NRLF b 3 iaa E3h THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/foodinspectorshaOOvachrich THE FOOD INSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. BY FRANCIS VACHER, \\ MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH FOR CHESHIRE, AUTHOR OF "DEFECTS IN PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE WORK. "A HEALTHY HOME," "DANGEROUS INFECTIOUS DISEASES,' ETC ETC. FOURTH EDITION.-ILLUSTRATED. 4L'on£ion : THE SANITARY PUBLISHING CO., Ltd., 5, Fetter Lane Fleet Street, E.C. New York: D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. 190S. -oro bonbon. PRINTED BY GEORGE REVEIRS, 4 AXD 5, GRAYSTOKE PLACE FETTER LANE, E C. ■I y ^3 1 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. A paper entitled " The Physical Appearances of Sound and Unsound Food," which appeared in the Sanitary Record in two parts, published respectively on October 15th and November 16th, 1885, was so favourably received at the time by Medical Officers of Health and Sanitary Inspectors that it was reprinted as a handbook for the pocket. In 1S90, as there was still a demand for it, it was carefully revised and re-issued, and in 1891 it was again reprinted. As the little book was still being called for, and the author received many applications for further informa- tion upon the same subject, " The Food Inspector's Hand- bock " was written and appeared in the Sanitary Record, chapter by chapter, during the present year. This is now revised and presented to the public in a complete form. It is designed to take the place of the previous little book, and includes all therein stated which the author thinks desirable to retain. How much has been added, those familiar with "The Physical Appearances of Sound and Unsound Food" will not need to be told. The introductory chapter, and the chapter on Statutory Powers, are new; the chapters on foods not mentioned in the Public Health Act have been added, while the important foods coming within the description of poultry, game, fish, fruit, and vegetables, to which were devoted three pages only, now occupy as many chapters. The one wish of the author is that the work in its present form may prove thoroughly useful. His long experience as a 2 W 106 IV a Medical Officer of Health and Food Analyst has made him well acquainted with the topics treated of, and he is assured that only those who have had practical experience can write effectively on food inspection. The author will be happy to give particulars or authorities in regard to any matters dealt with, and will be grateful to correspondents drawing attention to any inaccurate state- ment or literal error. The illustrations, most of which were drawn by the author, have not printed as well as he expected, doubtless through his imperfect knowledge of all the requirements of the process of reproduction. However, it is hoped that they are sufficiently clear in every case to show the form intended, and that is really all that is needed. Birkenhead, October, 1892. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. Some evidence that a Food Inspector's Handbook was wanted, and that the author's attempt to supply the want has not been wholly unsuccessful, is furnished by the fact that a second edition is called for eighteen months after the issue of the first. The work has been carefully read through, and revised, wherever revision appears necessary, but the arrangement of subjects remains unchanged. Three or four articles have been added, many passages have been altered, and a few struck out ; while the number of illustrations has been increased from twenty to forty-two. The author has only to add that he is always pleased to hear from Inspectors on matters treated of in the Hand- book, and to reply to written inquiries. Birkenhead, April, 1894. PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. It was thought that the Second Edition of this book would not require revising for some years, and it was stereotyped to facilitate the printing of a large number of copies. However, as the Handbook was out of print early in the present year, and certain official publications (in particular, the Local Government Board Instructions to Meat Inspectors with regard to Tuber- culosis in Animals intended for Food, and the Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order of 1899) had made some additions necessary, the work has been read through and brought up to date. The illustrations have been increased from forty-two to fifty eight. The author has no doubt that those, using the book will find the Third Edition an improvement on previous Editions. His aim has been to make this pocket volume a sufficient and trustworthy guide to those engaged in Food Inspection. Birkenhead, September, 1900. PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION. This book has been carefully read through and brought up to date, and another Chapter has been added on Statutory Powers. The alterations effected in preparing the fourth Edition have increased the size of the book from 188 pages to 223 pages, but it is still only a pocket volume. The author trusts that the Handbook in its present form will continue to be a sufficient and trustworthy guide to Food Inspectors. Birkenhead, March, 1905. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG PAGE I. Case of post-mortem instruments 9 2. A scalpel 9 3- Dissecting forceps... 9 4- Bone forceps 10 5- Bowel scissors 10 6. A probe 10 7- A director 10 8. Skeleton of the horse 64 9- ox 65 IO. Bone of the ox's heart 66 ii. Kidney of the horse 67 12. Tongue of the horse 68 i3- „ ox 68 14. Front teeth of the ox at 2 years of age 7i J 5- 5) 55 3 " 7i 16. 55 !J 4 55 72 i7- 55 55 5 55 72 18. Head of cysticercus, and hook from same drawn to larger scale 85 19. Trichina coiled up and cyst of same ... 86 20. Liver-fluke from sheep 95 21. Sheep scab insect 96 22. The cod ' 14 IX FIG PAGE 2 3- The flounder 116 24. The hake 117 -5- The haddock 117 26. The ling 118 27. The mackerel 119 28. The scad, or horse mackerel 119 29. The spotted plaice 120 3°- Milt and pyloric appendages of "clean-run " salmon 121 3>- ,, ,, „ spawning salmon... 122 ■1 The anchovy 124 33- The turbot I2 5 34- The whiting 126 35- Larva of codlin moth in apple i37 36. " Black spot " affecting apple 138 37- The nut weevil, its pupa and grub, and spoiled filberts 140 33. The celeriac i47 39- The horse-radish 148 40. The turnip 151 41. The swede J 5 2 42. The navet i53 43- Turnip affected with " gall " 154 44. Spores of " bunt " or " pepper brand " iS7 45- Spores of "smut " or "dust brand" 157 46. Ear of ergoted rye 158 47- Bermuda arrowroot starch 177 48. Curcuma starch 178 49. Sago starch 179 5°- Tapioca (cassava) starch 180 5 l - Maize starch 181 FIG. PAGE 52. Potat starch 181 53. Tous les mois starch 182 54. Leaf of tea 196 55- sloe 197 5 6 - willow 197 57 elder 198 58. The sugar insect 20S C O N T E N T S. CHAPTER I. The F©od Inspector — His Qualifications and Obligations. Inadequate attention given to food inspection — Where practicable a special officer should be appointed — Veterinary - surgeon or butcher ? — Honesty, truthfulness, and fairness — Patience, even temper, and courtesy — Health and strength — The training of the five senses — Tact, judgment, common- sense, and fondness for work-Duties of food in- spector—Equipment of food inspector — Proposed qualifying examination for meat inspector CHAPTER II. Statutory Powers. Section 131 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 1847 — Section 15 of the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act, 1847— Sections 116 to 119 of the Public Health Act, 1875 — Section 28 of the Public Health Acts Amendment Act, 1S90 — Section 47 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891 — Sale of Horseflesh, &c. Regulation Act, 1889 CHAPTER III. Statutory Powers Continued. Adulteration of Food. Acts relating to the adulteration of coffee and tea passed in the eighteenth century — The Bread Act, PAGE- Xll PAGE 1836 — The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875 — The Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act, 1879 — The Margarine Act, 18S7 — The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1899 29 CHAPTER IV. Animals, Carcases, and Butchers' Meat. Preliminary division of subject — Live Animals — Carcases — Good Meat — Meat not of the description represented — Sale of horseflesh as beef — Difference between skeleton of horse and ox; between horseflesh and fat, and beef flesh and fat — Difference between heart, liver, and tongue of horse and ox — Meat partially decomposed through having been kept too long or ill kept — Meat from animals which have not been killed by man or only killed when moribund— Meat from animals much injured by accidents — Meat from animals newly landed from shipboard, off a railway journey, overdriven or frightened — Meat from animals recently physicked — Meat from aged animals — Imma- ture veal and lamb — Frozen and chilled meat 61 CHAPTER V. The Diseases of Animals which render Meat Unfit for Human Food. Cattle-plague or rinderpest — Epizootic pleuro- pneumonia — Anthrax and anthracoid diseases — Black quarter — Splenic fever — Braxy in sheep — Texan fever — Sheep-pox — Consumption (tuberculosis) in swine — Actinomycosis — Joint-ill or joint-felon — Swine-plague, swine-fever, and erysipelas — Quinsy in swine — Worms affecting swine — Cysticerci and trichinae — Glanders and farcy 75 Xlll PAGE CHAPTER VI. The Diseases of Animals which Depreciate the Quality of the Meat, Render Portions of the Carcase Unfit for Human Food, or in the Later Stages Unfit the whole Carcase for Human Food. Consumption (tuberculosis) in oxen and sheep — Foot - and - mouth disease — Hoof - rot — Dropsy — Liver - fluke — Filaria — Sheep - scab — "Diamonds'' — Carcases of parturient animals — Milk fever — Parturient fever — Carcases of poisoned animals §9 CHAPTER VII. Poultry and Game. While-fleshed and dark-fleshed fowl— Capon and poularde — Good poultry— Diseases — Roup (tubercu- losis)— Pip— Chip— Turn— The scour— Gapes— Para- sites — Chicken cholera — Pigeons — Game — Venison — Hares and rabbits— Feathered game— When in season — Grouse— Blackcock — Capercailzie — Ptarmigan — Pheasant — Partridge— Quail— Corn-crake— Plover- Snipe— Wild duck — Teal and widgeon — Woodcock- Game for invalids — Diseases of game ... ioo- CHAPTER VIII. Fish. White flesh, red flesh, and greasy flesh— Fish should be in season, fairly fresh, unbruised, and free from disease— Brill, cod, eels, conger eels, flounder, hake, XIV PAGE haddock, halibut, herring, ling, mackerel, scad or horse mackerel, plaice, salmon, smolts, grilse, kelts — How to distinguish between the "clean-run" salmon and the "unclean" — Trout, skate, smelt, or sparling, sand smelt, sprats, soles, turbot, whitebait, whiting, " buckhorn " — Dried, salted, or smoked fish — Haddock - curing in London — Oysters, lobsters, prawns and shrimps, whelks, mussels, cockles, and periwinkles no CHAPTER IX. Fruit and Vegetables. No proper dividing line between them — - Fruit ordinarily exposed for sale — When in season — Apples, pears, and oranges — Barrelled grapes — Cherries, apricots, nectarines, and peaches — Damsons— Green- gages, Orleans plums, magnum-bonums — Currants, raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries, and rhubarb — Disease, decay, and immaturity — Nuts — Walnuts, hazel nuts, &c, the nut weevil, Brazil nuts, pea nuts, almonds, sweet chestnuts, cocoanut — Dried fruit, crystallised fruit, bottled fruit, and jams — Vegetables ordinarily exposed for sale — When in season — Potatoes — Artichokes — Asparagus — Beans— Broccoli and cauliflower — Cabbage — Sourkraut — Carrots, parsnips, and beetroot — Celery and celeriac — Cucumber — Endive — - Lettuce — Horse - radish — Mushrooms — Onions — Green peas, dried peas— Sea- kale — Spinach — Tomatoes — Truffles — Turnips — Turnip-gall — Vegetable marrow — Disease, decay, »S:c. — Tinned fruit and vegetables 134 XV PAGE CHAPTER X. Corn, Bread, and Flour. Corn, different kinds — How distinguished when ground — Diseases of corn : Bunt, smut, and ergot — Flour — Wheat flour — Varieties of wheat— Yield of a quarter of wheat — Good flour — Diseased, mouldy, damp, fermented, and decomposing flour — Adultera- tion with other flours or starch — Mineral adulterants — Readily applied test for presence of alum— Bread defined— Wholemeal bread— Good bread described — Sodden, sour, bitter or mouldy bread — Adulteration ofbread !5 6 CHAPTER XI. Milk. Importance of its being pure — Good milk — Un- wholesome milk — Epizootic disease, anthrax, cattle- plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease — Tuberculosis — Garget — Primarily good milk infected with animal disease germs — Primarily good milk infected with human disease germs — Diphtheria, scarlatina, and typhoid fever — The Hendon cow disease— Dis- honesty or uncleanliness of milk-sellers — Sour milk — " Blue " and " red " milk— Tainted milk— Adulterated milk — Skimmed milk — Separated milk — Cream — Clotted cream — Preserved milk — Butter milk — Koumiss — Kefyr — Galazyme 163 CHAPTER XII. Arrowroot and similar Preparations— Butter and its Substitutes — Cheese, Lard, and Eggs. Purified starches — Arrowroot — Sago — Pearl Sago — Tapioca, tapioca flour — Corn-flour — Farina — Tous XVI PAGE les mois — Semolina — Revalenta-arabica — Macaroni and vermicelli — Butter — Whey butter — Rancid butter — Adulterated butter — margarine — Le Dansk — Cheese — Adulterated cheese — Annatto — Cheeseine — Skim-cheese — Soft cheeses — Parasites — Damaged cheese — Lard — Adulterated lard — Eggs — How to tell fresh eggs — Preserved eggs 176 CHAPTER XIII. Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, and Sugar. Tea — Compressed tea — Adulterated tea — Coffee — Adulterated coffee — Chicory — Cocoa — Adulterated cocoa — Chocolate — Sugar — Cane sugar — Beetroot sugar — Maple sugar — Jaggery — Treacle — Glucose — The sugar-mite — Sweetmeats — Honey 194 CHAPTER XIV. Condiments, Spices, &c. Mustard — Adulterated mustard — Pepper — Adul- terated pepper — Cayenne pepper — Ginger — Adul- terated ginger — Cinnamon — Adulterated cinnamon — Nutmegs — Adulterated nutmegs — Mace — Cloves- Allspice — Mixed spice — Curry powder — Olive oil — Vinegar — The vinegar plant — Lemon-juice and lime- juice— Certain foods sold cooked 210 THE FOOD INSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. CHAPTER I. The Food Inspector. — His Qualifications and Obligations. Inadequate attention given to food inspection — Where practicable a special officer should be appointed — Veterinary-surgeon or butcher ? — Honesty, truthfulness, and fairness — Patience, even temper, and courtesy — Health and strength — The train- ing of the five senses — Tact, judgment, common-sense, and fondness for work — Duties of food inspector — Equipment of food inspector — Proposed qualifying examination for meat inspector. " Food Inspector " is a term which it is difficult to avoid using, though it does not occur in Acts of Parliament. In theory every medical officer of health and inspector of nuisances is a food inspector in his own district, while in markets and fairs the duties of the office are usually dis- charged by market constables. In practice, there is good reason to believe that very inadequate attention is given to food inspection, and that much food which is allowed to be exposed for sale is diseased, unsound, or unwholesome, and unfit for human food. This could hardly be otherwise, con- sidering that many medical officers of health have their time fully occupied as general practitioners, and that not un- B usually inspectors of nuisances are inspectors of weights and measures, school attendance officers, &x. And even in districts where the medical officer of health and inspector of nuisances devote their whole time to their public health duties, opportunities may never have been afforded them of qualifying as competent judges of food. If, then, the most important work of food inspection is to be efficiently performed (which all will admit to be a desideratum), it appears to be necessary that in every dis- trict there should be at hand an officer appointed solely for this duty. To meet the requirements of the Public Health Act, he should be formally made an inspector of nuisances, but he should be occupied as food inspector only. The appointment of such officers in large towns is a perfectly simple matter, and not uncommon, but in small towns and rural districts it is not usual, and is beset with difficulties. Wherever there is not food inspection enough to occupy a man's whole time, I would suggest that the authorities of two or more districts should combine and jointly secure the services of a food inspector, in the same way as districts now combine and jointly employ a medical officer of health. Whether, in selecting such an inspector, preference should be given to a veterinary surgeon or a butcher has been much debated. As the only really difficult part of food inspection is meat inspection, it is well that the man chosen should have a good practical knowledge of meat, but that it is necessary or even desirable that he should be a veterinary surgeon is open to question. Theoretically, a man who has gone through the curriculum of a Veterinary College, and passed the qualifying examination, should make an exceptionally well-informed meat inspector. Indeed, it is not too much to say that the ideal meat inspector must be a trained veterinarian. But in this country the system of meat in- spection is not ideal. I would say to any Authority wishing to improve the meat inspection locally : If you are prepared to pay a meat inspector such a salary as a capable young veterinary surgeon in fair practice would earn, by all means appoint a veterinary surgeon. However, when the annual salary offered is ^120, or less (as is commonly the case), no self-respecting qualified veterinarian is likely to apply for the post, and the Authority will have to be content with the best man they can get at the price. Nor is there any reason why they should not get a man quite equal to such inspec- tion as is attempted under existing conditions. Certainly a large proportion of the meat inspectors already in the service of urban sanitary authorities were selected for the appointment they hold because they were experienced butchers, and results, after many years' trial, have shown that such men make excellent inspectors. It is not as if the man appointed stood alone. He is acting together with the medical officer of health, and in all cases of doubt or difficulty consults him. And when a prosecution is instituted for dealing in diseased meat, and additional evidence re- quired as to the nature of the disease affecting the meat, an expert can be called in. Besides, a butcher is much more likely to know something of the tricks of his own trade, and to be able to detect them, than an outsider. I therefore incline to the belief that a good intelligent butcher will ordinarily make an able food inspector. I pass on now to the consideration of the food inspec tor's qualifications and obligations. First— He must be honest.— This, it is needless to say, is most essential — his absolute trustworthiness. In view of the importance of the trust committed to the food inspector, the fact that the health (it may be the lives) of many b 2 depend on the conscientious discharge of his duty, and the certainty that he will be tempted by the offer of bribes, his honesty must be altogether above suspicion. Second — He must be strictly truthful, fair, and unbiassed. — This, it might be thought, is implied in being honest, and it should be. While, however, most inspectors are honest, it is rare to find one absolutely impartial and unpre- judiced. Anyone who has been present at the hearing of prosecutions in respect of unsound meat must have, heard statements so exaggerated or coloured that it is simply impossible that they could be true. The inspector, it may be, is quite unconscious of the exaggeration, because exaggeration has become a habit ; but the result is, his evi- dence cannot be received without some abatement owing to this defect. He is sworn to speak " the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth," and he should simply state the bare facts, omitting nothing essential, even though it may tell distinctly in favour of the defendant. Under cross-examination he should give direct answers in as few words as possible, and never fence with a question. Third— He must be patient, even=tempered, and uniformly courteous. — The food inspector will necessarily, in the course of his duties, be a cause of impatience and displays of temper in others ; it is therefore necessary that he should train himself to bear hard words and bad names with perfect equanimity. So long as he keeps cool and collected he can do his work well, but if ever he allows himself to lose his temper he is aimost certain to be guilty of some indiscretion. Courtesy is what everyone has a right to expect from a public official, and its absence is a very grave defect. Fourth — He must be healthy and strong. — The duties of a food inspector are so arduous that they cannot be properly performed unless the inspector is in full health and vigour. He must be able to work out of doors in all weathers, and must not object to turning out occasionally when other people are asleep. He must not be subject to any weak- ness or illness disabling him from time to time, for it is often not possible to fill his place temporarily, and when he is laid up it may be little or no food inspection is attempted. It is necessary that he should have a fair amount of physical strength, for he is liable to be obstructed in the discharge of his duties, and should be at least able to hold his own. Fifth — His organs of special senses must be in good order and well trained. — As regards sight, the inspector's sense of colour should be good, and he should be accustomed to the use of the lens or some simple form of microscope. His sense of hearing should be acute, for some disease signs are appreciable by the ear only, and in visiting slaughter-house lairs a very slight change in the breathing sounds may be sufficient to draw attention to an infected animal. The food inspector, no less than the nuisance inspector, should have a perfect sense of smell. An indication of the presence of several diseases is a special smell. Again, when animals have been physicked the smell of the stomach will witness to the fact, and may indicate the medicine administered. Then it is scarcely necessary to point out that the first signs of decomposition in animal and vegetable matter may be the presence of effluvia. The sense of taste has been quaintly described as an automatic premonitory adviser upon the kinds of food we ought or ought not to indulge in. The tip of the tongue, which is supplied only with nerves of touch, serves to distinguish things acid, alkaline, saline, or pungent. The middle portion of the tongue, supplied with nerves of taste proper, is sensitive mainly to sweets and bitters. The back part of the tongue is the seat of the taste of meat, butter, oil, and all rich substances. Aromatic flavours, such as that of cinnamon, for instance, are not really tasted, but discerned by the sense of smell. With respect to the fifth sense, it is surely not necessary to insist on anything so obvious as that the food inspector should possess a keen sense of touch. His natural capacity, training, and experience are, perhaps, more shown in the delicacy of his sense of touch than in any other way. Touch will accomplish so much, that a really skilful in- spector might almost be trusted to examine a roomful of carcases blindfold, and pick out the diseased ones. Sixth — He must have tact, judgment, and common=sense. — Touch naturally suggests tact, which is a natural character- istic that cannot be dispensed with. The word is not easily defined, but it may be said to indicate the nice feeling, delicate perception, and discernment, which keep a man from blundering, and enable him to perform disagreeable duties in the least disagreeable way. Judgment is the faculty which enables a man to look at a matter from all sides, and to consider a question in all its bearings. Common-sense is allied to tact and judgment, but, unlike them, cannot be acquired ; common-sense is inborn, like mother wit, and there is no accounting for the stupid things the man who is without it may do. Seventh — He must be thoroughly fond of his work. — This fondness implies a taste for reading on matters connected with his vocation, a desire to increase his knowledge, a readiness to receive new ideas, and powers of close observation. Indeed, the really good meat inspector must be something of an enthusiast, so far as his work is concerned. The duties and position of the food inspector, as I understand them, are formally set forth in the annexed copy of the duties of that officer in the borough I so long served : — " Borough of Birkenhead. " Duties of the Inspector of Meat, Fish, &»c. &*c. " The inspector will be required to act generally under the instructions of and be responsible to the medical officer of health, and will submit his books and reports to him every Tuesday morning, or at such other times as he may be instructed. " He will be required to carry out, so far as he may be able, the provisions of Sections 116, 118, and 119 of the Public Health Act, 1875; Section 74 of the Birkenhead Corporation Act, 1S81 ; the Sale of Horseflesh Regulation Act, 1889 ; and any bye-laws and regulations relating to the inspection of meat, &c, in force in the borough. " He will be required to keep a book, or books, in which he shall enter particulars of every complaint made to him of any breach of the general law, or of the bye-laws and regulations of the board relating to the preparation and sale of meat, fish, &c. On receiving any complaint so made, he shall forthwith inquire into the matter and report to the medical officer of health. " He shall also keep a petty cash book and enter all official disbursements therein, and shall keep any other books that may be necessary. "He shall report in writing on all nuisances from the keeping or depositing or preparation of offal, &c, which in his opinion are nuisances or injurious to health, with a view to the inspector of nuisances taking steps for the abatement of the same. "He shall inspect from time to time the corporation slaughter-houses, and lairages, and all the private slaughter- 8 houses, as well as all other premises where meat, fish, &c, is exposed for sale, or deposited for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale. " He shall inspect, at his discretion, any meat, poultry, game, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, milk, or any other fcod whatsoever deposited for sale ; and, in case any articles appear to be intended for the food of man, and are unfit for such purpose, he shall seize the same, and submit them to a justice. " He shall serve all notices issued on behalf of the board relating to his duties. " When any notices may be lawfully sent by post, it shall be his duty to post such notices, keeping a sufficient record of all notices so dispatched." This draft is submitted simply as a general guide, for what it is worth. Of course, the duties and conditions of service will vary with the circumstances of each district. Equipment of Food Inspector. — A few words here as to the equipment of the food inspector may not be superfluous. In the first place it does seem to me that an inspector should have a microscope. What is needed is a plain brass stand, with rack adjustment, revolving diaphragm, eye-piece, and achromatic object glasses (say, ^inch and Jinch). I do not wish to mention the name of any maker, but probably such a microscope could be obtained for about ^"3. I am aware that some capable inspectors find that a good pocket lens is sufficient for all requirements. In any case the in- spector will do well to carry a good pocket lens, but having a microscope in his office will often be of great assist- ance. As regards the tools required by the meat inspector, I do not know that he can do better than supply himself with what is known as a post-mortem case (see Fig. i), which may be purchased for about £2. This ordinarily contains a long pointed knife, a short thick knife (for cutting cartilage), and a chisel, fitting in one spring Fig. i. socket handle ; a pair of dissecting forceps, post-mortem scissors, three scalpels, and a set of chain hooks. Some inspectors may think they do not require all these Fig. 2. tools, and that several tools fitting into one handle is incon- venient. They would say half a dozen selected tools Fig. would serve their purpose better, and perhaps they are right. A good strong knife, such as butchers use in dressing a carcase, and a saw, with a large firm handle, are invaluable. IO The following instruments will also be found most useful,, viz.: — A strong scalpel (Fig. 2), dissecting forceps (Fig. 3), Fig. 4. bone forceps (Fig. 4), bowel scissors (Fig. 5), a silver probe (Fig. 6), and a plated director (Fig. 7). Fig. 5. It is hardly necessary to point out that a meat inspector's office should be provided with a sink-stone and a sufficient Fig. 6. water supply. The inspector will also require meat weighing scales and weights. Fig. 7. Proposed Qualifying Examination for Meat Inspector. — The last Royal Commission on Tuberculosis considered that meat inspectors should possess certain qualifications. Their II recommendation on the subject will be found on page 2 1 of their Report (dated April 4th, 1898), and is as follows:— 11 We recommend that in future no person be permitted to act as a meat inspector until he has passed a qualifying examination before such authority as may be prescribed by the Local Government Board (or Board of Agriculture), on the following subjects : — " (a) The law of meat inspection, and such bye-laws, regulations, &c, as may be in force at the time he presents himself for examination. " (b) The names and situations of the organs of the body. " (c) Signs of health and disease in animals destined for food, both when alive and after slaughter. " (d) The appearance and character of fresh meat, organs, fat, and blood, and the conditions rendering them, or preparations from them, fit or unfit for human food." In circular letters of the Local Government Board to Councils of Boroughs and Urban and Rural Districts, bear- ing date March nth, 1899, this recommendation is quoted. Next the quotation are the following paragraphs : — " At present a person cannot be required to pass a qualifying examination of the kind referred to before he acts as a meat inspector ; but it appears to the Board that, in the case of a borough or urban district, where the work connected with the proper discharge of the duty of meat inspection is sufficient to justify the appointment of a separate officer for the purpose, it is very desirable that such an appointment should be made, and that the Council should satisfy themselves that the person appointed pos- sesses adequate knowledge of the subjects mentioned in the recommendation of the Royal Commission." 