W MODERN HOT WATER HEATING STEAM&GASFITTING MODERN Hot Water Heating Steam and Gas Fitting OVER ISO ILLUSTRATIONS BY WM. DONALDSON CHICAGO FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS By FREDERICK J. DRAKE & Co. CHICAGO Copyright, 1918 and 1006 RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. The first cost of a steam heating system is from 20 to 30 per cent less than that of a, hot water system. This is due to the smaller sizes of pipes and radiators used on steam work. The cost of operation is however in favor of the hot water system. When steam radiators are shut off they cool much more rapidly than hot water radiators. This proves to be an advantage in favor of the hot water system. A steam plant requires much more attention and skill on the part of the operator than the hot water system. With regard to freezing, the pref- erence is in favor of steam, and in large buildings this is often a matter of great importance. A hot water system may be run during mild weath- er with much less heat than a, steam system which must always be brought to a temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit before any heat is felt. HEATING SYSTEMS. A steam or water heating system involves in its construction the following: A steam boiler or water heater. 7 3S7473 8 HEATING SYSTEMS Pipe and pipe fittings. Valves. Radiators. Air valves. It also requires an expansion tank (water heat- ing) for its successful operation. A good chimney. Good fuel. Good management. For heating a house or a small flat building the round sectional steam boilers or water heaters are unquestionably the best up to 1,500 square feet of radiation. For capacities above this limitation, rectangu- lar sectional steam boilers or water heaters are used. Ventilation. Ventilation is a most important matter in connection with heating. All living rooms should be ventilated, and the greater the number of occupants the room contains, the great- er should be the amount of ventilation required. In the ordinary house, ventilation is obtained from the fresh air entering the rooms through the windows and doors, for the ordinary occupants of the rooms. Under ordinary conditions, an adult requires about 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour. The principal cause of the vitiation of the air in a room is the respiration of the occupants. Moisture and gases arising from the occupants of HEATING SYSTEMS 9 the room also tend to make the air foul. Lighting and heating are other causes. The air in a room is to some extent changed by diffusion, but preferably by the entrance through registers provided for the purpose, of fresh air that has been warmed, and by the outward pas- sage through flues, of the foul air. The foul air should leave a room near the floor. An open fireplace furnishes an excellent means of ventilating a room. The foul air is heavier than the purer air, and therefore settles to the bottom of the room. By drawing the colder and therefore heavier air, which is at the bottom, the warmer air at the up- per part of the room settles to fill this space, thus creating a circulation, and making the heating more effective. Heat. In what is known as the molecular the- ory, all bodies are made up of rapidly vibrating particles, the hottest bodies being those whose particles move or vibrate with the greatest rapid- ity, and through the greatest distances. The con- clusion is therefore reached that heat is not a substance, but a form of motion, and that this condition may be transferred from one body to another. This theory explains in a simple man- ner the various actions of heat. Upon being heated, the particles of a body tend to repel each other, and as a result of the action of the heat the body expands, and this expansion if 10 HEATING SYSTEMS carried far enough, finally produces a change in the state of the body, the point at which such change takes place varying with each different substance. As an example of this change a cake of ice when subjected to heat, melts and becomes water, and this water when subjected to further heat again changes its state and becomes steam, Heat may be transferred from one body to an- other in three ways, by conduction, by convection and by radiation. By conduction is meant the direct contact of one body with another. A heated bar of iron will transmit heat to another bar when in contact with it. Heat is also transferred from one body to an- other by convection, by means of water or other fluids, which convey it from one point to another. Heat is transferred from one body to another by radiation through such a medium as currents of air. STEAM HEATING. The low pressure gravity and the high pressure steam systems are the ones in general use. The chief feature of the low pressure gravity system of steam heating is that all condensation turns to the boiler by gravity. A pressure of steam below 10 pounds above the atmospheric pressure is low pressure steam. The low pressure steam system is chiefly used in house heating, because it is safer than high pressure steam, and as it works at a lower pres- sure is more economical to use, and requires less attention. Not less than a l 1 /^ inch pipe should be used for a steam, main, and this diameter should not be run for a greater length than 25 feet. Regardless of the amount of work to be done, no steam riser less than 1 inch in diameter should bfc used. . If too small the pipes will sometimes cause the radiators to fill with water. The steam main should be run as high as pos- sible above the boiler. A distance of 18 inches or more should be allowed if conditions will permit of it. Branches should always be taken from the top 11 12 STEAM HEATING of the steam supply mains or at an angle of 45 degrees, but never from the side. Branches should not be taken from the side of the main, as water hammering and the forcing of condensed water from the main into the radiators may be result. Branches should be run full size from the main to the risers and connected with the latter by a reducing elbow. The horizontal branch should be one size larger than the riser, if more than 6 or 8 feet in length, as the circulation is not so strong on a horizontal as on a vertical line of pipe. A steam main should have a pitch of at least 1 inch for every 10 feet of length. Branches should have a pitch of at least 1 inch for each 5 feet. Carelessness in the alignment of steam pipes is liable to form pockets or traps which will impede the circulation and cause hammering, due to the condensed water remaining in the pockets. When necessary to make a direct rise in order to get over an obstruction or to increase the head room, the pocket formed should be dripped by a small pipe into the return. STEAM BOILERS. Experience has shown that steam boilers made of cast iron are the most reliable and most effi- cient for heating purposes. No other metals which can be used for this purpose deteriorate so little from corrosion as cast iron under like conditions. A cast iron steam boiler cannot explode. Being built up in sections they are easy to set up and involve the least amount of trouble and expense. In operation they are simplicity itself and their management is easily understood. The capacity of a steam boiler should be at least 25 per cent in excess of the total duty required by the radiation and pipe system for direct radia- tion. When indirect radiation is used add 50 per cent to the above. In locating a steam boiler, be sure and ascertain by careful measurements that will stand low enough so that the water line will be 18 inches or more below the lowest point of the steam mains. The boiler should be placed on a solid founda- tion and as close as possible to the flues. The proper size of coal to use in a given size of steam boiler is a very important factor to its suc- cessful operation. As a rule the best results have been obtained by the use of range or stove coal in 13 }4 STEAM BOILERS round boilers or heaters. For rectangular steam boilers good results have been obtained by the use of stove coal for the smaller sizes and egg coal for the larger ones. If bituminous or soft coal be used instead of anthracite or hard coal, a boiler a.t least one size larger should be installed. Round Steam Boilers. The boiler shown in Fig. 1 is entirely of cast iron construction, so arranged STEAM BOILERS 15 as to amply provide for expansion and contrac- tion. The only joints or connections are formed of heavy cast iron threaded nipples, making a per- fect joint, with no possibility of leaks from any cause whatsoever and absolute freedom from all necessity of packing of any kind. The general construction of both steam boilers is as follows: The circular base, or ashpit, which also forms the support for the grate, is substantially made of cast iron and gives a safe depth for accumulation of ashes. Eesting on this is the firepot section, shown in Fig. 2. This section, being one com- plete casting in itself, and tested under heavy pressure before leaving the shop, is abso- lutely free from mechanical imperfections. In the center of the top of this section is a large opening, threaded to receive a nipple, which con- nects it with a closed section, shown in the right hand upper view, Fig. 2. This first, or interme- diate section, is of less diameter than the top of the firepot section. On top of this closed, or in- termediate section and attached to it in the same manner, as described for the connection of the firepot, there is an open section shown in the right hand upper view, Fig. 2, which is of the same diameter as the top of the firepot and entirely fills the jacket casings hereinafter described. On top of this is placed another closed section, and on top of this again comes the top section, which is either the steam dome, forming the steam boiler, 16 STEAM BOILERS Fig. 2. or the upper water section, forming the water heater, all connected together in the manner de- STEAM BOILERS 17 scribed, with screw nipples, the top section, or dome, having the necessary tappings for the sup- ply outlets for steam, or the flow outlets for water. Casings. Extending from the outer edge of the top of the firepot section to the top of the upper section, or dome, there are cast iron casings, close- ly fitted joints. These casings are made in seg- ments and are interchangeable and easily applied, with no possibility of rusting, wearing out or breaking. They form in themselves a perfect chamber for the retention of products of combus- tion, compelling these to follow such channels as will give best results. Firepot. The firepot is circular in form, entire- ly surrounded by water, is made in one perfect casting, and free from any possible chance of leakages. TJie inner surface of the firepot has projecting into it all around the sides a multipli- city of iron points, just long enough to prevent the water contact from chilling the fire and mak- ing it possible to secure perfect combustion and a uniform fire around the edges asi well as in the center. The firepot s are of sufficient depth to in- sure a deep, slow fire, forming the best and most economical heat-producing proposition for low pressure heating. Grate. The grate is of the triangular form and is at all times easily operated, and in its opera- tion it pulverizes all clinkers before depositing in ash pit. 18 STEAM BOILERS On all the larger size boilers the grates are fit- ted with a heavy bearing bar in the center, thus prolonging the life of the grate bars, as it pre- vents their warping. Simplicity of the Grates. The construction of the grate is exceedingly simple, and admits of any one bar of the whole grate being changed without the assistance of skilled labor. Fig. 3. Fig. 3 shows a vertical cross-section of a steani boiler. STEAM BOILERS 19 Rectangular Sectional Boilers. The vertical sectional type of steam boiler has been on the mar- ket and in all forms for a number of years. There are no new ideas that can be safely exploited in this line. The demand is for a, simple, practical, easily handled device that will absolutely endure the work appropriated for it. Fig. 4. The boiler shown in Fig. 4 is strong, of good ap- pearance, thoroughly accessible for cleaning, and, so far as can be determined from exterior appear- ances, a most satisfactory heater. The good opin- 20 STEAM BOILERS ion already formed of the heater is further strengthened by reference to views of the inter- mediate and Tear sections shown in Figs. 5 and 6. "By reference to these cuts it will be seen that possible advantage is taken of the fire sur- , it being the belief that, unless great good is Fig. 5. accomplished in direct contact with the fire, there will be but little assistance obtained from the flues. Firepots. Firepots of the type of heaters are deep to give a compact body of fire, and, besides, are covered with numbers of iron projections to prevent chilling contact of the fire with the ex- STEAM BOILERS 21 posed water surface and yet secure such perfect combustion as will quickly impart to the water the heat from the fuel and permit of maintaining at all times a clear, even fire in every portion of the firepot. INN linn Pig. 6. Boiler capacity. THie capacity of the boiler should be at least 20 per cent in excess of the total duty imposed upon it by the radiation and pipe system. Example: Let 600 square feet equal the total radiation, plus 25 per cent for the surface of the mains, plus 20 per cent excess boiler capacity, which is 900 square feet, the capacity of the boiler 22 STEAM BOILERS required. The same result may be arrived at by adding 50 per cent to the radiation. When direct-indirect radiation is used, an ad- Fig. 7. ditional 33 1/3 per cent must be allowed, and when indirect radiation is used, add 50 per cent. Example: Total direct radiation=450 sq. ft. One direct-indirect radiator^ 60 " " One indirect radiator=^90 " " 600 " " 25 per cent for surface of mainst=112.5 " " 33 1/3 per cent on direct-indirect= 20 " " 50 per cent on indirect radlator= 45 " " 777.5" " 20 per cent excess oapaoity=155.5_ < t " Boiler capacity=933 " " STEAM BOILERS 23 Safety Valves. While not an absolute necessi- ty, some form of low-pressure safety valve is gen- erally used on the steam boiler of a low-pressure heating plant. Forms of low-pressure safety Fig. 8. valves are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the one shown in Fig. 7 is spring controlled and capable of ad- justment for different pressures, while that shown in Fig. 8 has a ball weight instead of a spring STEAM BOILERS Pig. 0. STEAM BOILERS 2ft Pig. 10. 26 STEAM BOILERS and is consequently non-adjustable except by changing the weight. Water Column. Every steam boiler should be equipped with a, water column with water gauge and try-cocks as shown in Fig. 9. A combina- tion water column is shown in Fig. 10, with steam, gauge on the top of the column. Damper Regulator. While an automatic dam- per regulator is not as essential to a water heater as to a steam boiler, it is a very useful device, and when used prevents overheating and occasions great economy in fuel. An automatic regulator for a steam boiler is shown in Fig. 11. Check draft Fig. 11. dampers, which are controlled by automatic regu- lators, are shown in Fig. 12. The damper regulator consists of a hollow bowl formed by two castings bolted together, with a rubber diaphragm between them, the lower cast- ing being connected to the steam space of the boiler by means of a short nipple. Through an opening in the top of the upper casting a plunger works, and across this plunger and connected to an upright lip on the edge of the diaphragm cast- STEAM BOILERS 27 ing is a bar, from the ends of which chains con- nect to the draft door and check damper door of the boiler. As the steam pressure rises, the pressure against the under side of the rubber diaphragm is transmitted to the plunger which is raised, thereby operating the rod or lever, and the chains connecting with the draft and check damper doors. The sliding weight usually on the rod may be set so that the leverage may be smaller or greater, according to the pressure of steam car- ried on the apparatus, before the operation of 28 STEAM BOILERS the doors will take place. By means of the dam- per regulator the rise and fall of temperature in the boiler may so regulate the draft that an even temperature may be obtained. The chains should be so set that the draft door and check draft will each be closed when the regu- lator lever is level, and there is no steam in the boiler. Pressure Gauges. The hollow spring in the gauge, shown in Fig. 13, is so shaped and arranged Fig. 13. and the mechanism is such that the vertical as well as the horizontal movement of its free ends is fully utilized. It thereby permits the use of springs 100 per cent stronger than can be used in any other gauge, so preventing their settling un- der any pressure which may be indicated upon its dial. The gauge shown in Fig. 14 may be used for STEAM BOILERS 29 indicating either pressure or vacuum, as the case may be. It is graduated for pressure in pounds per square inch, and for vacuum in inches of mer~ cury in column or pounds per square inch, as may be desired. Fig. 14. Smoke Pipes. Steam boiler smoke pipes range in size from about 8 inches in the smaller sizes to 10 or 12 inches in the larger ones. They are generally made of galvanized iron. Tlie pipe should be carried to the chimney as directly as possible, avoiding bends, which increase the re- sistance and diminish the draft. When the draft is known to be good the smoke pipe may pur- posely be made longer to allow the gases to part with more of their heat before reaching the chim- 30 STEAM BOILERS ney. "Where a smoke pipe passes through a parti- tion it should be protected by a double perforated metal collar at least 6 inches greater in diameter than the pipe. The top of the smoke pipe should not be placed within 8 inches of exposed beams nor less than 6 inches under beams protected by asbestos or plas- ter. The connection between the smoke pipes and the chimney frequently becomes loose, allowing cold air to be drawn in, thus diminishing the draft. A collar to make the connection tight should be riveted to the pipe about 5 inches from the end, to prevent its being pushed too far into the flue. Chimney Flues. Flues, if built of brick, should have walls 8 inches in thickness, unless terra eotta linings are used, when only 4 inches of brick work is required. Except in small houses, where an 8x8 flue may be used, *the nominal size of the smoke flue should be at least 8x12, to allow a margin for possible contractions at offsets, or for a thick coating of mortar. A clean out door should be placed at the bottom. A square flue cannot be reckoned at its full area, as the corners are of lit- tle value. An 8x8 flue is practically very little more effective than one of circular form 8 inches in diameter. To avoid down drafts the top of the chimney should be carried above the highest point of the roof, unless provided with a suitable top or hood. - STEAM BOILERS 31 Dimensions of Chimney Flues for Given Amounts of Direct Steam Radiation Square Feet of Steam Radiation Diameter of Round Flue Square or Rectangular Flue 250 8 inches 8 in. x 8 in. 300 8 inches 8 in. x 8 in. 400 8 inches 8 in. x 8 in. 500 10 inches 8 in. x 12 in. 600 10 inches 8 in. x 12 in. 700 10 inches 8 in. x 12 in. 800 12 inches 12 in. x 12 in. 900 12 inches 12 in. x 12 in. 1000 12 inches 12 in. x 12 in. 1200 12 inches 12 in. x 12 in. 1400 14 inches 12 in. x 16 in. 1600 14 inchas 12 in. x 16 in. 1800 14 inches 12 in. x 16 in. 2000 14 inches 12 in. x 16 in. 2200 16 inches 16 in. x 16 in. 3000 16 inches 16 in. x 16 in. 3500 18 inches 16 in. x 20 in. 5000 18 inches 16 in., x 20 in. Fuel Combustion. Combustion is one form of chemical action, accompanied by the generation of heat. When such action takes place slowly the heat produced is almost imperceptible, but when it takes place rapidly, as in the burning of wood, coal, etc., the heat becomes intense. In the burn- ing of ordinary fuel, the carbon and hydrogen of the coal combine with the oxygen of the air and produce combustion, without which no material results may be obtained from the fuel. Combustion depends upon the presence of oxy- gen, without which it cannot take place. 