this time of the year, six inches below the surface or near the top ? Which part 
 of the plant will be likely to grow first? What we want the plant to do is to make 
 a good root growth this fall. Why do we not want the upper part of the bulb to 
 grow until spring? (If it should grow this fall we should have a weak plant with a 
 very small flower.) We want the roots to get a good start this fall for only bulbs 
 with good roots will produce beautiful flowers next spring. 
 
 LESSON 6. Do we need to take any care of our bulb bed this fall? We must 
 do one more thing. When the top layer of soil is frozen -hard we must cover our 
 bulb bed. What shall we use for the covering? Let the children suggest various 
 things. (Straw, leaves, or corn stalks may be used for this.) The covering should 
 be from four to six inches deep. Why do we do this? (It is to keep the temperature 
 even so that the ground will not thaw out on a warm day in the winter and then 
 freeze again. In the early spring will the ground under the straw thaw out as early 
 as the uncovered soil? Will this keep the plants from starting to grow early in the 
 spring if the weather is very warm? This is just what we want. If the bulb beds 
 were left uncovered the hot days would start the plants to growing so rapidly that 
 they would probably be dwarfed by the later frosts. 
 
 LESSON 7. There is another method of planting bulbs that may be practiced in 
 any school. This is the forcing of bulbs for Avinter blooming in doors. Any kind of 
 bulbs that are planted out of doors serve equally well for forcing. Some of the best 
 are tulips and hyacinths. The bulbs used for forcing, however, must be of a larger 
 and better quality, hence they are a little more expensive than those used for outside 
 bedding. Good garden soil will do for forcing. A little sand and good fertilizer 
 may be mixed with the soil. Have the children bring flower pots or tin cans in which 
 to place the bulbs. Be sure to place drains in the bottom of pots or cans. Fill the 
 pot a little over half full of soil then set in the bulb. Now put in more soil till the 
 top of the bub is just below the surface. If you have a large pot or tin pail sev- 
 eral bulbs may be planted together. After planting, water until you are certain that 
 all the soil is thoroughly moistened. 
 
 LESSONS 8 and 9. What do we want these bulbs to do first? Just what we 
 wish them to do in the beds out of doors grow roots. In order to do this we must 
 put them in a cool, dark place. We call this forcing the roots. We may place the 
 pots in a cool cellar and cover them up with a heavy box or other object. They may 
 be placed in a shallow hole in the ground and covered with three or four inches of 
 soil or ashes, or they may be set on the ground along the north side of the coal shed 
 or other buildings and covered up with soil or ashes. They should be left in the cool, 
 dark place at least six weeks. They may be left much longer and brought in one or 
 two at a time as desired. Encourage the children to start bulbs at home using the 
 cellar in which to keep the pots. (Although the lesson in connection with bringing in 
 the bulbs must come many weeks later, we shall continue the suggestions here). When 
 the pots are brought in it may be well to remove one bulb from the soil so that the 
 children may see just what has taken place. From what point do the roots start? 
 Are there many roots? How long are they? Has the shoot started to grow? What 
 color is it? Could the roots and shoot grow without food? Where do they get the 
 food to live upon? A little discussion will bring out the fact that the food was stored 
 up in the thick bulb and was used for the growth of the plant. 
 
 When first brought in the pots should be kept in the coolest part of the room 
 and covered from intense light. If the school room has an entry or hall that is not 
 kept as warm as the main room this will be a good place in which to keep the plant 
 for a few days. After that bring them into the room where they may have plenty of 
 
45 
 
 light and heat and where the development of the leaves and flowers may be watched. 
 There is another way in which bulbs may be grown in the schoolroom with less 
 trouble. Procure a glass dish, rather wide. Place a number of small stones in this 
 and fill with water. Place a bulb of the Chinese Sacred Lily or paper white Nar- 
 cissus among the stones, supporting it with the bits of rock and pebbles. The bulbs 
 will develop and open up their beautiful blossoms in about six weeks. (It is better 
 not to keep the bulbs in a strong light or heat for the first week or two.) 
 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR NOVEMBER. Wild mammals of Illinois; habitat, habits, 
 foods, methods of trapping, uses and values of furs; methods of exterminating harm- 
 ful mammals; distinguish gnawers and flesh-eaters; government experiments in, breed- 
 ing fox, deer, etc. 
 
 Barnyard fowls; kinds, habits, uses and values of each. Special study of the tur- 
 key, in connection with Thanksgiving; origin of domesticated form; peculiar traits, 
 care, Thanksgiving market. 
 
 WILD MAMMALS. LESSON 10. Today we are going to talk about wild 
 mammals of Illinois. Who knows what we mean by wild mammals? (They are 
 animals that are usually called wild animals. All mammals that we know have four 
 feet, and are covered with hair, fur, or wool). Name some of the mammals that we 
 have about our homes. The children will, of course, name most of our domestic ani- 
 mals as the horse, cow, etc. Have any of you ever seen any wild mammals in this 
 part of Illinois? (The children should name at least the rabbit, squirrel, ground 
 squirrel, gopher, mink, skunk. An informal discussion should follow in which 
 the children may tell something about each of these little animals.) 
 
 LESSON 11. Of all the wild mammals which one is most common in your dis- 
 trict ? We shall study the rabbit as a type of these little animals. Who has seen 
 rabbits this fall anywhere in the neighborhood? Encourage the children to watch for 
 rabbits and find out more about their habits. Where do rabbits live? The children 
 may be ready to name the various places in which they have seen these little animals. 
 Do rabbits move about much during the day time? When a dog is chasing a rabbit 
 what does it try to do ? Who has seen it trying to seek a place of shelter ; such as 
 a brush pile, corn crib, shed etc ? Has any one ever seen a rabbit in a burrow in the 
 ground? (Years ago probably most of the rabbits burrowed in the ground, now they 
 find other places in which to hide. Sometimes many rabbits live together in one bur- 
 row. Each may have its own separate opening into the burrow but the underground 
 homes are all united.) What kind of a covering has the rabbit? What is the color 
 of the fur? Is it the same color on the lack and under part? Is the fur long or 
 short ? How can you identify a rabbit when it is running at some distance from you f 
 (The white tail.) What kind of ears has the rabbit? Did you ever notice a rab- 
 bit 's foot ? Which do you think it resembles more, the foot of a dog or a cat f Do 
 you know whether the front and hind legs are the same length? What kind of a 
 track does a rabbit make in the snow? If the children cannot answer this leave it as 
 a problem to be settled later in the winter by actual observation. 
 
 LESSON 12. What do rabbits eat? Let the children name various things they 
 have seen rabbits eating. Who has ever had a pet rabbit ? Upon what was it fed ? 
 What do rabbits feed upon in the winter time when the grass and clover are dead? 
 (Many rabbits are forced to eat the bark of young trees and shrubs during the win- 
 ter months. They will eat berries if they can find them, and sometimes under the 
 brown grass they find some green leaves of clover or other plants.) Who has ever 
 seen any young rabbits? Where were they? How does the mother rabbit prepare a 
 nice warm bed for her young? (Some of the children may have been fortunate enough 
 to find a rabbit 's nest and may be able to tell that it was lined with leaves and soft 
 hair. This hair was taken from the mother 's own body. Do rabbits have any enemies ? 
 The children will, of course, name the dog and cat, the hawk and owl, fox, mink and 
 weasel. Perhaps the most important enemy is man.) Is the rabbit of any use to 
 man ? Many people use the meat of the rabbit for food during the winter months. 
 
 Do rabbits have any way of defending themselves against their enemies? Are 
 they rapid runners? Did you ever notice how a rabbit dodges or runs in a zigzag 
 fashion often getting out of the way of a dog that is chasing it? Another way in 
 
46 
 
 which rabbits protect themselves is by means of their color. They resemble closely 
 the dead grass or brown soil. They often crouch down keeping perfectly quiet and look- 
 ing so much like a piece of clod or a x clump of grass that their enemies may pass them 
 by without seeing them. 
 
 LESSON 13. In a locality where tree squirrels are abundant, they may be 
 used instead of the rabbit for special study. The same questions and topics may be 
 used, modifying them of course, to fit the squirrel. In any locality a comparative 
 lesson between the squirrel and rabbit may be worth while, noting the differences in 
 their habits, their homes, what they eat, and how they move about. 
 
 LESSON 14. How many children know the little striped squirrel? (This 
 is sometimes incorrectly called a gopher. The true gopher is a larger animal and 
 does not have stripes.) Where does the ground squirrel live? Most of the boys 
 probably have, seen a burrow of the ground squirrel and have poured water down 
 the hole in order to ' l drown out ' ' the squirrel. The burrow usually descends almost 
 straight downward for two or three feet and then runs out horizontally sometimes a 
 number of feet. What does the ground squirrel eat? (It feeds upon grains, berries, 
 and leaves of various plants. It sometimes is quite destructive to corn crops because 
 it digs up the grains after they are planted and eats them or carries them off to its 
 burrow. Sometimes the ground squirrel gathers great numbers of half ripe straw- 
 berries, collects them into little piles, eats a few and leaves the rest.) How does a 
 ground squirrel act when it is frightened? Did you ever see one stand up on its hind 
 legs, stiffen and remain perfectly still, so still that it looks like a small stick or bit 
 of brown grass? (It often remains in that position a number of minutes until its 
 enemy has disappeared or comes so near that it is forced to run.) 
 
 LESSON 15. WTiat kind of teeth has the ground squirrel? The children may 
 have observed the teeth of this little animal or of other squirrels and have noticed 
 that the front teeth are very long and sharp almost like small chisels. Can you think 
 of other animals that have the same kind of teeth? The children will be almost cer- 
 tain to name rats and mice, minks and others. All these animals are known as 
 gnawers because they have sharp, gnawing teeth. Let the children name various ways 
 in which these sharp, gnawing teeth serve the little animals. 
 
 Besides the gnawers we have a few other wild mammals in Illinois. Can any one 
 think what they are? (In some localities there are still a few foxes and stray wolves 
 and a few raccoons.) Years ago when our fathers and grandfathers settled in Illinois 
 these animals were very common. Sometimes large packs of wolves came near the 
 pioneer's home, barking something as dogs bark. Sometimes foxes came to the poul- 
 try yard and carried off some of the chickens and more often than now minks and 
 weasels made raids upon the poultry yards destroying many of the chickens and other 
 poultry in a single night. Why do we not have as many of these animals with us now? 
 Let the children think of the conditions that have helped to lessen the numbers of these 
 wild animals. Among other things the breaking up of swamps and the cutting down of 
 trees have left no places for them to build their homes and rear their young. Then 
 in the early years many of these animals were killed either for food or for the fur 
 or simply because they annoyed the settlers so that in some places they were almost 
 exterminated. 
 
 LESSON 16. Who can think of some uses made of some of these wild animals? 
 For this lesson it will be worth while to have a number of pieces of fur of various 
 kinds in the class. Let the children examine the fur noting the softness of the hair. 
 Are the hairs of the same length? Same color? What uses are made of the fur of 
 animals? The children will name the making of hats and caps, collars, capes; etc. 
 
 BAENYAED FOWLS. LESSON 17. Let the children name all the barnyard 
 fowls they have at home. Let some one pass to the board and write the list as the 
 children name them. What is the purpose of raising the different fowls? How many 
 have turkeys? Who can think of a good reason for studying the turkey in Novem- 
 ber? Have the children recall the story of the Pilgrim Fathers and the first Thanks- 
 giving when the wild turkeys of New England were served at the first Thanksgiving 
 feast. How do turkeys compare with chickens as to size? What is the color of the 
 turkey? Who has any white or buff turkeys? How many have bronze turkeys? How 
 does the gobbler differ from the turkey hen in appearance? What do turkeys eat? 
 Where do they roost? How many have ever noticed that they prefer to roost high lip 
 in trees or on tops of buildings? Where do the mother turkeys like to 
 
47 
 
 take the young during the summer months? Can you think why turkeys are more 
 wild than chickens or other domestic fowls? This is probably due to the fact that 
 they have not been domesticated very long. All our turkeys are descended from the 
 wild turkeys of America. The early explorers took the wild turkeys into Europe. They 
 were domesticated there and some of the tame ones were brought back to America. 
 But even here in Illinois the early settlers found many wild turkeys. They are now 
 probably all gone. Let the children tell why they have disappeared. Our beautiful 
 bronze turkey is very closely related to the wild turkeys of Illinois. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR DECEMBER. The human teeth, anticipated in study of mam- 
 mals; kinds, structure, care; longitudinal section of tooth prepared on grindstone, to 
 show pulp cavity; temporary and permanent teeth; the worlc of the dentist; effect of 
 bad teeth upon health. 
 
 Since the work for this month is along lines of hygiene and physiology we 
 shall make no attempt to write out lessons in detail. In -every school the teacher 
 and perhaps the pupils have textbooks in physiology. These may be used for ref- 
 erence in this work. The chief purpose of this study should be to encourage the chil- 
 dren to observe the proper rules and activities that lead to good health. Hygiene and 
 physiology are taught to the lower grade children, not that the children may learn 
 some facts about their bodies, but that they may learn how to care for their bodies to 
 the end that they may be strong, healthy boys and girls. 
 
 The study of wild mammals in November gives a foundation for the discussion 
 of teeth in December. Review the kinds of teeth that we studied in connection with 
 gnawers and carnivorous animals. Tell the children to observe their own teeth at 
 home in their mirrors and to find out exactly how many they have in each jaw. Note 
 whether they are all the same shape and size. Consult the physiologies to get the 
 names of the different kinds of teeth. To study the structure of a tooth the teacher 
 should get a few teeth from her dentist. (These should be thoroughly sterilized be- 
 fore they are given to the children for study.) If some of the pupils have a grind- 
 stone at home have them grind off the entire side of two or three teeth. The children 
 will then be able to find all parts of the teeth and how these compare with each other 
 in hardness, etc. Here again, consult the physiology to get the names of the different 
 parts. 
 
 Who has had the toothache? Why does a tooth ache? Examine some of the 
 teeth that show cavities. What is in the center or pulp of the tooth that causes pain? 
 
 Spend some time in studying how to care for the teeth. Encourage the children 
 to examine their teeth to see whether or not any of them are beginning to show de- 
 cay. Sometimes partially decayed food settles close to the gums at the base of the 
 teeth and causes a gum disease. This is quite common even among children. How 
 shall we help to keep our teeth from decaying? How should teeth be cleaned? How 
 often? Encourage children to use tooth brushes. They should be used after each 
 meal and always before going to bed at night. All particles of food should be re- 
 moved from the teeth. These ferment and are likely to cause decay. Decaying teeth 
 cause bad breath, form a lodging place for germs of many diseases, prevent the 
 proper chewing of food and thus cause indigestion. Children with poor teeth are 
 likely not to be as healthy as those with well cared for teeth. 
 
 What is the work of the dentist? Some people think a dentist's only business 
 is to extract aching teeth. His chief work, however, should be to help care for the 
 teeth in such a way that there will be none to pull. Every one should consult a dentist 
 at least once a year and have him examine the teeth, clean them if necessary, and fill 
 small cavities that may be just starting. In every way possible impress upon the chil- 
 dren that they cannot have strong, well bodies and at the same time a number of de- 
 caying teeth in their mouths. 
 
 Discuss the use of teeth. Why should food be chewed? If the teacher and chil- 
 dren bring lunches to school the teacher has an excellent opportunity to help the 
 children form good habits of eating. Let the lunch time be a pleasant social hour 
 in which all sit down together and eat their lunches. Simple lessons may be given in 
 a tactful way that will be of the greatest value to the children in forming proper 
 habits of eating. Occasionally it might be worth while to have some of the children 
 serve the others. Discourage the habit that so many country children have of eating 
 their lunches a piece at a time while they are running and playing. 
 
48 
 JANUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOR JANUARY. Evergreen trees; identification of different Tcinds; 
 habits of growth; shedding of leaves; cones; seeds; uses of each kind. 
 
 Muscles; uses; movements; simple survey of structure; fibers; connective tissue. 
 
 LESSON 1. Trees. Let the first lesson be a discussion of trees that have dropped 
 their leaves. Look at the trees in the schoolyard and at home. Can you see the real 
 forms of the trees now better than before the leaves were gone? Have they many 
 twigs? Look at several different kinds of trees and compare them in this respect. Is 
 the bark of the different trees the same color? Observe the trees of the same kind to 
 see if they are similar in branching, in kinds of twigs, and color of the bark. Look 
 at these leafless trees until you see how beautiful they are Avith their smooth branches 
 and graceful twigs against the winter sky. Can you find any buds on the twigs ready 
 for the spring opening? 
 
 LESSON 2. Evergreens. Choose for study any evergreen in the neighborhood. 
 There are several different kinds of evergreens that may be found in any neighbor- 
 hood in Illinois. In some places you will find different kinds of pines. The pines are 
 evergreens that have long needles. There are three kinds that you are likely to find. 
 The white pine has five long slender needles clustered together in a short sheath. The 
 Scotch pine has two stiff needles in a cluster. The Austrian pine, also, has two needles 
 but they are very much longer and stiffer than those of the Scotch pine. Usually the 
 needles of this pine are two to four inches in length. You can distinguish the Scotch 
 pine from the Austrian by the color of the bark. The upper part of the trunk and the 
 branches are yellowish red. The Austrian is dark gray all the way up. 
 
 In some places you will find the Norway spruce. The needles of this tree are 
 short not more than an inch in length. They are stiff and sharp pointed and are 
 arranged singly on the twig. They are found scattered on all parts of the twig, upper 
 and lower part as well as the sides. 
 
 The hemlock looks something like the spruce. The needles are about the same 
 length but they are arranged regularly on two sides of the twig, making the twig 
 appear flat on the top. The under sides of the needles are white. 
 
 The balsam fir is another short needled evergreen. Its needles are arranged 
 somewhat as they are on the Norway spruce, but the twigs are somewhat flatter, the 
 needles are silvery on the under side, while the spruce leaves are green on all sides. 
 If you have difficulty in determining by the leaves whether the tree is a fir or a 
 spruce look at the trunk of the tree. If it is a fir you will find scattered all over the 
 trunk good sized blisters. Press on one of these blisters hard enough to break the 
 skin and drops of resin will come out. The fir is the only one of our evergreen 
 trees that has resin blisters. 
 
 Another evergreen that is very common in n^any parts of Illinois is the arbor 
 vitae. This is sometimes called the white cedar. This tree does not have needles 
 at all, but flat scale like leaves that overlap each other forming a flat twig. 
 
 One more tree may be found and that is the red cedar. Here also you will 
 find the scale like leaves but they are stiff and pointed and more like awls than 
 those of the arbor vitae. The red cedar belongs to the juniper group of evergreens, 
 
 Have the children try to identify the different evergreen trees that they may 
 find in the district. Have them look at the trees to notice the habit of branching. 
 Can you trace the main stem of the tree from the foot to the top? Is there any 
 regularity in the method of branching? Stand under the tree close to the trunk and 
 look up. Are there many small branches or leaves near the trunk? 
 
 LESSON 3. For this lesson the children should have in the schoolroom a few- 
 twigs of the tree that you are to study as a type. Let us suppose it is the white 
 pine. Look at the leaves. What shape are they? How long are they? Do they 
 vary in length on different parts of the twig? Are they arranged singly or in 
 clusters? How many in one cluster? How are the clusters fastened together? (Note 
 the little sheath that grows around the base of the cluster of needles. In the 
 white pine you always find five needles in the cluster.) Look carefully at your twig 
 to determine how many years' growth it represents. (You can tell this by a slight 
 joint in the twig. In most of the pines you will find branches starting out at each 
 years' growth.) How many inches did the twigs grow last year? Does the growth 
 vary from year to year? 
 
 LESSONS 4 AND 5. Do you find leaves on last year's growth? On the part 
 that is two years old? On the three-year-old twig? Are the leaves as numerous on 
 
49 
 
 the two-year-old twig as they are on the one-year-old? Are there any leaves on the 
 four-year-old portion of the branch? (You rarely find leaves on the pines that are 
 four years old.) 
 
 Do the evergreens shed their leaves? Look at the old portions of the twigs for 
 scars showing where the leaves have fallen. Do you find any leaves that are brown 
 and dead still clinging to the twigs? How do these trees differ from the deciduous 
 trees in the method of dropping their leaves? (By deciduous trees we mean trees 
 such as the elms and maples that drop their leaves each year. The main differ- 
 ence between the evergreens and the other trees is that they retain their leaves 
 longer and instead of dropping them all at once drop them a few at a time.) Look 
 on the ground under the evergreen trees. Do you find any evidence that these trees 
 drop their leaves? Watch for the dropping of the leaves this winter. You will 
 often find many of them flying over the snow after a heavy snow storm. 
 
 LESSON 6. Cones and seeds. For this lesson have some twigs in the class 
 with cones on. Also some of the old cones that have been picked up from the 
 ground. Do you find cones of different sizes on the twigs ? Where are the cones 
 attached to the twigs? (You may find some very small ones near the end of last 
 year's growth, larger ones on the two-year-old twigs.) What is the shape of the 
 cone? How long is it? Do the old cones of the same tree vary in length? Are 
 the scales large or small? Are they close together or rather loose? Look carefully 
 at the base of the scales for some seeds that may still be left in the cones. How 
 large are the seeds? Have they any special adaptation for getting away from the 
 parent tree? (If the cones are not too old you probably can find a few of the 
 winged seeds left in the scales near the base of the cone.) 
 
 The small cone that you find near the end of the twig was formed last spring. 
 It will grow and produce seeds next year. So you see it takes the white pine two 
 years to mature its cones and seeds. This is true also of the other pines, the 
 Austrian and Scotch. Perhaps you may find some cones of these trees that have 
 not yet shed their seeds. The scales of these are tightly closed. If you find some 
 lay them up in a dry place in the schoolroom or at home and you may have the 
 pleasure of hearing the scales snap as they open and throw out the seeds. 
 
 LESSOX 7. If you have studied the white pine as a type then give one or 
 two lessons to a comparative study of the other pines if there are any in the neighbor- 
 hood. Note the differences and resemblances till you are certain you can tell the 
 different kinds apart wherever you see them. 
 
 LESSONS 8 AND 9. Choose one of the short needled evergreens, either the 
 spruce, fir, or hemlock for a type study as you did the pine. Study the arrangement 
 of the leaves; their length. How many sides has each needle? Find the age of 
 the oldest leaves by making out the year 's growth as you did for the pine. You 
 will find that some of the leaves on the Norway spruce are seven or eight years old. 
 The spruces retain their leaves much longer than the pines. Study the cones, if 
 you can find any, and compare them with those of the pine as to shape and size. 
 The cones of the Norway spruce are reddish brown, several inches long, very shiny 
 and pretty. Compare the hemlock and fir with the spruce. 
 
 LESSONS 1C AND 11. Have one lesson on the arbor vitae. Who has seen 
 hedges made of this evergreen? They are used in some places very largely for 
 hedges around gardens and yards and are very pretty if kept trimmed properly. 
 There are many different varieties of arbor vitae. Some of them are low shrubs 
 but others grow into most magnificent trees. Notice the habit of branching. Find 
 the oldest leaves. You may find a few that are three or four years old, but most 
 of the fresh green ones you will find on the one-year and two-year twigs. The 
 cones are so tiny you will need to look closely to find them. 
 
 If there are red cedars in the district compare these with the arbor vitae. 
 Some red cedars may be found growing wild on rocky bluffs along some of the 
 rivers of our own state. 
 
 LESSON 12. Have the children tell why they like evergreen trees. Which 
 kind do they like best? Of all the evergreens that we have the white pine is by 
 far the most beautiful tree. Discuss the uses of the various , kinds of evergreen 
 trees. Your geographies may tell you something about the places where the ever- 
 greens grow in great numbers. The white pine is perhaps the most important of all 
 
50 
 
 our pine trees. You will find it in Eastern United States and in the region of 
 the Great Lakes. So important has this been for making lumber that most of our 
 best white pine trees have been cut down and been used. Steps are being taken 
 to renew the forests of white pines in Maine and some of the states along the 
 Great Lakes. 
 
 The yellow pine, which you do not find growing in Illinois at all even as an 
 ornamental tree, grows in the South. It is at present one of the most important 
 pines for the making of lumber. We sometimes call it hard pine. The red pine 
 which grows far to the north is also an important tree in the making of lumber. 
 
 The Norway spruce, as its name indicates, is a native of Europe. We use it 
 here as an ornamental tree. In Europe its lumber is used very largely for building 
 purposes and for the making of furniture. 
 
 The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning leather. It is usually mixed with 
 oak bark and the combination makes the very best kind of leather that we have. 
 
 The red cedar is sometimes called ' * pencil cedar ' ' because its wood is used so 
 extensively in the manufacture of lead pencils. 
 
 LESSON 13. Muscles. Discuss with the children what enables us to move 
 about? Let them think of their bodies as living machines that move and do work 
 of various kinds. It is the muscles, with the aid of the bones that make any 
 movement or motion possible. Place your right hand on your left arm above the 
 elbow and grasp it tightly. Now lift a book from the desk and raise it toward 
 your head. Can you feel your arm muscles moving as you lift the book? Place 
 your hand on your sides and note the movements of the muscles as you take a deep 
 breath. Find other muscles that move as you do various things. Look in the 
 physiology for a picture of the muscles of the body and study how they are 
 arranged. 
 
 LESSON 14. Besides the muscles of our arms, legs, shoulders, chest, that 
 move the parts of the body that you can see and control can you think of other 
 muscles that move parts of the body that you cannot see? Among these have the 
 children think of the heart, which is made mostly of muscles. The walls of the 
 stomach and other digestive organs have muscles in them that help to move the 
 food about while it is digesting. Muscles move our eyes, and the vocal cords with 
 which we talk. Some of the muscles are not under the control of our wills at all. They 
 move and work right along whether we are awake or asleep. Look in your physiology 
 to find the names of the muscles that are under our control and those that we do 
 not control. 
 
 LESSON 15. Let us think of some other work the muscles do besides moving 
 the body. Straighten up with your head erect, your chest rounded out, and your 
 shoulders back. What enables you to stand so straight and tall? Now let your 
 head drop and your shoulders droop forward. Hold your hands across your back 
 while you do this and then straighten up again. Do this several times. Do you 
 feel the movement of the muscles along the spinal column? These muscles help to 
 hold the spinal column straight. Other muscles help in holding our body in shape 
 as well as in moving parts of it about. Another use of the muscles is to help protect 
 some of the delicate organs. 
 
 LESSON 16. What are muscles like? Do not spend much time in studying 
 the structure of the muscles. Eead what your physiology says about the structure 
 and look at the pictures. The children should realize that all the lean meat of 
 animals is made of muscles. The white tissue that holds the muscle bundles together 
 in the meat is called connective tissue. This is easily found. The muscles in the 
 leg of a chicken show the form of muscles very well. A small piece of lean meat 
 cooked for a short time and then torn to pieces in a little water will show the 
 bundles of muscle fiber. 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE FEBRUARY. Muscles continued. Tendons; how related to 
 muscles; illustrate by chicken leg. Bones; their relation to the muscles. Function 
 of l)ones in protection of parts of body. Good, positions in standing, sitting, ivalk- 
 ing. Necessity of forming good habits while young. Practice in erect carriage of 
 
51 
 
 body. Exercise; necessity; time; place; kinds; practice; effects of alcohol upon 
 bones and mil*- 
 
 LESSOX 1. At the ends of the muscles are strong white cords called tendons 
 that help to fasten the muscles to the bones. Look in the physiology for a descrip- 
 tion of the tendons. Straighten out your left arm. Xow place the fingers of your 
 right hand just over the elbow joint and bend your arm upward. Can you feel the 
 cord like tendon that passes over the elbow as you move your arm? Can you tell 
 where this tendon is fastened? Look at the back of your hand. Move your fingers 
 up and down. Can you see the long tendons moving? Where are the muscles to 
 which these tendons* are attached and that help to move your fingers? (These 
 muscles are situated at some distance up on the arm and yet they are able to move 
 the fingers.) If you can procure the leg and foot of a chicken you will be able 
 to show exactly how the muscles and tendons work together. 
 
 LESSONS 2, 3, AND 4. The muscles cannot do their work alone. You found 
 that the muscles on your upper arm thickened up, and the tendon which passed 
 over the eblow joint pulled on the part of the arm below the elbow. The muscle 
 could not have done its work if the tendon had not been fastened securely to the 
 bone of the lower arm. What, then, is one of the uses of the bones of the body? 
 (They serve as attachments for the muscles and so make it possible for the muscles 
 to do their work.) 
 
 We think of the bones as making up the framework of the body. With the 
 aid of the physiology have the children learn the chief group of bones in the body, 
 skull bones, ribs, shoulder blades, collar bones, spinal column, arms, hips and legs. 
 Spend some time identifying these groups of bones first by use of pictures and then 
 in their own bodies. Spend some time in discussing the importance of the spinal 
 column. Have the children see that it is the part that helps to support all the rest 
 of the body. If this is bent or crooked the whole body will be bent or crooked. 
 Have the children recall that it is the large muscles along the spinal column that 
 help to hold the spinal column erect. 
 
 LESSOX 5. Some of the bones are used to protect the delicate vital organs of 
 the body. Can you think of any that do this? Study this from the physiology. 
 Have the children summarize all the uses of the bones. 
 
 LESSOX 6. What is the difference between children's bones and those of 
 grown up people? Have you ever noticed the tip of the breast bone of a chicken? 
 How does it differ from the rest of the breast bone? This soft white part is called 
 cartilage. Many bones of little children are like cartilage and as the children 
 grow older the soft bones become harder and harder. If this is true you can easily 
 see how the bones of children may be bent and instead of growing straight grow 
 crooked. If we really want our bones to grow so that we shall be straight and tall 
 when we are men and women we must begin when we are children to hold ourselves 
 erect. We all like to see a person who is straight. He looks very much better than 
 one who is round shouldered or who stoops far over. How may we grow straight 
 and tall? Here is a rule that was given by a teacher of physical training to help 
 you to remember how to stand: Place your feet firmly on the floor your weight on 
 the balls, and not on the heels. Xow stand with your head pushed up as high as 
 you can. Bound out your chest and keep your belt in. Hold your chin in and 
 think of your neck pushing against your collar. Practice standing erect, not once 
 but many times until you form the habit. 
 
 LESSOX 7. There are some things that you should think about, not in order 
 to do them but to avoid them if you are going to form correct habits of standing. 
 Do not stand on one foot for any length of time or you are likely to grow one 
 sided. Do not lean against the desk or other object, but stand up straight on both 
 feet. Practice standing correctly in class. The teacher should feel that time spent 
 in actual practice is worth much more to the children than time taken to discuss 
 how they should stand. What advantage will it be to the children to talk about how 
 to stand erect and not put this knowledge into practice? 
 
 LESSOX 8. To learn to sit correctly is just as important as to stand well. 
 We should not sit near the edge of the chair but well back with the lower part of 
 the spine resting against the back of the chair or seat. The seat should be low 
 enough to permit the feet to rest upon the floor. The teacher should see to it that 
 
52 
 
 each child has, if possible, a seat that is suited to his size. Practice sitting prop- 
 erly. This does not mean sitting stiffly without moving the position, but it does 
 mean avoiding all the things that tend to make round shoulders and limp backs. 
 
 LESSON 9. Can you think of some other wrong positions in sitting? Do you 
 ever see any one sitting on the edge of the seat and yet leaning back against the 
 back of the chair? It is not hard to see that he is likely to make himself round 
 shouldered. Do you bend over while you are reading or writing? If your desk is 
 the right height you can form the habit of sitting erect while you are writing and 
 reading. Do you ever sit on one foot? If you do, try to break up the habit, for 
 you are likely to twist your hip and sometimes your spinal column by doing this. 
 
 LESSONS 10 AND 11. There is one other part of the body in connection with 
 bones and muscles that we should know something about. How are the bones held 
 together? Of course you have already seen that the muscles help in a way to hold 
 the bones in good position but what makes it possible for the bones to work so 
 freely upon each other? It is of course the joints. Use your physiology to find out 
 all the different kinds of joints in the human body. Now look for illustrations of 
 these kinds in your own body. What kind of a joint in your elbow? In the hip? 
 In the fingers? Shoulder? Knee? etc. How are the bones at the joints held to- 
 gether? Look in your physiology to find the answer to this. Look for pictures 
 showing the ligaments that hold the bones together. What happens when you 
 sprain your wrist, or ankle, or knee? Some of the ligaments are torn loose. It 
 takes a long time for these ligaments to grow firm, again. In fact, it often takes 
 longer for a bad sprain to entirely recover than for a broken bone to heal and be- 
 come strong. 
 
 LESSON 12. Exercise. Discuss with the children why we should exercise. 
 They should appreciate the fact that exercise is one of the things needed to keep 
 us well and strong. It makes the blood flow faster and the food digest better. It 
 makes us breathe more deeply, and even makes us think better. We should take 
 regular exercise and the right kind if we are to get most good out of it. Have 
 the children name some of the ways of exercising. Work and play are the two 
 most common methods. Some people take all their exercise in work and others all 
 in play. The best plan is to have some of both kinds. Name some of the games that 
 are very active, such as running, jumping, skipping rope, etc. How do you feel after 
 you have run very fast for a number of minutes? Name some games that do not 
 require as much effort as running and jumping. All of our games are good for us 
 if we do not play too long and if we play regularly every day. 
 
 LESSON 13. Place and time to exercise. There is but one best place to play 
 nctive games and that is out of doors. Can you think why this is so? The out- 
 door air is always pure. Do you breathe any faster, use any more oxygen when 
 you exercise than when you are quiet? You see then how important it is to have 
 plenty of air while you are exercising. If you play indoors see to it that the room 
 is as full of fresh air as possible. 
 
 Is there any time that is better for exercise than another? You should not take 
 very violent exercise just before eating. If you are very hot or tired from running 
 or playing you should rest a short time before you eat anything. In the same way 
 it is not a good plan to exercise immediately after eating. Just after eating the 
 blood is needed in the stomach and if you exercise too much the blood will go to 
 the muscles. A good time to exercise outdoors is during recesses, at noon and before 
 and after school. When you have been sitting still reading, studying, or sewing 
 for an hour or more you should take a few minutes for some kind of exercise. 
 
 A few moments given to vigorous exercise of the arms and to deep breathing 
 with the window wide open every hour will do much not only to keep the children 
 in a better condition physically but will also enable them to do better mental work. 
 
 Another thing to remember about exercise is that it will do most good if you 
 exercise regularly every day, not a great deal one day and very little the next. 
 Country boys and girls have the very best chance to exercise in the open air, long 
 walks to school, outdoor work, riding and driving ought to help keep them strong 
 and well, but at the same time they need to exercise to use the muscles that will 
 help them carry their bodies erect and to sit properly just as much as the girls and 
 boys of the city do. 
 
53 
 
 LESSONS 14 AND 15. Have the children name all the ways that we have 
 already talked about that help us to keep the muscles and bones in good condition. 
 In order to have strong muscles we need, of course, good food to eat, and good air to 
 breathe. There are some things too that we should avoid, among which is the use 
 of alcohol or tobacco. A man who uses a great deal of alcohol usually has weak, 
 soft muscles which cannot endure the same amount of work that they could if alcohol 
 were left alone. I wonder if you know that when athletes are training for football 
 or some of the big track meets they do not use any alcohol or any tobacco. They 
 know they will not be as likely to succeed if they use these stimulants. It seems 
 pretty evident also that boys who use tobacco while they are young are likely to be 
 stunted in their growth. That in itself is a good reason for leaving cigars and 
 cigarettes alone. 
 
 Can you think of any reason why business men, as a rule, do not hire boys 
 who have formed the habit of smoking cigarettes? Careful records have been kept 
 which show that boys who use tobacco are not as reliable, all other things being 
 equal, as the boys who are free from this habit. You probably know that the bad 
 effects of tobacco and alcohol on boys is considered so important that laws have 
 been passed in our own state and other states by which any person selling these 
 stimulants to boys shall be punished by imprisonment or by a fine. Read all you 
 can find in your physiology of the effects of tobacco and alcohol on the muscles and 
 bones. 
 
 MARCH 
 
 OUTLINE FOR MARCH. Forms of water, liquid, solid, ice, snow, frost, hail, 
 vapor, "hard" and "soft" water. Simple experiments. Uses of water as a liquid, 
 as a gas, as ice. How is ice stored for summer use? Refrigerator. 
 
 Hygiene of feet. Bones and parts of the foot. Care; desirability of free motion 
 of the toes. A good shoe. 
 
 Leather, kinds, sources, methods of preparation, various uses, values; care of 
 leather. 
 
 LESSON 1. FORMS OF WATER. Today we are going to talk about some- 
 thing that you have known all your lives; something that you cannot live with- 
 out. It is so common that you probably have never thought there is anything very 
 wonderful about it and yet it is one of the most wonderful things in the world. 
 This that we are going to talk about is water. We call water a liquid. Can you 
 think of any other form in which water is sometimes found? Does it ever become 
 a solid instead of a liquid? What happens on a cold night when you place a cup 
 of water out of doors? When water freezes it changes from the liquid to the solid 
 state. How cold does water have to become before it freezes? (Thirty-two degrees 
 Fahrenheit). Look on your thermometer to find this point. Look at a piece of ice. 
 Is it the same throughout ? Did you ever watch a pond or a puddle of water begin 
 to freeze ? Where does it freeze first ? How does it freeze ? 
 
 LESSON 2. We have already found that water may be in the form of a liquid 
 and also in the form of a solid. Does water exist in any other form? To answer 
 this question we shall try a simple experiment. Put a little water into a tin cup 
 and set the cup upon the stove' or in some warm place. Leave it there a short time 
 or until the next day. What has become of the water? We say it has evaporated. 
 That means that the water has changed into a vapor or gas. What do you think 
 became of the vapor? It went off into the air. Can you see this water vapor in 
 the air? (We cannot see water vapor any more than the other gases of which the 
 air is composed. They are all invisible.) If we should set a pan of water out of 
 doors on a warm day will it change into vapor ? What becomes of the water in 
 puddles? in the road? in clothes when they are hung out upon the line? We say 
 the clothes dry, but what really happens is that the water evaporates; that is. it 
 changes to vapor and goes off into the air. Name other examples of evaporation 
 of water. 
 
 LESSON 3. RAIN. What do you think becomes of all the water vapor that 
 goes into the air from the rivers, oceans, lakes and streams? Does it always remain 
 invisible? Watch the spout of a teakettle when the water is boiling very hard. 
 Can you see anything for a short distance from the spout? There is something 
 
54 
 
 there although you cannot see it. I am sure you can think what it is, invisible 
 water vapor coming from the water in the teakettle. What do you see a little fur- 
 ther out from the teakettle? We call this steam. It is the vapor slowly changing 
 back into water again. Whenever invisible water vapor is cooled it changes back 
 into tiny drops of water. We say it condenses. Try to catch some of the vapor 
 from the boiling teakettle. To do this set a cup out of doors or in some cool place 
 until the cup is thoroly cool. Now hold it close to the spout of the teakettle and 
 let the vapor pour into it. What takes place? How much water can you obtain in 
 this way? You now see that heat changes water into vapor and when the vapor is 
 cool it changes back into water again. Steam is made up of such tiny drops of 
 water that they are light enough to float in the air. 
 
 Does any of the vapor that goes up into the air from the earth's surface ever 
 change back into water so that you may see it again? This is what happens. As 
 the vapor goes up into the air it is cooled just as it is when the steam gets some 
 distance from the teakettle. What does it form? (The children will readily see 
 that this forms clouds. In fact the steam you see near the teakettle is a small 
 cloud. When the clouds are cooled still more, the tiny drops of mist unite with one 
 another and soon get so large that they can no longer float in the air.) Then what 
 happens? They come down in drops and we have a shower of rain. 
 
 LESSON 4. Have the children review the story of the raindrops. Have them 
 think of the rain first as water on the earth or in the river, or ocean. It changes 
 to vapor and floats upward. Is it visible or invisible at this time? Third, it is 
 cooled and forms clouds. Fourth, when the clouds become cooler, what happens ? 
 
 The water from the clouds does not always fall in the form of rain. Name 
 other things that come from the clouds (snow, hail, sleet). Did you ever pick up 
 a hail stone? What shape was it? Do hail stones look like ice? How do you sup- 
 pose they are formed in the clouds? Sometimes, just as raindrops are forming in a 
 cloud, the cloud moves into some air that is freezing cold, or perhaps the freezing 
 cold air moves into the cloud. What happens to the drops? They freeze solid and 
 fall in the form of hail. When do we have hail storms most frequently? This 
 means then that high up in the air it is freezing cold when we are having hot sum- 
 mer weather down upon earth. 
 
 LESSON 5. SNOW. Can you think how snow is formed? When a cloud of 
 mist that is not yet formed into rain drops becomes very cold it freezes, forming 
 snow crystals. The crystals often unite forming the large snow flakes. Did you 
 ever catch snow upon your coat sleeve and notice the form of the flakes or crystals? 
 Snow crystals are all six-pointed stars, or at least they have six rays. The outer 
 part of the crystal may not always show six points. Sometimes when there is fine dry 
 snow you can easily see the six-pointed stars if you catch some of the crystals upon 
 a dark piece of cloth. Has much snow fallen this winter? Has it stayed upon the 
 ground a long time? Have you ever noticed the direction from which most of our 
 snow storms come? Is the snow of any value to us in the winter time? What are 
 some of the plants that are covered by the snow? (wheat, clover, alfalfa, strawberry, 
 wild flowers, etc.) Is the snow covering of any use to these plants? (The snow 
 protects these plants from severe freezing weather. While the snow is cold it really 
 acts something like a blanket for these plants.) 
 
 LESSON 6. FKOST. Watch for white frost on the ground and plants and 
 walks. Name all the places that you have seen frost this winter. Do we ever have 
 trees covered with white hoar frost? What is the color of hoar frost? See how 
 many different forms of frost you can find on objects out of doors. Do we ever 
 have frost inside of our homes as well as out of doors? How many different figures 
 can you find in the frost work on the window panes? 
 
 Where does the frost come from? We must think again of the invisible water 
 vapor in the air. You have not forgotten what happens when it is cooled. Now 
 suppose the walk or ground becomes very cold at night and the air with the water 
 vapor in it touches the cool objects. The vapor will at once start to change back 
 into water and before it is fairly changed it freezes and we have beautiful frost 
 crystals. You see then that the frost on the window panes in our homes is nothing 
 but the vapor that is in the room touching the cold windows and freezing. 
 
 LESSON 7. DEW. In the summer We have dew instead of frost on objects 
 out of doors. Are you ready to tell now where the dew comes from? It, too, is 
 
55 
 
 water vapor from the air or sometimes moisture from plants. Did you ever have 
 the dew settle on the outside of a glass or pitcher filled with cold water on a hot 
 day in summer? Can you explain where this dew came from? Was the pitcher cold 
 or hot on the outside when filled with cold water? When the vapor in the warm air 
 of the room touched the cold pitcher what happened? It was condensed and formed 
 into drops of dew. In the same way dew forms upon objects out of doors in the 
 summer time. 
 
 LESSON 8. What do we call water that we catch from rains in the cistern, 
 or pails, or tubs? Why is it "soft water"? To help answer this question let us 
 think of well water. Do we call it soft or hard? What do we mean by hard 
 water? To answer this put some soap into a pan with a little warm well water in 
 it and stir it around for a few moments. What happens? At first you notice that 
 it becomes milky and then a little scum arises on the top. This is a sure test of 
 hard water. Xow put some soap in the same way into soft water. How does it 
 differ from the hard water ? Must not hard water have something in it that the 
 soft water lacks? Where did the water in the well come from? Was it ever rain 
 water? All well water was once rain that soaked into the ground and moved slowly 
 downward, but it has changed as it moved through the ground. A simple experi- 
 ment will show something of what happened. Put a few spoonfuls of salt into half 
 a cup of warm water. Drop it in a little at a time and stir until it all disappears. 
 What has become of the salt? It has dissolved in the water. We say that a 
 solution is formed. In the same way water in the ground dissolves different sub- 
 stances through which it passes. Some of these substances are lime, sometimes iron, 
 and magnesium. We cannot see them in the water any more than we can see the 
 salt in the cup of water. That is, they are in solution in the water. These make 
 the water hard. 
 
 LESSOX 9. Place upon the stove the cup of water into which you stirred the 
 salt and let it remain there till all the water has disappeared. Now look into the 
 cup. Did the water vapor as it passed out take the salt with it or is the salt left 
 behind? If you had caught the vapor and let it turn back into water would it have 
 been soft or hard? It would have been soft, for it had left behind in the cup all the 
 salt. In the same way when water goes up into the air as vapor it leaves behind 
 in the river, lakes, etc., all of the substances that make it hard. 
 
 Look into your teakettle to see if you can find a coating of lime and other sub- 
 stances that the water has left behind when it boils and changes into vapor. 
 
 LESSON 10. Have the children name all of the uses of water that they know, 
 especially of soft water. Is ice of any use to us? (Skating, use in our refrigerators, 
 making ice cream, etc.) How is ice stored for summer use? If some one in the 
 district has an ice house, let the children describe this. An ice house is made usu- 
 ally with two walls, often with sawdust between to keep the ice cool. It, too, is 
 often surrounded by sawdust. In this way all the warm summer air is kept out 
 and the ice remains solid during the warmest weather. 
 
 LESSON 11. PHYSIOLOGY. Hygiene of the feet. Discuss briefly with the 
 children the uses of our feet. The chief one is to bear easily the weight of our 
 bodies while we are standing and walking. Study from the physiology the parts of 
 the foot, the number of bones, how they are fastened together with the ligaments, 
 and the arches of the foot. Impress the children with the fact that one of the im- 
 portant things to consider in the care of the feet is to keep the toes free to move 
 so that they as well as the ankle may be of value to us in walking and running. 
 
 LESSON 12. What are some of the other things that we may do in caring 
 for the feet? One thing we should do is to see that we wear shoes that fit the feet 
 perfectly.. That means that they will not be too large nor too small. The sole 
 should be the same width as the foot. What kind of heels should the shoes have? 
 They should be broad and rather low. The inner side of the shoe should be straight 
 so that the great toe should be in the same straight line with the side of the heel. 
 The shoe should also allow all of the toes to point straight forward. Do you think 
 that a very pointed shoe would do that? What is a pointed shoe likely to do to 
 the toes? It not only prevents freedom of the toes but in time deforms the foot 
 because it presses the great toe too far over at the top, and sometimes causes the 
 joint to become enlarged producing corns and bunions. Patent leather shoes are 
 
56 
 
 not a good kind to wear. In summer they are likely to keep the feet too warm. 
 In cold weather they are likely to keep the feet too cold. Tan or russet shoes are 
 much cooler in summer than black ones. Another thing to remember in caring for 
 the feet is to keep them dry and just warm enough to be comfortable. If they are 
 too warm they are likely to perspire freely which may be injurious to the feet if 
 the stockings cannot be changed frequently. 
 
 Another thing to be observed is the lacing of the shoes. Did you ever lace your 
 shoes so tightly that little ridges were formed between the laces? Can you think 
 why we should not do this? It keeps the blood from circulating freely and so pre- 
 vents free action of the foot, especially of the ankle. Tight garters are just as 
 injurious. 
 
 We should try to form right habits of using the feet in standing and walking. 
 If it is important to use the toes, then we should practice so that the muscles may 
 keep strong and able to do their work. Some exercise wall help in this. Eaise the 
 heels from the floor, bearing the weight upon the toes. Practice this a number of 
 times each day. Try to walk with the toes straight forward not turned out nor 
 turned in. It is very important that the children learn while young to value the 
 importance of comfortable shoes, so that their feet may move with ease and freedom, 
 and they may avoid the deformed and painful feet that so many of their parents 
 possess. 
 
 LESSON 13. LEATHEE. What are your shoes made of? Are all of your 
 shoes made of the same kind of leather? Look at them and see how many differ- 
 ent parts you can find. If you should rip them to pieces, how many pieces would 
 you have? The lower part of the shoe that covers the toes and extends around to 
 the heel is the vamp. The back stiff part of the heel is the counter. The tip covers 
 the front part of the vamp over the toes. The upper part that is sewed all around 
 to the vamp is the top or quarter. The vamp and the quarters when sewed together 
 form what we call the upper. Then there is the sole and the heel. Can you tell 
 how the sole is fastened to the upper in your shoe? Some shoes have the soles 
 sewed on, some have the outer sole tacked on. How is the heel made? Can you 
 tell whether it is in one piece or many pieces? There is another part of the shoe 
 that you cannot see, a little steel strap in the instep that helps to support the shoe 
 and keep it in shape. This is called the shank. 
 
 LESSONS 14 AND 15. What is leather made of? Can you name all of the 
 animals whose skins are used for this purpose? (Cow r s, calves, horses, sheep, goats, 
 dogs, alligators.) The skins of the large, full-grown animals are called hides; those 
 of small animals, such as calves, sheep, goats, and dogs, are called skins. Which do 
 you suppose yields the softer leather? Leather made from hides is very thick and 
 heavy. It is used for the soles of our shoes and for other things where heavy 
 leather is necessary. Do you know how leather is made? Have you ever heard of 
 a tannery? That is the place where hides and skins are taken to be made into 
 leather. It would be very interesting to visit a tannery to see just how leather 
 is prepared for our shoes. 
 
 In the first place we should know T that the structure of the skins of animals 
 is very much like that of our own skin. On the outside is a layer called by the same 
 name that ours is, the epidermis. Under this is the true skin or dermis. Attached 
 to the outside layer is the covering of hair. 
 
 The first thing that is done when the hides and skins are brought to the tannery 
 is to wash them in clean water to remove all dirt. If they are dry, as they often 
 are when shipped from long distances, they are soaked in hike-warm water until 
 they are softened. Then they are placed in large vats with a solution of lime. 
 Heavy hides are left in the lime only a few days, but the skins that are to make soft 
 leather for our shoes are left in the vats from fifteen to twenty days. 
 
 The next process is to remove the hairs and epidermis. To do this the skins 
 are taken from the vats, laid upon a rack, and scraped. Next they are put into 
 another solution for the purpose of softening the fibers. The skins are now ready 
 to be tanned, which really makes them into brown or reddish colored leather. The 
 tanning fluid for this purpose is made of various things. Most of the tanning fluid 
 or tannin is made from the bark of oak trees and hemlocks. After tanning 
 the leather is oiled. Sometimes in connection with the oiling coloring matter is 
 put in. That is usually the case in the making of black leather. The leather is 
 
57 
 
 rubbed with a mixture of lamp black and oil. Colored leathers are dyed with cer- 
 tain kinds of dye stuff after they are tanned. 
 
 LESSON 16. Name all the articles that you know that are made of leather 
 besides shoes. (Belts, suit cases, pocket books, gloves, mittens, harness, buggy tops, 
 trunks, etc.) It would be interesting to visit a cobbler or shoemaker and get 
 small samples of different kinds of leather. Are leather goods expensive? The 
 finer the leather the more expensive it is. Do you know how the fine leather of 
 which our gloves are made is obtained? This is made in exactly the same way as 
 the leather for our shoes, but from the finest of the goat skins. 
 
 How should leather goods of any kind be cared for? The most important thing 
 is to keep the leather from becoming hard and dry. This may be done in various 
 ways. Oiling or blacking the shoe helps to keep the oil that is in it from escaping. 
 Wading in water or wet snow is very hard on shoe leather. Can you see why? 
 
 APRIL AND MAY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE APEIL AND MAY. Trees. The elm tree (maple or oak as 
 alternative); study of twig at time of bud opening; distinguish flower bud and twig 
 bud, follow development; kinds of elm (maple or oak); uses of wood; historic elms 
 and oaks; calendar of typical tree. Oak and elm galls. 
 
 Garden, Plan the home garden and discuss what seeds to plant. Study seed 
 catalogues. Grow radish and lettuce for early market or home consumption. Choose 
 several different kinds to determine the most desirable. 
 
 Underground parts of plants used for propagation; bulbs, tubers, roots, etc. 
 Study onion as a type. Sets, seeds, bulbs, top onions. Set out dahlias and plant 
 seeds of other plants. If practicable make o small flower bed on the school grounds. 
 
 Make plans for vacation observation and study. Plant beets, parsnip, and other 
 biennials for fall study. Set out some roots of beets and turnips to produce seeds. 
 
 NOTE. The topics of the lessons arranged below are prepared for the soft 
 maple, but may easily be modified to fit the elm or any other tree that may be 
 selected. There are a few points of difference, however, that may be stated. The 
 elm blossoms about as early as the maple, but the flowers are all of the same kind. 
 Each flower has its own stamens and pistil, while the maple has two kinds of flowers, 
 one bearing stamens and the other pistils. 
 
 The uses of the elm differ somewhat from those of the soft maple. Because of 
 its graceful form and its endurance it is a favorite shade tree everywhere. The wood 
 is very tough. It is used in making parts of the wheels of vehicles, flooring, many 
 agricultural implements, and is used extensively in ship building. It is also used 
 largely in the making of barrels and kegs. 
 
 There are several historic elms that are worth mentioning. The "Washington 
 Elm in Cambridge, Mass., gets its name from the fact that Washington is said to 
 have first drawn his sword under this tree when he took command of the army of 
 the Eevolution. Penn's elm was a great old tree that was probably 200 years of 
 age when Penn came to the new world. Under this tree Penn and the Indians met 
 and made the famous Penn treaty. This tree blew down in the year 1810. 
 
 LESSON 1. TEEE STUDY. Tell the children that tomorrow we are going to 
 talk about the soft maple tree. How many have some of these trees in their yards at 
 home? Look closely at one and be ready to tell whether the trunk is smooth or 
 rough, whether it has many large branches, and whether the trunk and branches are 
 the same color? Do the branches spread out or grow upward? Are there many 
 twigs? Are they crooked or straight? Do they droop or stand erect? What is 
 the shape of the tree? Stand off at some distance and look at it. Is it round? Is 
 it wide at the bottom and pointed at the top like a pyramid? Is it the form of 
 a wide column or is it shaped like an umbrella? Are there any leaves on the tree? 
 Any flowers? 
 
 LESSON 2. Bring a few twigs of the maple into the school room. Place them 
 in water to keep fresh. How many different things can you find on one twig? (The 
 children will find the buds, scars where the leaves were attached last year, and 
 ring scars which tell each year's growth.) How many years old is the twig*? Where 
 are the buds? How are they arranged on the twig? Are they opposite or alternate? 
 
58 
 
 Is there one at the end? What will a side bud become? an end bud? To answer 
 these questions watch the development of the buds outside, or place twigs in water 
 in the schoolroom. Draw a twig showing all the things you see. 
 
 LESSON 3. On some of the trees you will find at this season the flowers, or 
 the small clusters of young fruit. If you find the flowers, examine them carefully 
 and note how beautiful they are. You will find that all the flowers are not alike, 
 some have the stamens which bear the yellow powder called pollen, and others have 
 pistils which grow into the fruit and seeds. The flowers that bear stamens are 
 called staminate flowers, and those that bear pistils are called pistillate flowers. 
 
 LESSON 4. After the flowers have disappeared watch the rapid development 
 of the fruit. Make sketches at different times showing the growth of seeds and 
 the wings. Do you find that the paired seeds are always about the same size? When 
 do the seeds begin to fall? Watch them flying down from the trees, whirling around, 
 fluttering like butterflies. In what way are the wings a help to seeds? How far 
 away from the tree do the winged seeds travel? Why is it an advantage for them 
 to get away from under the parent tree? 
 
 LESSON 5. Gather a number of the seeds and plant them in the school gar- 
 den or in flower pots or boxes in your window garden. Suggest to the children 
 that they also plant some at home. How long after the planting before the young 
 plants begin to appear ? How many leaves has the little tree at first ? Do these look 
 at all like maple leaves? Watch for the appearance of the next leaves. Where 
 do they appear? What becomes of the two long slender leaves which appeared 
 first? Can you find any young maple trees that have planted themselves? Where are 
 they? 
 
 LESSON 6. Some time should be given to discussion of the value of the maple. 
 Find what uses the children can name, such as shade, nesting and feeding places 
 for birds, fuel and furniture and sugar marking. Are there any objections to the 
 soft maple as a shade and ornamental tree about the house? 
 
 LESSON 7. Do you know any other kind of maples? The sugar maple is 
 found in many of the woods of Illinois. The Norway maple is used in many places 
 as an ornamental tree. It has the roundest head of all the maples. The box elder, 
 which is found in many parts of Illinois, is a close relative of the maples. 
 
 LESSON 8. By observation the children will see that a bud develops into a 
 twig with leaves on it. Leave with them the question as to whether leaves con- 
 tinue to open up at the end of the twig. Toward the end of the term examine the 
 twigs again with this in mind. Note the length of the new twigs at this time. 
 Encourage the children to watch some particular tree during the summer to see how 
 long new leaves continue to appear, or what other changes may be noted. 
 
 Another interesting exercise is the keeping of a calendar of an individual tree 
 accompanied by sketches. The calendar should show the date of flowering and of 
 opening of leaf buds, when the leaves are fully grown, when the fruit ripens, when 
 the young trees begin to grow from the seeds, and any other points of interest. 
 Simple drawings showing stages in the development will add much value to the 
 work. 
 
 THE GAEDEN. The teacher should make every effort to have the children 
 start home gardens of their own. Make plans for planting vegetables, especially 
 those that have been studied, so that there may be a display of them at the exhibit 
 next September. Plant beets, parsnips, carrots, and salsify; onions as suggested 
 in the lesson on bulbs. Ask each child to set out at least two beet roots that have 
 been kept over winter ; also two turnips for the purpose of raising seeds. 
 
 Help the children to plan a simple flower bed for their home garden. A plot 
 four to six feet wide and ten feet long is large enough. Plant two or three different 
 flowers in this. A nice arrangement for the fourth grade is as follows : 
 
 Set out a row of dahlias along the outside of the bed. In front of this and 
 about fifteen inches away, plant a row of zinnias or sweet scabious and in front 
 of this, as a border, sweet alyssum. An entire bed of petunias may be planted, or 
 one of nasturtiums. All of these flowers, if well taken care of, will blossom in the 
 fall in time for the flower exhibit. 
 
59 
 
 EADISH AND LETTUCE. In preparation for the study of the radish and 
 lettuce^ send to seed houses for catalogs (any of the following will send catalogs 
 free: Vicks' Sons, Rochester, X. Y.; Peter Henderson & Co, New York City; Henry 
 Field & Co., Shenandoah, la.; Henry A. Dreer, Philadelphia, Pa.) 
 
 LESSOX 9. Study the different varieties as described in the catalogs. Which 
 are best for early results? Which for a late crop? If possible send for two or 
 three varieties to test them. Each child should plant a small plot at home. If 
 there is a school garden, let the class plant a few of each kind. Discuss method 
 of planting. How deep should the seeds be planted? A good rule to follow for 
 most seed is this: the depth should be almost four times the diameter of the seed. 
 How far apart should they be planted? They should be at least one inch and a half. 
 Two inches are better for the summer varieties. Why should they not be crowded? 
 
 LESSOX 10. Record the date of planting, when the first leaves appear, when 
 the second leaves appear, and when the first radishes are large enough for table 
 use. Do different varieties differ in this respect? Test the quality and flavor of 
 the radishes and decide which kind you like best. Does the rapidity of growth 
 have any effect upon the crispness of the radishes? 
 
 The same general plan may be used for the study of the lettuce. 
 
 LESSOX 11. BULBS AXD OTHER UNDERGROUND STEMS. Ask the chil- 
 dren if they can think of any plant that we start in our gardens in some other way 
 than by seeds. They will probably name potatoes, onions, sweet potatoes, dahlias, 
 etc. 
 