12 " In the smaller districts, where the work of meat inspec- tion is not sufficient to render necessary the .appointment of a separate officer, the Board consider that regard should be had to these qualifications in making future appoint- ments to the office of inspector of nuisances. The final paragraph of the same circular letter is as follows : — " The Board may at the same time draw attention to Article 19 (7) of their General Order of the 23rd March, 1 89 1, with respect to the duties of an inspector of nuisances in relation to the inspection and seizure of meat. They may point out that where an inspector of nuisances is appointed under that Order, or under any order superseded by that Order, he is required by the Article, in any case of doubt arising under it, to report the matter to the medical officer of health with a view of obtaining his advice thereon. The Board think it desirable that any such inspector of nuisances should be reminded of this provision." i3 CHAPTER II. Statutory Powers. Section 131 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 1847 — Section 15 of the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act, 1847 — Sections 116 to 119 of the Public Health Act, 1875— Section 28 of the Public Health Acts Amendment Act, 1890 — Section 47 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891 — Sale of Horse- flesh, &c, Regulation Act, 1889. To expose for sale as human food, or even to have possession of, with intent to sell, anything unfit for human food, is a nuisance at common law, and punishable as such. Again, knowingly to expose for sale meat which is unfit for human food is an indictable offence. Thus the dealer in unsound food might be proceeded against independently of Public Health Acts and local bye-laws. Under Section 131 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 1847, which is incorporated with the Public Health Act, 1875, tne inspector of nuisances, the officer of health, or any other officer appointed by the Council for the purpose, may at all reasonable times enter and inspect any building or place within the district kept or used for the sale of butchers' meat or for slaughtering cattle, and examine whether any cattle or the carcase of any cattle is deposited there. If the officer finds any cattle, or the carcase or part of the carcase of any beast which appears unfit for the food of man, he may seize and carry the same before a justice, so that it may be dealt with. Moreover, where the Council are in a position to establish or regulate markets under Section 167 of the Public Health 14 Act, any inspector of provisions appointed by them may, under Section 15 of the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act, 1847, which is incorporated with the Public Health Act, seize any unwholesome meat sold or exposed for sale in the market and carry the same before a justice to be dealt with. However, for all practical purposes, the statutory powers under which unwholesome food is now seized and dealt with are contained in Sections 116 to 119 of the Public Health Act, 1875, and (for the metropolis) Section 47 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891. The four sections of the Public Health Act referred to (it is convenient to study them together,) are as follows : — " Unsound Meat, &c. " 116. — Any medical officer of health or inspector of nui- sances may at all reasonable times inspect and examine any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk exposed for sale or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, and intended for the food of man, the proof that the same was not exposed or deposited for any such purpose, or was not intended for the food of man, resting with the party charged ; and if any such animal, car- case, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk appears to such medical officer or inspector to be diseased or unsound, or unwholesome or unfit for the food of man, he may seize and carry away the same himself or by an assistant, in order to have the same dealt with by a justice. "117. — If it appears to the justice that any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk so seized is diseased or unsound, or unwholesome or unfit for the food of man, he shall con- *5 demn the same, and order it to be destroyed or so disposed of as to prevent it from being exposed for sale or used for the food of man ; and the person to whom the same belongs or did belong at the time of exposure for sale, or in whose possession or on whose premises the same was found, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds for every animal, carcase, or fish, or piece of meat, flesh, or fish, or any poultry or game, or for the parcel of fruit, vegetables, corn, bread or flour, or for the milk so condemned, or, at the discretion of the justice, without the infliction of a fine, to imprisonment for a term of not more than three months. " The justice who under this section is empowered to con- vict the offender may be either the justice who may have ordered the article to be disposed of and destroyed, or any other justice having jurisdiction in the place. "n8. — Any person who in any manner prevents any medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances from enter- ing any premises and inspecting any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk exposed or deposited for the purpose of sale or of preparation for sale, and intended for the food of man, or who obstructs or impedes any such medical officer or inspector or his assistant, when carrying into execution the provisions of this Act, shall be liable to a penalty not exceed- ing five pounds. 11 119. — On complaint made on oath by a medical officer of health or by an inspector of nuisances, or other officer of a local authority, any justice may grant a warrant to any such officer to enter any building or part of a building in which such officer has reason for believing that there is kept or concealed any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk, which is intended for sale for the food of man, and is diseased, un i6 sound or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man ; and to search for, seize, and carry away any such animal or other article in order to have the same dealt with by a justice under the provisions of this Act. "Any person who obstructs any such officer in the per- formance of his duty under such warrant shall, in addition to any other punishment to which he may be subject, be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds." Let me briefly consider these sections. Note first that there is no mention of an inspector of provisions, as in the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act ; the person empowered to inspect, seize, Szc, is "any medical officer or inspector of nuisances"; when, therefore, an urban or rural authority specially appoints a food inspector, it is necessary to have him formally [made "inspector of nuisances," even though his duties be those of food inspector only. The power to inspect and examine food may be exercised " at all reasonable times " — that is, whenever business is in progress. Unsound food is freely offered for sale late on Saturday nights, and in wholesale markets during the early morning hours, and often before sunrise. Even Sunday is not necessarily an unreasonable time. The food which may be inspected and examined is expressly limited in kind. It is " any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk." Thus cheese, eggs, butter, lard, oil, biscuits, sugar, tea, black puddings, &c, cannot be seized and dealt with under this Act. The word poultry does not include eggs ; cheese and butter, though derived from milk, are not milk ; and biscuits (except water biscuits) do not come under the term bread or flour. The limitation is unfortunate, as any of the articles named as excluded may be exposed for sale in an unsound state. i7 The food which may be inspected and examined must be "" exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, and intended for the food of man, the proof that the same was not exposed or deposited for any such pur- pose, or was not intended for the food of man, resting with the party charged." It sometimes happens that persons having purchased unsound meat, fish, or fruit, bring the article to the inspector, believing that he is empowered to seize it as an article illegally sold to them. As, however, the article is no longer for sale, the medical officer of health and inspector are powerless to deal with it under the Public Health Act. The inability to examine and seize certain kinds of un- sound food, and to examine and seize any food when sold, are defects which have been remedied in some towns under local Acts. The amendment required is very simple ; thus, Section 74 of the Birkenhead Corporation Act. 1881, is as follows : — "The provisions contained in Sections 116 to 119, in- clusive, of the Public Health Act, 1875, sna ^ extend and apply to all articles sold or exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, within the borough, and intended for the food of man." At present, any sanitary authority, urban or rural, by adopting Section 28 of the Public Health Acts Amendment Act, 1890, may effect the required change, so far as relates to the authority's district. Section 28 of the Public Health Acts Amendment Act, 1890, is as follows : — "(1) Sections 116 to 119 of the Public Health Act, 1875 (relating to unsound meat), shall extend and apply to all articles intended for the food of man, sold or exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of i8 preparation for sale within the district of any local authority. " (2) A justice may condemn any such article, and order it to be destroyed or disposed of, as mentioned in Section 117 of the Public Health Act, 1875, if satisfied on com- plaint being made to him that such article is diseased, unsound, unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man, although the same has not been seized as mentioned in Section 116 of the said Act."* The word "place" in Section 116 may be taken in its widest sense. A place does not mean merely a slaughter- house, shop, or market. Diseased meat placed upon a cart when passing along the streets of Dublin from a slaughter-house to a place for the manufacture of preserved meats was held to have been properly seized under a similar section in the 26 and 27 Vic, c. 1 17. Still, seizing unsound meat in transit is to be avoided if possible, as the owner or person in charge may allege the meat was not intended for human food, but was being taken to an artificial manure manufactory or a fat-rendering works. Where practicable, it is better to follow the cart and seize the contents when deposited. If any of the articles named appear, on inspection, to the medical officer or inspector to be (1) diseased, or (2) unsound, or (3) unwholesome, or (4) unfit for the food of man, he may seize and carry away the same himself or by his assistant, in order to have it dealt with by a justice. Thus in most cases it is only necessary to prove that one of these four terms can fairly be applied to the inspected * Note the words " although the same has not been seized," enabling the inspector to obtain an order to destroy an article before he has seized it. This is an advantage when there is a large quantity of the article the inspector desires to have destroyed. i9 article. For instance, a liver in which there is an abscess may be seized simply because it is diseased, without refer- ence to the question whether a part of the liver remote from the abscess might not be wholesome. In the same way a fowl, perfectly good when killed, may have been kept too long, and seized merely because unsound. Doubtless also immature fruit (e.g., very unripe windfall apples) may be seized as unwholesome, though neither diseased nor unsound. It is not required that food seized and carried away be submitted to a justice on the same day the seizure is made, as this is not always possible ; but there should be no un- reasonable delay. Neither is it necessary for the officer seizing goods to give notice to the owner, nor is the justice to whom the goods are taken bound to summon the owner before the condemnation thereof. Still, when goods are seized it is courteous to notify the owner or person in charge of the goods that, at such and such a time and place, an order to destroy the same will be applied for. An officer has no power to destroy articles seized without an order. Although in practice this is occasionally done by consent of the owner, even written consent does not justify the act. The justice to whom the application to condemn the article of food is made may order it to be destroyed, and so disposed of as to prevent it from being exposed for sale or used for the food of man. The best way of destroying condemned food is by burning it in a refuse destructor or gas retort. Where the justice merely orders the article to be disposed of so as to prevent it being made use of for human food, it may, if a carcase or large seizure of meat, be rendered at a tallow-melters, under the supervision of the inspector. In no case is it sufficient merely to bury the C 2 20 article condemned. If the article be milk it may be poured into the nearest sewer. Section 117 not only gives a justice power to condemn an article of food by ordering it to be destroyed, &c, but also power to punish the owner of the same by fine or imprison- ment. The application in respect of the article seized should be made as early as possible, in fairness to the owner, that the justice may see the article in nearly the same state in which it was when seized. And if it is desired to prosecute the owner, this may be done sub- sequently, allowing sufficient time to get up the case, for the justice empowered to convict may be either the justice who condemned the article or any other justice having jurisdiction in the place. In prosecuting, though it is not necessary to prove knowledge on the part of the owner of the state of the article, it is well to be provided with evi- dence in support of a guilty knowledge, such as inadequate price paid for the article, its removal to defendant's premises in the night-time, &c. In cases where the owner is obviously ignorant of the state of the article, it is inexpedient to take further proceedings after obtaining an order to destroy, &c. A penalty is incurred in respect of each piece of meat seized and condemned. Any person who prevents the medical officer of health or inspector from entering any premises for the purposes of food inspection, or obstructs or impedes any such officer or his assistant, is liable to a penalty of ^5 under Section 118. There must, however, be some active step in the way of prevention or obstruction to secure a fine. Refusing to go some distance to open premises on demand of an officer has been held a prevention of the officer. Concealing an article of unsound food is not itself an offence, and unless there has been an exposure for sale or deposit for the purpose of 21 sale, &c, and the article has been intended for the food of man, no penalty can be inflicted under Section 119 for con- cealing, and no order can be made in respect of the con- cealed article. Under Section 119, on complaint on oath by an officer of a local authority (not necessarily a medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances), a justice may grant a warrant to such officer to enter and search any building in which such officer has reason to believe there is concealed any of the named articles of food intended for and unfit for the food of man, and to seize any such concealed article in order to have the same dealt with by a justice. Any person ob- structing such officer, in addition to any other punishment he may be subjected to, is made liable to a penalty not ex- ceeding twenty pounds. The search-warrant may be granted for " any building or part of a building," words including cellars, and any kind of erection or out-building. Note also the expression " kept or concealed," showing that no proof of concealment is necessary. "Oath" includes affirmation or declaration of a person allowed by law to affirm or de- clare. This section appears to apply to cases where articles intended for human food are not actually exposed for sale, and where it would be difficult to allege that they are deposited for the purpose of sale in the terms of Sec. 116. The statutory powers as regards unsound food, for the metropolis, are contained in Section 47 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, giving the medical officer of health or sanitary inspector power to seize, and the justice power to order the destruction of, unsound food. The powers are similar to those in Sections 116 and 117 of the Public Health Act, except that all articles of food, solid or liquid, and articles sold, and articles not seized, may be dealt with, and that the penalties are increased, and under certain cir- 22 cumstances the wholesale dealer is liable.