32 STEAM BOILERS Combustion is estimated by the number of ptfunds of fuel consumed per hour by one square foot of grate surface. One square foot of grate will consume about 5 pounds of hard coal per hour, or about 10 pounds of soft coal, under a natural draft. For 7 l /2 to 10 pounds of coal consumed, one cubic foot of water will be evaporated. A fire of a depth of 12 inches will do more ef- ficient work than one of less depth. The use of too large coal is attended with large air spaces between the pieces, and this large amount of air is too great for the gases escaping from the combustion of the coal, allowing the gases to escape into the chimney flue unburned. The use of too small coal is not advisable, as it packs down so compactly a,s to prevent the admis- sion of the proper amount of air through the grate to produce good combustion. Pipe Systems. The three systems of heating described: The direct, indirect and direct-indi- rect radiation, are governed by the same rules in the matter of piping and steam supply, requiring only special rules for proportioning the amount of heating surface and for the arrangement of air supply. There are the one-pipe and two-pipe sys- tems, with several forms and combinations of each, and for the steam supply there are high and low- pressure systems, exhaust systems, gravity sys- tems and vacuum systems. The essentials of a heating system are: A source of steam supply, a system of piping to conduct the steam from the source of supply to the radiators, a series of radiators or radiating surfaces, a sys- tem of return pipes through which the condensed water from the radiators may be removed. It may be more briefly stated that the prime re- quisites for a steam heating system are: The source of steam supply, the radiating surface and a system of pipes connecting them. Should, how- ever, the supply and return pipes be embodied in the same system, it is just as important to arrange to dispose of the condensed water as it is to supply steam to the radiators. One-pipe System. The simplest form of steam heating system is known as the one-pipe gravity return system. The steam is generated in 33 34 STEAM BOILERS boiler, flows through the pipes to the radiators, the condensed water as it is formed in the radia- tors draining out along the bottom of the pipes and back to the boiler by gravity, to be re-evapor- Pig. 15. ated into steam. This system may be used only in a very small plant, and one in which the pipes should be made of large size and given a very de<- cided pitch toward the boiler. One-pipe System With Separate Return. In the system shown in Fig. 15 the main in the base- STEAM BOILERS 35 ment is pitched so as to drain away from the boiler, and at its end a return pipe is connected and led back to the boiler, entering it below the water-line. In this manner the flow of the steam and the water of condensation is in the same di- rection in the mains, and upon the sudden conden- sation of steam, as occurs when turning steam into a cold radiator, the water falls down the risers against the current of steam, while in the main it is forced along in the same direction as the steam. If the mains are extensive they may be drained at different points. This system is extensively used for residences and buildings of only a few stories in height, and it has also been used in larger installations. In such a plant the risers as well as the mains must be of ample size, and the latter must have sufficient pitch and be thoroughly drained. One-pipe Overhead System. This is the only system of single-pipe connection which is exten- sively used in high buildings, such as the modern office building, and is shown in Fig. 16. In this system the steam is conducted through a large main supply pipe to the attic of the building, or to the ceiling of the top floor, and from this the mains extend around the building to supply the risers. The risers are connected with the return mains in the basement. In this system the flow of steam and condensed water is everywhere in the same direction except in the connections to the 36 STEAM BOILERS Fig. 16. radiators, and the risers should be so arranged that these connections may be comparatively STEAM BOILEES 37 short. This system has the very decided advan- tage over the ordinary onerpipe system that the condensed water which falls down the risers from the radiators does not, when it reaches the hori- zontal pipe at the bottom come into contact with the main current of steam, as the horizontal pipe is only a drain in which there isi practically no steain and which is intended solely for the pur- pose of draining of the condensed water. Two-pipe System. The two-pipe system is il- lustrated in Fig. 17 is much the same in all cases, but special adaptations of it are sometimes made to meet special conditions. There is a two-pipe overhead system in which steam mains are in the attic as well as in the one-pipe overhead, but there a separate set of return risers are provided which connect with the return in the basement. This system has been very little used. The One-pipe Circuit Steam Heating System. In this system the steam pipe is run from the boiler vertically .to the ceiling of the basement, from which point it pitches downward throughout its course around the cellar or basement, to a point at or near the rear of the boiler, where an automatic air vent is placed, and drop made with a pipe into the return opening of the boiler. The one-pipe circuit system is used in buildings which are square or rectangular in shape. When the building is of such shape that a one- pipe circuit will not do the work to advantage, 38 STEAM BOILERS that is to say, in long buildings, where the boiler is set at or about the middle of the building, it is then desirable to run a loop in either direction. Fig. 17. The Overhead Steam Heating System. In this system the feed pipe is carried vertically to the STEAM BOILERS 3f ceiling of the top floor, or into the attic, and from this point branches are carried down to the differ- ent radiators. This system is used in office buildings, school houses, factories, and often in residences, when a main can be carried up into an attic. Frequently, owing to the absence of a basement under the building, it is necessary to use the overhead sys- tem to heat the radiators. The return pipes- should enter the top of the flow end of the radiator, and return out of the bot- tom of the return end. Some radiators on the one-pipe system may be connected as single pipe. Eadiators on the over- head system may also be connected as on a one- pipe circuit system. Where this is done, the con- densed water from the radiator returns into the drop or feed pipe. Heating Surface. To estimate the amount of heating surface required to heat a room with steam to a temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in zero weather with a steam pressure of from 2 to 3 pounds and ordinary conditions of exposure, the following rule is given, which is for direct radia,- tion, and based upon the glass surface, exposed wall surface and cubic space: 1 square foot of radiation to 3 square feet of glass. 1 square foot of radiation to 10 square feet of wall exposed. 40 STEAM BOILERS 1 square foot of radiation to 150 cubic feet of space. For each degree of temperature above or below zero, deduct from or add to 1% per cent of the radiation given by the above rule. Example: Eequired the number of square feet of direct radiation for a room 10x10x10 feet, hav- ing two exposed sides and two windows 2^2x6 feet. Answer: Glass surface= 30 sq. ft.-f- 3=10 sq. ft. Exposed walls=: 200 " "-5- 1020 " " Cubic space=l,000 cu. "-4-150= 6.6 " " Total direct radiation=36.6 sq. ft. Example: Eequired the number of square feet of direct radiation for the same room, with one ex- posed side and one window 2 x /2x6 feet: Answer: Glass surface= 15 sq. ft. 3= 5 sq. ft. Exposed wallst= 100 " " 10=10 " " Cubic space=l,000 cu. -150= 6.6 < . Total direct radiation=21.6 sq. ft. When indirect radiation is used, 50 per cent should be added to the above figures. Reducing Size of Steam Mains. The proper reductions in the size of pipe depend on the char- acter of the work to which the pipe is put. It is customary to rduce the size of mains by STEAM BOILERS 41 using reducing fittings tapped eccentric, or by using a reducing coupling tapped eccentric, the idea being to have a continuous fall of pipe with- out the formation of traps or obstructions for hold- ing water at the points where reductions are made. It is customary to reduce the size of pipes for risers or radiator connections by using a reducing ell on the branch under the floor. Eccentric fittings are so tapped as to bring the bottoms of the openings of different sizes at the same level on the fitting. When these fittings are used they allow a continuous fall of pipe without forming pockets for holding water at the points where reduction in size is made. .This, is of ma- terial benefit to a heating system. Steam Mains. The proper size of steam mains for one and two-pipe systems are given in the ac- companying tables: Proper Size of Steam Mains: ONE PIPE SYSTEM Pipe Size in Inches 2 2K 3 yA 4 VA 5 6 Sq. feet of Radiation 200 to 350 350 to 500 500 to 750 750 to 1000 1000 to 1500 1500 to 1800 1800 to 2200 2200 to 3000 TWO PIPE SYSTEM Pipe Size in Inches 2 2K 3 V4 4 4K 5 6 Sq. feet of Radiation 500 750 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 4000 RADIATION. Direct Radiation. This consists of a heating surface in the form of a radiator or coil, which is placed directly in the room to be heated. Indirect Radiation. Badiators in the room to be heated on the first or second floor are located in the cellar or basement, usually directly under the rooms to be heated. There is placed in the floor of the room to be heated, or in the side wall above the baseboard, a register and connection is made between this register and the radiator in the basement by means of tin or sheet iron pipe, for conveying the heated air Into the room. The indirect radiator is placed in a chamber into which fresh air is conveyed from outside, and to which the hot air flue to the register is con- nected. The distance from the top of the radiator to the ceiling of the casing should be from 10 to 12 inches and from the bottom of the .radiator to the bottom of the casing from 6 to 8 inches. The di- mensions of the cold air inlet should be 1% square inches for each square foot of indirect radiation. The warm air outlet should be 2 square inches for each square foot of indirect radiation, which would be for a radiator containing 100 square feet of 42 RADIATION 43 radiation, 200 square inches of cross sectional area, or a duct 10x20 inches. The dimensions of the warm air register should be 50 per cent larger than those of the warm air duct, which allows for the contracted area caused by the register face. A warm air duct having 200 square inches of cross sectional area should have a register approxi- mating 300 square inches. Direct-Indirect Radiation. This system serves a double purpose, that of Direct Radiation and Ventilation, and is also placed in the room to be heated under windows, or close to the exposed walls. The lower front part of the radiator is encased, having an. opening at the bottom or back of the base for the introduction of cold air by means of a duct through the outside wall of the building. On account of the cooling effect of the outside air passage between the coils of the radiator, in- creased heating surface to the amount of 33 1/3 per cent must be added tot make it equivalent to direct radiation. This system of radiation is seldom used in the heating of houses, being more necessary where ventilation is required in 'the heating of public buildings and schools. Instead of placing all of the radiators at one point, it is -well to divide it into two or more radi- ators, according to the size of the room. As heat- ing with steam or hot water is accomplished by the 44 RADIATION turning or circulation of the air in the room, it is well to divide and place the radiation at the most exposed points, in order to better heat the room. In small houses a radiator placed in the lower hall, if sufficiently large, will heat the hall above, but in large buildings, where the hall space is large, the upper halls should have radiators placed in them. A properly installed steam heating plant should be noiseless in operation and heat the rooms to 70 degrees in zero weather on from 2 to 3 pounds steam pressure, and show a circulation of steam throughout the system on a pressure of 1 pound, as indicated by the steam gauge. A noiseless circulation in all radiators on a pound of steam or less indicates that the pipe sys- tem is of proper size and properly pitched, thereby avoiding low places, causing water pockets or traps. The proper heating of the rooms in which the radiation is placed on from 1 to 3 pounds steam pressure indicates that the heating surface or radiation is sufficient. Radiators. Heating surfaces are divided into three classes: Direct radiation, Indirect radia- tion and Direct-indirect radiation. Direct radiation covers all radiators placed within a room or building to warm the air, and are not connected with a system of ventilation. The best place within a room to place a single radiator, is where the air is cooled, before or under RADIATION 45 the windows, or on the outside walls. When the radiator is of vertical tube, or a short coil, which can occupy only the space under one window, and when, as often occurs, there are three windows, the riser should be so placed as to bring the line of radiators in front of, and under the windows where they will do the most good. When a small extra cost is not considered, to use two radiators and place one in front of each of the extreme win- dows. When the room is large and has many windows, the heating surface, when composed of radiators, should be divided into as many units as possible. Indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces placed outside the rooms to be heated, and can only be used in connection with some system of ventilation. All the heating surface is placed in a chamber, and the warmed air distributed through air ducts. Figs. 18, 19 and 20 show two, three and four column forms of direct radiators, and Fig. 21 a two-piece hall or window direct radiator. The indirect radiator is usually boxed, either in wood lined with tin, or in galvanized iron. The former is best when the basement is to be kept cool, as there is a greater loss by radiation through metal cases, otherwise the sheet metal is the best, as it will not crack. Indirect radiators are usually hung from the ceiling in the basement under the rooms they are 46 RADIATION intended to heat. A cold air duct is carried from an opening in the outside wall to the stack box. Fig. 18. This duct must be provided with a damper, and its inlet covered on the face of the outside of the wall with a wire screen of small mesh. RADIATION II Fig. 19. 4*5 BADIATION The box inclosing the radiator shown in Figs, 22 and 23 is made of wood lined with bright tin about half-way down. The sides of the box should Fig. 20. almost touch the hubs of the radiator on both ends, so that the cold air coming in through the duet will surely find its way up between the sections of the radiator, and not around the ends of it. BADIATION Fig. 21. Fig. 22. 50 RADIATION Fig. 23. RADIATION 51 The radiator is shown connected for a two-pipe steam system. The cold air duct is provided with a slide, so that the air may be shut off when it is not wanted, or when the radiator is turned off. The radiator Fig. 24. should be so hung in the box that the space above it is about one-third more than the space below; this provides for the expansion of the air after it has been warmed by contact with the radiator. Brackets for supporting the hall or window types of direct radiator are shown in Fig. 24. 52 RADIATION A direct-indirect form of radiator is illustrated in Fig. 25, in which the air is taken from the out- side of the room to be heated and passes up be- tween the sections of the radiator as shown, the front of the radiator being encased Fig. 25. RADIATION 53 Two COLUMN RADIATOR FOR STEAM OR HOT WATER HEATING. No. of Sec- tions. Length in Inches. SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 45 Inches High. 38 Inches High. 32 Inches High. 26 Inches High. 23 Inches High. 20 Inches High. 2 5 10 8 6! 5^ 4% 4 3 7% 15 12 10 8 7 6 4 10 20 16 18* 10! 9% 8 5 12% 25 20 16! 13| 11% 10 6 15 30 24 20 16 14 12 7 17% 35 28 23| 18! 16% 14 8 20 40 32 26| 21| 18% 16 9 22% 45 36 30 24 21 18 10 25 50 40 33^ 26| 23% 20 11 27% 55 44 36| 291 25% 22 12 30 60 48 40 32 28 24 13 82% 65 52 43^ 34! 30% 26 14 Go 70 56 46| 37| 32% 28 15 37% 75 60 50 40 35 30 16 40 80 64 53i 42! 37% 32 17 42% 85 68 56f 45^ 39% 34 18 45 90 72 60 48 42 36 19 47% 95 76 63i 50! 44% 38 20 50 100 80 66! 