 The onion is a good type for detailed study. The materials needed for these 
 lessons are a few large onions, several onion sets, if possible a stem with top sets 
 or bulblets, and some seed. Begin by asking the children what an onion is. To 
 answer the question have them examine the large onion. What do they find at the 
 lower end? (The fine fibrous roots will be seen.) Look at the other end for the 
 shoot or bud. Is it beginning to grow? What then does the onion resemble? Since 
 it has roots at one end and a growing shoot that is opening into leaves at the 
 other it should be possible to answer. (It resembles a stem, and since it grows in 
 the ground we call it an underground stem.) This particular kind of underground 
 stem is called a bulb. What is on the outside of the bulb? What do you think 
 is the use of the dry, paper covering? To answer this have the children remove 
 the skin and then place the onion on the window sill where it will get the rays of 
 the sun and also the air. After four or five days examine to see what has happened. 
 (From this the children will see that the dry paper covering keeps the onion from 
 drying out.) 
 
 LESSOX 12. Let us look more closely at the onion bulb to see how it is 
 made. Cut it in two across the middle and notice that it is made up of layers. 
 Where are the layers thicker, at the outside or toward the center? What is the color 
 of the central portion? What is the relation between this and the shoot? (This 
 is really the beginning of the shoot.) What uses are the thick juicy layers to the 
 growing onion? Try the following experiment. Procure a wide mouthed bottle, a 
 pickle bottle will serve the purpose, fill it with water, and put an onion in the 
 mouth so that the lower part will be in the water. Place the bottle on the window 
 sill and watch the growth of the onion from day to day. Where does it obtain the 
 food with which to grow? (The children will readily see that the bulb furnishes 
 the food for the growing leaves and roots.) What will a large onion do if we 
 plant it ? 
 
 LESSOX 13. How do we get new onions to eat during the summer? Let the 
 children tell what is used at their homes. Some probably plant sets, some seeds, and 
 and some top onions. Let the children examine some sets. How do they differ 
 from the large onion? Do they have the dry covering, the layers, the tiny roots, 
 and the shoot ? They are just like the large onions except in size. In fact, they 
 are nothing but little bulbs. Last year 's onion seeds were planted late in the season, 
 the last of June or the first of July. In the fall the tiny bulbs were taken up, dried, 
 and kept all winter. If we set some of them out in *the ground this spring they 
 will grow rapidly and in about six weeks we may expect to have onions large enough 
 to eat. The sets may be planted very early, for onions are hardy and can stand the 
 cool spring nights without injury. How should they be planted? (Plant them in 
 
80 
 
 rows two or three inches apart, cover with soil and firm the soil well around them. 
 The rows should be twelve or fifteen inches apart.) 
 
 LESSON 14. Discuss how the seed beds should be prepared for onions, whether 
 we plant sets or seeds. Onions require rich soil, the richer the better. It is a good 
 thing to plow the ground in the fall, plowing under a good dressing of manure. Be- 
 fore planting, the soil should be made very fine, especially the two or three inches 
 on the top. 
 
 Let the children examine the seeds. What is the color? How many have ever 
 seen an onion in bloom? How shall we plant the seed? Sow in rows. The rows 
 should be from twelve to sixteen inches apart. When the plants are an inch or 
 two high they should be thinned until they are about two inches apart. 
 
 Should onions be cultivated? How many of the children help weed and culti- 
 vate onions at home? It is a good thing to hoe the soil towards the little sets so 
 the stems will become white. With the little onions grown from the seeds, however, 
 the soil should not be thrown up around the stem. We want to give this bulb a 
 chance to grow and spread out near the surface of the ground. Why? (We want 
 it to make a large onion to use during the winter.) 
 
 An experiment may be tried in the school room, in the school garden, or at 
 home to see whether onion seeds germinate quickly and whether the young plants 
 grow slowly or rapidly. Plant a few seeds in a box of soil, keep warm and well 
 watered, watch for the appearance of plants. In the same way compare the growth 
 of onions from sets and seeds. 
 
 LESSON 15. It may be worth while spending a short time in the discussion 
 of other ways of propagating onions. Perhaps some child knows of the multipliers 
 or potato onions. Onions multiply in the ground. If one bulb is planted soon a num- 
 ber of new bulbs grow from it. These new bulbs are never very large, but many 
 people consider them very good to eat. 
 
 Other kinds of onions produce little bulbs or "bulblets" at the top of the stem. 
 These little bulblets are often called top onions. Some people call them "sets," 
 but they are not the true onion sets which have already been described. These top 
 onions may be planted in the spring just as the true sets are, and they will produce 
 onions for early use. 
 
 There is still another kind of onion known as the winter or evergreen onion. 
 This lives out of doors all winter. The bulbs of the winter onion grow in clusters. 
 In the early spring, sometimes before the snow is gone, these send up their fresh 
 tender stems. If one of the clusters is dug up and broken apart and the bulbs set 
 out separately each will produce a new cluster. 
 
 LESSON 16. WILD FLOWEKS. Follow the lessons on the onion with a brief 
 study of the wild flowers of spring. What are some of the earliest flowers that 
 we find in the woods? The children may know the hepatica, violet, spring beauty, 
 dog-tooth violet, Jack-in-the-pulpit, and others. Try to have them solve the prob- 
 lem, how can the wild flowers send up their flowers so early in the spring? If wild 
 flowers are numerous in the vicinity of the school dig up one or two to show the 
 children the underground stems. They will find if they dig deep enough that spring 
 beauties have tubers like potatoes, the dog-tooth violets have bulbs like onions, and 
 the violets have thick root stocks. What is stored in all these underground stems? 
 (Just as the onion bulbs have food stored in them that the onion uses as it grows, 
 so the wild flowers the summer before stored up plenty of food material for the plant 
 to live upon in the early spring.) What other preparation did the onion make last 
 fall? You remember the little shoot that is all ready to grow the moment it gets a 
 chance? In the same way the wild flowers have their flower buds all ready the sum- 
 mer before so they are ready to open up at the first indication of spring. 
 
 VACATION STUDIES. Discuss with the children how they can care for their 
 gardens. All weeds should be kept out. The soil should be stirred frequently even 
 if there are no weeds to pull out. When the flowers begin to blossom they should be 
 picked occasionally. They will blossom all the better for this. In gathering flowers 
 it is better to use a large pair of shears and cut the stems instead of breaking them. 
 The stem should be kept as long as possible. Keep a record of how many radishes 
 and how much lettuce you raise and be ready to tell which kind you think is best. 
 
61 
 
 LESSON PLANS FOR FIFTH YEAR 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR SEPTEMBER. (Alternating with sixth year's ?corfc; ten min- 
 utes daily, or, preferably, three longer periods each week.) 
 
 Eei>ort on vacation studies. Fall aspect of garden. Harvesting and stonng of 
 onions and other underground plant parts. 
 
 Grasshoppers; collect different kinds, locusts, meadow grasshoppers, katydid; 
 field study to discover habits and food. With specimens in cages, observe how much 
 one grasshopper will eat in one day, method of breathing, of making sounds. How 
 may grasshoppers be destroyed? Allies, crickets, cockroaches, walking sticks. 
 
 i Nineteen lessons planned.) 
 
 EEPORTS OF VACATION STUDIES. LESSONS 1 AND 2. The first lesson 
 should be an informal discussion of the vacation work and studies. If the children 
 have observed grasses and dandelions let each tell in his own way what he has seen. 
 When did the bluegrass blossom? How tall does the flowering stem grow? Did 
 anyone find seeds on the bluograss? How can you tell bluegrass from timothy? (If 
 possible the teacher should have in class a few dried heads of these kinds of grasses.) 
 How many observed the dandelion during the summer? Did it continue to blossom 
 during the summer months? Did the leaves grow any taller in the tall grass than in 
 the short grass of the lawn? Look for dandelion flowers now. Who discovered 
 whether or not dandelion seeds grow the first season? 
 
 LESSONS 3 and 4. Have the children report on garden studies. How many 
 have onions in the home garden ? Ask the children to observe the following and re- 
 port the next day. Have any of the onions gone to seed? Have any of the stems 
 little bulblets on the top? How large are the onions that were started from seeds 
 in the spring? How large are those that were started from sets? (The teacher should 
 have in class for the next lesson specimens of onions grown in various ways.) A com- 
 parative study should be made of these. Discuss the harvesting and storing of onions. 
 Encourage the children to tell how the work is done at their homes. The following 
 rules should be observed in harvesting the crop. The bulbs should be pulled or dug 
 up and left for several days to dry. The tops and roots should then be cut off and 
 the onions placed on the floor of a barn pr crib or in some dry place. They should 
 be scattered thinly on the floor and not piled up. When thoroughly dry they may be 
 placed in the cellar or basement for winter use. The methods of storing other garden 
 plants for winter may be discussed. Are any roots left in the ground over winter? 
 (Parsnips and salsify.) Discuss the care of dahlia roots. (After the first biting 
 frost they should be dug up, dried and stored.) 
 
 GRASSHOPPERS AND THEIR RELATIVES. A few simple pieces of ap- 
 paratus will aid in the study of grasshoppers. Two or three quart Mason jars, sev- 
 eral wide mouthed bottles, a feAv jelly glasses with covers-, a flower pot or tin pail 
 to hold soil, two or three lamp chimneys or lantern globes and a wire cage or vivar- 
 ium. A vivarium is easily made. For the foundation make a shallow box a foot and 
 one-half or two feet long, six inches wide and three inches deep. Nail firmly in each 
 corner a flat piece fifteen inches high, about an inch wide, and half an inch thick. 
 Complete the frame by nailing pieces of board to the top of the uprights, covering 
 the sides with wire screen or mosquito netting and placing a piece of board or panes 
 of glass over the top. A simple cage may be made from an ordinary shoe box. Cut 
 rectangular pieces out of the top and bottom of the box and sew in wire screening 
 or mosquito netting. Tie a string around the box to keep the lid on. Stand it up on 
 one side and you may watch the movements of the grasshoppers within. 
 
 LESSON 5. Discuss briefly with the children where grasshoppers are found. 
 Give them the following points for individual observation outside of school hours. 
 The study may easily be done on the way to and from school. Watch to see just 
 how the grasshopper moves out of your way. (It will not be difficult for the children 
 to see that the movement is a combination of flight and hop.) How do they alight? 
 Where do they alight? Do they make any effort to conceal themselves? Does their 
 color help them any in hiding from you? Bring a few live grasshoppers to school 
 tomorrow. 
 
62 
 
 LESSON 6. Call for reports upon the observation made in the field. Place 
 some of the live grasshoppers in the vivarium. Let each child have one in a bottle 
 or glass. Watch to see how the hoppers move about in the cage or glass. How many 
 legs have they? Are all the legs the same size? Can you find anything on the feet 
 to keep the hoppers from slipping when they alight? How many wings can you see? 
 Where are the wings that you saw when the insect was flying? Hold a grasshopper 
 in the left hand and with the right thumb and finger gently lift one of the outer 
 wings and notice how the inner wings are folded like fans. What do you think is 
 the use of the outer wings? (These are used for protection of the more delicate 
 wings underneath and are of no use for flight.) Are the outer wings any stronger or 
 firmer than the inner ones? 
 
 LESSON 7. The problem that the children are to solve today is what and how 
 grasshoppers eat. Let the children tell what they think the grasshoppers feed upon. 
 Place leaves of various kinds in the jars with the insects. Place sprays of clover, 
 grass and other leaves in a small bottle of water and set this in the vivarium. Let 
 the children find out for themselves how the grasshoppers nibble and chew the leaves. 
 Hold a grasshopper in the hand and place a leaf near its mouth. It will soon begin 
 to nibble the leaf. Have the children watch carefully to see how many parts of the 
 mouth they can discover while the grasshopper is feeding. (They will be able to 
 make out the flap-like upper lip, the dark toothed jaws that move from side to side 
 and the four foot-like projections at the lower part of the mouth. These projections 
 are called palps and the lower pair is fastened to the lower lip.) 
 
 Let the children try an experiment to see how much one grasshopper wil eat 
 in a single day. Place one of the insects in a jar or glass and wdth it half a dozen 
 blades of grass. How many blades are left next morning? Try it on other plants, 
 clover, corn. etc. Sprinkle some water on the leaves and see if the grasshoppers like 
 to drink. 
 
 LESSON 8. How does the grasshopper find out things? Can it see you when 
 you come near? Look on its head for eyes. Where are they? How many can you 
 find? If you look closely you will find three small eyes besides the two large ones. 
 One of these is in the middle of the face and one just in front of each large eye on 
 the top of the head. Where are the feelers or antennae? What do you think the 
 antennae are for? Can the grasshopper move them around? Does it touch objects 
 with them? (The antennae are organs of touch. They also contain the sense of 
 smell.) Does the grasshopper act as if it can hear? Eaise the wings and you will 
 see the ear spots on the back, one on each side. 
 
 LESSON 9. Have the children look for other kinds of grasshoppers; among 
 others they will probably find meadow grasshoppers. These are slender, greenish in- 
 sects that live on the stems of weeds, garden plants, and corn. They have very long 
 hair-like antennae, and often they sing all day long, stopping only a moment when 
 you approach too near. Place two or three of these in the vivarium. Let the chil- 
 dren observe them a few minutes to find in what ways they differ from the common 
 short horn grasshopper. In the same way let them find in what ways they resemble 
 the common grasshopper. How r do these insects make their music? (Leave this as 
 a problem for the children to solve by observation.) They will readily see the almost 
 transparent musical instrument at the base of the outerwings. They will be able to 
 see the insect vibrate this as it makes its music. 
 
 LESSON 10. Do grasshoppers live all winter? (No, they all die in the fall.) 
 Where do all the grasshoppers come from the next season? (Grasshoppers deposit 
 their eggs the fall before and these eggs hatch a new generation of grasshoppers.) 
 How and where do they lay their eggs ? To determine this have the children fill some 
 of the Mason jars about half full of garden soil. Firm this down and place one or 
 two female grasshoppers in each jar and feed them well. You can tell the female 
 grasshopper by the four projections at the back part of the abdomen. These projec- 
 tions form what is called the ovipositor or egg placer. Set the jars aside for a week 
 or more. 
 
 LESSON 11. We are now ready to find out something about another relative of 
 the grasshopper, the cricket. Where do crickets live? Do you find them moving 
 around in the daytime as much as grasshoppers do? Did you ever lift up a board 
 and find a cricket under it? Bring some crickets into the schoolroom and study them 
 
as you did the meadow grasshopper. What do crickets eat? Put some in'a glass and 
 feed them on various kinds of food. Watch to find how they make their music. 
 
 LESSOX 12. If you wish to see some cricket eggs, you may easily induce the 
 cricket to deposit some for you. Fill some flower pots or tin pails almost full of 
 soil. Then set a lamp chimney or lantern globe on top of the soil, pressing it down 
 slightly. Put the cricket inside, and tie a piece of thin cloth or netting over the top 
 of the* chimney. Be sure to feed the cricket well. After a number of days, lift up 
 the lantern globe or chimney and you will find in the crevice made by the chimney the 
 interesting golden eggs of the cricket. 
 
 LESSOX 13. Perhaps the most interesting of all the relatives of the grass- 
 hopper are the katydids. You may have a hard time to catch one of these, but if you 
 keep eyes and ears open, you will be sure to find one before the month is over. Put 
 it into the vivarium and see how many interesting things you can find out about it. 
 Look carefully at the base of the wings to find the triangular musical instrument. 
 Carefully lift up the outer wings to see the beautiful ones beneath. 
 
 LESSOX 14. One relative of the grasshopper is a very bad pest about cup- 
 boards and pautries. This is the cockroach. Who has seen one of these? WTiat color 
 is it? Does it have the long hopper legs that the rest of the family have? (This 
 insect has legs adapted for running instead of hopping.) What does it eat? If any 
 of the children know this pest, they will be ready to tell how it devours any food 
 that it may find about the home. 
 
 LESSOX 15. Examine the jars that were set aside for obtaining the grass- 
 hopper eggs. The children may have been fortunate enough to catch the insects 
 in the act of digging holes in the soil and placing their eggs in these holes. Care- 
 fully remove the soil from the jars, pouring it out upon a plate, or some other flat 
 object. You will find the packages of eggs an inch or two below the surface. The 
 egg packages are from three-fourths of an inch to an inch in length and about one- 
 third of an inch in diameter. Carefully open one package and study a single egg. 
 What is the color of the egg, its shape? Break apart one of the packages and count 
 the number of eggs. Some grasshoppers lay two or three packages. Where do the 
 grasshoppers that are out doors place their eggs? (They are placed in the ground 
 of the meadows, pastures and roadsides.) When do these eggs hatch? (Some of 
 them hatch quite early in the spring if the weather is warm. They may be found 
 in the latter part of March, others do not hatch until April or May.) 
 
 LESSOX 16. How do the young grasshoppers differ from the grown-up ones? 
 (While most of the young grasshoppers are found in the spring and early summer, 
 tn'ere are always a few belated ones that may be found in September.) Have the 
 children search for these in the grasses of the meadows or roadsides. Place them 
 in the bottles for study and feed them upon the leaves of grass and clover. Observe 
 them for a few minutes to discover in what ways they resemble the grown-up in- 
 sects; then study them a few minutes longer to find out how they differ from the 
 mature insects. Find the beginnings of wings on the backs. (If young grasshoppers 
 are kept for a time, the children may have the pleasure of seeing them change into 
 the grown-up form.) This is done by molting. The little grasshoppers creep out 
 of their old skins, then the wings unfold and grow acd the hoppers are grown up. 
 
 LESSOX 17. Since grasshoppers lay so many eggs in the fall why is it that 
 we do not have all of our meadows, pastures, and corn eaten up by them? (It is 
 because they have so many natural foes.) Have the children try to think of some 
 of the ways in which the grasshoppers are destroyed. Fall plowing often brings 
 the eggs to the surface, ^here they are eaten by birds or other foes. Spring plowing 
 destroys hundreds of eggs. Many grasshoppers are attacked by a fungous disease 
 that kills them by hundreds in the fall. Ask the children if they have ever seen dead 
 grasshoppers hanging to the tops of weeds and other plants? Whenever they find 
 one of these grasshoppers they may know that it died of this disease. 
 
 This is a good time to talk about the birds that feed to a great extent upon 
 grasshoppers. Just how much the birds do to keep the grasshoppers in check is 
 difficult to estimate. The greatest benefactors among the birds are the meadow 
 larks, quail, brown thrasher, bobolink, dick cissel, and the song and field sparrows. 
 
 LESSOXS 18 and 19. Make plans and arrange a program for the Harvest 
 home festival to be held the last Friday in the month. 
 
64 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE OCTOBER. Study of strawberry beds at home; report on old 
 plants, runners, new plants, care of beds in ivinter. 
 
 Continuation study of trees, especially of their autumn coloration and prepara- 
 tion for winter rest. 
 
 The mosquito; collection of eggs and larvae or pupae from stagnant water, rain 
 barrels, or pools; follow life history; experiment in killing young with Tcerosene. 
 Mosquito and malaria. 
 
 (Twenty-one lessons planned.) 
 
 MOSQUITOS. LESSON I. Begin the work with an informal discussion of 
 mosquitos and their habits. The mosquito is so well known that the children will be 
 able to draw upon their experiences for answers to some of the questions. How do 
 mosquitos move about? How many wings have they? (If the children are in doubt 
 about this leave it as a problem to be solved later.) Do mosquitos make any sound 
 as they fly? (The humming music is made by the rapid movement of their wings.) 
 When are mosquitos most active, during the daylight or darkness? Who knows 
 where they stay during the daytime? (They hang on the ceilings of rooms, in sheds, 
 barns and other buildings, and on twigs and the undersides of the leaves of trees 
 and other plants.) What do they eat? (The children will, of course, say that they 
 feed upon the blood of human beings and other warm blooded animals. This is true, 
 only in part. Mosquitos live very largely upon the juices of plants, only a few ever 
 have a chance to suck the blood of animals. It may be interesting to know that only 
 the females bite. The males, if they feed at all, simply sip liquid foods, such as 
 fruit juices, water, etc.) How many have ever seen young mosquitoes? (Ask the 
 children to look in rainbarrels and other vessels of standing water for wriggle tails or 
 wrigglers, the young mosquitos.) Some may find mosquito eggs as well as wrigglers. 
 The eggs are laid in little clusters that float on the surface of the water like bits of 
 soap. These will be found in the early morning. In very warm weather, the eggs 
 that are laid early in the morning, hatch into wrigglers by noon, or at least before 
 the middle of the afternoon of the same day. 
 
 LESSON 2. Place the wrigglers in a number of glass tumblers or wide mouthed 
 bottles. Each child should have one. Let the children observe them in the water. 
 (The children may be told that the young mosquito as well as the young of many 
 other insects are called larvae, one is a larva.) How do the mosquito larvae move 
 through the water? Can you find a head and 'tail end? How do they place them- 
 selves when at rest in the w r ater? (Most of them hang head downward, making an 
 angle of about forty-five degrees with the surface of the water. Others may plaSe 
 themselves almost parallel to the surface of the water. If any of the latter are found, 
 the children should know that these are larvae of the malaria mosquito, while the 
 others are the common culex mosquitos.) Does the tail come above the surface of the 
 water? What is the purpose of this? What must all animals do in order to live? 
 (Among other things, the children wil be sure to mention the fact that animals must 
 breathe. This tube near the end of the body is placed above the water, so that the 
 larva may breathe air.) Tie a piece of cheese cloth over the glass and set it aside 
 until the next day. 
 
 LESSON 3. Continue the observation of the larvae. Can you find the eyes or 
 feelers on the wrigglers? Look closely at the body and report what you see. Is it in 
 one piece? Are there any projections of any kind upon it? Do the wrigglers move 
 downward in the same way that they move upward? Jar the glass and watch them. 
 Do they remain at the bottom very long? What do they eat? (The children will 
 probably not be able to answer this question accurately from observation, although 
 they may see some movement of the jaws. The larvae eat tiny one-celled plants and 
 animals that are floating about in the water. Again cover the glass and set it aside 
 for two or three days before continuing the study.) 
 
 LESSON 4. With the glasses again before the children, look to see whether 
 any of the larvae have changed in form. What changes have occurred? (Many of 
 the larvae have changed to pupae. A pupa is dark in color with a thick round portion 
 at the front of the body arid a slender segmented abdomen.) Do the pupae move in 
 the water as the larvae did? Do they breathe by sticking the tube near their tails 
 out of the water? (By looking closely the children will see that these little creatures 
 
65 
 
 rest with the rounded portion of their backs at the surface of the water. They will 
 also be able to discover two breathing tubes on the back.) Do the pupae seem to 
 have mouths as the larvae have? (The pupae have no mouths, so although they are 
 active, they do not eat anything.) Again set the glasses aside, but tell the children 
 to watch them from day to day and report any changes that they may see. 
 
 LESSOX 5. In a few days the children will find that the pupae have changed 
 into grown-up mosquitos. Look for the pupae skins floating upon the water. (The 
 mosquitos rest on these skins while their wings are developing and drying.) Have 
 the children observe the grown-up mosquitos to see how many things they can find 
 out about them. This is the time to settle the problem as to the number of wings. 
 (The children may be told that all insects having but two wings are placed in one 
 great group called dipters. They will know that the house fly must be a relative of 
 the mosquito.) 
 
 LESSOX 6. How may we get rid of mosquitos? Let the children suggest 
 methods? How many mosquitos breed in a single rainbarrel during the summer? 
 Sometimes broken jars and old pails are left standing around in the back yards. 
 These catch rain water and become the breeding places of hundreds of mosquitos. 
 If everyone in the neighborhood should u?e care in keeping rainbarrels screened and 
 in not alowing rain water to stand anywhere in the yards, the number of mosquitos 
 would be greatly reduced. Put a teaspoonful of kerosene on the surface of the water 
 in a jar in which there are a number of larvae and pupae. Examine them the next 
 day. Why does this kill the wrigglers? (Since the oil spreads out upon the surface 
 of the water, the wrigglers must pierce this film of oil, in order to breathe.) This 
 method is employed in many places where there are shallow ponds and undrained 
 swamps. 
 
 LESSON 7. What are some of the reasons why we wish to get rid of mos- 
 quitos? The children should be told something of the work of the malaria mosquito. 
 They have already noticed the difference between the larvae of the common mosquito 
 and the malaria mosquito. The grown-up malaria mosquito differs from the com- 
 mon one in having smoky spots on the wings, which may readily be detected at close 
 range. Scientists have discovered that all malarial diseases, such as ague, chills and 
 fever, and malaria fever, are contracted only through the bites of malaria mosquitos. 
 The cause of the disease is the growth and development of tiny one-celled animals 
 which are so small that they cannot be seen without the aid of a powerful micro- 
 scope. These small animals develop in and feed upon the red blood corpuscles. They 
 multiply very rapidly in the blood. When a mosquito bites a human being that has 
 these tiny cells in the blood, some of them are sucked into the stomach of the mos- 
 quito. Here they pass through another stage of their development, producing a great 
 number of new cells differing somewhat in shape from those that were taken into 
 the stomach of the mosquito. These pass out of the stomach into the blood of the 
 mosquito, and many of them enter the salivary glands When a mosquito bites a per- 
 son some of these cells pass from its mouth into the blood and these start the ma- 
 laria disease. As far as we know, this is the only way in which people may become 
 infected with malarial diseases, so you see if all malaria mosquitoes were killed off, it 
 would mean that no one would ever have any of these diseases. 
 
 LESSOX 8. Since mosquitos are such annoying pests, we shall be glad to know 
 that they have many natural foes, that help to keep them in check. How many of the 
 children know the dragon fly? It is sometimes called the snake feeder and snake 
 doctor. This as it flies around through the air feeds almost wholly upon mosquitos. 
 Some people even call it the mosquito hawk, because it destroys *so many of these 
 pests. Young dragon flies live in the water in ponds and pools, and feed largely 
 upon mosquito larvae. The larvae have other foes also in the water, among which 
 are the water beetles, giant water bugs, and tadpoles. There are certain birds also 
 that feed upon the grown-up mosquitos, among which are the fly catchers and chim- 
 ney swifts. 
 
 STRAWBERRY. LESSOX 9. How many of the children have strawberry 
 beds at home? When were the plants set out! Did they bear fruit last summer*? 
 Tell the children to look at their strawberry plants and be able to answer the fol- 
 lowing questions: Are the plants grouped together or do they stand singly upon 
 the ground? How do they spread? Find one of the oldest plants and look for run- 
 ners. How many runners can you find growing from one plant? How long do the 
 
66 
 
 runners become before they send out shoots and roots? How many shoots do you 
 find attached to one runner? Look in the center of the plant to see if new leaves are 
 still being produced. What is the habit of growth of one plant? Does it have an 
 erect stem or does it spread out flat upon the ground or is it in the form of a 
 rosette ? 
 
 LESSON 10. For this lesson the teacher should have in class at least one en- 
 tire strawberry plant with roots and runners still attached? Call for reports of 
 the home study. Verify the statements made by the children by observing the speci- 
 men in class. Note carefully the relationship of the roots to the rosette of leaves. 
 Note the number and length of the roots. Ask the children to notice the plants oc- 
 casionally to determine whether or not the frosts have any effect upon the leaves. 
 
 TREES. LESSON II. If trees were studied in the spring term, let the first 
 lesson consist of reports of the spring and vacation observations. If no work has 
 been done before, then begin by asking the children to make a list of the different 
 kinds of trees they have in their yards at home. If there are trees in the school 
 yard, begin with simple observations of these following the outlines suggested in 
 April of the fourth year. 
 
 LESSON .12. Have some twigs of the trees you are using as type studies in 
 school. Let each child lay the twig down on the desk, spread out the leaves. Do 
 the leaves overlap ? Are the leaves all the same size ? Are the stems the same length ? 
 Can you tell where the youngest leaves on the twigs are? Examine the twigs to de- 
 termine how much they have grown this year. How can you tell? (The children 
 will find on the twig some ring scars. These rings show the beginning of the year's 
 growth.) How many years' growth does your twig represent? Compare a number 
 of twigs from different kinds of trees as to the growth twigs have made during 
 the season. This will make an interesting observation lesson outside of school hours. 
 
 LESSON 13. The problem of this lesson is to find out what preparation trees 
 are making for the resting season. Examine a number of twigs. What do you find 
 on them besides leaves? Where are the buds situated? (A bud that is found between 
 the stem of a leaf and the twig is said to be in the axil of a leaf.) Is there a 
 bud in the axil of every leaf? In what other place on the twig do you find buds? 
 (The buds at the ends of the twigs are called terminal buds.) 
 
 LESSON 14. Are any of the leaves beginning to change color? What colors 
 are prominent? What trees have the most brilliant colors? Which ones are almost 
 all yellow? Watch to see whether there are some trees whose leaves simply die and 
 turn brown without having any bright colors. Examine several leaves to see if there 
 is any portion of the leaf that stays green longer than the rest. What is the chief 
 work of the leaf? (The chief work of all leaves is to manufacture food for the 
 rest of the plant. In the fall the plant gradually ceases to make food. As the work 
 stops the green coloring matter in the leaves fade, becoming a bright yellow. Cer- 
 tain chemical changes take place also as the leaves stop work, which causes the bril- 
 liant reds, purples, etc.) What else do trees do to get ready for the next season? 
 The children will probably state that they drop their leaves. Have the children ob- 
 serve different trees to find out which ones drop their leaves first. 
 
 LESSON 15. Beport on the observation made on the dropping of the leaves. 
 Why do the leaves drop off? (Have several twigs in the room for observation.) 
 Touch gently some of the leaves. Do they drop off easily? Look at the scar left 
 on the twig. Can you see why the leaf could hold on no longer? (A thin layer of bark 
 has grown on the twig under the stem of the leaf and severed its connection with the 
 twig.) The trees have been doing something else in preparation for the resting sea- 
 son that the children cannot see. They have been storing food made by the leaves. 
 The food is stored in the roots, stems, and twigs. What will the trees do with this 
 food next spring? They will, of course, use it in starting the growth of the buds, 
 the new leaves and flowers. Have the children make a list of all the things that 
 trees do to prepare for their resting season and for their renewal of growth next 
 spring. 
 
 CARE OF THE STRAWBERRY BED. LESSON 16. Have the children re- 
 port on any observation of the strawberry plants since the last season. Has the 
 frost had any effect on the leaves? Do strawberry plants die in the winter? Does 
 the entire plant live over winter? WTiat do we call plants that live from year to 
 
67 
 
 year? (They are perennials. Trees and shrubs are perennials. Many herbs are 
 perennials, although the part above ground dies in the winter while the roots and 
 underground stems continue to live. The strawberry is an herb. It does not have 
 much wood in its stem ; in fact, as we remember from our study of the plant, it has 
 very short stems, so that the leaves are attached very close to the roots.) Do you 
 know whether any of the strawberry leaves remain green over winter? Leave this 
 as a problem to be solved later in the term. How may we care for our strawberry 
 plants in order to keep them in good condition for next spring? Let the children 
 tell what is done in their homes. (The plants should be covered with straw, corn 
 stalks, or leaves. This is called mulching the plants.) Why do we cover the plants? 
 The children may think that it is to keep the plants warm. This is not the main 
 object, however, but to keep the temperature even and prevent the ground from freez- 
 ing and thawing, which is likely to lift the plants slightly above the surface. The 
 mulching also prevents the plants from starting to grow when a few warm days come 
 in the middle of winter, or very early in the spring. If they start to grow and the 
 weather turns cold suddenly, the plants are likely to be injured. When should the 
 mulching be applied? (It is best to wait until the ground is slightly frozen before 
 -the mulching is put on the bed.) 
 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR NOVEMBER. BIENNIALS. Turnip or beet as type. Eoot 
 and leaves of plants grown from seeds in the spring. Eoots, stems, leaves and seeds 
 of plants that have grown from the roots that were set out in the spring. Uses of 
 storage of food. Value to man. Sugar beet industry. Comparative study of other 
 biennials. 
 
 Fiber plants. If possible find some help plants. Study fibers. Note strength; 
 similar study of button weed or butter print. Compare flax and cotton. Uses of fibers, 
 cloths, ropes, etc. 
 
 Kind of knots. Make a summary of the work done upon the farm during the 
 fall months. What have the children done? 
 
 LESSON PLANS BIENNIALS. The general thought of the study of bien- 
 nials is: (a) That the pupils may gain a knowledge of the advantage to the plant 
 of this habit of growth; (b) Value of cultivated biennials to man. 
 
 Use the turnip as a type study. Informal discussion of the raising of turnips 
 in the neighborhood. When were the seeds planted? How were they planted? Are 
 the leaves still green? Is this plant a rapid or slow grower? 
 
 For the second lesson have in class several turnips, the entire plant. What parts 
 do you find in the plant? (The children will find the round roots with long slender 
 part at the lower end.) Do you find any fibrous roots attached to this slender por- 
 tion? What do you think is the use of these small roots? Cut the round part of 
 the root in two across the middle. How many distinct structures do you find? (The 
 large central portion is called the central cylinder. The outside layer that sep- 
 arates easily from the center is the cortex.) 
 
 Has the turnip any stem or are the leaves fastened directly to the roots? Look 
 closely and you will find that the root narrows at the top into a very short thick 
 stem to which the leaves are fastened. Note the number of leaves. Are the leaves 
 harsh or soft? Do you know any farm animals that like to eat turnip leaves? Exam- 
 ine some seeds of the turnip. What other seeds do they resemble? (Cabbage, radish, 
 and mustard.) Where are the turnip seeds borne? Has any one ever seen the seeds 
 growing on a turnip plant? (It is not probable that many have seen the turnip plant 
 in flower and fruit. If you wish to get flowers you must save some turnip roots and 
 set them out next spring.) Who knows what they will do? They will grow rapidly, 
 send up tall stems with many branches resembling radish stems when its flowers. 
 Soon the rather pretty yellow flowers will appear and these will be followed by 
 pods similar to radish pods and in the pods are the seeds. How many seasons, then, 
 does it take for the turnip to produce its seeds? Any plant that grows from the 
 seed one year and produces flowers and seeds the second year is called a biennial. 
 Do you know what the word biennial means? (Bi means two, and enial is the same 
 as annual, meaning year.) 
 
 If you should examine the root of the turnip after the plant has started to 
 blossom what do you think you would find? Have you ever cut open a radish root 
 
68 
 
 after the plant has gone to seed? If you have you know that almost all the food 
 has disappeared. Nothing is left but the skin and some hard fibers. What has be- 
 come of the rest of it? Little by little the plant used up the food that was stored in 
 the root to produce the flower and seed. You see then that the habit of this plant 
 is to spend its energy the first year in storing up a vast supply of food in the root. 
 The second year this food is used up in order that the seeds may be produced quickly. 
 We, of course, take advantage of this fact and use the stored up food for ourselves 
 or our stock. 
 
 Have the children name all of the other biennials that they know. (Beet, 
 parsnip, carrot, rutabaga, salsify.) Of these the beet is probably the most im- 
 portant. Make a comparative study of the beet and turnip. Have some of the 
 children tell the life history of the beet, starting with the seed and carrying it thru 
 the first season and then the second season until the flower and seed are produced. 
 
 Name the uses of all the different kinds of biennials. If possible make a 
 detailed study of the sugar beet and sugar beet industry. 
 
 FIBEB PLANTS. In the study of fiber plants find some hemp or butter 
 print. Have in class also some cotton and if possible some flax. See if you can 
 separate the fibers of the bark from the hemp s t tem. Test the strength of the fibers. 
 Compare the strength of the hemp fibers with that of the butter print. Name all 
 the plants that you know that produce fibers, that are strong and fine and that are 
 of use to man. 
 
 What is the special value of the hemp fiber? Eopes are made from this. Make 
 a special study of ropes and cords of various kinds. Have the children bring differ- 
 ent kinds of ropes and cords to school. Study them carefully to see how they are 
 made. Note the number of fibers used and the number of strands in one rope. Dis- 
 cuss the uses of ropes and cords about the home. See how many different kinds of 
 knots you can tie. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR DECEMBEE. // possible have a gold fish or minnow in an 
 aquarium or glass jar in the school room. Locomotion, use of tail, fin, of other fins. 
 How fish breathe, feed, covering of the body. How they find out things; how they 
 spend the winter, common kinds of fish in Illinois. Fishing industry. 
 
 Modern conveniences in the home kitchen, laundry, cellar, bath, vacuum 
 cleaner, etc. Recognition of different kinds of metal; source, qualities, uses, values 
 of each. 
 
 The floor, carpets, rugs, hardwood; care of floors; dangers and treatment of 
 dust. Kind of hardwood used in the home; identification of samples. 
 
 A model farm house. 
 
 Simple chemistry of cleaning; make soap; solvents for grease, paint, etc. Nature 
 and uses of lye. 
 
 LESSON PLANS FISH. It is suggested that the study of fish be em- 
 phasized most in parts of the state where fishing constitutes one of the industries. 
 Something should be done with fish, however, in any part of the state. A large 
 jar or fish bowl with a gold fish, a minnow, or some other small fish should be kept 
 in the schoolroom. 
 
 Have the children attempt to solve the .following problems by observations of 
 the living fish. How it moves thru the water. What fins are used most. Shape 
 of the fish. Number of fins. How the fish eats. How it breathes. How it finds out 
 things, noting eyes and nostrils. 
 
 Have the children make a list of different kinds of fish that they know. What 
 kinds are found in the streams and lakes of the neighborhood? How are fish caught? 
 Discuss kind of bait used. What is the use of the seine? Of different kinds of net? 
 Discuss the value of fish in Illinois. Reference may be made here to the geography. 
 Are any laws made to protect fish and the fishing industry of our state? 
 
 Spend one lesson in talking about how fish spend the winter. The children may 
 not know that some fish, like insects, are inactive during cold weather. They settle 
 down in the leaves and other trash in the bottom of the pond and stay there until 
 spring, eating scarcely anything. Some fish dig little excavations in the mud at 
 the bottom of the pond or stream. Usually two or three huddle together in the 
 hollow and spend the winter there. Most of the large fish seek the deeper portions of 
 
69 
 
 the water \vhere the temperature is not very low and remain somewhat active during 
 the cold months altho probably none of them are as active or eat as much as they do 
 during the summer. 
 
 THE MODERX HOME. The purpose of the lesson on the modern home is to 
 form ideals in the minds of the children of what convenient and sanitary homes are. 
 The lessons may be few or many, at the discretion of the teacher. Discuss the vari- 
 ous rooms that should be found in a model farmhouse. What conveniences should 
 the kitchen have? Mention the sink, soft and hard water, etc. Discuss the location 
 of the laundry. How many have seen a laundry arranged in the basement with sta- 
 tionary tubs? What things should be observed in connection with the cellar? Does 
 any of the air from the basement or cellar get into any of the other rooms of the 
 home? If this is true, then should we see that the cellar always has fresh air in it 
 and that vegetables should not be allowed to decay as they sometimes do in the cellar? 
 How is water supplied to various parts of the home? 
 
 Who has seen a vacuum cleaner? How is the dust collected? Why is the use of 
 this more sanitary than stirring up dust with a broom ? 
 
 If practical spend two or three lesson periods discussing the different methods 
 of treating the floors of our homes. Who uses rugs? Wlio has carpets? Which is 
 likely to collect and retain the greater amount of dust? Who has painted floors? 
 Discuss the use of linoleum in lieu of hardwood floors? Xame some kinds of hard 
 wood used for floors. (Hard pine, oak.) 
 
 Find in farm papers some pictures giving examples of model farm houses and 
 their equipment. 
 
 METALS. Look about the house for various kinds of metal used in the con- 
 struction of the house itself and articles used in the house. Make a list of these and 
 discuss the uses of each. Of all of these which do you think is the most useful? Iron, 
 no doubt is the most useful of all our metals. Xame the various things used in the 
 home that are made of iron or steel; name other things about the farm used outside 
 of the home. 
 
 Discuss the special character of each metal that makes it valuable for the spe- 
 cial purpose for which it is used. For example, why is copper better for boilers 
 than iron? Why is silver better for spoons and forks than some of the other 
 metals, etc ? 
 
 JANUARY AND FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLIXE FOR JAXUARY. Physiology. Food. Why we need food sources, 
 classes, make collection of different kinds, as starch, sugar, protied, oils, salt. Sim- 
 ple tests for starch. 
 
 Parts of the digestive system. Review briefly teeth as studied in the fourth year. 
 Fluids that help prepare the food in the mouth, stomach, intestine. 
 
 Methods and value of cooking foods. Care of foods. How to eat to keep well. 
 
 Disease germs that enter the body thru the mouth. What to do to prevent some 
 of these diseases. A simple but clear idea of how germs cause diseases. Effect of 
 alcohol and tobacco upon digestion. 
 
 LESSOX PLAXS. Depend largely upon the physiology text for facts in con- 
 nection with the month's work. Make the lessons as practical as possible especially 
 the methods of cooking foods, and how to care for foods that they may be whole- 
 some. 
 
 OUTLIXE FOR FEBRUARY. Physiology. Respiration. Simple study of the 
 composition of air. Organs of respiration, position, breathing movements. Differ- 
 ence between inspired and expired air. How much air we need. How we should 
 breathe. Review ventilation of home and school. 
 
 Diseases that enter the body thru the breathing organs tuberculosis, pneu- 
 monia, colds. What ice may do to prevent these diseases cleanliness, sunlight, dis- 
 infectants. 
 
 Plans to observe health day. 
 
 LESSOX PLAXS. Discuss the air of the school room. What are the char- 
 acteristics of air? Can it be felt? Seen? Heard? What is it made of? The 
 children should know that air is a mixture of invisible gases. About four-fifths 
 
70 
 
 of it is nitrogen, nearly one-fifth oxygen, and a small portion is carbon dioxide and 
 water vapor. Oxygen is the important part of the air, that is, important because we 
 cannot live without a good supply of oxygen. Put a small piece of candle upon a 
 table and light it. Now place a glass jar over this. What happens in a few minutes? 
 Why does the candle flame go out? Because the oxygen in the air is used up by the 
 burning candle. 
 
 Study the organs of respiration from your physiology and try to locate each of 
 them in your own body. 
 
 Arrange a program for health day. Invite the parents in and let the children 
 read papers or talk about the work in hygiene that they have covered during the 
 month. 
 
 MARCH 
 
 OUTLINE FOE MARCH. Condition of plants at close of winter. Make careful 
 survey of condition of all garden plants, flowering plants, trees, shrubs. 
 
 Blue grass in lawns and pastures. Does it live over winter? Study sod indoors, 
 find underground stem (root stock), roots, shoots. How does it spread? Why is it a 
 good lawn and pasture grass? Seeds, sow some indoors. Care of lawn, preparation, 
 rolling, mowing, etc. 
 
 Plan and build a hotbed and cold frame. Study seed catalogs and send for 
 see'dd to plant in hot bed or cold frame; cabbage, celery, Tcohl rabi, \cauliftower, 
 pinks, pansies, gaillardia. 
 
 Continue study of strawberry plants. Set out new plants. 
 
 LIFE IN WATEE. Frogs' eggs, toads, insects, water beetles, dragon fly, 
 nymphs, etc. Special study of the toad and\ its relation to man. 
 
 LESSON PLANS. Make a careful study of plants in the yard, garden and 
 fields. Which ones have lived over winter? Decide which ones have remained green 
 over winter and which ones have lived only in the ground. Are there any trees be- 
 ginning to show signs of life, or of beginning their work? Any shrubs? 
 
 BLUE GRASS. LESSON 8. Begin with an informal discussion of the various 
 places the children have seen grass growing this spring. (On the lawn, the school- 
 yard, the pasture, and roadside.) Have the children study the grass in the school 
 yard. This may be done as class work, or the children may make the observation 
 outside of school hours. If practicable, some of the children may be sent out to 
 make observations during their study periods. Note the condition of the grass at this 
 time. What indications have you that it has lived all winter? Upon looking closely 
 the children will find many green leaves close to the ground. Some of the leaves 
 will be half green and half dead. Have weather conditions had anything to do with 
 the number of leaves that have remained green? 
 
 LESSON 9. Compare the grass that is found growing on a southern slope 
 with that on a northern or western slope. If the children find a spot where no green 
 leaves are visible, leave with them the problem whether or not the entire plant is 
 dead. Let them watch the spot occasionally until they are convinced that new plants 
 are springing up. Wfcat makes it possible for the plant to do this? 
 
 LESSONS 10 AND 11. Dig up a small sod of bluegrass, wash all the soil from 
 the roots, keep it moist, and bring it into the schoolroom for study. Examine the 
 portion of the sod that grew above ground. Can you make out individual plants? 
 How are these related to one another? Are they far apart or close together? Look at 
 the part that grew in the ground. How many distinct structures do you find? Dis- 
 tinguish the mass of small thread-like roots from the underground stem or slender 
 rootstock. What are the advantages of the rootstock during a severe winter? The 
 plants above ground may be dead, but the rootstock will still live and have its bud 
 all ready to send up a new shoot when warm weather comes. It enables the plant 
 to spread over a larger area. It helps to tide over a dry season as well as a cold one. 
 Have you noticed that the pasture sometimes becomes almost dead in the latter part 
 of summer? When the fall rains come, what does it do? How can it spring up again 
 so quickly? The rootstock with its buds was live and began to grow as soon as it 
 could get enough moisture. 
 
 OUT-OF-SCHOOL WOEK : PBOPAGATION. What ways are there of start- 
 ing bluegrass on the lawns or in pastures? By sods and by seeds. If good sod can 
 
71 
 
 be obtained this is the quickest way to get a lawn, but the commonest way is to plant 
 seed. Have the children plant a few seeds in a box in the schoolroom, or better in 
 the schoolyard, and watch the habits of growth of the young plants. See if the chil- 
 dren can find out when the sod begins to form. Plant seeds at varying depths. Leave 
 some almost entirely uncovered. Determine which germinate the best. Sow a small 
 plat with pure bluegrass seed, another with bluegrass and white clover seeds mixed. 
 Which succeeds best? Procure several pieces of sod, each about three inches square. 
 Place these in soil about six inches apart. Watch results. What has made it possi- 
 ble for these to cover the ground? Have the children name the characteristics that 
 make blue grass a good pasture and lawn grass. (Informal discussions and written 
 reports on this work will insure its value.) 
 
 CAEE OF THE LAWN. Everyone likes to see a smooth, velvety lawn. En- 
 courage the children to suggest things to do to keep their lawns at home beautiful. 
 Bemove sticks, dead leaves, paper, and weeds. If there are bare spots they should 
 be raked and so\vn with fresh seeds early in the spring. If the lawn is uneven it 
 should be rolled. Mowing should be done often enough to keep the grass cut close. 
 During hot weather evening is a better time to mow than morning. Why? In dry 
 weather the grass should not be cut too close. Why? (There is danger of ex- 
 posing the roots to the sun.) (A small bunch of flowering and fruiting bluegrass 
 ought to be put away for schoolroom observation.) 
 
 EXEMIES OF THE LAWN. What are some of the enemies of the lawn and 
 pasture? The children will suggest many. Dandelion, plantain, mole, grubworm, 
 etc. We shall study some of these next month. 
 
 HOT BED AND COLD FRAME. If the teacher has time a discussion of the use 
 of hot beds and cold frames should be given. In some places a cold frame or hot 
 bed may be made. If this is done various plants such as tomatoes, cabbage, sweet 
 potatoes may be raised for the children to take home, or to plant in the school garden. 
 
 APRIL AND MAY 
 
 OUTLINE FOR APRIL. Enemies of lawns and pastures. Weeds. Special 
 study of dandelion habit of growth, root. Does it live all winter, perennial, leaves, 
 flowers, decide whether it is one flower or many small ones, seed. What makes it 
 a successful weed? Comparative study of plantain, thistle, iron weed, curly dock, etc. 
 
 The mole as an enemy of the lawn. Review grasshopper and crickets in this 
 connection. 
 
 BIRDS. List of birds identified; keep bird calendar; special study of seed eat- 
 ing birds, with emphasis cm the sparrow group. 
 
 GARDEN. Care of plants in cold frame. Transplant. Plant other seeds in 
 garden. Plan to raise flowers and vegetables for display next fall. 
 
 VACATION PLANS. Plan to keep a record of all plants grown in the gar- 
 den. Time of planting, when ready for use. Value of each. Watch for insects on 
 plants. Watch for birds that catch insects. 
 
 DANDELION. LESSON 1. We have noticed that the lawn and pastures have 
 certain enemies to contend with. What are some of the weeds that grow on the 
 lawns? In the pastures? The dandelion is an excellent plant for detailed study. 
 
 How many of the children know whether or not the dandelion lives over the 
 winter? Who noticed some dandelion plants when you first studied the blue grass? 
 (The dandelion lives all winter. Sometimes the leaves die and only the part that is 
 in the ground lives. ) Have the children observe dandelion plants. Note the habit of 
 growth. What is the relation of the leaves to the ground? Leaves that grow in this 
 fashion are said to have the rosette habit of growth. Where are the longest leaves, 
 at the outer or inner part of the rosette? Where are the youngest leaves? Is the 
 center of the rosette level with the surface of the ground or below it? Are 
 there any advantages to the plant in growing as it does? (The children will read- 
 ily see that the plants are better protected from wind and cold because of this habit 
 of growth.) 
 
 LESSON 2. Dig up a number of plants, wash off the soil, and bring into the 
 schoolroom. Examine the root. Note how long and thick it is and its direction of 
 
72 
 
 growth. Compare with bluegrass roots. This kind of root is called a fleshy tap root. 
 Has this root any special advantages! Let the children think about this. Do not 
 try to answer it fully now. Have the children pull the rosettes apart, carefully not- 
 ing what is stored away in the center of each. They will be interested to find numbers 
 of tiny flower buds, some larger than a pea, some as small as a pin head. Determine 
 the average number of buds in the specimens. 
 
 LESSON 3. Flower and fruit. Note the time of the first dandelion flowers, 
 position of flower on the plant, length of flower stem. Note that as the stem length- 
 ens it does not grow straight upward, but first bends outward. Have the children 
 watch to see the flowers close up at night and during rainy, cloudy days. Bring a 
 number of flowers into the schoolroom. Have the children decide whether what they 
 call the flower is a single flower or a cluster of many flowers. Separate the cluster of 
 flowers and look at one small flower. What do you see? (A small seedlike body at 
 the lower part, a cluster of soft hairs above this, and the yellow part, the corolla, 
 with the two "pollen catchers" extending above it.) 
 
 LESSON 4. Have children estimate, by counting the number of flowers in 
 three or four clusters, about how many flowers one plant will produce. If each 
 flower makes one seed, how many seeds will one plant produce? How long 
 after the flowers begin to open until the seeds are ripe? How does this compare 
 with the other plants you know? What is the position of the stem with the ripe fruit 
 on it? What advantage in its standing so tall and straight? Examine the fruit. 
 What part of the flower has opened up into the parachute-like part? What has be- 
 come of the seeds? What scatters the seeds of this plant? 
 
 LESSON 5. Compare other lawn or pasture weeds with the dandelion. Find 
 plantain, thistle. It will be of interest to make a collection of lawn and pasture 
 weeds. 
 
 LESSON 6. OUT-OF-SCHOOL STUDIES. Cut off the leaves of a dandelion 
 rosette, leaving the center uninjured. Cut another a little below the surface of the 
 ground. Cut a third about three inches below the surface of the ground. Have the 
 children try these experiments at home as well as at school and report results. They 
 will find that unless the plant is cut off far below the surface it will continue to 
 grow. Have them decide whether or not a lawn mower will kill the dandelions and 
 whether ordinary methods of weeding will do it. Plant a few seeds to determine 
 whether or not they grow the first season. Study a path or some spot that has been 
 trampled upon to decide which can stand trampling better, blue grass or dandelion. 
 
 VACATION PLANS. LESSONS 13-15. Encourage the children to continue the 
 observation of trees during the summer. Also birds, garden, etc., as suggested in 
 the outline. 
 
 BLUEGEASS AND DANDELION. When does the blue grass begin to blossom? 
 Which does the bluegrass head resemble more, oats or wheat? This kind of a head 
 is called a panicle. See if you can find where the seeds are borne. Are there many 
 seeds in one head? Do dandelions flower all summer? Do the leaves grow any higher 
 in tall grass than where the grass is kept mown? Try to work out some of the ex- 
 periments suggested in Lesson Six. 
 
73 
 
 LESSON PLANS FOR SIXTH YEAR 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE SEPTEMBER. Report on vacation studies and observation. 
 Fall aspect of garden, condition of plants started in the spring. Special study of 
 cabbage, kohl rabi, celery. 
 
 Make cuttings of geraniums, coleus or other plants. Care of cutting. Children 
 take plants home. 
 
 BUD PEACHES Study how to make and grow a peach, tree. 
 Special study of cabbage worm; nature and extent of damage done; methods 
 of combating ; life history worked out in school room. 
 
 VACATION. Report on vacation studies and observation as suggested in the 
 outline. Make special study of cabbage plant. Discuss how the plants were started 
 in the spring. How the habit of growth differs from other garden plants. What 
 is the cabbage head? Cut one open and find the short stem with the leaves growing 
 out of it close together. The head is like a great bud that never opens. Where 
 do cabbage seeds come from? What must we do if we wish to raise cabbage seeds? 
 Recall the study of biennials of the fifth jear. (Cabbage is a biennial.) 
 
 CUTTINGS. Every school should make a few cuttings to keep in the school 
 room, and for the children to take home. For this work you need a few sharp 
 pocket knives, and a box that may be set up on the window sill. A few holes should 
 be bored in the bottom of the box for drainage. Place some clean sand in the box. 
 Soil will do if sand cannot be obtained. Water the sand thoroly and firm it down 
 with a flat piece of board. Make a groove about an inch deep with an old case- 
 knife or stick. Your box is now ready to receive the cuttings. 
 
 No plant is better than the geranium from which to make successful cuttings. 
 If there are none growing on the school grounds some person in the neighborhood 
 who has plants will be glad to let you have a number of large branches or entire 
 plants from which to make cuttings. Select the growing tip of a stem or branch. 
 Cut it off three or four inches in length just below a node or leaf. Make one clean, 
 horizontal cut, break off the lower leaves and trim the edges of the upper ones. 
 Why is this done? (This is done to prevent too much evaporation from the leaves.) 
 
 Now place the cuttings in the groove made in the propagation box. Place them 
 an inch or more apart so the leaves will have room enough to spread out and get 
 the light. When one groove is full, press the sand close to the stem with your 
 fingers. When all the cuttings are in, water very thoroly so that the sand will be 
 washed up close around the stems. Cover from the light for a day or two with 
 paper. If the cuttings do not come to the top of the box a pane of glass laid over 
 the top will keep the moisture in and at the same time allow plenty of light. 
 
 In caring for the cuttings keep the sand moist, but not wet. Allow them plenty 
 of light after the first day or two, but not direct sunlight. If a glass is used over 
 the box, it should be taken off for half an hour each day. Why? (Plants need air 
 and this gives a chance for a fresh supply.) 
 
 When the cuttings are well-rooted then comes the lesson in transplanting. Have 
 the children bring pots in which they may place plants to take home. Baking- 
 powder cans, tomato cans, or small lard pails will serve just as well as earthen 
 flowerpots. With a nail make a hole in the bottom of the can. What for? (Drain- 
 age.) Have the children bring some garden soil or get some from a field near by. 
 You may use this as it is or you may make an excellent soil for potted plants by 
 mixing thoroughly one part of the garden soil with one-fourth part sand and one- 
 fourth humus, (well rotted leaf mold or well-rotted stable manure.) Have the soil 
 just moist enough so that when you press a handful of it together it will readily 
 fall apart when dropped. Cover the hole in the bottom of the can with a piece of 
 broken flowerpot concave side down, or place a few pebbles or bits of broken crockery 
 or brick in the bottom of the can. Why do you do this? (To allow the water to 
 drain out thru the hole without washing the soil out.) 
 
 An old case knife or a small wooden paddle will be found useful in removing 
 the plants from the propagation box. Fill the pot about half full of soil, then 
 
74 
 
 place the plant in position in the middle, and hold it while you put in the soil 
 around it. Press the soil down firmly with the thumbs, water well, and set in a 
 subdued light. After a few days let the plant have plenty of light. Keep it well 
 watered, but do not allow the saucer or vessel that catches the drainage to stand 
 full of water. Wjhy? (This will keep the soil standing so full of water that the 
 air will be shut out, and the roots need air to keep them alive.) 
 
 SPECIAL OBSEKVATIONS. When making cuttings, place three or four extra 
 ones in the propagation box for examination. When time for transplanting comes, 
 remove the sand or soil from the ends of these to see what has happened. Has the 
 cut healed? Gardeners say the stem has formed a callus. If it does not form a 
 callus, or heal, it will not grow. Where have the roots come out on the stem? Does 
 it take some plants longer than others to produce roots? Put in several different 
 kinds and note the time required. Why is it better to start cuttings in sand or soil 
 than in water? The plants may form a callus and root in water but they are not 
 as likely to do well when transplanted. The roots must adjust themselves to entirely 
 new conditions, and this they may not be able to do at once and as a result the 
 plant may die. 
 
 After the plants have been transplanted, watch the appearance of new leaves. 
 Where? How does the stem lengthen? Where do new branches grow out? How 
 soon do the flowers begin to make their appearance? Have children report in regard 
 to the plants that they have taken home. 
 
 Let one pot remain with the same side toward the window for a number of 
 days. Turn the other pots every day or two. Compare. This shows very well how 
 plants seek the light. 
 
 If no one can care for the plants in the school room over Saturday and Sunday 
 fill the saucers with water Friday night. This will provide enough moisture (ill 
 Monday. During the cold weather, if you have no cellar in which to place the 
 plants to keep them from freezing, make thick covers of paper in the shape of 
 cones and slip over the plants, wrapping extra paper around the pots. In this way 
 you may keep your plants a number of weeks even in very cold weather. Do not 
 attempt to keep too many. 
 
 The following is a list of plants that are easily propagated by means of cut- 
 tings: geraniums, coleus or foliage plants, wandering Jew, salvia, impatiens or bal- 
 sam, oxalis, sultana, alternanthera, heliotrope. 
 
 Have the children try to think out why we use cuttings instead of seeds. They 
 will readily see the following advantages of propagating by means of cuttings instead 
 of seeds; (a) they get quicker results; the plants are ready to flower in half the 
 time; (b) they are certain to get the same kind of plant as the parent while if 
 seeds are used they may get one color or variety when they expected another. 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOE OCTOBEE. Identification of garden weeds; weed herbarium. 
 Birds as weed destroyers. Review native sparrows. 
 
 Find blackberry and raspberry canes that have borne fruit this year; new canes. 
 Pruning; why necessary? How do raspberries spread? Blackberries? Make cut- 
 tings of grape; study varieties of grapes; habits of growth, how and when to prune. 
 Eelatives of grape. 
 
 GAEDEN WEEDS. Have pupils look in the garden for different kinds of 
 weeds. As far as possible get the names of the different kinds. Make a special 
 study of one as the purslane. Note its habit of growth, close to the ground. Note 
 the space that one plant covers. Bruise the stem to determine whether or not it 
 has much moisture in it. Pull up a plant and let it lie in the sun for a day. Does 
 it wilt as much as some other plants, when left in the sun? Why? Find the flowers 
 if there are any left. Note size and color. Look for the boxlike seed pod. Open 
 up the box and find the seed. How many pods on one plant? Count the seed in one 
 pod. Can you estimate how many new plants one of these weeds will start next 
 year? 
 
 In a similar manner study several more garden weeds. Let each child begin 
 a weed herbarium. Press the weeds and when they are perfectly dry paste them 
 upon paper or card board. Each specimen should show a part of the stem, the 
 leaves, and a few seeds. 
 
75 
 
 Make a detailed study of the raspberry and blackberry as suggested in the out- 
 line. 
 
 GRAPE CUTTINGS. The work should be done the very last part of the 
 month when the vines have dropped their leaves. If the class has not already made 
 a detailed study of soft-wood cuttings then as a preliminary lesson soft-wood cut- 
 tings should be'made with a study of the callus, rooting, and transplanting. 
 