* The section reads as follows : — "47. (1) — Any medical officer of health or sanitary in- spector may, at all reasonable times, enter any premises, and inspect and examine — " (a) Any animal, intended for the food of man, which is exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, and " {b) Any article, whether solid or liquid, intended for the food of man, and sold or exposed for sale or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, the proof that the same was not exposed or deposited for any such purpose, or was not intended for the food of man, resting with the person charged ; if any such animal or article appears to such medical officer or inspector to be diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man, he may seize and carry away the same himself, or by an assistant, in order to have the same dealt with by a justice. " (2) — If it appears to a justice that any animal or article which has been seized, or is liable to be seized, under this section is diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man, he shall condemn the same, and order it to be destroyed or so disposed of as to prevent it from being exposed for sale or used for the food of man ; and the person to whom the same belongs, or did belong, at the time of sale, or exposure for sale, or deposit for the purpose uf sale, or of preparation for sale, or in whose possession, or * The sanitary authority is also required to cause to be removed any article of food, unsound, unwholesome, or unfit for food of man, on the written request of the person in possession of the same. 23 on whose premises, the same was found, shall be liable, on summary conviction, to a fine not exceeding fifty pounds for every animal or article ; or, if the article consists of fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, or flour, for every parcel thereof so condemned, or at the discretion of the court, without the infliction of a fine, to imprisonment for a term of not more than six months, with or without hard labour. " (3) — Where it is shown that any article liable to be seized under this section, and found in the possession of any person, was purchased by him from another person for the food of man, and when so purchased was in such a condition as to be liable to be seized and condemned under this section, the person who so sold the same shall be liable to the fine and imprisonment above mentioned, unless he proves that at the time he sold the said article he did not know, and had no reason to believe, that it was in such condition. 11 (4) — Where a person convicted of an offence under this section has been within twelve months previously con- victed of an offence under this section, the court may, if it thinks fit, and finds that he knowingly and wilfully com- mitted both such offences, order that a notice of the facts be affixed, in such form and manner, and for such period not exceeding twenty-one days, as the court may order, to any premises occupied by that person, and that the person do pay the costs of such affixing ; and if any person obstructs the affixing of such notice, or removes, defaces, or conceals the notice while affixed during the said period, he shall for each offence be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds. 11 (5) — If the occupier of a licensed slaughter-house is convicted of an offence under this section, the court con- 2 4 victing him may cancel the license for such slaughter- house. "(6) — If any person obstructs an officer in the perform- ance of his duty under any warrant for entry into any premises granted by a justice in pursuance of this Act for the purposes of this section, he shall, if the court is satisfied that he obstructed with intent to prevent a discovery of an offence against this section, or has, within twelve months previously, been convicted of such obstruction, be liable to imprisonment for any term not exceeding one month in lieu of any fine authorised by this Act for such obstruction. "(7) — A justice may act in adjudicating on an offender under this section, whether he has or has not acted in ordering the animal or article to be destroyed or disposed of. " (8) — Where a person has in his possession any article which is unsound or unwholesome and unfit for the food of man, he may, by written notice to the sanitary authority, specifying such article and containing a sufficient identifi- cation of it, request its removal, and the sanitary authority shall cause it to be removed as if it were trade refuse." The Sale of Horseflesh, &c, Regulation Act, 1889, is not intended to prohibit the sale of what is a wholesome and cheap food, but to prevent the fraud of its being sold under a false name. The two first sections, requiring signs on horseflesh shops, and prohibiting the sale of horseflesh as other meat, are very complete. They are as follows : — " 1. — No person shall sell, offer, expose, or keep for sale any horseflesh for human food elsewhere than in a shop, stall, or place over or upon which there shall be at all times painted, posted, or placed in legible characters of not less than four inches in length, and in a conspicuous position, and so as to be visible throughout the whole time, 25 whether by night or day, during which such horseflesh is being offered or exposed for sale, words indicating that horseflesh is sold there. "2, — No person shall supply horseflesh for human food to any purchaser who has asked to be supplied with some meat other than horseflesh, or with some compound article of food which is not ordinarily made of horseflesh." The expression "compound article " doubtless has refe- ence to sausages, collops, brawn, and cooked pies, into which it is alleged horseflesh is introduced. Section 3, giving power to inspect meat, is as follows : — " 3. — Any medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances, or other officer of a local authority, acting on the instructions of such authority, or appointed by such authority for the purposes of this Act, may at all reasonable times inspect and examine any meat which he has reason to believe to be horseflesh, exposed for sale, or deposited for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, and intended for human food, in any place other than such shop, stall, or place as aforesaid, and if such meat appears to him to be horseflesh, he may seize and carry away, or cause to be seized and carried away, the same, in order to have the same dealt with by a justice as hereinafter provided." Note that under this Act the meat inspector is not neces- sarily the medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances. In other respects the power to inspect, examine, and seize are similar to those in Section 116 of the Public Health Act. Section 4, giving power to grant search warrants, is as follows : — " 4. — On complaint made on oath by a medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances, or other officer of a local authority, any justice may grant a warrant to any such 26 officer to enter any building, or part of a building, other than such shop, stall, or place as aforesaid, in which such officer has reason for believing that there is kept or con- cealed any horseflesh which is intended for sale or for preparation for sale for human food contrary to the provi- sions of this Act ; and to search for, seize, and carry away, or cause to be seized and carried away, any meat that appears to such officer to be such horseflesh, in order to have the same dealt with by a justice as hereinafter provided. " Any person who shall obstruct any such officer in the performance of his duty under this Act shall be deemed to have committed an offence under this Act." This, it will be seen, is similar to Section 119 of the Public Health Act. Section 5, giving power to justices with reference to the disposal of horseflesh, does not suggest that the seized meat should be destroyed or disposed of to prevent its being used as human food. It is as follows : — "5. — If it appears to any justice that any meat seized under the foregoing provisions of this Act is such horseflesh as aforesaid, he may make such order with regard to the disposal thereof as he may think desirable ; and the person in whose possession or on whose premises the meat was found shall be deemed to have committed an offence under this Act, unless he prove that such meat was not intended for human food contrary to the provisions of this Act." Section 6, stating the penalty, is as follows : — " 6. — Any person offending against any of the provisions of this Act, for every offence shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, to be recovered in a sum- mary manner ; and if any horseflesh is proved to have been exposed for sale to the public in any shop, stall, or eating- 27 house other than in such shop, stall, or place as in the first section mentioned, without anything to show that it was not intended for sale for human food, the onus of proving that it was not so intended shall rest upon the person exposing for sale." Section 7, giving a definition of horseflesh, is wonderfully inclusive. It is as follows : — " 7. — For the purposes of this Act 'horseflesh' shall include the flesh of asses and mules, and shall mean horse- flesh cooked or uncooked, alone or accompanied by or mixed with any other substance." The insertion of the words " or eating-house," in Sec- tion 6, and " cooked or uncooked," in Section 7, suggest that cheap restaurants furnish a convenient market for the fraudulent disposal of horseflesh. Section 8 specifies the local authorities for the purposes of this Act; and Section 9 deals with its application to Scotland. They are as follows : — " 8. — For the purposes of this Act the local authorities shall be in the City of London, and the liberties thereof, the Commissioners of Sewers, and, in the other parts of the county of London, the vestries and district boards acting in the execution of the Metropolis Local Management Acts, and, in other parts of England, the urban and rural sanitary authorities, and, in Ireland, the urban and rural sanitary authorities under the Public Health (Ireland) Act, 1878. 11 9. — In the application of this Act to Scotland, the expression 'justice' shall include sheriff and sheriff substi- tute, and the expression 'local authority' shall mean any local authority authorised to appoint a public analyst, under the sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875, and the procedure for the enforcement of this Act shall be in the manner 28 provided in the 33rd Section of the said Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875." The Sale of Horseflesh, &c, Regulation Act, 1889, came into operation on September 29th, 1889. 2 9 CHAPTER III. Statutory Powers [continued). ADULTERATION OF FOOD. Acts relating to the adulteration of coffee and tea passed in the eighteenth century— The Bread Act, 1836— The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875— The Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act, 1879— The Margarine Act, 1887— The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1899. It forms no part of the duty of a medical officer of health to analyse food or drugs for the detection of adulteration, and no part of the duty of an inspector of nuisances to gather samples for the purpose of having them submitted for analysis. A local authority, however, may appoint the medical officer of health as analyst of food and drugs sold within the authority's district, or may appoint the inspector of nuisances an inspector under the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. Thus, though food inspection does not necessarily include the detection of adulteration, it is well that an officer who may, sooner or later, be charged with the execution of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, should know something of the statutes by means of which adulteration is detected and punished. There are a few references to the adulteration of coffee and tea in certain Acts passed in the eighteenth century. Under Section 23 of an Act, passed in the fifth year ot George I., against clandestine running of uncustomed goods, and for the more effectual preventing of frauds relating to the customs, it was enacted that from and after 3° March 25th, 17 19, any person or persons who added (: water, grease, butter, or any other material whatsoever, which will increase the weight or damnify and prejudice the said coffee in its goodness, he, she, or they shall forfeit the sum of ;£*2o for every such offence." A trader or dealer in coffee buying or selling any such adulterated coffee was under the same Section of this Act liable to the same penalty. This Section has been overridden to a great extent by the provisions of certain Sections of an Act passed in the eleventh year of George I., an Act for more effectually preventing frauds and abuses in the public revenues. Under Section 5 of this Act it was enacted that, from and after Tune 24th, 1725, "no dealer in tea, or manufacturer or dryer thereof, or pretending so to be, shall counterfeit or adulterate tea, or cause or procure the same to be counter- feited or adulterated, or shall alter, fabricate, or manufacture tea with terra japo?iica* or with any drug or drugs whatso- ever, or shall mix, or cause or procure to be mixed with tea any leaves, other than leaves of tea, or other ingredients whatsoever, on pain of forfeiting or losing the tea so coun- terfeited, adulterated,, altered, fabricated, manufactured, or mixed, and other thing or things whatever added thereto, or mixed or used therewith, and also the sum of ^ioo.' ; This section, it will be noted, deals only with the person who adulterates tea or causes it to be adulterated. Under Section 9 of the same Act, it is an offence for any person, at the time of roasting coffee, or soon after, or before selling thereof, to " use or mix or cause to be used or mixed therewith, or to add or cause to be added thereto, butter, lard, grease, water, or other materials, whereby such coffee is rendered less wholesome/'' the penalty for every such offence being a fine * Catechu. 