53^ 46% 40 54 RADIATION THREE-COLUMN RADIATOR FOR STEAM OR HOT WATER HEATING. Number of Sections. Length in Inches. SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. Inches High. 33 Inches. High. 10 1-2 27 Inches High. 21 Inches High. 2 5 12 8 1-2 6 1-2 3 7 1-2 18 153-4 123-4 93-4 4 10 24 21 17 13 5 12 1-2 30 26 1-4 21 1-4 16 1-4 6 15 36 31 1-2 25 1-2 19 1-2 7 171-2 42 363-4 293-8 223-4 8 20 48 42 34 26 9 22 1-2 54 47 1-4 38 1-4 29 1-4 10 25 60 521-2 42.1-2 32 1-2 11 27 1-2 66 573-4 463-4 353-4 12 30 72 63 51 39 13 14 32 1-2 35 .78 84 68 1-4 73 1-2 55 1-4 59 1-2 42 1-4 45 1-2 15 37 1-2 90 783-4 633-4 483-4 16 40 96 84 68 52 17 42 1-2 102 89 1-4 72 1-4 55 1-4 18 45 108 94 1-2 76 1-2 58 1-2 19 47 1-2 114 993-4 803-4 613-4 20 50 120 105 85 65 RADIATION 55 FOUR-COLUMN RADIATOR FOR STEAM OR HOT WATER HEATING. Number of Sections. Length in Inches. SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 42 1-2 Inches High. 38 1-2 Inches High-. 32 1-2 Inches High. 26 1-2 Inches High. 10 2-3 20 1-2 Inches High. 2 8 1-2 19 1-3 16 13 1-3 8 3 12 1-2 29 24 20 16 12 4 5 16 1-2 203-4 38 2-3 48 1-3 32 40 26 2-3 33 1-3 21 1-3 26 2-3 16 20 6 243-4 58 48 40 32 24 7 283-4 67 3-3 56 46 2-3 37 1-3 28 8 323-4 77 1-3 64 53 1-3 42 2-3 32 9 37 87 72 60 48 36 10 41 96 2-3 80 66 2-3 53 1-3 40 11 45 106 1-3 88 73 1-3 58 2-3 44 12 49 116 96 80 64 48 13 53 125 2-3 104 86 2-3 69 1-3 52 14 57 1-2 135 1-3 112 93 1-3 74 2-3 56 15 61 1-2 145 120 100 80 60 16 65 1-2 154 2-3 128 106 2-3 85 1-3 64 17 69 1-2 164 1-3 136 113 1-3 90 2-3 68 18 733-4 172 144 120 96 72 19 773-4 183 2-3 152 126 2-3 101 1-3 76 20 82 193 1-3 160 * 133 1-3 106 2-3 80 56 RADIATION Radiator Connections. Methods of connecting radiators used in steam heating plants are shown in Figs. 26 and 27. (HH1 I.E. J I fr f I .1 he volume of air in cubic feet per minute dis- charged by a flue equals the velocity in feet per iainute multiplied by the area in square feet. FURNACE HEATING 149 Knowing any two of these terms, the third may be readily found. volume volume Velocity = Area = - area. velocity. Example. Find the area of a flue 20 feet high that will discharge 3,000 cubic feet per minute, when the excess of temperature in the flue over that out doors is 40 degrees. Opposite 20 in left hand column and under 40 on upper line is the number 319, representing the velocity in feet per minute. The volume 3,000-r-319 = 9.4 square feet, the required area. In estimating the effective height of a warm air flue from a fur- nace, consider the flue to begin 2 feet above the grate. THE CAPACITY OF FURNACES TO MAINTAIN AN INSIDE TEMPERATURE OF 70 DEGREES WITH AN OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE OF DEGREES. Temperature of entering air, 140 degrees. Kate ot coin bustion, 5 pounds ^al per square foot of grate surface per hour. Average diameter of Ire pot iu inches. Corresponding arer in square feet Total exposu i e in square i'eet to which furnace j$ adapted. 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 30 1.77 2.18 2.64 3.14 3.69 4 27 4 01 f.5P 1,110 1,370 1,655 1,970 2,310 2,680 3,080 3,500 STEAM AND GAS FITTING. The Expansion of Wrought-Iron Steam and Water Pipes. To calculate the amount of expan- sion in the length of pipes, with different tempera- tures, take a pipe 100 feet long, containing cold water, or without either steam or water, and being at a temperature of about 32 degrees Fahrenheit. After heating the water in the pipe to 215 degrees, or 1 pound pressure of steam, the pipe will be found to be 100 feet 1% inches in length, with a rise in temperature from 32 degrees to 265 degrees, or 25 pounds pressure of steam, there will be an in- crease in length of 1 8/10 inches. From 32 degrees to 297 degrees, or 50 pounds steam pressure, the increase would be 2 1/10 inches. And again, a, rise in temperature from 32 degrees to 338 degrees, or 100 pounds pressure of steam, will give an increase in length of 2% inches. Wrought Iron Pipe. Wrought iron pipe is now almost exclusively used in heating plants. It is made at a number of factories, and being of stan- dard sizes, pipe bought from different factories will be found to fit the same size of fittings. It is manufactured from wrought iron of the proper gauge, which is rolled into the shape of the pipe and raised to a welding heat, after which the 150 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 151 edges are welded, by being drawn through a die. The small sizes of pipe up to l 1 ^ inches are butt welded and 1% inches and larger sizes are lap welded. Fig. 85. Fittings. Pipe fittings can be bought from the regular supply houses. Fig. 86. Fittings are mostly of cast and malleable iron, except straight couplings, which are usually of wrought iron. Elbows, tees and other fittings, 152 STEAM AND GAS FITTING which can be procured of cast iron, are the best to use, owing to the fact that being of a harder metal than the pipe, and less elastic, they will not yield Fig. 87. sufficiently to cause leakage when connections are made. All fittings should be closely examined for flaws before screwing on to the pipe. Fig. 88. Standard cast iron fittings for use in installing steam and hot water heating plants are shown in Figs. 85, 86, 87 and 88. Pipe Bends. The radius of any bend should not STEAM AND GAS FITTING 153 be less than 5 diameters of tlie pipe and a larger radius is much preferable. The length X of QUARTER BENDS U BENDS OFFSET BENDS Fig. 89. straight pipe shown in Fig. 89 at each end of bend should be not less than as follows: inches, inches, inches, inches, inches, inches, 2 1 /2-mch Pipe X=4 3 -inch Pipe X=4 3%-inch Pipe X=5 4 -inch Pipe X=5 4%-inch Pipe X=6 3 -inch Pipe X=6 154 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 6 -inch Pipe X=7 inches, 7-inch Pipe X=8 inches, 8 -inch Pipe X 9 inches, 10-inch Pipe X 12 inches, 12-inch Pipe X 14 inches, 14-inch Pipe X 16 inches, 15-inch Pipe X=16 inches, 16-inch Pipe X 20 inches, 18-inch Pipe X=22 inches. Pipe Machines. The illustrations in Fig. 90 show two portable pipe-threading machines which are compact, moderate in cost, and efficient. For Pig. 90. the larger sizes of pipe, covering a range of from 2% to 4 inches they will be found time-saving and convenient devices. Tools. The tools shown in Figs. 91 and 92 will be found sufficient to meet the ordinary require- ments for installing a steam or hot-water heating STEAM AND GAS FITTING 155 Fig. 91. 156 STEAM AND GAS FITTING Fig. 82. STEAM AND GAS FITTING 157 plant of ordinary size. The mains of larger size than 2 inches may be ordered cut to measurement. The contractor should provide himself with two pipe vises as shown in Fig. 93, having a range of capacity from 2% up to 4 inches inclusive. Such machines can be purchased at a very moderate cost. Fig. Gas Fitting. While electricity is making won- derful progress and particularly for lighting, still gas holds its own for domestic purposes. Illumin- ating gas is not entirely perfect, but when it is properly made, carefully delivered to the building and there properly handled, the results are so sat- isfactory that some time will elapse before any- thing else will take its place. The average house 158 STEAM AND GAS FITTING is fitted for the use of gas, and the field of discov- ery in the use of gas for domestic purposes ap- pears to be as great as that of electricity. Gas Supply Pipe. The gas supply pipe should be connected to the main in the best possible man- ner. The pipe should be wrought iron, with fit- tings, if any, of malleable or wrought iron. Cast- iron fittings should not be used as they crack eas- ily. The service pipe should be laid with an in- cline to the main in the street, as the earth which surrounds the pipe being cold causes some of the gas to condense and become liquid. With a fall in the supply pipe to the street the condensation can therefore flow back into the main pipe. With the supply pipe laid in this way there will be no flickering of the gas or any unsteady pres- sure. The gas supply pipe from the street main should never be less than one-inch pipe. The meter con- nection pipes should always be of one size larger than the meter couplings. All drops should be not less than %-inch pipe. Street Supply Pipe. It is necessary to have the house supply pipe rest on a solid foundation. It often happens that in excavating the trench for the supply pipe it is dug too deep, or it may be dug level, and as the pipe must be pitched back to the main, it will have to be blocked up. Do not block up a supply pipe on filled-in earth. Start the blocking from the bottom of the trench or from STEAM AND GAS FITTING 159 the lowest excavated part. There is no special amount of pitch required for such pipes as the more pitch they have the less liability they will have to form a water trap. After the pipe is all laid, properly graded and blocked, test the pipe, for the purpose of ascertaining if there are any leaks, before the pipe is covered up. The pipe be- ing found perfectly gas tight, the trench can now be filled up. It is a good plan to remain on the ground and superintend the work of properly fill- ing the ditch as the average laborer who is en- gaged to do the filling of such ditches has not suf- ficient knowledge of the work to handle the pipe with the necessary care. It is not an unusual thing to find the gas supply pipe leaking badly, after being covered over, by allowing heavy stones to fall into the ditch by carelessness on the part of the laborers. Frost in Pipes. The flow of gas is retarded by frost even where the supply pipe has sufficient pitch, if it be in too cold a place and not properly protected from the cold. This occurs generally in the main supply pipe where it passes under the sidewalk, and as a large amount of gas passes through the supply pipe, a, large amount of mois- ture comes with the gas. It is this moisture which freezes to the sides of the pipe, like heavy frost on a window, but much coarser, and looks very much like coarse salt. It will keep on accumulating, gradually filling up the pipe toward the center 160 STEAM AND GAS FITTING from all sides, until the pipe is entirely filled and the flow of gas arrested. To remedy this difficulty the pipe should be covered with some felt or other material, dry sawdust may be also used and placed in a box around the pipe. By striking the pipe a sharp blow with a hammer the frost will fall from the sides of the pipe and lie at the bottom of the pipe. This does not clear the pipe entirely, but will allow the gas to flow through the upper part of the pipe. This frost cannot be blown back into the main and to clear the frost out entirely alcohol must be poured into the pipe at the meter connection, a half pint or more, which will melt the frost and carry the water which is formed into the main. Fittings. Gas fittings should be of malleable iron in preference to cast iron as they are lighter and neater in appearance, besides being much stronger. Standard fittings for use in gas lighting work are shown in Figs. 94, 95 and 96. Union el- bows and tees are shown in Fig. 97 and gas service cocks in Fig. 98. Connecting a Meter. The gas pipes in the build- ing, as well as the supply pipe from the street, should be tested before the meter is connected, to avoid the possibility of damaging the meter by any sudden pressure. The supply pipes should also be blown out so that the liability of dirt being carried into the meter by the gas will be obviated. After connecting the meter care should be taken STEAM AND GAS FITTING 161 to turn on the gas slowly until tlie pressure has had a chance to equalize on the distributing side. This prevents a sudden strain on the meter. A meter should not be set in a place warmer than 100 or colder than 40 degrees Fahrenheit, as the oil in Fig. 94. the meter diaphragms is very susceptible to heat or cold. Reading a Meter. One complete revolution of a hand registers the number of cubic feet marked above the dial. 162 STEAM AND GAS FITTING STREET ELBOWS ELBOWS DROP ELBOWS WALL PLATES DROP TEES CHANDELIER HOOKS FOUR-WAY TEES CROSS OVERS REDUCING COUPLINGS EXTENSION PIECES STEAM AND GAS FITTING 163 STEAM AND GAS FITTINGS ELBOWS CAST IRON STRAIGHT REDUCING ELBOWS CAST IRON 45<> ELBOWS CAST IRON ECCENTRIC TEES CAST IRON REDUCING TEES CAST IRON 164 STEAM AND GAS FITTING WITH FEMALE UNION WITH MALE UNION WITH FEMALE UNION FiK. 97. WITH MALC UNION Put down the figures on each dial, that the hand has just passed, and add two ciphers. The num- her obtained will be the amount of gas in cubic feet that the meter has measure. From this amount STKAM ANI> Fig. 100. used, so that there will be no- smoke from it to dirty the walls or ceiling. Fig. 101 shows a gas Pig. 101. fitter's blow- torch, made in the best possible man- ner and adapted for many purposes. STEAM AND GAS FITTING 167 Mantle Lamp. The mantle lamps of which there are a great many different varieties, resem- PiK. 102. ble somewhat the old-fashioned round or Argand type of burner, but the manner in which the light is produced is entirely different in the mantle 168 STEAM AND GAS FITTING lamp. The light produced by this lamp does not come from the flame itself, as in the case of an or- dinary gas burner, but from the mantle, and is due to the intense heat to which it is subject by the ac- tion of the Bunsen flame within the lower end of the mantle. Fig. 102 shows one form of a mantle lamp. In transferring a mantle from iis box to the burner, take the two ends of the string in one hand and lift the mantle out of the paper tube. By holding the top part of the burner in the other hand and below the mantle, the latter can safely be lowered into position. Before fixing the chim- ney examine the mantle, as a faulty one will be exchanged by the dealer if returned before being lit. A mantle is made up of a, regular series of loops, each row connected to the one above, and if at any point a loop does not join the row* above, the mantle should be returned as faulty, as it is almost certain to develop a break as soon as used. Other faults, such as broken collars, broken sus- pending loops, fractured sides, and torn bottoms, are noticeable at a glance - When lighting incandescent burners, the light should be applied from underneath the chimney, but above the screen which prevents lighting back. Some prefer to light from the top of the chimney, in which case the gas should be turned on sufficient time before the light is applied to allow the gas to expel all the air in the chimney, STEAM AND GAB FITTING 169 so that little or no explosion shall take place, and the mantle may be free from consequent damage. The breakage of mantles when in position may be avoided by attention to a, few rules. Fix in- candescent burners only on good sound and clear gas fittings. Where there is much vibration, use one of the anti-vibration frames now on the mar- ket, these frames are specially suitable for hang- ing lights, such as the arc lamps, etc. All pend- ants for the incandescent light should be supplied with loose joints, and they should never be screwed stiff, or the mantle will break if it gets the 1 slightest knock. In draughty places, such as lobbies, passages, and corridors, a mica chimney is desirable, so as to avoid breakage of the chim- ney, and to preserve the mantle. If a newly fixed burner gives an unsatisfactory light, either there may be an insufficient gas sup- ply, or the mantle may be much too wide, perhaps both conditions exist. In the first case the mantle will be well lit all round the bottom with the light, getting worse towards the top. If two of the four air-holes in the Bunsen tube are covered by the fingers, the light will at once improve. Therefore, either reduce the amount of air admitted, or in- crease the quantity of gas supplied. To reduce the amount of air, unscrew the Bunsen tube and fix inside it a piece of card or tin to cover two opposite holes. To increase the gas supply, re- move the burner from the fittings, and unscrew 170 STEAM AND GAS FITTING the Bunsen tube, when the gas regulator nipple will be seen to consist of a brass tube having a metal top with small holes, which should be very slightly enlarged. Very handy for this purpose is a hat-pin, ground to a long taper and passed up from the under side. When a mantle is too wide, one side only is incandescent, the other side hang- ing away from the gas ring. This fault is, of course, easily seen before the burner is used, if, however, the mantle ha,s been lit, the light can be improved by slightly lowering the mantle and, as this is tapered, presenting a smaller surface to the flame. Take off the mantle, lifting it by a wire under the suspending loop. Then place fie wire across a glass tumbler with the mantle suspended inside. Take out the support, nick it with a file about % inch from the plain end, and break it off, then replace the mantle. It is noticed that the brilliant light given by a new burner does not last, the light after a fort- night probably commencing to decrease. If kept in use, the mantle top becomes coated with soot and a smoky flame issues. The burners go wrong in a much shorter time if used in a room in which a fire is constantly burning. The cause of this is simply dust, which is drawn in at the air-holes and carried up the Bunsen tube. It cannot pass away owing to the screen, to which it adheres, thus preventing the gas getting away quickly enough to draw in the proper amount of air. To STEAM AND GAS FITTING 171 remedy this, take off the mantle and, with a small brush (an old nail- or tooth-brush), remove the dirt, blowing through the screen afterwards. Then replace the mantle, clean and replace the chimney, unscrew the Bunsen tube, and brush the nipple clean. Blow the dust from the tube and then refix the top. If the mantle is covered with soot, leave the gas half on until the soot is re- moved. To keep the burners at their best, this process should be done at least monthly. If the burners are in a dusty place they will require more frequent cleaning. Failure of the bye-pass in arc lamps is a com- mon fault, even in new burners. The bye-pass light may go out after the gas is turned on. In a new burner this is often caused by one of the two set-screws on the side of the burner being inserted too far; in this case, after unscrewing a complete turn, the burner will most likely work. It is sometimes necessary to take out both screws and to remove the grease adhering inside the end of the hole. Gas Proving Pump. Considerable time will be saved by having a good force pump with which the supply pipe in the street and the house pipes may be tested. A gas proving pump is shown in Fig. 103. Cleaning Gas Fixtures. If the gas fixtures can- not be kept covered in summer time, they can be kept clean by going over them every two or throe 172 STEAM AND GAS FITTING days with