 Grape cuttings are made late in the fall or early winter when the leaves have 
 fallen off, and the plant has ceased work for the winter. Cuttings made from hard 
 wood at this season are called dormant cuttings. Will you want old wood or new 
 for the cuttings? They should be made from this season's growth. Measure some 
 of the stems to determine the length of growth in one season. Do these stems vary 
 in thickiu 
 
 How many buds on one stem? How arranged? Remove from the vine a number 
 of branches. Make a slanting cut through the joint or node where a bud is attached. 
 To do this place the knife on the side of the stem opposite the bud and on a level 
 with the top of it. Xow cut slanting downward and the knife will come out just below 
 the bud. Make one clean cut; it must not be jagged. Each cutting should have at 
 least two good buds. 
 
 What will you do with your cuttings? Tie a number together and place them 
 in moist sand in a cool place, or they may be buried in the soil of the garden. If 
 this is done care should be taken not to put them where they will stand in water. 
 What do you want the cuttings to do during the winter? Just what your soft-wood 
 cuttings did, form a callus and start roots. 
 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR NOVEMBER. Collections and study of pebbles, minerals, rock 
 specimens, glacial evidence, fossils; origin of soils; identification of sand, gravel, 
 loam, clay, silt; experiments in letting these settle in dish of water. Characterize 
 local soils. Value of farm lands and of village building lots. Drainage; ditches; 
 tile. Diagram showing drainage plan on home farm. House and cellar drains; dis- 
 tinctions between drainage and sewer tiles. 
 
 A STUDY OF PEBBLES. LESSON 1. In preparing for this lesson the 
 teacher should ask the pupils to look for pebbles or small bits of rocks and bring 
 them in. If there is a stream in the neighborhood collect some of the pebbles from 
 its banks and bed. The teacher should have on hand a collection of pebbles of 
 various kinds. Let the children examine the pebbles brought in and compare them 
 as to shape. Are they all the same color? Are some rounder than others, some 
 smoother? Try scratching a number of the pebbles with a sharp nail. Do some 
 scratch more easily than others? Put together all that are similar in color. Do you 
 find any that seem to be made up of more than one kind of stone? 
 
 LESSON 2. Where do the pebbles come from? Some of the children may 
 have found pebbles in the soil of the gardens, or fields, some near streams. Are 
 pebbles which are found in the banks and bed of streams smooth or rough? Are they 
 round like a marble or flat? How did these pebbles come there, and why are they so 
 smooth? If we go up a stream to its source in the hills do you think we should 
 find as many small, smooth pebbles there? In most streams we should find near the 
 source large pieces of rock that have broken from the hillsides and bluffs and fallen 
 down into the stream. In fact, the bed of the stream here, we should find, is made 
 up almost altogether of these great pieces of rock. Can you imagine that these 
 great pieces of rocks are the beginnings of the small pebbles? These pieces are 
 broken into smaller and smaller pieces by tumbling upon each other and by the action 
 of frosts. At this time they are rough, angular, and square cornered. How do they 
 become so small and smooth? To answer this put a few broken, sharp-cornered 
 pieces of stone into a thick bottle, cover with water, put in the stopper, and let the 
 children take turns shaking this vigorously. After a number of minutes notice what 
 change has taken place. Why is the water muddy? What has been happening to 
 the pieces of rock? (In striking against each other they have been wearing away 
 little by little and the tiny particles caused the water to become muddy.) That is 
 just what happens to the rocks in the stream. The rocks strike against each other 
 and slowly grind off the rough places and sharp corners. The farther down the 
 
76 
 
 stream we go the more they are worn and the smaller they become. Finally, after 
 many, many years, there is nothing left but the pebbles. 
 
 LESSON 3. Have the children tell the story of a pebble starting at the source 
 of the stream with a great piece of rock and following it step by step as it goes 
 down the stream until it becomes a small pebble. Be sure to have them realize 
 the great length of time necessary for this change. In many cases it takes thousands 
 of years to make a pebble out of one of these pieces of rock. 
 
 LESSON 4. Some pebbles are made by the washing back and forth of waves 
 on the shores of lakes and seas. As the waves dash upon the shore and then run 
 back into the sea the pieces of stones are rolled back and forth and grind each 
 other in much the same fashion as they do in the river. Which do you think would 
 probably make the rounder pebble, the sea waves or the river? (The children will 
 readily see that the rolling back and forth is likely to result in a round pebble 
 rather than a flat one.) Some of the pebbles we find may have been formed in 
 another way. Any pebbles or stones that have scratches on their surface have quite 
 another story to tell. Who knows what a glacier is? Your geography tells you 
 something of the glaciers of Switzerland and Alaska. Glaciers, as we know, are 
 made up of the great masses of snow which pile up year after year until they are 
 many, many feet deep. The snow is pressed down until it forms a crumbling sort 
 of ice on the slopes. This great mass of snow and ice moves slowly down toward 
 the valleys becoming harder and more like real ice all the time. When this reaches 
 the valley it still flows along but so slowly that we could not see it moving if we 
 watched ever so carefully. It does not move more than two or three feet during an 
 entire day. As the glacier moves along it picks up pieces of rock and pebbles carry- 
 ing them along with it. Some of the pebbles carried by the ice pass over other 
 pebbles or pieces of stone and in striking against each other little scratches are 
 made, and the stones are gradually worn away. Whenever you find a scratched pebble 
 you may know that ages ago glaciers moved over the country carrying rocks and 
 clay, mud and pebbles with them. Here in Illinois we have evidences that thousands 
 of years ago there were a number of these glaciers. 
 
 LESSON 5. Have the children summarize all the ways in which pebbles are 
 made; those made by the streams, by the waves of sea and lake, and by. glaciers. 
 Examine again the pebbles that you grouped together because they resembled each 
 other. Why do you find a difference in these pebbles? Do you suppose that they 
 were all of the same kind of rock to begin with? We have already found that 
 some were harder than others. That means that they were harder in the beginning. 
 Some were probably granite, some sand-stone, some limestone, and some of still 
 different kinds of rock. What else do we find in the bed of a river besides pebbles? 
 (The children will, no doubt, mention at least gravel and sand, perhaps some will 
 also name mud and clay.) How did the sand and gravel come there? Do you 
 suppose that they, too, are broken rock? Tell the children to bring in samples of 
 sand and gravel, also some soil from the gardens and fields. 
 
 ORIGIN OF SOIL. LESSON 6. We shall now try to find out just how this 
 soil was made. Try to have the children think of a time ages and ages ago when 
 there was no broken up rock on the earth, no sand or gravel or soil of any kind. 
 At that time we can think of the surface covered with solid rock wrinkled and 
 ridged into mountains and valleys. Now we find almost everywhere, except in the 
 mountains, a covering of soil. 
 
 Can you think of all the agents that helped to break up the soil rock of the 
 earth and make it fine enough for plants to grow in? We have already spoken 
 of the work of glaciers, of water in streams and of waves on the shore. All of these 
 agents helped to make sand and gravel as well as pebbles. But some other things 
 have helped also. What happens to a wagon tire when a blacksmith heats it? Does 
 it grow larger or smaller? When he puts it on the wheel what does it do as it 
 cools? (The iron expands when it is hot and contracts, getting smaller, when it is 
 cool.) Many rocks are affected in the same way but often in cooling they crack. 
 Did you ever happen to spatter a drop of cold water on a hot lamp chimney? Why 
 did it break? (The cold water caused the glass in that one spot to contract so 
 suddenly that the little particles of glass could not stand the strain of being pulled 
 away from the rest and so it broke.) Frost or freezing is another way in which 
 rocks are broken. Did you ever have a glass broken because it was full of water 
 
77 
 
 and you left it out where it could freeze? What made it break? (Water in freez- 
 ing expands, occupies a much larger space. The force of this expanding water broke 
 the glass). When water gets into cracks and crevices of rocks and then freezes 
 what is certain to happen? Does freezing help in any way to break up clods of 
 soil? Try this experiment. Make a ball of garden soil by moistening it and work- 
 ing it like dough, put it on the stove and let it dry then pour some water over it 
 and set it out of doors where it will freeze. What is the effect of the freezing? 
 
 LESSON 7. Let the children enumerate the agents they named in yesterday's 
 lesson that helped to break up the rock. Bain, wind, and snow also help to decay 
 rock and cause it to fall to pieces. Plants, too, help very greatly in breaking up 
 rock. Sometimes the roots of trees penetrate the small crevices in rocks and burst them 
 asunder. Plants grown in the soil help to make it finer because of an acid that they 
 give out from their roots which dissolves particles of soil. There are also some little 
 organic bodies in the soil that are working all the time wherever plants are growing 
 or vegetation decaying to make the soil finer. 
 
 LESSON 8. Have the children place on a piece of white paper a small amount 
 of gravel, sand, clay and garden soil. Which is coarser? Are all the little pebbles 
 in the gravel round? Is there any coarse sand in the gravel? Look carefully at 
 the sand. Are all the little grains the same color? Rub a little of the sand between 
 your thumb and finger. How does it feel? If you have a lens look at the particles. 
 Do you find any that have sharp, jagged edges? These are small bits of a very 
 hard rock called quartz. None of the agents have been able to break them into 
 smaller pieces. Test the clay in the same way. How does it feel? Can you find any 
 shiny particles in the clay? In the same way examine the garden soil and decide 
 whether there are any shiny particles that resemble those of the sand in that? What 
 else do you find in the garden soil that you do not find in any of the others? (Bits 
 of decayed plants will probably be found.) Do you think this soil has anything 
 more in it than broken up rock? (This dark fine material that you find in the gar- 
 den soil is called humus. This is vegetation that has been changed by the action of 
 air and water and little living organisms that we call bacteria.) Do you know what 
 we call soil that has this material in it? (It is called loam.) 
 
 LESSON 9. For this lesson you will need four glass tumblers and some sand, 
 clay, gravel, and loam. Fill the tumblers almost full of water. Place a tablespoonful 
 of sand in one tumbler, gravel in another, clay and loam each in the others and 
 stir thoroughly. Watch carefully to see which settles first. Let them stand for 
 some time. In which does the water become clearest? In which does it remain 
 muddiest? Stir them all again. Let them stand about two minutes, then pour off 
 all the water leaving the settlings in the bottom. Set aside for the next day 's lesson. 
 
 LESSON 10. Examine the soil that was left in the bottom of the glasses 
 from yesterday's experiment. In which do you find the most grains of sand? Let 
 the children try this experiment with the different soils brought in from the differ- 
 ent farms in the neighborhood and determine whether or not some of the soil con- 
 tains more sand than others. 
 
 When the loam contains a high percent of sand we call it sandy loam.- When 
 it contains a great deal of silt we call it silt loam, and when it has a high percent 
 of clay it is known as clay loam. 
 
 Let the class try to determine what kind of soil is common in the district. 
 (There are a number of different kinds of soil in Illinois. Among these are prairie 
 brown silt loam, black clay loam, yellow clay or silt loam, brown sandy loam, peaty 
 swamp lands, sandy hillside loams. The teacher will find Bulletin No. 123, Fertility 
 in Illinois Soils, an excellent aid in determining the kind of soil in different parts 
 of Illinois. This is published by the Agricultural Experiment Station at the Univer- 
 sity of Illinois.) 
 
 LESSON 11. Does the kind of soil have anything to do with the value of land? 
 Is pure sand or pure clay as valuable as land that has a high per cent of humus 
 in it? What is the value of land per acre in your neighborhood? Are there some 
 other things besides the kind of soil that we must consider in estimating the value 
 of a farm? (Let the children name some of these. Among others the drainage 
 should be mentioned.) Why is drainage necessary? (In order to understand this 
 we must know something about the water in the soil.) Where does the water in 
 
78 
 
 the soil come from? (Eain either directly or indirectly supplies all of the soil 
 water.) What becomes of the rain that falls upon the earth? Ask the children if 
 they have ever observed the rain during a heavy shower. Some of it runs off, some 
 evaporates, and some sinks into the ground. The last is called ground water. Spend 
 some time discussing the story of a rain shower. 
 
 LESSON 12. We shall try an experiment to show what becomes of the water 
 that sinks into the ground. Place a number of pebbles or gravel in the bottom of 
 a tumbler. Cover this with a piece of cloth then fill the jar with fine soil from a 
 field or garden. (The cloth is put in simply to keep the particles of soil from filling 
 the spaces among the pebbles.) Pour some water on the soil. Watch to see what it 
 does. As it soaks into the soil can you see it between the particles? Pour in more 
 until you see the water standing in the spaces among the pebbles in the bottom of 
 the glass. When the rain falls upon the ground it does just what this water did. 
 It percolates slowly downward- thru the soil till it is stopped by a layer of clay or 
 solid rock, just as the bottom of the glass stopped this. If it keeps on raining what 
 will happen? Pour more water into the glass until it stands on the top of 
 the soil. Does this ever happen in the field? Are all the spaces between the small 
 particles filled with water now just as the spaces in the bottom were at first? Set 
 the glass aside until the following day. 
 
 LESSON 13. Examine the glass to determine whether any water is left between 
 the spaces. What has become of the water near the top of the soil? Water that 
 completely fills the spaces and moves slowly downward by the force of gravity is 
 called free water. Plants do not use this free water. Determine by looking at the 
 glass how much free water remains. Have in class some soil that is slightly moist 
 but not soaked with water. Have the children handle this and determine whether or 
 not it contains moisture. Where is the moisture in this soil? (This is called 
 capillary water and it is in little films around the particles.) Put a smooth pebble 
 into some water. Take it out and you can see a layer of water around it, This 
 shows how each tiny particle of the soil holds a film of moisture even when there 
 is no free water standing among the particles. Capillary water is that which is 
 used by plants. 
 
 LESSON 14. Since the plants do not use free water we must drain it away 
 from the surface. How is it drained? Have the class report the different methods 
 of drainage used in the district. Who has seen an open ditch? How deep is it? 
 How wide? Is it ever full of water? Does the water flow along swiftly in it? Does 
 it ever become dry? Is it ever necessary to clean it out? (Fine soil washes into 
 the ditch little by little from the adjoining fields during heavy showers. This settles 
 to the bottom and necessitates the cleaning of the ditch at least once in two 
 years. In some places it must be cleaned once every year.) Who has tile on their 
 farms? Drainage by means of tile is called under drainage. Do you think of any 
 reasons why this is better in most places than an open ditch? (The children will 
 probably be able to name a few of the advantages of the tile over the open ditch. 
 The soil above may be cultivated, hence there is less waste of ground. When tile 
 is properly laid it will last for years and therefore needs no attention as the open 
 ditch does. Have a tile in class. Who has ever seen tile laid? What are important 
 things to consider in laying tile? (The slope must be watched carefully in order to 
 have enough fall so the water will slowly drain off.) What are tile made of? (Per- 
 haps some members of the class may have visited a tile factory and will be able to 
 tell how tile are made. They are made of a certain kind of clay and then are dried 
 carefully in large kilns something as brick are dried.) 
 
 LESSON 15. Does the kind of soil in any way affect drainage? To answer this 
 question we shall try the following experiment: Procure five straight topped lamp 
 chimneys. Tie firmly over the top of each a piece of cloth. Fill the chimneys with 
 different kinds of soil. Put sand in one, clay or silt (common yellow clay) in 
 another, loam in another, a mixture of half sand and humus (well rotted manure, 
 or leaf mold) in another, clay and humus in another. Firm the soil by jarring the 
 chimneys gently up on the table while they are being filled. Have some boy make 
 a rack for the chimneys by boring or cutting a hole for each in a board. The hole 
 should be large enough to allow the chimneys to slip thru to the large portion near 
 the base. This board may be nailed to two uprights or be set on two blocks so that 
 a pan or some sauce dishes may be placed under the chimneys to catch the drip- 
 
79 
 
 pings. Measure a definite amount of water, pour it slowly into the sand. Note the 
 length of time that transpires until the water begins to drip below into the dish. 
 Keep a record of the amount of water you pour in. Do the same with each of 
 the other chimneys. Decide which drains most readily and which retains the most 
 water. What kind of water dripped from the soils? This was, of course waste free 
 water and in the field should be drained off by under drainage. Does humus aid 
 the clay in allowing the water to pass thru? What was the effect of putting humus 
 into the sand? Are the soils still moist after the water has stopped dripping? What 
 kind of water is this? (The children will probably remember that this is capillary 
 water.) 
 
 LESSON 16. Ask each child to report just where tile is laid in his father's 
 farm. Where does the tile begin and where does it end! Are there any low spots 
 iu which free water stands part of the time? If you could trace the water in a 
 string of tile where would it finally be found? Water from tile may be traced to 
 the ocean. It goes from one tile into another, a somewhat larger, possibly, into an 
 open ditch or into a small stream. This flows into a larger stream or into a river 
 which finally, thru other rivers, reaches the ocean. Have each child draw a square or 
 rectangle representing the home farm and with dotted lines show the strings of 
 tile on the farm. Indicate by shading or in some other way the highest portions of 
 the farm and the lowest. 
 
 LESSON 17. Examine the tile that you have in class. Is it porous? Stand 
 it in a pan of water to see what happens. Will the water soak thru the tile? Lay 
 the tile down on one side and place on top several layers of cloth (an old towel 
 folded into a thick wad will serve). Saturate the cloth thoroughly with water and 
 keep it wet. After a few days examine to see whether or not the water has soaked 
 entirely through the tile. How, then, does water get into the tile in the field? (Some 
 goes in between the tiles while some soaks through the porous tile.) How far on 
 each side of a string of tile may be drained by it? (That depends, of course, upon 
 the amount of water in the soil, the slope and other conditions.) The children will 
 probably see that, since there is less pressure of water in the tile than in the sur- 
 rounding soil the movement of water for several feet or even rods on either side 
 will be toward the tile. 
 
 Who has ever seen a sewer tile? If possible have one of these in class and 
 compare with drainage tile. Can water soak thru this? The children will readily 
 see that the glaced surface prevents water from going through. How are the ends 
 laid so that they may fit closely together and prevent the water from going out or 
 in at the joints? What is the use of sewer tile? 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR DECEMBER. Weather; keep record for the month. Study 
 effect of weather upon plants, animals and man. 
 
 Water supply of home and school. Various types of wells and pumps; wind- 
 mill. Methods of getting water to stock and to house; city water supply. How 
 drinking water may become impure or dangerous; how typhoid is spread. Value of 
 individual drinking cups. 
 
 LESSON 1. The weather is so closely related to our lives that it is one of the 
 most important nature study topics. For this reason some time should be given to 
 making weather observations, drawing conclusions and noting the effects of weather 
 upon plant and animal life. Discuss with the children what the term weather means 
 to them. The discussion will probably bring out ideas of heat, rain, drought, snow, 
 cold, clouds, winds and storms of various kinds. Has the weather had any influence 
 upon work done on the farm during the fall months? 
 
 LESSONS 2 AND 3. Arrange a plan for keeping a daily report of the weather 
 during the month. Let each child place in his note book or on a sheet of paper the 
 following chart making a place for each day in the month. 
 
80 
 
 WEATHER RECOKD 
 
 Date 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Wind 
 Direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Veloc- 
 ity. 
 
 Sky. 
 
 Precipita- 
 tion or 
 Rainfall. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 9A.M. 
 
 Warm, 
 40 
 
 i 
 
 Light 
 
 Partly 
 Cloudy 
 
 
 Snow this 
 P. M. 
 
 These observations may be taken without instruments. However, if the school 
 has a thermometer then the temperature should be reported in degrees. If there is 
 no thermometer then the terms warm, hot, very hot, cold, very cold, and chilly, may 
 be used. The direction of the wind may be indicated by an arrow. An arrow 
 pointing toward the top of the chart indicates a wind that is traveling northward. 
 Is a wind named from the direction it is going or the direction from which it is 
 coming? What is meant by the velocity of the wind? (Velocity means the distance 
 the wind travels per hour.) The following words may be used to indicate the 
 velocity of the wind. These terms are suggested by the U. S. Weather Bureau. Calm, 
 when there is no perceptible wind; light, when wind enough to just move the branches 
 of the trees; brisk, when swaying branches; high, when swaying whole trees. Under 
 sky record whether it is clear, partly cloudy, or overcast. Precipitation means falling 
 weather of any sort rain, snow, hail, etc. Under remarks report any item of inter- 
 est that does not appear under the other headings. Thus, for December 3, a heavy 
 frost last night, or for December 16, a slight snow fell this afternoon. 
 
 LESSONS 4 AND 5. What is the effect of cold weather upon plants? Ask the 
 children to observe plants along the road-side, in the gardens, pastures, meadows 
 and fields. Are any of them still uninjured by frosts? Have any been killed? The 
 children will find that some plants are still green. What does this mean? Some 
 plants are much harder than others and are able to stand a temperature below freez- 
 ing. Others are so delicate that the slightest frost kills them. Have the children 
 make a list of hardy plants that they find, and the delicate ones. Are any plants 
 found that have finished their work, produced their seeds, and died before there 
 were any hard frosts? Make a list of these plants. Observe the trees in the neigh- 
 borhood. Do some of them get ready for cold weather before others? Are there 
 any trees that still retain their leaves? Any with leaves that are green? 
 
 LESSONS 6 AND 7. The effect of cold weather upon animal life. Ask the 
 children to look carefully for insects along the road-sides. Are there as many as 
 there were in the fall? What has become of them? (Many, like some of the plants, 
 have died because their life work is done.) Do you think any are hidden away 
 for the winter? (A few have crept under leaves and other objects and will sleep 
 during the winter months.) Are there as many flies about the home and school as 
 there were earlier in the season? What has become of them? Have you noticed 
 any fastened to the ceiling or walls quite dead? Have you found any alive in 
 cracks and crevices? Do you know whether or not house flies live as grown up insects 
 over winter? If you keep your eyes open you will find on warm days even in the 
 middle of winter, some flies coming out of their winter quarters and buzzing around 
 on the window panes. They, like some other insects spend the winter in the grow r nup 
 stage. They hide away in some sheltered nook and become dormant. That is, they 
 remain in a sort of stupor and do not eat anything for months. We say that they 
 hibernate for the winter. In the spring they come forth and start a new generation 
 of flies for the next season. What should we do, then, with every fly that we find 
 crawling around in the winter time? 
 
 If you pull pieces of bark from posts or logs you will discover where a number 
 of insects and spiders hibernate for the winter. 
 
 How does the cold affect the domestic animals? Are the coats on the horses 
 and cows any thicker than they are in the summer time? Do these animals require 
 any different food or care during this season? Do you know any wild mammals that 
 hibernate during the winter months? (While the children in Illinois have never 
 seen any of these animals they have probably read of the bear which hibernates 
 during the winter.) 
 
81 
 
 Are there as many birds here during the winter as in the other seasons? What 
 has become of them? (Many of them have taken on the habit of moving southward 
 at the approach of the winter season.) 
 
 LESSON 8. Spend some time discussing what effect the weather has on our- 
 selves. Effects of cloudy weather? Fair! Cold? Hot? etc. Do you feel more 
 like working on some days than others simply because the weather is fair? Have the 
 children think of all the different things we do to protect ourselves from the weather, 
 such as shelter of various kinds, houses, clothing, making of fires, etc. Lead the 
 children to see that if it had not been for weather the people ages ago probably 
 would never have thought of building houses. Now we build our houses for other 
 reasons than simply to have a protection from the weather, but after all this is the 
 main reason for having houses. 
 
 LESSON 9. At the end of the month have the pupils make a short summary 
 derived from their observations. How many fair days? How many cloudy? How 
 many in which there was precipitation ? What was the general direction of the wind 
 for the month? What was the direction of the wind when the temperature was 
 warmest? When the temperature was coldest? From what direction did the rain 
 come? From what direction did the snow come? What was the direction of the 
 wind during the cloudy weather?, etc. 
 
 Have them note other relations. Is a cloudy night warmer or colder than a 
 clear night? You often hear people say in the early fall: "If it clears it will 
 freeze tonight.'' Can you see why this is true? After you have studied radiant 
 heat, you will understand better how the clouds act as a screen to keep the heat 
 close to the earth. Which seems colder, a windy day or a calm one? Why? 
 
 LESSON 10. WATEE SUPPLY OF HOME AND SCHOOL. Review the 
 source of water in the soil studied in November. Ask each child to report upon the 
 source of water used about their homes. Let each child tell the number of wells 
 they have on their farms. Who have cisterns? 
 
 LESSON 11. Discuss different kinds of wells. Who have dug wells? How 
 deep are they? How wide? With what are they walled up? Why is it necessary 
 to wall up a well? Where does the water come from in one of these wells? You 
 remember that in the lessons on soil we found free water standing among the spaces 
 in the soil. If we dig a hole in ground that is saturated with water what will 
 happen? How high will water stand in the well? (It will stand as high as the free 
 water stands in the ground.) As the free water percolates farther down in the soil 
 what will take place in the well? (The pupils will readily see that the water in 
 the well will always be on a level with the free water in the ground.) Why do 
 wells of this sort go dry during the drought of summer? These are called shallow 
 wells. 
 
 LESSON 12. Some dug wells are much deeper than those known as shallow 
 wells. Some are thirty, forty, or even fifty feet deep. Has any one a well of this 
 sort? Does it ever go dry? In wells of this sort the supply of water comes from 
 what is called a vein that remains practically constant for years. Have the children 
 try to get a clear picture of what a vein of water is. If we should dig down twenty, 
 thirty, or forty feet would we find the same kind of soil all the way down? The 
 children will be able to answer from their geography work that various layers are 
 found, sometimes a layer of sand, then of silt, or clay, or even solid rock. Are all 
 the layers parallel to the earth's surface? (In some places instead of being parallel 
 they are oblique or even wavy.) Let some child pass to the board and draw a 
 waved line to show a layer of clay a number of feet under the surface of the ground. 
 Above this draw another line representing a layer of sand. Above this another of 
 clay and then sand or some other soil reaching to the surface. Let us suppose that 
 the layer of sand farthest down slopes so that it comes to the surface many miles 
 away. If it rains on this surface what will become of the water? (It will, of course, 
 percolate downward thru the sand.) Why does it not go on down thru the clay? 
 You remember in the experiment with the clay in the lamp chimneys that it took 
 a long time for the water to move downward thru this. It is the same in the ground. 
 So the sand becomes filled with water. Now if we dig a well down into this layer 
 of sand what will happen? The children will see that the water will fill the well 
 standing as high as the water stands in the layer of sand which comes to the surface 
 miles away. 
 
82 
 
 LESSON 13. Are there any driven or drilled wells in the district? How deep 
 are they? How are they made? Some of the boys will no doubt be able to describe 
 the digging of a drilled well. With what are these wells walled? (Usually with 
 a galvanized pipe very much like a gas pipe.) In driven wells the pipe is driven 
 into the ground as the hole is made. In the drilled well the soil and material are 
 taken out of the well and the pipe put down afterwards. Usually then, the drilled 
 well has a little wider pipe than the driven well. In Illinois most of the deep wells 
 are drilled. Where does the water supply come from in these wells? It is supplied 
 in much the same way that it is in the deep dug wells, only the layer of sand con- 
 taining the water is much farther down in the ground. In some cases these wells 
 are two hundred feet deep. Sometimes the water in one of these drilled wells rises 
 almost to the top of the well. Can you explain why this is so ? 
 
 LESSON 14. Which of the wells discussed do you think is likely to afford the 
 purest water? (The drilled well is usually free from all bacteria that are likely to 
 be present in shallow wells.) Why? We have only to think of the water percolating 
 thru the soil to know that this water may carry with it different kinds of bacteria 
 that are dangerous to human beings. Water may come from some outbuildings or 
 from barns Or other places where it is certain there are germs of disease. It has 
 been proved beyond doubt that typhoid fever germs are frequently found in shallow 
 well water. Did you ever see any one washing his hands at a pump and letting the 
 water from his hands run down upon the cover of the well, some of it going back 
 into the well? Sometimes we take a drink at a pump and throw the water that is 
 left where it may run back into the well. May a deep dug well also have bacteria 
 carried into it by the free water in the soil? (It certainly may if it is walled all 
 the way with brick. You can easily see that the water near the surface may make 
 its way thru the soil into the deep well.) Can you think of any way in which this 
 may be prevented? Some people finish the upper five or six feet of a deep well with 
 cement. They make this cement wall extend five or six inches above the surface of 
 the ground. They see to it, also, that a tight cover is kept over the well. In this 
 way you see the water from the deep vein only enters the well. This is usually 
 free from bacteria. 
 
 LESSON 15. How is water obtained from the wells at home? Who has a lift 
 or suction pump? Has any one an old-fashioned chain pump? Are there any wind 
 mills in the district? How does a wind mill pump water? Have the children name 
 the parts of the wind mill. (Tower, wheel, weather vane, and a governing device 
 to regulate the movement of the wheel so it will not move too rapidly when the wind 
 is high.) How is the wind mill fastened to the pump? (In most cases there is a 
 rod or shaft that is attached to the piston rod of the pump. As the wheel turns 
 in the wind the piston of the pump is moved up and down.) What arrangements are 
 made so that a quantity of water may be stored for the stock? How many have 
 a wooden tank or trough? Who has a galvanized iron one? How is the water carried 
 into the home? Let the children report on this. Has any one a storage tank placed 
 high enough so that the water may be piped into the house? Many farmers are 
 placing storage tanks somewhere near the house so that the water may be piped to 
 any part of the house. Do you not think this is a great improvement over carrying 
 in pails all the water that is needed? Who has a cistern pump in the kitchen? Does 
 any one use cistern water for all purposes about the house? Has the cistern a filter? 
 Do you know w T hat a filter in an ordinary cistern is made of? Some cisterns have 
 a filter placed in the ground outside the cistern made chiefly of charcoal. The water 
 from the roof passes through the charcoal before it goes into the cistern. The char- 
 coal absorbs much of the impurities from the water. Some cisterns have a wall 
 of brick built about half way up in the middle, the water passes into the cistern on 
 one side and passes through the wall and is used from the other side. Do you think 
 filters of this sort will remove bacteria from the water? (They do not. They simply 
 remove dust particles and make the water clearer, but bacteria, if there are any, 
 pass thru the filter.) 
 
 LESSON 16. How is the school supplied with water? If there is a well is it 
 arranged so that any surface water can get into it? Do all the children have 
 individual drinking cups? Why have so many state legislatures passed a law that 
 there shall be no public drinking cups? (This has been done because these men 
 believe that there is much danger of contracting diseases from the public drinking 
 
83 
 
 cup. If some one with tonsilitis, for example, should drink from a cup probably 
 some of the germs would remain on the edge of the cup. The next child who drank 
 would be likely to get some of the germs and contract the disease.) Do you keep 
 a pail of water uncovered in the school room? Why is this not a good thing to do? 
 Dust of various kinds and germs from the air are likely to settle in it. 
 
 LESSOX 17. A lesson on the value and importance of water about the home 
 will be worth while. Let the children suggest all the uses of water that they know 
 about the house and barns. Discuss its important connection with the growing of 
 plants in the fields and garden. 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE JAXUAEY. Systems of lighting in the home and school. His- 
 tory of lighting. Candles. How made. Study of a candle flame. Necessity of 
 air (oxygen). Parts of the kerosene lamp. How the kerosene lamp burns. Differ- 
 ent kinds. Xature and uses of kerosene. Petroleum and its products. 
 
 The eye. Parts of the eye. Muscles; tear gland; lids; lashes; eyelashes, etc. 
 Kinds of light best suited to the eye. Danger of reading in a strong light or by 
 twilight, when lying down, when the eyes smart ; diseases of the eye ; how to prevent; 
 testing of eyes. Simple review of the use of food and of respiration. 
 
 LESSOX 1. Have the children name all the different methods of lighting that 
 they have in their homes and the school. Discuss briefly the history of lighting. 
 Have the children think of a time in Illinois when people were dependent largely 
 upon light from the fire place or from pine knots. Later they used candles. Some- 
 times they used a simple lamp made with a cup in which grease was placed with a 
 piece of old toweling twisted to form a wick. Tell the children to ask their grand- 
 parents to tell them about these simple grease lamps. How were candles made in 
 those early days. Perhaps some one in the neighborhood may have some old candle 
 molds which will add to the interest of this study. The children should know that 
 at first all the candles were made by a method called dipping. The strings for the 
 wicks were tied to a stick a foot or two in length. Beef tallow was melted in large 
 kettles. The strings were dipped into the hot tallow then taken out and allowed to 
 stand for a few minutes until the tallow hardened, then they were dipped in again just 
 for a moment. This was repeated again and again until the candles were large 
 enough for use. You can imagine how long a time it took during the winter to 
 make enough candles to last the family for a whole year. 
 
 LESSOX 2. The other method of making candles was by means of the candle 
 mold. Tell the children how this was done. If you have no mold, pictures will 
 help if they are available. Tell the children how our grandmothers strung the mold? 
 passing in the wicking with large darning needles. The wicks were tied fast with 
 a small stick which was laid across the holes in the top of the mold and then the 
 hot tallow was poured into the mold and allowed to cool. When cold, hot water was 
 poured over the outside of the mold to loosen the candles, which were then pulled 
 out by the sticks. Candles are made in the same way today, but most of our can- 
 dles are made of paraffin instead of tallow. The teacher should have a few candles 
 for the children to examine. 
 
 LESSOX 3. For this lesson a candle or a portion of a candle is needed. Light 
 the candle and notice how it burns. After is has burned a short time notice the 
 shape of the top of the candle. What is in the hollow cup? What forms the sides 
 of the cup? Does the flame come down to the surface of the tallow? Where is the 
 flame widest ? What is the shape of the flame at the top ? When the candle has been 
 burning for some time blow out the flame. Can you see anything coming from the 
 end of the wick? What is the color of the smoke? What do you think this smoke 
 is? Let us try to answer this by thinking of something in the home and that is 
 a teakettle full of water. When the water begins to get hot what can you see com- 
 ing from the spout of the teakettle? What was the steam a few minutes before? 
 The children will no doubt say that the steam was first water. The heat changed 
 the water into steam or vapor. Think what effect the heat has upon the melted 
 paraffin in the wick of the candle. It changes it into vapor. Xow look at your 
 burning candle. In how many forms do you see paraffin? The children should be 
 able to see paraffin in three forms, solid, liquid, and vapor. 
 
84 
 
 LESSON 4. Will the paraffin vapor burn? Light the candle as you did in 
 Lesson 3. Now blow out the flame. Have a lighted match ready. The minute the 
 flame is out apply the lighted match to the smoke or paraffin vapor. Does it take 
 fire? Watch to see how it burns down to the wick and, light the candle. Try this 
 a number of times until you are certain that the vapor takes fire and burns. What 
 is it, then, that is really burning in the candle? The children will probably be ready 
 to say that it is the paraffin vapor. Let us name, then all the things that happen 
 in the burning candle. The heat melts the paraffin, the melted paraffin goes up 
 through the wick and is there changed into vapor and then burns. 
 
 LESSON 5. What else is needed to make the flame of the candle? Place a 
 small piece of candle upon the table. Light it. When it is burning brightly place 
 a fruit jar over it and watch to see what happens. Take the fruit jar off, light 
 the candle again and place a tumbler over it. Does the flame go out any sooner 
 under the tumbler than it did under the jar? What was in the jar and the tumbler 
 before you turned them over the candle? (You may have to help the children to 
 see that they were both full of air.) Why did the flame go out? (It was luck 
 of air that caused the flame to gradually die out.) Can you have any flame without 
 air? The part of air that is necessary for a flame is called oxygen. What are the 
 two things then that make the flame of the candle? (Paraffin vapor and oxygen.) 
 
 LESSON 6. For this lesson you need a kerosene lamp. Have the children, 
 with the lamp before them, name the parts of the lamp; bowl, wick, burner and 
 chimney. Light the lamp and put the chimney on. Watch the flame. Is it steady? 
 Blow out the flame and let it stand for a few moments then remove the chimney. 
 Eelight the lamp and leave the chimney off. Is the flame as steady as it was 
 before? What then, is one use of the chimney? Do you think it is the kerosene 
 vapor that burns? Try the same experiment that you did with the candle to see 
 if the smoke that is coming from the wick will catch fire. Do you think air is as 
 necessary as it was for the burning of the candle? Can you see any way arranged 
 for the air to get to the burning wick. The children will easily find the perforated 
 bottom in the burner where the air enters. Trace the air through the chimney up 
 to the flame. To do this light a small splinter of wood, let it burn for a moment 
 then blow out the flame and hold the smoking splinter at the lower part of the 
 burner. You will be able to see the smoke moving upward through the perforated 
 base. Now hold the smoking splinter at the top of the chimney and you will see 
 that the currents of air are moving outward at the top. Can you see what the cap 
 of the burner does? If you will loosen the cap a little and light the lamp you will 
 see that the light is smoky and dim. The cap helps to direct the air toward the 
 flame. You will see it is shaped just right to do this. Now have the children name 
 all the parts of the lamp and tell what each part is for. 
 
 LESSON 7. Discuss the different kinds of kerosene lamps that the children 
 have seen. Some may have the round wick lamps. These have a tube extending 
 down through the center of the bowl so that the air passes up and supplies the in- 
 side of the wick, while the outside of the wick is supplied by air through the per- 
 forated base. Has anyone other kinds of lights than kerosene lamps? Perhaps some 
 one in the neighborhood has a gasoline gas machine and makes his own gas lights. 
 Some may have acetylene gas light, and some if they live near town, have electric 
 lights. If there are any of these lights have the children tell how they work, and 
 what kind of light they make. 
 
 LESSON 8. Spend one lesson talking about where we obtain kerosene and 
 gasoline. Perhaps the children have already learned something about this in their 
 geography. They should know at least that kerosene, gasoline, paraffin and some 
 other things are made from crude oil or petroleum and that this is found in the 
 ground. Where are the oil wells in Illinois? (There are a number of large and very 
 important oil wells in the south eastern part of our state.) Crude oil or petroleum 
 is dark in color and almost as thick as molasses. It is really a mixture of a number 
 of different liquids. To obtain these different liquids the petroleum is heated and 
 these liquids are turned into vapor. The vapor is caught in large vessels and cooled 
 so that it is changed back into liquid again. The lightest liquid changes to vapor 
 first and so it is caught by itself. Gasoline is lighter than kerosene so it vaporizes 
 and is obtained before kerosene. There is more kerosene in petroleum than any of 
 the other products. If you have had in your school the petroleum products of the 
 
85 
 
 Geographical Museum you have seen all the different things that are made from 
 petroleum, as gasoline, kerosene, paraffin, vaseline. Most of the chewing gum is 
 made from petroleum. Have the children name all the uses of kerosene and gasoline 
 that they know. Which one is more dangerous to use? Can you see why gasoline 
 is more dangerous than kerosene? It is because it changes to vapor so much more 
 readily and at a much lower temperature. That is the reason it is never safe to 
 keep the gasoline can in the home. The only safe thing to do is to keep it out of 
 doors away from the house. , 
 
 LESSONS 9 AND 10. Eyes and Light. Eeview briefly all of the senses and 
 the sense organs. From the physiology text study the parts of the eye. Look in 
 the mirror and find all the parts that are visible in your own eyes, or look at your 
 neighbor's eye and find all the visible parts. What parts are especially adapted 
 to protect the eye? How do the eyebrows help? The lashes? Tears? Lids? How 
 does the eye move? Look at the picture of the eye. Find the muscles that are 
 attached to the eye ball. 
 
 LESSONS 11, 12, AND 13. Care of the eyes. Discuss how important good eye- 
 sight is. How dependent we are upon our eyes for much of our work and our 
 pleasure. Help the children to appreciate the necessity of taking care of their eyes. 
 In the care of the eyes one of the most important things is to have the right kind 
 of light to work and to study by. The best light is daylight but we need to know 
 how to regulate the amount of sunlight that there is in a room. We should have 
 plenty of light but should never work with the sunlight falling directly upon our 
 book or desk or striking us full in the face. WTien you are doing close work of any 
 kind the light should come from above and if possible from behind. Look at your 
 windows in the schoolroom. Are the shades arranged so that you can have the top 
 half down, or the lower half up as you choose? It is very easy to have the shades 
 arranged in this manner. You see it will then be possible to have the lower part of 
 the window screened and allow the light to come in from the upper part when it 
 is best to have it come from that direction. When you use a lamp never sit with the 
 lamp facing you, but if possible sit so that the light will come from behind and over 
 your left shoulder. Hold your paper so there will not be a reflected glare. How 
 many of you have shades on your lamps at home? No lamp without a shade should 
 be used for reading or for any other purpose except to light up a room. 
 
 To use the eyes continuously without rest for an hour or two is never a good 
 thing to do. If you must work for this length of time at close work, rest the eyes 
 for a few moments occasionally. You may do this by closing them a short time or 
 by looking from your work and out of the window or by rising and taking a brief 
 time for exercising the whole body. 
 
 The teacher should make a careful test of the pupils' eyes, to determine whether 
 any are near sighted or far sighted. A card for testing the eyes may be obtained 
 from an optician. The teacher should see to it that the near sighted pupils have 
 seats near the blackboard, maps, and other things that require close looking. Of 
 course the best plan when you suspect your eyes are not right is to see a good 
 occulist. If you cannot see the words in your reader clearly then there is something 
 wrong and steps should be taken to rectify it. There are certain things that you 
 need to think about that need to be avoided. Among others are reading when lying 
 down, continuing to read and study when the eyes begin to smart, or reading in a 
 moving train or a swing. Many children injure their eyes permanently in this way. 
 
 Are there any diseases of the eyes? Perhaps some of the children may have 
 some diseases that are prevalent in the neighborhood. Many of the eye diseases are 
 contagious. They are caused by disease germs. These germs are carried from one 
 person to another. Can you name some of the ways by which the germs can be 
 carried. If some one has sore eyes and rubs his eyes with hand and then touches 
 a book or desk, how may some other child get these germs into his eyes? Do you 
 know of any schools where the children all wipe on the same towel? Do you think 
 there is any danger of spreading eye disease in this way? 
 
 Make the children feel that they can do much toward taking care of their own 
 eyes. 
 
 LESSONS 14-16. In the fifth year the children made a study of food and the 
 digestive system. It will be worth while to spend one or two lessons reviewing the 
 chief points of the work, especially why food is necessary. How the food is prepared 
 
86 
 
 to enter the blood, and how to take care of our food. In the same way review the 
 work of respiration. What are the chief organs of respiration? Movements of 
 respiration. Importance of good air. 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOR FEBRUARY. Special study of circulation. Blood. Neces- 
 sity of circulation. Channels of circulation. Heart; arteries; veins, capillaries. 
 Demonstration of beef or pig heart. Experiments showing pulse rate, flow of blood 
 in veins and capillaries. Diseases that enter the body through the blood. Effect 
 of alcohol and tobacco upon circulation. 
 
 Skin, structure. Perspiration; regulation of the body temperature. 
 
 LESSONS 1 AND 2. Blood. What is the chief function of the blood. The 
 children should think of the blood as the carrier of everything that needs to be 
 moved from .one part of the body to another. Name things that the blood car- 
 ries; digested food, oxygen from the air, and waste products. How does the 
 blood do its work as a carrier? What keeps it moving around through the body? 
 
 Heart. Study the heart and the work it does from your physiology. Place 
 your hand on your left side and feel your heart as it beats. That is, as it 
 pumps the blood all over the body. If possible obtain a heart either of a beef or 
 a pig. Study the parts, comparing with pictures in the physiology. 
 
 LESSON 3. How does the blood get from the heart to all parts of the body? 
 Study the arteries in your book. Find the big arteries extending from the heart. 
 Place the tips of the fingers of your right hand on the wrist of your left arm just 
 below thumb and feel the beating that we call the pulse. What is the pulse? It 
 is the movement of the walls of a large artery as the heart pumps blood through 
 it. Count the number of times it beats during one minute. 
 
 LESSON 4. The veins. Look on the back of your hands for blood tubes that 
 lie near the surface. What are these? Study about the veins in the physiology. 
 Press with your finger on one of the large veins and watch to see how full the 
 veins of your hand become further up toward the fingers. That is because you 
 have stopped the flow of the blood up your arm. 
 
 LESSON 5. Capillaries. Study about the capillaries in your physiology find- 
 ing out just what they are like and where situated. Press hard on the back of 
 your hand. How does the spot look the moment you take your finger away? 
 Why does it look white? It is because you have, for the moment, pressed the 
 blood out of the capillaries. This gives you some idea of the great number of 
 these tiny tubes that ramify through all the tissues of your body. Can you prick 
 your finger or hand anywhere with the finest needle you have without breaking 
 the walls of some of the capillaries? 
 
 LESSON 6. Study the composition of the blood in your physiology, until 
 you have the proper notion of all of its parts, serum, red corpuscles, and white 
 corpuscles. In connection with this study impress upon the children that the blood 
 is made up largely of digested food and oxygen. Good blood, then, means that 
 you eat the right kind of food and breathe plenty of fresh air. When the blood 
 is in good condition it means, too that it will be more likely to destroy the poisons 
 that come from disease germs that get into the blood. Good blood means some- 
 thing else, too. It means that we shall be in the best condition to do our best work 
 with our hands and with our minds. 
 
 What are some of the things that make the blood flow faster? Feel the dif- 
 ference in the beating of your heart when you are sitting still and after you have 
 t exercised in some w r ay for a few minutes. One of the good results of exercise is 
 to cause the blood to flow more rapidly through the body. Do you think there may 
 be danger of exercising too vigorously? There is some danger. Moderate exercise 
 is good for us but we may permanently injure the heart by over exercising. Run- 
 ning for too long a time, racing with a bicycle for a long period, jumping rope 
 too long all may injure the heart. 
 
 LESSON 7. Discuss how to keep the blood in good condition and the heart 
 doing its work properly. Repeat what has already been said about fresh air, whole- 
 some food, and moderate exercise. There are some other things besides violent 
 
87 
 
 exercise that we must avoid if we keep the ciculatory system in good condition. 
 We must avoid the use of alcohol and tobacco. Study what your physiology says 
 about this. You should realize that alcohol often causes the heart to fail to do 
 its work properly. Alcohol also acts upon the white blood corpuscles in such a 
 way that they cannot do their work of destroying the poisons that come from 
 disease germs, hence one who uses alcohol to excess is more likely to take typhoid 
 or other contagious diseases than one who does not use alcohol. Tobacco, too, 
 has somewhat the same effect. If you really want to be strong and well the only 
 safe plan is to leave both of these stimulants alone. 
 
 LESSON 8. One lesson may well be given on how to stop a bleeding wound. 
 If the physiology treats this topic have the children study it from the book. If 
 a large vessel is cut can you tell whether it is an artery or a vein? If the blood 
 flows in a steady stream it is coming from a vein; if it spurts, it is from an ar- 
 tery. In case of a cut artery tie a hard knot in a handkerchief or cord. Place this 
 above the cut and twist it tightly. If a vein is cut press your finger below the 
 wound and tie the handkerchief tightly in the same place. 
 
 * LESSON 9. What is lymph and where is it found in the body? Help the 
 
 children to picture lymph tubes ramifying through the muscles and tissues of the 
 
 body filled with a white liquid. Find the picture of the lymphatic duct in the 
 book and study what lymph is and how it gets into the blood. 
 
 LESSON 10. Although children at this age may not be able to understand 
 all that occurs in the cells and {issues of the body yet they can know a few of 
 the fundamental facts concerning the action which takes place when oxygen and 
 food meet in the cells of the tissues of the body. This meeting of the oxygen 
 and digested food results in two things; heat of the body is produced, and by this 
 union we are given energy or power to do our work. Summarize all the different 
 things that the circulatory system does. 
 
 LESSON 11. Skin. Discuss briefly the use of the skin as a protection of 
 the body. Study the structure of the skin as treated in the physiology. If you 
 have a lens look on the back of your hand to find the scaly outside layer of cells. 
 Notice the effect of cold and heat on the amount of blood at the surface of the 
 body. Study the sweat glands; where situated; structure of oil glands. 
 
 LESSONS 12 AND 13. What are the functions of the skin? Besides acting 
 as a covering for the body the skin is the chief heat regulator of the body. Do 
 you know what the temperature of a healthy person is? (It is a little over 98 
 degrees Fahrenheit. Winter and summer it is the same.) How can it remain 
 the same no matter how hot the weather is? It is because the skin regulates the 
 heat. How does it do this? One way is that the blood comes to the surface and 
 is cooled. When we are hot there is more blood at the surface than when we are 
 cool. In this way, then, the body is cooled to a certain extent, but the most im- 
 portant method of regulating the heat is by means of the perspiration. To under- 
 stand how it does this we shall perform two or three simple experiments. 
 
 Fill a pan or cup exactly half full of water and set it in the warmest place 
 in the room. Next day measure the water carefully. Is there as much water as 
 there was the day before ? What has become of it ? We say it has evaporated, 
 which means that the water has changed into an invisible gas or vapor and has 
 gone off into the air. The same thing happens when you boil water, with one 
 difference, the evaporation goes on more quickly when the water is boiling. Eub 
 a little water with your finger on the back of your hand. Hold the hand up in 
 the air waving it gently. How does the wet spot feel? Why does it feel cool? 
 What did the water do as you held it in the air? (The water evaporated.) If 
 you have a thermometer in the school dip the bulb into the water and hold it in the 
 air waving it gently back and forth until the water has evaporated. Does the 
 mercury rise or fall? From all these experiments what do you conclude as to the 
 effect of evaporation of liquids on surrounding bodies? (It cools the bodies be- 
 cause heat is used in changing water into vapor.) Why does scrubbing porches 
 on a hot summer day make the air around the house seem cool? (For the same 
 reason the water in evaporating uses up the heat of the porch and really for a 
 short time cools the air.) Now think what takes place when perspiration comes 
 to the surface of our bodies. As it evaporates it uses up some of the heat of our 
 bodies as it changes into vapor. The warmer you are, and the more you perspire 
 
88 
 
 the more heat is used in evaporating the perspiration, so your temperature is kept 
 about the same all the time. 
 
 LESSONS 15 AND 16. Care of the skin. Think of all the reasons why 
 bathing is necessary. (Dust settles upon the body. As the perspiration evap- 
 orates particles of waste are left on the skin.) (Wle sometimes hear the skin called 
 the third lung because some oxygen enters our bodies thru the pores and some 
 waste is given off.) Can the skin do its work if not kept clean? Another reason 
 for bathing is that it improves our appearance. Clean fresh looking faces, and 
 clean, smooth hands are more attractive than dirty, rough ones. Discuss the best 
 time to bathe. (In the evening just before going to bed is a good time to take a 
 hot bath. You should take a bath of this sort once or twice every week. Can you 
 see any reason why you should bathe oftener in summer than in winter? Some 
 people find that a cold bath if taken in the morning is invigorating. After tak- 
 ing a cold bath one should rub vigorously with a towel until one feels all aglow. 
 If it is not possible to take a cold bath in the morning, form the habit of sprink- 
 ling the throat and chest with cold water and rubbing them vigorously. You will 
 find this a great help to prevent your taking cold. 
 
 Are there any diseases that enter the body through the skin? Eeview the mos- 
 quito study in the fall of the fifth year. There are certain diseases of the skin as 
 well as of the eyes that are contagious because by disease germs. We should avoid 
 wiping upon public towels. Some people will realize how worth while it is for 
 every person to have his own towel. 
 
 Study from the physiology the structure of the hair and nails as modified por- 
 tions of the skin. Study how to care for the nails and hair. This is a good time, 
 also to talk about the uses of clothing. If the body generates its own heat, then 
 what is the purpose of clothing? It is to keep the heat of the body from passing 
 out into the air. Some kinds of cloth keep the heat in better than other kinds so 
 we wear different materials in winter from those that we wear in summer. Warm 
 clothing should be worn in winter but it should not be too heavy. Overcoats and 
 wraps should not be kept on in the house because we shall get too warm and are 
 likely to be chilled when we go out of doors. Wet clothing should not be kept 
 on and allowed to dry on the body. Can you tell why it will chill the body? Think 
 about the experiments in Lesson 12. The water in evaporating from the clothing 
 uses up the heat of the body. The same rule should be observed with regard to 
 wet feet. 
 
 LESSON 17. If time permits make a brief study in two lessons of the brain 
 and nervous system. The chief thing for the children to keep in mind is that the 
 brain and nerves control all the acts of the body. They are the rulers of the body. 
 We must care, then, for the nervous system by taking proper rest and sleep and 
 by avoiding the use of any stimulants that act upon the nerves. It is the nervous 
 system often more than any other part of the body that ia affected by alcohol and 
 other stimulants. 
 
 MARCH 
 
 OUTLINE FOE MAECH. Forestry. Identify as many trees in the neigh- 
 borhood as possible. Collect twigs, study character of buds, baric, leaf scar, etc. 
 Trees of Illinois. If possible visit a grove of native 1 trees. Row does the soil and 
 surface differ from a prairie region? Are the trees of the district native or trans- 
 planted? Who planted them? Destruction of forests; methods of conservation; 
 government reserves; special study of catalpa; branding buds, pods, seeds, value 
 for posts. Plant seeds at home and school. 
 
 Make plans for Arbor Day; how trees should be planted and cared for. 
 
 Garden. Potato. Study of tubers, bud, stem, and starch. Methods of cutting, 
 planting. Experiments in planting large and small piece buds and stem ends. 
 Treatment for scab. Encourage each child to plant some potatoes for display next 
 fall. 
 
 NOTE. There is perhaps no better place than the sixth grade to intensify 
 tree study. Up to this time the children have been observing trees and becoming 
 acquainted with their characteristics and uses. Now is a good time to organize 
 this knowledge more fully and to broaden the work until it includes something of 
 elementary forestry. If the children, however, have had little opportunity to 
 
89 
 
 study individual trees of the district it may be worth while giving the time to the 
 study as suggested for the fourth year. 
 
 LESSON 1. TREES AND FORESTRY. Have the children make a list of 
 all the trees they know when the leaves are on ; when the leaves are off. What 
 trees have already begun to open their flower buds? (Elm and soft maples blos- 
 som in March.) Start a simple tree calendar. 9 
 
 Xame 
 
 Time of 
 flowering 
 
 Leaves begin 
 to open 
 
 Leaves full 
 grown 
 
 Fruit and 
 seed ripe 
 
 Soft Maple 
 
 March 15 
 
 April 20 
 
 May 8 
 
 May 20 
 
 LESSON 2. Bring into class for this study twigs of trees; cottonwood, elm, 
 oak, etc. Look at the twig and name all the things that you see. You should find 
 buds, leaf scars showing where the old leaves were fastened last year, and ring 
 scars that mark the place where the new twigs begin to grow each year. These 
 scars will enable you to identify each year's growth. How many years' growth 
 does your twig represent? You should find also on the bark small spots or pores 
 called lenticels. How are the buds related to the leaf scars. Are they above or 
 below the scars? Are the buds opposite or alternate in arrangement? Are there 
 any buds at the end of the twigs? Are the end or terminal buds the same size 
 and shape as the side or lateral buds? Draw a twig showing everything you see 
 and label neatly. 
 
 LESSON 3. Make a comparative study of the twigs of two or three other 
 trees in the district. Note size, shape, color, and arrangement of buds, etc. Do 
 you find more trees with opposite or with alternate buds? Compare different trees 
 as to the growth that they make in one season. Measure the length of one year 
 old twigs and note the difference of growth rate between "hard" and "soft" 
 woods. Study also the characteristics of the entire tree. This may be done out- 
 side of school hours and reported. Note the method of branching of each tree. 
 Color of bark. Is the bark smooth or rough? Furrowed or scaly? Do the scales 
 form any distinct patterns? Does the surface and color of the trunk differ from 
 that of the branches and twigs? Are last year's seeds still clinging to any of 
 the trees ? If so, collect and preserve these. 
 
 LESSONS 4 AND 5. Study of the wood. Get some one in the neighborhood 
 at the time the trees are being pruned to make a few cross sections of the large 
 branches of as many trees as possible. If someone cuts down a tree try to get a cross 
 section of the trunk. Start the children in making a collection of specimens of 
 wood of the different trees. Each section should be made straight across and 
 should be two or three inches thick. Very small cross sections will serve for this 
 lesson if large ones cannot be obtained. A few longitudinal sections may be of 
 service. These may be made by splitting some of the cross sections through the 
 middle. 
 
 Look at the cross section of wood. How many distinct structures can you 
 see? If it is a large section you will find hard wood at the center known as "the 
 heart wood, softer wood outside of this which is called sap wood, and on the out- 
 side of this is the bark. Do these different parts show any difference in color? 
 Do the colors differ in different kinds of trees? Can you see any rays extending 
 outward from the center of the section? These are called pith rays. How many 
 rings are there in your specimen? What do the rings indicate? Each ring usually 
 indicates a year 's growth. Make drawings of cross sections showing all of the 
 parts. 
 
 LESSON 6. Secure a few fresh twigs from a willow, maple, or cottonwood. 
 How does the bark on the young stem differ from that on the trunk or older 
 branches? Why do you suppose the outside became so rough on the older stem? 
 Look at the branches of various ages to see if you can solve this problem for 
 yourself. (The inside layers of bark and wood grow so much more rapidly than 
 the outside layer that it is compelled to stretch. After a time it can stretch no 
 further and so cracks and splits open forming furrows or scales.) 
 
90 
 
 Peel a piece of bark from the twig. What is the color of the bark on the in- 
 side? See if you can find three layers in the bark. The thin skin on the outside 
 is called epidermis. Just under this is a green layer and on the inside is the white 
 layer called bast. 
 
 How does the wood look under the bast? Is it dry or wet? Bub your finger 
 over it. How does it feel? This sticky, sappy layer between the wood and the 
 bark is called the cambium. It is very important, for this is where the new cells 
 of wood and bark are formed, making a new growth of wood and bark. 
 
 Cut a cross section of this young stem. Does it resemble the section of the 
 old stem? The soft part you find in the center is pith. Can you see any rays go- 
 ing out from this? After a stem is a few years old the pith disappears. 
 
 LESSON 7. Work and growth of trees. If trees grow they must have food. 
 If you bore a small hole in a maple tree in the early spring, or break the end 
 from a branch, what runs out? Did you ever taste this sap? Why does it taste 
 sweet? It has sugar in it. How is maple syrup made? Perhaps some of the 
 children have visited a sugar camp and can tell how the trees are tapped, how the 
 sap is collected and then boiled down into syrup or sugar. 
 
 Where do the trees get this sap? It was stored in the roots during the long 
 winter, but the leaves manufactured it the summer before, so one may think of the 
 leaves of the trees as factories that make the food for the whole tree. The roots 
 take from the soil water and some minerals in solution. The water travels up- 
 ward through the stem to the leaves. The leaves take a gas called carbon dioxide 
 from the air and all day long they are using water and this carbon dioxide in the 
 manufacture of food for the tree. Some of the food is used at once in the growth 
 of the tree, the leaves, and flowers, but a great deal of it is stored up in the stem 
 and the root and used when the tree begins its growth in the spring. Has a tree 
 enough food stored up in its stem to start the young leaves growing in the spring- 
 time? You may test this by breaking off a few twigs, putting them into water, 
 and keeping them in the light. Watch the opening of the buds and see how large 
 the leaves succeed in growing in the school room. 
 
 LESSON 8. A simple experiment may be tried to show in what part of a 
 stem water travels upward. Put a teaspoonful of red ink into a tumbler half 
 full of water. Get some fresh twigs of maples or willow 7 or some other tree and 
 place them in the cold water. Let them stand until the next day. Now make 
 some cross sections with a sharp knife and notice in what part of the twig the 
 ink traveled upward. You will find that it is in the wood. In the tree trunk only 
 the newest layers of sap wood carry the water upward.. You will be interested to 
 know that the bast, the inner layer of bark, carries the food downward from the 
 leaves to the stems and the roots. 
 