3i of ^ioo. Any trader or dealer in coffee knowingly buying or selling any coffee so mixed, or to which such an addition has been made, is under this section liable to the same penalty. Under Section 1 1 of an Act passed in the fourth year of George II., to prevent frauds in the revenue of excise with respect to starch, coffee, tea, and chocolate, it was enacted that, from and after September 29th, 1731, any person or persons who shall be a dealer in or seller of tea, shall dye r fabricate, or manufacture any sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, or the leaves of tea that have been used, or the leaves of any other tree, shrub, or plant in imitation of tea, or shall mix, colour, stain, or dye such leaves or tea with terra japonica, sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, or with any other ingredients or materials whatsoever, or shall sell, or utter, offer, expose for sale, or shall have in his, her, or their custody or posses- sion, any such dyed, fabricated, or manufactured leaves in imitation of tea, or any such coloured, stained or dyed leaves, or tea mixed with any ingredients before men- tioned, or with any other ingredients whatsoever, such person or persons shall for every pound of such leaves so dyed, fabricated, or manufactured in imitation of tea, and for every pound of such mixed, coloured, stained, or dyed leaves or tea, forfeit the sum of ^10. Dealers alone could be proceeded against for adulteration under this Act. More far-reaching is an Act, passed in the seven- teenth year of George III., for the more effectual prevention of the manufacture of ash, elder, sloe, and other leaves in imitation of tea, and to prevent frauds in the revenue of excise in respect of tea. Section 1 enacts that from and after June 1st, 1777, if any person or persons whatsoever, whether he or she or they be dealer or dealers in, or seller or sellers of tea or not, shall dye, fabricate, or manufacture, 3 2 any sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, or the leaves of tea which have been used, or the leaves of any ash, elder, or other tree, shrub, or plant in imitation of tea, or shall mix, colour, stain, or dye any such leaves with terra japonica, copperas, sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, or with any other ingredients or materials whatsoever, or shall sell or utter, offer or expose for sale, or shall have in his or her or their custody or possession any such dyed, fabricated, or manufactured leaves in imitation of tea, or any such coloured, stained, or dyed leaves, or any leaves that should be dyeing, fabri- cating, or manufacturing in imitation of tea, and shall be thereof convicted, such person or persons shall be respectively, for every pound of such leaves so dyed, fabricated, or manufactured in imitation of tea, or dyeing, fabricating, or manufacturing in imitation of tea, and for every pound of such mixed, stained, or dyed leaves of tea, forfeit the sum of ^5, and upon non-payment thereof the justice or justices shall commit the offender or offenders to the common goal of the county or place where the offence shall be committed. Under Section 2 of this Act if any person or persons shall have in his, her, or their custody or possession any quantity (exceeding 6 lb. weight) of sloe leaves or the leaves of ash, elder, or any other tree, shrub, or plant, green or manufactured, and shall not prove to the satisfac- tion of the justice or justices before whom the matter shall be heard that such leaves were gathered with the consent of the owners of the trees, shrubs, or plants from which the said leaves were taken, and that such leaves were gathered for some other use or uses, and not for the purpose of fabricating or manufacturing the same in imita- tation of tea, and shall be thereof convicted, such person or persons shall respectively for every pound of such green 33 or manufactured leaves so found in his, her, or their custody or possession forfeit the sum of ^£5, and upon non-payment thereof, such justice or justices shall commit the offender or offenders to the common gaol of the county or place where the offence shall be committed. Under Section 3, if any officer of excise, &c, make oath before a justice that he suspects any such leaves are concealed, the justice may grant a warrant for entering any place in search of the same, and to seize and carry away as forfeited all such leaves, together with the wagons, carts, bags, boxes, tubs, or other vessels or package containing the same, and the justice granting the warrant or another may order the leaves seized to be conveyed to some convenient place and then to be burned or otherwise destroyed, and to order the wagons, carts, boxes, bags, tubs, or other vessels or package containing the same to be forthwith sold. Any person obstructing or hindering the officer or person having such authority shall be liable for such offence on conviction to forfeit ^50, and on non-payment thereof to be sent to the common gaol. No leaves are to be burned till after the expiration of twenty-four hours from seizure. Under Section 5, leaves aforesaid are to be deemed in the custody and possession of the occupier of the house, outhouse, garden, &c, wherein or whereon they are found, and he is liable to the penalties of this Act if the leaves were lodged there with his consent. Under Section 9, a conviction under this Act is not to be quashed for want of form. The Bread Acts passed in the third year of George IV. and in the sixth and seventh of William IV. respectively deal with the City of London, &c, and within ten miles of the Royal Exchange, and the remainder of the United Kingdom, except Ireland, which is dealt with by a very similar Act, passed in the first and second Victoria. Under 34 these statutes it is enacted that " bread may be made of flour or meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, rice or potatoes, or any of them, and with any common salt, pure water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in such proportions as they shall think fit, and with no other ingredient or matter what- soever, subject to the regulations hereinafter contained." It would appear that to secure a conviction it must be shown that the baker knowingly used a forbidden ingredient. A person convicted of using a forbidden ingredient is liable to a penalty not exceeding ^10 for every such offence, or in default to imprisonment with or without hard labour," and the convicting justice may cause the offender's name, place of abode and offence to be published in a news- paper printed or published in or near the place where the offence was committed. It is also an offence to " put into any corn, meal or flour which shall be ground, dressed, bolted, or manufactured for sale," any " ingredient or mixture whatsoever not being the real and genuine produce of the corn or grain," or to knowingly sell or offer or expose for sale, " any meal or flour of one sort of corn or grain, as the meal or flour of any other sort of corn or grain, or any ingredient whatsoever mixed with the meal or flour so sold, or offered or exposed for sale. The offender is liable to a penalty not exceeding ^20. It is unlawful to make for sale, or sell or expose for sale " any bread made wholly or par- tially of peas or beans or potatoes, or of any sort of corn or grain other than wheat," unless such bread be marked with a large Roman M. The person making, selling, or exposing for sale such bread without such mark is liable to a penalty not exceeding 10s. for every pound of such bread, and so in * " With or without hard labour " is not in the City of London Act. 35 proportion for any less quantity. It is, however, provided that wheat bread "in the making of which potato yeast shall be used," need not be marked. Justices are empowered to grant search warrants for the searching of millers' or meal- man's or baker's premises, and if any adulterated flour, bread, &c, be found, or any ingredients " deemed to have been used or intended to be used " for such adulteration be found, the same may be seized or disposed of as the justices in their discretion shall think proper. The miller, mealman, or baker, on whose premises ingredients for adulteration are found, is liable to a penalty not exceeding ^"io for the first offence, ^5 for the second offence, and ^/?io for every subsequent offence, and in default to imprisonment with or without hard labour, and the convicting justice may cause the offender's name, place of abode, and offence to be published in a newspaper printed or published in or near the place where the offence was committed. Any person wilfully obstructing or hindering a duly authorised search, or the seizure of any meal, flour, bread, or any forbidden ingredient or mixture which shall be found in such search, is liable for every such offence to a penalty not exceeding ^10. On complaint being made that the offence was occasioned by the wilful default of a journeyman or servant, the justice is to take steps for having such journeyman or servant brought before him, and examine into the matter of such complaint, and on proof thereof, to adjudge and order what reasonable sum of money shall be paid by any such journeyman or servant to his master by way of recompense to him for the money he shall have paid. If the journeyman or servant neglect or refuse on conviction, to make immediate payment of the sum he is ordered to pay, the justice is to order him to be committed to prison and kept to hard labour for a term not exceeding one d 2 3 6 calendar month and not less than ten days. In the City of London a journeyman or servant, in default of payment, may be imprisoned for any term not exceeding six months. No miller, mealman, or baker is to act as justice of the peace under this Act, the penalty for presuming so to do being £100. Any person resisting or making forcible opposition against any person employed in the execution of this Act, is liable for every such offence to a penalty not exceeding ^"ro. Under the Irish Bread Act, the penalty is not to exceed £$. Proceedings are not to be quashed for want of form. Any person convicted under the Bread Act, thinking himself aggrieved, may appeal to Quarter Sessions. In Scotland, penalties incurred under the Act, after deducting charges, are to be paid to the poor of the place where the penalties are awarded. In the City of London the penalty is to be applied for the use of the poor of the parish. Elsewhere a moiety is to go to the informer, and a moiety to the general rate ; or, if there be no informer, the whole is to go to the general rate. No person is to be convicted unless the complaint has been made within forty-eight hours after the offence has been committed, or within such reasonable time as the justice or justices shall deem fit,"* except in case of perjury. No person prose- cuted to conviction under the Bread Act is " liable to be prosecuted for the same offence under any other law." There is a proviso in the Bread Act of 1836 that nothing it contains shall in any way extend, effect, lessen, or infringe upon any rights of customs of the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge, or of lords of any leets, or the rights of any clerk of the market in any place, except so far as relates to the assize of bread, and the regulations of the price and * These words are not in the City of London Act. 57 weight thereof. All rights and privileges shall be held and exercised by the parties entitled thereto. There is a some- what similar proviso in the Act dealing with the City of London. The principal Act dealing with the Sale of Food and Drugs was passed in 1875, and this was followed by the Sale of Food and Drugs Amendment Act, 1879, the Margarine Act, 1887, and the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1899. In Section 26 of the Act of 1899 a definition of food is given : — " For the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, the expression ' food ' shall include every article used for food and drink by man, other than drugs or water, and any article which ordinarily enters into, or is used in the composition or preparation of human food ; and shall also include flavouring matters and condiments." According to the Act of 1875, the term " drug" includes medicine of internal and external use. The principal provisions of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875, are as follows : — Section 3 prohibits the mixing, colouring, staining, or powdering with injurious ingredients any article of food, or selling the same, under a penalty in each case not exceeding ^50 for the first offence, and for a subsequent offence imprisonment for a period not exceeding six months, with hard labour. Section 4 prohibits mixing, &c, with any ingredient so as to affect injuriously the quality or potency of any drug, or selling the same under a like penalty. Section 5 exempts those otherwise liable to be convicted under Section 3 or 4 in case of proof of absence of know- ledge, and that such knowledge could not with reasonable diligence have been obtained. Section 6 enacts that no person shall sell to the prejudice of the purchaser any article of food or any drug which is 33 not of the nature, substance, and quality of the article demanded by such purchaser, under a penalty not exceeding ^*2o :: , provided that an offence shall not be deemed to be committed under this section in the following cases ; that is to say : — (i) Where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been added to the food or drug because the same is required for the production or prepara- tion thereof as an article of commerce, in a state fit for carriage or consumption, and not fraudulently to increase the bulk, weight or measure of the food or drug, or conceal the inferior quality thereof; (2) where the drug or food is a proprietary medicine, or is the subject of a patent in force, and is supplied in the state required by the specifica- tion of the patent; (3) where the food or drug is com- pounded as in this Act mentioned ; (4) where the food is unavoidably mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection or preparation. Section 7 provides that no person shall, under a similar penalty :: , sell any compound, article of food, or compounded drug which is not composed of ingredients in accordance with the demand of the purchaser. Under Section 8 it is " provided that no person shall be guilty of any such offence as aforesaid in respect of the sale of an article of food or a drug mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health, and not intended fraudu- lently to increase its bulk, weight, or measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of delivering such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the same a notice, by a label distinctly and legibly written or printed on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is mixed." * Penalty since increased, and power given to Court to imprison in certain cases. 39 By Section 8, " no person shall, with the intent that the same may be sold in its altered state without notice, abstract from an article of food any part of it so as to affect injuriously its quality, substance, or nature, and no person shall sell any article so altered without making disclosure of the alteration, under a penalty in each case not exceeding Section 10 deals with the appointment of analysts, and Section 1 1 gives the Town Council of a Borough power to engage the analyst of another Borough, or of the county. Section 1 2 enables a purchaser of an article of food to have it analysed on payment of a sum not exceeding 10s. 6d., where an analyst is appointed, or to an outside analyst where none is appointed, for such sum as may be agreed upon. Section 13 enacts that "any medical officer of health, inspector of nuisances, or inspector of weights and measures, or any inspector of a market, or any police con- stable, under the direction and at the cost of the local authority appointing such officer, inspector, or constable, or charged with the execution of this Act, may procure any sample of food or drugs, and if he suspect the same to have been sold to him contrary to any provision of this Act, shall submit the same to be analysed by the analyst of the district or place for which he acts, or, if there be no such analyst then acting for such place, to the analyst of another place, and such analyst shall, upon receiving pay- ment, as is provided in the last Section, with all con- venient speed analyse the same and give a certificate to such officer, wherein he shall specify the result ot the analysis." * Penalty since increased, and power given to Court to imprison in certain cases. 