a soft, damp cloth, which must not be pressed hard against the fixture, as there will be danger of rubbing off the thin coat of lacquer. All that is to be taken off is the fly-specks, for if they are allowed to remain for more than two or three Pig. 103. days they will eat in through the lacquer and also through the plating and then the more the fixtures are cleaned the worse they will look. No powder or polish of any kind should be used for the pur- pose of cleaning gas fixtures, as it will at once de- stroy the only protection a gas fixture has, that is STEAM AND GAS FITTING 173 the coat of lacquer. After using a damp cloth to c^ean the fixture, dry each part at once with a soft, dry cloth, a,s it will injure the coat of lacquer to allow water to dry on the fixture. Even the moisture from the hand will sometimes leave a stain that can never be cleaned off. FLOW OF NATURAL GAS THROUGH A ONE-INCH CIRCULAR OPENING. Pressure, Inches Water. Cubic Feet per Hour. Inches Mercury. Cubic Feet per Hour. Pressure, Pounds per Square Inch. Cubic Feet per Hour. 2 2,041 1 5,168 5 17,186 4 2,897 2 7,632 6 18,989 6 3,542 3 9,305 8 21,778 8 4,116 4 10,552 10 23,388 10 4,563 5 12,019 12 25,479 6 13,220 15 27,876 7 14,182 20 33,027 8 15,316 25 38,002 9 16,025 30 42,762 10 16,970 35 48,074 40 52,761 50 62,352 60 71,125 HEIGHT OF COLUMN OF LIQUID TO PRODUCE ONE POUND PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH AT 62 DEGREES TEMPERATURE. Water Machinery oil Mercury 27.71 30.80 2.04 GAS BURNERS. While much has been written upon the princi- ple involved in obtaining a light from gas, very little is generally known as to what is required and what is the best means to adopt to secure the greatest amount of light at the least cost, and with the least vitiation of the atmosphere of the room where the light is required. Many and vari- ous improvements have been brought forward for the accomplishment of these objects, some require only a very slight alteration to the exist- ing fittings and yet give very excellent results, while others secure a very high illuminating effect and at the same time not only remove the vitiated air which has been used to support the combustion of the flame, but at the same time carry off the air rendered useless for supporting life by the inspiration and absorption of the oxy- gen. The principle which is involved in the burning of gas may with advantage be here mentioned. Coal gas contains many very different substances, about one-half of it is hydrogen, one-third marsh gas, and perhaps one-tenth is carbon monoxide. The three gases mentioned in the statement are of no value as regards the light they will give by 174 GAS BURNERS 175 themselves, but they are capable of giving a great heat when ignited, and this heat is utilised for the purpose of rendering white hot the small quantity of hydro-carbons in the ga,s, and it is this incan- descence of the very finely divided carbon parti- cles which makes the flame luminous, When a gas burner is lighted, the rush of gas from the orifice of the burner causes a current of air to pass upon each side of the flame, and thus supply the oxygen necessary to support combus- tion, the portion of the flame nearest to the burner is almost non-luminous, and is, in fact, unignited gas enclosed in a thin envelope of bright red flame. That this is really unconsumed gas can be shown by placing the lower end of a glass tube into this portion of the flame and applying a light at the upper end, when the gas issuing from it is seen to burn with an ordinary flame. The reason that this portion of the gas is not luminous is that the quantity of oxygen which is able to get to the flame at this point is only sufficient to cause the outer portion to be in a state of incandescence. That there is solid carbon in the flame may be seen by inserting a piece of cold metal or porcelain in the white portion of the flame, which, by re- ducing the temperature of the carbon, becomes coated with soot upon the under side. The same effect takes place when the cold air is allowed to blow upon the surface of the flaine, the excess of oxygen presented to the flame causing a cooling of 176 GAS BURNERS the heating gases and a consequent loss of light, as the particles of carbon are not then sufficiently heated to be made white hot and to give off light, and they then allow the carbon to pass off in the form of soot and to blacken the ceilings and paint of the rooms. This is more likely to occur with high quality gas, which contains more particles of hydro-carbons, and if there be an insufficient sup- ply of oxygen to the flame a larger proportion of soot will be allowed to escape and settle upon the ceilings, etc. Another source of blackening of the ceilings is the nearness of the burners and the ab- sence of a guard over them to deflect and spread the products of combustion over a large space. The real explanation of this effect is that aqueous vapour formed by the burning gas is condensed on the ceiling, and dust particles which are float- ing in the air are thereby caused to adhere to the ceilings. With high quality gases small burners should be used, so that the ga,s may be more thoroughly consumed. It appears that the first burners were simply pieces of pipe with one end stopped up. In the centre of the end was drilled a small hole, and the light given off, principally owing to the shape of the flame, was very small. Then was invented the bat wing burner, which has a slot cut in the dome- shaped top, and this gave a flame somewhat of the shape of a bat 's wing, hence the name. Then came the union jet, which is an arrangement very GAS BURNERS 177 generally in domestic use at the present day. It consists of a piece of brass tube plugged with a piece of steatite or porcelain with two holes in it drilled at such an angle that the two streams of gas issuing from them meet, and cause the flame of gas to spread and form a flame of horseshoe shape. One of the special points to be noticed in these burners is that the holes in them should be of comparatively large size, and the pressure of the gas when delivered from the burner reduced to the lowest point at which a firm flame can be main- tained. This can be done best by means of what is known as a governor, which is in effect a self-act- ing valve which allows only just soi much gas to pass as may be required. Passing on to the more modern styles of burn- ers, of which there are many patterns, such as the regenerative burners, it is found that all these em- body the same principle, which is to use the heat generated by the flame to heat the gas supply and the air supply so that the cooling effect of the air, which causes the blue portion of an ordinary flat flame, is considerably reduced, and the particles of carbon are rendered more rapidly incandescent, and, being heated to a greater temperature, attain greater luminosity and are kept for a longer period at this white heat. The earliest arrangement of such a burner was invented in 1854, and consisted of an argand burn- er with two chimneys, one outside of the other, 178 GAS BURNERS the air supply to the flame having to pass down between the two glasses, and so to become heated before it was led to the bottom of the burner. This answered very well, but the breakage of the chim- ney glasses was a considerable expense, and de- barred many from adopting the system. This trouble is quite overcome in the modern regenera- tive burners, as the chimneys are made of metal and the burner isi inverted, so that the flame is spread outwards instead of, as in the argand burner, upwards. The regenerative burner gives a light having four times the illuminating power of the flat-flame burner. With the incandescent burners, quite a modern invention, the principle of admitting air to mix with the gas before lighting is employed as in the Bunsen heating burner, and this, while taking away the luminosity of the flame, causes it to give off a much greater amount of heat, this heat being utilised to render a mantle of rare earths incandes- cent or white hot. These mantles are made conical in shape, and when made white hot emit a most pleasing white light, which is about five or six times more intense than that given off by the ordi- nary flat flame burner. With a properly arranged ventilating regenera- tive burner, consuming 20 cubic feet of gas per hour, and properly fitted, not only can all its own product of combustion be removed, but also the air vitiated by breathing can be removed at the rate of GAS BURNERS 179 more than 5,000 cubic feet per hour from the up- per part of thei room. The comparative quantity of air vitiated by dif- ferent illuminants giving the same amount of light is shown by the following table: Gas burnt in union jets 1 Lamp burning sperm oil 1.6 Lamp burning kerosene oil 2.25 Tallow candles 4.35 From this table it will be seen that kerosene lamps use up more than twice the amount of the oxygen of the air that gas does, while tallow can- dles use more than four times the amount. For a light of 32 candle-power, tallow candles would vitiate as much air as would be required by about 36 adult persons, kerosene oil lamps as much asi fifteen adults, while gas varied from an amount of air required for nine and a half adults when a batwing burner was used, to eight and a half when an argand burner was used. In these experiments not only was the quantity of oxygen consumed taken into consideration, but carbon dioxide and the water vapour were all taken ac- count of. Special attention must be directed to the neces- sity of having burners suitable to the quality of gas which is being used. It may be taken as a fairly general rule that the higher the illuminat- ing power of the gas the smaller the burner should 180 GAS BURNERS be. With unsuitable burners, not only blacken- ing of the ceilings, but a far lower state of effi- ciency as regards the illuminating power of the light obtained from a given quantity of gas will result. The effect of using bad burners is primarily that the light capable of being developed from the consumption of a definite quantity of gas is not obtained, consequently more gas is burnt than necessity requires, in other words, gas is wasted, and with imperfect combustion, deleterious prod- ucts are given off, vitiating the atmosphere and endangering health. That the burners which are most economical in gas consumption are the most expensive at first cost is certainly the case to some extent, but the amount of the saving effected by their use quickly repays the first cost, and thereafter the money saved goes directly into the pocket of the user of the burner. The incandescent burner is the most economical burner that is at present known, and where gas is at a high price it is a very distinct advantage, as the quantity of gas required for a given amount of light is only about one^fifth of that used with the ordinary burner. Then comes the argand burner, which is superior to the union jet or flat-flame burner, but in all these an ar- rangement known as a governor is generally to be found, by which is regulated the quantity of gas that can find its way to the point of ignition, GAS BURNERS 181 and, if only just sufficient is allowed to pass so that none is wasted, gas is economised. These governors axe also made for use with the ordinary flat-flame burner. As has been said, the principal gas burners now in use are the flat-flame, argand, and incandes- cent. Flat-flame burners embrace the union jet, or fishtail, and the batwing. In the union jet or fishtail the gas issues through two apertures in a steatite plate inserted in the top of a cylindrical brass tube, threaded at its lower end for the pur- pose of attaching to a gas-fixture. The holes in the steatite tip through which thei gas issues are inclined towards each other at an angle, so that the gas issues in two streams which unite into one flat flame at right angles to a plane passing through the two holes. One of the reasons of the adoption of steatite for the tip of the gas burner was the fact that it required a verv high heat to harm it. Steatite is a natural stone found in vari- ous parts of the world, principally in Germany. Chemically it is a double silicate of magnesium, and a substitute for the natural substance may be obtained by mixing silicate of magnesium and sil- icate of potash. Natural steatite is of a very fine grain, and softer than ivory, it admits of being worked to a very fine polish, but after it has been burned in a kiln it becomes harder than the hard- est steel, and will resist a very high temperature, about 2,000 Fahrenheit. In forming the steatite 182 GAS BURNERS into burner tips, the material is finely powdered, moistened with water, and kneaded into a plastic condition, after which it is moulded to the requi- site shape and finally burnt to harden it. The diameter of the orifices in the steatite tips, through which the gas issues, differs in size, the aim being in each case to produce a, flame of a thickness suited to the quality of the gas the burner is intended to consume. The batwing burner resembles the fishtail or union in its general features, but. differs in the manner in which the gas issues from it. In this form of burner the hollow tip is made dome- shaped and has a narrow slit cut across it and ex- tending some little distance down. The slit varies in width to suit different qualities of gas. The batwing burner requires less pressure than the union jet, with the result that the gas issues with less force, so* that the flame produced in burners of this class is not so stiff as that obtained with a union burner. Consequently it is neces- sary to employ globes with burners of this de- scription in order to protect them from draught, which would cause them to flicker and smoke. GAS STOVES AND FIRES. An examination of the principles of gas stoves* and a consideration of the advantages and disad- vantages of these heating appliances, may appro- priately precede any description of gas stoves themselves. A point often ignored in the heating of rooms is that a room will not feel warm until its walls reach the same temperature as the air which it contains. Until this occurs, the room will feel draughty, owing to the fact that the walls are depriving the air of the heat given out by the stove. It is necessary to examine the conditions of the room or building to be heated before making any calculation as to the amount of gas required to heat it. Architects calculate the cubical contents of the room, and gauge from this the size and character of the heating appliances required. A better plan is to calculate the area of the wall sur- face, and, in ordinary dwelling-houses, allow that one-half a heat unit is absorbed by each square foot per hour for each degree Fahrenheit rise after the necessary warming up is complete. The number of heat units generated per cubic foot of gas of sixteen candle-power, theoretically is 670 to 680, therefore, to raise the temperature 184 GAS STOVES AND FIRES in a room which, has been once warmed, it is necessary to allow a consumption of 1 cubic foot for every 1,300 square feet of wall surface. For the preliminary heating, however, considerably more than this is required, and as there should be a change of air in the room about every twenty minutes, practically three-fourths of the heat pro- duced by the stoves passes away by ventilation, and consequently about four times the above-men- tioned quantity of heat is required to raise the temperature of a room from the commencement, when it is at about the same temperature as the external air. It was at one time recommended to fix a row of Bunsen burners in front of or underneath an ordi- nary coal fire-grate, filled either with black fuel, made of fireclay, or with small coke. It gave a very; cheerful appearance, but it was found that the quantity of coke used, together with the con- sumption of ga,s, rendered the plan uneconomical. Many persons set a high value upon the cheerful appearance of this arrangement, and are willing to pay for it, and makers have brought forward improvements by which a saving of gas is effected. Still, gas fires in ordinary coal grates can only be recommended in preference to gas stoves when economy is not essential. Stoves in which air passes over heated surfaces are more economical than ordinary gas stoves, but, on the other hand, they are more liable to GAS STOVES AND FIRES 185 cause unpleasant odours through the heating of the dust particles. With these stoves, a,s also with hot-air and hot-water pipes, as distinct from grates, the heated air has a great tendency to rise to the top of the room, leaving the feet cold while the head is too warm. The same effect is noticed where enclosed stoves are set forward some dis- tance into the room, but these stoves are very eco- nomical, and where fuel is dear this is a para- mount consideration. One pound of coal burnt in an ordinary grate requires, for its proper com- bustion, 300 cubic feet of air having a tempera- ture of 620 Fahrenheit, and 1 volume of gas for complete combustion requires 5% volumes of air. In atmospheric or Bunsen burners the average mixture of gas and air is 1 volume of gas to 2.3 volumes of air, consequently, a further supply of air around the flame is necessary to cause com- plete combustion, and an analysis of the gases, taken from the centre of the glowing fuel, shows that often 10 per cent of carbon monoxide exists, and, should down-draughts occur, this must fiud its way unnoticed for it has neither smell nor color into the room, hence the necessity for en- suring a good draught from the stove. Curiously enough, however, the analyses of gases in the flue during the burning of the gas stove do not show a trace of this deadly gas. An average of some twenty-four stoves tested in this way showed the presence of 12 per cent of oxygen, 84 per cent of 186 GAS STOVES AND FIRES nitrogen, and 4 per cent of carbonic acid, thus proving that all the carbon monoxide had been converted into carbonic acid before leaving the stove when burning in the proper manner. This shows conclusively that flues are a necessity with gas stoves in which Bunsen burners are in use, although they need not be so large as the usual coal-grate flue, but where flues are not possible, only such stoves as employ ordinary lighting burners and utilise the heat radiated from a, pol- ished surface should be fixed. Where a smoky chimney exists, a gas stove will not cure it, unless the fault is due to a contraction of the flue, by which the flow of the draught is impeded. In that case a much smaller flue for carrying off the products of combustion being suf- ficient