 LESSON 9. If you live in a wooded region have the children identify as 
 many of the trees as possible. You may have to wait until the leaves are out 
 before you can be sure of all the trees. You should find in our native Illinois 
 groves oaks of several kinds; white, red, black and burr oak are most common. 
 You are not likely to find all of these in the same grove. Some other common 
 Illinois trees are the buckeye, walnuts, sugar maple, sycamore, ash, iron-wood, 
 elms, hickory, mulberry. Which of the trees have the largest trunks? Which are 
 tallest? Are there any young trees growing up among the old ones? What kind 
 is most numerous? Are there many decaying logs on the ground? Have many 
 dead branches dropped from the trees? Is there much underbrush? What use 
 if any, is made of woods where you live? Do stock run in them? Do cattle 
 and sheep injure the young trees? Are any of the trees cut down each year? 
 What are they used for? 
 
 If you live in a prairie region have the children tell how far they would have 
 to go to get to the woods. There are not many sections in Illinois that are more 
 than ten miles from a wooded region. Most districts are nearer. Have the chil- 
 dren ever gone to the woods? Do they know any of the native trees? They should 
 know at least what some of our common trees are. A collection of twigs, leaves, 
 and fruit is of value for tree study. 
 
 Where do we find trees in the prairie region? Try to have the children pic- 
 ture a time when there were no trees here. Nothing but the tall, prairie grass 
 and prairie flowers. How have the trees come into this region? Find out, if you 
 can, something of the history of the trees in the district. Who set them out? 
 
91 
 
 Which are the oldest trees? Has any one set out trees in recent rears? Do you 
 find any trees in the prairie region that were not set out by man? Sometimes you 
 will find along the streams a number of willows and occasionally in a field a big 
 cottonwood that has been there for years. Can you think how these trees were 
 planted? What kind of seeds have the willow and cottonwood? They have tiny 
 seeds attached to bits of cotton that may blow miles and miles on a windy day. 
 There is little doubt that these trees plant themselves. 
 
 LESSOX 10. Discuss the value of trees. Make a list of the industries that 
 depend upon forests. (Lumbering, furniture making, ship building, the making 
 of cars, wood pulp, paper making, turpentine, tar, etc.) Where are the forests that 
 supply these great demands? Where are most of the trees that are used for lum- 
 bering? What kind of trees are used largely for lumber? Are they conifers or 
 broad leaved trees? Are there as many trees* from which to make lumber as there 
 were years ago? What are some of the things that are helping to destroy our for- 
 Have you heard of forest fires? How do they get started? Sometimes they 
 are started by a spark from engines, but more often by carelessness on the part 
 of campers or other people. Hundreds of acres of excellent timber are burned 
 every year. Do you know what our government is doing to prevent the destruc- 
 tion of our forests? Make plans for an Arbor Day program, using some of the 
 compositions written by the children in these studies. 
 
 LESSOX 11. THE POTATO. For the purpose of arousing interest, the les- 
 sons on the potato may begin with an informal discussion of the importance of 
 the potato crop in the district. Do all families in the neighborhood raise pota- 
 toes? Do they raise them as -a garden or as a field crop? Are there more than 
 enough produced to supply the home demands ? If some are marketed are they 
 sold, in the fall or stored until spring? How are they stored for the winter? 
 Illinois ranks seventh among the potato growing states of the Union. In 1906 
 the value of the potato crop in this state was a little over nine millions of dollars. 
 
 Ask each pupil to bring a potato to school, if possible, the kind that is to 
 be planted at home in the spring. 
 
 If the teacher can procure types of two or three varieties of potatoes she will 
 find them of value in presenting this work. 
 
 LESSOX 12. With the potatoes before the children raise the question what 
 is this that we call a "seed potato?" Is it really a seed? (Draw upon the ex- 
 perience and observation of the children as to what a seed is. Xame some seeds that 
 we use for the purpose of starting new plants, such as peas, beans and radishes.) 
 Where did these grow upon the plants, and what preceded them in every case? It 
 will not be difficult to have the children see that whenever, true seeds are produced 
 they are always preceded by flowers. They will readily see, also, that the potato 
 is not a seed. What, then, is it ? 
 
 Examine the potato. What do you find scattered over the surface? Do any 
 of the eyes show signs of growth? What is growing from them? The eyes are 
 buds. Where are the buds most numerous? Are they all the same size? (The 
 end of the potato on which the buds are so numerous is called the seed or bud 
 end of the potato.) Look at the opposite end. What do you find? If you do not 
 find a small stem you will see the scar where the stem has been fastened. This end 
 of the potato is known as the stem end. 
 
 Xow hold the potato in your hand and think what it would resemble if you 
 could stretch it out many times its length and having its width reduced accord- 
 ingly. It would look like a stem with buds on it. That is just what it is, a 
 thick, fleshy stem, and since it grows in the ground we call it an underground stem. 
 This particular form of underground stem is called a tuber. So you see we use 
 tubers instead of seeds to propagate new potato plants. 
 
 LESSOX 13. Cut the potato in two through one of the eyes. How does the 
 cut surface feel when you rub your finger over it ? How many different structures 
 do you see in this surface? (You will find the peeling which corresponds to the 
 outside layer of bark on a tree stem, a dark line about a quarter of an inch from 
 the outside, and the mass of white material in the center. The dark line corres- 
 ponds to the woody layer of a tree stem and the white mass to the pith. Does 
 the woody line extend up into the bud ? 
 
92 
 
 LESSON 14. Scrape the white portion from two or three potatoes. Put the 
 scrapings into a cup or glass full of water. Stir thoroughly. Allow this to stand 
 twenty-four hours then pour off the liquid and bits of potato. What is left in 
 the bottom? If you pour hot water on this starch it will thicken just as laundry 
 starch does. 
 
 There is another way to prove that this is starch. Dilute a little of the 
 tincture of iodine with about twice the amount of water. Place a few drops of 
 this upon the starch. What change of color takes place? (Iodine acts chem- 
 ically upon the starch changing the color to blue. The more starch there is in any 
 substance the darker blue it becomes.) 
 
 What is the use of the starch in the potato? (This may be left as a problem 
 to solve later in the year.) 
 
 Fill a box or tin pail two -thirds full of sand and plant two tubers in it. 
 Fill another box with soil and plant two tubers. Keep both well watered. When 
 the plants are about four inches high dig up one from each box and note whether 
 or not the tuber shows .that some of the starch has been used. Is there any dif- 
 ference between the one grown in sand and the one in soil? Leave the other two 
 plants until the last week of the spring term then examine to see if they have 
 used up any more of the stored food. How do you account for the difference be- 
 tween the one grown in sand and the one in soil? 
 
 This will be a good time to observe just how the shoot grows from the bud, 
 and where the roots are produced. If the plants have made a vigorous growth you 
 may be able at this time to find the small underground stems with the tiny tubers 
 beginning to develop at the outer ends. 
 
 LESSON 15. CUTTING THE POTATOES. Are whole or only portions of 
 the tubers used for seed? Discuss the various methods used at home. Tell the 
 children that many experiments have been made by experts to try to determine 
 the best way to cut tubers. Most of the experiments show that a chunky, compact 
 piece with at least two eyes usually gives the best results. Some very interesting 
 experiments may .be worked out by the children in this connection. 
 
 LESSONS 16 AND 17. PLANTING. Discusss with the children the time 
 potatoes are planted at their homes. The time of planting must necessarily vary 
 with locality. A good rule to follow is to plant the early crop as soon as the 
 soil may be worked in the spring. Many plant the main crop very early also. Po- 
 tatoes require a vast amount of moisture so they should be planted in time to 
 catch some of the spring rains. 
 
 The preparation of the seed bed is important. How many of the children 
 know whether or not the potato plots are plowed in the fall, or spring on their 
 home grounds? Can you think of any good reason for fall plowing? Does any one 
 in the neighborhood sow rye in the potato plot in the fall and plow it under 
 in the spring? What is the value of this? (It does two things that are good for 
 the potatoes. The decaying rye helps to enrich the soil, and at the same time 
 it helps to make the soil loose and mellow.) Can you think why these are desirable 
 characteristics of soil in which potatoes are to be grown? (As the tubers grow 
 they must push the soil out of their way; you can easily see how hard, compact 
 soil may dwarf their growth.) Who in the neighborhood use fertilizers on the 
 soil? It is not a good thing to put barn manure on the ground just before plant- 
 ing. It is likely to increase the growth of the potato scab. You will see why 
 when you take up the study of fungi. The manure should be applied and plowed 
 under in the fall. Some potato growers think a better plan is to put the manure 
 on one year, grow corn or some other crop, and follow with the potato crop 
 the second year. 
 
 It is not a good plan to plant potatoes on the same ground year after year. 
 We shall not try to explain here the reasons why. We shall do that when we 
 study how to maintain the fertility of the soil. It is enough to know that a rota- 
 tion should be practiced in growing potatoes as well as other crops. 
 
 How far apart shall we plant the potatoes? Here is another opportunity to 
 draw upon the home experience of the children. Why may potatoes in the garden 
 that are to be tended by hand be planted closer together than those in the fields 
 that are to be cultivated with horse cultivators? 
 
 In the garden the rows may be as close as two and one-half feet; in the field 
 they should be three feet apart. The pieces should be placed from twelve to fifteen 
 inches apart. One compact piece in a place is better than two small ones. 
 
93 
 
 How deep shall we plant the potatoes? There are some good reasons why we 
 should not plant too near the surface of the ground. We shall see why when we 
 check up some of our home and vacation experiments. In compact, heavy soil it 
 may be necessary to plant not more than three inches deep. However, in mellow, 
 loose soil the pieces should be four or five inches below the level surface of the 
 plot. 
 
 Discuss the method of planting potatoes practiced in the neighborhood. How 
 are the furrows made? How are the pieces dropped? How covered? In some 
 states where potatoes constitute the chief crop, planters are used which open the 
 furrows, drop the tubers, and cover them at the same time. 
 
 LESSON 18. METHODS OF CULTIVATION. What machinery is used in 
 cultivating the crop? Let the children report on this and on the number of times 
 the crop is cultivated. The harrow is an important implement in cultivating po- 
 tatoes. The soil should be harrowed once or twice before the plants appear above 
 the ground. After the plants are up a hand hoe or corn cultivator should be used, 
 the oftener the better. Care must be taken not to cultivate too deeply, just a 
 few inches of the upper soil should be stirred. Can you see why? (There is dan- 
 ger of injuring the roots and the small underground stems.) Which is better, 
 to keep the potato plot as level as possible or ridge up the rows? 
 
 Plan for a potato contest this year. Each pupil should plant a small plot 
 of at least forty hills, sixty or eighty would be better, or an eighth or a fourth 
 of an acre. The plots should not be so large that the amount of work required to 
 keep them in good condition will be discouraging. A number of interesting ex- 
 periments may be tried. Some of these experiments may possibly be worked out 
 on the family plots where the labor may be shared with the father and his help. 
 For the sixth grade, experiments one, two, and four are excellent. If prizes are 
 to be awarded they may be of three kinds. First, for the best yield per acre. Sec- 
 ond, for the smoothest, largest potatoes. Third, for the best results from the ex- 
 periments attempted. 
 
 The pupils should keep a simple careful record of their work and observations. 
 This will be of the greatest value when the work is reported in the fall. 
 
 The record should include: exact amount of potatoes planted; date of plant- 
 ing; how long after planting before plants appear above the ground; date when 
 potatoes are large enough to use; number of days from time of planting until 
 potatoes are fully mature, the vines dead or dying; method of cultivation; special 
 treatment of special experiments; date of flowering. A brief study of the flower 
 may be made. Note the color and position on the stem. Do different varieties 
 differ in color of flowers? Examine one flower. Do you know of the flowers that 
 are similar in shape and structure? Compare with tomato and common night- 
 shade. (The potato and tomato both belong to the night-shade family.) 
 
 What insects or other foes have bothered your plants? What methods have 
 you employed to combat them? 
 
 SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTS: 1. Does the size of the piece of potato 
 planted have any effect upon the yield? Plant one row each of whole tubers, 
 halves, quarters, and very small pieces with but one eye. Give all exactly the same 
 cultivation. 2. Will plants grown from small potatoes yield as well as those 
 grown from larger ones? Plant two rows of very small tubers and two using large 
 tubers of the same variety. 3. Which will give better results shallow or deep 
 planting? Plant one row two or three inches deep, another five or six inches. 
 4. Which will yield the best the bud or stem end of the potato? Cut the potatoes 
 in two through the middle. Plant the bud ends in one row, the stem ends in 
 another. 
 
 5. How may potato scab be prevented? Treat enough tubers with formalin 
 solution to plant two or three rows. Formalin may be obtained at any drug store. 
 Put a tablespoonful into a gallon of water. Place the potatoes in the solution and 
 allow them to remain two hours. Remove, let them stand till they are dry, then 
 cut and plant. Scab is a fungous disease that makes potatoes rough and dwarfs 
 their growth. The fungous starts from tiny cells or spores that stay on the seed 
 potatoes. Formalin kills the spores. When potatoes are raised on the same ground 
 year after year the spores sometimes live over winter in the soil and are all ready 
 to attack the young potatoes when they begin to grow. If there were no other, 
 this is a good reason for practicing rotation of crops. (Suggested reading, Mann's 
 Beginnings in Agriculture, pp. 171-176.) 
 
94 
 APRIL AND MAY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE APKIL AND MAY. Fruit Trees, identify the apple, cherry, 
 peach, plum, pear. Study one as a type. Compare as to size, bark, shape, leaves, 
 flowers. Special study of a flower. Note parts with function. Orchard methods, 
 pruning, spraying, etc. Note effects of late frosts upon flowers. 
 
 Garden. Make plans for planting home gardens and, if practicable, a school 
 garden. Plant some biennials, as parsnips, salsify, beets; some annuals, as beans, 
 peas, and melons. Some flowering plants; select from seed catalogues. 
 
 Birds as tree protectors. Special study of warblers during migration in early 
 May; migration studies; classify birds on basis of sojourn here permanent resi- 
 dents, summer residents, winter residents, migrants; service rendered by insecti- 
 vorous migrants. 
 
 NOTE. In preparation for the garden work later in the month plant in 
 shallow pans or boxes some squash, pumpkin, cucumber, and melon seed. 
 
 LESSON 1. FKUIT-TKEE STUDIES. Make a list of the fruit trees in the 
 district. Choose one for special study. If the cherry is abundant this is a good 
 one to study as a type. Tell the children to look at their cherry trees at home and 
 note the following: How tall are the trees? What is the color of the bark, of the 
 trunk, or the twigs? Is the bark smooth or rough? On what part of the trees is it 
 most shiny? If you try to peel off a little of the bark which way does it peel, up 
 or down or around the tree? How thick is the trunk of the tree? How old is the 
 tree that you are studying? How does it branch? Do the limbs separate into two 
 or three branches or does the main trunk extend to the top of the tree? 
 
 LESSON 2. For this lesson have some twigs in class with the flowers on. 
 See if you can find on these twigs all of the things that you found on the twigs 
 of the shade tree studied in March. (See Lesson 2, March.) 
 
 LESSON 3. Where are the flowers situated on the cherry twigs? Are they 
 single or in clusters? Are there any leaves upon any of the twigs? Are there 
 separate buds for the flowers and leaves? Do you find both flowers and leaves in 
 all of the buds? Look carefully at one flower. What do you find at the top of 
 the slender flower stem? This green cup with the leaf -like bodies turned back- 
 ward is the calyx. Each of the green bodies is a sepal. How many sepals are 
 there in the calyx? The white part of the flower is the corolla, and each white 
 leaf -like portion is a petal. How many petals has the flower? What do you find 
 inside the flower? The small bodies with the little knobs on the end are stamens. 
 Are there many or few of these? To what are they fastened? Look in the center 
 of the flower for a body different from the stamens. This is the pistil. Look at 
 the very lowest part of the pistil for a round body called the ovary. The slender 
 stem-like part above this is the style, and the little disc-like portion spread out at 
 the top of the style is the stigma. 
 
 LESSON 4. What is the function of the flower? It produces fruit. It 
 takes both the stamens and the pistil to produce fruit. In the little knobs on the 
 stamen you will find a powder ; it is pollen. The pollen must be placed upon the stigma 
 of the pistil if any cherrjes are produced. What part of the flower will grow 
 into the cherry? Leave this as a problem to be solved later by observation. Watch 
 closely to see what parts of the flower wither and fall off, and what parts remain. 
 
 LESSONS 5 AND 6. Make a. comparative study of the flowers of other fruit 
 trees, especially the apple, plum, and pear. Note the points of resemblances and 
 differences. Compare the flowers as to color, number of stamens, and number of 
 pistils. Compare the trees noting which have the smoothest bark, which grow 
 tallest, which spread out most. Find out, if you can, which of the trees on your 
 home grounds are oldest, and which of them blossom first in the spring. Are 
 all of the stamens attached to the calyx? The flowers are enough alike to cause 
 botanists to place all of these trees into one great family; the rose family. If 
 you have any wild roses in the neighborhood procure one of the flowers and com- 
 pare it with these tree blossoms. 
 
 LESSON 7. Note carefully any effect of late frosts on the fruit. What part 
 is blighted? To determine this examine the pistil. If it is green and fresh then 
 the fruit is all right, but if it is blackened the fruit is killed. Watch to see if any 
 
95 
 
 of the blossoms fall off even though they are not injured by frost. Is it a good 
 thing to have some of the flowers fail to produce fruit? Think what would happen 
 if every single flower on your apple or cherry tree should produce an apple or a 
 cherry. The trees would not be able to bear up the weight of the fruit. 
 
 LESSON 8. CARE OF FRUIT TREES. Let the children discuss different 
 ways in which their fruit trees are cared for. Have them observe how far apart 
 the trees are planted in the orchard. Which are planted closer together, apple or 
 peach trees? Is the soil cultivated in order to raise other crops between the rows 
 of trees? Many fruit growers believe in cultivating the soil, especially when the 
 trees are young. Sometimes other crops, vegetables and even farm crops, are 
 raised between the rows. Apple and pears are longest lived of our fruit trees. 
 Peaches are the shortest lived. 
 
 LESSON 9. PRUNING. Discuss the care of trees with reference to 
 pruning. When are the trees pruned? Who does the work? Why is it necessary? 
 Young trees, especially apple, should be pruned to compel the tree to form a well- 
 shaped head. A fruit grower wishes to have the tree not only well formed, but 
 with just enough branches to permit free circulation of air and the right amount 
 of sunlight. If the branches are too close together the fruit is likely to be small 
 because it is too much shaded. If the branches are too sparse the extreme heat 
 of the sun may injure the fruit and perhaps the tree. 
 
 The best time to prune is late winter or early spring. How should the branches 
 be cut? Look at some of the trees where branches have been removed and report 
 what you find. If the pruning has been properly done you will find that the wood 
 has healed over and is perfectly smooth and hard. Do you find a little stub sticking 
 out from the tree? Why is this a poor method to use in pruning? We must think 
 back to your study of the structure of the forest trees. You remember that under 
 the bark is the cambium layer. It is this layer that helps heal the tree where the 
 branch is removed. It succeeds in healing the wound more rapidly when the cut is 
 made close to the tree. When a stub is left the wound is long in healing and often 
 germs of some tree disease will start to grow before it is entirely healed. This results 
 in the decay of the branches and often of the entire tree because the decay works 
 back to the main part of the tree. 
 
 LESSON 10. SPRAYING. How many in the district spray their fruit trees? 
 What is the purpose? To destroy fungous diseases and insects that injure the fruit 
 or the trees themselves. Fruit growers who expect to market their fruits are careful 
 to use the spray. Farmers, however, who raise only a little fruit for home consump- 
 tion, do not, as a rule take much care of their trees. It pays, however, to use a 
 small hand spray for the home fruit garden. The common spraying fluid used for 
 fungous diseases is Bordeaux mixture. It is made of from three to four pounds of 
 copper sulphate mixed with four to six pounds of lime in fifty gallons of water. 
 If one wishes to kill insects at the same time usually one-half pound of Paris Green 
 is added. 
 
 Can you name some insects that are injurious to fruit trees? Do you ever 
 find worms in cherries or apples? These are the young of the codlin moth. The 
 moth lays its eggs on the young apple just after the petals have fallen from the 
 flower. The egg hatches and the tiny worm eats its way into the apple. If the tree 
 is sprayed at just the right time, that is just after the petals have fallen, many of 
 these little creatures will be killed. (Suggested reading Mann's Beginnings in Agri- 
 culture, pp. 177-185.) 
 
 THE GARDEN. LESSONS 11 AND 12. Make plans for home gardens and 
 if practicable arrange to plant flowers on the school grounds. Besides potatoes, 
 which we discussed in the March lessons, plant a few other vegetables. This is a 
 good time to make a special feature of the raising of melons, squashes, and cucum- 
 bers. Consult the catalogues for different varieties. Try to get each pupil to pro- 
 cure at least two kinds of cucumber, squash, and melon seeds. 
 
 Make a study of the squash or pumpkin seeds. Soak some in warm water for 
 twenty-four hours. Remove the outside covering. Is it thick or thin? Is there an- 
 other covering left on the seed? Is the kernel in one or two parts? Each of these 
 parts is a cotyledon or seed-leaf. Find the pointed body at the lower end of the 
 cotyledons. Are the cotyledons fastened together at this point? 
 
 Remove from the soil some of the young plants that you started a week or two 
 
96 
 
 before. Did the seed coats come up as the plant grew? By looking closely you will 
 see that the root and most of the stem grew from the pointed body. What have the 
 cotyledons become? (Those round broad leaves of the plant.) Are these leaves the 
 same shape as the leaves of old squash plants? Do they remain on the plant? Leave 
 this as a problem to be solved later as the plants continue to grow and develop. 
 
 LESSON 13. Compare with the squash the little plants that you have grown 
 from the cucumber and melon seeds. Are they similar? Do they look as if they 
 might belong to the same family? These plants are all relatives. Do you know 
 anything about the habits of growth of these plants? Eecall what you have seen in 
 the gardens. Are the stems erect or prostrate! Are the leaves large or small? Did 
 you ever pull a leaf and note the hollow leaf stem? Did you ever look closely at the 
 flowers? When is the fruit ready for use? 
 
 LESSON 14. What is the best time to plant cucumbers, squashes, and melons? 
 Why can we not plant these early as we do potatoes or peas? These plants were 
 formerly raised in warm climates so( they are not able to stand even a slight frost. 
 We most always wait until all danger of frost is past before we plant any of these 
 seeds. In preparing the soil begin two or three! weeks before planting time. Work 
 it up until it is loose and fine. If it has not had some manure or other fertilizer 
 plowed into it in the fall or early spring it will be worth while to fork into it now 
 some well rotted manure. Some gardeners make mounds or ridges a few inches above 
 the level of the garden in which they plant the seeds. Others, if the drainage is good, 
 think it best to plant seeds on a level with the garden. It might be interesting to try 
 both methods. The plants should be from four to six inches apart. They should be 
 cultivated carefully at first. After they are well started they usually cover the ground 
 sufficiently to keep down the weeds. 
 
 LESSON 15. Spend one lesson discussing the value of the melon family. How 
 many in the neighborhood raise squashes and cucumbers for table use, for the making 
 of pies, etc? Who raise cucumbers for pickling and slicing? Pumpkins for feed- 
 ing cattle? Water melons and musk melons for home use? Are any of these raised 
 for marketing purposes? Let the children gain a definite picture of what these plants 
 mean to many people in the making of a living. Picture the great truck gardens near 
 the large cities where melons are raised for the market, where squashes or pumpkins 
 are raised for canning, and cucumbers for the great pickle factories. 
 
 FLOWEEING PLANTS. LESSON 16. Plan to raise flowering plants. Spend 
 some time looking over the seed catalogues to get acquainted with different flowering 
 plants. Make definite plans for a flower contest in the fall. Do not attempt to raise 
 too many. Three or four different kinds are better than a greater number. Discuss 
 some of the reasons why we wish to learn how to raise flowers. Two reasons at least 
 should be given; that we may make the home and its surroundings more attractive, 
 and that we may have flowers to give to our friends. If we are to! realize the first 
 then we must learn to make the flower beds attractive. We must plant flowers to- 
 gether whose colors will harmonize and we must know which are shortest and which 
 tallest among the flowers which we plant. A pretty group is the following: 
 
 California poppy for the low flowers. These grow a little over a foot high, and 
 have a light yellow flower. They blossom until late in September if the flowers are 
 kept gathered. Gaillardia grows about two feet high and has a rich orange and 
 brown flower. These should be planted about ten inches apart. Still taller and 
 back of this princes' feather may be planted and still back of this cosmos. This 
 makes an excellent background for the entire group and is beautiful even if the 
 flowers are late in coming. Another pretty bed may be made up of a sweet alyssum 
 border entirely around the bed with blue larkspur or corn flower in the middle. An- 
 other group is candytuft and calliopsis. 
 
 Impress the necessity of preparing the soil properly before planting their seeds 
 and of planting the seeds near enough to the surface. A good rule to follow is to 
 plant each seed as deep as four times its own diameter. To cultivate the plants keep 
 the soil stirred and fine on top even if there are no weeds to pull up. 
 
 LESSON 17. BIEDS. Can you name some birds that are specially useful in 
 protecting our trees from insects? Eeview the woodpeckers, the hairy and downy, 
 that kill so many borers in our fruit trees, and the chickadee that feeds all winter 
 upon insect eggs around the buds and twigs of the trees. Other birds that are use- 
 ful to the trees are nuthatches and brown creepers that creep over the trunk eating 
 
97 
 
 eggs and tiny insects that are stowed away in the crevices of the bark. It will add 
 much to this lesson to have pictures of these various tree protectors. 
 
 LESSOX 18. Most of these little birds that we have been talking about are 
 with us during the winter. Can you think of any other birds that stay with us all 
 winter? (Among these are the jay, crow, kinglets, tree sparrow, horned lark and 
 occasionally a meadow lark. Are any of these with us also during the summer time I 
 A number of these stay with us all the year around and so we call these permanent 
 residents. Can you name four birds that are permanent residents? (Jay, crow, 
 chickadee, downy woodpecker.) 
 
 Some of the little birds that are with us during the winter time are winter 
 visitors. They come to us from the far north to spend the winter and when spring 
 arrives they go back north to spend the summer and rear their young. Among these 
 are the kinglet, tree sparrow and brown creeper. These birds are called winter resi- 
 dents. 
 
 Can you name some birds that stay with us only during the summer? These we 
 call summer residents. They are birds that come to us in the spring, build their nests 
 and rear their young, and then in the fall go south to spend the winter. The great- 
 est number of our birds belong to this group. They are robins, blue birds, orioles, 
 thrushes, fly catchers, and others. 
 
 LESSON 19. There is another class of birds that we call migrants. They come 
 to us for a short time in the spring and again in the fall. Among them are some of 
 our very best tree protectors. They stop with us a few days or perhaps a week as 
 they travel from the south where they spend the winter up to the northern part of 
 the United States and Canada where they spend the summer. Watch carefully among 
 the trees the first, second, and third weeks of May for small birds about the size of 
 wrens. You will find them flitting about among the twigs, sometimes singing songs, 
 sometimes merely chirping, always looking among the young leaves and twigs for 
 insects. These little birds are wood warblers. Some of them are brightly colored 
 with yellow, bright orange, blue and dark green. There are about thirty different 
 kinds" that visit us every spring and fall. Two of them, however, stay with us and 
 build their nests. These are the summer yellow bird and the Maryland yellow throat. 
 The yellow bird is the most yellow of all the birds we have. It has a few little 
 streaks of brown on the breast and Lhe wings and tail are duller in color than the 
 rest of the body. The Maryland yellow throats we may find around the streams and 
 hedges where they build their nests. Their throats are bright yellow and the sides 
 of their heads are black. If you once see one of these little birds you will never 
 forget it. 
 
 VACATION NOTES. Besides the plan suggested for vacation on the potato 
 study, encourage the children to make observations and keep records of the fruit 
 trees. Watch carefully to see if you can find out just what part of each flower pro- 
 duces the fruit that AVC eat. What part makes the apple, pear, cherry? 
 
 Make observations of the squash, pumpkin, melons, and cucumber flowers. Note 
 their shape. See if you can find all the parts that we found in the fruit tree flowers. 
 Watch to see what part of these flowers produce the fruit. When are cucumbers 
 ready for use? Decide which kind you prefer for slicing, for pickling. Observe any 
 insect enemies that you may find on your cucumber vines. 
 
98 
 
 LESSON PLANS FOR SEVENTH YEAR 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR SEPTEMBER. Report of vacation activities including work 
 done and money earned. Start calendar of farm activities for September. Continue 
 this for each month throughout the year. Make plans for out-of -school work for 
 partial credit. Preliminary work on icheat. 
 
 Injects injurious to corn, to fruit trees, to clover, to garden crops. Beneficial 
 insects; ground beetle, ladybirds, braconids and other parasites. 
 
 In the seventh and eighth grades the work may well take on a more decided agri- 
 cultural trend. At the same time it should be based upon the underlying principles 
 of science. Hence the methods employed should be similar to those used in the lower 
 grades; that is, the work of observation and handling of objects must be continued. 
 In no other way can the work do for the pupils all that it is capable of doing. 
 
 It is most sincerely hoped that the observation work will be carried on in these 
 grades even if a text book in agriculture is used. A book can never take the place 
 of actual hand to hand contact with real objects. It may be profitably used to sup- 
 plement the work of observation. The directions for observation may be placed with 
 profit in the hands of the pupils so that much of this work may be done outside of 
 the class period. In these grades every pupil should keep a simple note book in which 
 he records briefly, yet accurately, the various studies, experiments and observations. 
 
 Teachers who are planning to do this work in agriculture should collect material 
 for the work during the summer months. The following is a list of material that 
 will be found helpful: 
 
 A few heads of oats. 
 
 Some smutted oats. 
 
 Some heads of wheat. 
 
 A collection of common insects pests and beneficial insects. 
 
 A few small ears of corn gathered when the shoots first appear. These should 
 be put up in alcohol or a four per cent solution of formalin. A mason jar carefully 
 sealed serves admirably for this. 
 
 A few tassels from green corn carefully dried and preserved. 
 
 Some corn smut. 
 
 While most of the lessons are arranged in the order of time, the following plan 
 is suggested in order to get all of the work started at the beginning of the term: 
 After the first three or four lessons in which arrangements for home work, etc., are 
 planned, a few lessons on insects should be taken up so that the pupils may begin 
 collecting. Follow this with the first three lessons on wheat suggested in the October 
 number. In this way the germination and purity tests will be made before wheat 
 is planted. Then return to insect study for the rest of the month. 
 
 WORK FOR BOYS WHO ARE OUT OF SCHOOL UNTIL AFTER CORN 
 HUSKING. In districts where boys of the seventh and eighth grades can not enter 
 school until after corn husking the teacher should call a meeting of these boys early 
 in the term and give them some outline studies of insects, wheat, and corn. They 
 will have ample opportunity to make many interesting observations in connection 
 with their work. They should also be encouraged to keep the farm calendar and a 
 record of the work they are doing just as the pupils in the school do. 
 
 REPORTS OF VACATION WORK. LESSON 1. If the pupils have been car- 
 rying on experiments and observations during the summer, the first lesson should be 
 given to reports of work done, the difficulties encountered, and the present conditions 
 of the plants studied. It may be necessary to spend more than one lesson on these 
 reports. 
 
 LESSON 2. Have the pupils make plans to keep a /'farm calendar" which 
 will show the activities on the farm for the month. This should be placed in the 
 note book and several pages reserved so that the items for the entire month will 
 stand together. The following form is suggested: 
 
99 
 
 FARM CALENDAR FOR SEPTEMBER 
 
 1 
 
 First week 
 
 1. Finished plowing for wheat. 
 
 Sept, 3-9th 
 
 2. Began cutting corn for silo. 
 
 
 Etc. 
 
 At the end of the month spend one recitation period in comparing calendars. 
 This will give opportunity for an interesting discussion of all the activities carried 
 on in the district during the month. 
 
 LESSONS 3 AND 4. It has been hoped that pupils in this year's work may 
 have some definite tasks at home that will fit into their school course in such a way 
 that they will receive credit in the course in agriculture for the work done at home. 
 The practicability of this plan is yet to be tried. We hope that a few strong teach- 
 ers who have the cooperation of patrons may undertake this work. Enough other 
 work will be outlined for the months so that teachers who feel they can not do this 
 work with profit will have plenty of other material. 
 
 In arranging this work, let each pupil name a certain home task for which he 
 will be responsible each day. It may be milking, feeding the pigs, currying and bed- 
 ding the horses, and, on the part of the girls, some household task. A record of the 
 work should be kept on a separate page of the note book or on a sheet of paper, or 
 card. The record should show the name of the piece of work, the time spent, and 
 how well done. This last item should be given by the parents. A space for remarks 
 may be left in which the pupils may record any points of interest that he discovered 
 in connection with this special work. A visit from the teacher during the month to 
 the home of the pupil to talk over the work that he is doing will be in incentive to do 
 the best work. 
 
 At the end of each mouth use the time of one recitation for reports and discus- 
 sion of the work. 
 
 INSECTS. Insect study in the seventh and eighth grades should be linked as 
 closely as possible with the study of plants. Insects are so intimately connected with 
 the life and success of crops of all kinds that it is worth while for the pupils to know 
 as much as possible of the habits and life history of these little creatures, to recog- 
 nize friends and foes and to learn some of the ways of combating the pests and in- 
 creasing the numbers of the beneficial insects. 
 
 The plant life of any locality should largely determine the special insects to be 
 emphasized. In a region where corn is the chief crop, insects pests common to this 
 plant should constitute the bulk of the work. In a fruit growing community, insects 
 found in fruit trees and shrubs should receive most attention. 
 
 The equipment necessary for insect study is suggested under grasshopper studies 
 in the fifth grade ; since in this grade, however, a collection of insects is desirable, 
 a cyanide jar to use in killing specimens should be added to the equipment. To make 
 a cyanide jar, place five cents' worth of cyanide of potassium in the bottom of a wide 
 mouthed bottle; a pint mason jar is very good for this purpose. Make a stiff paste 
 with water and plaster of Paris ; pour this over the cyanide, covering it about an inch 
 and a half in depth. Allow the bottle to stand open about two hours, then close it 
 up tightly, and keep closed except when putting insects in or taking them out. Write 
 the word "Poison" on a piece of paper and paste it on the jar. 
 
 If the pupils have had no previous study of insects, the lesson should begin with 
 some of the larger forms for the purpose of becoming acquainted with the charac- 
 teristics common to all insects. A grasshopper is a good type for this study. 
 
 LESSONS 5 TO 7. (The number of lessons given to this preliminary work will 
 depend upon the knowledge and previous training of the pupils. In preparation for 
 the lesson, ask the members of the closs to bring in, at least, one large grasshopper. 
 Place the grasshopper in the cyanide jar a few hours before the time for the lesson. 
 Let the pupils find the answers to these questions by observation.) How many body 
 divisions can you see in a grasshopper? Look both at the upper and under surfaces. 
 (The pupils should make out the following parts: The head, the thorax, and the ab- 
 domen. The thorax is made up of three rings, the first of which forms the cape-like 
 part back of the head. This is called the pro-thorax. The second and third rings 
 
100 
 
 are so closely united that the division line cannot be found; however, the pupils should 
 know that the second pair of legs are attached to the second ring, and the third pair 
 of legs to the third ring.) Study the structure of the abdomen, noting that it is 
 made up of rings. Count the rings and decide whether they overlap from front to 
 back or from back to front. 
 
 For the study of the head, antennae, eyes, mouth, habits of feeding, legs, wings 
 and life history, use the topics suggested for fifth year. 
 
 LESSON 8. The grasshopper is an excellent example of an insect with a biting 
 mouth. All insects have either biting mouths with strong jaws, or sucking mouths. 
 If possible, follow the study of the grasshopper with that of an insect with a sucking 
 mouth. The squash bug, a dark gray insect about five-eighths of an inch in length 
 found on squash and pumpkin vines, is a good type. Also the red and black box 
 elder bug, the stink bug, or the cicada. This cicada is often called the locust, which 
 is familiar, because of the long drawn out song that is heard every summer in trees 
 of various kinds. 
 
 The following outline may be used with any of the above types. Notice the 
 general form of the body. Compare with the grasshopper and determine whether 
 or not the same parts are present. Look at the front part of the head for the mouth. 
 You will find a straight tube lying on the under part of the body, extending as far 
 backward, often, as the last pair of legs. This is the sucking tube. At the lower 
 part, the jaws are so arranged that the insect may pierce through the membrane of 
 leaves and stems and suck the juices from the plant. Notice the wings of the insect. 
 How are they related to each other? You will find that the ends of the outer wings 
 overlap each other. All insects with wings of this kind and the piercing sucking 
 mouth are true bugs. 
 
 INSECT PESTS. Encourage the pupils to make a collection of insects pests 
 found in the district, also a collection of beneficial insects. Corn pests that are com- 
 mon and that may be studied in the fall are the corn-root aphis, the corn ear worm, 
 the white grub, the corn root worm, the cut worm. 
 
 THE COEN BOOT APHIS. LESSON 9. It may not be possible to find the 
 corn root aphis feeding on the roots of the corn in September; however have the 
 children look on the roots of stunted stalks of corn. They may find a few aphids 
 and possibly some ants that should be studied in this connection. The aphids should 
 be studied, however, even if the corn root aphis can not be found. The pupils will 
 find aphids or plant lice on cabbage, lettuce leaves, stems of wild lettuce, cherry, wil- 
 low and plum stems, etc. They are small insects which vary much in color; some are 
 black, some are red, some green. Have in the class some leaves or stems with aphids 
 on them. Do all of the aphids on the plant look alike? (You will probably find on 
 one plant several stages of the insect; some small ones without wings, some larger 
 with pads on the back, which are the beginnings of wings, and some with quite large 
 wings folded above the body. These look like small flies or small gnats.) What are 
 the aphids doing? Hold the leaf or stem on a level with the eye and look closely at 
 the head, to find the slender sucking tube, which is inserted in the leaf or stem. It is 
 just like the sucking tube of the squash bug. What kind of food then does an aphid 
 eat, solid or liquid? Do you think putting poison on the surface of the leaf will kill 
 the aphids? Why? (In order to kill them, something must be used that will destroy 
 the insects by coming into contact with their bodies, since they suck the juices from 
 the inside, poison on the surface of the leaf will not harm them. How many legs has 
 an aphid? Observe how the aphids hold their antennae. 
 
 LESSON 10. Do you find other insects on the plants with the aphids? (The 
 pupils will probably find ants.) Try to find out what the ants are doing. (This 
 observation can best be made out of doors, by watching the ants on the plants where 
 aphids are feeding.) Aphids throw out from their body a sweet liquid known 
 as honey dew. Ants are very fond of this sweet substance, so that wherever you find 
 plant lice you will always find some ants. You will often find flies, too, sip- 
 ping the honey dew that has dropped on the surface of the leaves. 
 
 LESSON 11. If the corn root aphis has been found upon the roots of corn, a 
 careful study should be made of these. A small brown ant will probably be found 
 in the cornfields near the roots, or perhaps nests of these may be found in the corn- 
 field. Even if it is too late to find the corn root aphis this fall, encourage the boys to 
 
101 
 
 remember to look for it next year when the corn is growing. Encourage them also 
 to destroy any ants' nests that may be found in the cornfield or vicinity. 
 
 LESSON 12. Why should they do this? The female aphids lay their shiny 
 black, oval eggs in the ground during the fall months. The little brown ants find 
 these, carry them to their underground homes; and keep them safely through the 
 winter. They often carry the eggs out into the sunshine during the warm part of 
 the day and back into the burrows at night. These eggs hatch in the early spring 
 into young aphids. The ants at once place these on the roots of smart weeds or some 
 other plant. When the corn is beginning to grow, the ants place the aphids on the 
 corn roots, from which they suck the juices with their sharp sucking tubes. The ants 
 get their pay for all this work in the form of honey dew which the aphids throw out 
 of their bodies. 
 
 Each aphid that hatches from an egg in the spring is called a stem mother. In 
 less than a month this stem mother begins to reproduce young. All these are females 
 which in a month's time begin also to produce young. So in less than two months 
 the stem mother may become the ancestor of thousands of young lice. This goes on 
 all summer. Most of these aphids are wingless. Once in a while there is a genera- 
 tion that has wings. These fly away to some other part of the field, or to another 
 field. Some of them drop to the ground, and are found by ants that carry them 
 at once to corn roots. In the fall a brood of true males and females are produced. 
 These females are the ones that deposit eggs for the next year's crop of aphids. You 
 can readily see why the destruction of the ant's homes is to be encouraged. 
 
 One of the methods employed to destroy these pests is to break up the ground 
 as early as possible in the spring, and then before corn planting go over it once or 
 twice with disc or cultivator in order to destroy the smart weeds and as many of the 
 ants' nests as possible. 
 
 The life history of all other aphids is essentially the same as that of the corn 
 root louse. One reason they are so destructive is because they multiply so rapidly. 
 
 One species of aphids is often found on the oats in early summer. It is known 
 in some localities as the ' ' green bug. ' ' It sucks the juice from the stems and leaves 
 of the oats, and is often very destructive. Aphids have many natural foes, which 
 we shall discuss in our study of beneficial insects. 
 
 WHITE GRUBS. LESSON 13. In some localities white grubs are common 
 corn pests. They feed upon a variety of plants besides corn, strawberry, potato, 
 beets and grasses. 
 
 If the pupils have been collecting grubs, there will be a supply on hand for 
 special study. To keep these insects alive place them in a tin pail or can, in which 
 there is plenty of moist soil. Place on top of the soil a piece of fresh grass sod, 
 firm it down with your hand, keep it watered but not wet. Set the pail aside for 
 several days. At the end of this time carefully lift up the sod. You will probably 
 find some of the grubs under it. Note the position of the body. Is there any advan- 
 tage in keeping the body curled up in this fashion? Is the grub lying on its back 
 or under side? Has it a tunnel to lie in? What has it been doing here? Look at 
 the grass roots. Can you see whether any of these have been eaten? Look carefully 
 at the structure of the insect. Has it a distinct head? How does the head differ in 
 color from the body? Is the body hard or soft? What kind of a mouth has the 
 grub? Look at the front of the head for the strong hook-like jaws. It is with these 
 that the grubs bite off the roots of plants and underground stems. Do the grubs ever 
 kill plants in this way? (They kill not only many hills of corn in some fields but 
 great tracts of grass in pastures and lawns. They often kill many strawberry plants.) 
 How many legs have they? Where are the legs situated? What is the use of these 
 legs? Place the insect on the floor or desk. Can it crawl well? Now put it on 
 the surface of the soil and watch to see how it succeeds in burrowing into the ground. 
 What special adaptation do you find on the feet that enable them to dig so easily? 
 Name all the adaptations these insects have for living in the ground rather than 
 on the surface. 
 
 LESSON 14. It may not be possible for the pupils to work out any part of 
 the life history of the white grub. If the study is made early in September, it is 
 worth while trying to get some of the pupae. If the larvae have been kept in the 
 pails of soil for some time, a few may go to the bottom of the pail to pupate. A 
 pupa looks like a light brown mummy with undeveloped wings and legs folded close 
 
102 
 
 to the sides and under part of the body. No doubt some of the pupils will also find 
 in the ground in the fall some of the grown-up insects. These are commonly known 
 as June bugs or May beetles. They are very abundant in the spring and early sum- 
 mer. Have the pupils recall what they know about June bugs. Do these insects fly 
 at night or during the daytime? (They are night flies and are attracted by lights. 
 They come buzzing into our homes in the evening, often striking against the walls 
 and dropping to the floor. They are dark brown in color and have very hard shell- 
 like wings.) Who has ever noticed the June bugs folding up the inner wings when 
 they first alight? If any of these insects are found by the pupils, make a brief study 
 of them. Notice how the outer wings are related to each other. Do they overlap, or 
 just meet in the middle of the back? Lift up the outer wings to find the inner ones. 
 How do these compare in length with the outer wings? Which pair is used for flight? 
 What is the use of the hard outer wings? 
 
 LESSON 15. The June bugs lay their eggs in the ground, usually in June. In 
 a short time the eggs hatch into tiny white grubs. They feed first upon decaying 
 matter in the soil and a little later upon the roots of plants. When cold weather ap- 
 proaches they burrow down into the ground below the frost line and sleep during the 
 winter. In the spring they come up to the surface and begin feeding upon roots. 
 In the latter part of the summer they make a little tunnel in the soil and change into 
 pupae. They remain in the pupa stage probably about three weeks or a month and 
 then change into the mature beetles. The mature beetles, however, stay in the ground 
 without feeding until the next spring. The pupils will probably remember having 
 seen many of these beetles in the soil of the garden and the fields in the spring 
 at plowing time. 
 
 Since white grubs are such pests, the question of how to get rid of them is of 
 interest to all farmers. As yet no good remedy has been found. Eotation of crops 
 aids in keeping the grubs in check. They are not likely to be found in great num- 
 bers in clover fields, hence when clover is used in the crop rotation the grubs are not 
 likely to become very abundant. Fall plowing aids some, if done early, in killing 
 pupae and larvae. One of the best known remedies is to turn pigs into the field when- 
 ever that is possible. Pigs are so fond of grubs that they will dig down into the soil 
 a number of inches in order to eat them. Many birds help to lessen the number of 
 these pests. Robins are especially fond of grubs. 
 
 LESSON 16. THE CORN ROOT WORM. The northern corn root worm is a 
 common corn pest. As its name indicates, it feeds upon the roots of the corn. Corn 
 that has been injured by these pests shows the results in several w r ays. Sometimes 
 there are spots in a cornfield in which the corn is dw r arfed in size and produces 
 nubbins instead of good ears. If the rest of the field is in good condition, this is a 
 pretty sure indication that the worms have been working on the roots of the corn. 
 Because of the injury to the root system, corn plants infested by the worms are 
 easily tumbled over. This is especially true during a hard rainstorm. A moderate 
 wind will often lay a whole field flat, because the weakened roots are not able to 
 hold up the stalks. 
 
 The corn root worm is the young or larva of a small green beetle. Ask the 
 pupils to look on the tassels and silks of corn, on flowers of wild asters and golden 
 rod for small green beetles. These beetles are about the size of lady bugs and are 
 grass green in color without any spots. What are the beetles doing on the corn and 
 the flowers? While the pupils may not be able to determine this by observation, 
 they should know that these insects feed upon the pollen of the corn tassels and other 
 flowers and also eat the ends of the gilks of the corn. If they are abundant at the 
 time that the corn is blossoming, thev may do some injury by preventing pollination, 
 since they eat off the ends of the silks. 
 
 Place a few of the beetle? in a bottle and make a simple study of them. Note 
 the general appearance > color, size, feet and wings. What kind of mouths do you 
 think they have, biting or sucking? (All beetles have biting mouths, both as larva 
 and grown-up insects.) 
 
 The question of how the small green beetles are related to the corn root worm is 
 of interest. The beetles lay the eggs an inch or more in the ground in the fall. So 
 far as is known, the eggs are deposited only in cornfields. They remain In the ground 
 all winter, and late in the spring the egg hatches into a small larva, the corn root 
 worm. The larva is white in color and not much larger around than a pin. It feeds 
 upon the youngest roots of the corn. Sometimes as many as a hundred of these worms 
 
103 
 
 have been found in a single hill of corn. In feeding they burrow into the roots of 
 the corn in a spiral fashion. The burrowing causes the roots to wither and die. When 
 the larvae are ready to pupate they crawl out of the roots of the corn, but still remain 
 in the ground. They remain in the pupa stage a short time, and then come forth, 
 the small green beetles that we have already studied. 
 
 Xothing as yet has been found that will destroy these pests after they actually 
 get started to work on the roots. Rotation of crops seems to be the only remedy. 
 If corn is not planted in a field in which the eggs are deposited, the insects will 
 surely die, since they seem unable to feed upon the roots of other plants. It is only 
 in fields then in which corn has been raised for a number of consecutive years that 
 these pests ever become abundant. 
 
 LESSON 17. THE EAR WORM. Sometimes the corn ear worm becomes a 
 very great pest. It attacks sweet corn more than field corn. The worms are found 
 under the, husks of the ears late in the fall. By looking closely the pupils will see 
 that the worms eat through the husks; then burrow into the grains, eating great 
 tunnels. If some of the worms are brought in for study, note the shape of the body 
 and the color. Do the worms vary in this respect? Is the body segmented? Is its 
 head distinct from the body? How many feet has the worm? Are all the feet the 
 same size and shape? (The three pairs near the head are the true legs. The four 
 near the middle and one near the back part of the body are called pro-legs.) Decide 
 from the way the corn is eaten whether these have biting or sucking mouths. 
 This worm is the larva of a moth. If the pupils keep the larvae in a pail with some 
 soil in it, they may be rewarded by having the worms leave the ear of corn and go 
 into the soil to pupate. In the field the larva makes a little tunnel in the soil and 
 in this changes from a larva to the pupa. It remains in the ground as a pupa all 
 winter. Early in April the mature insect emerges from the pupa. This is a yellow- 
 ish tan moth that often flies into our homes in the evening attracted by the light. 
 It is one of the moths that is commonly called a moth miller. The female moth lays 
 its eggs on the corn plants. The first generation live chiefly on the leaves of the 
 young corn. They grow up in a short time, pupate, and within three weeks change 
 into the moth. There are three generations during the summer. It is the third 
 generation that does the greatest mischief to the ears of corn during the latter part 
 of the summer. 
 
 There are a number of other corn pests. Some will be found abundant in one 
 locality, some in another. The teacher should choose for special study those that are 
 most abundant in his own district. Among some other common corn pests are the 
 chinch bug, the several varieties of cut worm, and the cornbill bug. 
 
 LESSON 18. BENEFICIAL INSECTS. We must not think that all of the 
 insects found in our district are pests. There are a number of insects that are our 
 greatest friends. Instead of feeding upon plant life, they feed almost wholly upon 
 the insects that are injurious to our plants. Among the beneficial insects, the most 
 familiar are the lady bugs, or lady bird beetles. Have the pupils look for these in- 
 sects on the garden plants and weeds, especially those on which plant lice are found. 
 Lady bugs may be kept in the school room and the entire life history studied, if they 
 are fed upon plant lice. There are several different species that are common every- 
 where. The nine spot lady bug is a yellowish brown with nine black spots on the 
 back. The two spot is a brick red in color with two black spots on the back. The 
 fifteen spot is a pink gray with the fifteen black spots on the back. The common 
 pink red beetle is known as the thirteen spot. 
 
 For study, place a lady bug in one of the bottles and have the pupils notice 
 the characteristics. Compare it with the other insects studied. Have them decide 
 why it should be called a beetle rather than a bug. 
 
 Wherever the mature lady bugs are, the larvae usually are present also. These 
 do not look any more like a grown up lady bug than a caterpillar looks like a butter- 
 fly. Their bodies are long, shaped something like a lizard or alligator. The color 
 is usually black or gray with a few dots of orange on the back. Stiff hairs or spines 
 stick out from the body, giving them rather a fierce appearance. If these are found, 
 watch them feed upon the plant lice. Decide what kind of mouths they have. How 
 many feet have they? They remain in the larvae stage but a short time, then they 
 fasten themselves by the back part of the body to a leaf or some other support and 
 change into pupae. They remain in the pupa stage a short time, about a week or 
 ten days, and then the grown up lady bugs come forth. The lady bugs remain in 
 
104 
 
 the mature stage all winter. Have the pupils look under leaves and around the roots 
 of shrubs and herbs for groups of these lady bugs, that have collected here to spend 
 their winter. 
 
 Both the larvae and the adult beetles eat plant lice, eggs of moths and goose- 
 berry worms, and upon the eggs and young of the potato beetle, therefore we should 
 be very careful not to destroy any lady bugs. They help, more than we can estimate, 
 to keep in check many of our insect pests. 
 
 LESSON 19. Another interesting beneficial insect is the lace wing fly and its 
 larva. The mature insect may be found in the fall in gardens, orchards and mea- 
 dows. It remains resting on the underside of leaves and it is only when disturbed 
 that it flies. It is a light green insect with a very slender body and four beautiful 
 light green, lacy looking wings. Its eyes are like drops of bright gold, so it is often 
 called golden eyes. It is less than an inch in length. When disturbed, it whirls up- 
 ward, reminding one of a whirligig. The young may be found quite late in Septem- 
 ber on any infested with plant lice. It resembles somewhat the larva of lady bugs 
 but is lighter in color and its jaws are so long that they look like small horns. The 
 pupils, if they find any of these insects, should place them in bottles, feeding them 
 with lice. Observe the size, shape, and color of the insects. Watch them im- 
 pale the plant lice on their horn-like jaws while they suck the juices from their bodies. 
 These insects are often called aphis-lions, because they act like fierce lions preying 
 upon the aphids. The pupils may see the larva go into the pupa stage. It spins a 
 round white cocoon on the leaves and inside of this changes from a larva to a pupa. 
 Some of them stay in the pupa stage all winter, so if the bottles are put away 
 and kept until spring, the mature insect will emerge. The mature insect will then 
 deposit her eggs for the first generation in the spring. The eggs of the lace wing 
 are very interesting. Some of the pupils have probably seen them, even if they did 
 not know what they were. They are placed on the ends of small strands of silk about 
 one-half or three-fourths of an inch long. The strands are fastened to twigs or leaves. 
 The female lace wing does this to prevent the first larva that hatches from destroy- 
 ing the rest of the eggs. If the eggs were placed flat upon the leaves, the first aphis- 
 lion that hatched would probably eat up all the rest. 
 
 The lace wing larvae feed not only upon plant lice, but upon various other insect 
 pests, so that they should be placed along with the lady bugs as our chief benefactors. 
 
 LESSON 20. There are several other insects that the pupils will probably find 
 and bring in for study, that may be regarded as beneficial. One of these is a large 
 green beetle about an inch in length. It has very long legs and is usually found in 
 the garden and cornfields. The underpart of the body is dark blue. This beetle is 
 known as the searcher, because it searches so diligently for caterpillars of various 
 kinds. It has been known to climb cornstalks in search of the corn ear worm. 
 
 The dragon fly, often called snake feeder or snake doctor, is a benefactor, be- 
 cause it feeds wholly upon mosquitos, gnats and flies. 
 
 LESSON 21. Besides the insects that benefit us by catching and devouring in- 
 sect pests, we have another class that kill off pests in a very different manner. 
 They are known as parasites, because they live in the bodies of insects, feeding upon 
 the liquids and tissues of their hosts, and in this way killing off great numbers. 
 Ask the pupils how many have seen tomato worms whose backs were covered with 
 small white bodies. If tomato worms are found with these objects on them, bring 
 them in for study. Look closely with a lens and you will see that these bodies are 
 small, silken cocoons. Place the worms in jars, tie a cover over the top of the jar and 
 in a few weeks you will find the jar filled with tiny insects looking like gnats or flies. 
 These are braconid flies and are relatives of bees and wasps. Now examine the co- 
 coons to find the openings through which the braconids emerged. The life history 
 of these insects is as follows: Some time in the summer a little braconid fly places 
 its eggs under the skin of a< tomato worm. The eggs hatch into small white grubs 
 like tiny maggots. These feed upon fluids in the body of the tomato worm and when 
 they are grown up as larvae they eat holes through the skin of the tomato worm, 
 come out and spin their cocoons. In these cocoons they change into pupae and, as we 
 have already seen, come out a few weeks later as grown-up flies. A tomato worm in 
 which these braconids have fed, never reaches maturity, but dies either before it pu- 
 pates or soon afterwards. So numerous are these little flies in some localities that the 
 tomato worm has become almost extinct. Ask the pupils to look on cabbage leaves 
 for bunches of small yellow cocoons. These are cocoons of another braconid fly, whose 
 
105 
 
 larvae live in the bodies of cabbage worms. These little insects kill off hundreds of 
 cabbage worms every season. 
 
 Ichneumon flies are little insects larger than the braconids. They deposit their 
 eggs in many different kinds of caterpillars and thus destroy those injurious insects. 
 A very common ichneumon keeps the white marked tussock moth in check in Illinois. 
 
 We have suggested above special studies of some of the most common insects. 
 In many localities, however, other insects will certainly be brought in by the pupils. 
 Encourage the study of such insects. Have the pupils find out all they can about 
 their habits and food by observation, following the plans suggested in the study of 
 the grasshopper or squash bug. If larvae are brought in, they should be fed the leaves 
 of plants upon which they were found. The pupils should work out as many life his- 
 tories as possible. Larva? found in the fall, as a rule, spend the winter in the pupa 
 stage. In many cases the pupa may be obtained in the jars and vivarium and kept 
 until spring, then the mature insects may be identified. It will be worth while to have 
 the pupils start a collection of insects, grouping together those that are pests and 
 making another group of the beneficial insects. Any tight pasteboard box may be 
 used for the collection. Put an interlining of pasteboard in the bottom, in which to 
 stick pins. Kill the insects by placing them in the cyanide jar. Stick a pin through 
 the thorax when you are sure that the insects are dead and then place the pin in the 
 lining of the pasteboard box. It is a good plan to put some camphor gum or moth 
 balls in the box to keep out a little museum beetle which may destroy the collection. 
 
 Below is a list of other common insects with brief descriptions. 
 
 THE PESTS 
 
 THE WHITE MARKED TUSSOCK MOTH. The larva is a slender cater- 
 pillar with a coral red head and yellowish, hairy body. On the back are four white 
 tufts and back of the head are two black horns of hair. There is another hair like 
 horn on the back near the hinder part. The larvae spin cocoons late in the fall. The 
 moth emerges and lays her eggs in a white frothy mass on the outside of the cocoon. 
 They remain in the egg stage over winter. 
 
 BOX ELDER BUG. A red and black bug that resembles a squash bug. The 
 bugs are sometimes found in great numbers late in the fall. The different stages 
 may be found, some grown up, some with the beginnings of wings. These stay in 
 the mature stage over winter. 
 
 THE FALL WEB WORM. These insects are larvas of a gray moth. The 
 whole family, sometimes consisting of several hundred, live in a web which they 
 spin for themselves over the branches of trees. They are found on box elders, apples 
 and other trees. 
 
 THE CODDLING MOTH. The young of this moth lives in apples and we know 
 it as an apple worm. If you put some apple worms in a box and feed them upon 
 apples they will pupate toward spring and you will be able to see the little moth 
 that lays its eggs on the apples. 
 
 PEACH TREE BORER. Look on the main stem of the peach tree for small 
 bunches of gum that has come from the tree. With a knife carefully cut into the 
 tree, just a little under the bark at this place and you will find a white worm. This 
 is the larva of a moth. It feeds upon the juicy inner bark and sap of the tree. One 
 of the best ways to get rid of these borers is to dig them out of the tree with a stiff 
 wire or knife. 
 
 GARDEN PESTS 
 
 THE COLORADO POTATO BEETLE. This is the common roundish, yellow 
 and black, striped potato bug. It lives over winter in the ground in the adult stage. 
 
 THE STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE. A small yellowish green and black 
 striped beetle. It feeds upon the leaves of cucumber, squashes and melons. Its larvae 
 bore into the stems of the plants and often destroy the young vines. 
 
 THE SPOTTED CUCUMBER BEETLES. This is similar in its habits to the 
 striped cucumber beetle. It is greenish with twelve black spots. 
 
106 
 
 STRAWBERRY LEAF ROLLER. This is a tiny moth that lays its eggs on 
 the strawberry plants. The larva rolls the leaf over and lives and feeds inside 
 the rolled leaf. It pupates inside the leaf and spends the winter there. 
 
 THE CABBAGE WORM. This is the larvas of the common white butterfly. 
 If the worm is obtained early in September the entire life history may be w r orked 
 out in the school room. 
 