40 According to Section 14, the person purchasing any article with the intention of submitting the same to analysis shall, after the purchase shall have been completed, forthwith notify to the seller, or his agent selling the article, his intention to have the same analysed by the public analyist, and shall divide the article into three parts to be then and there separated, and each part to be marked and sealed, or fastened up in such manner as its nature will permit, and shall, if required to do so, deliver one of the parts to the seller or his agent. He shall after- wards retain one of the said parts for future comparison, and submit the third part, if he deems it right to have the article analysed, to the analyst.* Section 16 provides that if the analyst does not reside within two miles of the residence of the person requiring the article to be analysed, such article may be forwarded to the analyst through the post as a registered " letter." The last word is now, under an amendment in the Act of 1899, to' s be " parcel." Under Section 1 7 (as extended by Section 5 of the Act of 1879), a person refusing to sell to any authorised officer, in any street or open place of public resort, any article for analysis is liable to a penalty not exceeding £10. Section 18 provides that " the certificate of the analyst shall be in the form set forth in the schedule hereto or to the like effect." * This Section is given as amended by the Food and Drugs Act, 1899. Under this Section, before its amendment, it was not necessary fcr the purchaser to divide the article into three parts, so long as the seller was given the opportunity of keeping one- third. When Section 14 was amended Section 15 became unneces- sary and was repealed. 41 Section 19 requires every public analyst to make a •quarterly report, giving certain particulars, to the authority appointing him, and requires the authority to transmit to the Local Government Board a certified copy of such report. According to Section 20, "when the analyst, having analysed any article, shall have given his certificate of the result, from which it may appear that an offence against some one of the provisions of this Act has been committed, the person causing the analysis to be made may take pro- ceedings for the recovery of the penalty herein imposed for such offence before any justices in petty sessions assembled having jurisdiction in the place where the article or drug sold was actually delivered to the purchaser in a summary manner. Section 2 1 directs that, at the proceedings, the certificate of the analyst shall be sufficient evidence of the facts therein stated, unless the defendant require the analyst to be called as a witness and the production of the parts of the article retained by the purchaser. The defendant and his wife may be examined at their request. Under Section 22, "the justices before whom any com- plaint may be made, or the court before whom any appeal may be heard, under this Act, may, upon the request of either party, in their discretion, cause any article of food or drug to be sent to the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, who shall thereupon direct the chemical officers of their department at Somerset House to make the analysis, and give a certificate to such justices of the results of the analysis j and the expenses of such analysis shall be paid by the complainant or the defendant, as the justices may by order direct." Section 23 gives any person convicted of an offence 42 under this Act the right of Appeal to Quarter Sessions, or to the Recorder. >> bib < C Nov. 6 Q Brill in j in in in in in in in in — Cod . . in in in in in in Eels . . in in in — — in in in in in in in Flounder — — — — — in in in in in — Hake — — — in in in in in in in in in Haddock in in — — — — in in in in in Halibut . . — — m in in in Herring . . — in in in in — — Mackerel in in in in in in 111 — — in in in Plaice — — — — in in in in in in in in Salmon" . . — — in in in in in in — — — — Skate in in in in — — — in in in in in Smelt in in in in in — — — in m m in Sprats in in in — — — — ~ — — in ! n Sole m — — in in in in in in in in 111 Turbot . . in in — — in in in in in in in in Whitebait — — — in in in in m — — — — Whiting . . in in in 1 in in in in Fish should be fairly fresh.— Some fish, such as mackerel and herring, appear to begin to decompose very rapidiy, and * Section 19 of the Salmon Fishery Act, 1873, makes it an offence to bs in possession, for the purpose of sale, of any salmon between September 3rd and February i8th, even though the fish be quite clean. T 12 a very little keeping spoils them. Flat fish, as a rule, beir keeping better. Turbot, for instance, is improved for being kept a day or two. Cod, whiting, and haddock, if kept in a cool place and rinsed with salt water, will keep good for two or three days. The freshness of fish is indicated by its being firm and stiff. In really prime condition, if held out in a horizontal position by the hand, it will remain rigid. Any drooping of the tail shows that it is not quite fresh, and, indeed, the extent of this drooping may not unfairly be taken as a measure of want of freshness in the fish. The fish usually hawked about the streets is what the shops have failed to sell, and much of it is very limp. However, before an officer is justified in seizing fish, it must be a stage beyond being merely not quite fresh. If the fish besides being limp is actually softened in parts, and the flesh easily separates from the bone ; if the gills are a dirty colour, or dry, or exude a dirty brown fluid ; if the eye is dull and the skin over it not transparent : or if the fish has a distinctly disagreeable odour, there is sufficient evidence of com- mencing decomposition to warrant seizure. Fish should be unbruised and clean. — Much fish gets jammed and even broken in the nets, and this is sorted out for sale to the poor, or if unsaleable goes to manure the land. There is no objection to this being eaten perfectly fresh, but the effect of bruising is to render the fish unfit for keeping even for a day, so that bruised and broken fish is nearly always unwholesome when offered for sale. If the scales are not bright and in order, it indicates that the fish has been ill-used or is stale. Softening in parts indicates ihe same. Fish taken from foul waters may be offensive or • inwhoiesome. Fresh-water fish from a muddy river bottom may reauire much soaking in salt and water before they part H3 with the smell and taste of the mud. Again, fish from sewage-polluted water is sometimes as unwholesome as the sewage-polluted water itself. Fish may also be damaged or spoiled through the entrails not being removed soon after death. Fish should be free from disease. — Apparently healthy pilchards, herrings, and many other fish, as well as mussels and oysters, even when in season, may occasionally, on being eaten, produce symptoms of poisoning. Attempts to isolate the poison in such cases have failed, and it is thought the fish may themselves have been feeding on unwholesome food. There is certainly nothing to distinguish such fish from others. So little is known about fish disease that it is possible the fish, &c, causing such symptoms may have been diseased. The only fish disease which seems to have been carefully studied in this country is salmon disease. At times when salmon disease is prevalent, it is not un- likely that fish affected with the disease might be sent to the market. The disease is due to a parasite, its visible sign being a fungous growth, especially about the head, which, so to speak, eats its way into the sound flesh. A sanitary officer would be warranted in seizing a fish thus affected. I shall now briefly remark upon the fish ordinarily ex- posed for sale in this country, taking them in alphabetical order. Brill is a flat fish of oval form. The flesh, like that or the turbot, should be of a yellowish tint. It is inferior to turbot and sole, but superior to plaice and flounder, The flat fish, or side-swimmers, are called also trawl fish, as they are taken on the coast or in tidal rivers by trawling over the bottom. The most common in British waters are brill, two or three sorts of dab, flounder, fluke, halibut, plaice, several sorts of sole, and turbot. I ii4 The upper side, on which are both eyes, is usually coloured, the under side white, but some fish are entirely white, and fish coloured both sides are not un- common. Cod is one of the best known of white-fleshed fish, Fishermen are able to preserve them alive for a long time. The " sound," or swimming-bladder, is pierced with a needle and the air disengaged, so that when the fish is put into the well of the boat it sinks to the bottom. When the fisher- men come to shore the cod are packed into boxes four or five feet wide and deep, and about ten feet long, and the boxes floated or sunk in a tidal river. The cod, though Fig. 22. alive, are packed so close that they cannot bruise themselves with struggling. The water is renewed as the tide goes in and out, through holes bored in the sides of the boxes. Cod will live in these boxes eight weeks, and they are frequently kept for that time, all the while without food. They arc removed from the boxes as they are needed for the supply of the market, being killed by a stroke on the head with a mallet. This close confinement and starving is certainly cruel, and cod thus treated must be depreciated in quality. In some places a yet more cruel method of keeping cod alive is adopted. After removal from the boat-well they are tied by the tail to a rope, many of them together, and sunk "5 in deep water. Their tails get sore and lacerated from the string making them fast to the rope. Cod in good condition should have the sides undulated as if it were ribbed. It should be round and plump near the tail, and the hollow behind the head should be deep. ( Vide Fig. 22.) The flesh should be very firm, and when cut raw it should have somewhat the metallic appearance of the silver side of a round of beef. Eels. — At least three distinct species of fresh-water eel are sold in the market. The sharp-nosed eel is the most often seen. The broad-nosed eel is not uncommon. It is relatively larger round the body, and has a wide mouth and thick skin. A third species (occurring chiefly in the Avon) is the snig eel, a small light-coloured eel, seldom exceeding half-a-pound in weight. Eels are caught in the Thames in a basket-work apparatus fixed on a wooden frame, called an " eel buck." On the Severn eel nets are used. A large number of eels are imported from Ireland. They come over packed in boxes alive. Elvers should never be taken, and in good eel fisheries passes should be provided fov them over natural obstructions. The eel is most tenacious of life, and can live long out of water owing to its being able to store water to keep its gills moist. These little stores on either side of the head serve as "breathing bags." When once dead the eel keeps no longer than other fish. Perfectly fresh eels may have a faintly disagreeable smell from the foul mud from which they have been taken, and if the mud be sewage-polluted the eels may be unwhole- some. Conger eels are commonly taken off the Cornwall and Devonshire coasts, and near Dover and Folkestone, but many are imported from Ireland and the Channel Islands, 1 2 n6 and from France. During the cold weather they are in a torpid state in deep water, but may be caught from March to October. Seven or eight pounds is a full weight for a large fresh-water eel, but congers may weigh ten times as much. They are caught on a line. Whether it be true that a large proportion of the turtle soup sold in London is made from conger seems doubtful, but conger certainly makes a fine thick " Stock," and is excellent food. Flounder. — This is a well-known flat fish, more elongated in form than the plaice, but much smaller. Fig. 23 well Fig. 23. represents the fish. It is common in British seas, and ascends the rivers beyond the reach of the tide. It is abundant and cheap. Hake belongs to the family of the cod-fish. It has an elongated body and a broad flat head, the mouth being very wide and the lower jaw extending beyond the upper. It is a common, somewhat coarse fish. It is said to be sometimes sold as cod. A glance at Fig. 24, representing the hake, will show that the resemblance between the two fish is not great. However, after being beheaded, opened, salted, and dried, hake might possibly pass for cod. ii7 Haddock also belongs to the cod family, and much more closely resembles the shape of the common cod than the hake. Like the cod also it is commercially of great import- ance. Haddocks occur in immense shoals all round the coasts of the British Isles. In stormy weather they hide in deep water, among seaweed. On each side of the body ^■^v^J^fiik. Fig. 24. just above the fin behind the gills is a dark spot called the mark of Peter's thumb. The position of this mark is well which represents the haddock. The shown in Fig. D) Fi. haddock as brought to market does not weigh more than from two to three or four pounds. Halibut is the largest of the flat fish brought to market, measuring from three to six feet long. It is a northern fish, being taken off Greenland, Norway, and Scotland. Halibut are sometimes kept alive packed in large perforated boxes, u8 which are sunk or floated in a dock or shallow water. Like cod, they may be thus kept alive for as long as eight weeks. A fine halibut often weighs upwards of a hundredweight. Herring. — This fish is of great importance com- mercially, there being large herring fisheries in all the three kingdoms. The word herring is derived from the Dutch word " herr," an army. The fish occur in enormous shoals, extending for miles. Fresh herrings should be mature, full fish, as there is a large market for inferior qualities as bait. The herring dies as soon as removed from the water, and does not keep well fresh. A herring weighs on an average a little over five ounces. A cran (37J imperial gallons) contains about 800 Fig. 26. mature herrings, or about 1 00c immature herrings. A barrel contains rather less; 132 herrings go to the nominal hundred, a last therefore contains 13,200 fish. Ling is another of the cod family, and a most important article of commerce, particularly in Scotland. Ling, like cod, is caught on lines, and more men are said to be em- ployed in ling-fishing than in cod-fishing. Ling-fishing is carried on from May to August. Ling, in form, {vide Fig. 26) bears no resemblance to any other fish. It is firm in texture, and good eating, yet commonly cheaper than hake As in cod, the liver contains abundance of nutritive oil. Ling are taken four or five feet in length, and weighing over forty pounds. U9 Mackerel, like herring, is a greasy-fleshed fish, and does not keep well. It is fished for from February to November, the chief fisheries of the country being on the south and west coasts. Different fisheries have different seasons — thus the Cornish fishery is from February till June, and the Rye (Sussex) fishery begins in April ; other fisheries begin in Fig. 27. May. The average weight of a mackerel is a little over one pound, and it rarely exceeds two pounds in weight. It is figured above (Fig. 27). Mackerel are reckoned in boxes — fifty fish going to a box. The freshness of the mackerel is Fig. 28. Redness indicated by the brightness of its appearance, about the head is a sign that it is getting stale. Scad, or Horse Mackerel, is smaller and more graceful tha^ mackerel, but the flesh is considered coarser. That this fish may be recognised at once, it is also figured (Fig. 28). It frequents many parts of the coast, and is often taken off Devon and Cornwall. 