with a gas stove as compared with a coal fire, the trouble will probably disappear, but it would be well to ascertain the origin of the fault before recommending the adoption of a gas stove as a remedy. GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS. In fitting workshops with gas, it is important that strong materials be employed and it is desir- able to use iron pipes throughout. Where a row of benches is fixed upon each side of a workshop, it is usual to run a pipe along just below the ceil- ing, with tees between each window, from these a small pipe is carried down to either a single or double swing iron bracket. Some firms who make gas-fittings, supply iron brackets, but they can be made up quickly from the fittings and short pieces of iron pipe. Brass swivels wear considerably better than those that are made of iron, and do not corrode and stick in the working parts. When the lights are to be located down the mid- dle of a workshop where lathes or other machine tools are used, the only brass parts are the cocks and burner elbows, the ordinary iron tee being very suitable for the centre of the pendant. Where more than one floor is to be lighted, fix on the supply pipe a governor for regulating the quan- tity of gas delivered, otherwise the pressure due to the height of the upper floors will cause a low- ering of the light in the ground floor or basement. It is also an advantage to have each floor separate- 187 188 GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS ly supplied from the main, so that each floor may be shut off entirely without interfering with the others, and if a separate meter be supplied for each floor, the quantity of gas consumed in pro- portion to the work done after dark may be check- ed, and any escape noted. Where a pipe falls, a pipe syphon or syphon-box should be fixed, as the temperature is subject to extreme changes and the quantity of condensation is much greater than in private houses. When the pipes are run through the floor and up the legs of the lathes or other machinery, it is usual to bend the pipe to the exact curves taken by the machine, and to fix the pipe in its place by means of bands of iron bent to the curve of the pipe, and fixed to the machine by two small set screws. These bands may also be found useful in fitting up houses where the nature of the wall or floor will not permit the use of the ordinary pipe-hook. It is often found necessary to fit up in a work- shop over each machine a bracket arranged so as to move in any direction to suit the convenience of the workman. One way of making these fit- tings is to make the elbows of the brackets of two- double swing swivels one upright and one on its side. Another way is to have two lines of pipes from the support, and to connect both at each end to double swivels, while between the upper and lower pipe, and laid at an angle, is a thin bar, GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 189 which is fixed on to the upper pipe, and can be clamped to the lower one when the exact position required has been obtained. This form of bracket is useful in drawing offices, where the burner and shade commonly in use cause the other pattern of bracket to gradually fall downwards on to the table, whereas the second arrangement always keeps parallel, and, if tightly clamped, cannot change its position without breaking the thin metal bar, which should be made sufficiently strong to withstand the strain due to the weight of the heaviest burner chimney and shade likely to be placed upon it. In making brackets and pendants it is conveni- ent to know a quick and efficient way to bend iron pipes. The exact shape required having been drawn full size upon paper the latter is tacked or posted on to a rough board. Strong cut nails are then driven in it to follow the desired curve, the nails being half the outside diameter of the pipe from the drawn line, so that the centre of the pipe, when bent, may lie directly over the drawn line. The iron pipe is heated in a forge fire or in a fur- nace, the latter heats the pipe equally over the length required. The end is inserted between the lines of nails, and, with the aid of a pair of pliers, is quickly made to follow the curves indicated by the nails. Nails are not necessary on the outer side of the curves, except at the starting point, where a firm grip of the pipe must be insured. 190 GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS Where many pipes are to be bent to- the same .shape, the board is replaced by a square plate, with holes all over it, cast or wrought-iron curves replacing the nails. The saving in time and the accuracy of the bending soon repay the additional outlay. In bending iron pipe, proceed gradually, and make only small curves at a time, or the pipe will collapse. For shop brackets, metal backs are found suit- able. These metal backs are supplied with the fittings, and are drilled and countersunk ready for erection, space being left for the pipe to screw into the top of the swivel joint. A metal back makes a strong job, and answers every purpose where very neat finish is not necessary. In all workshops ventilation is a prime requisite, and must be provided for, more especially where the rooms are low and a considerable number of workmen and gas lights are employed. Gas is an excellent draught inductor, an ordinary batwing or union jet burner consuming 1 cubic foot of gas per hour, when placed in a six-inch ventilating tube 12 feet long, will cause 2,460 cubic feet of air per hour to pass up the tube, and this induced draught can be easily adapted for the removal of the heated and vitiated air from the upper por- tion of the room. Each person present will give off per hour about 17.7 cubic feet of air, of which from .6 to .8 of a cubic foot will be carbonic acid (C0 2 ), the amount of C0 2 evolved from the com- GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 191 bustion of coal gas is equal practically to one-half the quantity of gas burnt, and an ordinary gas burner may be considered as being equivalent to at least three adults in its effect upon the atmos- phere. The air space required in a workshop is 250 cubic feet for each person during the day and 400 feet at night. Again, 500 cubic feet of fresh air per person should be delivered into a room during each hour, and therefore the same quantity of vitiated air must be drawn away by some means, no method is more suitable or so effective as the one above proposed, in which a lighted gas burner is enclosed by a ventilating shaft. A well -constructed ceiling burner has an excellent effect upon the ventilation of a room, workshop, or hall, when a properly arranged vertical shaft, usually of sheet iron, is carried up through the roof, and will at the same time assist greatly in the general illumination of the shop. USEFUL INFORMATION. One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs from 75 to 80 Ibs. One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs from 70 to 75 Ibs. One bushel of coke weighs 32 Ibs. Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on the inside. One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- gree Fahrenheit. For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 pounds of coal per hour is considered economical consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface in a standard tubular boiler. Water boils in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren heit. A cubic foot of water weighs 62% pounds, it contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 192 USEFUL INFORMATION 193 expands in bailing about one-twentieth of its bulk. In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will produce 1 cubic foot of steam. One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. It requires 1% British Thermal Units to raise one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- renheit. At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- quired to evaporate one pound of water into steam. A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat uits. One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units per minute. One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 pounds one foot high in one minute. To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- ration of 2.66 pounds of water. One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 cubic feet. One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 pounds. Heated air and water rise because their parti- cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than the colder particles. A vacuum is a portion of space from which the air has been entirely exhausted. Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into the form of vapor. 194 USEFUL INFORMATION Increase of temperature, increased exposure of surface, and the passage of air currents over the surface, cause increased evaporation. Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, and acts with the same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to those surfaces. The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- tional to its depth. With different liquids and the same depth, pres- sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. The pressure is the same at all points on any given level of a liquid. The pressure of the upper layers of a body of liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is called buoyancy. Friction does not depend in the least on the pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which it is flowing. Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- face. At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- locity of the liquid. Friction increases with the roughness of the surface. Friction increases with the density of the liquid. Friction is greater comparatively, in small USEFUL INFORMATION 195 pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on heating apparatus should be generous in size. Air is extremely compressible, while water is almost incompressible. Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, and one part of oxygen. Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. Air is composed of about one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- bonic acid gas. To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide the result by 5, and add 32. To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, multiply by 5 and divide by 9. To find the area of a required pipe, when the volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide this amount by the velocity in feet per minute. Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 196 USEFUL INFORMATION Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by freezing solid. Water is at its greatest density and occupies the least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- mitting heat. A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. A column of water 27.67 inches high has a pres- sure of 1 pound to the square inch at the bottom. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, the difference depending upon conditions of draft, fuel, system and management. A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 40 pounds. PRESSURE OF WATER FOR EACH FOOT IN HEIGHT. Feet In Pounds per Feet in Pounds per Feet in Pounds per Height. Sq. In. Height. Sq. In. Height. Sq. In. 1 .43 15 6.49 50 21.65 2 .86 20 8.66 70 30.32 5 2.16 25 10.82 80 34.65 10 4.33 40 17.32 100 43.31 USEFUL INFORMATION 197 BOILING POINTS OF VARIOUS FLUIDS. Substance. Degrees. Substance. Degrees. Water in Vacuum Water, Atmosph'c Alcohol Sulphuric Acid 98 Pres. 212 173 240 Refined Petroleum Turpentine Sulphur Linseed Oil 316 315 570 597 Weights. One cubic inch of water weighs . 036 pounds One U. S. gallon weighs. . . 8.33 " One Imperial gallon " ...10.00 One U. S. gallon equals. . . .231.00 cubic inches One Imperial gallon " ...277.274 " One cubic foot of water equals 7.48 U. S. gallons Liquid Measure. 4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel Size of Pipe in Inches. Sq. Ft. in one Lineal Ft. Gallons of Water in 100 Feet in Length. % .27 2.77 1 .34 4.50 1% .43 7.75 \% .50 10.59 2 .62 17.43 2K .75 24.80 3 .92 38.38 3% 1.05 51.36 4 1.17 66.13 198 USEFUL INFORMATION To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the length by the breadth. To find the area of triangle, multiply the base by one-half the perpendicular height. To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 3.1416. To find the area of a circle, multiply the diam- eter by itself, and the result by .7854. To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, divide the area by .7854, and find the square root of the result. To find the diameter of a circle which shall have the same area as a given square, multiply one side of the square by 1.128. To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. To find the number of gallons in a rectangular tank, multiply together the length, breadth and height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- mensions are in inches, multiply the product by .004329. To find the pressure in pounds per square inch, of a column of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. To find the head in feet, the pressure being known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 2.31. To find the lateral pressure of water upon the side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the USEFUL INFORMATION 199 submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half the depth. Example Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the tank. 144 x 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 12 x .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 pounds pressure on side of tank. To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per minute by 96. This will give the diameter in inches. Cleaning Busted Iron. Place the articles to be cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin and allow them to stand for a half day or more. When removed, wash the articles in water, then in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- complish this purpose, often better than specially prepared compounds. Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 200 USEFUL INFORMATION work into a strong mixture of potash, soda, and water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with water. Kemoving Grease Stains from Marble. Mix 1% parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller 's earth and 1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to stand a few hours. Strong Cement, Melt over a slow fire, equal parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- ply the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton cloth. Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- iy. . Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply quickly as possible. Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled USEFUL INFORMATION 201 with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into place. Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth with weak salt water. Bust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- phur, and thin the mixture with water. Removing Rust from Steel. Mix one-half ounce of cyannide of potassium, % ounce of castile soap, 1 ounce of whiting, adding enough water to form a paste, and apply to the steel. Rinse it off with a solution formed of one-half ounce of cyannide of potassium and 2 ounces of water. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF COAL, OIL, AND GAS. In good practice, with boilers of proper con- struction and proportioned to the work- One pound of coal will evaporate 10 pounds of water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One pound of oil will evaporate 16 pounds of water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One pound of natural gas will evaporate 20 pounds of water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One pound of coal equals 11.225 cubic feet of natural gas. Two thousand pounds of coal (1 ton) equals 22,- 450 cubic feet of natural gas. 202 USEFUL INFORMATION One pound of oil equals 18.00 cubic feet of natural gas. One barrel of oil (42 gallons) equals 5,310.00 cubic feet of natural gas. 1.125 cubic feet of natural gas will evaporate 1 pound of water. 1.00 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860 Heat Units. 