 THE CABBAGE MOTH. This moth is not as large as the white cabbage 
 butterfly. It flies at night instead of during the daylight. The larva differs from 
 the cabbage worm somewhat in color. It has light stripes on its back. It does not 
 have as many feet, so it has to loop up when it walks. It makes a thin walled co- 
 coon in which it pupates. Its life history may also be worked out in the school room. 
 
 FIELD PESTS 
 
 CHINCH BUGS. Small insects dark in color that feed upon wheat and corn. 
 
 THE CORN BILL BUG. This is a small, dark beetle with a long snout. It 
 spends the winter in the adult stage and may sometimes be found late in the fall. 
 It hibernates over winter and in the spring comes forth to feed upon the young 
 corn stems. 
 
 CUT WORMS. These do most of their mischief in the spring, but the mature 
 moths are often found flying around in September. They are dull colored moths 
 that we often call moth millers. 
 
 HESSIAN FLY. This is a very small insect that is not likely to be found by 
 the pupils. However, it is such a pest that it should be named among field insects. 
 There are several broods during the summer. The last one attacks the young wheat 
 in the fall. The eggs are deposited in the stems near the surface of the ground and 
 the larvae feed there, changing to pupae in the stems of the wheat. In the spring the 
 adult fly emerges from the pupa, lays its eggs and again the larvae feed upon wheat 
 stems. Wheat should be planted as late as possible in the fall. When this is done 
 the adult female may die before the wheat is large enough to receive the eggs. 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR OCTOBER. (Note. Two lines of study are suggested for 
 the month, only one of which need be studied in any one school. Each school should 
 choose the line of work best fitted to the locality.) 
 
 1. Special study of corn; its culture and improvement. Visit fields and par- 
 ticipate in selection of desirable stalks and ears. Drying and storing seed. Experi- 
 ments to show shrinkage of corn. What is gained, if anything, by keeping corn over 
 winter to sett. Varieties of corn grown in neighborhood; history of two or three 
 varieties. Characteristics of a good ear; simple introduction to use of score card. 
 Factors involved in marketing corn. 
 
 2. Wheat. Children bring samples from home; examine for weed seeds and 
 other impurities. Test one hundred grains of each sample for vitality. Methods of 
 planting, machinery used in planting. Observe habits of groUvth of plants. What 
 parts of the plants live over winter. History of wheat varieties. 
 
 CORN 
 
 The work may begin with an informal discussion of the corn crop in the dis- 
 trict. About how many acres of corn are grown upon the various farms? What dif- 
 ferent varieties are grown? What is the prevailing variety? Does any one raise 
 red, calico, or other varieties than white and yellow? 
 
 Study of the corn plant. (1) Eoots. Have an entire plant dug up and brought 
 into the schoolroom. As much of the root system as possible should be preserved. A 
 fresh green plant is better for this study than one that is dry and mature. The pur- 
 pose of these lessons is to interest the children in the characteristic and habits of 
 growth of corn. 
 
 Notice the root system. How many kinds of roots? Are the main roots large 
 or small? These are known as fibrous roots. What is the direction of growth? Ask 
 
107 
 
 the children to dig carefully around a corn plant at home to see the relation of the 
 roots to the soil. How near the surface are they found? How deep do they grow? 
 How far out from the hills? How far between the rows'? 
 
 Where are the brace roots? How many joints on the stem produce brace roots? 
 Have children observe corn at home and report on the greatest number of brace 
 roots growing upon one stalk. Do they all succeed in reaching the ground? When 
 do the brace roots begin to appear on the corn? Leave this as a problem to be solved 
 next summer. 
 
 (2) Stem. What is the height of the stem? Have children report on various 
 heights of stems in the home field. What is a good average height? Note that the 
 stem is built up of sections separated from each other by joints. We call these 
 joints nodes, and the portion of the stem between internodes. How many internodes 
 in the stalk? Are they all the same length? Do you see any advantage in having 
 the nodes close together near the base of the stalk? Does this make the stalk any 
 better able to resist the force of the wind. Look for a groove on one side of the 
 internode. Is it on the same side of all the internodes? 
 
 With a sharp knife cut a stem into sections. How many different structures 
 can you find in this cross section of the stem? (The outside layer forms the woody 
 part.) Is it hard or soft? (Inside is a soft pith and scattered throughout are 
 thread-like structures called fibro-vascular bundles.) These bundles are really little 
 systems of canals, which carry water and other raw materials from the roots to the 
 leaves. The leaves manufacture these raw materials into food and the canals carry 
 this food back to the stem, roots, and seeds, wherever it is needed. 
 
 (3) Leaves. How many leaves on this plant? Does the number differ on dif- 
 ferent plants? Have the children report on this. Do the leaves differ in length? 
 Where are the longest leaves? How are the leaves fastened to the stem? (The 
 part that surrounds the stem is called the sheath.) Is the sheath open or closed? 
 Is the closed or open side next to the groove on the internode? The long, slender 
 part of the leaf is called the blade. Notice how it arises from the sheath. What 
 part of the blade is longer, the middle or the margin? Can you see any advantage 
 to the leaf in having this wavy margin? Would it tear any more easily in the 
 wind if it were straight? Note the rain guard, a thin fringe at the top of the 
 hinge. (Its use is to prevent rain from pouring down between the sheath and the 
 stem.) Why might the rain here be a disadvantage to the plant? 
 
 What do the leaves do for the plant? (Their chief work is to manufacture 
 starch, proteid, and other foods for the plant to live upon while it is growing and 
 to store up in the seed for future use.) If this is true we can see the importance 
 of every corn plant having a good leaf surface. 
 
 (4) Flowers and seed. Has the corn plant any flowers? (Note to the teacher: 
 If the children are not familiar with 'the parts of a flower, then spend one lesson 
 in studying some familiar flower, as the nasturtium or petunia.) Look for the sepals 
 that form the calyx, and for the petals, the colored part of the flower. Find the 
 stamens with the filament and knob-like anthers, which bear the pollen; the 
 pistil with the roundish ovary at the base, the slender style and the stigma at the 
 top of the style. The corn flowers are so very different from the ordinary ones 
 that we do not usually think of them as flowers at all. But while they have no 
 bright petals, they have the stamens and the pistils which are the essential parts. 
 In fact, every corn plant has two kinds of flowers, one at the top of stalk, which 
 we know as the tassel. The other is often called the shoot, which afterwards be- 
 comes the ear. E\ery boy and girl has seen the yellow powder that falls in showers 
 from the corn when it first ' ' tassels out. ' ' Look at the tassel. Note that it is made 
 up of a great many branches on which are small parts which are called spikelets. 
 Have you ever noticed little bodies dangling from the spikelets in the summer time? 
 They are the stamens, which produce the pollen, so we call the little flowers in the 
 tassel staminato flowers, because they have stamens and no pistils. The "shoot" 
 which bears the pistils, is known as the pistillate flowers. Try to find a very young 
 ear and bring into schoolroom for study. Carefully remove the husks. Note the 
 rows of roundish bodies fastened to the cob. Note that a silk is attached to each 
 round body. The round body is the ovary, the silk is the style, and the end of the 
 silk the stigma. 
 
 What must happen in order that a grain of corn be formed? (First a grain 
 of pollen must settle on the end of the silk. We call this process pollination. If 
 the pollen comes from the tassel of the same plant we say the flower is self- 
 pollinated. If it comes from another plant we say the flower is cross pollinated.) 
 
108 
 
 Do you think most of the corn in the field is cross- or self -pollinated ? What is the 
 chief agent that carries the pollen from one plant to another? 
 
 Experiments have been made by experts which prove that cross pollination 
 (other conditions remaining the same), produces better, stronger, more productive 
 corn than that which is produced by self pollination. So you see it is a good thing 
 that the wind scatters the pollen all over the field. 
 
 What happens to the pollen grain when it falls upon the end of the silk? It 
 germinates and forms a slender tube which grows downward through the entire silk 
 until it reaches the ovary. This tube is called the pollen tube. In it are two tiny 
 cells, so small that you would have to have a microscope of very high power in order 
 to see them. When the cells reach the ovary it is ready to receive them. In fact it 
 has been getting ready for them while the tube has been growing through the silk. 
 In it are two important cells also. One of these is called the egg cell and the other 
 the endosperm cell. One of the cells from the pollen tube unites with the egg cell 
 to form a new cell, which has the power of growing and dividing again and again 
 until it forms a little plantlet which we call the germ, or embryo part of the corn ker- 
 nel. The union of this pollen tube cell with the egg cell in the ovary is known as the 
 process of fertilization and this must always occur before the embryo can be formed. 
 The second pollen tube cell unites with the endosperm cell of the ovary and the 
 resulting cell grows into the large starchy part of the corn kernel, which surrounds 
 the embryo and is called the endosperm. The endosperm part of a corn kernel is 
 simply a storehouse of food placed around the little embryo to serve it with nourish- 
 ment while it is developing its first roots and leaves and getting ready to manu- 
 facture its own food. It is because of the fact that plants in this and similar 
 ways store so much nourishment in their seeds to nourish the little embryos which are 
 their offspring, that seeds are so valuable as food for man and animals. 
 
 When the seed germinates and grows the endosperm is destroyed and so it 
 only lives one season, but the embryo grows into a new plant the next year. Just 
 what kind of a plant it will be and what kind of corn it will produce depends 
 largely upon the kind of plant which produced the pollen grain and the ovary cell 
 that united to form the beginning of the seed. You can easily see from this why 
 the characteristics of both plants are so important, and why corn breeders who raise 
 corn, especially for seed, are very careful to have both the pollen and the shoot 
 grown upon plants that have the very highest qualities. 
 
 (5) The ear. Where is the ear situated on the stalk. Is it on the grooved or 
 the smooth side of the internode? About how far from the ground is it? Do ears 
 on different stalks differ in this respect? 
 
 Note the length of the ear-stem or shank. Can you see any disadvantage in 
 a long ear shank? (A long shank usually means a short ear and indicates poorly 
 bred corn.) Is there any disadvantage in a very short shank? Have the children 
 notice how short-stemmed ears stand almost erect and thus readily catch the rain. 
 
 To continue the ear study ask each child to bring at least two ears of corn 
 from home. If the teacher can procure sample ears of two or three standard varieties 
 it will help much in this work. How many rows of kernels on each ear? Is the 
 number odd or even? Are they the same on all ears? How many kernels in one 
 row? How many on one ear? How can you determine this without counting all of 
 them? If you disregard the small kernels at the tip and butt how many kernels on 
 one ear may be used as seed corn next spring? 
 
 Selection of seed corn. Can you think of any good reason for choosing seed 
 corn early in the fall from the field? Let us see what some of the reasons are. 
 Is it worth while to consider the stalk from which the seed corn is to be gathered? 
 (If a stalk is weak or has other faults seed from it will probably produce the same 
 bad characteristics in the stalk next year, so one of the first things to consider in 
 selecting seed is a desirable stalk.) Have the pupils name the points they would 
 like reproduced in a stalk next year. The following are points that should be con- 
 sidered: (a) The stalk should be erect, strong, well-formed, i.e., thick at the 
 base and gradually tapering toward the top. (b) It should have well developed 
 brace roots, (c) It should have grown in a hill with at least two others. Do you see 
 why? A stalk standing by itself in a hill might produce a good ear because it had so 
 much space from which to draw food materials. What we want is a stalk that is 
 vigorous enough to produce a good ear when it is growing in a hill with other 
 stalks, (d) It should be free from smut and suckers, (e) The ear should be situ- 
 ated a little above the middle point. The ear stem should not be too long or too 
 short, on an average about three and one-half inches. 
 
109 
 
 If there is a corn field near the school, a field study in identifying desirable 
 stalks makes an excellent exercise. The work may be carried still farther. Choose 
 a plot in the field ten hills square. Count the whole number of stalks in the plot, 
 the number of missing stalks, the number having one good ear, the number of 
 barren stalks, the number having suckers, and those having smut. How many stalks 
 have two good ears? How many ears in the plot? Estimate the number of bushels 
 in the plot; the number of bushels if there had been no missing stalks or ears. 
 
 The score card. For the desirable points in the ear the Illinois Corn Score 
 Card may be used. This may be obtained by applying to the president of the 
 Farmers' Institute of your county. 
 
 The value of the score card in the hands of the children is not merely that they 
 may become skilled in judging samples of corn, but that they may have their atten- 
 tion called to the essential points that characterize a good ear. At the same time 
 this exercise is of considerable educational value. The pupils make accurate ob- 
 servations, compare different points in different ears, form judgments, and act upon 
 those judgments. 
 
 Have the pupils bring at least five ears that have been chosen from desirable 
 stalks at home. Select from these ears one that approaches a typical ear of 
 the variety. Xow place all the rest of the ears side by side with the butts in a 
 straight line and compare them, one at a time, with the typical ear. Group together 
 those that show similar characteristics. This will help the pupils to understand 
 what is meant by trueness to type, which is indicated by the shape and size of the 
 ear, the shape and color of the kernel. 
 
 The grouping together will also aid the pupils to see what is meant by uni- 
 formity of exhibit. If the pupils were preparing a sample of ten ears for a corn 
 contest they should place together ears that are similar in external characteristics. 
 
 The shape of the ear will vary somewhat with the variety. In general it should 
 be cylindrical, tapering slightly toward the tip. The rows should be straight, run- 
 ning parallel to each other, not twisting to the right or left. 
 
 The color of the ear should be true to the variety, pure white or yellow as the 
 case may be. The kernels should be free from mixture. White corn should have white 
 cobs, and yellow corn red cobs. 
 
 The seed condition is very important. The ears should be dry and sound. 
 Take the ear in both hands and twist it from right to left. If it is soft and limp 
 it shows lack of maturity and should not be chosen for seed. 
 
 The tips should be well-filled, the rows of kernels extending in a straight line 
 over the end. There should not be a piece of cob exposed. However, if the ear 
 has other good qualities judges do not consider a tip that is not wholly covered a 
 bad fault. 
 
 The rows should extend in regular order over the butts, leaving just space enough 
 for the attachment of the ear stem. 
 
 The size and shape of the kernels in all of the ears should be similar. To 
 examine for uniformity of kernels remove two grains from about the middle of 
 each ear and lay them in front of each ear with the tips pointing towards the tips 
 of the ears. The shape of the kernels will depend somewhat upon the variety. In 
 general they should be deep and wedge-shaped, so that their edges will touch the 
 entire length of the grain. They should not taper at the tip, but should have plenty 
 of space for strong, large germs. 
 
 The length of the ear varies with the variety. In an exhibit the ears should 
 approach uniformity of length. The circumference also varies with the variety. 
 In general the circumference, measured three inches from the butt, should be about 
 three-fourths of the length of the ear. 
 
 There should not be a wide space between the rows of kernels, neither should 
 there be a space between the tips of the kernels at the cob. Both of these indicate 
 poorly bred corn and a low proportion of grain to ear. 
 
 The proportion of shelled corn to ear depends upon a number of points such 
 as well-filled butts and tips, spaces between the rows and kernels, the size and depth 
 of the kernels, and the size of the cob. To determine the proportion by weight, 
 weigh five ears, then shell the grain and weigh the cobs; subtract the weight of the 
 cobs from the weight of the ears to determine the weight of grain. Xow determine 
 what per cent the weight of the grain is of the total weight. 
 
 Storing seed corn. After the seed corn is selected comes the question of storing 
 for the winter. What conditions are essential for the keeping of seed corn? Three 
 
110 
 
 at least should be considered. First, the atmosphere should be dry; second, the 
 temperature even, and third, the ventilation good. A simple method is to tie a 
 number of ears together and hang them up in some convenient place such as the 
 attic, a dry shed, or an unused room. Wire used to support the strings will prevent 
 injury from mice and rats. A simple plan suggested by the College of Agriculture 
 in Ames, Iowa, is known as the double-cord method. Tie the ends of a cord to- 
 gether. Now hold the cord over the hands like a skein, letting the middle drop to 
 the floor. Let someone place an ear of corn over the string on the floor. Now 
 slip the cord that you hold in your right hand over the one in the left, letting them 
 cross above the ear of corn. Place another ear of corn on this and cross the cords 
 again. Continue to weave back and forth till you have all the ears in. Then slip 
 one cord under the other and it is ready to hang up. 
 
 A simple experiment may be tried to estimate the per cent of shrinkage of 
 corn that is kept for the spring or summer market. Weigh ten ears, hang them up 
 in the school room or at home, and at the end of a month weigh again. Continue 
 this until the end of the spring term. Estimate each month the per cent of shrinkage. 
 
 Uses and history of corn. A short time may well be given to a study of the 
 uses of corn and something of its history. 
 
 Have the pupils make lists of all the uses of corn that they know. What 
 parts of the plants are used to feed stock? (The grain on the ear shelled or 
 ground, the stem and leaves in fodder, the whole plant in silage, bran and corn- 
 oil cake?) 
 
 Make a list of the various ways in which corn is used for human food. (Corn- 
 meal, breakfast food, hominy, corn starch, syrup and oil.) 
 
 Corn oil is also manufactured into rubber from which boots, shoes, linoleum 
 and oil cloth are made. It is also used in the manufacture of soap and the mixing 
 of paints. The cellulose from the pith of the stem is manufactured into an almost 
 impenetrable substance that is used to protect warships from shot and shell. The 
 cobs, and even the stalks are largely used for fuel in some of the western states. 
 
 Have the children start a collection of corn products for the school. Wide- 
 mouth bottles may be used. Pickle bottles will serve very well. Place samples of 
 the various products in the bottles, label neatly and preserve for future use. A corn 
 chart may be made by fastening to a large sheet of cardboard various corn products. 
 
 Many school readers and geographies contain interesting articles on the history 
 of maize or Indian corn. The children should know at least that corn was found 
 by the earliest explorers in America. The Indians had attained quite a degree of 
 efficiency in its culture. The first successful attempt to cultivate corn in America 
 by the English was made by the Jamestown Colony in Virginia in 1608. Before the 
 close of the seventeenth century corn was the most important crop raised by all of 
 the colonies. 
 
 At the beginning of the nineteenth century there were probably not more 
 than five varieties of corn known. Now there are several hundred, all produced by 
 careful selection and breeding. 
 
 It may be worth while to know that from a botanist's standpoint there are 
 seven species-groups of maize. Four of these are grown in Illinois. These are: 
 the popcorns, which we all know; the flint corn, which is a very hard, smooth- 
 grained variety, that is grown in some places more for fodder than for grain; the 
 sweet corns, which are used so largely for human food; and the dent corns, which 
 constitute all the varieties of common field corn both yellow and white. This group 
 receives its names from the dent in the upper surface of the grain. In some places 
 popcorn is grown chiefly for curiosity. Each grain is covered with a husk. This 
 is supposed to be the primitive type from which the others have sprung. 
 
 Plan for a corn display and program on Corn Day. If any member of the school 
 have grown corn, have a corn contest. If no corn has been grown by the pupils, 
 then have the contest consist of a display of five or ten ears chosen by each member 
 of the class to show his skill in selecting a good corn sample. 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 LESSON 1. The first lesson in the wheat should consist of a discussion of 
 wheat as a farm crop in neighborhood. How many farmers in the district raise 
 wheat? What kind do they raise, spring or fall wheat? About what time is it 
 planted? Discuss different methods of sowing used in the neighborhood, also differ- 
 ent methods used in the preparation of seed beds. If different farmers use different 
 
Ill 
 
 methods, encourage the pupils to watch for results in order to determine whether 
 more labor expended in preparation for the seed bed brings a better yield. If 
 some in the neighborhood use the drill and others sow broadcast, in the same way, 
 encourage the pupils to watch for results and decide whether one method is better 
 than the other in that particular locality. How deep is wheat planted? Is there 
 any danger of planting it too deep? Ask the pupils to bring small samples of wheat 
 from home for study the next day. 
 
 LESSON 2. Make a brief study of grains of wheat, noticing the covering and 
 the difference in the two sides, one smooth and the other creased. Compare the 
 grains of the various samples brought in by the pupils and note the difference in 
 color, size and plumpness of the grains. Now test for purity. This is to determine 
 whether or not the wheat seed contains other things than pure seed. To do this 
 spread a small handful of the grains on a sheet of white paper. Now separate all 
 the weed seeds, chaff and other foreign objects from the wheat. When this is 
 finished put the wheat seed in one pile and the foreign matter in another and estimate 
 about what per cent of the wheat seed is pure. This may be used as a good per- 
 centage problem in arithmetic for the pupils. If the school has a pair of scales, find 
 the weight of the wheat and of the foreign bodies and the per cent may be found 
 by comparing the weights of the two. A germination test should be made to de- 
 termine whether or not all the seeds are likely to grow. To make this test, take 
 one hundred grains from each sample of wheat. Place some moist sand or soil in 
 a dinner plate; a box or pan will serve as well as a plate. Scatter the seeds on the 
 surface of the sand, not allowing any to touch each other. With your finger gently 
 press each grain, so that it will rest firmly in the sand, but do not cover it. Turn 
 another plate over this one to keep the moisture in it. Set it away in a warm place. 
 Watch for the germination of the seeds. How long after planting before the first 
 small sprouts appear? Watch them from day to day until you are certain that no 
 more grains will sprout. By counting the grains that have not sprouted, you will 
 be able to determine at once the per cent of germination. If all have sprouted but 
 two grains, what per cent of germination has the wheat? If not more than sixty 
 grains sprouted would you expect a good stand of wheat? 
 
 Observe the sprouting grains to find how many roots grow from each. From 
 which side of the grain does the sprout come, the creased side or the smooth side? 
 A few grains planted in a pan of soil at this time arfd kept watered will be of 
 value for study a little later in the term. 
 
 LESSON 3. If the teacher or pupils have some stems of wheat with the heads 
 on them, an interesting lesson may be given in connection with the forming of the 
 grains of the wheat. Notice the head. Is it one piece or is it made up of branches 
 or clusters? This kind of a flower cluster is called a spike. The small side branches 
 are spikelets. How many spikelets in one head? How many divisions in one spikelet? 
 Each division or part of a spikelet is the remains of a little flower. Did all the 
 flowers succeed in producing grains? Count the grains in one spikelet. Compare 
 different kinds of wheat in this respect. Some spikelets bear a number of grains, 
 others have but three and some one and two. The number of grains in a spikelet 
 has much to do with the yield of the wheat. The spikelet is often called by farmers 
 a mesh, and hence farmers speak of the number of grains in a mesh. Here is another 
 good problem in arithmetic: Since you have counted the number of spikelets in a 
 head and have the average number of grains in a spikelet, how many grains will one 
 head produce? Carefully pull to pieces what is left of the little flower around the 
 grain. Each small, leaf-like body is called a glume. Examine the one nearest to the 
 grain. Is there anything on the top of this? Bearded wheats have the awn or 
 beard fastened to this glume. Are there any beardless wheats growing in the neigh- 
 borhood? Compare all the different kinds of wheat that the pupils may bring in 
 with reference to the above points. 
 
 LESSON 4. This lesson should be given several weeks after the preceding one. 
 Study the plants growing in the schoolroom and note the following points: The 
 height of the shoot above the surface of the ground. Is the shoot erect or not? Dig 
 some of the plants up and examine the root system. Where are the main roots now? 
 Do they seem to have grown from the three small ones that first came from the grain, 
 or farther up on the stalk? How long are the roots? How do they compare with 
 the length of the shoot? Have the pupils make similar observation of the wheat 
 in the fields at home. This observation should be made at intervals of a week or 
 ten days. When the plants are six weeks or more old, what change in the habit of 
 growth of the stem do you find? (Instead of growing erect the plants now spread 
 
112 
 
 out in rosette fashion on the surface of the ground.) What advantage is this habit 
 to the plant? The pupils will probably suggest that it helps to protect them. But 
 does it protect the plant? The following points, at least, should be brought out: 
 Since the plant is low on the ground it is shielded from high, cold winds. It is 
 easily covered with nature's covering the snow. This keeps the wheat and the 
 soil at an even temperature, preventing the thawing and freezing which is so dis- 
 astrous to the wheat plants. 
 
 LESSON 5. Discuss the different varieties of wheat that the pupils may know. 
 It is possible that there may be but one variety in the neighborhood. Some winter 
 wheats are known as hard wheat, some semi-hard and others soft. Soft wheats are 
 grown largely in warmer climates. In the middle west, the semi-hard wheats are 
 the ones chiefly grown. Farthur north the hard wheats are gaining favor. Some 
 wheats are classified with reference to the beard. Those having beards are known 
 as bearded wheats, and those without beards are beardless wheat. How are new 
 varieties of wheat obtained? There are two ways. Perhaps some of the boys may 
 have noticed in walking through a wheat field, that here and there a few heads seem 
 somewhat different from the rest of the wheat in the field. Wheat is likely to have 
 sports or variations. That is the reason why these plants may differ greatly from 
 all the rest, though grown from apparently the same kind of seed. Breeders who are 
 anxious to obtain a new variety select one of these heads that seems to have good 
 characteristics. They save the seed and plant them in a small plot by themselves. 
 That is the beginning. If the plants carry out the good characteristics, the seed 
 from this small plot is preserved and is planted on a larger plot. In a few years 
 the breeders have enough seed to plant a number of acres. If the variety proves 
 valuable, then the breeder gives it a new name and so has produced a new variety 
 of wheat. This is called the selection method of producing new varieties. The other 
 method is by a cross pollination. Asfe the pupils if they know whether wheat cross 
 pollinates as corn does. They will probably know that two varieties may be planted 
 side by side with little crossing. This is because the flower of the wheat is so ar- 
 ranged that the pollen does not escape from the flower, but falls upon the pistil of 
 the same flower. For this reason, when breeders wish to cross pollinate wheat, it 
 must be done by hand. This is a very delicate and skilful piece of work and is car- 
 ried on by experts. It is enough to know that they carefully remove the stamens 
 from one flower and place on the pistil of that flower some pollen which has been 
 taken from the stamens of another flower. In this way characteristics from the two 
 plants are mingled in the new seeds that are formed. 
 
 LESSON 6. Discussion of the uses of wheat will be found very profitable here. 
 The pupils will probably know most of the uses, the most important one being the 
 making of flour. The different kinds of flour may be named and from the geogra- 
 phies the chief centers in which flour is made may be learned. The uses of wheat 
 in the making of breakfast foods and macaroni may be presented. The uses of the 
 straw and the value of wheat in crop rotation should be discussed. 
 
 FEUIT TEEES 
 
 While Illinois cannot be classed as a fruit growing state nevertheless it produces 
 vast quantities of fruit each year. Almost every farmer has an orchard of some sort, 
 Many of these orchards are old and sadly neglected, scarcely worthy of the name. 
 Many farmers feel that they have no time to give to the care of fruit trees. In 
 many cases it is a lack of interest and inclination rather than time. It will cer- 
 tainly be worth while from an economic as well as educative and aesthetic stand- 
 point, to elicit the interest of the boys and girls in the fruit trees of the neighbor- 
 hood. 
 
 For the first lesson make a simple survey of the fruit trees of the district. Ask 
 the children to report the next day. How many different kinds of fruit trees on the 
 home farm? How many of each kind? Where are the trees? Make a special ob- 
 servation of the apple orchards. Are the trees old or young? Find out if you can 
 from your parents how old the orchard is. Look carefully at the trees. Are any 
 of them broken? Are there any dead branches or suckers present? Select one tree 
 for special observation. How tall is it? You may easily estimate the height of the 
 tree by measuring your own height upon the trunk then estimating about the number 
 of times the tree is taller than you. How thick is the trunk? What is the color of 
 
113 v 
 
 the bark! Is it rough or smooth? Does an apple tree grow symmetrically or does 
 it usually have a gnarled appearance? If there are apples on the tree notice where 
 they are borne. Are they on small or large branches? Are any of them at the tips 
 of the twigs? When we study the apple flower next spring we shall find out why 
 apples grow as they do. Bring to school an apple twig for the next lesson. 
 
 THE TWIG. Can you determine how many years growth your twig represents? 
 To do this look for the ring scars. Can you see any difference between the old and 
 new parts of the twig, as to color or smoothness ? How are the leaves arranged on the 
 branches? Do you find any that are clustered as well as those that are arranged singly 
 on the twig? Look for buds. Where are they? Are they single or clustered? Are 
 they all of the same -kind. Do you know what the buds will produce in the spring? 
 
 THE APPLE. The apple is the fruit of the tree and a most interesting fruit it 
 is. Like all fruit it is the result of a flower. Eecall how the apple flower looked last 
 spring. You will probably remember that there was a cluster of pink blossoms at the 
 end of the twig surrounded by a few soft green leaves. Is there a cluster of apples on 
 the tree? Usually but one flower of the cluster succeeds in producing an apple. Once 
 in a while two apples develop from the flower cluster. Examine the apples to de- 
 termine the external features. What is the color of the skin? Is it thick or thin? 
 It will be of interest to compare different varieties of apples as to the thickness and 
 toughness of the skin. This is an item of some importance to apple growers who 
 ship their fruit. Some apples are so thin skinned that it is very difficult to ship 
 them without bruises. What is the use of the skin to the apple? To answer this 
 try two or three experiments. Peel one apple, stand it in a window sill or some other 
 part of the room and place beside it an apple that is not peeled. Let them remain 
 several days and note what happens. Bruise an apple and place the bruised portion 
 against another apple and note what takes place. 
 
 Notice the length of the apple stem. That of course, was the stem of the flower. 
 Notice the shape of the apple where the stem is fastened. This hollow portion around 
 the stem is called the cavity of the apple. What do you find at the other end of 
 the apple? The withered bodies are the remains of the flower. The hollow space 
 in this end of the apple is called the basin. 
 
 Cut the apple in two lengthwise. Examine the inside for the tough, shiny wall 
 of the core. Can you determine the number of seeds in one cell of the core? Which 
 way is the pointed end of the seed, toward the stem or the basin? Find a line that 
 extends around the core connecting the cavity and the basin. This is the place 
 where the calyx cup, the outer part of the flower, and the ovary, the lower part of 
 the pistil, grew together in developing the apple. It is called the core line. Is the 
 core line equally distinct in all the apples you have? 
 
 Cut an apple crosswise through the middle. You can now see the star-shaped 
 core. How many points has the star? How many cells in the core? Can you trace 
 the core line in the cross section? Make a drawing of a longitudinal and cross sec- 
 tion of the apple labeling all the parts. 
 
 VARIETIES OF APPLES. Have the pupils bring in for study specimens 
 of different varieties of apples. Group them into winter and fall apples. There are 
 probably no summer apples left at this time. What is the most striking difference 
 between the fall and winter varieties? The fall are more mellow; they are almost 
 ripe. The winter apples are mature but will ripen later in the season. Apples are 
 mature when the seeds are brown. Have the children make lists of different varieties 
 of apples, grouping them according to the time they mature, as Summer apples; 
 Duchess, harvest, early June. Fall apples; Grimes golden, snow, russet, Jonathan, 
 maiden-blush, wealthy. Winter apples; northern spy, winesap, gano, willow- twig, 
 salome, wolf-river, stark, Ben Davis. 
 
 PICKING AND STOKING APPLES. Discuss methods of picking and storing 
 apples. The main rule to follow in picking apples is not to bruise the apple or break 
 the skin if you expect the apples to keep well. This means that they must be hand- 
 picked, not shaken from the tree. Do you find all the apples on one tree equally large 
 and brightly colored? Do you find any very imperfect apples? In what way are 
 they imperfect I Apples with warty knots have been affected with a fungous disease. 
 Are these apples as large as the others? 
 
 Grade your apples by placing together the finest, the next best, and so on. 
 Firms who make a specialty of selling apples have several grades. One Chicago 
 
x 114 
 
 firm grades as follows: Extra fancy, in which all the apples are perfect; Fancy, 
 in which they are nearly perfect. Choice, all good fruit, not all well colored. Num- 
 ber two, fruit that is hand picked but not all well colored, and not all the same size, 
 but no apple must be less than two and one half inches in diameter. Any apple 
 smaller or less perfect than number two is called a cull. 
 
 How are apples packed for market? Some are packed in barrels others in boxes. 
 When apples are properly packed they will lay in layers and there will be no large 
 spaces left vacant. The apples will fit closely but not bruise each other. Fancy 
 apples from western orchards are often wrapped singly in tissue paper just as 
 oranges are. 
 
 Where and how are the home apples stored for the winter.? Discuss with the 
 pupils what conditions are essential in order that the apples may keep well. Three 
 things are easily remembered. First, temperature, the apples should be kept as cool 
 as possible. A temperature of about forty degrees is considered good. Second, ventila- 
 tion; they should be placed in a room where there is plenty of fresh air. Third, 
 moisture, if the air is dry the apples will lose their freshness by evaporation. 
 
 One or two lessons may well be given to the discussion of the value and use of 
 apples in the home. If time permits discussion of the great apple-growing state 
 will be worth while. 
 
 The raising and planting of apple trees will be taken up for discussion in the 
 early spring. In preparation for this, if there is a nursery in the vicinity, have the 
 pupils observe something of the w r ork of the nurseryman during the fall and winter 
 months.- 
 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR NOVEMBER. COEN DAY. Exhibit of corn grown by boys. 
 
 WEEDS. Make collection of seeds; label. Determine whether the plants are 
 annuals. Which are the worst seeds in grain fields, in pasture, meadow, garden? 
 What is the secret of strength or success in each Tcind? Means of combating each. 
 
 Study of the roads of the vicinity; types of road materials used in construction; 
 road drainage; characteristics of a good road; the maintenance of roads; the drag; 
 use of oil. Significance of the good roads movement. 
 
 CORN DAY. Arrange to celebrate corn day, which occurs the first Fri- 
 day of the month. Every effort should be made to make this a gala day in which 
 the whole community is interested. A program should be arranged and the patrons 
 of the school invited in. In some districts it may be advisable to have the meeting 
 in the evening, others may find the afternoon more convenient. Plan to have the 
 class bring in some corn for display. If the children have had no corn plots of their 
 own from which to choose samples, then have them show their skill in selecting ten 
 good ears from their fathers' cornfield. The program should in part indicate the 
 line of work done in corn study during the preceding month. This work should 
 furnish material for some interesting papers. The following subjects are suggested : 
 
 How a grain of corn is formed. 
 
 The story of a corn plant from the seed until it is matured. 
 
 How to select and store seed corn. 
 
 The uses of corn. 
 
 In districts w 7 here apples and apple-trees have been studied, a display of the 
 apples of the district may be made along with the corn exhibit. 
 
 The new work for the month is a study of weeds and roads. It will probably 
 be worth while in all parts of the state to give some time to both lines of work. 
 
 Lesson 1. Discuss farm activities of September and October, consulting the 
 farm calendar for the first two months. Plan to continue the calendar for November. 
 
 WEEDS. Weed study should be emphasized in the fall because at this time 
 the plants are in flower and fruit. As a preliminary lesson ask the children to look 
 in their gardens to see how many different kinds of weeds are growing there and to 
 bring two kinds to school next day. Select from those brought in one for a type 
 study. The following outline is suggested : Observe the height of the weed, the 
 color of the stem. Break the stem to see whether or not it contains considerable 
 liquid or juice. Are there many branches? Are the leaves large or small? Are they 
 entire or divided? Compare the leaves on different parts of a plant with each other. 
 Where are the seeds found? Are there many or few? Decide how to estimate the 
 number of seeds on one plant. What makes this a successful weed? (Some weeds 
 
115 
 
 have certain characteristics that help to make them thrive where some of cultivated 
 plants would die.) For example the juicy stem of the pigweed or purslane with long 
 roots enables these weeds to stand the drought much better than many cultivated 
 plants. The great number of seeds of the pig-weed and some other weeds is another 
 characteristic that makes them successful. 
 
 Having finished the study of one weed according to the above outline make 
 comparative studies of other weeds found in field, roadside, pasture or garden. 
 
 Discuss with the children the ways in which weeds injure our crops. They 
 crowd the cultivated plants and prevent their getting enough light and heat. They 
 take up the moisture and nourishment from the ground that the cultivated crops 
 may need. Some weeds make the harvesting of the crop disagreeable, and some 
 weeds are injurious when mixed with hay or other food crops because they are not 
 good for animals that feed upon them. 
 
 Have the children start a collection of weed seeds. There are several ways in 
 which these may be preserved. They may be put into small bottles with the labels 
 pasted on the outside, or they may be pasted upon cardboard. It will be worth 
 while in arranging the collection to group together those of the same kind. The 
 value is not so much in the collection itself, but that it is a device by which the 
 pupils become better acquainted with the characteristics of the weeds in the neigh- 
 borhood. At the same time it adds greatly to the interest of the study. 
 
 GOOD EOADS. The study of public highways is of enough importance to war- 
 rant it a place in a nature-study program. The interest in good roads is steadily on 
 the increase. There is little question that more time, energy and money have been 
 expended in genuine effort to improve the roads of our State during the last ten 
 years than ever before. 
 
 To arouse the interest of the entire community in a movement for good roads 
 should be one purpose of these lessons. The first lesson may be a simple! discussion 
 of the roads in the neighborhood. How many roads in the district? What directions 
 do they run? Are any of them crooked? How did the roads happen to be placed 
 where they are now found? Tell the children to ask about this at home. Perhaps 
 someone has a grandparent who can tell something about the laying out of roads 
 years 1 ago. In pioneer days of Illinois there were a few roads which connected one 
 settlement with another; often these roads were mere trails across the prairie and 
 through the woods. Have the children try to picture how the country looked in those 
 days. In the woods there were roads winding among the trees. On the prairie there 
 were great stretches of grass with a few scattered houses, often miles apart. There 
 were no roads laid out as we find them now, but instead simple wagon tracks leading 
 across the plains from one house to another. 
 
 Some of the old trails were kept as roads. This was especially true in the 
 wooded tracts where the first trails were laid out along lines where there were the 
 fewest difficulties to overcome. Most of our roads, however, have been placed by 
 law. A certain number of feet around every section or half-section of land was re- 
 served for roads. When a certain number of people petitioned to have the road put 
 through it was made. 
 
 Have the children report upon the following: How far apart are the roads in 
 the district? How wide are they? Are there ditches along the sides? What kind of 
 fences along the roadside? Is there grass growing between the fences and the track? 
 Are there any weeds? Any wild flowers? 
 
 KINDS OF EOADS. Are the roads in the district all the same kind as to the 
 material of which they are made? What are the different kinds of roads? We have 
 earth roads, macadam, gravel, oil and in some places there are still a few old- 
 fashioned plank and corduroy roads. 
 
 Earth roads are the most common in some parts of the State. However, people are 
 becoming much interested in making hard roads, either macadam or gravel. In some 
 places crude oil is coming into use. It is usually placed on a smooth gravel or sand 
 foundation, but experiments are being tried to test its efficiency on a well-graded 
 earth road. The value of oil, of course, is to make a road better able to shed rain. 
 
 MAKING EOADS. Discuss with the children how roads are made. Every child 
 should realize that certain fundamental points must be considered in building a road of 
 any sort. One of these is the grade. Look at the roads near the school building. Are they 
 
116 
 
 perfectly level from one side to another ? Where are they highest ? Where lowest ? The 
 rounded portion of a well-graded road is called the crown. If you should lay a 
 board or measuring line from the crown of the road out to the edge of the ditch, 
 holding it perfectly level, how many inches would it be above the upper edge of the 
 ditch? How deep is the ditch? Then how 1 many inches is it from the highest part 
 of the road to the bottom of the ditch? Men who have made a careful study of 
 road grades in Illinois tell us that the crown of the road should be about thirty 
 inches above the bottom of the ditch. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF THE ROADS. Another thing to consider in making a road is 
 drainage. No road can be kept in good condition unless it is well drained. Grading 
 and drainage go hand in hand. In most places the ditch along the side of the road 
 carries off the water; in other places tile is used. Which is used in your district? 
 
 HARD ROADS. If there are hard roads in the district, discuss how they are made. 
 If some child has seen a hard road made, let him tell what was done and what material 
 was used. A macadam road is made chiefly of crushed rock. It receives its name from 
 a man named Macadam, who made the first roads of this kind in England a number 
 of years ago. In making a macadam road, the first step is to grade, arrange for 
 drainage, and shape the road. The next step is to spread the first course of stone. 
 This stone should be crushed rather fine, about one and one-half inches in width. 
 It should be spread about four inches thick. The third step is to spread the next 
 layer of stone; this should be larger pieces of stone, about three inches in width, 
 This should be spread six inches in thickness. After this has been done, the road is 
 ready for the fine stone dust or screening. This fine material should be spread so 
 that it will enter all the spaces among the broken stone. It is known as the binder, 
 for it binds or cements the stones together, making an even, solid surface. 
 
 MAINTAINING GOOD ROADS. How are the roads in your district cared for? 
 Are there any officers whose business it is to see that the roads are kept up in good 
 condition? In all of the counties that have township organizations, there are three 
 road commissioners who have charge of all of the work,, grading, rolling, dragging, 
 etc. 
 
 The counties that have no township organization have county officers that look 
 after the making of new roads and maintaining the old ones. Besides these local 
 officers, there is a State Highway Commission. It is the duty of this commission 
 to send speakers to meetings of various kinds in order to interest the people in the 
 improvement of the roads, to give information along lines of road construction, to 
 print bulletins and reports, showing what has been done in some places, and what may 
 be accomplished by co-operation on the part of the people of any community. 
 
 ROAD TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. What tools and implements are used in 
 improving the roads in your district? Is there a grader in the district? A roller? 
 A road drag? When is the work with the grader done? In many places the roads 
 are graded in the late summer or early fall. This is not the best time; it should 
 be done if possible in the spring. Do you see why? The purpose of using the 
 grader is not merely to make the crown of the road higher, but to help the soil 
 compact so that it will shed water. When a road is graded in the summer or fall 
 the soil is usually so dry that a loose soil mulch is made that readily absorbs the 
 rain instead of shedding it. 
 
 THE ROAD DRAG AND HOW TO USE IT. Let someone describe a road 
 drag and how it is used. The bulletin published by the Highway Commission in 1908 
 gives some excellent rules to follow in dragging a road. Some of them are as fol- 
 lows: The drag should be made light, not heavy. It should move slowly over the 
 road, hence the team should be driven in a walk. The road should be dragged when 
 it is muddy; never when it is dry. In the fall, if the road is dragged before a 
 freeze, it will mean a good road most of the winter. Begin at one side of the road, 
 returning on the opposite side. Drag a little earth toward the center of the road 
 until it is raised ten or twelve inches. When roads are first dragged after a muddy 
 spell, vehicles should, if possible, drive to one side, until the road has had a chance 
 to dry out a little or freeze. 
 
 THE VALUE OF GOOD ROADS. One or two lessons should be given to the 
 discussion of the value of good roads. Have the children make a list of all the 
 
117 
 
 benefits farmers derive from having good roads the year around. Do not let them 
 stop with the mere advantages of being able to haul their produce to market, but 
 talk also about the opportunity good roads afford for social intercourse and for 
 intellectual advancement. They should see also that good roads are almost as great 
 a benefit to the people of the towns and cities as they are to the country people. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR DECEMBER. Some effects of heat upon bodies. Simple ex- 
 periments to show effect of heating a solid, a liquid, a gas. Some practi-cal applica- 
 tion of expansion, of vaporization. 
 
 How bodies are heated, simple experiment to show conduction, radiation, con- 
 vection. 
 
 Heating systems of home, school, church, jacketed stove, hot air furnace, sky 
 studies, movement of sun and moon. 
 
 The purpose of the nature study lessons this month is to interest the boys and 
 girls in some of the physical phenomena that touch their lives upon every hand. At 
 the same time the work will lead them to appreciate something of the wonderful 
 laws and principles that we are constantly putting to the test every day in the home 
 and school as well as in the shop on the farm. 
 
 A few simple pieces of apparatus are necessary for the work. Most of these may 
 be furnished and arranged by the pupils themselves. Among other things mentioned 
 in connection with the experiments a small alcohol lamp will be almost indispensable. 
 
 A simple lamp may be made as follows: Have a tinner make a tube about one 
 and a half inches long and solder this into a cover that fits closely a vaseline or 
 or other good size bottle. Procure some round wicking that fits the tube and your 
 lamp is ready. Wood alcohol, which is less expensive than the grain alcohol, will 
 serve the purpose equally well. 
 
 HEAT ITS IMPORTANCE. The first lesson may be an informal discussion 
 of the importance of heat to us. Lead the children to talk about how dependent 
 we are upon heat both that of the sun and artificial heat. Make the heating plant 
 of the school room, whether a stove or furnace, the center around which to group 
 the experiments and observations. 
 
 The first general problem is: How is our school room heated? First, examine 
 the heating plant itself. If it is a stove find the essential parts and name them. 
 These are the fire bowl, feed door, draft, pipe, check-draft, ash pan and a jacket if 
 the stove is of the modern kind. The parts of a furnace are almost similar to those 
 of the stove with the addition of the pipes and registers. While all of these parts 
 are familiar to the children, the natural laws that have been considered in the making 
 and setting up of a stove or furnace have probably never occurred to them. 
 
 Procure several small downy feathers. Hold one of these a short distance above 
 the stove. Let it go and note what happens. Why does the feather move upward? 
 Now hold the feather at the side of the stove and watch the movement. Place it 
 near the draft in front of the feed door. If the room is heated by a furnace watch 
 the movement of the feather when held near and above the register. The children 
 may answer in part the question of what causes the movements. Tell them, however, 
 that we shall try to answer the question more fully by some simple experiment. 
 
 Have some child bring a large iron nail or rod of iron. Measure the length of 
 the nail or rod in the following manner: Lay the nail upon a piece of pine board 
 and make a scratch in the board at each end of the nail. Heat the nail very hot 
 by placing it on top of a glowing bed of coals in the stove. While still hot, try to 
 place it between the scratches on the board. What effect has the heat had upon it? 
 The children will readily see that it is a little longer than before it was heated. If 
 they do not know the word ' ' expand ' ' this is a good time to give it to them. 
 
 Place the nail out of doors until it has cooled. Try again placing it between 
 the scratches. What is the effect of cooling it? Have the children try to think of 
 other solids that are affected by .heat in the same way. Have them name some prac- 
 ticable applications of the fact that solids expand when heated and contract when 
 cooled. (The placing of tires on a wheel, heating bolts and tightening burs as the 
 bolts cool, heating the top of a fruit jar to remove lid.) 
 
 Let us try an experiment to see whether heat effects liquids as it does solids. 
 Fill a tin cup level full of water, heat it slowly. What happens? Put a piece of 
 
118 
 
 glass tubing about eight inches long through a rubber stopper, cork will serve equally 
 well if it is not too porous. Fill a glass flask full of water, and put in the stopper. 
 The water should now show in the tube just above the stopper. Slowly heat the flask, 
 What indication have you that water expands when heated? When the w r ater has 
 risen almost to the top of the tube set the flask in a cool place. Does the water 
 contract? Can you think of an important application of the fact that liquids expand 
 when heated and contract when cooled? - 
 
 THE THERMOMETEE. If you have a thermometer in the school room this is 
 a good time to explain how it is possible to measure temperature by this simple in- 
 strument. What is in the tube of the thermometer? Is mercury a liquid or a solid? 
 ( Mercury is a very heavy liquid. ) Place your finger upon the bulb of the thermometer. 
 Why does the mercury rise in the tube? Why does the mercury go down when you 
 place the thermometer out of doors on a cold day? The children will readily see 
 that just as the water expanded with the heat the mercury expands and rises in the 
 tube. It contracts with the cold. Because of this expansion and contraction, we may 
 use it to measure temperature. 
 
 We have now found that heat expands both solids and liquids. Air is neither 
 a solid nor a liquid, but is made up of several invisible gases. Let us try an ex- 
 periment and see whether or not gases expand when heated. Use the same flask as 
 in the preciding experiment. Pour out the water and dry the flask thoroughly. What 
 is now in the flask? The children may not at first realize that the flask is not empty 
 but full of air. Insert the stopper as before, but place over the end of the glass 
 tube a rubber tube at least a foot long. Hold the end of the rubber tube under 
 water. Now slowly heat the flask. What happens? (As you heat the air in the 
 flask it expands and flows out through the rubber tube as indicated by the bubbles 
 in the water.) 
 
 If the children are eager to know what happens when a body expands there is 
 perhaps no better time to give them the simple fact that all bodies are made up 
 of very small parts w T hich are invisible even with the most powerful microscope. 
 These are called molecules. When a body is heated the molecules probably move 
 farther apart leaving spaces between them, thus the whole body occupies a larger 
 space. 
 
 We are ready now to try another experiment with liquids and gases. Fill a 
 tumbler two-thirds full of very cold water. Heat some water almost to the boiling 
 point and color it with a few drops of red or black ink. Make a paper tube about 
 an inch in diameter by rolling up a sheet of paper. Hold this tube in the middle 
 of the glass of cold water with the end on the bottom of the glass. Now pour some 
 of the warm colored water into the tube. Watch it as it begins to come out at the 
 bottom. Slowly lift the tube. Why does the colored water come to the top of the 
 glass? The teacher can perhaps lead the children to see why, by asking them another 
 question. Why does a piece of cork come to the top of a glass of water? Which 
 is heavier, the cork or the water? In the same way that cork floats upon water, the 
 warm water floats on the top of cold water. Or we may say that the cold water 
 holds up or even pushes up the lighter water. We shall try another experiment to 
 show this more clearly. 
 
 Fill the flask about half full of water. Place a little chalk dust in the water. 
 Hold the flask so that it is heated more at one side than at the other. Now watch 
 carefully for movements of the water. If the experiment works properly the children 
 will be able to see a current of water moving in the flask. The water that is first 
 heated near the bottom of the flask expands and becomes lighter. The colder water 
 rushes in and pushes the lighter water upward. This movement of the water caused 
 by the heat is called a convection current. 
 
 Light an ordinary kerosene lamp. Hold a smoking match or splinter below the 
 burner at one side. What happens? Why does the smoke move inward toward the 
 burner? Hold a feather or bit of paper above the lamp chimney. What is the move- 
 ment at this point? This simply shows the convection currents of air around a burn- 
 ing lamp. Have the children explain the movements of the air. (The air within the 
 chimney becomes heated and expands. It is lighter than the air on the outside. 
 Hence the cold air rushes in and forces the warm light air upw r ard.) 
 
 We are now ready to return to our question concerning the stove or furnace. 
 It may be well at this point to repeat the experiment with the feathers. Why does 
 the air move upward above the stove? By means of feathers or a burning candle 
 trace convection currents in different parts of the school room. What makes the air 
 
119 
 
 that is in the jacket around a furnace come up into the room through the register? 
 The children will readily see that the fresh air coming in below pushes the light 
 warm air upward through the pipes into the room. 
 
 A JACKETED STOVE. If the stove is jacketed have the children trace the 
 air by means of light feathers on the end of a stick from the jackets to various parts 
 of the room and back toward the stove or duct for the exit of impure air. 
 
 Why is the jacket stove in one corner of the room better than an un jacketed 
 one standing in the middle of the room? This question, too, we must answer by 
 means of experiments. Place an iron poker in the stove and heat the end of it very 
 hot. Take it out and hold your hand a short distance above the heated end. Can 
 you feel heat coming from it? Hold your hand at the sides and below. Can you 
 feel the heat coming from it at all directions ? This kind of heat is known as radiant 
 heat. It is the heat that streams in straight lines from any heated body. It does 
 not need air to travel through. It is the kind of heat that we get from the sun. 
 Hold your hand near the stove on every side. Is the stove radiating heat! If you 
 place a chair near a stove after a time it becomes hot. How was it heated? (It 
 was heated chiefly by radiant heat from the stove.) Where shall we place objects 
 with reference to the stove in order that they may receive the greatest amount of 
 radiant heat? What part of the school room will be kept hottest by an unjacketed 
 stove? What will be true of the parts of the room that are at some distance from 
 the stove? Wlien you put a jacket around the stove, what is most of the radiant 
 heat from the stove doing? (It is heating the air that is confined between the stove 
 and the jacket. From our study of convection currents we know that the heated air 
 is carried to all parts of the room so the school room is heated equally in all parts.) 
 
 All the facts that have been brought out in connection with the jacketed stove 
 apply also to the hot air furnace. The only difference is that in connection with 
 the furnace there are pipes to convey the heated air into the room. 
 
 Can you think of something else that we should consider in connection with the 
 stove and the furnace in heating a room? Is there any way provided by which fresh 
 air may enter the jacket of the stove or furnace? Why is it important that the air 
 in the jacket be kept pure? Since this is the air that is carried to all parts of the 
 room, it is the air that we must breathe. If this is kept pure then the ventilation 
 of the room will always be good. 
 
 There is still something else that we need to know about the hearing of bodies. 
 Put the end of an iron poker into the bed of burning coals or hold the end of a 
 nail in the flame of an alcohol lamp. Allow it to remain several minutes. Is it hot 
 at any point except where it is surrounded by the fire? How far from this point 
 can you detect heat by touching it? What then must have taken place in the piece 
 of iron? (The heat must have traveled slowly from the part that was in the fire 
 to the other parts. When heat travels from one particle of a body to another in 
 this way we say that the body is heated by conduction.) How is a flat iron heated? 
 The handle of a frying pan or stew pan? 
 
 It will be interesting to make a test of the conductive power of different kinds 
 of material. Place a small stick of wood in the fire just as you did the poker. What 
 happens? How far from the end of the stick can you detect heat? Which is the 
 better conductor of heat, iron or wood? Why are wooden handles placed on iron 
 and steel cooking utensils? Place your hand on the window pane, then on the wood 
 of the window sash. Which feels colder? Since the glass and the wood are side by 
 side they are at the same temperature. The glass feels colder because it conducts 
 heat from your hand so rapidly. Why are woolen clothes warmer than cotton? (They 
 are warmer because they are poor conductors of heat and hence keep in the heat of 
 the body.) Make a list of good conductors of heat and poor conductors. Many 
 solids are good conductors of heat but liquids and gases are very poor conductors. 
 Air is one of the poorest conductors known. It is the air among the hairs that makes 
 a fur coat or collar so warm. 
 
 Is conduction used in any way in the heating of the school room? How is the 
 stove itself heated? The children will have no difficulty in seeing that the iron 
 which is contact with the heated fuel is heated largely by conduction. Have the 
 children summarize all the points in the heating of a room by a stove or by a furnace. 
 This may be put in a form of a story and used as a composition in correlation with 
 the grammar. 
 
 Spend two or three lessons in discussing how the various homes of the children 
 are heated and ventilated. Encourage the children to try simple experiments in de- 
 
120 
 
 tecting convection currents about the home and in finding examples of radiation and 
 conduction. Discuss also how the churches and other buildings of the community are 
 heated and ventilated. 
 
 It will perhaps be worth while, if time permits, to study the effect of heat in 
 changing substances from one state into another. Procure a cake of paraffin, tallow 
 will serve as well. This is in what form, liquid, or gas? How may we change 
 it into a liquid? Place a part of it in a cup or pan and heat until it becomes a 
 liquid. Put a portion not more than a teaspoonful on some live coals. What hap- 
 pens? A black smoke arises. This is the paraffin changed into vapor. We see then, 
 that heat changes the solid paraffin first into a liquid and if more heat is applied 
 into a gas or vapor. Show by a simple experiment that water may be changed into 
 vapor by heat. 
 
 What happens when a liquid changes back into a solid? To answer this, fill a 
 cup level full of melted paraffin and set in a cool place until the next day. What 
 has happened? (The paraffin contracts or shrinks as it cools which accounts for the 
 sunken place in the top of the paraffin.) Most other substances act the same, that 
 is, they contract as they solidify. While this is true of most substances there is one 
 important exception and that is water. If the weather is freezing cold, fill a tin 
 cup level full of water, set it in a saucer or pan and place out of doors. Bring in 
 the next morning. Did the water contract or expand as it cooled and solidified? 
 (It is very easy to see that the water expanded.) Have the children give some ex- 
 amples to show that water expands when freezing. (The breaking of a pitcher or 
 glass.) Which is heavier ice or water? To answer this put a piece of ice into a cup 
 of water. Does it sink or float? Since ice is lighter than water this is another evi- 
 dence that it expands as it solidifies. 
 
 The last experiment showed us that water expands when it freezes. One of our 
 first experiments showed that water expanded when heated. Since this is true there 
 must be a certain temperature at which water reaches its greatest weight or density. 
 This temperature is 39.2 Fahrenheit. If we heat water above 39.2 it expands. If 
 it is cooled below this temperature it expands also. If you have a cupful of water 
 whose temperature was 80 Fahrenheit and you heat it will it expand or contract? 
 (It will expand until it reach the boiling point.) What if you should cool the 
 same cupful of water? Would it contract or expand? (It would contract until it 
 reached 39.2 when it would begin to expand and continue to expand until frozen.) 
 
 Summarize all the effects of heat upon bodies giving illustrations of each. If 
 time permits give one lesson to the discussion of how the earth and air are heated. 
 The earth absorbs the radiant heat from the sun. The hotter the day the more heat 
 is absorbed. At night the earth radiates some of its heat, the heat goes into the 
 air. The air receives more heat from the radiation of the heat from the earth than 
 it does from the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 SKY STUDIES. Of all the objects in nature none are so constant as the sun, 
 moon and the stars. With a little direction children may be led to recognize a few 
 stars and constellations as well as the movements and phases of the moon. Perhaps 
 no other field of observation will yield greater returns in pleasure and satisfaction to 
 the children, not only while they are in school but when they have grown to manhood 
 and womanhood. 
 
 Keep a simple record of the time of sunrise, sunset, the position of the sun in 
 the morning, at noon, in the evening. Are there any changes in position? This work 
 will mean more to the children if it can be continued for several months. A few 
 minutes may be taken for reports, one in two weeks. 
 
 Have children observe the moon during an entire month. Begin with the new 
 moon. Have them keep a simple record of its position in the sky, the time of day 
 observed, and its shape. At the time when the moon is about full and for two or 
 three days afterwards, keep a record of the time that it rises. At the end of the 
 month, spend one or two lessons comparing the records of the children and getting 
 the facts concerning the different phases of the moon. An almanac will be helpful 
 here. 
 
 For a study of the stars, the Big Dipper makes a good starting point. Have the 
 children find the Big Dipper. Where is it? In the North, East, South or West? 
 Count the number of stars in it. How many in the bowl? How many in the handle? 
 Is the handle straight or crooked? By means of the dipper the children may be 
 directed how to find the North Star. To do this tell the children to find the two 
 outside stars in the bowl. If they could draw a line straight out from the upper 
 
121 
 
 star and in line with these two, it would touch a rather pale, bright star, which is 
 the North Star. This is also called the pole star. Watch the dipper a number of 
 nights to discover whether it is always in the same position with reference to the 
 North Star. Look at it at different times the same night, early in the evening and 
 just before going to bed. What is your conclusion as to whether the dipper moves 
 around the pole star? (The dipper apparently moves around the North Star once 
 every twenty-four hours.) 
 
 See if you can find a smaller dipper nearer the north pole. The bowl is almost 
 a rectangle like the side of a box. The handle has three stars but the third star and 
 the end of the handle is the North Star itself. Watch for movements of this as 
 you did of the Big Dipper. 
 
 Another interesting group of stars that is easily found during the winter months 
 is Orion. This is found toward the southern half of the heaven at this time of year. 
 There are three bright stars in a row. These three stars are known as Orion's belt. 
 Grouped around the belt are four other large stars and near the belt a line of rather 
 small stars ascending downward. Another constellation is the small group of stars 
 very close together and which seem to have a mist around them. This is known as 
 the Pleiades. How many stars can you find in the group? Six are plainly seen. 
 There are, however, about three thousand in it that we can not see. 
 
 Starland by Ball, or the Storyland of Stars by Pratt are helpful books for this 
 study. 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE JANUAEY. Begin weather record, noting wind direction, 
 cloudiness, temperature, rainfall. Effect of weather upon plants, upon winter wheat, 
 upon a7iimals. Work of the Weather Bureau. 
 