120 Plaice. — This well-known flat-fish is very abundant, tena- cious of life, and keeps well. There are two kinds, with spots and without spots, the former being sometimes called diamond plaice. The spotted plaice is shown in the next illustration (Fig. 29). Probably the finest spotted plaice are taken on the Brown Bank and Well Bank, on the Dutch coast, and between Hastings and Folkestone. The average weight of a plaice is about one pound. Salmon. — This fish should be plump and clean looking, the scales bright, the belly firm and thick, and the flesh on Fig. 29. section should be rich red. The salmon periodically leaves the sea and ascends rivers and streams to deposit its eggs on gravel, where they hatch out. The young fish, after a certain time, descend to the sea as K smolts," in May and June, Borne migrating the first year, others not till the second or third. Remaining in the sea for a few months o r a year, they return to the river as "grilse." The parent salmon, after spawning, descend to the sea very much out of condition, and are then calied " kelts." In the sea they 121 recover, and when they ascend the river again are in good condition. The kelts (male and female) are weak and poor, and should in no case be taken. Numbers of them die, apparently of exhaustion, before they reach the sea. Indeed, by an Act passed in 1861, it is made illegal wilfully Fig. ?o. to take any unclean or unseasonable salmon, or to buy, sell, expose for sale, or have in possession the same or any part thereof. It becomes then important to know how to tell an unclean and unseasonable salmon. On this subject Mr. Frank Buckland says, " firstly, that the external colouring of the scales of a salmon is by no means invariably a safe 122 guide to its real condition ; secondly, that the appearance of the pyloric appendages are most valuable in the diagnosis ; and, thirdly, that the actual state of the development of the ova or milt is a point to which the strictest attention should be paid. The salmon feeding in the sea gradually accumu- lates 2;reat quantities of fat. A certain portion of the fat is Fig. 31. deposited in the cellular tissue between the skin and the muscular system ; but an admirable arrangement for the storing up of the main bulk of this winter food is found in the presence of the pyloric appendages ; these are long,, worm-like, fleshy offshoots from the intestine, situated imme- diately below the true stomach. In the salmon there are T2 3 45 to 65 pyloric appendages. The process of developing ova and milt is a great tax upon the system of the salmon, and the oily matter in the eggs and milt is very great. I believe it therefore sound physiology to say that the use of the fat stored up in the pyloric appendages and under the skin is, first, to supply nutrition to the fish during its sojourn in fresh water; and, second, to afford materials for the development of the milt and ova. The blocks will illustrate this — ce is the oesophagus, i the intestines, p the pylorics, m the milt. " In the case of the ' clean run ' salmon (Fig. 30), the pylorics can hardly be distinguished on account of the mass of fat which envelopes them, while it will be remarked that the milt is very small. It was, in fact, an ' up ' fish. The other block (Fig. 31) represents the same structure from a spawning fish. The fat has entirely been absorbed from the pyloric appendages, while the milt is very large, the fish having been taken on or near the spawning beds. Spawn- ing operations being over, the fish would at once descend as a kelt, or unclean fish, to the sea to get on his pylorics a fresh store of fat." As clean fish are caught going up the river in February and March, just at the time the great majority of salmon are coming down as kelts, there would appear to be a spring migration as well as an autumn migration of salmon into the rivers. However, after what has been said, an " up " fish could not be mistaken for a " down," though a fish coming up the river in the spring could not probably have accumu- lated as much store fat as if he had remained in the sea till the autumn. These early clean salmon of course fetch a good price. Large Dutch salmon are imported in the winter, from the end of November to the end of January. The common trout, the bull-trout (a white-fleshed fish), 124 the sea trout, the sewen (caught in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall), and the charr (of the Lake district) are all fish belonging to the salmon family. Skate is usually abundant and cheap. It should be firm, broad and thick, and white in the flesh. It is com- monly sold crimped. The thornback skate, called thus owing to^the spines on its back, is in quality rather inferior to the skate proper. The white skate and homelyn ray are also inferior. Smelt, or Sparling. — The true smelt is taken at Boston, Lynn, Norwich and Brighton, and in the estuaries of many rivers running into the Solway. It spawns at the head of the tideway, never going further up a river than the brackish Fig. 32. water. The smelt has a peculiar odour, which has been compared to the smell of violets. The sand smelt, plentiful on the south coast, .is sometimes sold for the true one. The quality of the flesh is, however, inferior. Sprats, when fresh, are bright, like polished silver, and soon lose their freshness. Though they belong to the hening family, they are not young herrings, but a distinct species. They are often very abundant off the coast, being taken for the most part in winter. They specially favour the coasts of Suffolk, Essex, and Kent. When the market is glutted large quantities are sold for manure. There is good authority for saying that sprats are occasionally manufactured into what passes for "anchovy [ 2 paste." Salt, saltpetre, prunella, and red colouring matter are added, and then the mixture is well pounded and pressed. If bottled as anchovies they would be recognised by the shape. Vide figure of anchovy — Fig. 32. Soles come to the banks and coasts of estuaries to spawn, and for food, but in the winter return into deep water. They are taken, like most flat fish, by trawl nets. As a table fish the sole ranks next to the turbot. The flesh is delicate, white, and very firm. Beside the common sole Fig. 33. there are three other varieties of solea sold in the shops — the lemon sole, the variegated sole, and the little sole. Lemon sole is a brown orange in colour, and spotted. It is smaller than the common sole, but wider in proportion. It is inferior in quality, the flesh being less firm. The variegated sole, called thus from the colour of the upper side, is rare. It is smaller than the lemon sole, scarcely attaining six inches in length. The little sole, or red sole, is four or five inches long, and comes up in the trawl nets with the others. 126 Turbot, the most esteemed of flat fish, should be thick and firm, and the flesh yellowish white. When the fish is purchased whole the purchaser is likely to get what he asks for, as the turbot is rounder in shape than the plaice, and its spots are smaller and more numerous. Compare Fig. 33, representing the turbot, with Fig. 29. There is, however, no doubt that cut-up halibut is often sold as turbot, though the smooth upper surface of the turbot is quite different from the tubercle-covered surface of the halibut. Turbots are taken in trawl-nets with other flat fish off the English and Dutch coasts and the Flemish banks. When the weather has driven the fish into deep water, they are fished Fig. 34. for with many-hooked lines. A turbot commonly weighs from five to ten pounds. Whitebait seem to be specially attracted to the Thames, and are netted in large quantities off Gravesend, Queens- borough, Leigh, Southend, &c. They are usually sold by the quart. Whitebait appear to have been first used as human food about 1780, their use before being as bait for crabs, &c. Whitebait are not a distinct species of fish, but the fry of herrings, sprats, weevers, sand-eels, smelts, &c. The little fish swim higher in warm weather, therefore the warmer the season the better the take of whitebait. Whiting is in much esteem, and the most delicate flavoured 12'/ fish belonging to the cod family. Its form is well shown in the illustration, Fig. 34. It is caught all round the coast but especially at Plymouth. It will not keep long, and suffers damage from packing and carriage. Large whiting (from two pounds to three pounds when fresh) taken off the coast at Dartmouth are sun-dried by the fishermen and sold under the name of " Buckhorn." Dried salted or smoked Fish. — The preserved fish ordi- narily met with in the markets in this country are barrelled cod, dried salt cod, smoked haddock, cured salmon, red herring, kippered herring and bloaters, and dried sprats. In examining cured fish it is important for the food in- spector to remember that fish-curing is not confined to large establishments properly supervised, but is done on the premises of petty vendors all the year round. Fish that is already stale and just beginning to turn is put into the brine- tub for a few hours, and then rapidly smoked or sun-dried or wind dried. Even if the fish be perfectly good when the curing begins, the process is so quickly gone through it will not insure the keeping of the fish for any long period of time. Thus cured, the fish is often bad and unwholesome, and the superficial curing hides its defects. Barrelled Cod. — A.s soon as caught the fish are beheaded, opened, cleansed, and salted. They are then stowed in beds, heads to tails, in the ship, a layer of salt being placed between each layer of fish. After a few days, when they have well drained, they are again salted and stowed. Finally they are packed in barrels, after being previously cut into large pieces. A barrel contains about 40 fish. Dried Salt Cod. — The cod, after being beheaded, opened, cleaned, and salted, is laid out on the shingle of the shore or on low walls and dried by the sun. Dry salt cod weigh about five pound a-piece. 128 Dried Salt Ling. — Ling is prepared at the Scotch fisheries nearly in the same way as cod. It is split, well salted with brine, washed, and dried by the sun. Smoked Haddock, commonly called " Finnon " haddock, is so named after the fishing village of Findon, near Aber- deen, where haddock smoking with peat has attained per- fection. Enormous quantities are smoked in London and other large towns. Mr. J. K. Lord, in a communication to Land and Water, describes the process of haddock curing as carried out by costermongers on the Surrey side of the Thames. In a small railed enclosure, close to the rails he found tubs, pans, and vessels of all descriptions, "filled with a fluid of yellow colour and oily consistence," which, he was informed, was the pickle, a solution of salt and water. " Occupying one corner stands a sort of sentry-box, or curing-house. It is composed of scraps of plank, staves of casks, fragments of oilcloth, and old rags for caulking; numerous ledges are nailed along two of the sides. The haddocks are brought into the enclosure, and boys and girls at once commence removing the heads from the fish, split them open, scrape off all the dirt, and plunge them in the pickling-tubs according to size. The fish soak in pickle for about three hours, and then the skewering-up process com- mences. The larger haddocks are first, one by one, taken from the tubs, and a peeled rod is passed through each fish until there are as many as the rod will contain : the ends are laid upon the lowermost ledges in rows until filled up, and so on until the smallest are on the top ledges. A fire is kindled on the ground, which is kept smouldering by a judicious application of sawdust underneath the haddocks. The curing-house is closely shut up, and when the haddocks are sufficiently tinged of a yellow colour they are considered to be cured. From six to eight hours is quite sufficient time 129 to enable a skilled curer to split, salt, and smoke a load of haddocks fit for sale." Sometimes imitation Finnon had- docks are made without the aid of smoke, the fish being- washed with diluted pyroligneous acid, and hung up to dry. Finnon haddocks pack about 300 to the barrel. Cured Salmon. — Salmon curing is very simple, but takes a long time. The fish is split and cleaned, and salt well rubbed in. It is then left in vessels, covered with strong brine pickle, for six or seven weeks. Then it is carefully pressed, and finally packed in casks with alternating layers of salt. Smoked salmon, so common in many parts of the Continent, is scarcely seen in this country, Red Herrings, Bloaters, and Kippers. — Red herrings, and so-called Yarmouth bloaters, are prepared very largely by the poor, and not merely in factories. They are soaked foi twenty-four hours or a little longer in strong brine, and hung up to smoke over a wood fire. Kippered herrings are first split and flattened out like Finnon haddocks. Red herrings are commonly packed in barrels, 500 to 700 tht barrel, according to condition. Bloaters are reckoned in baskets, 150 to the basket. Kippered herrings are sold bv the score or dozen in boxes. Dried Sprats. — Sprats are cured by being soaked in brine and then dried, with or without smoke. At Yarmouth and Gravesend they are cured like red herrings. They are coir monly made up in bundles of 30. Shell Fish. — The shell fish ordinarily sold in this country are oysters, lobsters, Icrabs, prawns and shrimps, whelks, mussels, cockles, and periwinkles. Oysters are found round the coast wherever there is a suitable shore. Off Essex and Suffolk they are plentiful. They are obtained from the oyster beds by dredging, and stored in pits provided with sluices. The shells commonly K 130 become green after storage. Oysters from the pits are in better condition than those fresh from the beds. After six or eight weeks' captivity and feeding they attain perfection. An oyster is in its prime when about eighteen months old. The small " native " oyster is the most esteemed. The con- tents of a dozen pairs of shells, fluid included, should not weigh more than four ounces. The soft part of the oyster is the liver, the hard part is the muscle. Oysters should not be sold unless they are alive. Ordinarily on death the muscle binding the shells together is relaxed and the shells open. Late in 1896 the Local Government Board issued a report and papers, submitted by the Board's medical officer, on the cultivation and storage of oysters and other molluscs in relation to the occurrence of disease in man. The papers are full of information on this important subject, and in the report the information is discussed and summarised. The evidence brought forward supports the view that while the oyster trade of certain places is carried on under conditions involving risk of the fouling of the shell fish with the excreta of persons suffering from cholera, typhoid fever, and similar diseases, so long will their use as an article of diet tend to produce these diseases. It follows also that when other molluscs than oysters are used for human consump- tion in much the same way as oysters, that which applies to oyster culture applies to them. Very largely for purposes of convenience, especially in the matters of accessibility, and of the facility for procuring labour at a reasonable cost, the cultivation of the oyster is carried on at points along our coast which are near to towns or villages, and a special preference is given, especially during the later stages of its growth, to river J3 1 estuaries and their neighbourhood. In such localities there are commonly sewer outfalls, hence the risk. However, the risk of fouling or specific infection of oysters is usually of much more pressing importance as regards the parts of u layings " used for fattening beds, and as regards ponds and pits, resorted to for storage purposes, than it is as regards other " layings," where oysters are laid for further growth and development, and from which they are not taken direct to market. There is nothing in the report or papers to warrant the opinion that English oyster fisheries compare unfavourably, m point of risk of sewage contamination, with those of foreign nations, from whose shores there is considerable importation into this country. The evidence, so far as it goes, does not support