1,000 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860,000 Heat Units. One ton of coal will equal 19,307,000 Heat Units. One barrel of oil will equal 4,566.600 Heat Units. In ordinary practice, about twice as much of the above fuels are required to evaporate the above amounts. USEFUL KINKS. Paint for Iron. Dissolve y% pound of asphalt- um and % pound of pounded resin in 2 pounds of tar oil. Mix hot in an iron kettle, but do not allow it to come in contact with the fire. It may be used as soon as cold, and is good both for outdoor wood and ironwork. Recipe for Heat-Proof Paint. A good cylinder and exhaust pipe paint is made as follows: Two pounds of black oxide of manganese, 3 pounds of graphite and 9 pounds of Fuller's earth, thoroughly mixed. Add a compound of 10 parts of sodium silicate, 1 part of glucose and 4 parts of water, until the consistency is such that it can be applied with a brush. Rust Joint Composition. This is a cement made of sal-ammoniac 1 pound, sulphur % pound, cast-iron turnings 100 pounds. The whole should be thoroughly mixed and moistened with a little water. If the joint is required to set very quick, add ^4 pound more sal-ammoniac. Care should be taken not to use too much sal- ammoniac, or the mixture will become rotten. Removing Rust from Iron. Iron may be quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in or 203 204 USEFUL KINKS washing with nitric acid one part, muriatic acid one part and water twelve parts. After using wash with clean water. Making Pipe Joints. Never screw pipe to- gether for either steam, water or gas without putting white or red lead on the joints. Many times in taking pipe apart the joints are stuck so hard that it is impossible to un- screw the pipe; heat the coupling (not the pipe) by holding a hot iron on it, or hammer the coupling with a light hammer, either one will expand the coupling and break the joint so it can be easily unscrewed. Annealing Cast Iron. To anneal cast iron, heat it in a slow charcoal fire to a dull red heat; then cover it over about two inches with fine charcoal, then cover all with ashes. Let it lay until cold. Hard cast iron can be softened enough in this way to be filed or drilled. This process will be exceedingly useful to iron found- ers, as by this means there will be a great saving of expense in making new patterns. To make a casting of precisely the same size of a broken casting without the original patterns : Put the pieces of broken casting together and mould them, and cast from this mould. Then anneal it as above described; it will expand to the original size of the pattern, and there re- main in that expanded state. Preventing Iron or Steel from Rusting. The USEFUL KINKS 205 best treatment for polished iron or steel, which has a habit of growing gray and lustreless, is to wash it very clean with a stiff brush and am- monia soapsuds, rinse well and dry by heat if possible, then oil plentifully with sweet oil and dust thickly with powdered quick lime. Let the lime stay on two days, then brush it off with a clean stiff brush. Polish with a softer brush, and rub with cloths until the lustre comes out. By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be kept from rust almost indefinitely. Loosening Rusted Screws. One of the simplest and readiest ways of loosening a rusted screw is to apply heat to the head of the screw. A small bar or rod of iron, flat at the end, if reddened in the fire and applied for two or three minutes to the head of a rusty screw, will, as soon as it heats the screw, render its withdrawal as easy with the screwdriver as if it were only a recently inserted screw. This is not particularly novel, but it is worth knowing. Tinning Cast Iron. To successfully coat cast- ings with tin they must be absolutely clean and free from sand and oxide. They are usually freed from imbedded sand in a rattler or tumb- ling box, which also tends to close the surface grain and give the article a smooth metallic face. The articles should be then placed in a hot pickle of one part of sulphuric acid to four parts of water, in which they are allowed to 206 USEFUL KINKS remain from one to two hours, or until the re- cesses are free from scale and sand. Spots may be removed by a scraper or wire brush. The castings are then washed in hot water and kept in clean hot water until ready to dip. For a flux, dip in a mixture composed of four parts of a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac in water and one part of hydrochloric acid, hot. Then dry the castings and dip them in the tin pot. The tin should be hot enough to quickly bring the castings to its own temperature when perfectly fluid, but not hot enough to quickly oxidize the surface of the tin. A sprinkling of pulverized sal-ammoniac may be made on the surface of the tin, or a little tallow or palm oil may be used to clear the surface and make the tinned work come out clear. As soon as the tin on/ihe cast- ings ha,s chilled or set, they should be washed in hot sal soda water and dried in sawdust. Removing Scale from Iron Castings. Immerse the parts in a mixture composed of one part of oil of vitriol to three parts of water. In six to ten hours remove the castings, and wash them thoroughly with clean water. A weaker solution can be used by allowing a longer time for the action of the solution. Cleaning Brass Castings. If greasy, the cast- ings should be cleaned by boiling in lye or potash. The first pickle is composed of nitric acid one quart, water six to eight quarts. After USEFUL KINKS 207 pickling in this mixture the castings should be washed in clear warm or hot water, and the fol- lowing pickle be then used: Sulphuric acid one quart, nitric acid two quarts, muriatic acid, a few drops. The first pickle will remove the dis- colorations due to iron, if present. The muriatic acid of the second pickle will darken the color of the castings to an extent depending on the amount used. Tinning Surfaces. Articles of brass or copper boiled in a solution of cyanide of potassium mixed with turnings or scraps of tin in a few moments become covered with a firmly attached layer of fine tin. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles with tin turnings or scraps and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In either way, arti- cles made of copper or brass may be easily and perfectly tinned. Protecting Bright Work from Rust. Use a mixture of one pound of lard, one ounce of gum camphor, melted together, with a little lamp- black. A mixture of lard oil and kerosene in equal parts. A mixture of tallow and white lead, or of tallow and lime. How to Braze. Clean the article thoroughly and better to polish with sand paper. Fasten the parts to be brazed firmly together, so they will not part when heated in the fire. Place over a slow fire of charcoal or well coked coal. Place 208 USEFUL KlNKg on the parts to be brazed a small quantity of pulverized borax; as soon as this is done boiling and has flowed to all parts, then put on the spelter; when the spelter melts it will generally run in globules or shot. Jar the piece by gently striking with a, small piece of wire; this will cause the spelter to flow to all parts. Lead Explosions. Many mechanics have had their patience sorely tried when pouring lead around a damp or wet joint, to have it explode, blow out or scatter from the effects of steam generated by the heat of the lead. The whole trouble may be avoided by putting a piece of resin, the size of a man's thumb, into the ladle and allowing it to melt before pouring. Sharpening Files. To sharpen dull and worn out files, lay them in dilute Sulphuric Acid, one part acid to two parts of water over night, then rinse well in clear water, put the acid in an earthenware vessel. Soldering Aluminum. When soldering alum- inum, it should be borne in mind that upon ex- posure to the air a slight film of oxide forms over the surface of the aluminum, and after- wards protects t-ie metal. The oxide is the same color as the metal, so that it cannot easily be distinguished. The idea in soldering is to get underneath this oxide while the surface is cover- ed with the molten solder. Clean off all dirt and grease from the surface of the metal with a little USEFUL KINKS 209 benzine, apply the solder with a copper bit, and when the molten solder is covering the surface of the metal, scratch through the solder with a steel wire scratch-brush. By this means the oxide on the surface of the metal is broken up underneath the solder, which containing its own flux, takes up the oxide and enables the surface of the aluminum to be tinned properly. Small surfaces of aluminum can be soldered by the use of zinc and Venetian turpentine. Place the solder upon the metal together with the turpentine and heat very gently with a blowpipe until the solder is entirely melted. The trouble with this, as with other solders, is that it will not flow gently on the metal. Therefore large surfaces cannot be easily soldered. Another method is to clean the aluminum surfaces by scraping, and then cover with a layer of paraffine wax as a flux. Then coat the surfaces by fusion, with a layer of an alloy of zinc, tin and lead, preferably in the following proportions; Zinc five parts, tin two parts, lead one part. The metallic surfaces thus prepared can be soldered together either by means of zinc or cadmium, or alloys of aluminum with these metals. In fact, any good soldering preparation will answer the purpose. A good solder for low-grade work is the fol- lowing: Tin 95 parts, bismuth five parts. 210 USEFUL KINKS A good flux in all cases is either stearin, vaseline, paraffine, copaiva balsam, or benzine. In the operation of soldering, small tools made of aluminum are used, which facilitate at the same time the fusion of the solder and its ad- hesion to the previously prepared surfaces. Tools made of copper or brass must be strictly avoided as they would form colored alloys with the aluminum and the solder. Aluminum Solder. This consists of 28 pounds of block tin, three and one-half pounds of lead, seven pounds of spelter, and 14 pounds of phos- phor-tin. The phosphor-tin should contain 10 per cent of phosphorus. Clean off all the dirt and grease from the surface of the metal with benzine, apply the solder with a copper bit, and when the molten solder covers the metal, scratch through the solder with a wire scratch brush. Sweating Aluminum to Other Metals. First coat the aluminum surface to be soldered with a layer of zinc. On top of the zinc is melted a layer of an alloy of one part aluminum to two and one-half parts of zinc. The surfaces are placed together and heated until the alloy be- tween them is liquefied. Soldering Fluid. Take of scrap zinc or pure spelter about % pound, and immerse in a half- pint of muriatic acid. If the scraps completely dissolve add more until the acid ceases to bubble and a small piece of metal remains. Let this USEFUL KINKS 211 stand for a day and then carefully pour off the clear liquid, or filter it through a cone of blot ting paper. Add a teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac, and when thoroughly dissolved, the solution is ready for use. Depending on the materials to be soldered, the quantity of sal-ammoniac can be reduced. Its presence makes soldering very easy, but, unless the parts are well heated so as to evaporate the salt, the joints may rust. Etching on Iron or Steel. Take one-half ounce of nitric acid and one ounce 'of muriatic acid. Mix, shake well together, and it is ready for use. Cover the place you wish to mark with melted beeswax, when cold write the inscription plainly an the wax clear to the metal with a sharp in- strument, then apply the mixed acids with a feather, carefully filling each letter. Let it re- main from one to ten minutes, according to the appearance desired. Then throw on water, which stops the etching process and removes the wax. Soldering Solution. An excellent method of preparing resin for soldering bright tin is given as follows: Take one and one-half pounds of olive oil and one and one-half pounds of tallow and 12 ounces of pulverized resin. Mix these ingredients and let them boil up. When this mixture has be- come cool, add one and three-eighths pints of water saturated with pulverized sal ammoniac, stirring constantly. Softening Cast Iron. To soften iron for drill- 212 USEFUL KINKS ing, heat to a cherry-red, having it lie level in the fire. Then with tongs, put on a piece of brim- stone, a little less in size than the hole is to be. This softens the iron entirely through. Let it lie in the fire until cooled, when it is ready to drill. Suggestions how to Solder. Clean the parts thoroughly from all rust, grease or scale, then wet with prepared acid. Hold tha soldering copper on each part until the article is well tinned and the solder has flowed to all parts. Watch-Makers' Oil that Will Never Corrode or Thicken. Take a bottle about half full of good olive oil and put in thin strips of sheet lead, ex- pose it to the sun for a month, then pour off the clear oil. The above is a very cheap way of mak- ing a first-class oil for any light machinery. Varnish for Copper. To protect copper from oxidation a varnish may be employed which is composed of carbon disulphide 1 part, benzine 1 part, turpentine oil 1 part, methyl alchol 2 parts and hard copal 1 part. It is well to apply several coats of it to the copper. Glue for Iron. Put an equal amount by weight of finely powdered rosin in glue and it will ad- here firmly to iron or other metal surfaces. Soldering or Tinning Acid. Muriatic Acid 1 pound, put into it all the zinc it will dissolve and 1 ounce of Sal Ammoniac, add as much clear water as acid, it is then ready for use. Plaster of Paris. Common plaster that farmers USEFUL KINKS 213 use to put on land and plaster of paris are the same thing, except plaster of paris is common plaster calcined. Many times it is difficult to get calcined plaster, and when it is procured it is badly adulterated with lime and unfit for many uses. Ten calcine plaster, or in other words, to make common plaster so it will harden, you have but to take the plaster and put it in an iron kettle and place it over a slow fire, put no water in it. In a few moments, it will begin to boil and will continue to do> so until every particle of moisture is evaporated out of it. When it has stopped boiling take it off, andi when cold it is ready for use. Plaster treated in this way will harden much quicker and harder than any which can be bought ready prepared. Hardening Small Articles. To harden small tools or articles that are apt to warp in hard- ening, heat very carefully, and insert in a raw potato, then draw the temper as usual. Bluing Brass. Dissolve one ounce of antimony chloride in twenty ounces of water and add three ounces of pure hydrochloric acid. Place the warmed brass article into this solution until it has turned blue. Then wash it and dry in saw- dust. Drilling Glass. Take an old three-cornered file, one that is worn out will do, break it off and sharpen to a point like a drill and place in a car- penter's brace. Have the glass fastened on a 214 USEFUL KINKS good solid table so there will be no danger of its breaking. Wet the glass at the point where the hole is to made with the following solution: Ammonia 6V 2 drachms Ether 3y 2 drachms Turpentine 1 ounce Keep the drill wet with the above solution and bore the hole part way from each side of the glass. Another solution is to dissolve a piece of gum camphor the size of a walnut in one ounce of tur- pentine. Another method is to use a steel drill hardened, but not drawn. Saturate spirits of turpentine with camphor and wet the drill. The drill should be ground with aj long point and plenty of clear- ance. Run the drill fast and with a light feed. In this manner glass can be drilled with small holes, up to 3-16 inch in diameter nearly as rapid- ly a,s cast steel. Cement for Pipe Joints. Mix 10 parts iron filings and 3 parts chloride] of lime to a paste by means of water. Apply to the joint and clamp up. It will be solid in 12 hours. Removing Stains. To remove Ink Stains, wash with pure fresh water, and apply oxalic acid. If this changes the stain to a red color, apply am- monia, To remove Iron Rust from White Fabrics, saturate the spots with lemon juice and salt and expose to the sun. USEFUL KINKS 215 Weight of Castings. If you have a pattern made of soft pine, put together without nails, an iron casting made from it will weigh sixteen pounds to every pound of the pattern. If the casting is of brass, it will weigh eighteen pounds to every pound of the pattern. Ordering Taps and Dies. In ordering Taps and Dies, be sure and give the kind, exact size and thread wanted. Always remember you are writ- ing to a person who knows nothing of what is wanted, therefore make the order plain and ex- plicit. Never order a special Tap or Die if it can be avoided, as such will cost at least double that of regular sizes and threads. Tapping Nuts. Always use good Lard Oil in cutting threads with a die or tapping out nuts. Poor cheap oil will soon ruin both die and tap. Grindstones. Grindstones to grind tools should be run at a speed of about 800 feet per minute at its periphery, a 30-inch stone should be run about 100 revolutions per minute. When used to grind carpenters' tools a speed of 600 feet at its peri- phery, a 30-inch stone should therefore be run at 75 revolutions per minute. White Metal for Bearings. White metal for bearings consists of 48 pounds of tin, 4 pounds of copper, and 1 pound of antimony. The copper and tin are melted first, and then the antimony is added. Marine Glue. One part of pure India rubber 216 USEFUL KINKS dissolved in naphtha. When melted add two parts of shellac. Melt until mixed. To Soften Cast Iron. Heat the whole piece to a bright glow and gradually cool under a, cover- ing of fine coal dust. Small objects should be packed in quantities, in a crucible in a furnace or open fire, under materials which when heated to a glow give out carbon to the iron. They should be heated gradually, and kept at a bright heat for an hour and allowed to cool slowly. The substances recommended to be added are cast- iron turnings, sodium carbonate or raw sugar. If only raw sugar is used, the quantity should not be too small. By this process it is said that cast (iron may be made so soft that it can almost be cut with a pocket-knife. To Harden Files. To harden files dip the file in redhot lead, handle up. This gives a uniform heat and prevents warping. Run the file endwise back and forth in a pan of salt water. , Set the file in a vise and straighten it while still warm. Leather Belts. A leather belt is more econo- mical in the end than a rubber one. Wheni buy- ing a leather belt it should be tested by doubling it up with the hair side out. If it should crack, reject it as it cannot realize the whole amount of power it should transmit. If it shows a spongy appearance it should be condemned at once, for it must be pliable as well as, firm. The grain or hair side should' be free from wrinkles and the USEFUL KINKS 217 belt should be of uniform thickness throughout its length. It should be tested for quality by im- mersing a small strip in strong vinegar. If the leather has been properly tanned and is of good quality, it will remain in vinegar for weeks with- out alteration, excepting it will grow darker in color. If the leather has not been properly tanned the fiber will swell and the leather will become softened, turning it into a jelly-like mass. To Cement Rubber to Leather. Koughen both surfaces with a sharp- piece of glass, apply on both a diluted solution of gutta percha in carbon bi- sulphide, and let the solution soak into the mate- rial. Then press upon each surface a skin of gutta percha about one-hundredth of an inch in thick- ness, between a pair of rolls. Unite the two/ sur- faces in a press that should be warm but not hot. In case a press cannot be used, dissolve 30 parts of rubber in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the vessel being placed on a water bath of a tempera,- ture of 86 degrees Fahrenheit. Melt ten parts of rubber with fifteen parts of rosin and add 35 parts of oil of turpentine. When the rubber has been completely dissolved, the two liquids may be mixed. The resulting cement must be kept well corked. Drilling Holes in Glass. Holes of any size de- sired may be drilled in glass by the following method: Get a small 3-cornered file and grind the points from one corner and the bias from 218 USEFUL KINKS the other and set the file in a, brace, such as is used in boring wood. Lay the glass in which the holes are to be bored on a smooth surface covered with a blanket and begia to bore a, hole. When a, slight impression is made on the glass, place a disk of putty around it and fill with turpentine to prevent too great heating by friction. Continue boring the hole, which will be as smooth as one drilled in wood with an auger. Do not