 Composition of air; oxygen, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, water-vapor. Demonstra- 
 tions ~by teachers. Ventilation of home, school, church. 
 
 The common lift or suction pump; study of pressure in liquids and gases, de- 
 veloping interpretation of pump and barometer, and constructing eaeh, using gas tub- 
 ing or lamp chimney with cork and leather valve. The force pump. Interpretation of 
 the weather map. 
 
 LESSON PLANS. Weather. Keep the weather record and note the effects of 
 weather on life as suggested for the sixth grade in December. Send to the Weather 
 Bureau Station at Springfield and ask to have the daily weather map sent to your 
 address. Preserve the maps for study later in the month. Look up, in the geography 
 or some other source, the history and work of the Weather Bureau. 
 
 Toward the end of the month have the pupils make a short summary based upon 
 their observations. How many fair days their weather record show? How many 
 cloudy? How many in which there was precipitation? What was the general direc- 
 tion of the wind for the month? What was the direction of the wind when the 
 temperature was lowest? When the temperature was highest? From what direction 
 did the rain or snow come? What was the direction of the wind during the cloudy 
 weather ? 
 
 Study the weather maps. Point all the different things that you find on one 
 map. Eead the explanatory note in the corner. Do you find the words high and low? 
 What do they mean? A low means a region in which the air pressure is light or 
 in which the barometer stands low. High means a region of high pressure. Look 
 at the arrows in the vicinity of low. Are most of them moving towards the center 
 of the low, or away from the center? Note the same things in connection with the 
 high. Does this agree with what we have already learned about the movement of 
 air currents? 
 
 The lows are sometimes called cyclones, because the great mass of air is moving 
 in a circle toward the center of the low. (This does not mean the same as the term 
 cyclone that we use to indicate a tornado or storm.) The low usually starts in the 
 west and moves across the United States in a general easterly direction. Whenever 
 a low approaches we are liable to have cloudy, rainy weather. When a high is pass- 
 ing over we have fair weather. These lows and highs are constantly passing. Find 
 the lows and highs on the maps for the entire month. See if you can discover about 
 how far a low travels from one day to the next. 
 
 Spend at least one lesson discussing the weather bureau and its work. The head- 
 quarters of the weather bureau are at Washington, D. C. There are stations situated 
 
122 
 
 all over the United States. At each station reports of temperature, wind, etc., are 
 sent by telegram to headquarters. From here the data are sent to every station that 
 prints a weather map. An expert there interprets the data, makes predictions for 
 the weather, all of which are printed on the map. Besides the daily weather map 
 the bureau often sends out special reports of severe storms that may be approaching. 
 
 The good the weather bureau does is hard to estimate. Seamen, fruit growers 
 and farmers are all learning to depend upon the predictions and to make preparations 
 for approaching storms or cold w y aves. 
 
 It will be worth while to continue the observation of the, weather and especially 
 of the weather map for the rest of the winter. Some pupil may be appointed to 
 see that the new \veather map is put up each day where everyone may see it. A 
 few minutes spent occasionally in having pupils report weather conditions or to pre- 
 dict weather conditions from the weather map and their own observations will be 
 quite worth while. 
 
 AIE. The study of the wind will afford an excellent opportunity to apply some 
 of the physical principles studied last month. What is wind? Why does the air move? 
 The answer to this takes us at once to convection currents. The children found that 
 currents of air in the room were due to the fact that some portions of the air were 
 lighter and were pushed upward by the heavier cold air. Lead them to picture 
 what is happening out of doors. Some portions of the air become lighter than other 
 portions and the heavier air moves toward the light, causing a breeze or wind. What 
 causes some portions of air to be lighter than other portions? The children have 
 already learned that when air is heated it expands and becomes lighter. In order that 
 they may think out whether or not there are other causes that make air light they 
 will need to know something about the air itself. 
 
 What is air? It is composed of a number of invisible gases. The gas that forms 
 the greatest amount of the air is nitrogen. It constitutes almost the three-fourths of 
 the air volume. The most important gas is oxygen. This constitutes almost one- 
 fourth. The other two gases that we should remember are carbon- dioxide and water 
 vapor. Each of these constitutes a very small portion of the air. 
 
 Discuss the characteristics of air. It has at least two qualities that are of great 
 importance. One is weight, the other pressure. Have the children try to think out 
 some way to prove that air has weight. While air is not very heavy, yet if you had 
 a pair of balances and should weigh a large bottle that is full of air then remove 
 the air from the bottle by means of an, air pump you would find that the bottle is 
 quite a little lighter than before. 
 
 We can show that the air has pressure by some simple experiments. Fill a 
 tumbler full of water, hold your hand over the mouth and quickly invert it into a pan 
 of water. Hold it so that the mouth is just below the surface of the water in the 
 pan. Try the same experiment with the tallest bottle you can find. What holds the 
 water up in the glass and bottle? It is the pressure of the air upon the surface of 
 the water in the pan. The air is pushing downward upon the water with great 
 enough force to hold the water in the glass. The pressure is due to weight. How 
 far up does the air extend that is pushing downward upon the pan of water? (As 
 far as the air extends outward from the earth which is somewhere between 50 and 
 100 miles.) You can think then of a great column of air extending upward from 
 the pan of water. What part of the column will exert the greatest pressure? To 
 answer this think of a great pile of books on top of each other. The lower one will 
 have the weight of all the others pressing down upon it. The same thing is true 
 in the column of air. The pressure is greater at the lowest part because of the 
 weight of all the air above it. Where is there greater air pressure, on a mountain 
 top or in a valley? Why? 
 
 Do you think we could find a tube so long that the air pressure could not hold 
 the water to the top of it as it does in the glass and the bottle ? We can not answer 
 this by experiment for it would take a tube much too long to make the test. We 
 can try it, however, in another way. Instead of using water we can use another 
 liquid, mercury, which is about thirteen and a half times as heavy as water. For 
 this experiment you will need a glass tube at least thirty inches long and closed at 
 one end. The tube should have a very small diameter. Fill the tube full of mercury. 
 (An easy way to do this is to make a small funnel out of paper to insert in the 
 mouth of the tube.) Invert the tube into a dish of mercury just as you did the 
 bottle in the pan of water. What happens? Why did some of the mercury flow 
 out? Why did it stop after a certain portion had flowed out? The pressure of 
 
123 
 
 the air was not sufficient to hold up all the mercury so the mercury flowed out 
 until the air pressure was great enough to hold up the column that was left. (This 
 point should not be left until the children can see clearly that the mercury column 
 in the tube is held up or balanced by a column of air of the same diameter but 
 reaching upward as far as the air goes. The children may see this more clearly 
 by comparing the mercury and the air to a pair of balances, one arm equals the other 
 in weight.) 
 
 If something should cause the air to become lighter would the mercury go up 
 or down ? What would be the effect on the mercury if the air should become heavier ? 
 Measure by means of a yard ruler the exact height of the mercury. Leave the ap- 
 paratus standing for a number of days and with the ruler measure the height each 
 day. Does the mercury column vary? If it does then the air pressure must vary 
 also and you are able to measure this variation of the air column by means of the 
 mercury column. You have really made a simple barometer. A barometer is an in- 
 strument used to measure air pressure. 
 
 Why does the pressure of the air vary from day to day! The children will be 
 able to give one reason. They know that warm air expands and hence is lighter than 
 cold air so the temperature may effect the air pressure. There is something else, 
 however, that for some reasons is even more important than temperature. When 
 air has a great amount of water vapor in it it is lighter than when it is chiefly made 
 up of oxygen and nitrogen. This is true because water vapor is lighter than either 
 of these gases. Think of some examples that illustrate this fact. You have noticed 
 that sometimes the smoke from a chimney drops to the ground. Why does it do this ? 
 It is heavier than the air, hence the air can not float it upward as it usually does. 
 This indicates a considerable amount of water vapor in the air. 
 
 When there is a great deal of water vapor in the air will a barometer stand 
 low or high? If what we have said above is true, then the mercury will not be as 
 high because the air is not heavy enough to hold it up. Will a low or high barometer 
 then indicate the approach of stormy weather? (A low barometer indicates approach- 
 ing stormy or rainy weather, while a high barometer indicates fair weather.) 
 
 Pumps. We may begin the study of pumps with a simple experiment. Place 
 the end of an open glass tube in a tumbler of water. Slowly suck the air from the 
 tube. What happens? Wliy does the water rise in the tube! (You have removed 
 the air from the tube and the pressure of the air upon the water in the tumbler 
 pushes the water up into the tube.) This illustrates in a simple way what happens 
 when you pump water with an ordinary suction pump. This may be shown better 
 by a simple piece of apparatus. The children should be given an opportunity to try 
 their skill in making a simple piece of apparatus to illustrate the working of the 
 pump. Procure a straight lamp chimney, two pieces of cork, a glass tube, some pieces 
 of thin leather and some wire. Make a hole in one piece of a cork and fit the piece 
 of glass tubing into this hole so that the tubing will come just to the surface of 
 the cork. Over the hole place a thin piece of leather, fasten it at one end with a 
 small tack or pin. This cork should fit closely into the lower end of the chimney. 
 Make a similar hole in the end of the second cork and fasten a piece of leather in 
 the same way over the opening. Fasten a piece of wire into the cork so that it 
 will make a curve at least an inch above the cork. To this wire fasten another heavier 
 wire. This cork should be trimmed off so that it will move easily up and down in 
 the chimney. You now have all the parts of a simple suction pump. The chimney 
 is the pump barrel or cylinder. The cork that moves up and down is the piston 
 and the wire with which you move it is the piston rod. The bits of leather covering 
 the openings are valves. 
 
 Place the glass tube of the pump into a dish of water. Pull the piston upward. 
 What happens? Xow move the piston downward and watch. What effect did the 
 lifting of the piston in the first place have upon the air in the cylinder? A portion 
 of the air was lifted up with the cylinder, hence the air pressure upon the water in 
 the pan was greater than that in the cylinder and pushed the water upward through 
 the lower valve. Have the children watch carefully so that they may tell everything; 
 that happens when you move the piston downward. Why does the water move up- 
 ward through the upper valve and why does the lower valve remain closed? The 
 pressure now is due to the force with which you are pushing the piston downward. 
 This force of the water pushes upon the lower valve and holds it down, but the same 
 force causes the water to push against the lower part of the piston which opens the 
 upper valve and gives the water a chance to rush through. This is exactly what 
 happens when we pump water from a well. 
 
124 
 
 Spend a short time helping the children to see that the pressure of the air in 
 the case of the pump is really doing some work, that is, it is exerting energy. Have 
 them think of some other ways in which the air does work or exerts energy. (The 
 wind mill, sail boats, the energy exerted in the time of storms when buildings and 
 trees are overturned.) 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOB FEBRUAKY. Poultry raising; breeds of chickens of the 
 neighborhood; characteristics of each; feeding, housing, general care. Incubators 
 and brooders; expenses, profits, other kinds of barnyard fowls; value and peculiar- 
 ities of each. Scrapbook. 
 
 Where fruit trees were studied in the fall take up the study of propagation by 
 grafting. Why necessary? History. History of an apple tree from seed to maturity. 
 Make grafts. Spraying, pruning, planting. 
 
 POULTRY. There are few schools in Illinois either in town or country in which 
 lessons on poultry may not be of value. 
 
 The first lesson may well be devoted to a discussion of some of the things that 
 the children already know about poultry. What different kinds of poultry are raised 
 in the district? What different breeds of chickens? How many people keep just 
 one breed? Who keeps a mixture of several breeds? 
 
 Follow this with a study of the characteristics of chickens. Give the children 
 a number of points to discover by actual observation at home. How many different 
 kinds of feathers can you find on a hen? How do the feathers overlap? Do they 
 differ in this respect on different parts of the body? How do the feathers of the 
 cocks differ from those of the hens? 
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. Note the feet of the chickens. Are they placed 
 near the front or back part of the body? How many toes are there? Are they the 
 same length? What is found at the end of each toe? Do the hens walk on their toes 
 or on the sole of the foot? (Chickens and all birds walk on tiptoe. The segment that 
 we often call the lower part of the leg is really the foot. The foot ends at the first 
 joint.) Has the foot any protective covering? Why are scales a better covering for 
 the feet and toes than feathers ? Do you find any chickens that have feathers on their 
 feet? Try to find out how chickens hold their toes on the perch at night. (The toes 
 curve around the perch and the chickens rest upon its feet in such a way that the 
 weight of the body helps to hold it fast to the perch.) 
 
 What other organs of locomotion do chickens have besides the feet? To what do 
 the wings in chickens correspond in other animals? (They correspond to the fore 
 legs in mammals and to the arms of people. If you look at the bones of a chicken 's 
 wing you will find that they correspond to your own upper and lower arm. You can 
 even find some of the small bones of the wrist and hand.) 
 
 PROCURING FOOD. What is the chief organ the hens uses in procuring her 
 food? Is the beak or bill well adapted for its purpose? Is it hard or soft; sharp or 
 blunt? Does it differ at all in different breeds of chickens? Name the different kinds 
 of food you have seen hens eating, and the different ways using the beak. Do you 
 know how a hen cleans her bill? (You will find her stroking it on a board or some 
 other hard substance.) Has the hen any teeth? (You can not find the answer to this 
 question by observation so you must take it on authority. Hens have no teeth. They 
 sometimes use the bill to break up particles of food, but they do not chew food at all. 
 You probably know that the food is ground up by small pebbles and other hard 
 particles in the gizzard.) 
 
 Is the bill of any other use to the hen than to obtain food? (It is used as a 
 weapon of defense, to clean and oil the feathers, and to turn the eggs during in- 
 cubation.) 
 
 SENSE ORGANS. Name all the sense organs you can find on the head of a 
 chicken. Note the position, shape, and color of the eyes. Can the hen see the same 
 object with both eyes at the same time? Are there any eyelids present? If you watch 
 a chicken closely you will find that the lower lid moves upward and closes the eye. 
 There is another lid which is a thin membrane that spreads over the eye like a veil. 
 This is found in all birds and is used as a protection to the eye. 
 
 Where are the ears situated? You will find the ears as small, irregular open- 
 
125 
 
 ings on the sides of the head. Usually they are covered with feathers. Although the 
 external ear is so inconspicuous the hen can hear exceedingly well.) 
 
 Note the position of the nostrils. (These are the small openings on the upper 
 part of the bill. The sense of smell is probably not very keen in hens.) 
 
 FEATHERS. Spend at least one or two lessons in a detailed study of feathers. 
 Tell the children to bring as many different kinds of feathers as they can find. Each 
 child should have the following: A feather from the tail, one from the back, breast, 
 neck, legs, and one from each of the different parts of the wing. (These will include 
 the stiff outer wing feathers, the primaries; the row of large feathers next to these, 
 the secondaries; and the finer, overlapping feathers, the coverts. 
 
 The main tail feather is a good one from which to get the names of the different 
 parts. The central hard portion of the feather is called the shaft. Some people call 
 it the quill. The soft portions that grow out from the shaft are the barbs. Are 
 the barbs joined together in the tail feather? The portion near the end where they 
 are joined closely is called the web. The loose portion of the barbs near the lower 
 part of the shaft is called the fluff. Compare the different feathers as to the amount 
 of web and fluff. Which has more fluff, the feathers of the back or breast? Which 
 of all the feathers have the least fluff? Which the greatest amount? What part of 
 each feather is exposed to the weather? (Only the web is exposed.) Look closely 
 to see how much of each web is exposed. Can you think of the value of this great 
 overlapping of the feathers? (Its special use is to protect the body from rain. It 
 is, of course, only the web that does this.) What is the use of the under-coat of 
 fluff? Place the tips of your fingers close to the body in the fluffy part of the 
 feathers. Now place them on the outer part of the web. Can you detect any differ- 
 ence in the temperature? Recall what you learned last month about conductors and 
 non-conductors of heat and decide in which class feathers belong. (It is easy to see 
 that feathers are non-conductors of heat and that the use of the fluffy portions is 
 to keep the chicken warm by preventing the radiation of heat from the body.) 
 
 How does the hen succeed in keeping her feathers smooth and in condition to 
 shed water. She does this by frequently oiling them. If you watch closely you may 
 see just how she does this. She has a small oil gland situated on the back just in 
 front of the tail. She obtains the oil by pressing the gland with her beak, then she 
 rubs it on the feathers, especially on those of the back and breast. 
 
 It is worth while at this point in the study to call attention to the fact that all 
 of the characteristics named above belong not alone to chickens but to all birds. 
 Have the children make a summary of these characteristics. 
 
 BREEDS OF CHICKENS. If there are representatives of different breeds of 
 chickens in the neighborhood, a visit to these for the purpose of studying their char- 
 acteristics will be greatly worth while. Pictures of the different breeds will also 
 help. The children should be encouraged to make a chart showing pictures of differ- 
 ent kinds. These may be obtained from poultry journals and farm papers. 
 
 Poultry raisers group the breeds into four great classes: Egg breeds, meat 
 breeds, general purpose, and fancy breeds. 
 
 Egg breeds were originally European birds and hence are known as the Mediter- 
 ranean class. They are small, active chickens. The hens are noted for the great 
 numbers of eggs that they lay and for the fact that they rarely want "to sit." The 
 most common varieties are Leghorns, Minorca and Black Spanish. These breeds are 
 not widely raised in Illinois but they are becoming more and more abundant. 
 
 The meat breeds are known as the Asiatic class, because the original stock prob- 
 ably came from Asia. There are two common varieties, the Brahma and Cochin. 
 They are very large, heavy bodied chickens and produce a large amount of meat. 
 They are not good layers and are of little value in raising chicks. 
 
 The general-purpose breeds are more popular than any other in our state. They 
 belong to the American class, because they have been produced by American breeders. 
 They are medium in size and are comparatively good layers, hence they are useful 
 in producing both meat and eggs. They are also better adapted than the other breeds 
 to raise and care for the young. The common varieties are the Plymouth Rocks, 
 Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Reds. 
 
 The children should compare the different breeds with each other as to size, 
 color, shape and value. The fourth breed named above is of little practical value. 
 Occasionally some one raises bantams or other fancy breeds just for the novelty 
 of it. 
 
126 
 
 CARE OF POULTRY. Make a list of items you would consider in caring for 
 poultry. (Housing, feeding, care of young.) Have the children tell the different 
 methods of housing used in the neighborhood. Follow this with a discussion of the 
 points that should be observed in making a poultry house. One of the first things to 
 consider is how to get plenty of sunlight into the house. Let the children tell how 
 they would manage this. The best plan is to have the building face the south with 
 a number of windows. The windows should be high enough to admit sunlight to all 
 parts of the building. In the second place, the floor should by dry. That means that 
 the building should be placed on well drained ground. Some poultrymen elevate the 
 floor several inches with a layer of gravel. On top of this is a cement floor. A 
 cement floor is considered very good. It is quite inexpensive since it is not necessary 
 to make it very thick. Another advantage of this floor is that rats are not so likely 
 to get into the house. 
 
 The third important consideration is ventilation. A way must be provided for 
 exchange of air. Some poultry houses are so open that there are too many drafts. 
 Many plans have been tried for securing ventilation without drafts. Probably the 
 best method yet found is the cloth window. This may be made of muslin or cheese 
 cloth and may be placed in one of the south windows instead of glass. 
 
 Discuss next, the purpose of the poultry house. (It serves two main purposes 
 a place for roosting and for nests.) Discuss different kinds of perches. Let the 
 children describe those they know and decide which are most economical and con- 
 venient. The most important point is to have the perches so placed in relation to 
 the nests that the latter will be kept perfectly clean. Perhaps the most practical 
 method used is to place the nests under the perches with a platform between. In 
 this way the same floor space is used for perches and nests. Many poultry raisers 
 prefer to have both platform and perches movable, so that they may be taken out, 
 cleaned and disinfected. 
 
 Have the children discuss how nests are made, the material used, and the size. 
 (A nest should be from ten to twelve inches square and from six to eight inches 
 deep.) 
 
 FEEDING. Let the children make a list of the different kinds of poultry foods 
 used in the district. What grains are fed? Are they fed dry or moist? Whole or 
 ground? Chickens, like all other animals, need a certain amount of starchy foods or 
 carbohydrates, proteids, and fats. Laying hens require a large amount of proteid food 
 because the white of egg is almost pure proteid. Every poultryman decides for him- 
 self the exact amount of the different kinds of feed. All feed grain, of some kind, 
 part whole and part ground. The whole grains should be scattered in straw on the 
 ground or floor so that the chickens will be compelled to exercise in order to get them. 
 Meat scraps and sour milk supply the proteid. Green food of some sort seems to 
 be quite essential. This may be supplied by vegetables, such as cabbage, beets, 
 turnips, etc., and by clover, alfalfa and sprouted oats. Chickens require plenty of 
 fresh, clean water as well as food. The drinking pan should be emptied and fresh 
 water put in every day. 
 
 CHICKS Discuss the methods that are used in the district in raising chicks. 
 How early in the spring do people begin to set the hens? Who has an incubator? If 
 any of the children have one at home it should be carefully described. How warm 
 must the incubator be kept? (It must be kept at a temperature of about 102 F. The 
 heat is usually supplied by a small oil or gas heater.) When the chicks are taken from 
 the incubator how are they kept warm? Different methods are employed for this 
 but usually they are placed in a brooder which is a small box with strips of cloth 
 among which the chicks may cuddle down to keep warm. Let the children tell how 
 the food of young chicks differs from that of grown up chickens. 
 
 VALUE OF POULTRY. Spend one lesson discussing the value of poultry. 
 Name all the different products produced. (Eggs, meat, feathers.) How important 
 are these products? They are becoming more and more important each year. The 
 demand for choice chickens and fresh eggs is constantly on the increase and the prices 
 are high enough to make poultry raising a very successful business. When are eggs 
 the highest price? Encourage the children to try some systematic plan of feeding 
 chickens during the cold months and note the effect upon the yield of eggs. 
 
 A chicken raising contest would be an excellent thing to start in many districts. 
 Encourage the children to raise chickens on their own account. Help them to look 
 up plans and methods in farm papers and magazines. If a contest is anticipated, a 
 
127 
 
 simple record should be kept by each pupil as follows : ( 1 ) The number and market 
 value of chickens he has to start with; (2) the cost of food and all other necessary 
 equipment; (3) the number of eggs obtained and value at the market price; (4) 
 number of chicks raised and value at market price; (5) approximate amount of time 
 spent in caring for the chicks; (6) net gain or loss for the year; (7) notes of value, 
 that is, things that are worth remembering for future use. 
 
 If time permits a comparative study of other kinds of poultry will be worth 
 while. The special adaptations of bill, feet and feathers of ducks and geese should 
 be noted. 
 
 GOVERNMENT POULTRY BULLETINS. The following farmers' bulletins, 
 which may be obtained free from the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 
 will be found helpful: No. 287, Poultry Management; No. 64, Geese and Ducks; 
 No. 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens; No. 236, Incubators; No. 200, Turkeys; 
 No. 225, Poultry House Construction. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES. The first lesson on the apple tree should 
 be a brief review of the work done last October. Have the children recall the differ- 
 ent varieties of apples studied, parts of an apple, and the care and marketing of 
 apples. The chief question left over at that time was how apple trees are propagated. 
 
 How an apple tree is produced is a most interesting story. If the story can be 
 illustrated by actual observation and handwork it will be of great value to the 
 children. The very best way to bring this about, if there is a nursery in the dis- 
 trict, is to make a visit to the nursery grounds and observe what is actually being 
 done. If one of the men could be induced to come to the school room and give a 
 practical demonstration of the making of grafts it would mean much to the chil- 
 dren. This should be followed by having the children make grafts of their own. 
 
 AVhy is it necessary to graft apple trees? To answer this question we must 
 know the entire story of the ' * making of an apple tree. ' ' 
 
 If you wish to produce a Jonathan apple tree, how would you proceed? If you 
 planted seeds from a Jonathan apple and let the tree stand until it was old enough 
 to bear, would it give you Jonathan apples? It probably would not, in fact the 
 apples might be not at all like Jonathan apples. They would probably be small and 
 sour. The same would be true of any other variety of apple raised from seed. We 
 cannot depend upon the seeds to produce a desired variety. That is because, as 
 nurserymen say, apples do not come true to seed. But while we do not raise our 
 apple trees from seeds, we begin with the seeds after all. The seeds are planted in 
 the fall or very early in the spring in long drills. These grow and produce small 
 seedling trees the first year. Any apple seeds will do for these seedlings, but many 
 nurserymen use the seeds of a hardy wild apple that grows on the hillsides of France. 
 
 The seedlings are removed from the ground in the fall, tied up in bunches of 
 from fifty to one hundred each, and placed in moist sand or moss in cool cellars. 
 During the winter months, usually in January and February, these are grafted. If 
 you wish to produce a Jonathan apple tree you will choose a twig from a Jonathan 
 tree. This twig we call the scion. You will get one of the seedlings which was 
 placed in the cellar, cut off the seedling stem from the root and on this root, which 
 is called the stock, you will graft the Jonathan scion. This is done by making a 
 diagonal cut on both stock and scion, then making a slit on the cut surface of each 
 and slipping them together. This is the first step. The next step is to wrap graft- 
 ing thread around the graft to help hold the scion and the stock together. When 
 you have made a number of grafts tie them together and place them in a cool cellar. 
 Leave them until the soil is in good condition to work in the spring, and then set 
 them out in a row nine or ten inches apart, and deep enough so that two or three 
 inches of the scion will be above the ground. The scion grows fast to the stock and 
 then grows upward producing the little apple tree, while the root is all that is left 
 of the seedling. Nurserymen leave the trees from two to three years in the nursery 
 row, then they are ready to be removed and set out in the orchard. Do you know 
 how long it will be after the tree is set out in the orchard before it will produce 
 apples? (Different kinds of apples vary in this respect. Some produce apples in 
 six or eight years, others require ten to twelve years.) You see, then, that to make 
 an apple tree, beginning with the seed, requires one year before it is ready to graft, 
 two or three years in the nursery row and from six to ten years in the orchard before 
 it bears fruit. 
 
128 
 
 How long do you expect an apple tree to bear fruit after it once begins? You 
 may perhaps have visited at your grandparents where there is an orchard still bear- 
 ing fruit that was set out when your grandfather was a young man. Apple trees, 
 if well taken care of, will bear from twenty to fifty years. 
 
 MARCH 
 
 OUTLINE FOE MAECH. Continue corn study. Germination tests. Planting 
 experiments of corn. 
 
 Varieties are "adapted" to different regions. Competitive corn growing with 
 selected and tested seed. 
 
 Continue wheat study in locality where this was made the special fall study. 
 Conditions of plants; i( stooling out" habit. Number of stems from one root. 
 
 Simple treatment of plant breeding based upon corn and wheat studies. De- 
 velop idea of improvement of plants by variation, selection, heredity, adaptation. 
 Struggle for existence and survival of fittest in wild forms. 
 
 COEN 
 
 STUDY OF THE KEENEL. While it is still almost two months until corn 
 planting time, nevertheless, it is not too early to begin planning for the corn crop. 
 In fact, there is one very good reason for beginning at once, and that is to determine 
 whether or not the seed is in perfect condition. 
 
 One lesson should be spent in discussing how the seed corn of the neighborhood 
 has been kept during the winter. Each pupil should tell exactly what method has 
 been employed in his home. The advantages and disadvantages of the various 
 methods should be considered. This will afford an opportunity to review the October 
 work, especially the part that pertained to selecting and storing seed. 
 
 How can we know whether the seed is all right, that is, whether all the grains 
 will germinate and grow? There is but one way and that is to make a germination 
 test. Before starting the test it will be quite worth while to find all you can about 
 a kernel of corn. Soak a number of kernels over night. For study each pupil should 
 have at least two soaked grains and one dry one. Compare the dry and soaked 
 specimens, noting the changes that have taken place. 
 
 Carefully remove the covering from a soaked grain. Looking at the flat side 
 decide how many distinct parts there are. The oval shaped portion which is a 
 dirty white color in the embryo. Sometimes we call this the germ. With a penknife 
 remove the entire embryo using care not to tear it. Lay the rest of the grain aside 
 and examine the embryo. On the upper side you will find an indistinct slit. Pull it 
 gently apart lengthwise at this place and you will find within a rod-like body slightly 
 pointed at each end. This is the tiny plantlet. The end toward the crown of the 
 grain is called the plumule. The other end 'is the hypocotyl. Which end will make 
 the shoot and which the root? To answer this question try the following experiment: 
 
 Place several soaked grains on a piece of moist blotting paper. Turn a tumbler 
 or cup over them in order to retain the moisture. A moist piece of cloth will serve 
 as well as plotting paper. Keep in a warm place. Examine after three or four 
 days and the corn will answer the question. 
 
 Examine the portion of the grain that was laid aside. This is called the endos- 
 perm. How does the endosperm compare in amount with the embryo? Cut it in 
 two across the grain. Does it seem to be made of the same kind of material through- 
 out? The granular portion toward the upper part is almost pure starch. Do you 
 find any of this starch toward the tip of the grain? The hard, solid looking material, 
 at the sides is known as horny starch. 
 
 Pupils of the Seventh and Eighth grade will probably know that the function 
 of the endosperm is to furnish food for the growing plant. To what extent is the 
 plant dependent upon this food supply? To answer this carefully remove the embryo 
 from a number of seeds. Plant these embryos in soil in a flower pot or can. Place in a 
 warm temperature and keep watered. In another pot plant the same number of 
 whole grains. Let them stand for several weeks and decide how great the value of 
 the endosperm is. 
 
 GEEMINATION TEST. Different people use different methods for testing the 
 vitality of corn seed. The methods matter little. The following is a good one: 
 
129 
 
 Procure a shallow box three or four inches deep. The boys may make one. 
 Place about two inches of clean, moist sand in the bottom. Soil will do equally 
 well if sand is hard to procure. With a piece of board make the surface very smooth. 
 With a sharp stick or the end of a ruler, divide the surface into squares two and a 
 half or three inches each way. Place the number 1 at one corner of the box. Count 
 the number of squares on one side. Now begin the second row, placing the number 
 of the first square of the second row below number 1, for example, if there are seven 
 squares and number 1 is at the upper left hand corner, number 8 is just below. 
 Number 15 is just below number 8. All of the other numbers may be easily de- 
 termined. 
 
 The next step is to get the corn ready for the box. Have the children bring 
 seed corn from home. If several boxes are used this will afford an opportunity to 
 test the advantages of different methods of storing the seed. Six grains from each 
 ear should be tested. Two should be taken from the ear near the butt, two from 
 the middle, and two toward the tip, but no two from the same row. Place the six 
 grains on square number 1 in the box with the germ side up. Press them slightly into 
 the sand. Now number the ear 1. This may be done by sharpening a small piece 
 of shingle, putting the number on it and sticking it in the pith at the butt of the 
 ear. Eemove six grains from another ear in the same way and continue till all the 
 squares are full. Lay the ears aside where they will not be disturbed. To keep the 
 grains moist, place a piece of cloth, old muslin or any cotton cloth, over them and 
 put about two inches of moist sand on top. Place in a warm temperature and keep 
 moist. 
 
 The boys may be interested to find out just what effect different temperatures 
 have upon the germinating power of corn. Have them suggest an experiment they 
 can perform to test this. (Place several grains from the same ear in moist cloth or 
 blotting paper and put some of them in a very cold, some in moderate, and some 
 in a very warm temperature. If possible, use a thermometer to test the temperature 
 of each place.) 
 
 The germination box will be ready for examination in four or five days. Begin 
 at one end and carefully roll back the cloth so as not to disturb the grains. Now 
 arrange a table of five columns. This may be placed on the board. 
 
 NO. 
 
 VIG. 
 
 WEAK 
 
 FAIL, 
 
 PER CENT 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 100 
 
 33^ 
 83M 
 
 In the table the first column indicates the number of the ear. Vig. stands for 
 vigorous. The other terms explain themselves. Ear number 1 shows that all six 
 grains have sprouted vigorously and the per cent is of course 100. Ear No. 2 has 
 two vigorous sprouts and four failures, hence it gives but 33% per cent. When the 
 entire box has been checked up in this fashion, it will be easy to see which ears should 
 be kept for planting and which discarded. What percent of a perfect stand of corn 
 would you expect to get from ear No. 2? From ear No. 3? Encourage the children 
 to make germination tests of the seed corn at home. A report on this work should 
 be given credit in school. 
 
 PEEPAEATION FOE PLANTING. Spend some time in a discussion of the 
 fields in the neighborhood in which corn is to be planted this season. What was grown 
 in them last year? If corn, what was the yield per acre? What preparation 
 of the soil will be necessary before the corn is planted? It will be an interesting 
 exercise for each boy to write a short extract on the topic, ' ' The Machinery Needed 
 to Eaise a Crop of Corn." This should show the implements used in the prepara- 
 tion of the seed bed, in planting and in cultivating. It should indicate also, the 
 ideals the boys have of good seed bed and proper methods of cultivation. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION OF COEN. In order that the children 
 may appreciate what an important plant corn is, some time should be spent in look- 
 ing up facts about it. One thing worth remembering is that corn belongs botanically 
 
130 
 
 to the Grass family, that is, it is a relative of timothy and bluegrass, wheat and oats, 
 sorghum and broom corn. It is one of the largest of the entire group. It differs 
 from all the rest in bearing its seeds on a short side branch, which we call the ear. 
 All the rest bear their seeds at the top of the stalk. 
 
 Corn is a native of America and is probably more widely distributed than any 
 other grain. It grows in all of our states and territories, except Alaska, as well as 
 in Mexico and Canada. While this is true, after all, the greatest amount is raised 
 in a comparatively small area known as the "corn belt." Can you think why this 
 is true? The great yield of corn in the corn belt is due to two important factors, 
 climate and soil. Here the soil is deep and rich and there is enough rain and sun- 
 shine to enable the corn to reach its climax growth. 
 
 If you should move one hundred miles farther north and take seed corn with 
 you and plant it, what would probably be the result? Your crop would fail to 
 mature, because the seed you have brought with you is not accustomed to the new 
 conditions of soil and climate. 
 
 The farther north you go the smaller ears you find. The grains are shallow and 
 have a smooth, round crown. They contain less starch and more of the horny 
 material. The stalks are shorter, smaller and have less woody material in them, 
 hence are better adapted for fodder than the larger corn. This kind of corn is 
 called Flint. 
 
 Here in Illinois we raise Dent corn. The crown of this corn has a deep dent. 
 The grains are deep and contain a vast amount of starch. The stalks are much larger 
 and harder than Flint corn. 
 
 PLANS FOE CORN-GROWING. If there is an agricultural club in the school, 
 encourage the boys to begin at once making plans for a corn-growing contest. They 
 should feel the importance of testing their seed corn and using the best know r n 
 methods to prepare the seed bed, plant, and care for their crop. If there is no club, 
 organize one or encourage the boys of the class to start corn plots of their own. 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 In localities where wheat was studied in the fall, continue the work this spring. 
 Have the pupils recall what was done with the wheat in the fall. When was it 
 planted? Was it sown broadcast or in drills? Was the seed home-grown? Do you 
 know the name of the variety used on your home farm? 
 
 The children should be given some observations to make outside of school. Has 
 any of the w^heat remained green over winter? Has any of it been winter-killed? 
 What kind of winter weather is hard on wheat? Examine some of the plants. Dig 
 up one and note the root system. How deep do the roots go? Determine as accurately 
 as you can how far they spread out on each side of the plant. Have any new leaves 
 developed this spring? On what part of the plant are they? Are the stems erect 
 or spreading? Is this habit of growth any advantage to the plant? (This is a 
 protection. If the plants had grown erect instead of spreading out last fall, they 
 probably would not have stood the winter conditions as well as they did.) 
 
 The outdoor observations with reports may continue throughout the term. Watch 
 the development of the plants. How many stems grow from one cluster of roots? 
 This whole group of stems arising from one cluster forms what is called a stool. 
 When does the plant begin to send up the stem which is to bear the grains? From 
 what part of the plant does this stem arise? Are there any leaves on it? Is it 
 hollow? What is the average height of the stems? Measure several and compute 
 the average. Are the stems in the field nearly equal in height? 
 
 About what time does the wheat begin to ' ' head ? ' ' This head which is called 
 a spike is really a cluster of flowers. You may be interested to open up one of the 
 small flowers to see if you can find the stamens and pistil. (In wheat, the stamens 
 and the pistil are in the same flower and are so arranged that the pollen rarely 
 escapes from the flower.) Do you think there is any possibility of cross-pollination 
 in wheat? How long is it after the flowers have opened before the grains are ripe? 
 Note the change of color that takes place as the wheat matures. Which leaves stay 
 green longest? 
 
 How many heads do you find arising from one stool? How many good grains in 
 one head? Compare several heads in this respect. About what date is the wheat 
 harvested in your neighborhood? 
 
131 
 APRIL AND MAY 
 
 OUTLINE FOE APEIL AND MAY. Seed testing. Examine clover and grass 
 .s-tt-tZ u-ith hand lens to find weed seeds and other impurities. Compare weed seeds with 
 collected last fall to identify kinds. 
 
 Principles of landscape gardening. Study placing of shrubs, trees, vines and 
 floicer beds on home and school grounds; plan to set out shrubs on Arbor Day. 
 
 Birds beneficial to farm crops; quail, meadow lark, native sparrows, thrasher. 
 Birds of prey. 
 
 Study clover plants, hatbis of growth, length of roots, tubercles on roots. Iden- 
 tify other legumes; examine roots for tubercles. Prepare small plots, where favor- 
 able, and plant alfalfa with and without inoculation. 
 
 Arrange plans for vacation studies and experiments with corn, potatoes, clover, 
 icheat, fruit tree ; vegetables and flower studies for girls. 
 
 SEED TESTING. For testing seeds a hand lens is necessary. The purpose of 
 this study is to help the pupils to identify different kinds of seeds. Begin with dis- 
 cussion of the kinds of clover that the pupils know. Who in the neighborhood ex- 
 pects to sow clover this spring? Is clover sown by itself or with other crops? Do 
 farmers in the neighborhood sow clover in the same field with oats? With 
 wheat? With timothy? What is the purpose of sowing it in some particular field? 
 Is it to be left a number of years to make a meadow? Is it to be plowed under in 
 a year for the purpose of improving the soil? 
 
 Ask the pupils to bring small samples, about a teaspoonful, of the clover seed 
 which their fathers may be going to plant. (It will add to the interest to make a 
 collection of different kinds of clover seed.) Spread some of the seeds out on a sheet 
 of white paper. Look at them first with the naked eye to see if you can find any 
 objects which are certainly not clover seed. Do you find seeds of some other kinds? 
 Are any of the clover seeds too small and shriveled? If possible, examine also 
 with a hand lens. 
 
 Place all of the shriveled seeds, weed seeds, and other foreign bodies in one 
 pile, and the good clover seeds in another. About what per cent of the whole is 
 good seed ? 
 
 In preparation for the further study of clover, plant a few seeds in a pan or 
 box of soil in the school room. Keep well watered. Keep record of the date of 
 planting and of the date of the appearance of sprouts. Plant seeds at different 
 depths, some an inch, some half an inch, some a quarter, and some on top of the 
 soil. Keep records of the germination and growth of the plants. 
 
 Compare any weed seed that may be found in the oats, clover, or grass with 
 those stored away in the collection last fall. If some of the seeds cannot be iden- 
 tified plant them in soil and watch for the growing plant hoping in this way to 
 identify the seeds. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL PLANTS. If nature-study does all that it should for the 
 boys and girls, it will not only help them to appreciate the wild life of woods, fields 
 and waysides, but it will also lead them to take pride in making beautiful their own 
 homes and surroundings. 
 
 TREES. Begin the work with an informal discussion of ornamental plants. 
 Ask the pupils how they would classify them. Lead them, for themselves if possible, 
 to recognize the following groups: trees, shrubs, vines, and flowering plants. Make 
 a Jist of all the trees of the neighborhood that the pupils know. Are these trees native 
 to the soil, or were they set out? Distinguish as far as you can between those which 
 grow naturally in your environment and those which have been introduced. A few 
 lessons should be devoted to getting acquainted with these trees. Usually, if neces- 
 sary, someone can be found in the neighborhood able and willing to help the teacher 
 in her identifications. In getting acquainted with a kind of tree, study the charac- 
 teristic, general shape, the color of the bark, the method of branching, and the nature 
 of the twigs as to whether they are stiff and erect, or slender and drooping. 
 
 How are the buds arranged on the twigs? Are the leaves opposite or alternate? 
 Compare the twigs of different trees in this respect. What advantage in the great 
 number of buds? Would it be possible for all the buds to develop into branches? 
 Watch for flowers and the formation of fruit. Bring out opinions upon which trees 
 are most beautiful. Which most desirable for shade? What objections to the cotton 
 wood as an ornamental tree? 
 
132 
 
 Are there any trees in the school yard? What kinds? Are they in good condi- 
 tion? Have they been abused? How are trees injured? Are the trees in the yard 
 well located? Why are trees usually transplanted before spring begins? Is the 
 school yard large enough to permit a belt of trees and still leave plenty of play 
 ground ? 
 
 Bring out opinions as to the best places on the school ground to set out trees. 
 There should be at least a row of trees on each side of the lot and a few trees in 
 the rear. Do you think there should be many trees in front of the school house? 
 This is not considered a good plan, since an unbroken expanse of lawn in front of a 
 house is much more attractive. To have a row of trees outside the yard, along the 
 roadside, is considered a good plan. 
 
 Have the pupils draw a simple plot of the school grounds, putting in the build- 
 ings, and have them indicate where they think trees should be placed. 
 
 SHRUBS. Are there many shrubs in the home yards, in the school yard, along 
 the roadsides or in the fence corners? Make a list of the shrubs the pupils know. 
 How do shrubs differ from trees in their habits of growth? Nothing helps more to 
 make a school or home yard attractive than a few well chosen shrubs. Where shall 
 we place them? They should not be planted singly. They should be planted in 
 clumps so as to produce a mass effect. A clump at the corner of the building, 
 another where the platform, or steps, or ante-room meets the main building, another 
 in a corner of the yard, and a few to screen the outbuildings. These are enough, 
 unless the yard is very large, to produce a very pleasing effect. Where the yard is 
 very large, a few clumps along the side of the lot, making an irregular border, is an 
 excellent arrangement. 
 
 How shall we arrange the shrubs that go to make up a single clump? If they 
 are at a corner of the building or yard then the tall upright shrubs should be placed 
 in the rear that is, farthest from the center of the yards, and lower ones in front. 
 A very pretty clump for a small space is made by placing spirea (bridal- wreath) 
 behind, and a Japanese barberry on each side toward the front. In a corner of the 
 yard aothing is better than our native sumach, which turns such a beautiful dull red in 
 the fall, or our native elder. These should be in the background and may be bordered 
 with barberry, dogwood, or snowdrop. 
 
 VINES. Make a list of vines which the pupils already know. We may plant 
 either hardy, perennial vines, or annuals, the latter being the kinds which die com- 
 pletely in the fall and must be started from seeds again in the spring. Of our 
 native hardy perennials nothing is better than woodbine, which is also called five- 
 leaved ivy. Of the annual vines, the climbing nasturtium, the morning glory, and 
 the wild cucumber are good and easy to grow. 
 
 Where shall we place the vines? If the yard is fenced, the back fence is an 
 excellent place for a vine. Outbuildings should be covered with vines. It is better 
 to begin with these places than to try to plant against the school house walls. There 
 are certain objections to that. 
 
 FLOWEEING PLANTS. Every school yard should have a few flowering plants, 
 even if there is no regular school garden. A flower bed a few feet wide, bordering 
 a clump of shrubbery, gives a very pretty effect. A narrow bed along the back fence, 
 with vines as a background, is a thing of beauty either at school or at home. It is 
 never wise to place a flower-bed in the middle of a grass plot. Discuss with the 
 pupils where flowering plants shall be placed at home and in the school yard. What 
 are some of the characteristics that are desirable in plants that are to be grown on 
 the school grounds? In the first place we want hardy plants that can stand dry 
 weather without watering. Then we want' plants that will be in flower when school 
 begins in September. The following list is a good one for school grounds : Sweet 
 alyssum, candytuft, dwarf marigold, petunia, phlox drummondi, prince's feather or 
 cock's comb, zinnia, scabiosa, gaillardia, cosmos, larkspur, balsam, sunflower, nas- 
 turtium, corn flower. 
 
 Discuss what points should be considered in selecting plants for a flower bed. 
 The height of the plant is one important point. We want the low plants along the 
 border of the bed and the highest ones to form a background for the others. 
 The color,too, must be considered. It is not in good taste to plant a great many 
 different varieties in one bed but choose the two or three that harmonize well in color. 
 Sweet alyssum makes an excellent border plant for any group of flowering plants. 
 
133 
 
 Since phlox has so many different colors a whole bed of that is pretty. Sweet 
 alyssiun with gaillardia and princes' feather makes a pretty group. Cosmos makes 
 a good background for almost any of the other plants. Candytuft and larkspur make 
 a pretty white and blue group. 
 
 A few definite directions for planting may be given. The soil should be worked 
 up with a rake till it is fine. If straight lines are desired they may be made with a 
 cord stretched from one wooden peg to another. Furrows for small seeds may be 
 made with the handle of a rake or hoe. Seeds should, as a rule, be planted at a 
 depth equal to about four times the thickness of the seeds. Very fine seeds like 
 petunia may be sown on the surface of the ground and then lightly sprinkled with 
 fine soil. The soil should be well-firmed over all seeds. Some seeds will not grow at 
 all in loose soil. 
 
 ARBOR DAY. All of this study should reach its climax on Arbor Day. Plan 
 on this day to do something to make the school surroundings more attractive. If 
 you cannot plant many trees or shrubs, plant one, and do that so well that it 
 will grow and add its influence toward having more done next year. Let the 
 children help to decide what trees should be planted. Some of them may have 
 growing about their homes, seedling elms, maples, box-elders, etc., that they will 
 be glad to have transplanted to the school yard. Discuss where the trees or shrubs 
 should be planted to give the best effect, and yet be out of the way. How to plant 
 the trees should be settled before attempting to set them out. Some points to 
 observe are the following: The hole should be large enough to allow the roots to 
 spread out to their full extent. It should be deep enough so that the tree may stand 
 three or four inches lower than it did as a seedling. The roots should be kept moist 
 until ready to set in the ground. Fine soil should be placed around the roots and 
 packed in carefully. As more soil is thrown into the hole, it should be packed down 
 firmly by tramping it with the feet. The last two or three inches of soil should be 
 fine and left loose to help keep in the moisture. The soil should be moist, but not 
 wet. Most horticulturists believe that the trees do better if not watered at the time 
 of planting. The trees should have most of the branches cut off. A young tree 
 will do better than a large one. The weeds and grass should be kept down a few 
 feet around the young tree. Cultivation of the soil now and then by digging around 
 the tree not only gives a chance for the air and water to enter the soil, but the 
 frequent stirring of the soil on top helps to retain the moisture. 
 
 The Arbor Day program should be made so interesting that the patrons of the 
 school will be glad to witness it. Ample suggestions are to be found in the annual 
 bulletin on Arbor and Bird Day issued by the State Superintendent 's office. 
 
 Encourage the pupils to plant some shrubs and trees at home, and begin to form 
 plans to plant some flowers next month. 
 
 BIRDS. Devote one lesson to a discussion of the birds that the pupils have 
 seen in the neighborhood this spring. Ask them to watch for bird's on their way 
 to and from school. Xotice where the birds are and what they are doing. 
 
 QUAIL. How many have quail on their farms? How many have heard the 
 quail whistling "bob white"? what are the colors of the quail? Is there any white 
 on the head? Do the birds hop or walk! Do they fly high or low? fast or slow? 
 What do they eat? (It may not be easy for the children to answer the last question 
 by observation, but they should know that careful studies of the food of the quail 
 have been made by bird students and that these birds must be regarded as real 
 benefactors on any farm. They feed upon chinch bugs, army worms, Colorado potato 
 bug, clover leaf beetles, cucumber beetles, grasshoppers, flies, and wire worms. They 
 are "worth their weight in gold" to every farmer.) 
 
 MEADOW LARK. How many know the meadow lark ? What is the color of the 
 breast? (bright yellow.) Look for the black crescent-shaped spot on the upper 
 breast when it flies. Look for the white tail feathers. How many different songs 
 does the meadow lark have? (It has a clear, beautiful whistle, its chief song; then 
 it has a low cackling call note that you hear most frequently from the ground when 
 the bird is slightly alarmed.) Where does the meadow lark feed? (Chiefly upon the 
 ground. It eats about the same kind of insects the quail does. It has been estimated 
 that more than half of the meadow lark ? s food consists of harmful insects. The 
 meadow lark and the quail head the list of birds that are beneficial to farmers.) 
 
134 
 
 SPARROWS. Our native sparrows are field birds that every boy and girl should 
 know. There are three of these that are very common. They are the song sparrow, 
 the field sparrow, and the vesper sparrow. They resemble each other somewhat. All 
 are small birds with brownish striped backs. All are pleasing songsters. They are 
 noted seed eaters. During the fall and early spring they destroy millions of weed 
 seeds. During the summer they live largely upon insects. Besides the real sparrows 
 there are two relatives of these birds that are frequently found along the hedge rows 
 of many fields. One is a bright blue bird, blue all over. It sits on telephone Avires 
 and sings from morning till night. It is called the indigo-bird or blue-bunting. 
 The other is sometimes called the little meadow lark. It has a yellow breast with 
 a black spot somewhat similar to that of the meadow lark. It, too, is a great 
 singer, and like the indigo-bird loves to sit on the topmost twig of the hedge or on 
 the telephone wires and sing all day long. The right name of this bird is dick-cissel. 
 It has been given this name because its song sounds like dick, dick, cissel, cissel. Both 
 of these birds feed upon insects during the nesting season just as the sparrows do. 
 
 BROWN THRASHER. Another common field bird is the brown thrasher. 
 This is sometimes called the brow y n thrush. How many know it? What is the color 
 of back? The breast? Is the bill long or short? What is the color of the bill? 
 Notice the long tail. Listen for the song. It has so many notes that it is some- 
 times called the mocking bird. It belongs to the mocking bird family. 
 
 CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES. If clover seeds were planted as suggested, 
 check up the experiments and decide w T hat depth of planting gives best results. 
 Examine an oats field in which clover has been sown. Which germinates first, oats 
 or clover. 
 
 Study red clover plants that are at least a year old. (Clover plants may be 
 found in almost any locality in fields, meadows, or by the roadside.) An outdoor 
 lesson should be planned. If it is not practicable to send the class out during school 
 hours then give them the topics to report on the next day. 
 
 Note the habit of growth of the plant ; a rather loose rosette close to the ground. 
 How many stems do you find in one rosette? Do the stems branch? Where do 
 you find the new shoots appearing? Is there any advantage to the plant in 
 growing this close to the ground with new shoots at the center? Bring out 
 by discussion the chance this gives for the natural coverings, leaves and snow, to 
 protect the plant during the winter. Note the arrangement of leaves and the number 
 of leaflets. Later compare with other clovers to determine w r hether this is a common 
 characteristic of the clover family. What special markings has the red clover leaflets? 
 (The light green spots.) Look at the leaflets after sunset to see if they remain in 
 the same position as during the daylight. 
 
 Dig up a plant and bring it into the schoolroom for study. Note the size of 
 the root. How long is it? Does it branch? What advantage is this thick, long 
 root to the plant? (By discussion bring out the fact that the thick root stores up 
 a supply of food that enables the plant to grow rapidly early in the spring. The 
 long root is an advantage also in dry weather since it can get a supply of moisture 
 at a considerable depth below the surface of the ground.) What advantage is the 
 root to the soil? 
 
 Look at the roots for small roundish bodies about the size of pin heads. These 
 small bodies are called tubercles or nodules. Where do you find the tubercles most 
 numerous? Count the number on a small root. What are the tubercles? They are 
 growths on the root caused by small living organisms known as bacteria. These bac- 
 teria take from the air in the soil the free nitrogen and act upon this in the tubercles 
 so that the plant can use it just as it can the more usual supply of soil nitrogen that 
 enters through the root hairs in solution in the soil water. From your study of soils 
 and the elements they contain that are used by the plants in making foods, you know 
 that nitrogen is often lacking in the soil and that to supply it with commercial 
 fertilizers is an expensive thing to do. It is very much cheaper to sow clover and let 
 these bacteria gather the nitrogen from the air and in this way give a fresh supply 
 to the soil. 
 
 Instead of harvesting the second crop of clover many farmers plow it under. 
 Why? Because the roots and stems add nitrogen to the soil for other crops, and 
 because the leaves of the clover decay quickly and enrich the soil by a fresh supply 
 of humus. Have the pupils look for other clovers in the neighborhood and bring in 
 
135 
 
 specimens for study. Sweet clover and white clover will be found in abundance and 
 in some places alike clover and alfalfa. Note the characteristics common to these 
 plants. Examine the roots to determine whether or not all have nodules. Study the 
 stem of the white clover. Note how the plant spreads over an area. Why is it a good 
 lawn plant ? 
 
 All of these plants are called legumes. They have certain characteristics that 
 are common to all. Beans and peas belong to the same group of plants known as 
 Leguminosae or legumes. They have teen given this name because they all have 
 their seeds in a flat pod which is called a legume. All of the legumes have the 
 bacteria nodules on their roots so any of them are good plants to supply nitrogen 
 to the soil. In some places soy beans and cow peas are planted for this purpose. 
 
 VACATION STUDIES. Birds. Where do quails nest? How do young quail 
 try to protect themselves? (Some boy may see the little creatures lie flat upon the 
 ground keeping perfectly motionless and resembling so closely brown leaves or clods 
 that it is very difficult to see them.) Do quail stay with us during winter? What 
 do they eat when insects are all gone? Like many other winter birds they feed upon 
 weed seeds and waste grain. Sometimes the snow covers up all food and then the birds 
 suffer and many die. What may be done to save these useful birds? It will pay 
 every farmer to feed the birds during such seasons. Every farmer should also see 
 to it that no quail is shot upon his premises during the hunting season. 
 
 Watch for the nesting places of the meadow lark and brown thrashers. Try 
 to find out what these birds feed upon. Start a bird calendar and try to keep it 
 during vacation. The following is a simple calendar: 
 
 Name 
 
 Where een 
 
 Chief colors 
 
 When seen Nesting Last seen 
 
 FLOWERS. Encourage the girls to plant some flowers and vegetables to display 
 at the Harvest Festival in September. A simple record of the work done and the 
 results gained should be kept. 
 
 CLOVER. Study the flowers. Are they arranged singly or in clusters? De- 
 cide whether or not the clover head is a single flower or a number of flowers. Find 
 the parts of one flower; compare with a bean or pea blossom. How many flowers do 
 you find in one head? Which flowers open first, those at the outside of the head or 
 those at the center? Examine a number before deciding. Examine some faded 
 heads for the seeds. Does one little flower produce more than one seed? When is 
 the clover cut for hay? How does it compare with other kinds of hay as to value? 
 (The stem and leaves contain more nutritious food than almost any other hay with 
 the exception of alfalfa.) Watch for the beginning of growth of the second crop. 
 Does the second crop produce flowers and seeds? When is this crop harvested? How 
 are the seeds obtained ? 
 
 Watch the bumble bees on the clover. Can you see where the bees put their 
 tongues to get the nectar? Where is the nectar secreted in the flower? If you 
 remove one of the small flowers and put the tip of the corolla tub in your mouth 
 vou can taste the sweet nectar. 
 
136 
 
 LESSON PLANS FOR EIGHTH YEAR 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR SEPTEMBER. Report vacation studies and experiments. Plan 
 out of school work as suggested for seventh year. Farm calendar. A simple survey 
 of the industries of the district. Make a list of the crops raised in the neighborhood 
 during the year. Which ones have been harvested? Has more than one crop been 
 grown in one -field? Acreage and yield of different crops. Each pupil make map of 
 home farm, showing fieldls. 
 
 FUNGOUS DISEASES. Simple study of much rooms, how fungi differ from seed 
 plants. Experiments in growing and destroying molds and bacteria; sterilization; 
 treatment with formalin; smut, rust, blights, rots, scabs. How combat these? Fungi 
 that attack insects; find flies and grasshoppers that have succumbed to fungous dis- 
 eases. Simple experiments. Collection for school. 
 
 VACATION PROJECTS. In districts where the outline for the seventh grade 
 was carried out last year simple, informal reports of the vacation experiences may 
 come first. Encourage the boys and girls to tell about their work. What projects they 
 undertook, what difficulties they encountered, what success they had, what is the 
 present status of their experiments, what products they have grown that may be shown 
 at the Harvest Home festival the latter part of the month. 
 
 Incidentally it may be stated that no formal work can give better training in 
 language than these reports if given in a clear, direct, natural manner. Therefore, if 
 time is lacking for the nature study it may very well be correlated with language. 
 
 PLANS FOR OUT-OF-SCHOOL WfORK. Plans for work outside of school hours, 
 may mean several things and if undertaken should begin early in the term. It may 
 mean a completion of the projects undertaken in the spring, the harvesting, storing, 
 or marketing products of the farm or garden. If chicken raising was undertaken it 
 may mean caring for the flock. The pupils will keep a simple record of the work 
 done and the time spent. This will be handed in at the end of the month. 
 
 The out-of -school work may mean that a child will choose a special piece of 
 work to be done at home, as the feeding of the pigs, the care of the chickens, milking, 
 setting the table, etc., for which credit will be given at school. This plan requires 
 the most tactful management and perfect cooperation between the parents and the 
 school. Only the earnest, sympathetic teacher who knows and understands her pa- 
 trons and in spirit is one of them should attempt this. 
 
 The third kind of work is for the boys who do not enter school until after corn 
 husking. There is no good reason why these boys should not combine observation 
 and study with their home work. In fact with a little help they may be able to 
 cover much of the work done by the children in the school. If they are interested a 
 club may be organized, if one does not already exist. By meeting once a week to 
 discuss observations made, and to receive directions for further work the boys may 
 be able to keep in touch with the school work and even to contribute something to it 
 in the way of specimens and individual observations. 
 
 SURVEY OF NEIGHBORHOOD INDUSTRIES. This topic may be carried out 
 with profit in any part of the State. It affords an excellent opportunity for origin- 
 ality on the part of the pupils. It should consist of a real survey of the district con- 
 ducted by the individual members of the class. Its purpose is to help the children ap- 
 preciate the scope of the work done in the district, the relation of the industries to 
 each other and to the outside world, and the facilities for educational and social ad- 
 vantages, f It should include : The number and size of the farms in the district. The 
 number or farmers living on their own farms. The number of tenants. The kinds 
 of farming practiced, stock or grain or a combination. Kinds of crops with acreage 
 of each average yield per acre number and breeds of domestic animals other in- 
 dustries than simple crop or stock farming; fruit-growing, dairying, truck garden- 
 ing means of transportation, hard roads, dragged roads, old style earth roads, rail- 
 roads the nearest market facilities for social and educational life of the commun- 
 ity, clubs, the Grange, church, school, etc. The survey should include also statements 
 
137 
 
 of the present condition of the fields and the work that is in progress. What crops 
 have been harvested? What has been done with the stubble fields with the straw? 
 Does the same soil produce more than one crop during the season? 
 
 The children should be given several weeks to work up the survey. A simple plat 
 of the district drawn to a scale showing the farms and indicating with colored crayon 
 different crops or other interesting features will add much to the value of the work. 
 
 In connection with the study of the district each pupil will be interested to draw 
 on a larger scale his own home showing the location of the buildings and roads, and 
 indicating in color, the orchard, garden, and different field crops. 
 
 While the survey will be of value to the' pupils it will be equally valuable to the 
 teacher. It will help her more than anything else to see and appreciate the industries 
 and interests of the people and to meet them upon the plane of those interests. 
 