press too hard on the brace while drilling. To Polish Brass, Smooth the brass with a fine file and run it with smooth fine grain stone, or with charcoal and water. When quite smooth and free from scratches, polish with pumice stone and oil, spirits of turpentine, or alcohol. How to Make a Soft Alloy. A soft alloy which will adhere tenaciously to metal, glass or porce- lain, and can also be used as a solder for articles which cannot bear a high degree of heat, is made as follows: Obtain copper-dust by precipitating copper from the sulphate by means of metallic zinc. Place from 20 to 36 parts of the copper-dust, ac- cording to the hardness desired, in a porcelain- lined mortar, and mix well with some sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.85. Add to this paste 70 parts of mercury, stirring constantly, and when thoroughly mixed, rinse the amalgam in warm water to remove the acid. Let cool from 10 to USEFUL KINKS 219 12 hours, after which time it will be hard enough to scratch tin. When ready to use it, heat to 707 degrees Fah- renheit and knead in an iron mortar till plastic. Jt can then be spread on any surface, and when it lias cooled and hardened will adhere most ten- aciously. MEDICAL AID. Things to Do in Case of Sprains or Dislocations. The most important thing is to secure rest until (the arrival of the surgeon. If the sprain is in the ankle or foot, pla,ce a folded towel around the part and cover with a bandage. Apply moist heat. The foot should be immersed in a bucket of hot water and more hot water added from time to time, so that it can be kept as hot as can be borne for fifteen or twenty minutes, after which a firm bandage should be aplied, by a surgeon, if possible, and the foot elevated. In sprains of the wrist, a, straight piece of wood should be used as a splint, cover with cotton or wool to make it soft, and lightly bandage, and carry the arm in a) sling. In all cases of sprains the results may be serious, and a surgeon should be obtained as soon as possible. After the acute symptoms of pain and swelling have subsided, it is still necessary that the joint should have com- plete rest by the use of a splint and bandage and such applications as the surgeon may direct. Simple dislocation of the fingers can be put in place by strong pulling, aided by a little pressure on the part of the bones nearest the joint. The best that can be done in mo&t cases is to 220 MEDICAL AID 221 put the part in the position easiest to the sufferer, and to apply cold wet cloths, while awaiting the arrival of a surgeon. To Remove Foreign Substances from the Eye. Take hold of the upper lid and turn it up so that the inside of the upper lid may be seen. Have the patient make several movements with the eye, first. up, then down, to the right side and to the left. Then take a tooth-pick with a little piece of absorbent cotton wound around the end and moistened in cold! water, and swab it out. , The foreign substance will adhere to the swab and the object will be removed from the eye without any trouble. In Case of Cuts. The chief points to be attend- ed to are: Arrest the bleeding. Eemove from the wound all foreign substances as soon as possible. Bring the wounded parts opposite to each other and keep them so. This is best done by means of strips of surgeon's plaster, first applied to one side of the wound and then secured to the other. These strips should not be too broad, and space must be left between the strips to allow any mat- ter to escape. Wounds too- extensive to be held together by plaster must be stitched by a surgeon, who should always be sent for in severe cases. Broken Limbs. To get at a broken limb or rib, the clothing must be removed, and it is essential that this should be done without injury to the patient. The simplest plan is to rip up the seams 222 MEDICAL AID of such garments as are in the way. Shoes must always be cut} off. It is not imperatively necess- ary to do anything to a broken limb before the arrival of a doctor, except to keep it perfectly at rest. Wounds. If a wound be discovered in a part covered by the clothing, cut the clothing at the seams. Remove only sufficient clothing to un- cover and inspect the wound. All wounds should be covered and dressed as quickly as possible. If a severe bleeding should occur, see that this is stopped, if possible, before the wound is dressed. Treatment of Burns. In treating burns of a serious nature, the first thing to be done after the fire is extinguished should be to remove the cloth- ing. The greatest care must be exercised, as any- thing like pulling will bring the skin away. If the clothing is not thoroughly wet, be sure to saturate it with water or oil before attempting to remove it. If portions of the clothing will not drop off, allow them to remain. Then make a thick solu- tion of common baking soda and water, and dip soft cloths in it and lay them over the injured parts, and bandage them lightly to keep them in position. Have the solution near by, and the instant any part of a cloth shows signs of dry- ness, squeeze some of the solution on thair part. Do not remove the cloth, as total exclusion of the MEDICAL AID 223 air is necessary, and little, if any, pain, will be felt as long as the cloths are kept saturated. This may be kept up for several days, after which soft cloths dipped in oil may be applied, and 1 covered with cotton batting. If the feet are cold, apply heat and give hot water to drink, and if the burns are very serious send for a doctor as soon as pos- sible. The presence of pain is a good sign, show- ing that vitality is present. Bleeding. In case of bleeding, the person may become weak and faint, unless the blood is flow- ing actively. This is not a serious sign, and the quiet condition of the faint often assists nature in stopping the bleeding, by allowing the blood to clot and so block up any wound in a blood vessel. Unless the faint is prolonged or the patient is posing much blood, it is better not to relieve the faint condition, When in this state excitement should be avoided, and external warmth should be applied, the person covered with blankets, and bottles of hot water or hot bricks applied to the feet and arm-pits. Watch carefully if unconscious. If vomiting occurs, turn the patient's body on one side, with the head low, so that the matters vomited may not go into the lungs. Bleeding is of three kinds: From the arteries which lead from the heart. That which comes from the veins which take the blood] back to the heart. That from the small veins which carry 224 MEDICAL AID the blood to the surface of the body. In the first, the blood is bright scarlet and escapes as though It were being pumped, in the second, the blood is dark red and flows away in an uninterrupted stream. In the third, the blood oozes out. In some wounds all three kinds of bleeding occur at the same time. Carrying an Injured Person. In case of an in- jury where walking is impossible, and lying down is not absolutely necessary, the injured person may be seated in a chair, and carried, or he may sit upon a board, the ends of which are carried by two men, around whose necks they should place his arms so as to steady himself. Where an injured person can walk he will get much help by putting his arms over the shoulders and round the 1 neeks of two others. TABLES 225 a 02 II, SJ a ""44 O SI O *> O t> 00 COO5CMCO-^rHlO ^COCOQO lOt>-l>-VOC<|COOi OSCOTHIO l>- C^t^^rHOiOSO^OCQCDO i 1011005 THI>TtHUt)OO i I CO I>- 00 O^ 226 TABLES PIP STEAM, G rd Dimen ST f S I I " -3 qouj jad spBaaqjj jo aaqamx >OOOOTtlTt- IO t^ l> t^ ^ rH 00 00 CO rH t^ 00 CO O t>-^rHT^COCJ Oq CO* rH rH rH (N C"C^rHI>-OO iH (M 00 (M 00 O> IN TH !> -ixoaddy IBT40V CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO ^ 1C CO -CO- COU7)COQOC GO* O5 OS* J> id ^' CO' d TH" TH" TH TH TH CO 1O Z> t- C- -* TH 00 00 TH 1O OS t~ l COi>-tO^COOOTHO os' o TH id GO' TH TH O5 (M* CO ^' id 1O i> OS* O (M* Ti? t>* O CO t~ OS l> C5 ^ CO TH -^ TH TH >O t^ rfH TH oo oo i-i 10 as t^ i>. T^COOOTHO CO GO rH i-H C \v> \-1> GO O CO CO O5 CO GO IO 1C 230 TABLES TABLE GIVING VELOCITY OF FLOW OF WATER In Feet per Minute, Through Pipes of Various Sizes, for Varying Quantities of Flow. Gallons per Minute 3-4 inch. 1 inch. 1 1-4 inch. 1 1-2 inch. 2 inch. 2 1-2 inch. 3 inch. 4 inch. 5 218 122i 78 54i 301 191 13% 7% 10 436 245 157 109 61 38 27 15% 15 653 367 235i 163i 911 581 40% 23 20 872 490 314 218 122 78 54 30% 25 1090 612 392 272^ 1521 971 67% 38% 30 735 451 327 183 117 81 46 35 857^ 549i 38H 2131 1361 94% 53% 40 980 628 436 244 156 108 61% 45 1102^ 7061 490 2741 1751 121% 69 50 785 545 305 195 135 76% 75 1177i 8171 457* 2921 202% 115 100 1090 610 380 270 153% 125 7621 4871 337% 191% 150 915 585 405 230 175 10671 682| 472% 268% 200 1220 780 540 306% TABLE GIVING Loss IN PRESSURE Due to Friction, in Pounds, per Square Inch, for Pipe 100 Feet Long. Gallons Discharged per Minute. 3-4 inch. 1 inch, 1 1-4 inch. 1 1-2 inch. 2 inch. 2 1-2 inch. 3 inch. 4 inch. 5 3.3 0.84 0.31 0.12 10 13.0 3.16 1.05 0.47 0.12 15 28.7 6.98 2.38 0.97 0.27 0.06 20 50.4 12.3 4.07 1.66 0.42 0.13 0.03 25 78.0 19.0 6.40 2.62 0.67 0.21 0.10 30 27.5 9.15 3.75 0.91 0.30 0.12 0.03 35 37.0 12.4 5.05 1.26 0.42 0.14 0.05 40 48.0 16.1 6.52 1.60 0.51 0.17 0.06 45 20.2 8.15 2.01 0.62 0.27 0.07 50 24.9 10.0 2.44 0.81 0.35 0.09 75 56.1 22.4 5.32 1.80 0.74 0.21 100 39.0 9.46 3.20 1.31 0.33 125 14.9 4.89 1.99 0.51 150 21.2 7.0 2.88 0.69 175 28.1 9.46 3.85 0.95 200 37.5 12.47 5.02 1.22 TABLES 231 TENSILE STRENGTH OF BOLTS. Diameter of Bolt in inches. Area at Bottom of Thread. At 7,000 Ibs. per square Inch. At 10,000 Ibs. per square inch. At 12,000 Ibs. per square inch. At 15,000 Ibs. per square inch. At 20,000 Ibs. per square inch. % .125 875 1,250 1,500 1,875 2,500 % .196 1,372 1,960 2,350 2,940 3,920 % .3 2,100 3,000 3,600 4,500 6,000 % .42 2,940 4,200 5,040 6,300 8,400 1 .55 3,850 5,500 6,600 8,250 11,000 1% .69 4,830 6,900 8,280 10,350 13,800 M .78 5,460 7,800 9,300 11,700 15,600 \% 1.06 7,420 10,600 12,720 15,900 21,200 1% 1.28 8,960 12,800 15,360 19,200 25,600 \% 1.53 10,710 15,300 18,360 22,950 30,600 1% 1.76 12,320 17,600 21,120 26,400 35,200 IX 2.03 14,210 20,300 24,360 30,450 40,600 2 2.3 16,100 23,000 27,600 34,500 46,000 2^ 3.12 21,840 31,200 37,440 46,800 62,400 2% 3.7 25,900 37,000 44,400 55,500 74,000 The breaking strength of good American bolt iron is usually taken at 50,000 pounds per square inch, with an elongation of 15 per cent before breaking. It should not set under a strain of less than 25,000 pounds. The proof strain is 20,000 pounds per square inch, and beyond this amount iron should never be strained in practice. 232 TABLES TABLE OF THE PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. Gauge pres- sure in Ibs. per sq. in. Temper- ature in degrees F. Total heat units from water at 32" p. Heat units in liquid from 32 F. Heat of vaporiza- tion in heat units. Density of weight of leu. ft. in Ibs. Volume of 1 Ib. in cubic feet Weight of 1 cu. ft. of water. 212.00 1146.6 180.8 965.8 0.03760 26.60 59.76 59.64 10 239.36 1154.9 208.4 946.5 0.06128 16.32 59.04 20 258.68 1160.8 227.9 932.9 0.08439 11.85 58.50 30 273.87 1165.5 243.2 922.3 0.1070 9.347 58.07 40 286.54 1169.3 255.9 913.4 0.1292 7.736 57.69 50 297.46 1172.6 266.9 905.7 0.1512 6.612 57.32 55 302.42 1174.2 271.9 902.3 0.1621 6.169 57.22 60 307.10 1175.6 276.6 899.0 0.1729 5.784 57.08 65 311.54 1176.9 281.1 895.8 0.1837 5.443 56.95 70 31577 1178.2 285.6 892.7 0.1945 5.142 56.82 75 319.80 1179.5 289.8 889.8 0.2052 4.873 56.69 80 323.66 1180.6 293.8 886.9 0.2159 4.633 56.59 85 327.36 1181.8 297.7 884.2 0.2265 4.415 56.47 90 330.92 1182.8 301.5 881.5 0.2371 4.218 56.36 95 334.35 1183.9 305.0 879.0 0.2477 4.037 56.25 100 337.66 1184.9 308.5 876.5 0.2583 3.872 56.18 105 340.86 1185.9 311.8 874.1 0.2689 3.720 56.07 110 343.95 1186.8 315.0 871.8 0.2794 3.580 55.97 115 346.94 1187.7 318.2 869.6 0.2898 3.452 55.87 120 849.85 1188.6 321.2 867.4 0.3003 3.330 55.77 125 352.68 1189.5 324.2 865.3 0.3107 3.219 55.69 130 355.43 1190.3 327.0 863.3 0.3212 3.113 55.58 135 358.10 1191.1 329.8 861.3 0.3315 3.017 55.52 140 360.70 1191.9 332.5 859.4 0.3420 2.924 55.44 145 363.25 1192.8 335.2 857.5 0.3524 2.838 55.36 150 365.73 1193.5 337.8 855.7 0.3629 2.756 55.29 155 368.62 1194.3 340.3 853.9 0.3731 2.681 55.22 160 370.51 1195.0 342.8 852.1 O.K835 2.608 55.15 165 372.83 1195.7 345.2 850.4 0.15939 2.539 55.07 170 375.09 1196.3 3476 848.7 0.4043 2.474 54.99 175 377.31 1197.0 349.9 847.1 0.4147 2.412 54.93 180 379.48 1197.7 352.2 845.4 0.4251 2.353 54.86 185 381.60 1198.3 354.4 843.9 0.4353 2.297 54.79 190 383.70 1199.0 356.6 842.3 0.4455 2.244 54.73 195 385.75 1199.6 358.8 840.8 0.4559 2.193 54.66 200 387.76 1200.2 360.9 839.2 0.4663 2.145 54.60 225 397.36 1203.1 370.9 832.2 0.5179 1.930 54.27 250 406.07 1205.8 380.1 825.7 0.5699 1.755 54.03 275 414.22 1208.3 388.5 819.8 0.621 1.609 53.77 300 421.83 1210.6 396.5 814.1 0.674 1.483 53.54 TABLES 233 CHIMNEYS. Area 1 HEIGHTS IN FEET. Square s" 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 140 150 175 200 Feet. 5 COMMERCIAL HORSE-POWER. 3.14 24 75 78 81 3.69 26 90 92 95 98 4.28 28 106 110 114 117 120 4.91 30 122 127 130 133 137 5.59 32 144 149 152 156 164 6.31 34 162 168 171 176 185 7.07 36 188 192 198 208 215 8.73 40 237 244 257 267 279 10.56 44 287 296 310 322 337 12.57 48 352 370 384 400 413 15.90 54 445 468 484 507 526 19.63 60 577 600 627 650 672 23.76 66 697 725 758 784 815 28.27 72 862 902 931 969 1044 38.48 84 1173 1229 1270 1319 1422 50.27 96 1584 1660 1725 1859 1983 68.62 108 2058 2102 2181 2352 2511 78.54 120 2596 2693 2904 3100 REDUCTION OF CHIMNEY DRAFT BY LONG FLUES. Total Length of Flues, in feet. 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 2000 35 Chimney Draft, in per cent. 100 93 79 66 58 52 48 234 TABLES AREA OP CIRCLES. Diana. Area. Diam. Area. Diam. Area. Diam. Area. 1 A 0.0123 10 78.54 30 706.86 65 3318.3 % 0.0491 10J^ 86.59 31 754.76 66 3421.2 0.1104 11 95.03 32 804.24 67 3525.6 % 0.1963 UK 103.86 33 855.30 68 3631.6 ft 0.3068 12 113.09 34 907.92 69 3739.2 X 0.4418 12tf 122.71 35 962.11 70 3848.4 H 0.6013 13 132.73 36 1017.8 71 3959.2 i 0.7854 18tf 143.13 37 1075.2 72 4071.5 iX 0.9940 14 153.93 38 1134.1 73 4185.4 IX 1.227 14# 165.13 39 1194.5 74 4300.8 l# 1.484 15 176.71 40 1256.6 75 4417.8 i# 1.767 16# 188.69 41 1320.2 76 45364 i# 2.073 16 201.06 42 1385.4 77 4656.6 l# 2.405 16tf 213.82 43 1452.2 78 4778.3 ijtf 2.761 17 226.98 44 1520.5 79 4901.6 2 3.141 17tf 240.52 45 1590.4 80 5026.5 2# 3.976 18 254.46 46 1661.9 81 5153.0 2^ 4.908 18tf 268.80 47 1734.9 82 5281.0 2# 5.939 19 283.52 48 1809.5 83 5410.6 3 7.068 1# 298.64 49 1885.7 84 5541.7 3^ 8.295 20 314.16 50 1963.5 85 5674.5 3^ 9.621 20^ 330.06 51 2042.8 86 5808.8 8* 11.044 21 346.36 52 2123.7 87 5944.6 4 12.566 21 # 363.05 53 2206.1 88 6082.1 4X 15.904 22 380.13 54 2290.2 89 6221.1 5 19.635 22^ 397.60 55 2375.8 90 6361.7 s# 23.758 23 415.47 56 2463.0 91 6503.9 6 28.274 23^ 433.73 57 2551.7 92 6647.6 6X 33.183 24 452.39 58 2642.0 93 6792.9 7 38.484 24^ 471.43 59 2733.9 94 6939.8 W* 44.178 25 490.87 60 2827.4 95 7088.2 8 50.265 26 530.93 61 2922.4 96 7238.2 8^ 56.745 27 572.55 62 3019.0 97 7389.8 9 63.617 28 615.75 63 3117.2 98 7542.9 9X 70.882 29 660.52 64 .3216.9 99 7697.7 To compute the area of a diameter greater than any in the above table: RULE. Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicable, until it is reduced to a quotient to be found in the tatle, then multiply the tabular area of the quotient by the square of the factor. The product will be the area required. EXAMPLE. What is area of diameter of 150? 150 -*- 5 = 30. Tabular area of 30 = 706.86 which X 25 = 17,671.5 area required. TABLES CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES. Diam. Circum. Diam. Circum. Diam. Circum. Diam. Circum. % .3927 10 31.41 30 94.24 65 204 2 X .7854 10^ 32.98 31 97.38 66 207^8 y* 1.178 11 34.55 32 100.5 67 210.4 % 1.570 Htf 36.12 33 103.6 68 213.6 & 1.963 12 37.69 34 106.8 69 216.7 % 2.356 12^ 39.27 35 109.9 70 219.9 H 2.748 13 40.84 36 113.0 71 223.0 3.141 13^ 42.41 37 116.2 72 226.1 M 3.534 14 43.98 38 119.3 73 229.3 i* 3.927 14tf 45.55 39 122.5 74 232.4 1M 4.319 15 47.12 40 125.6 75 235.6 IX 4.712 16tf 48.69 41 128.8 76 238.7 IH 5.105 16 50.26 42 131.9 77 241.9 1% 5.497 16tf 51.83 43 135.0 78 245.0 1% 5.890 17 53.40 44 138.2 79 248.1 2 6.283 17tf 54.97 45 141.3 80 251.3 2% 7.068 18 56.54 46 144.5 81 254.4 2^ 7.854 18tf 58.11 47 147.6 82 257.6 2% 8.639 19 59.69 48 150.7 83 260.7 3 9.424 19tf 61.26 49 153.9 84 263.8 3X 10.21 20 62.83 50 157.0 85 267.0 3^ 10.99 20> 64.40 .51 160.2 86 270.1 3^ 11.78 21 65.97 52 163.3 87 273.3 4 12.56 21^ 67.54 53 166.5 88 276.4 4K 14.13 22 69.11 54 169.6 89 279.6 5 15,70 22^ 70.68 55 172.7 90 282.7 5K 17.27 23 72.25 56 175.9 91 285.8 6 18.84 23^ 73.82 57 179.0 92 289.0 6X 20.42 24 75.39 58 182.2 93 292.1 7 21.99 24^ 76.96 59 185.3 94 295.3 i l A 23.56 25 78.54 60 188.4 95 298.4 8 25.13 26 81.68 61 191.6 96 301.5 8^ 26.70 27 84.82 62 194.7 97 304.7 9 28.27 28 87.96 63 197.9 98 307.8 9K 29.84 29 91.10 64 201.0 99 311.0 . To compute the circumference of a diameter greater than any in the above table: RULE. Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicable, until it is reduced to a diameter to be found in table. Take the tabular circumference of this diameter, multiply it by 2, 3, 4, etc., according as it was divided, and the product will be the circumference required. EXAMPLE. What is the circumference of a diameter of 125? 125 -*- 5 = 25. Tabular circumference of 25 = 78.54, 78.54 X 5 =* 392.7, circumference required. 