 MUSHKOOMS AND TOADSTOOLS. Have the children bring in a number of 
 mushrooms. They will probably call them toadstools. The common meadow mush- 
 room is usually abundant in the fall, so are a number of cluster mushrooms that grow 
 at the base of old stumps. Where are the mushrooms found growing? (By discussion 
 it will be brought out that they are found in the woods, around stumps, on trees, in 
 meadows, around barns, etc.) 
 
 How many parts do you find in your mushroom? The stem is called the stipe, 
 the umbrella-like part, the pileus. You may find small whitish threads attached to the 
 end of the stipe. These make up the mycelium which penetrates the ground or stump 
 or whatever the mushroom may be growing upon. What do you find on the under 
 side of a pileus? Those leaflike flaps are called gills. What are they for? To 
 answer this question break the stem out of the pileus and then lay the pileus on a 
 piece of white paper with the gills downward. Leave it for twenty-four hours. What 
 do you find on the paper? Eub your fingers over it. This fine powder is composed 
 of tiny bodies like pollen grains, each of which is called a spore. These spores are for 
 the production of new plants. Name some of the ways in which a mushroom differs 
 from the other plants you have been studying. They lack leaves, green color, flowers 
 and seed. 
 
 MOLD. About a week before time for this lesson place moist pieces of stale 
 bread on a piece of pasteboard and turn tumblers over them. Have pupils examine 
 the bread. What is on it? On what part of the bread is the mold most abundant? 
 Look closely at the mold. How many distinct parts can you see? (The mass of 
 threads is the mycelium.) Do any of the threads penetrate the bread? Those 
 standing out from the mycelium with tiny white or black dots on the end are spore- 
 bearers and the dots are spore cases. Touch gently with a pin a group of these black 
 spore cases. What happens? The cases burst open and a shower of minute spores 
 come out. What are the spores for? Let us plant some of these spores and see if 
 they will grow. 
 
 Moisten a fresh piece of bread and with a small stick or end of a match transfer 
 some of the spores to this. Plant them in rows. Turn a tumbler over the bread 
 and examine after forty-eight hours. Have the spores germinated? Let the bread 
 .stand to find out how long before this new crop of mold has ripe spores on it. 
 
 Where did the mold come from on the first piece of bread? The spores must 
 have been on it when it was moistened and put under the tumbler. They must have 
 been in the air and dropped upon the bread. Why does stale bread mold more 
 quickly than fresh? Why does canned fruit mold? Can mold spores be killed? 
 
 Pour boiling water over a small piece of stale bread and turn over it a tumbler 
 in which you have just dashed boiling water. At the side of this place a piece of the 
 same kind of bread that is soaked in cold water and has a cold tumbler over it. Watch 
 for developments. Why do you pour boiling water in fruit jars before canning fruit? 
 Why should lids of the jars be sterilized in the same way? 
 
 Soak a piece of fresh bread in a half glass of water in which you have placed a 
 few drops of formalin. Plant spores on this as you did on the other pieces of bread. 
 Do these spores grow? Why? Formalin or formaldehyde kills the spores as effectively 
 as the hot water. However, it cannot be used about the house for it is poison to 
 human beings. It can be used, however, to great advantage in killing spores that pro- 
 duce fungous diseases of plants. 
 
 What does the mold feed upon? The mushrooms? They obtain food from the 
 substances upon which they grow. What part of the plant" do you think gets the 
 food? By discussion it may be brought out that the threadlike mycelium which pene- 
 
138 
 
 trates the substances obtains the food. All fungi such as mold and mushrooms that 
 live upon dead organic matter are called saprophytes. 
 
 Do all fungi live upon dead organic matter, as bread, stumps, etc.? 
 
 Find some ears of corn covered with smut. Examine this. What is it com- 
 posed of? The mass of black sooty material is chiefly made of spores. What is the 
 effect of this fungus upon the ear of corn? The smut plants have really penetrated 
 the young grains of corn, and have lived upon these grains. Has this fungus many 
 or few spores? Much corn is destroyed by this disease. What other grains are at- 
 tacked by smut? 
 
 If you have a few heads of oats or wheat with smut on them, make a study of 
 these. Can you find any spores in these? What will every spore produce? A new 
 plant, like all the other fungi studied, the spore forms the mycelium. It usually be- 
 gins its growth when the oat plants are about an inch high. The threads of the fungus 
 feed upon the growing oats, sometimes so weakening the plant that it dies. Most 
 of the plants live, but are dwarfed. About the time the heads appear the smut is 
 ready to produce its spores so it sends the ends of the threads with the spore cases 
 on them outside the oats grains. You find the heads black with spores instead of 
 having grains. Do you think any of the oat seeds are likely to have spores on 
 them if they have grown in a field where some of the heads have been affected with 
 smut? Can you think of anything that might be done to kill these smut spores? 
 
 Formaldehyde will kill these spores just as readily as it did the mold spores. 
 The following recipe is used by many farmers: Put one pint of forty per cent for- 
 maldehyde in thirty-six gallons of water, soak the seeds in this for ten or fifteen 
 minutes, and then spread out to dry. This is sufficient for about forty bushels of 
 seed. The seeds are more easily handled by putting them into a gunny sack, and 
 putting this into the solution. Wheat smut may be treated in the same manner. 
 
 Examine spots of rust on wheat or oats. Can you find any spores here? Are 
 these fungous diseases? This is another fungus that feeds on the inside of the leaf 
 or stem till it is ready to produce spores when it sends the hypha3 to the surface and 
 the spores are produced on the outside. The ripe reddish-brown spores on the wheat 
 look very much like iron rust, hence the name. Have the children name other fun- 
 gous disease, as pear and apple blight, peach rot and potato scab. 
 
 The children will be interested to know that plant breeders have been experi- 
 menting for some time with various varieties of wheat and have succeeded in pro- 
 ducing several varieties that resist fungous diseases altogether. 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR OCTOBER FAEM CALENDAR. Discuss last month's worlc 
 and plan to keep a calendar for each month. 
 
 FORAGE CROPS. Grasses, those ~best adapted for meadows, for pastures, 
 varieties found in neighborhood. Use of leguminous plants for forage. Other forage 
 crops Jcafir corn, sorghum, millet, rape. 
 
 Review in this connection the corn study of seventh year. 
 
 PLANT SOCIETIES. Simple study of the living together of plants and ani- 
 mals. A meadow or pasture group, a corn field group, a forest group, etc. 
 
 THE FARM CALENDAR. The farm calendar with a discussion of the farm 
 work during September should be given at least one period at the beginning of the 
 month. It will be of interest to have the pupils compare their last year's calendars 
 with the present one, noting variations and changes in the work of the two years. 
 
 FORAGE CROPS. There is no part of the state where the, study of forage 
 crops may not be taken up with profit. The first lesson should be given over to a 
 discussion of what is meant by forage. The term originally meant ' ' Food, ' ' and was 
 probably first applied to pasturage when animals were dependent upon wild plants 
 for their food. Now it means any form of herbage either green or air cured, used as 
 food for domestic animals. It consists usually of the leaves, stems and sometimes the 
 seeds of a number of different kinds of plants, and includes pastures, meadows, silage, 
 fodder and soiling. 
 
 Have the pupils discuss the above terms with reference to the methods employed in 
 using the plants for food. In pastures the animals help themselves to growing plants. 
 MeadoAvs are cut, the plants air-dried, cured, and stored for future feeding. Fodder 
 
139 
 
 is a term commonly applied to corn or sorghum, that is cut before maturing and piled 
 up to dry and cure slowly. Silage is food cut green and preserved in a succulent state 
 by packing closely in a silo. Soiling is a term used for green plants of any kind that 
 are cut and carried to the animals, such as green fodder or cow-peas. 
 
 Forage crops may be grouped also with reference to plant species as follows : 
 
 1. The small grasses, as timothy and blue grass. 
 
 2. The large grasses, as corn and sorghum. 
 
 3. The legumes, as clover, alfalfa, and cowpeas. 
 
 4. Boot crops, as turnips and beets. 
 
 5. Miscellaneous, as rape, cabbage, and pumpkins. 
 
 Have the pupils make a list of the different forage crops raised on the home 
 farms. Indicate the acreage of each. Does anyone in the neighborhood practice 
 soiling? This means raising a crop that may be cut and fed in the green state to 
 stock. Who raises summer forage, or catch crops? Winter or cover crops? 
 
 THE SMALL GE ASSES. Make a list of the different kinds of small grasses 
 grown in the neighborhood. Assign for out-of-door observation at least two kinds 
 of grass, one pasture and one meadow. Blue grass is the most familiar pasture grass 
 in Illinois. Note the relation of the plant to the soil. Is it hard or easy to identify 
 single plants? Do the blades or leaves spread out on the ground or stand erect? 
 Dig down and find the parts of the plants in the soil. What kind of roots do you find ? 
 Thread-like roots of this sort are called fibrous roots. Look among the fine roots for 
 a thicker, harder thread that is made up of joints. If it is fresh, it is white in 
 color and has at the end a bud from which new leaves are growing. This long, slen- 
 der body is called a root-stock. It is an underground stem and not a true root. If 
 you look closely you will find that it has thin scale leaves at every joint. What direc- 
 tion does the root-stock grow? Can you see how it enables the blue grass to spread 
 and cover the ground so closely? In dry or very cold weather, when the parts above 
 the ground are dead, the root-stock with its new buds, remains alive. Just as soon 
 as conditions are right, that is, when the rains come, new blades spring up, and we 
 soon have a fresh crop of grass. It is this characteristic that makes blue grass one of 
 the best pasture plants. Is it an annual or a perennial? If the children are in doubt, 
 tell them to wait and settle the question by their own observation. They will be able 
 to decide before spring that blue grass is a perennial, and that in sheltered places 
 or when covered with snow, it remains green all winter. 
 
 Compare timothy or orchard grass with blue grass. Note the different methods 
 of growth, the larger blades, and the lack of root-stocks. Do you think timothy or 
 orchard grass could ever make as dense a sod or turf as blue grass? Why? 
 
 Obtain, if possible, heads of different grasses and make a comparative study of 
 these. It will add interest to have the pupils make a collection of the different 
 kinds of heads and also of the seeds of the different grasses. These may be collected 
 into a pretty booklet. 
 
 Common grasses grown in Illinois, besides the ones mentioned above, are mea- 
 dow fescue and red top. The latter is grown largely in the southern part of the 
 state. It is used both as pasture and meadow grass. Millet is a coarse grass used 
 in many parts of the state as a summer grass, that is, it is sown at late as July and 
 manures a crop by early fall. It is grown in many places as a catch crop on areas 
 from which early potatoes or some other crops have been harvested. 
 
 Procure some millet plants for study. Note their root system, the height of the 
 plants, the length and width of the leaves, and the large heads. Remove some of the 
 seeds from the heads and compare with those of other grasses. If several farmers in 
 the district raise millet, obtain plants of different kinds and compare as to height, 
 softness of the leaves, and size of the heads. There are a number of different species 
 grown in the state. Among these are the common small millet, German, and Hun- 
 garian millet. Discuss the proper time to cut millet for hay. Xo kind of millet 
 should be allowed to reach maturity before cutting, but should be harvested soon after 
 blossoming. Do you see why? If allowed to grow too long the stem and leaf 
 fibers become so hard and tough that they are not good for feeding stock. 
 
 THE LAEGE GRASSES. Large plants belonging to the grass family used 
 for forage in Illinois, are Indian corn, Kafir corn and sorghum. Review briefly the 
 study of the corn plant as given in October of the Seventh year. Compare Kafir corn 
 and sorghum with Indian corn. Note the resemblances as shown in the stalks, leaves 
 and roots. Note differences. The main difference between Indian corn and the other 
 
140 
 
 two is that Indian corn has two flower-clusters, the tassel or staminate flowers which 
 bear the pollen and the shoot or pistillate flowers which bear the seeds. Sorghum and 
 Kafir corn have both stamens and pistils in one large flowering head at the top of the 
 stalk. 
 
 Kafir corn is not used largely in this state, but sorghum is coming into great 
 favor as a forage crop, especially for cattle. It contains more food properties than 
 many other forage plants. It may be pastured when a few feet high and will con- 
 tinue to send out new leaves. It is valuable as a soiling crop and also for fodders, 
 which may be fed early in the winter. In some places it is mixed with corn for silage. 
 
 LEGUMES. Bed clover is the chief legume used for forage in Illinois. Alfalfa 
 and to some extent cow peas and soy beans are coming into use. These plants are 
 called legumes because the seeds are formed in a flat pod known to botanists as a 
 legume. All common beans and peas are legumes. Clover pods are small but are 
 as perfect as those of the larger plants. 
 
 Review the study of clover as given in the spring term of the seventh year. 
 How many farmers in the district have clover on their farms? What was done with 
 the first crop this year? The second crop? How much seed will an acre of clover 
 yield? What is it worth per bushel? Study root tubercules on the small roots. Are 
 they are numerous as they were in the spring? 
 
 If there is any alfalfa growing in the neighborhood make a detailed study of 
 the plants, comparing with the red clover. Study the common sweet clover found by 
 the roadside. This is a near relative to alfalfa and is quite similar in its char- 
 acteristics. 
 
 COWPEAS AND SOYBEANS. Are there any cowpeas or soybeans raised in 
 the district? Are they used for pasturage or fed green? These two legumes are com- 
 paratively new in our state and yet are considered quite worth while by many farmers. 
 Both are native of Asia. Cowpeas were introduced in this country years ago, and 
 have become important farm crops in the southern states. The soybean was intro- 
 duced more recently, probably not more than thirty years ago. It is better adapted 
 to a cold climate than cowpeas. It grows rapidly, maturing in from two to two and 
 a half months. Both plants are considered excellent for the soil. They may be planted 
 rather late in the spring or even in early summer. Some farmers plant them between 
 the rows of corn after the last cultivation. The leaves and upper stem may be used 
 for soiling or green fodder, while the lower stems and roots are plowed into the soil. 
 If the greatest benefit to the soil is desired, the entire plant may be plowed under. 
 Soybeans are excellent to mix with corn for silage. If no one in the district raises 
 these plants, send to a seed company for a few seeds, and plan to have some of the 
 boys plant a small plot of each next year. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FOEAGE PLANTS. Have the pupils make a list of any 
 other forage plants not named above, that are grown in the neighborhood. In some 
 localities root crops are grown for feeding cattle and sheep. If these are used in 
 your district, have the pupils make a collection for study. The most common are 
 turnips, rutabaga and beets. Compare the different kinds as to size, weight, shape, 
 etc. An interesting experiment may be performed to determine the amount of water 
 in roots. Peel one of each kind, a turnip or beet, weigh and place in a warm oven 
 or in the sun, and weigh again after twenty-four hours. Continue this for several days 
 and you will be able to estimate the amount of water that the root contains. While 
 roots are not especially high in food value, they are excellent, because of their suc- 
 culence, to feed with dry grain foods during the winter months. 
 
 Rape' is another crop used to some extent in this state. It is used chiefly as a 
 soiling crop or as pasturage for pigs and sheep. 
 
 Rye is another common forage plant. This is frequently planted in the fall, 
 making a good cover crop for the winter, and may be used as pasture or for soiling 
 in the spring. 
 
 Spend at least one lesson discussing the value of forage crops. The pupils should 
 realize that much more attention has been given to forage crops during the last ten 
 years than ever before. This is because farmers are giving more attention to the 
 comparative value of different crops. The Cyclopedia of Agriculture tells us that 
 forage crops stand second in acreage in the list of cultivated crops of the United 
 States. 
 
 One reason for the new interest in forage crops is the knowledge that some sue- 
 
141 
 
 culent foods are better for all cattle during the entire year than dry, concentrated 
 food. This is especially true of dairy cattle. The pupils will be interested to know 
 that in some of the large sanitary dairies in Xew Jersey the cows are nofr fed in 
 pastures at all, but during the summer are fed on soiling crops. The dairymen claim 
 that the greater amount of milk obtained more than pays for the extra labor re- 
 quired to feed in this way. 
 
 A second reason that more attention is given to forage crops is the growing de- 
 mand for a crop rotation that will maintain the fertility of the soil. It has been 
 proven beyond question that forage crops leave the soil in a much better condition 
 than they find it. Of course this means when treated according to improved methods 
 of farming. 
 
 PLANTS SOCIETIES. The last topic suggested for the month will make a 
 most interesting series of lessons anywhere. Few boys and girls have ever thought 
 of the fields, meadows or woodlands as communities of living beings feeding and work- 
 ing together, some helping, some hindering, each other in their struggle for existence. 
 Each locality differing from another, in position, slope, amount of moisture and kind 
 of soil, has its own special society of plants and animals. This is true in wild na- 
 ture, as well as in cultivated fields. The only difference is that in the latter, man 
 comes in as an important factor, to help decide just what plants or animals shall keep 
 possession. But he cannot completely control the inhabitants. In spite of him, 
 certain plants and animals enter, settle down, and become a part of the community. 
 
 An interesting plan to follow in assigning the work is to have each member 
 of the class work up a different society. One may choose a cornfield society, another 
 a pasture, still others the meadow, vacant lots, garden, woodland, swamp, or pond. 
 The same outline with a little modification will answer for all. For example, make 
 a list of all the different plants you find in the corn fields. Here is a good oppor- 
 tunity to review the weeds we studied last year. Where are the weeds growing 
 most luxuriantly? How close to the corn do they grow? Are any climbing the 
 stalks? Any trailing on the ground? How do they compare with the corn as to 
 height? Which plants have succeeded best, corn or weeds? Is there any part of the 
 field where the weeds seem to have the advantage? Can you account for this? Are 
 there any lower plant forms, such as smut or mosses, in the cornfield? 
 
 What animals do you find in the corn fields? Xote different kinds of insects and 
 spiders. Where are they living? Determine as well as you can whether they are 
 feeding upon the corn or weeds, or upon each other. Do you find any birds visiting 
 this corn field society? What are they doing? Do you find any evidences of small 
 mammals such as field mice or ground squirrels? 
 
 It will be interesting to compare the weeds and insects found in a pasture 
 society with those of the corn field, or garden. Determine which has the greater 
 number of annuals. Of perennials. How do you account for the greater number of 
 perennials in the pasture? 
 
 The woodland society is of special interest, because as a rule man has little to 
 do in determining the plants that have possession. The most important plants are 
 the trees. How many different kinds can you find? Is one kind scattered throughout, 
 or do you find numbers of the same species standing close together? Which are the 
 largest trees ? Do they show a series of heights or stories ? Are the youngest trees the 
 same species as the oldest ones? If all the oldest trees were removed, would most 
 of those that are left represent the same species or would there be quite a different 
 kind of forest .' 
 
 Below the trees are the shrubs and vines. List those and compare with each 
 other as you did the trees. In the same way study the herbs and then the plants 
 growing very close to the ground, such as mushrooms and mosses. 
 
 The animal life in the woodland differs somewhat from that of the corn fields or 
 pasture. Xote the different kinds of spiders and insects that live in the shade of 
 the trees. List as many of the birds as you know and notice their homes among the 
 trees and shrubs. In the same way list the mammals, as squirrels, chipmunks, etc. 
 
 Teachers who wish to use the Xature-Study Agriculture as a basis for some of 
 the composition work will find the pupils interested in writing compositions or giving 
 oral reports on the following: 
 
 The Forage Crops of Our District. 
 
 The Value of Forage Crops. 
 
 The Plants and Animals That Live Together in a Corn Field. 
 
 A Woodland Communitv. 
 
142 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 OlTTLINE FOB NOVEMBER. Corn judging with score card. Corn exhibit and 
 Contest. 
 
 Dairy industry; review types of dairy cattle; feeding for milk; the silo; hous- 
 ing and care of dairy cow; profit in humane treatment. Separator; use and care of 
 milk. Detection of "robber cotvs" by use of scales and Babcock test. Butter mak- 
 ing; cheese. 
 
 Dairy cow contrasted with beef type; examples of different breeds; history of a 
 few; scrapbook of pictures cut from farm journals. Report on cattle owned by fam- 
 ilies represented in school. 
 
 CORN DAY 
 
 The first week of the month should be given largely to getting ready for Corn 
 Day on Friday. Lessons on corn judging as suggested for October of the Seventh 
 year should be reviewed and some actual work in corn judging carried on. This 
 will prove quite as interesting as it was last year. It will give an opportunity to 
 find out whether the pupils are any more skillful in judging a good ear of corn than 
 they were a year ago. Make arrangements for a program to which the patrons of the 
 school are invited. As far as possible the topics of the program should cluster around 
 the term's work in agriculture. The following are suggestive topics: 
 
 What I have found out about fungous diseases. 
 
 A talk on different kinds of forage crops raised in the district. 
 
 Corn as a forage plant. 
 
 Corn raising in the home district. 
 
 DAIRY INDUSTRIES. LESSON 2. Begin with an informal discussion of 
 the cows of the neighborhood. The number of cows kept in each family and the 
 purpose of keeping cows. Some may keep cows just to provide enough milk and 
 butter for the home. Others may keep dairy cows for the purpose of selling milk 
 and butter, while others may keep them for the purpose of raising beef cattle. Who 
 knows what different breeds of cattle are kept in the neighborhood? There are two 
 distinct types of cows, dairy and beef. Does any one in the class know what some 
 of the best beef breeds are? 
 
 There are several different breeds found in America. The Shorthorns are prob- 
 ably the most widely raised. They are of different colors, some red, some red and 
 white, some roan, and some almost pure white. There are probably more red ones 
 than any other color. 
 
 Who knows the Herefords? They are becoming more and more common in many 
 parts of our state. They are the cattle that we often see in pastures with white 
 faces, red bodies, and white legs. Who has ever seen any black cattle that are raised 
 for beef. We have two kinds of black cattle, Aberdeen-Angus and the Galloways. 
 The Angus are heavier than the Galloways. During the winter the coats of the lat- 
 ter become very long and shaggy. The Angus are much more common in Illinois than 
 the Galloways. Have the children make observations and inquiries as to whether any 
 of these breeds are to be found in the neighborhood. Look in the farm papers for 
 pictures of various types of beef cattle. An interesting scrap book or chart may be 
 made by pasting these pictures and carefully labeling them. 
 
 LESSON 3. What dairy breeds are represented in the district? How many 
 have Jerseys? How can you tell a Jersey from other dairy breeds? (The color is 
 usually a light fawn and the nose is always black.) How do Jerseys compare with 
 other cows in the neighborhood as to the amount of milk and butter that they pro- 
 duce? Does any one know the Guernseys? These resemble the Jerseys somewhat in 
 color. Usually, however, they are a little larger and have a flesh colored nose instead 
 of a black one. Another breed of dairy cows is becoming quite common in Illinois 
 and that is the Holstein-Friesian. These are black and white in color. Are they 
 larger or smaller than the Jerseys? Do they give more or less milk? (They are 
 considerably larger than any of the other dairy cows and are noted for the amount 
 of milk they give. As a rule the milk does not contain as much butter fat as that 
 of the Jerseys or Guernseys, but where people wish to keep cows for the purpose 
 of selling milk this breed is considered very desirable.) Do you know whether any of 
 the cattle in the neighborhood are kept both to give milk and to raise beef cattle? 
 This is done to a certain extent in many places in the state, both with the Holstein- 
 
143 
 
 Friesian and the Shorthorns. Who have, instead of any of the breeds named above, 
 common red cows sometimes spotted a little with white but mostly red ? This cow 
 is a dairy strain of the Shorthorn cattle. A few of these are excellent, some are 
 fairly good, but many are not worth keeping as far as their dairy qualities are con- 
 cerned. 
 
 LESSON 4. Where are cows kept during the summer? Winter? Let the chil- 
 dren report on the practice in the neighborhood. Has any one barns built especially 
 for the dairy cows? Are the cows kept here during the day or only at night? How 
 are they fastened in? Do you suppose it pays to give the cow a good shelter and 
 plenty of food? (Tests have been made that prove the fact that cows that are treated 
 kindly, kept in sheltered quarters, and fed well will repay their owners by giving much 
 larger quantities of milk.) What do cows eat in the summer? Is there always enough 
 grass in the pastures to afford sufficient food? What weather conditions often make 
 it necessary to feed cattle other things during the latter part of the summer and early 
 fall? What are the cows fed in winter time? Let the children name various kinds 
 of feeds used, different kinds of hay, etc. Are there any who allow cattle to feed in 
 the corn fields after the corn is husked? What do they find to eat here? Who feed 
 silage, fodder, roots, such as turnips and beets; ground feed, or oil cake? Are cows 
 that are kept for milk fed the same kind of food as cattle that are fattened for beef? 
 (Some recent experiments seem to show conclusively that dairy cows do best on a feed 
 in which there is some green material rather than all dry. For this reason many farm- 
 ers are constructing silos for the purpose of preserving the corn and other plants 
 in a green condition. 
 
 LESSON 5. Who has ever seen a silo? What shape was it? Some silos are 
 round, some rectangular. Some are as tall or taller than the barn. Others are not 
 more than ten or fifteen feet high. Corn is put into the silo while it is still green. 
 The stalks are cut close to the ground. They are then cut up into small pieces, or 
 sometimes shredded. These pieces are put into the silo and packed down as firmly as 
 possible. The whole mass then ferments and heats and keeps in a good condition. If 
 it is not packed firmly the air enters and causes it to mold and decay. Corn in the 
 silo is called silage. Cattle, and in fact, all stock are very fond of silage. Many ex- 
 periments have been performed which prove that silage is one of the cheapest and 
 best foods for dairy cattle. 
 
 MILK. LESSON 6. Of course, the purpose of keeping dairy cows is that they 
 may provide good milk. Who knows what milk is composed of? (It is made of 
 several different constituents. We know by tasting it that it is sweet. That means that 
 it has sugar in it. We call this milk sugar. Another of the important ingredients is 
 fat. This is known as butter fat. There is also some proteid in it and a very small 
 amount of minerals. All the rest of the milk, which after all in the main part, is 
 water. You will see then, that milk contains all the food which your physiology tells 
 you is necessary for the growth and development of human beings.) 
 
 Place some fresh milk in a bottle or tumbler. Allow it to stand a few hours. 
 What happens? Why does the cream come to the top? What does a cork do when 
 you put it in water? Why does it float upon the water? Cream comes to the top 
 of milk for the same reason, that is, because it is lighter than the milk. 
 
 LESSONS 7 AND 8. Have the children discuss the methods used in their homes 
 for separating cream from milk. Some people use crocks or shallow pans. Fresh 
 milk is put into these and allowed to stand. The cream rises to the top and is then 
 skimmed off by a flat skimmer. This is the old fashioned method but it is still used 
 by many people. It is by far the poorest method known. It has been estimated that 
 at least one-fourth of the butter fat is left in the skimmed milk when this method 
 is used. Does any one in the neighborhood use a deep can? Some of these are twenty 
 inches deep. The milk is placed in it and is usually kept cool by placing the can in 
 water. Sometimes the cream is skimmed off as it is from the* shallow pans but a 
 better way is to have a faucet in the bottom of the can. When the cream has risen 
 the faucet is turned and the milk is drained off. Then the cream is drawn off through 
 the faucet. This is considered a much better method than the shallow pan. Much 
 more butter fat is obtained in this way. 
 
 Has any one in the neighborhood a separator by which the milk and cream may 
 be separated at once without allowing the milk to stand! The separator is a ma- 
 chine that is worked by means of a crank. The main part is a cylindrical bowl that 
 
144 
 
 holds the milk that revolves rapidly. What happens to the milk in this cylinder? 
 Tie a piece of chalk or some other object to the end of a string about eighteen inches 
 in length. Let some child take hold of the end of the string and whirl it rapidly. 
 Can you feel the string pulling? Let go while you are whirling. What does the 
 string and weight do? The force that made the string pull on your hand and caused 
 it to fly in a straight line when you let go is called centrifugal force. It is the 
 force that causes revolving bodies everywhere to move away from the center. Did 
 you ever notice how mud and water fly from a rapidly revolving wheel? Since the 
 milk is heavier than the cream which will fly farther away from the revolving center? 
 The children will readily see that since the milk is heavier it will fly toward the out- 
 side of the cylinder while the cream is forced toward the inside. There is an opening 
 toward the outside thru which the milk pours out in a stream and an opening toward 
 the inside thru which the cream pours forth. 
 
 LESSON 9. Does any one in the district send milk directly to the creamery 
 instead of separating the cream from the milk at home? How is this done? Let 
 the children who know tell about it. In many places large cans are furnished by 
 creamery companies. A man comes around once each day, collects the cans of milk, 
 and takes them to the creamery. The cream and the milk are at once separated and 
 usually the milk is put back into the cans and taken back to the farms. What is 
 done with the cream in the creamery? What is done with the cream that is kept in 
 the homes? In both places butter is made from it. Do you churn the cream while 
 it is sweet or wait until it is sour? Why? (Butter may be made from sweet cream but 
 it lacks the real butter flavor and besides it does not keep well.) The cream, then, 
 is allowed to stand until it sours or ripens. What makes it sour? (Souring is caused 
 by some living organisms called bacteria. They get into the milk or cream through 
 the air or utensils used about the milk. In creameries where it is not desirable to al- 
 low the cream to stand until it sours, a little cream that has in it a number of bac- 
 teria is placed in the cream which causes it to sour in a short time. This is called a 
 starter.) What different kinds of churns do the children know about? What is 
 the purpose of churning? (The cream is agitated violently enough to force the fat 
 particles together. They strike against each other and adhere, the particles grow- 
 ing larger and larger. It is not best to continue churning until the particles are all 
 joined together in one great mass. Churning should be stopped when the particles 
 are not larger than a pea. If the masses are too large it is much harder to remove 
 all the milk from the butter. 
 
 CAEE OF MILK. LESSON 10. Since bacteria cause milk to sour and since 
 these little creatures are abundant everywhere, what care should be taken to prevent 
 too many of these from getting into the milk? Let the children discuss freely the 
 various methods to use. Wfro has ever seen a covered milk pail? This is made with 
 an opening just large enough to allow the milker to get the milk into the pail and 
 yet vast amounts of dust, dirt, and hair from the cow will be kept out. Should one 
 be careful about having clean hands when milking or taking care of milk? What 
 should be done with all the utensils used in connection with the milk? 
 
 LESSON 11. The children may try a number of interesting experiments in this 
 connection. Place a few spoonfuls of milk in a tumbler or cup in which some old 
 milk has been left standing from the day before. In another place the same amount 
 of milk, but first pour boiling water into the cup, rinsing it well and putting the milk 
 in while it is still warm. Tie a double piece of cheese cloth over each glass. Let 
 these two stand side by side for twenty-four hours and note the difference. Another 
 experiment may be tried. Place the same amount of milk into two cups. Stand 
 them in a warm place. Cover one but leave the other uncovered. Note any differ- 
 ence after twenty-four hours. This experiment will help the children to see what 
 sterilizing milk vessels will do. What do you mean by sterilizing? It is some 
 method used to kill bacteria and the best method to use in connection with milk is 
 to pour boiling water into everything used with the milk. 
 
 TESTING MILK FOE BUTTEE FAT. LESSON 12. Do cows differ at all 
 in the amount of butter fat in their milk? Agricultural stations have made very 
 interesting experiments and reports concerning the difference in cows. Two cows may 
 be fed on exactly the same kind of food and be given exactly the same care, but one 
 may produce nearly twice as much butter fat as the other. A cow that does not 
 produce enough butter fat to pay for her keep is sometimes called a ' ' robber cow. ' ' 
 How can you tell how much butter fat a cow will produce? (The surest way is to 
 
145 
 
 test the milk with a Babcock tester.) Has anyone in the neighborhood one of these 
 testers! It will pay any school district to keep one of these machines to test milk of 
 different cows. Or two or three farmers could have one in partnership. Directions 
 for testing come with each machine. If there is none in the neighborhood it will 
 pay the teacher to make an effort to have one put into the school. A small tester 
 may be obtained for about five dollars, a large one that holds six testing bottles for 
 thirteen dollars. 
 
 LESSON 13. One lesson may be given to discussing the uses of milk aside from 
 that of making butter: Various uses about the home in cooking; the making of 
 cheese, of condensed milk, and malted milk. Who knows how cottage cheese is made? 
 The children may be able to tell that sour milk after it has become thick is slowly 
 heated and the curd separated from the water. This curd consists chiefly of the 
 casein and albumen, which is the proteid part of the milk. 
 
 The cheese which we buy in the market is made from sweet milk. Eennet is 
 put into it. This curdles the milk and changes it chemically. It is then heated and 
 afterwards pressed and allowed to stand a number of weeks to ripen. What do we 
 mean by ripening cheese? It is ripened by certain kinds of bacteria that work in it 
 and give it its flavor. Perhaps some of the children may have visited a cheese fac- 
 tory and will be able to tell just how cheese is made. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 OUTLINE FOR DECEMBER. Study of horse and horsema-nship ; different 
 breeds of horses in neighborhood. Care of farm horses during the. winter. Similar 
 studies of sheep and pigs. 
 
 Public health and sanitation studies, germ diseases; demonstrate methods of 
 disinfecting; children assist in disinfecting schoolroom; work of the health officer; 
 pure food; pure milk; pure drinking water. 
 
 LESSON 1. The first lesson should be a discussion of the November farm cal- 
 endars. Is all of the fall work completed? Have the slwrtening of the days and 
 cold weather affected farm activities to any extent? Make plans for a December 
 calendar. 
 
 LESSONS 2 AJSTD 3. Horses. Have an informal discussion of the various horses 
 in the neighborhood. How valuable are they on the farm? Do you think all the 
 horses in the neighborhood are the same kind or breed ? State some of the differences 
 as to size, shape, color that you have noticed. These differences indicate to some 
 extent the difference in breed, although the ordinary farm horse is rather a mixture 
 of breeds than a distinct one. There are at least three different breeds of horses 
 known, the draft horse, the coach or carriage horse, and the roadster or trotter. The 
 draft horse is heavy, has rather short, heavy legs, a short thick neck and broad deep 
 chest and shoulders. There are several breeds of draft horses. The one most common 
 in Illinois, and, in fact, in the Middle West is the Percheron. This breed came orig- 
 inally from France. Most of the horses are gray, many a beautiful mottled or iron 
 gray. A great many of our common gray horses are part Percheron. Some Per- 
 cherons, however, are black or dark brown. In England the carriage horse is a dis- 
 tinct breed and is known as the coach horse. In the eastern part of the United States 
 we find more attention given to the coach or true carriage horse than here in the 
 Middle West. This horse is somewhat smaller than the draft, has a long arched neck, 
 and is usually of graceful appearance. The third breed, the roadster, is a slender, 
 tall horse, with long head and neck, rather thin and light. Are there any horses in 
 the neighborhood that are pure-bred roadsters, any that are draft, or carriage horses? 
 
 LESSON 4. Observe the different horses in the neighborhood and note whether 
 any of them seem to come up to the description of these various breeds. Look in 
 the farm papers and magazines for pictures of horses of different kinds and start 
 a chart of these as you did of the different breeds of cattle. What are the uses 
 of the draft horses? (The largest draft horses are used in large cities to draw im- 
 mense loads of various kinds.) Do you know how much a heavy draft horse weighs? 
 (The heaviest draft horses weigh over 2,000 pounds, medium drafts from 1,600 to 
 1,700 pounds, and light draft 1,500 to 1,600 pounds.) Do these horses move rapidly 
 or slowly? What is the use of the roadster? The name of course suggests the use. 
 This horse must be able to travel rapidly and endure the strain of travel for a long 
 
146 
 
 time. Why should a roadster be much lighter in weight than a draft or work horse ? 
 Do you know of any true carriage horses in your neighborhood? How do they com- 
 pare with the heavy work horses and the roadsters? 
 
 LESSON 5. Make a list of all the different kinds of work that a farm horse 
 does. Is there any work done by horses that used to be done by man? Inquire of 
 your parents in regard to this matter. Perhaps some of them will remember when 
 corn was planted by hand and all small grain sown broadcast by hand. Have gasoline, 
 or steam engines in any way taken the place of horse power in your neighborhood? 
 (Mention threshers, shellers, automobiles, etc.) (While you do not remember, your 
 parents will, that not many years ago all threshing machines and shellers w r ere run 
 by horse power,) 
 
 LESSONS 6 AND 7. Care of Horses. One of the first things to consider in 
 caring for a horse is its food. Make a list of the various foods eaten by horses. 
 List the various kinds of hay used in the neighborhood. How many are feeding 
 timothy alone? Clover alone? Timothy and clover mixed? Alfalfa? Straw? Who 
 feed oats? Who corn? Does hay contain as much food as the grains. (You 
 remember in your study of physiology that two very important classes of foods are 
 carbohydrates and proteids..) Grains contain a high percent of carbohydrates and 
 not much proteid. You may remember, also, that carbohydrates produce fat and heat. 
 Do you think of any good reason why more foods containing carbohydrates should 
 be fed to horses in winter than in summer? Which kind of food should we feed to 
 animals that we are trying to fatten? Do you feed your working horses on exactly the 
 same kind of food as horses that are running in the pasture or standing in the stable? 
 Why do working horses need a different kind of food and different amounts than idle 
 horses? (When a horse is working he is using up muscle just as boys do when they 
 exercise. Therefore a working horse should be fed more foods than contain proteids 
 because these foods help to build up muscle). Do you feed your horses regularly? 
 When do you feed them? How many times each day? Is it of any importance to 
 observe regularity in the feeding of horses? Why? Horses more than any other kind 
 of domestic animal seem to like order and regularity in their feeding. They seem 
 to know when feeding time has arrived and become nervous if they are not fed. 
 If you expect a horse to keep in a healthy condition you must see to it that he gets 
 his meals at regular times each day. When should a working horse be given its 
 heaviest meal? (The heavy meal should be given at night after the day's work is 
 done. There is a good reason for this. The stomach of the horse is small compared 
 with that of other large animals, hence when horses are fed in the evening they have 
 plenty of time to chew and digest their feed.) A rule given us by those who have made 
 a careful study of the horse is: For a working horse feed one-fourth the daily ration 
 in the morning, one hour before going to work, one-fourth at noon, and one-half 
 in the evening. 
 
 Do you observe the same care in watering your horses as you do in feeding them ? 
 Most experts agree that horses should be watered before meals rather than after- 
 wards, the only exception being, perhaps, with the morning meal. What precaution 
 should be taken about watering horses when they are very warm? Many a good 
 horse has been ruined, sometimes killed, by allowing it to drink a large quantity of 
 water when it was very warm. 
 
 LESSON 8. There should lie a discussion of some other points to consider in 
 caring for horses. Let the children suggest points worth while. No doubt they will 
 suggest among others, currying and rubbing. When should this be done? How many 
 are in the habit of currying and rubbing horses in the evening after the harness is 
 removed? How many do this only in the morning? How many both evening and 
 morning? The last is by far the best plan. Can you think of a good reason for 
 currying and rubbing horses in the evening? Someone has said that the horses will 
 rest so much better when this is done that he will really be worth more as a worker 
 the next day. What part of the horses requires the most cleaning and rubbing? (The 
 legs should have the most attention although they are often slighted.) Horses whose 
 legs are carefully cleaned are not so liable to develop diseases that many horses are 
 subject to. 
 
 Another thing to consider is blanketing the horse in winter. This should be done 
 especially when he has been traveling some distance and is warm and perspiring. 
 
 THE HARNESS. LESSON 9. What is the purpose of the harness? By dis- 
 cussion the children will probably bring out the facts that harness has two purposes. 
 
147 
 
 One is to enable the horse to do its work and the other to enable the driver to control 
 the horse. Have the boys name all the parts of the harness they know. What parts of 
 the harness help the horse in pulling a load? (The horse uses its shoulders most in 
 moving a load, hence the collar, hames, and traces are of the most service in helping 
 it to move the load in any direction.) What part of the harness enables the driver 
 to control the horse? (The bridle, bit, and lines.) 
 
 Can you name the parts of the horse that are likely to be injured by poorly 
 fitting harness. (If a collar fits poorly it is likely to result in a sore neck or shoulder. 
 If the bridle and bits are not right, a sore mouth will result. A crupper that does not 
 fit properly may result in a sore tail. If a horse is used for riding, care should be 
 taken to see that the saddle fits properly, otherwise it may result in a sore back.) 
 Spend some time in discussing how harness should be cared for in order that it may 
 be kept in good condition so that it may not become hard and stiff. (It should, of 
 course, be thoroughly cleansed and occasionally oiled.) 
 
 LESSON 10. It may be well to have the boys name all the different parts of 
 the horse that they know, such as the poll, withers, knee joint, fetlock joint, etc. 
 A good picture, showing parts of the horse may be found in almost any book on 
 agriculture. 
 
 What are some of the different steps that horses take? Among others will 
 be named trotting, galloping, pacing, walking, and running. 
 
 TKAINING HOUSES. LESSON 11. One lesson may well be given to the dis- 
 cussion of how horses are trained and broken for use. How many of the boys have ever 
 had anything to do with the breaking of colts? There are a few points that should 
 always be remembered in the training of horses. The most important is that horses 
 have a remarkable memory. They rarely forget a trick or anything that they have once 
 encountered. If they become frightened at a piece of paper in the road and run away 
 they will be very likely to be frightened again the next time they see a piece of 
 paper. For this reason it is very important that horses should be trained carefully 
 so that they may have nothing to remember that will be an injury either to them- 
 selves or their owner. A person in breaking a horse, therefore, should be firm yet 
 kind and quiet. Horses should be trained to stand still while being harnessed. They 
 should be taught from the first to stop when the signal ' ' whoa ' ' is given, to move 
 backward, when the signal ' ' back ' ' is given, etc. A horse properly trained will not 
 start forward until he is given the word or signal to start. Have you ever seen horses 
 that began to move the moment the driver took the lines in his hand instead of wait- 
 ing to be told to go? 
 
 Every farm boy should learn how to manage a horse and do it right. If pos- 
 sible have the pupils at this time read and discuss the article by Dean Davenport 
 entitled ' f Some Points of Good Horsemanship. ' ' This is found in a little book en- 
 titled ' ' Twelve Studies of Farm Animals, ' ' published by Parker, of Taylorville. 
 
 LESSON 12. One lesson should be given to the history of the horse. This 
 may be found in any good cyclopedia. It is also found in the little book suggested 
 in the last lesson. The children should at least know that horses have been known 
 since the beginning of written history. Our ancestors then in pre-historic times must 
 have tamed the wild horse. Horses were probably used at first by these people in 
 hunting other animals that run rapidly. The horse is among the fleetest runners 
 known among animals. The horse in America was brought from Europe. In Europe 
 there are at least two distinct types of horses. A heavy horse that was found in 
 England in the western part of the continent, the other is the Arabian horse that 
 was brought into Europe at the time of the Crusades. The wild horses that we read 
 about in America were horses that escaped from the early Spanish explorers and 
 roamed over the prairies until they became wild. 
 
 LESSON 13. Let this lesson be a summary of the study of the horse. First 
 list all the different breeds; Second, enumerate all the points to be considered in 
 caring for horses; Third, list all the different kinds of work that the horse does. 
 
 LESSON 14. SWINE. Informal discussion of pigs raised in the neighborhood. 
 How many keep pigs ? What is the greatest number usually kept by one farmer ? What 
 is the purpose of keeping them? How are the hogs housed on the different farms? 
 Look in farm journals for pictures and descriptions of some of the modern ap- 
 proved hog houses. What are the hogs fed? Who are feeding hogs in connection 
 
148 
 
 with cattle? Who are feeding hogs alone for the purpose of fattening them for 
 market? Estimate about how much corn one hog eats in a day, a week, a month. 
 Leave this to be reported after the boys have had an opportunity to make some 
 careful observations of the exact amount fed during a day or week. 
 
 Discuss the habits and nature of hogs. How do they drink? Eat? What dif- 
 ferent things will they eat? How do they differ from horses and cattle in this re- 
 spect? What kind of noses have they? How does the snout help them to procure 
 food? How deep can a pig dig into the ground to procure roots, grub, worms, etc.? 
 Are pigs easily tamed? Did you ever have a pet pig? Did it show any fondness for 
 you? Did it learn to know you? Do you think pigs show as much intelligence as 
 other domestic animals? Name some things you have seen them do that sho\< 
 intelligence. 
 
 Do pigs deserve the reputation that they like dirt and filth? If you give hogs 
 a chance to be clean you will find that they like clean orderly quarters quite as 
 much as other animals do. Do you know why they have probably formed the habit 
 of wallowing in the mud during hot weather? They do not perspire as horses do and 
 so they must keep themselves cool by getting into water. 
 
 LESSON 15. How many different breeds of hogs are represented in the district ? 
 How do the different kinds differ from each other in color? Do you know what 
 the common breeds of black hogs are? (The Poland China and Berkshire are both 
 black with some white spots. The Poland China has drooping ears while the Berk- 
 shire has erect ears.) 
 
 Of the white hogs the Chester White is the most common in the Middle West. 
 It sometimes has blue or black spots on the skin under the hair. The ears are droop- 
 ing. The Victoria White is somewhat similar but has erect ears. 
 
 The common red hog is the Duroc Jersey. It seems to be gaining favor in many 
 parts of Illinois. 
 
 Another breed is the Hampshire. This hog is of medium size. It is black with 
 some white. Usually the white is a band around the middle of the body. In some 
 places this hog is becoming a favorite because of the high quality of the meat. 
 
 All hogs are grouped into two great classes. These are the lard or fat hogs 
 and bacon hogs. The fat hog has a thick, deep body, strong hams, short head, and 
 short legs. All of the breeds named above are of the fat hog type. The bacon hog is 
 not as broad as the fat hog. It has longer sides, lighter hams, and longer legs. 
 Throughout the corn belt the fat hog type is raised almost exclusively. Farther north 
 some of the bacon types are raised. The bacon type is more common in some 
 parts of the east and in Canada than the fat hog. Collect pictures of different 
 breeds of hogs. 
 
 LESSON 16. HISTOEY AND VALUE. One lesson may be given to the dis- 
 cussion of the history of the domesticated pig. It seems evident that pigs were first 
 domesticated in Asia. Our pigs of today probably originated from the wild hogs of 
 Europe and of Asia. Our American breeds were brought to this country from Eng- 
 land. However, different food and climate with the care of breeders have produced 
 a type of hog that differs in its characteristics from the original English breeds. 
 
 Have you read of the wild razor back of the South? These are probably hogs 
 that were brought here by the early settlers. They roamed about through the woods 
 feeding upon nuts, roots and other things. Some of them became lost from their 
 owners and roamed about caring for themselves? 
 
 How valuable are hogs to the average farmer? Does it pay better to feed corn 
 to pigs or to sell the corn? How are hogs sold, as individuals or by weight? What 
 is a good average weight of hogs ready for market? At about what age are pigs fat- 
 tened and sold? How many hogs does it take to make a carload? 
 
 LESSONS 17 AND 18. SHEEP. How many farmers in the community keep 
 sheep? What breeds are represented? Ask at home for information on this. 
 
 In most parts of Illinois the Shropshire is the favorite breed. What is the chief 
 purpose of raising sheep ? Sheep are raised for mutton and for the wool. At present 
 in America more attention is given to producing sheep for mutton than for wool. 
 How many farmers sell most of their lambs in the fall when they are five or six 
 months old? That is a common practice in many parts of the state? 
 
 How are sheep cared for during the summer? The winter? What do sheep eat? 
 Do they crop the grass any closer than horses or cattle do? They eat many weeds 
 that other animals do not touch. Have you known of farmers turning a flock of 
 sheep into a field for the purpose of destroying some noxious weeds? Sheep will 
 
149 
 
 also eat various kinds of twigs and small shrubs. It is often said that sheep can 
 live and thrive in a place where other animals w r ould starve to death. 
 
 Some time may well be given to the description of the great sheep ranches 
 in the far west. Sometimes there are several thousand sheep in one flock. In the 
 summer the herders with their faithful shepherd dogs take the flocks to the mountains 
 and hill sides. Here the sheep pasture on the plants which grow in these high alti- 
 tudes. In the winter the flocks are brought down to the valleys and ravines and 
 feed there. 
 
 Let some one in the class describe how sheep are sheared. How many pounds of 
 wool are obtained from one sheep? (This varies with the breeds and size of the 
 sheep. Merinoes often yield from twelve to twenty pounds.) Some sheep do not 
 yield more than eight pounds. 
 
 The story of how the wool is prepared for our use in clothing is an interesting 
 one, especially for the girls. 
 
 HISTORY. Sheep have been known since the beginning of written history. In 
 Egypt and Asia people kept sheep in very early times. The domestic sheep probably 
 originated from the wild sheep of Asia and Europe. It is the belief that European 
 breeds of sheep have for their ancestors a small wild sheep that inhabits the Isles of 
 Crete and Cypress and the mountains of Greece. Our American sheep have been in- 
 troduced from Europe. All members of sheep tribes lived originally in the mountains 
 and highlands. They still retain their love for climbing into almost inaccessible 
 heights. They like also cool climate, high lands, and open ranges. They can not 
 stand to be housed for any length of time. 
 
 Look in your farm journals for articles on sheep and sheep raising. 
 
 SANITARY STUDIES. Since much of the work suggested here has already 
 been done in the study of the water supply, of fungi and bacteria, and the care of 
 milk, it is suggested one lesson be devoted to a review of what has already been 
 studied in connection with these topics. 
 
 LESSON 19. What are bacteria? The children should realize that bacteria are 
 small living organisms which are really one-celled plants. These multiply by what 
 is known as cell division, that is one small cell divides into two. Each of these di- 
 vide again and so on, until in a short time a great number of bacteria have been 
 produced from one cell. The children should realize also that all bacteria are not 
 harmful. When we come to the study of soil we shall find that we are largely de- 
 pendent upon bacteria for the fertility of the soil. There are useful bacteria also 
 about the homes in the production of some of our foods. Then there is another class 
 of bacteria that may be considered as neither harmful nor useful. The class in which 
 we are most interested in these lessons, however, are those that cause human diseases. 
 How do bacteria cause diseases? Bacteria or germs are taken into our bodies in some 
 way and there they grow and begin to multiply rapidly. In this process of growth 
 they produce poisons in the body which are called toxins. It is these poisons that 
 cause sickness. Make a list of all the diseases that you know that are caused by germs 
 or bacteria. (Tuberculosis or consumption, diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, 
 tonsilitis, lockjaw, pneumonia, and colds.) An important point to remember is that 
 none of these diseases can exist unless the germs are carried from some person who is 
 ill with a disease to another person. Since this is true it shows what great care should 
 be exercised in nursing and caring for the sick. Everything then that is used about a 
 sick room should be carefully disinfected before it in any way comes in contact 
 with a well person. 
 
 LESSON 20. What do we mean by disinfectants I A disinfectant is something 
 used for the purpose of killing dangerous bacteria. There are some simple disinfec- 
 tants that anyone may use. Carbolic acid is one. This should be made into a weak 
 solution which means about three and one-half ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon 
 of water. Clothes and vessels used in a sick room should be washed with this solu- 
 tion. The burning of sulphur candles in a room is a fairly good disinfectant for most 
 disease germs. Of course the sulphur must be burned when there is no one in the 
 room since human beings cannot stand to breathe the fumes of sulphur. Formal- 
 dehyde is used most commonly now in disinfecting buildings or rooms. Especial di- 
 rections are necessary if this work is done properly. In a great many places school 
 buildings are disinfected at least once a month. Can you see why this is done? 
 
 LESSON 21. Besides the use of disinfectants there are other ways to prevent 
 the spread of disease germs. Many bacteria do not like light, in fact they are unable 
 
150 
 
 to live very long in a bright sunlight. Why then should we see to it that sunlight 
 is admitted to all of our rooms, if possible every day. 
 
 Hot water kills almost all disease germs. It should be used freely then in wash- 
 ing dishes, clothing, etc., brought from a sick room. 
 
 Look around the school room to see if it is in as sanitary a condition as you 
 can make it. Are there piles of dust in the corners? Have the walls been painted 
 or papered recently? Are there fly specks on the windows? Is there dust in the cracks 
 of the floor? Is the water pail uncovered? 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOR JANUARY. Simple tools and machinery; levers; uses and 
 advantages of jackscrews, pulleys, etc. 
 
 Machines used in preparing the soil for planting ; kinds of plows; harrows; dif- 
 ferent kinds used in the neighborhood. Cost of different kinds. Evolution of ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 Machines used in cultivating crops. Machines used in harvesting crops. Care of 
 machinery, housing, cleaning, oiling; have children report on where machines are 
 kept at their own homes. Gasoline engine and its uses. 
 
 LESSON 8. FARM MACHINERY. Have the class make a list of the different 
 kinds of machines used on the farm and about the home. Group them as follows: 
 
 (1) a list of machines used in the preparation of soil for planting of various crops. 
 
 (2) Machines used in planting the various crops. (3) Machines used in cultivating 
 the crop. (4) Those used in harvesting the crop. (5) Machines used about the barn 
 to make work easier. (6) Machines used in the home. 
 
 LESSON 9. Discuss the value of machinery in general. Why do we use ma- 
 chines? A machine helps us to do the greatest possible amount of work at the least 
 cost. It saves time and labor. A farmer must decide what machinery will pay him 
 best. The machinery that will help him most to reduce the cost of producing his 
 crop is the kind that he wants. A good illustration of how improvement in machinery 
 reduces the cost of production is given in the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. 
 ' ' In 1830 it required three hours of labor to raise one bushel of wheat. In 1896 it re- 
 quired but ten minutes. In 1850 the labor represented in a bushel of corn was four 
 and one-half hours while in 1894 it had been reduced to forty-one minutes. 
 
 LESSON 10. In the preparation of soil for planting what is the most important 
 implement? What kinds of plows are used in the district? What are the main parts 
 of a plow? (handles, beam, mold-board, share, slip-point.) 
 
 The evolution of the plow is interesting. The first plow was a crooked stick that 
 scratched the surface of the ground. Then came the plow with the wooden mold board 
 and iron and steel shares, then the cast iron plow followed by the all-steel plow. Now 
 we have the riding sulky, the gang, and disc plows. Ask your fathers to tell you 
 how many more acres of ground a man can plow now in one day than could be done 
 when they were boys. On some of the large ranches in the west large gang plows 
 drawn by traction engines can plow from 40 to 60 acres per day. 
 
 LESSON 11. Discuss harrows in much the same way as you did plows in the last 
 lesson. Discuss the different kinds of harrows in the district. What is the use of the 
 harrow? Its main use is to smooth and pulverize the soil after it has been plowed. 
 It also helps to kill the first crop of young weeds. Harrows, like plows, have had an 
 interesting history. Little by little they have been improved to make them more 
 effective. At first they were all wood. Then the frame was made of wood and the 
 teeth of iron. Now most harrows are made entirely of steel. 
 
 LESSON 12. What machines are used in sowing oats, wheat, and other small 
 grains? How many have drills? How wide a space will a drill plant at once? How 
 far apart are the drills? What special arrangement has your drill for covering the 
 seeds? Describe the broad cast seeders used in the neighborhood. Ask your father 
 to tell you how grain was formerly sown broadcast by hand. 
 
 How is corn planted? Ask your parents to tell you about the evolution of the 
 corn planter. First corn was planted by hand and covered with a hoe. 
 Then a small hand dropper was invented that did not prove very successful. The first 
 corn planter required two persons to work it, one to drive the horses and the other to 
 
151 
 
 drop the corn. The latter person sat on a seat near the front of the planter and 
 pulled a lever or handle back and forth. Finally the present form of planter with the 
 check row was invented. 
 
 LESSON 13. Name the various machines used in cultivating crops. What 
 different kinds of cultivators are represented in the district! These, like plows, have 
 been much improved. Your father can tell you of a time when the single shovel culti- 
 vator, drawn by one horse was used. 
 
 LESSON 14. Harvesting machines. Name machines used in harvesting small 
 grains. The evolution of the harvesting machine is most interesting. First the 
 sickle was used; then the scythe and cradle; then the mowing machine, followed by 
 the self -rake reaper, and finally the self-binder and the bundle carrier. Ask your 
 parents to tell you of a time when a number of men worked all day in the wheat 
 and oats fields binding the sheaves by hand and shocking them. The same work can 
 now be done by two men in much less time. 
 
 If time permits discuss in a similar manner the machinery used in making and 
 stacking hay. 
 
 LESSON 15. Name all the parts of the threshing outfit. What special work 
 does each part do. How many men are required to do the work? How many bushels 
 of oats or wheat are threshed in a day? Ask at home about the way the threshing 
 machine has been gradually improved. 
 
 LESSON 16. Name and discuss the value of the labor saving machines that 
 are used in the home; cream separators, washing machines, sewing machines, 
 churns, etc. 
 
 LESSON 17. Machine power. All machines must have power in order to do 
 their work. Name the various kinds of power used to run machinery on the farm; 
 human power ; horse power ; steam power ; wind in running wind mills, and the expan- 
 sive force of gasoline gas in the gasoline engine. Name all the ases of the gasoline 
 engines on the farm. Who knows what makes the gasoline engine run? As you 
 know gasoline changes into vapor or gas quickly even at the ordinary temperature 
 of the room. The engine is so arranged that an electric spark sets on fire a small 
 quantity of the gasoline vapor or gas. Do you know what happens to any gas when 
 it is heated? It expands, occupies a larger space. When the gas from the gasoline 
 expands in the cylinder of the engine it pushes on the piston and as the piston moves 
 outward it turns the fly wheel. This burning or explosion of the gas occurs often 
 enough to keep th eengine running. 
 
 It will be of interest to show how one kind of power on the farm has gradually 
 taken the place of other 1 kinds. Can you name some kinds of work that were done 
 years ago by human power, later by horse power, and now by steam or gasoline gas? 
 
 Most of the wonderful progress in the improvement of farm machinery has taken 
 place within the last fifty years. Most of the parents of the children will be able 
 to tell interesting stories of the changes and improvement of farm machinery. Send 
 to large implement stores for catalogues showing various kinds of modern machines. 
 
 LESSON 18. Care of machinery. Have the children report where the different 
 machines are kept during the season when they are not in use. Why should they be 
 kept under shelter? What happens to iron or steel when left out in the moist air? 
 (Just why they rust we shall learn by some experiments in February.) All bright 
 parts of machines should be thoroughly oiled or greased before the machine is put 
 away. Before a machine is taken out to be used what should be done? It should 
 be gone over very carefully to see that all bolts are tight and every part in good 
 repair. It is simply following the old adage, ' ' A stitch in time saves nine. ' ' 
 
 Some one has estimated the length of time certain machines should last if they 
 are well cared for. The average life of plows, harrows, binders and mowers should 
 be from twelve to fifteen years; of drills, seeders, cultivators, from ten to twenty 
 years. 
 
 How many have simple tool shops somewhere about the place? It is an excellent 
 thing for a boy to have a tool shop and to learn how to use various tools. He should 
 have hammers, saw, wrenches, squares, brace and mit, bolts; nuts, etc. A farmer 
 can often save much time and money by making simple repairs on his own farm 
 implements. 
 
 SIMPLE MACHINES. The boys and girls will be interested to know that all 
 of the machines that we have discussed are constructed with reference to certain 
 
152 
 
 fundamental physical laws. They will know more about those laws when they study 
 physics in the high school. For the present, however, they should know that there 
 are only six simple machines and that all farm machinery simply shows various 
 combinations and modification of these. The six simple machines are: The lever, 
 the pulley, wheel and axle, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. 
 
 The simplest lever is a long bar of wood or metal that works on a point or pivot. 
 When you pry up a walk or a stove with a stick or crowbar you are using a lever. 
 A common pump handle is a lever. Can you think of other simple levers about the 
 home. 
 
 Have you ever seen a simple pulley with a rope over it and a weight on one end? 
 Can you think of a farm machine that illustrates the pulley? The hay derrick is a 
 good illustration. Name all the machines you can think of in which a wheel and 
 axles are used. The screw is almost as common as the wheel in machinery. Have 
 you ever seen a house lifted on jack screws? All bolts are screws. The wedge and 
 inclined plane are not as common as the other simple machines. The straw carrier in 
 the threshing machine is a good illustration of the inclined plane. 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 OUTLINE FOR FEBRUAEY. Food storage in seeds and other parts of plants. 
 Food in the potato; in corn kernel; simple test for starch and oiL Other materials 
 found in plants, proteids, sugar, fiber and cellulose. Eaw materials that plants use in 
 making their foods; sources. Some idea of an element, a chemical compound, an acid, 
 alkali. Elements needed by plants. Elements commonly lacking in the soil. Some 
 ways of supplying these elements. 
 
 For these lessons a few simple pieces of apparatus are necessary. Many of 
 these may be furnished by the pupils. A few glass tumblers, some iron nails or tacks, 
 a little powdered sulphur, a small bottle of lime water, some baking soda, ten cents* 
 worth of tincture of iodine, a few wide-mouthed bottles, vaseline or pickle bottles will 
 do. A small alcohol lamp will aid in the experiment. 
 
 The purpose of these lessons on plant products is to lead pupils to discover the 
 various substances found in plants and to prepare them for the lessons on soil which 
 follow. 
 
 LESSON 1. Have the pupil scrape as fine as possible one or two potatoes. 
 Place the scrapings in a tumbler of water, stir thoroughly two or three times, and set 
 aside to settle. Examine next day. Wthat do you find in the bottom of the tumbler? 
 Drain off all the water and potato pulp, leaving nothing but the starchy looking 
 mass in the bottom. Boil some water over the alcohol lamp and pour a little of this 
 into the tumbler, stirring until the starch thickens. This resembles ordinary starch 
 used for clothes. There is a chemical test, however, that will prove beyond any doubt 
 that this is starch. Place a small quantity of the cooked starch on a plate or saucer, 
 and then put two or three drops of iodine on it. Tincture of iodine that may be 
 bought at any drug store will serve the purpose. This may be diluted with water. 
 What is the effect of iodine on this substance? The blue color indicates the pres- 
 ence of starch. The darker the blue the more starch there is present. Sometimes it 
 is almost black. Place a drop of iodine on a slice of raw potato. Does it show as 
 much starch as that which was cooked? The reason the latter shows more starch is 
 that the boiling water causes the walls of the starch granules to burst open and the 
 iodine can act more readily upon the starch. 
 
 LESSON 2. Pour a little boiling water over some flour and test it for starch; 
 over cornmeal, oatmeal, cornstarch, etc. 
 
 LESSONS 3 AND 4. Soak some, grains of corn for forty-eight hours, or half 
 an hour in hot water. Each pupil should have at least two grains. At the pointed 
 end of the grain find the tip cap. Remove this. With a knife or pin remove the hull. 
 You will see that the grain under the hull is covered with a thin smooth material that 
 with care may 1 be scraped off with a knife. This is called horny gluten. Now dig 
 out the germ* or embryo. This is the dirty white oval shaped portion that fills up 
 the groove in the soaked grain. Split open the remaining part of the grain. How 
 many kinds of material are left? Place the white granular material found near the 
 top of the grain in a pile. Add to it the same kind of material found near the tip. 
 Put the hard, solid looking substance in another pile. You now have six different sub- 
 stances found in your grain of corn. Test each of these with iodine as you did your 
 potato starch and flour. It is better to crush them as much as possible before putting 
 
153 
 
 on the hot water. What part shows the most starch f It is probable, that the soft 
 granular part will turn the darkest blue. This part is known as crown starch. The 
 solid hard part, if thoroughly boiled, will show some starch. This is called horny 
 starch. What parts do not contain the starch? This means, of course, that there 
 must be some substance other than starch in the grain of corn. 
 
 LESSOX 5. Remove some fresh embryoes from soaked grains and crush them 
 on a sheet of white writing paper. Hold the paper between you and the light. What 
 does this show? The grease spot indicates the presence of oil or fat. Test other 
 seeds in this way for oil, such as sunflower, squash, pumpkin, flaxseed, etc. Have the 
 pupils put a small pinch of each of the following on a sheet of paper : flour, cornmeal, 
 any cereal breakfast food, buckwheat, and ground coffee. Place the sheet in a hot 
 oven and keep it there several minutes. Xow see whether the paper shows that any 
 of these things contain oil. Have the pupils name some plants whose seeds contain 
 so much oil that it is extracted and used for various commercial purposes. (Flax, 
 cotton, castor oil bean.) 
 
 LESSOX 6. Besides starch and oil plants contain other substances known as 
 proteids. In your physiology you may have learned of albumen as a kind of proteid. 
 One of the purest types of proteid known is the white of egg. Another substance 
 in plants is sugar. Why does a sweet potato taste sweeter than the common white 
 potato? Xame other plants that have sugar in them. From what plants is the sugar 
 of commerce obtained? All starch found in plants is changed into sugar before it 
 can be absorbed by plants or animals for starch is insoluble in water, and all sub- 
 stances absorbed by living bodies must be dissolved in water. 
 
 Is there any part of your corn grain that does not seem to have any of these 
 substances named above? The hulls are made up mostly of a substance called cellu- 
 lose. Cellulose is found in all plants, and is the material that gives strength and 
 firmness to the different parts. It is found in the cell walls, in fibers of stems, roots, 
 and leaves, as well as in fruits and seeds. It is harder and thicker in some parts ojf 
 plants than in others, as in stems, husk, and roots. The fibers of cotton, hemp, and 
 flax are made chiefly of cellulose. Soak some common newspaper or writing paper 
 in water till all the sizing is washed out. The pulp which remains is almost pure 
 cellulose. Do you know what most of our paper is made from? (From wood, that is 
 from the cellulose of the woody stems of trees.) 
 
 Where do the plants get all these substances? A discussion of this question 
 will bring out the fact that plants manufacture them. All plants that have green 
 leaves or the green coloring matter in the young stems make starch, sugar and the 
 other things that you found in corn, potatoes, etc. They may, therefore, be called 
 plant products or plant foods. It will add interest to the work to have pupils make a 
 collection of the plant products. These should be put into bottles and carefully 
 labeled. The following are the products most available for this purpose : 
 
 Starch from corn or potatoes. 
 
 Sugar ordinary cane sugar, or maple sugar. 
 
 Oil linseed, cottonseed, corn oil. 
 
 Proteids beans, peas, corn embryo. 
 
 Fiber cotton, flax. 
 
 Cellulose stems or hulls of corn, paper pulp. 
 
 LESSOXS 7 AXD 8. We have said in Lesson 6 that plants manufacture certain 
 plant products. Xow if plants are factories what equipment must they have? 
 Machinery, power, and raw material out of which to make the starch, sugar, etc. 
 What is the source of this raw material? 
 
 By discussion it may be brought out that the environment of the plant is air, 
 soil, and soil water ; hence these are the only available sources from which the plants 
 may obtain raw materials to make their plant products. 
 
 Just how the plants procure the raw material, and how they make the foods, we 
 shall take up for consideration in some later lessons. At present we are concerned 
 chiefly in finding out what the materials are that the plants use in making foods and 
 plant tissues. 
 
 We know that we cannot find starch as starch in the air or water or soil. We 
 also know that starch is made up of several substances which are united to form what 
 we call a chemical compound. 
 
 Wliat is a chemical compound! 
 
 What is a good example of a chemical compound? It is formed by the union of 
 two things, oxygen and hydrogen. Both of these are invisible gases. Do either of 
 
154 
 
 them resemble water? They do not, yet chemists can separate water into these two 
 gases. No one, however, can separate either oxygen or hydrogen into other substances 
 so we call these elements. 
 
 What then is an element ? It is a substance that so far as chemists know cannot 
 be separated into other substances. There are only between seventy and eighty ele- 
 ments known. Everything else in the world is in the form of a compound. How are 
 compounds formed? By the chemical union of two or more elements. Just to mix 
 the elements together will not necessarily make a compound. They must unite in defi- 
 nite proportions. In order to know what we mean by this you must know that every- 
 thing in the world is made up of very small particles called molecules. The molecules 
 are so small that they cannot be seen by the most powerful microscope. Each mole- 
 cule is made up of still smaller particles called atoms. Now when a chemical union 
 takes place a certain number of atoms of one element unite with a certain number of 
 atoms of another element or elements and make a molecule of a new substance which 
 is a compound. We know that water is a chemical compound made by the union of 
 hydrogen and oxygen. Two atoms of hydrogen unite with one atom of oxygen to 
 make water, hence we use the symbol H 2 O to stand for water. 
 
 Chemical unions are taking place constantly in the world of nature. The follow- 
 ing experiment will show us one of these unions. 
 
 EXPERIMENT. Moisten a piece of iron (nails or tacks) ; place the wet iron 
 on a piece of paper exposed to the air. Examine the next day. What has happened? 
 A chemical combination has taken place between the iron and the oxygen in the air. 
 In common terms we call this rust. It is iron oxide, or if hydrogen has also com- 
 bined with the iron and oxygen, which is probable, it is iron hydroxide. What hap- 
 pens to iron of any sort when left exposed to air? 
 
 LESSON 9. Another simple experiment to show a chemical combination may 
 be performed. Place a small piece of sulphur on a bright silver coin and set the 
 sulphur on fire. You can do that by putting a live coal on the sulphur. When it has 
 burned look at the coin. What has taken place? The dark substance is silver sul- 
 phide. A chemical combination has taken place between the sulphur and the silver. 
 Was all the sulphur used in making the silver sulphide? What did you see taking 
 place above the coin? Was anything uniting with the sulphur to form the blue flame 
 or smoke? The oxygen of the air. The compound is sulphur dioxide. It is a gas and 
 escaped into the air. How did you know it was in the air? You probably noticed the 
 sulphur odor in the air. 
 
 Now in plants chemical combinations take place which result in the plant prod- 
 ucts we have found. Starch is a combination of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. The 
 symbols for these are O. H. and C respectively. Proteid is a combination of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen, with nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and often other elements. 
 
 LESSON 10. Where does the plant get the oxygen that it uses in making 
 starch? It probably gets it as well as the hydrogen, from the water which it gets 
 out of the soil. What must first be done with the water? The plant must separate 
 the water into its elements, oxygen and hydrogen. 
 
 Where does the plant get the carbon? This is obtained from the air. How do 
 we know that plants contain carbon? Place a small piece of wood (hard wood is 
 best) on a piece of wire screen, or on a tin pie plate, or in a test tube. Heat by 
 holding the flame of a lamp under it or by holding it on a shovel over a bed of hot 
 coals in the stove. When it stops smoking note what is left. The charcoal is mostly 
 carbon. What is its color? Think of other plants which you have seen heated or 
 partially burned, such as leaves, grass, cornstalks, brush. Do you remember seeing 
 any charcoal or carbon? 
 
 We said the plant gets its carbon out of the air. Do you think it gets it in the 
 form in which you see the carbon in the charcoal? It gets it in the form of a gas 
 called carbon dioxide, C, O 2 . Is this gas an element or a compound? How do you 
 know? We know it is a compound for the symbol says it is made of two elements. 
 We may make some carbon dioxide in the following manner: Place a heaping tea- 
 spoonful of soda in a glass half full of water and add to this a few teaspoonfuls of 
 vinegar. Stir and see what happens. This gas that bubbles up is carbon dioxide. 
 What does C O 2 tell you about a molecule of gas? C says one atom of carbon 
 and O 2 says two atoms of oxygen. Test for carbon dioxide with lime water. Carbon 
 dioxide turns lime water milky. Lime water may be made by placing a piece of 
 unslaked lime in a bottle, and filling the bottle nearly full of water. Shake well, and 
 set aside for twenty-four hours. The clear water on top is lime water. 
 
155 
 
 LESSONS 11 AND 12. We have already discussed three elements that plants 
 use in manufacturing food. What are the other things that are needed! The fol- 
 lowing is a list of elements that plants need: Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, 
 sulphur, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, potassium (usually in the form of potash) 
 calcium. All plants must have all ten of these elements if they live and grow. 
 
 We have seen that the first three elements named above are supplied to the plant 
 from the water and air. Where do the plants get all the rest? These are obtained 
 from the soil. 
 
 How many of the things furnished the plants by the soil may be found as ele- 
 ments in the soil? If not, then in what form must they exist? All of them exist 
 in the soil as compounds. 
 
 The compounds that exist in the soil may be acids, alkalies, or salts. 
 
 Can you think of some things about the home that are acids? (They are sub- 
 stances that are sour, such as vinegar, sour milk, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc. 
 
 Alkalies are substances like lye and potash. Baking soda and lime are alkalies. 
 
 If you mix together an alkali and an acid one so acts upon the other that the 
 characteristics of both are destroyed. Put a few tablespoonfuls of strong vinegar 
 into a cup or glass half full of water. Taste it. Now put a teaspoonful of soda into 
 the sour water. After it stops foaming taste it. Is it as sour as it was before? We 
 say the soda has neutralized the acid. 
 
 A salt is neither alkali nor acid. Common table salt is a good example of this 
 kind of compound. 
 
 Some soils contain more acids than are good for plants. If we put an alkali of 
 some kind into sour soil we may sweeten it. Do you know any substance that some 
 farmers put on the soil for this purpose? (Lime is frequently used to sweeten soil.) 
 
 LESSON 13. It will be worth while to have the children make a collection of 
 as many of the elements and compounds used by plants as they can get such as iron, 
 sulphur, lime which has calcium in it, salt peter which contain nitrogen, burnt bones 
 which contain phosphorus, epsom salts containing magnesium. These should be put 
 into small bottles and carefully labeled. 
 
 Some time should be taken at this point for the discussion of what is meant by 
 fertility of the soil. Of the ten elements that all plants must have, seven are sup- 
 plied by the soil. Name these seven. Where do the plants get oxygen, hydrogen, and 
 carbon? If any of the elements supplied by the soil are lacking or are not in an 
 available form, we say the soil is poor, or lacking in fertility. There are many 
 physical conditions also that help to make the soil fertile. These will be discussed in 
 a later lesson. But all the proper physical conditions known will not make a fertile 
 soil if it lacks any of the elements that plants must have in order to manufacture 
 their plant products. 
 
 LESSONS 14 AND 15. Most of the substances used by plants exist in such 
 abundance in the soil that there is little danger of their becoming exhausted. Three 
 elements, however, that all farm crops use are not so abundant. These are phosphorus, 
 potassium, and nitrogen. In some places calcium also is lacking. If fields are culti- 
 vated year after year the plants are constantly removing these substances from the 
 soil. If nothing is done to return these substances of course the soil becomes so 
 deficient in these plant materials that plants cannot thrive in it. It is very important 
 that farmers see to it that the lack is supplied in some way. 
 
 There are several ways in which the soil may be kept with a sufficient amount 
 of plant material. Among these are the application of barn manures, the plowing 
 under of green crops especially clovers and the use of commercial fertilizers. 
 
 Among the commercial fertilizers, the following are in common use: 
 
 For nitrogen dried blood is used. This contains twelve to fourteen per cent of 
 nitrogen. Sodium nitrate is also used, and this contains about fifteen per cent 
 nitrogen. 
 
 For phosphorus, steamed bone is used, which contains about twelve or fourteen 
 per cent of phosphorus. Bock phosphate is also used. 
 
 For potassium or potash, potassium chloride is used, which has forty to forty- 
 two per cent of potassium. Kainit, which contains twelve per cent of potassium, is 
 also used. Potassium carbonate in the form of wood ashes is also used wherever 
 this available. 
 
 Lime is used as a fertilizer either in form of gypsum, quicklime, or slaked lime. 
 While most soils have enough lime to supply the needs of the plants, lime is, neverthe- 
 
156 
 
 less, of considerable value to any soil that has become acid, as we have already seen. 
 It also helps to unlock the unavailable potash, phosphorus, and nitrogen in some soils 
 and changes them to a form available for plant use. Why do soils become sour? 
 
 There are a number of agencies that tend to make soils sour, especially soils that 
 are constantly undergoing cultivation. In our study of fungi we discussed the 
 bacteria that cause organic matter in the soil to decay. Now as this matter decays, 
 acids of various kinds are given off. Another acid in the soil is carbon dioxide, some 
 of which is carried into the soil by the rain. Sulphuric and nitric acids are also 
 found in soils. Some of the nitric acid is formed in the following way : When stable 
 manure is plowed into the soil certain bacteria feed upon it, making it decay, and at 
 the same time making part of it into ammonia. Other bacteria feed upon the 
 ammonia, making part of it into nitric acid. Some of this acid remains in the soil, 
 but some of it unites with the potassium or magnesium and forms nitrates. It is in 
 the form of these nitrates that plants obtain the nitrogen from the soil. 
 
 From our study of clover and other legumes we know that nitrogen may be also 
 supplied by growing these plants that produce root tubercles. 
 
 If possible add to your collection samples of the commercial fertilizers. 
 
 MARCH 
 
 OUTLINE FOE MARCH. Review origin and kinds of soil. Simple experi- 
 ments in soil physics; review source of water in the soil; movements of water; forms 
 in which water exists in the soil; value of draining off free water; capillarity; power 
 of different kinds of soil to absorb water. Method of retaining the moisture in the 
 soil. Simple experiments showing value of soil mulch; air in soil; parts of plant con- 
 cerned in getting water from the soil. Experiments to show transpiration. Need of 
 light and warmth. 
 
 Oats. Test samples of seed for purity and vitality. Methods of planting. Treat 
 seeds with formalin for smut. Different varieties raised on neighborhood. History 
 of oats. Uses. 
 
 LESSONS 1 AND 2. Review origin of soil, different types of soil. (Sand, silt, 
 clay, humus, loam. See Lessons 6 and 8 for November in the sixth year.) 
 
 LESSONS 3 AND 4. Review experiments showing what becomes of the water 
 that soaks into the ground after rains. (These are found in Lessons 12 and 13 for 
 November in the sixth year.) Be sure that the children have a clear notion of what 
 we mean free water which fills the spaces between the particles of soil, and capillary 
 water which clings to the soil particles and makes it moist. They must remember 
 also that it is capillary water that plants use. 
 
 LESSONS 5 AND 6. Repeat the experiment suggested in Lesson 15 of Novem- 
 ber, sixth year. The problems to be solved here are, what kind of soils have the 
 greatest capacity to hold rain water, which drains most readily, and which is most 
 porous. To determine which has the greatest capacity measure carefully the amount 
 of water put in and the amount that drips away. This experiment cannot be finished 
 in one day. It will take several days for the water to get through the clay or silt. 
 
 LESSON 7. Is there any water left in the soil after the free water has all 
 dripped out? What becomes of this capillary water? To answer this perform the 
 following experiment: 
 
 Fill a tumbler with moist soil. Over it invert another tumbler the same size. 
 Set it aside. Examine after twenty-four hours. What do you find on the inverted 
 tumbler? Where did the moisture come from? What may be done to prevent the 
 evaporation of water from the soil? Again, place moist soil in the tumbler. Put 
 on top a layer of very dry, fine soil, one inch deep. Invert a tumbler over this as 
 before, and note whether or not any evaporation takes place. If the moisture in the 
 top layer of soil evaporates, does this in any way affect the moisture farther down in 
 the soil? 
 
 Fill the lamp chimneys once more with the different kinds of dry soil. Stand 
 them in a dish or pan of water so that the mouth over which the cheese cloth is tied 
 will rest about half an inch in the water. What happens? What makes the water 
 creep upward in the soils? 
 
 Hang a towel over a desk so that about an inch of the corner will rest in a dish 
 of water on the floor. What takes place? The same thing is happening in the 
 
157 
 
 towel and in the soil. The water is slowly rising. This is due to what is known as 
 capillarity or capillary attraction. To explain fully why this takes place would take 
 us too far into the subject of physics. It is enough for us to know that liquids rise 
 long distances through small tubes or pores. We have a good illustration of this in 
 the ordinary lamp wick which conveys oil from the bowl of the lamp to the top of 
 the wick. 
 
 LESSON 8. In which kind of soil does the water rise most rapidly? In which 
 does it reach the greatest height? If a field has an abundance of water in the subsoil 
 this may be lifted by capillarity to the place where it will be of use to the growing 
 plant. Watch the rise of the water in the soil for several days. Vary the experiment 
 by mixing humus with clay in one chimney and with sand in another. Put lumpy 
 loam in one and fine loam in another. The last experiments show the value of having 
 soil in good physical condition if we expect the capillary water to be carried upward 
 to the roots of the plants. 
 
 LESSOX 9. Think of all the ways in which the water brought by capillarity 
 to the surface of the ground in a corn field is used up. Part of it is taken up by 
 the roots and part evaporates. If the sun is very warm a vast amount of water 
 evaporates and is lost to the plants. Is there anything that may be done to prevent 
 this loss of moisture during the dry, summer months? We saw that a layer of fine 
 dry soil has on the moist soil in the tumblers retarded evaporation. Now place in two 
 tin pans or pails (lard or syrup pails will serve the purpose) equal amounts of moist 
 soil. Firm the soil slightly by jarring the pails. Set them side by side. Leave on3 
 undisturbed, but in the other stir thoroughly the upper two inches of soil every day. 
 Weigh at the end of a week. Which has retained more moisture? Why? By stirring 
 the soil the capillary tubes are broken, the water does not come to the surface, and 
 cannot evaporate. Which will keep the more moisture, a field in which the soil is 
 frequently stirred on top with a cultivator or one which is left undisturbed? 
 
 Place a lump of sugar so that the lower part will rest in some red or black ink. 
 Does the ink rise by capillarity to the top of the sugar? Place another lump beside 
 this one with a layer of granulated sugar sprinkled over the top. Does the ink rise 
 as rapidly through the loose sugar as through the lump! Why? 
 
 In the same way, as long as the soil is left alone, the water is constantly moving 
 by capillarity to the surface and evaporating. A layer of dry, pulverized soil on top 
 stops the capillary flow of water and moisture is conserved for the use of the plants. 
 We call this layer of dry soil on top a soil mulch. It pays to cultivate the corn fields 
 during dry weather just to keep a soil mulch on the field even if there are no weeds 
 to destroy. 
 
 LESSON 10. When the soil is loose on top and there is no free water in it do 
 you think there is anything in the spaces between the soil particles? To answer this 
 question we shall try a simple experiment. Fill a tumbler or cup full of dry soil, 
 pour water in one spot, watch for bubbles of air that the water drives out. Keep on 
 pouring in water until all the air is out. Do you see what has happened ? The water 
 has taken the place of the air that was in the spaces. In all the soil of the fields 
 the spaces are filled with air. When the water fills these spaces what happens ? Have 
 you ever seen a corn or oats field on which water has stood for several days? We say 
 they are ' ' drowned out. ' ' That is because all the air has been cut off by the water 
 from the roots. 
 
 LESSON 11. OATS. Discuss the value of the oats crop in the neighborhood. 
 How many in the district raise oats? How much do they raise? Who are going to 
 plant oats this spring? What was raised on the ground last year? Are oats to be 
 sown alone or with clover? What kind of oats are raised in the district? Ask each 
 child to bring a small sample of oats for study next day. 
 
 LESSON 12. Study of the grain. Note the chaffy covering. Remove it. 
 Notice the size, shape, and color. Compare the different varieties in regard to these 
 points. Make a comparative study with grains of wheat and rye if this can be done. 
 
 Test the samples for purity. To do this have the pupils spread a small handful 
 of oats on white paper. Look closely for foreign bodies of any sort. Are there any 
 weed seeds? Can you identify these? Put all the weed seeds and trash into one pile 
 and all the oats in another. About what part of your sample is pure oats? 
 
 LESSON 12. You want your seed oats to germinate. You can not tell by 
 looking at the sample whether they have this power or not. You must make a 
 
158 
 
 germination test. Take from the sample one hundred seeds. Place some moist sand 
 or soil in a dinner plate or box. Scatter the seeds over the sand, not allowing any 
 of them to touch each other. Press each seed gently into the sand so that it will 
 rest firmly but not be covered. Turn another plate over this one or cover it up with a 
 damp cloth and set in a warm place. Be sure to keep the sand moist. 
 
 Watch for germination. How long after planting before the first sprout appears? 
 Allow the grains to remain at least one day after germination begins, then remove 
 the sprouted grains daily till all have sprouted that will. By counting the grains 
 that are left you will be able to determine the percent that germinated. If you do not 
 wish to take the time remove the sprouted grain each day, allow the plate to stand 
 three or four days after the grains have begun to sprout, then remove those that 
 have failed to germinate and compute your per cent of germination as before. Did 
 all the grains show equal vigor of germination? Would you expect to get a good 
 stand of oats from seed whose germination test was not higher than sixty or seventy 
 per cent? 
 
 LESSON 13. PLANTING. Discuss with the children the different methods of 
 sowing oats. Who in the district sows broadcast? How many drill oats? Is there 
 any advantage of one method over another? Encourage the children to watch to see 
 whether one method seems better than the other. What is the proper time for plant- 
 ing? A good rule is to sow as early in the spring as the soil is dry enough to work 
 well. Discuss the number of bushels it takes to sow an acre. You will probably find 
 differences of opinion in regard to this. The average, however, is from three to three 
 and one-half bushels per acre. Some recent experiments seem to show that most 
 farmers plant their oats entirely too thick and that planting one or one and one-half 
 bushels per acre will give a better yield than planting in the ordinary way. How deep 
 are oats planted? Is there any danger of planting too deeply? An experiment may 
 be tried. Place in a mason jar an inch of soil and plant close to the glass on one 
 side a grain of oats and one or two on the other side. Put another inch of soil in 
 and then two or three more seeds close to the glass, and so on until the jar is filled 
 within an inch of the top. Keep watered and watch to see whether the seeds planted 
 near the surface germinate and grow any better than those planted near the bottom 
 of the jar. 
 
 LESSON 14. Has any member of the class ever seen any smut on oats ? This is 
 a common disease of the oats that entirely spoils the head. The seed may be treated 
 for this disease before planting and growth of smut almost entirely prevented. En- 
 courage some of the pupils to try treating the seed and planting on their home farms. 
 Make a weak solution of formalin, one tablespoonful to a gallon of water. Put the 
 seed into a gunny sack and allow it to remain in the solution ten minutes. Spread it 
 out on the floor to dry and plant it as soon as^dry. 
 
 LESSON 15. History and uses of oats. Oats originally belonged to a cold 
 climate. It is one of the greatest crops in northern regions; in Sweden and northern 
 Russia, as well as in the northern parts of our own country. Some of the best varie- 
 ties originated in Sweden and Russia. It is for this reason that we may plant oats 
 so very early in the spring. Have the children watch the oats to see whether the 
 frost injures it. Have them name all the uses of oats; for feeding, the value in the 
 rotation of crops, the uses of the straw. Are oats used at all for human food? In 
 some countries oats constitute one of the staple foods in the making of bread as well 
 as porridge. 
 
 LESSON 16. Watch the development of the plant. Plant a little spot in the 
 school yard, or all the observations may be made at home. How long after planting 
 till the oats appear above the ground? How low a temperature can these young plants 
 stand? Note the habits of growth. Does one root send up more than one stem? 
 Count the number of stems that you find coming from one root. 
 
 APRIL AND MAY 
 
 OUTLINE FOB APRIL AND MAY. The icork of plants. Simple experiments 
 to show the relation of roots to soil, work of stem, work of leaves. 
 
 Methods used in maintaining fertility of soils of Illinois; rotation of crops; 
 manures; fertilisers; cultivation. Report on neighborhood practice. Work of the 
 U. 8. Department of Agriculture. State experiment stations; send for bulletins. 
 
159 
 
 The work of plants. Simple experiments to show the relation of roots to soil, 
 work of stem, work of leaves. 
 
 Girls study how to arrange flowers of gardens at home and school. List of 
 vegetables that may be raised in home garden. Select one or two for special study. 
 
 Arrange vacation studies and experiments. 
 
 NOTE. In preparation for the lessons later in the month plant in cans, flower 
 pots, or boxes some corn, oats, radishes, peas or nasturtiums. When the oats are 
 about two inches high cover one-half as suggested in Lesson 9 of this month. 
 
 LESSON 1. Eeview the various products that plants make; starch, sugar, pro- 
 teid, etc. (See February lessons.) Try to have the children think of plants not only 
 as living but as working beings. They are like factories since they manufacture 
 products. If they are factories what equipment must they have? (Machinery, raw 
 material, and power.) We have already learned that the raw material is supplied 
 from the air, the soil, and the soil water. We are now ready to find out how the 
 plants do their work. 
 
 LESSONS 2 AND 3. Experiment. Put some moist blotting paper or sand on 
 a damp cloth in a dinner plate or box. Scatter over this at some distance apart a 
 number of radish or oats seeds. Turn another plate or piece of cloth over this to 
 keep in the moisture, and put in a warm place. Water if necessary. At the same 
 time plant a few seeds in a pot or can of soil. After three or four days examine the 
 plants. What do you find on the roots? Those delicate threadlike structures are root 
 hairs. On what part of the roots do you find them most abundant? Watch a plant 
 for several days to see whether any of the hairs wither and die, and whether new ones 
 continue to appear. Are there any at the very tip of the root? Can you see any 
 advantage in not having root hairs here? (As the root grows it must penetrate the 
 soil. If there were hairs on the tip they would be broken off.) What do you think is 
 the use of the root hairs? If the little plants were growing in the soil instead of on 
 blotting paper the root hairs would penetrate the spaces between the particles of soil. 
 Pull up one or two of the little plants that are growing in the pot. Do any of the 
 soil particles cling to the roots? They are really clinging to the root hairs. Of course 
 in pulling up the young plants you pulled off most of the delicate hairs. These hairs 
 are in close contact with the film water on the soil particles. They are so surrounded 
 with this moisture that they absorb it; that is, the moisture goes right through the 
 thin covering of the root hair. We call the process by which liquids or gases pass 
 through a plant or animal membrane osmosis. The walls of the root hairs are very 
 thin and by osmosis the soil water with the plant materials passes readily through 
 them. At the same time a little of the thicker substance in the root hairs passes out 
 into the soil. 
 
 LESSON 3. Eoots are so much in need of water to do their work that they 
 will grow rapidly in the direction of moisture. You may prove that roots seek 
 moisture by a very simple experiment. Trim a little off the side of a chalk box lid 
 so you may push it down into the box, making a partition through the middle. Near 
 the bottom of this partition cut or bore a hole as large as a half dollar, and tack a 
 piece of wire screening over it. Place clean sand or soil in the box, and plant corn 
 or oats on one side. After the seeds have germinated, put a very little water on the 
 side of the partition where the plants are growing; just enough to keep them alive. 
 Keep the other side will moistened but not wet. After two weeks, carefully dig down 
 and examine the roots. If your experiment has worked properly you will find that the 
 roots of the plants have grown through the wire screen in order to get to the moisture. 
 
 LESSON 4. If a field is not well drained the young plants in the spring will 
 not send their roots very far down into the soil. An experiment will help to show this. 
 Procure two tin cans. In the bottom of one punch holes for drainage and put in a 
 few pebbles or cinders. Leave the other without drainage. Fill each with moist soil 
 and plant corn or beans or oats. Set them side by side. Place exactly the same 
 amount of water in each from day to day. Do not water too much. After a few 
 weeks dig up the plants and note the effect on the roots. Which have sent their roots 
 farthest down? Does under drainage tend to make a long or short root system? The 
 children will readily see that a long root system is an advantage to any farm crop. 
 Which plants will fare better during the dry season, those whose roots have grown to 
 a good depth or those whose roots are near the surface? 
 
160 
 
 LESSON 5. We have seen that thrugh the root hairs the soil water with raw 
 materials goes into the roots. Where does this water go, and what finally becomes of 
 it? Experiment. Cut off a growing twig from a maple, or box-elder. Place the cut 
 stem in a tumbler half full of water to which you have added a teaspoonful of red ink. 
 Allow it to stand twenty-four hours. With a sharp knife slice off small sections of 
 the stem and examine closely. Through what part of the stem did the water travel? 
 This is called the woody part or wood. In all tree and shrub stems the water travels 
 upward through the wood. In stems of herbs like beans there is very little wood. 
 What there is is in small bundles around the pith. The water travels upward through 
 these bundles. In a corn stem the water travels upward through the bundles of fibers 
 that are scattered throughout the pith. 
 
 LESSON 6. Is all the water taken into the plant used in the plant? Experi- 
 ment. Cover with glazed or writing paper the top of a pot in which a plant is grow- 
 ing vigorously. To do this slit the paper to the center and cut out a space big enough 
 for the stem. Now slip the paper around the stem and tie it around the top of the 
 pot. Turn a glass jar over the plant and let it stand in the light a few hours. What 
 do you find on the glass? Where did the drops of water come from? This process 
 of giving off water is called transpiration. The leaves transpire constantly. With a 
 microscope we could find very numerous pores in the thin skin of a leaf. These are 
 called stomates. The water goes in at the roots, travels up the stem into the leaves, 
 and most of it is given off into the air through the stomates. 
 
 LESSONS 7 AND 8. We are now ready to find out something about the way 
 in which plants manufacture their products. To understand this we must know some- 
 thing about leaves. 
 
 Examine a leaf of any plant. The stem is the petiole, the expanded part is 
 the blade. Hold the leaf between you and the light. What do you see in it? How 
 are the veins arranged in a bean leaf, maple, sunflower? These are net-veined leaves. 
 How are the veins arranged in a corn leaf? In grass? These are parallel veins. 
 What is the use of the veins? By discussion the value of the veins in holding the leaf 
 spread out will be brought out. Place a twig with growing leaves in a tumbler of 
 water colored with red ink. After twenty-four hours examine the petiole and the 
 veins. The red ink in the veins tells you that the veins carry water to all parts of 
 the leaf. If you can procure a thick leaf, as live-forever, tulip, or hepatica, have the 
 pupils peel off a little of the skin or epidermis. Even a thin leaf may have a little 
 of the covering removed, enough to lead the pupils to see that the entire leaf is 
 covered with a thin, almost transparent skin. What is under the skin? This green 
 granular mass is largely made up of a substance called chlorophyll. If the pupil 
 could see a cross section of a leaf highly magnified he would find it built up of cells. 
 Each cell has a thin wall and contains green, roundish bodies called chlorophyll bodies, 
 and a moss of colorless protoplasm. These form the machinery that manufacture 
 plant food. But just as any machinery must have power to make it run, so must the 
 machinery of the leaf. What is the power? 
 
 LESSON 9. Experiment: Fill a box or dinner plate with soil and sow some 
 oats or wheat seeds. After the grains are sprouted cover one-half the plants with a 
 box or tin can. Give all the plants the same amount of water. After a week com- 
 pare the plants grown under cover with those grown in the light. What do the former 
 lack? What is your conclusion as to the ability of the plants to make chlorophyll 
 without light? Recall the color of grass that has been covered with a board. What 
 is the color of potato sprouts in a cellar? Without light, plants cannot make chloro- 
 phyll, and without chlorophyll no starch can be made. The light is the power that 
 runs the machinery, but the chlorophyll is the connecting link between the power and 
 the machine. In some way is succeeds in hitching them together so that they may 
 do their work. 
 
 LESSON 10. We remember that starch is made out of oxygen and hydrogen 
 from water and carbon from air, and that proteids contain these three elements with 
 the addition of nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., which come from the soil. 
 
 The leaves take in the carbon dioxide through their stomates. What must be 
 done with this compound before the plant can use the carbon? It must be separated 
 into its elements, oxygen and carbon. If the protoplasm decomposes the carbon diox- 
 ide and uses the carbon, what becomes of the oxygen? It goes out of the leaf into 
 the air. Therefore, when a plant is actively engaged in manufacturing starch it is 
 
161 
 
 taking carbon dioxide from the air and giving out oxygen. Why cannot this process 
 be carried on during the night? 
 
 LESSON 11. What do the plants do with the starch, proteids, and oils that 
 they make ? The starch, by a process something like digestion in our bodies, is changed 
 into sugar, and this and the other foods are conveyed in liquid form from the leaves 
 to all parts of the plants. They are used in the growth of these parts. 
 
 Do plants grow at night? Measure some of your corn plants at night and again 
 in the morning to see how much they grow. While plants cannot make food at night, 
 they can use the food that they have made during the daylight for growth during the 
 darkness. Some of the food is stored for future use. Eecall the study of the potato, 
 corn seeds, biennial roots, etc. 
 
 Dig up some corn plants that have been growing two or three weeks. Examine 
 the grains. What has become of their contents? 
 
 LESSON 12. Plants need something besides food in order to live and grow. 
 They are like animals in this respect. They must have air to breathe as well as food 
 to eat. They cannot live without oxygen any more than you can. Not only the 
 leaves but the stems and roots also need oxygen. They carry on respiration just as 
 we do, that is, they use the oxygen in the cells and give out carbon dioxide as a waste 
 product. 
 
 Have the pupils summarize all the work of the plants. What the roots do, the 
 stems, and the leaves. 
 
 LESSON 13. HOW TO MAINTAIN THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. Now 
 that we know something about the needs of plants and the work they do we are ready 
 to consider what may be done not only to produce good crops but to insure the pro- 
 duction of good crops in the future. 
 
 One thing to be considered is tillage. This is of two kinds: the breaking up or 
 plowing preparation for the seed, and the cultivation of the soil when the crop is 
 growing. The plowing may be done in the fall or spring. Can you think of any 
 advantage of fall plowing? What effect has freezing upon the soil? There may be 
 some disadvantages in fall plowing in some localities. Where there is a subsoil of 
 sand, heavy rains may wash out or leach from the soil some of the soluble compounds 
 that with the spring plowing might have been saved for the plants. One of the most 
 important things to think about in tillage is the preparation of the seed bed, so that 
 it may be fine and fit for seeds. 
 
 Experiment: Plant some corn seeds in a pot containing coarse, lumpy soil. In 
 another plant seeds containing the same kind of soil that has been made fine. Water 
 both. In which do the seeds germinate first? Which plants thrive best after germi- 
 nation? 
 
 What are some of the other benefits due to tillage? It increases the depth of 
 the soil. Which is better, shallow plowing or deep? Why? If year after year only 
 the upper three or four inches of soil are turned over, this will become so depleted 
 of its plant foods that it will be "worn out." Besides the lower layer of soil will 
 become so packed and sour that it will be utterly unfit for the plant roots. Tillage 
 also aids in the saving of moisture. How? Think back to your experiment with soil 
 mulch. It also loosens the soil so that it will hold more air and be better ventilated. 
 It kills out the weeds and thus prevents a loss of plant foods and water. By breaking 
 up the soil particles it renders the plant foods more available. It turns under vegeta- 
 tion and thus increases the amount of humus in the soil. 
 
 LESSON 14. The second thing to consider in helping the soil to supply the 
 needs of plants is drainage. We have already seen some of the advantages of under 
 drainage. It renders the soil more porous. In increases the temperature in the spring. 
 It gives an opportunity for better ventilation. It results in a deeper root system. 
 Proper tillage and drainage then are two very important forces in maintaining good 
 physical conditions of the soil. 
 
 The rotation of crops is another important consideration. Agriculturists are 
 coming to believe more and more that to grow the same kind of crop in a field near 
 after year will result in absolute ruin to the soil. There are several reasons for this. 
 One is that certain kinds of crops use more of the kind of plant material than of 
 others. After a number of years the soil is so lacking in this particular compound 
 that it is difficult to grow any kind of a crop in it. Another probable reason is that 
 each plant gives out a certain amount of organic waste matter into the soil. When 
 
162 
 
 a plant has been grown for a term of years in one locality, the soil becomes so full 
 of this poisonous waste that the plant can no longer thrive in it. This substance is 
 not so poisonous to other plants and by a wise rotation of crops this waste need not 
 result in disadvantage to the plants. Eotation also gives an opportunity to kill out 
 weeds that are likely to persist if the same crop is grown year after year. It also 
 helps to get rid of certain insect pests. Every farmer must settle for himself the 
 crops that are to be rotated; but he should adopt a definite system of plant rotation. 
 A three-year rotation is carried on successfully in some places. This consists of oats, 
 or wheat, clover, corn. Have the class tell what is practiced in their neighborhood. 
 
 LESSONS 15 AND 16. One important result that comes with crop rotation is 
 the increase of humus. Humus is added in the plowing under of the oats or wheat 
 stubble, as well as the stems and roots of the clover. The value of humus in any soil 
 cannot be overestimated. From our experiments what do you know of the effect of 
 humus on the capacity of soils to hold moisture? It helps to keep the moisture in. 
 Besides, this humus improves the texture of the soil, enriches it, and helps to make 
 available to plants other materials that are locked up in the soil. 
 
 What are the sources of humus? We have already mentioned the plowing under 
 of stubble and clover. What substance necessary for plants does the clover and other 
 legumes add to the soil? (Nitrogen.) Other crops besides legumes are sometimes 
 raised and plowed under for the purpose of supplying humus. Such crops are called 
 green manures. Eye is frequently used in this way. Stable manure is by far the 
 best source of humus. It not only improves the physical condition in the soil but 
 adds some of the most important substances which plants use, phosphorus, nitrogen, 
 and potassium. It is the most perfect of all fertilizers. 
 
 One thing more is done in many places to keep up the fertility of the soil, and 
 that is the use of commercial fertilizers. This we have already discussed in our study 
 of soil chemistry. Just what plant materials may be lacking in any soil can be told 
 only by testing the soil, not in the laboratory but in the field. Some very interesting 
 experiments have been made by the Agricultural College at Urbana to show the value 
 of commercial fertilizers. 
 
 To sum up the whole story then. In order to increase the fertility of the soil 
 we must see to it that the soil is kept in good physical condition by proper tillage, 
 drainage, and the addition of humus, and that the plant materials that are removed 
 by the plants to manufacture their food be returned in good measure in the form of 
 stable manures, leguminous plants, green manures, or commercial fertilizers. 
 
 LESSON 17. FAKM NOTES. It will be worth while to take one recitation to 
 discuss the activities on the farm for the school year, using the calendars that have 
 been kept. Encourage the boys to continue the calendar during the summer. 
 
 LESSON 18. THE GAEDEN. Encourage the girls to plant flower gardens at 
 home. Consult catalogues for kinds to plant. Discuss methods of planting and 
 arranging flowers as suggested in the lessons for the sixth year. 
 
 Encourage the boys to plant corn or oats for a contest in the fall. If corn is 
 to be grown each boy should plant at least one-eighth of an acre. 
 
INDEX 
 
 A Page 
 Acid 152 
 
 Aid to injured 22, 87 
 
 Air.. 12, 13, 69, 122, 154 
 
 In soil 157 
 
 Air currents 34, 84 
 
 Alcohol.... 35, 47, 69, 86 
 
 Alfalfa 135 
 
 Alkali 155 
 
 Anatomy 36, 51, 68, 
 
 69, 86 
 
 Annual plants 114 
 
 Ants 43 
 
 Apple and apple-tree 
 
 18, 94, 113, 127 
 
 Apple pie, apple seeds, 
 decay, of apples, 
 core, pulp, skin, 
 storage, dried ap- 
 ples 18 
 
 Aquarium 26, 70 
 
 Arbor Day 133 
 
 Architect 40 
 
 Arteries 86 
 
 Aster 17,42 
 
 Athletics 52, 88 
 
 Awnings 13 
 
 Axle . ..150 
 
 Babcock milk test . . 144 
 
 Bacteria 82, 136, 149 
 
 Barns 21, 146 
 
 Barnyard fowls.. 46, 125 
 
 Barometer 132 
 
 Bath 88 
 
 Bedbugs 80 
 
 Bees 43 
 
 Beet 58, 68 
 
 Berries 75, et al 
 
 Biennials 57, 67, 114 
 
 Birds, all grades, 
 spring and fall. 
 
 Bird calendar 71 
 
 Birds of prey 124 
 
 Bitter sweet 28 
 
 Blackberry 75, 96 
 
 Blight 137 
 
 Blood 86, et al 
 
 Body, all grades, win- 
 ter months. 
 Body temperature 34, 86 
 
 Boiling 53 
 
 Bones 50 
 
 Booklets 127 
 
 Bouquets 17 
 
 Braconids 98 
 
 Breathing 11, 36, 69 
 
 Brick 40 
 
 Page 
 
 Broken bones 36 
 
 Brown creeper 36 
 
 Bruises 36 
 
 Bulba 43, 59 
 
 Bumble-bee 98 
 
 Burdock 31 
 
 Burns 21 
 
 Burs 31 
 
 Butter 12, 142 
 
 Cabbage 71, 73 
 
 Cabbage worm 73 
 
 Calendar, bird 71 
 
 For farm work 98 
 
 Tree 57 
 
 Candle 70 
 
 Capillaries 86 
 
 Capillarity 86, 156 
 
 Carbon dioxide 121 
 
 Cardinal points 22 
 
 Carpenter 40 
 
 Carpets 69 
 
 Carrot 71 
 
 Caterpillars 32 
 
 Cat 13 
 
 Cellar 69 
 
 Cement 40 et al 
 
 Chart of autumn 
 
 leaves 17 
 
 Weather 9 et al 
 
 Cheese 142 
 
 Cherry tree 94 
 
 Chest expansion 70 
 
 Chemistry of cleaning 69 
 
 Chickens 25 
 
 Chimney 34 
 
 Christmas tree 11 
 
 Circulation 86 
 
 City water supply 81 
 
 Clay 76,156 
 
 Cleanliness. . .11, 22, etc. 
 
 Climbing plants 29 
 
 Cloth 11 
 
 Clothing 11, 13 
 
 Cloudiness 121 
 
 Clouds 19 
 
 Clover 17,134 
 
 Coal 11, 34 
 
 Cockroaches 61 
 
 Cold frame 71 
 
 Cocoon 33 
 
 Coloration. 
 
 Of birds 24 
 
 Of leaves 17 
 
 Combustion 83 
 
 Cones 48 
 
 Convection currents 122 
 
 Page 
 
 Cooking 12, 35, 69 
 
 Corn 17, 94, 106, 128, 131 
 Corn, 
 
 Foods from 9 
 
 Exhibit 114, 142 
 
 Kernel 152 
 
 Plant 42 
 
 Competitive grow- 
 ing 131 
 
 Plot 162 
 
 Cosmos 42 
 
 Cow 12, 142 
 
 Crayfish 26 
 
 Crib 131 
 
 Crickets 61 
 
 Cultivation 158 
 
 Cuts 22 
 
 Cuttings 73, 75, 92 
 
 Daffodils 43 
 
 Dahlia bulbs 61 
 
 Dahlias 59 
 
 Dairy industry 142 
 
 Dampers 34 
 
 Dandelion 17, 71 
 
 Deer 45 
 
 Dentist 47 
 
 Derrick 150 
 
 Digestion 69, et seq. 
 
 Digestive system, 
 
 See digestion. 
 Dipper, 
 
 (constellation) 19, 120 
 Disinfectants and dis- 
 infection 149 
 
 Ditches 75 
 
 Dog 23, 46 
 
 Dollhouse 7, 10, 13 
 
 Domestic animals 
 
 18, 142, 145 
 
 Drafts 34 
 
 Drag 116 
 
 Drainage 78 
 
 Drinking 53 et seq. 
 
 Drinking Cups 82 
 
 Driving horses... 19, 145 
 Dust . ..69 
 
 Earthworm 161 
 
 Eating 12, 47, 69 
 
 Electrician 40 
 
 Electricity 35 
 
 Elements 154 
 
 Elm 57 
 
 Emergencies 36 
 
 English sparrow 35 
 
164 
 
 Page 
 
 Evaporation 53 
 
 Evergreens 11, 49 
 
 Exercise 36, 51 
 
 Eyes 85 
 
 Farm animals 145 
 
 Farm lands 76 
 
 Farm machinery 150 
 
 Feathers 35, 125 
 
 Feeding of cattle 
 
 18, 142 et seq. 
 
 Fertility of soil 161 
 
 Fertilizers 161 
 
 Fertilization 106 
 
 Fibers 51, 68 
 
 Field corn 42, 106 
 
 Filtering 156 
 
 Fire 117 
 
 In the home 34 
 
 Fireplace 12 
 
 Freewater 156 
 
 Floors 69 
 
 Flower, 
 
 Arrangement 132 
 
 Beds 132 
 
 Bud 57 
 
 Festival 61 
 
 Gardens 39 et seq. 
 
 Parts ...71 et al. 
 
 Flowers 132 et al. 
 
 Fly 42, 80 
 
 Fungi on flies 149 
 
 Food 9, 47, 62 
 
 Foodstuffs 47, 124 
 
 Forage crops 138 
 
 Formation of soil .... 76 
 
 Force pump 123 
 
 Forestry 89 
 
 Formalin 158 
 
 Fossils 75 
 
 Four o 'clock 15 
 
 Fox 46 
 
 Freezing point 34 
 
 Frog 26 
 
 Frost 9, 53, 94 
 
 Fruit 94, 112, 127 
 
 Fuel 12, 117 
 
 Fungi 138 
 
 Furs 46 
 
 O 
 
 Galls 57 
 
 Games 11 
 
 Garden 9, 14, 
 
 15, 26, 42, 61 et al. 
 Gardens of wild flow- 
 ers 26, 42, 60 
 
 Garden plan 71, 95, et al. 
 
 Garden weeds 74 
 
 Gas 35, 53, 83 
 
 Gasoline . . . 84 
 
 Page 
 
 Gasoline engine 151 
 
 Gas vents 53 
 
 Geranium 73 
 
 Germ diseases 149 
 
 Germination tests 
 
 128, 156 
 
 Glaciation 76 
 
 Glands 69, 70 et seq. 
 
 Gnawers (mammals) . .45 
 
 Golden rod 17, 42 
 
 Good roads 115 
 
 Gourds 15, 25, 28 
 
 Grafting 127 
 
 Grape 75, 94 
 
 Grass 70, 139 et al. 
 
 Grasshoppers . . . .61, 100 
 
 Grass seed 70, 71, 139 
 
 Gravel 75, 156 
 
 Ground beetle 105 
 
 H 
 
 Hail 53 
 
 Hall owe 'en 10 
 
 Hardware 40, 69 
 
 Harrows 150 
 
 Harvest.... 9, 17, 73, 98 
 
 Hay 17, 138 
 
 Health, all grades. 
 
 Health officer 149 
 
 Hearing 13 et seq. 
 
 Heart 86 et seq. 
 
 Heating 11, 12, 35 
 
 Systems 117 
 
 Hen 25 
 
 Holidays, 
 
 National and state . . 8 
 
 Historic trees 57, 94 
 
 History of a stone.. 75 
 Home 7 et seq. 
 
 Yards 71 
 
 Honey bee 43 
 
 Horse 19, 145 
 
 Hotbed 71, 72 
 
 House building 40 
 
 House cleaning 13 
 
 House drains 78 
 
 House fly 43 
 
 House furnishings .... 7 
 
 Housekeeping 7 
 
 Hygiene, all grades. 
 
 Ice 54 
 
 Incubator 126 
 
 Insecticides 95 
 
 Insects 17, 25, 61, 95, 100 
 Ivy 28 
 
 Jacketed stove 119 
 
 Jackscrew 150 
 
 Joists 40 
 
 Kaffir corn 139 
 
 Kennels 21 
 
 Kerosene lamp 84 
 
 Kitchen 69 
 
 Kindling 11 
 
 Knots 67 
 
 Ladybirds 98 
 
 Ladyslipper 15 
 
 Landscape garden- 
 ing 131, 162 
 
 Larvae 61, 99 et seq. 
 
 Laundry 69 
 
 Lawn 70 
 
 Lawn weeds 71 
 
 Leaf mold 26 
 
 Leather 56 
 
 Leaves 17, 48 et seq. 
 
 Length of days 19 
 
 Lettuce 59 
 
 Levers 150 
 
 Light.... 12, 13, 83, 159 
 
 Lighting 83, 85 
 
 Liquid pressure 123 
 
 Loam 77, 156 
 
 Locust 61 
 
 Lumber 40 
 
 Lymph 87 
 
 M 
 
 Malaria 9, 121 
 
 Manure 161 
 
 Maple 17, 66 
 
 Marigold 42 
 
 Mason 40 
 
 Mastification. .12 et seq. 
 
 Meadow lark 133 
 
 Menu 69 
 
 Mercury 34 
 
 Metals 69 
 
 Migration of birds... 96 
 
 Millet 139 
 
 Milk 12, 143 
 
 Milking 12 
 
 Milky way 19 
 
 Minerals 47, 74 
 
 Minnows 26 
 
 Moisture 13 
 
 Moulds 137 
 
 Money 98 
 
 Months 8 
 
 Moon's changes 20 
 
 Morning glory 29 
 
 Mosquito 64, 82 
 
 Muscle 50, 51 et al. 
 
 Mushroom 137 
 
 N 
 
 Nails 40 
 
 Nasturtium . . . 15 
 
165 
 
 Pape 
 Nesting, 
 
 Of robins 16 
 
 Of sparrows .... 24, 35 
 
 Nitrogen 123 
 
 North star 20, 120 
 
 Nosebleed 22 
 
 Nuthatch 38 
 
 Nutritive processes. . .69 
 Nut trees 33 
 
 Oak 34 
 
 Oats 17, 157, 160 
 
 Foods from 9 
 
 Oil 35, 84 
 
 In nuts 33 
 
 Oiled roads 116 
 
 Organs of body .69 et seq. 
 
 Orion 19, 120 
 
 Orderliness 7 et seq. 
 
 Out-door observations 
 
 7 et seq. 
 
 Oxygen 123 
 
 Paper animals 21 
 
 Parsnip 59, 68 
 
 Pasteboard barn, poul- 
 try house, etc 21 
 
 Paths of sun and 
 
 moon 20, 120 
 
 Peach tree 94 
 
 Pear 94 
 
 Peas 39 
 
 Pebbles 75 
 
 Pepsin 69 
 
 Personal habits 
 
 22 et seq. 
 
 Perspiration 88 
 
 Petroleum 84 
 
 Pets 10 et seq. 
 
 Physical education. . . . 
 
 51 et seq. 
 
 Pig 147 
 
 Pigeon 24 
 
 Pinks 70 
 
 Plant food 152 
 
 Planting 13 
 
 Planting machinery 
 
 Ill, 150 
 
 Planting methods .... 133 
 
 Plants 8 et seq. 
 
 Plows 150 
 
 Plumber 39 
 
 Plum 94 
 
 Pond life 26, et seq. 
 
 Ponies 19 
 
 Popcorn 15, 21, 42 
 
 Posture 22 
 
 Potatoes 91 
 
 Poultry raising 124 
 
 Pape 
 
 Pruning 95, 127 
 
 Public buildings, care 
 
 of, uses of, etc 8 
 
 Public health 149 
 
 Pulleys 150 
 
 Pulse 86 
 
 Pump 123 
 
 Pumpkin 10, 39 
 
 Pure food 149 
 
 Pure milk 149 
 
 Pure water 81, 149 
 
 Rabbit 45 
 
 Radish 59, 17 
 
 Rafters 40 
 
 Raindrops 23 
 
 Rainfall 121 
 
 Rape 139 
 
 Raspberry 74 
 
 Rat 79 
 
 Refrigerator 55 
 
 Repairs 13 
 
 Road construction ..115 
 
 Road drainage 116 
 
 Roadsides 95 
 
 Roads 115 
 
 Robin 16 
 
 Rocks 156 
 
 Root hairs 66, 159 
 
 Roots 57, 67 
 
 Rot 137 
 
 Rotation of crops... 161 
 
 Rugs 69 
 
 Rusts 137 
 
 S 
 
 Saliva 47, 85, 86 
 
 Salsify 71 
 
 Sand 75, 136 
 
 Sanitation 55, 149 
 
 Sap 66 
 
 Scab 89 
 
 Scrap book 45. 124 
 
 Screens 13 
 
 Seeds 17, 31, 39, 48 
 
 Catalogues 58, 70 
 
 Coats .40 
 
 Corn 152 
 
 Testing 29 
 
 Storage of 28 
 
 Separator 143 
 
 Shade 84 
 
 Sheep 148 
 
 Shoots 39 
 
 Shrubs 132, 159 
 
 Sills 40 
 
 Silo 142 
 
 Silt 75, 137 
 
 Skin 87 
 
 Sky studies 19, 120 
 
 Smut 137, 156 
 
 Page 
 
 Snow 18, 20, 54 
 
 Soft maple 24 
 
 Softwood 40 
 
 Soil.. 13, 26, 76, 131, 156 
 
 For bulbs 43 
 
 Mulch 161 
 
 Solutions 153 
 
 Sorghum 139 
 
 Sparrows 35, 72, 134 
 
 Spraying 127 
 
 State experiment sta- 
 tions 158 
 
 Sterilization 149 
 
 Stomach 69 
 
 Storing of food 17 
 
 Stove 34 
 
 Straw 137 
 
 Stubblefields 136 
 
 Strawberry 65 
 
 Studding 40 
 
 Suction pump 123 
 
 Summer experiences 
 
 17 et seq. 
 
 Sweet corn 42 
 
 Sweet peas 29, 39, 40 
 
 Sunflower 39, 42 
 
 Sunshine 34 
 
 Survey 136 
 
 Table manners 12 
 
 Tadpoles 26, 70 
 
 Teeth 12, 47, et seq. 
 
 Temperance 
 
 12, 22, 53 et al. 
 
 Temperature.. 117, et al. 
 
 Tendons 51 
 
 Tendrills 29, et al 
 
 Thanksgiving 10, 18 
 
 Market 46 
 
 Thistle 17, 42 
 
 Thrasher 134 
 
 Tile 82, 137 
 
 Tinner 40 
 
 Tobacco. . .36, 69, et seq. 
 Tomato 28, 39, 41, 71 
 
 Worm 42 
 
 Tools 13 et seq. 
 
 Transpiration 156 
 
 Transplanting 94 
 
 Trees 17, 89, 131, et al. 
 
 Census 94 
 
 Trillium 71 
 
 Tubercles 134, 140 
 
 Tubers 59, 91 
 
 Tulips 43 
 
 Turkey 46 
 
 Turnip 71 
 
 Turtles 26 
 
 Twigs 57, 66, et al. 
 
 Typhoid 82 
 
166 
 
 IT Page 
 
 Underground stems 
 
 59, 70, 134 
 
 U. S. Dept. of 
 
 Agriculture 158 
 
 Vacation studies 
 
 135, 136, 162 
 
 Vacuum cleaner 69 
 
 Vapor 53 
 
 Vegetable exhibit 
 
 74, etal. 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 9, 28, 131, 159, et al. 
 
 Veins 86 
 
 Ventilation 12, 122 
 
 Village lots 75 
 
 Vines 132,29 
 
 W 
 
 Walking stick 
 
 (insect) 61 
 
 Warblers 96 
 
 ..43 
 
 Page 
 
 Water 53, 156 
 
 Supply 81 
 
 Vapor 122 
 
 Weather bureau 120 
 
 Weather chart 
 
 ....9,10,11,12,22,23 
 
 Weather maps 80 
 
 Weather record. . . 80, 121 
 
 Weed herbarium 74 
 
 Weeds 114 
 
 Wells 55, 81 
 
 Wheat 110, 131 
 
 Food from 9 
 
 Wheel . ..150 
 
 Page 
 
 Wild cucumbers 28 
 
 Wild flowers 
 
 17,26, 60, 42 
 
 Wild mammals of 111. 45 
 
 Windmill 82 
 
 Willow 17, 24 
 
 Wind 22, 121 
 
 Breaks 11 
 
 Wind scattered seeds 
 
 30 
 
 Winter clothing 11 
 
 Shelter 11 
 
 Wood 12, 35, 69 
 
 Woodbine 28 
 
 Woods 57, et al. 
 
 Woodpeckers 35, 38 
 
 Yard.. 13, 71, 131, et seq. 
 
Mr 
 
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