236 TABLES PROPERTIES OF METALS. Melting Point. Weight Weight Tensile in Lbs. in Lbs. Strength in Degrees Fahrenheit. per Cubic Foot. per Cubic Inch. Pounds per Square Inch. Aluminum 1140 166.5 .0963 15000-30000 Antimony 810-1000 421.6 .2439 1050 Brass (average) 1500-1700 523.2 .3027 30000-45000 Copper 1930 552. .3195 30000-40000 Gold (pure) 2100 1200.9 .6949 20380 Iron, cast 1900-2200 450. .2604 20000-35000 Iron, wrought 2700-2830 480. .2779 35000-60000 Lead 618 709.7 .4106 1000-3000 Mercury 39 846.8 .4900 Nickel 2800 548.7 .3175 Silver (pure) 1800 655.1 .3791 40000 Steel 2370-2685 489.6 .2834 50000-120000 Tin 475 458.3 .2652 5000 Zinc 780 436.5 .2526 3500 NOTE. The wide variations in the tensile strength are due to the different forms and qualities of the metal tested. In the case of lead, the lowest strength is for lead cast in a mould, the highest for wire drawn after numerous workings of the metal. With steel it varies with the percentage of carbon used, which is varied according to the grade of steel required. Mercury becomes solid at 39 degrees below zero. TABLES 237 DECIMAL PARTS OF AN INCH. 1-64 .01563 11-32 .34375 43-64 .67188 1-32 .03125 23-64 .35938 11-16 .6875 3-64 .04688 3-8 .375 1-16 .0625 45-64 .70313 25-64 .39063 23-32 .71875 5-64 .07813 13-32 .40625 47-64 .73438 3-32 .09375 27-64 .42188 3-4 .75 7-64 .10938 7-16 .4375 1-3 .125 49-64 .76563 29-64 .45313 25-32 .78125 9-64 .14063 15-32 .46875 51-64 .79688 5-32 .15625 31-64 .48438 13-16 .8125 11-64 .17188 1-2 .5 3-16 .1875 53-64 .82813 33-64 .51563 27-32 .84375 13-64 .20313 17-32 .53125 55-64 .85938 7-32 .21875 35-64 .54688 7-8 .875 15-64 .23438 9-16 .5625 1-4 .25 57-64 .89063 37-64 .57813 29-32 .90625 17-64 .26563 19-32 .59375 59-64 .92188 9-32 .28125 39-64 .60938 15-16 .9375 19-64 .29688 5-8 .625 5-16 .3125 61-64 .95313 41-64 .64063 31-32 .96875 21-64 .32813 21-32 .65625 63-64 .97438 MELTING POINTS OF ALLOYS OF TIN, LEAD, AND BISMUTH. Melting Melting Point in Point in Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Degrees Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Degrees Fahren- Fahren- heit heit, 2 3 5 199 4 1 372 1 1 4 201 5 1 381 3 2 5 212 2 1 385 4 1 5 246 3 1 392 1 1 286 1 1 466 2 1 334 1 3 552 3 1 367 238 TABLES MELTING, BOILING AND FREEZING POINTS IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. Substance. Melts at Degrees Substance. Melts at Degrees Platinum 3080 Antimony 810 Wrought-Iron 2830 Zinc 780 Nickel 2800 Lead 618 Steel 2600 Bismuth 476 Cast-Iron 2200 Tin 475 Gold (pure) 2100 Cadmium 442 Copper 1930 Sulphur 226 Gun Metal 1960 Bees-Wax 151 Brass 1900 Spermaceti 142 Silver (pure) 1800 Tallow 72 Aluminum 1140 Mercury 39 Substance. Boils at Degrees Substance. Freezes at Degrees Mercury 660 Olive Oil 36 Linseed Oil 600 Fresh Water 32 Sulphuric Acid 590 Vinegar 28 Oil of Turpentine 560 Sea Water 27X Nitric Acid 242 Turpentine 14 Sea Water 213 Sulphuric Acid 1 Fresh Water 212 VACUUM SYSTEM OP STEAM HEATING. The application of vacuum to steam heating ordinarily involves the employment of a vacuum pump located at, or as near as possible to the lowest point in the return pipe system in which a partial vacuum is to be maintained in order to assist in steam circulation. With such a system properly designed, which means with the return lines graded so that the condensation flows natur- ally back to the vacuum pump, and with efficient apparatus installed at the proper points, the pump can be of relatively small size as it has little to do beside partially exhausting the air from the piping and radiators so as to establish a lower pressure on the return side of the system. This removal of air once accomplished, the pump has only to handle the condensation and entrained air; the steam condensing in the radiation pro- duces the necessary vacuum to induce a further supply of steam to the heating units. It is only when the physical conditions of the building to be heated make it necessary to have drainage points below the level of the suction inlet of the pump that it is required to "lift" the condensation or return water, but, since the steam used to actuate 239 246 VACUUM SYSTEM the pump is afterwards used for heating, with its value impaired only a few per cent, the pump be- comes a very efficient power unit. Introduction and Advantages. The introduc- tion of a vacuum system of steam heating into a building involves either the installation of a com- plete plant including the vacuum pump in the building, or, on the other hand the steam required for heating may be obtained from a nearby central heating station conducted on the vacuum system which is done in a large number of instances. The principal advantages to be derived from the in- stallation of the vacuum system are : (1) The circulation of steam through the pipes, radiators and heating coils is quick, positive and uniform. (2) There is no " water hammer " in the piping of a properly installed vacuum heating system. This is due to the continuous relief of air and the positive removal of the products of condensation. (3) The absence of air valves on the radiators. (4) The ability during mild weather, when the demands for heating are slight, to distribute a relatively small volume throughout the system as needed, with a pressure at, or even slightly below that of the atmosphere. (5) In mills and factories operated by power from non-condensing steam engines or steam tur- bines, exhaust steam can be used for heating, due to the partial elimination of back pressure. This VACUUM SYSTEM 241 either saves directly in fuel consumption or en- ables the engine to do more work at the same ex- penditure of fuel. Back pressure upon compound engines and turbines adds to their steam consump- tion approximately 2.5 to 3 per cent per pound of back pressure, while with simple reciprocating en- gines the increased steam consumption due to back pressure is 1.5 to 2.5 per cent under favorable con- ditions and often much more, depending upon conditions. Heating Medium. The first subject for consid- eration in designing a vacuum system of heating is the character of the heating medium, whether exhaust or live steam, or a combination of both. If exhaust steam from engines or auxiliaries is to be utilized, as it should be whenever possible, proper provision must be made to remove the en- trained oil and cylinder condensate. For this pur- pose various methods are employed including the loop seal. A successful device is shown in Fig- ure 104. The apparatus consists of an oil sep- arator % connected into the supply pipe, and drained into a grease trap placed about six feet below the separator. Pressure-Reducing Valve. A pressure-reduc- ing valve is essential to secure the success of the system. Such a valve is designed to automatically admit live steam at reduced pressure into the sup- ply mains at times when the amount of exhaust steam is insufficient. This valve should be espec- 242 VACUUM SYSTEM ially adapted to vacuum system service, which means that the diaphragm should be of ample area to secure sensitive operation. In the case of boiler pressures above 125 pounds it is the best Fig. 104. Typical method of draining Webster Oil Separator through a Webster Grease Trap. practice to "step down" the pressure through two reducing valves rather than to make a full reduc- tion with a single valve. By this method more accurate regulation is secured. Radiation. Before the supply and return pip- ing can be properly sized and arranged, the amount of heat loss should be carefully calculated for the various rooms and compartments. For VACUUM SYSTEM 243 this purpose the rules and tables given elsewhere in this book will be found entirely reliable and sat- isfactory and apply to any heating system. The rate of condensation varies not only with the type of radiation, but with its location and use. Ordinary cast-iron loop radiators such as are shown on pages 46 to 50 are most frequently used, except in factories, large ware rooms, etc., where Pig. 105. Radiator Connections steam type with bottom connected ippiy Valve. supply valve. Hot water type with top connected Webster Modulation cast-iron wall radiators or ordinary pipe coils may be better adapted. When the riser connections are above the floor line the radiators should be placed so as to secure proper grading of supply and return run-outs from radiators to risers. This may be accomplished as shown in Figure 105. Radiator Tappings. The tables here presented are furnished by Warren Webster & Co. and apply to vacuum system only. 244 VACUUM SYSTEM The Webster modulation valve referred to in the table of radiator tappings and also shown at the top in Figure 105, is a device especially adapted to vacuum heating systems, and will be described and illustrated later on. Its function is to regulate the supply of steam as needed. CAST IRON EADIATOR TAPPINGS. Table of Sizes. Square feet of direct radiating surface condensing normally not to exceed ^4 lb. per square foot per hour. Normal Maxi- mum pounds of condensa- tion per hour. Supply tap- ) in g with Webster Modul a t i o n valve a t - tached. Pipe size of return tapping. 1 to 25 26 to 50 51 to 100 101 to 175 176 and over 7 13 25 44 75 % in. % in. % in. % in. to 1 in. 1 in. % in. % in. % in. % in. % in. PIPE COIL TAPPINGS. Table of Sizes. Square feet of direct radiating surface condensing normally not to exceed % lb. per square foot per hour. Normal maxi- mum pounds of condensa- tion per hour. Pipe size of supply tapping. Pipe size of return tapping. 42 84 146 250 528 924 13 25 44 75 158 277 % in. 1 in. 1% in. 1% in. 2 in. 2V 2 in. % in. y 2 in. % in. % in. % in. 1 in. VACUUM SYSTEM 245 When the radiators are located so that a higher condensation rate will be secured, the sizes of the tappings should be based upon the condensation rate and not upon the size of the radiator. Direct-indirect radiators will condense at least 33 per cent more than direct radiators. The con- densation rate of wall radiators is approximately 0.3 Ib. per square foot of radiating surface. Fig. 106. When the "harp" coil has but a few pipes, a simple sup- ply connection, as shown, should be made. Fig. 107. Proper method of making supply connections to "harp" coil of large size to insure supply of steam to each pipe in the coil. Run- Outs. When horizontal supply run-outs above floor level from risers to radiators are more than four feet in length, they should be at least one size larger than the radiator supply trappings given in the tables. In buildings where it is neces- sary to lay supply run-outs for some distance, practically level under finished floors, these run- outs must be of such size that the velocity of steam 246 VACUUM SYSTEM in the direction opposite to the flow of condensa- tion will not prevent the latter from flowing back to the main. It is good practice to make the re- turn run-outs from radiators to risers not smaller than %-inch, even when the radiator return tap- ping-is %-inch, as the larger pipe is not so liable to become distorted, sagged or clogged. Pipe Coil Connections. Figures 106 and 107 show proper methods of making supply connec- tions to harp coils. Figure 108 shows the supply connection to a manifold coil. > ' . p ft s I I K 8 2 Fig. 108. Supply connections to manifold coil. Arrangement of Supply Piping. There are two general methods in use, the up-feed arid down- feed systems. The most common arrangement is the up-feed system of risers, locating the supply mains in the basement. Where conditions require that the main be run centrally with lateral branches of considerable VACUUM SYSTEM 247 length it is customary to drip these branches at the base of each riser. The removal of condensa- tion at these points is accomplished either through individual traps discharging into the vacuum return line as shown in Figures 109 and Vacuum Return A Main Dirt Pocket SYLPHON TRAP Pig. 109. Method of dripping supply risers through Webster Sylphon Trap into vacuum return line. 109 a , or by combining these drips into a separate drip line from which the condensation is dis- charged into the vacuum return line through a heavy duty water line trap as shown in Fig- ure 110. 248 VACUUM SYSTEM Down-Peed System. It is frequently better en- gineering practice to use the down-feed system, especially in high buildings when the main exhaust pipe leads to the roof. This pipe may be used as the main supply riser, and in such case the back pressure valve is located at or near the top of the main riser, below which a branch is taken off to feed a system of distributing mains to supply the down-feed risers as shown in Figure 111. DIRT STRAINER DRIP TRAP Fig. 109a. Webster Dirt Strainer and Trap. These risers may be dripped through individual traps, or the drips may be combined into a sepa- rate drip line and discharged through a heavy duty trap into the vacuum return line. Vacuum Return Lines. The location and ar- rangement of return piping is the same whether VACUUM SYSTEM 249' the up-feed or down-feed system of supply is used. There should always be a slight downward pitch in the direction of the flow of condensation. The size of vacuum return piping is affected by the amount of vapor to be handled. In gravity heating systems the returns are filled with steam, while in vacuum systems with efficient traps they are not so filled. Assuming the supply piping to be correctly pro- portioned, a safely approximate rule is to make Main Up-feed Supply Riser DIRT" HEAVY DUTY STRAINER /TRAP Fig. 110. Dripping the Main Up-Feed Supply Riser. the diameter of the horizontal return line not less than one-half the diameter of the corresponding supply line for supply lines of 4-inch and under, while for larger supplies the proportion may be reduced until with a 12-inch supply line for ex- ample, a 4-inch return (1/3 supply) would be ample. In no case should a horizontal return pipe less than %-inch in size be used for more than 250 VACUUM SYSTEM one radiator. "Lifts" in return lines should be avoided when it is possible to arrange for gravity flow to the vacuum pump. When a lift of 6 feet or over cannot be avoided it should be divided into "steps" rather than make the total lift in one rise. OH 5*-, O^ Fig. 111. The Down-Feed System of Piping. Exhausting Apparatus. The highest authori- ties recommend the installation of two vacuum pumps, each of ample capacity for the entire plant, so that either pump may be cleaned and repaired while the other is in operation. Modulation Valve. Mention has already been made of this valve, a sectional view of which is VACUUM SYSTEM 251 Fig. 112. Webster Type N Modulation Valve, sectional view. Fig. 113. Webster Wa-ter-Seal Trap. 252 VACUUM SYSTEM shown in Fig. 112. Its proper location in the steam supply leading to a radiator is shown in Fig. 105. In Figure 114 is shown a sectional view of the Webster sylphon trap which operates on the well- known thennostatic principle, using a sylphon bellows constructed of seamless brass folds the contraction or expansion of which serves to open or close the valve shown at the bottom. Fig. 114. Webster Sylphon Trap. INDEX PAGE Air valves 57 Altitude gauge 121 Boiler capacity 21 Blow torch 165 Casings 17-S1 Check valves 112 Chimney floes 30-130 Cleaning gas fixtures 171 Gold air 144 Connecting a meter 160 Damper regulator 26 Direct-indirect radiation 43-96 Direct radiation 42-95 Double main system .89 Estimating 74-129 Expansion tank 114 Expansion of wrought iron, steam and water pipes 150 Fire pot 17-82 Fire pots 20-85 Fittings 151-160 Frost in pipes 159 Fuel combustion 31-131 Furnaces 134 Furnace heating 133 Gas burners .- 174 Gas fitting 157 Gas fitting in work shops 187 Gas proving pump 171 Gas stoves and flues 183 Gas supply pipe 158 General instructions 139 Good workmanship 145 Grate 17-82 Grates, simplicity of 18-82 253 254 INDEX PAGE Heat 9 Heater capacity 86 Heating surface 39-92 Heating systems 7 Hot air pipes 143 Hot water heating 77 Hot water heating plant 126 Hot water mains 92 Indirect radiation 42-95 Location of the furnace 142 Mantel lamps 167 Medical aid 220 One pipe system 33 One pipe system with separate return 34 One pipe circuit steam heating system 37 One pipe overhead system 35 Openings in foundation 145 Overhead steam heating system 38 Partition 143 Pipe bends 152 Pipe machines 154 Pipe systems 33-88 Pressure gauges 28 Proper size of chimney 142 Proper size of furnace 141 Quadruple main water heating system 89 Radiation 42-95 Radiators -. 44-97 Radiator connections 56-93-108 Radiator valves 58-108 Reading a meter 161 Rectangular sectional boilers 19 Rectangular sectional heaters 83 Relative advantages of steam and hot water heating 7 Round steam boilers 14 Round water heaters 78 Safety valves 23 Simplicity of the grates 18-82 Single pipe overhead system 90 Smoke pipes 29-129 Specifications and contract for a hot water heating plant 127 INDEX 255 PAGE Specifications and contract for a steam heating plant 75 Starting a hot water heating plant 123 Starting a steam heating plant 66 Steam boilers 13 Steam heating 11 Steam heating plant 69 Steam mains 41 Steam and gas fitting 150 Street supply main 158 Tables 225-238 Thermometers 87 Tools 154 Two-pipe system 37 Unsteady water line in boiler 63 Useful information 192 Useful kinks 203 Vacuum system of steam heating 239 Ventilation 8 Water column 26 Water gauge 120 Webster system 242 Wrought iron pipe 150 INDEX TO TABLES Approximate radiating surface to cubic capacities to be heated 123 Approximate velocity of air in flues of various heights 148 Areas of chimneys 233 Areas of circles 234 Boiling points of varioui fluids 197 Capacity of expansion tanks 121 Capacity ef furnaces to maintain an inside temperature of 70 degrees with an outside temperature of degrees 149 Circumferences of circles '. 235 Decimal parts of an inch 237 Dimensions f chimney flues for given amounts of direct steam radiation 31-131 Dimensions and heating capacities of furnaces 145 Lap welded steel, or charcoal iron boiler tubes 225 256 INDEX TO TABLES PAGE Loss of heat by transmission with a difference of 70 degrees Fahr. between the indoor and outdoor temperatures 146 Loss in pressure due to friction in pipes 230 Melting, boiling and freezing points of various substances. . . 238 Melting points of alloys of tin, lead and bismuth 237 Pipe tap for one- and two-pipe steam radiator connections. . . 57 Pipe tapping for hot water radiators 93 Pressure of water for each foot in height 196 Proper sizes of furnace pipes to heat rooms of various dimen- sions 147 Proper sizes of hot water mains 93 Proper sizes of one- and two-pipe steam mains 41 Properties of metals 236 Properties of saturated steam 232 Reduction of chimney draft by long flues 233 Square feet of heating surface in : Four-column steam radiators 55 Three-column steam radiators 54 Two-column steam radiators 53 Square feet of heating surface in: Four-column water radiators 107 Three-column water radiators 106 Two-column water radiators 105 Square feet of surface in one lineal foot of pipe of various dimensions 197 Temperature of steam at varying pressures in degrees Fahr. . . 73 Tensile strength of bolts 231 Velocity of flow of water 230 Wind velocities 146 Wrought iron and steel steam, gas and water pipe dimen- sions of , 226-227 Wrought iron and steel extra strong pipe dimensions of .... 228 Wrought iron and steel double extra strong pipe dimen- sions of 229 DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS Title ' ' | Style | Price Carpentry and Building Books Modern Carpentry. Two volumes . Cloth $2.00 Modern Carpentry. Vol. I Cloth 1.00 Modern Carpentry. Vol. II Cloth 1.00 The Steel Square. Two volumes. . Cloth 2.00 The Steel Square. Vol. I Cloth 1.00 The Steel Square. Vol. II Cloth 1.00 A. B. 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