any such view. Some of the principal English layings, beds, and ponds are above sus- picion in this respect, on the other hand, arrangements for the culture and storage of oysters in certain places on the Continent and in the United States have been shown to be bad, and cases of typhoid fever have been traced thereto. Oysters are regarded as out of season in May, June, July, and August ; that is, during these months oysters in our waters are either shedding their spawn, preparing to do so, or recovering from the effects of having done so. The times at which oysters reproduce their species vary con- siderably in different places and in different years, but September should be added to the four months named to cover the actual spatting season, as regards oysters in this country. The protection afforded by law to breeding oysters is much more limited in extent. Between May 14th and August 4th native oysters from our shores are precluded from being sold for food ; and a similar restriction obtains k 2 132 for what are known as " deep-sea oysters " between June 14th and August 4th. However, the close season laid down by the Act of 1877 does not apply inter alia to oysters taken in the waters of a foreign State : thus during this period such oysters as can be directly imported may be freely sold for consumption. Oysters imported from abroad and laid down in British waters for a period even as long as four months do not come within the restrictions of the Act in question. The outcome in practice is that oysters, native or foreign, are sold and consumed all the year round. Lobsters and Crabs cast their shells annually, and just before doing so are in poor health, but they are never out of season. They are sometimes sold alive, but generally ready cooked. They are caught in basket-work " pots " sunk at sea, and may remain alive for months in these pots with such food only as they can gather from the sea water. Prawns and Shrimps are taken in hand-driven nets in shallow water. They are always sold cooked. Prawns should boil bright red, and have no spawn under the tail. The shrimps usually sold boil brown. These are called "bunt- ings." There is another kind of shrimp carrying a sword in its head, which boils red like a prawn. Prawns are sold by the dozen, and shrimps by the pint — about 320 shrimps go to a pint. Whelks, Mussels, Cockles, and Periwinkles. — All these are sold by measure. Periwinkles count about 2000 to the peck, whelks (a larger kind of periwinkle) count about 1 1 2 to the peck. A peck of cockles contains about 1000, and a peck of mussels about 500. These shell fish are sold raw or cooked, and their consumption is chiefly confined to the poor. They are usually cooked in their own liquor or 133 in salt water, with vinegar added. The mussel has a bad reputation for occasionally causing symptoms of poisoning when eaten, especially in warm weather. This may be due to the mollusc feeding on something poisonous, or to the water from which it was taken being foul or poisonous, but sometimes a special poison appears to be developed in the liver. Certainly mussels to all appearance fresh and wholesome may cause poisoning." * The Worshipful Company of Fishmon^t; s, London, are willing to assist Local Authorities as regards fish inspection and prosecu- tions. They are also prepared to advise Local Sanitary Authorities and their officials as to fish unfit for consumption. The Company would, doubtless, be also willing to give facilities to Meat Inspectors to study the subject of fish inspection under the Company's Inspectors at Billingsgate Market. Application for such instruction should be made direct to the Clerk of the Company, Fishmongers' Hall, London. 134 CHAPTER IX. Fruit and Vegetables. No proper dividing line between them— Fruit ordinarily exposed for sale — When in season — Apples, pears, and oranges — Barrelled grapes — Cherries, apricots, nectarines, and peaches — Damsons — Greengages, Orleans plums, magnum bonums — Currants, raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries, and rhubarb — Disease, decay, and immaturity — Nuts — Walnuts, hazelnuts, &c, the nut-weevil, Brazil nuts, pea nuts, almonds, sweet chestnuts, cocoanut — Dried fruit, crystallized fruit, bottled fruit and jams — Vegetables ordinarily exposed for sale — When in season — Potatoes — Artichokes — Asparagus — Beans — Broccoli and cauliflower — Cabbage — Sourkraut — Carrots, parsnips, and beetroot — Celery and celeriac — Cucumber — Endive — Lettuce — Horse-radish — Mushrooms — Onions — Green peas, dried peas — Sea-kale — Spinach— Tomatoes — Truffles — Turnips — Turnip-gall — Vegetable marrow — Disease, decay, &c. — Tinned fruit and vegetables. There is no dividing line marking off fruit from vege- tables. For instance, from custom rhubarb is sold and used as a fruit, which it is not ; while, on the other hand, the tomato, obviously a fruit, is conventionally classed among vegetables. Fruit literally means something which is enjoyed, and may be denned as the produce of a tree or plant containing the seed. Nearly all kinds of ripe fruit used for food of man are wholesome raw. Many fruits intended for cooking or to be kept some time are purposely gathered in an unripe state. The kinds of fruit ordinarily exposed for sale in the food i35 markets in this country, and the time of year when they may be considered in season, are given in the following table. Lemons are not included in the list, for they are imported nearly all the year round, keep well, and are always to be obtained sound. Almost the same may be said of pines, nearly all of which are imported, but they require much greater care in keeping. Bananas, too, are imported nearly all the year round, and keep with care, so as to be rarely out of season. Bananas, like plantains, to which they are allied, are excellent food-stuff, and as cultivated are practically seedless. Fruit. c i — i U-t in in in March April >, tf s c 1 — i 13 < in in in in in in in in in in in in in in a. in hi) < a, C/3 o O > o 6 Q Artichokes j in in — Jerusalem ditto. . m m in ! in in in — — in in in in Asparagus fd fd fd fd in in in Beans, Broad . . . . i — — — in in — — — ,, French . . — fd fd fd fd fd in m in — — — ,, Haricot in in in — — — — 1 — — in in in Broccoli in in in — — ■ — 1 — in in in Brussels Sprouts in in in m in Carrots, young — — — in in m — ' - Cauliflower — — — — — in in in in — — m in in in in in in Cucumber — — fd fd fd id in m in in — Endive in m in m in Horse-radish m in m in m in — m in in Lettuce — — in in in in in in in — — Mushrooms fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd in in fd fd Spanish Onions in — — — — — — — in in in in in in in in in — — — ( — in in in Peas, Green in in m — — — — Potatoes new — — fd fd in in 1 — in in in m in Spinach — in in in in in ,, winter in in in in in — — 1 — fd fd fd fd in in in — — Truffles in in in m in Turnips, young.. — in in in 1 — — Turnip Greens — in in in — — — — — — — Vegetable Marrow . . ~~ " in in in I- "fd" stands for forced. ire also attacked by " smut,'"" which is recognised by dark- brown patches on the skin. Potatoes green on one side, from exposure to the air and sun when growing, are usually considered unwholesome Potatoes, stored for the winter, must be put in a cool and 144 dry place, or they will sprout, and must be protected from the cold, or they may get frost-bitten. The sweet potato, so much in favour in America, is rarely seen in this country. Artichokes. — Two varieties of this vegetable are ordinarily seen in the markets when in season — the green and the purple, the latter being sometimes known as the French artichoke. The head should be fresh-looking, firm, well rounded, and of good flavour. It is better for being gathered two or three days. The Jerusalem artichoke is quite a different vegetable, not produced from seed, but from roots. The part used is not the flower-head, but the tuber. It comes in as its more esteemed namesake goes out, and continues in season the remainder of the year. Asparagus. — This vegetable is largely imported from France, especially the " giant " varieties. It is a native of Great Britain and easily grown, the best soil being a light sandy loam. It is sown in March, and ready for cutting in 26 months. It should be firm and white in the stalk, and have a deep-green compact crown. Beans are of great nutritious value, especially haricot beans, which are gathered ripe. The haricot bean should be firm and full, the skin being smooth and white. Broad beans are gathered when the beans are nearly mature but unripe. The ordinary varieties are the " long- pod," usually containing seven or eight beans, and the short, containing from three to five. The beans should be broad, kidney-shaped, flattened or concave at the sides, and in colour chocolate or greeny-brown. French beans are gathered quite immature, the pod forming the bulk of the food-stuff. The pod should be long, tender, and fleshy, and comparatively free from stringiness. *45 Beans are attacked when growing, and when stored, by a weevil (the bean beetle), the grub of which may often be seen in the bean. Broccoli and Cauliflower should have large white compact heads. Any tinge of yellow or green generally indicates an inferior quality. Broccoli sprouts are purple in colour, and not compact in the head. Broccoli are " in " during winter and spring, cauliflowers during summer and autumn. Cabbage, in one of its varieties, is in season all the year round. The small cabbage known as the "Savoy" is usually in good condition from May to August. Brussels sprouts are in season all through the winter. A good cabbage should be crisp and firm, and " heart " well. Borecole, or kale, and curled greens are excellent for winter use, some being hardy enough to stand the severest frost. There are many varieties of pickling cabbage, deep red and purple, with compact heads, or rosette-shaped, and in various sizes. Cabbages, broccoli, and cauliflowers are much damaged by the larvce of three kinds of white butterfly, and the cabbage moth and turnip moth ; and also impoverished by plant lice and many fungus parasites. Sourkraut, now often sold in grocers' shops, &c, is prepared in Germany from ordinary full-sized heads of cabbage. The heads are cut in the late autumn, stripped of their outer leaves, and packed closely in layers in a hole in the ground, the hole being lined with dry garden leaves. Earth is filled in at the top to shut out the air, and if this be not heavy enough, a flag-stone or weighted board is added. In the course of a few months the cabbages are entirely changed, and are light brown through to the cores. They are then taken up and packed in barrels with salt, and in a short time are ready for export as sourkraut. The L 146 change in the cabbages is similar to that which takes place in grass packed in a silo, and is of the nature of acid fermentation. Carrots, Parsnips, and Beetroot are distinguished among vegetables for their richness in sugar. Bread has heen made from all of them. When in great abundance they are sometimes used in distilleries for making spirits. Carrots should be light red or yellow, of a regular conical shape, sweet and crisp. Young carrots are more tender and are preferred for the table. They are in season from April till June. Parsnips should be buff in colour, unforked in the roots, sweet and crisp. They are in season winter and spring. They should be stored in dry sand. Beetroot should be deep red, or purple, of a long oval or globular shape, fine-grained, sweet and delicate in flavour. It keeps well in dry sand, and is always seasonable. The larvce of the carrot-fly burrow into and spoil carrots and parsnips, often causing them to shrivel. A mildew also attacks parsnip roots. Beetroot is liable to be damaged by a nematode — the male of which is like a worm, the female lemon-shaped. Celery should be nearly white in colour, large, crisp, solid, and nutty in flavour. It is in season in winter and spring. It is fit for use for some time after being gathered. There is a variety of celery in which the root is large and turnip-shaped. This has been called celeriac. It is depicted in Fig. 38. All varieties are eaten raw or cooked. Much damage is done to the plant by the larva of the " celery-stem fly," by a fungus known as "red rust," and by " black mildew." Cucumber should be regular in shape, smooth in the skin, dark green in colour (some varieties light green), white- x +/ fleshed, and delicate in flavour. It is in season spring, summer, and autumn. Endive is a sort of winter lettuce, and should be crisp and succulent. When carefully tied up it blanches well. It is Fig. 38 ordinarily used as a salad and garnish. It requires much cleansing, as insects find their way right into the heart. Lettuce is ordinarily in season from March to September, but some varieties of both cos and cabbage are seasonable in winter. The head should be close and compact, and l 2 148 the leaves should be crisp and sweet. When the lettuce is too young, or running to seed, the flavour is bitter. Fig. 39. Mildew often attacks the leaves. Its presence is indicated by pale patches, and it soon causes putrefaction. 149 Horseradish. — This garden root is usually scraped raw, and used as a condiment and garnish. It is in season from October to June. There seems to be some risk of aconite root (a poison) being mistaken for horse-radish. Horse- radish (vide Fig. 39) is usually from 7 to 10 inches long, and as thick as a man's thumb some distance down. It is yellowy-white outside. x\conite root is usually not half as long, not thicker than the finger at the crown, and tapering. It is wrinkled, and blackish brown in colour outside. A minute portion, cautiously chewed, causes prolonged tingling and numbness. Mushrooms may be gathered in the fields in September and October, and forced mushrooms can be obtained all the year round. There are many edible British species. They will grow in any cool, shady place (in an outhouse in the winter), but the temperature should be fairly uniform, and not below 45 deg. Fah. The cap should peel easily, the gills vary in colour from salmon-pink to brown, or nearly black. The stalk should be thick and frilled. No part of the mushroom is bright in colour, or has a hot or acrid taste. The little immature button mushrooms are commonly used for garnish and pickling. Onions are in season all the year, the imported Spanish onion from October to January only. Onions are grown in this country in great variety, the smallest being the silver- skinned ones used for pickling, the largest fully as big as the Spanish. The outside colour may be brown, red, yellow, white, or light green. They are all possessed of an acrid volatile oil, irritating to the eyes, but, when boiled, should be mild in flavour. The bulbs should be symmetrical, well filled out, fine fleshed, and small in the neck. They should keep well. Leek, garlic, and shallot all belong to the same genus. !5° Onion bulbs are attacked by eel-worms, the Icuvce of the onion fly, " smut," mildew, and mould. When stored they are subject to putrefactive change, giving rise to a greenish slime on the surface. Green Peas are cultivated in numerous varieties. They are in season in June, July, and August, and much earlier when forced. The plant should not grow high, and should begin podding near the ground. The haulm should be strong. The pod should be nearly straight and well filled to the end, containing from four to ten or eleven peas. The peas are wrinkled or smooth, grey, blue, or green according to variety. Peas are attacked, when growing and when stored, by a weevil (the pea beetle), the grub of which feeds on the pea. The larvce of the pea moth also spoil many peas. Dried Peas, on keeping, become pale, shrivelled, and hard ; but they keep better thus than as meal, which is very liable to become mouldy. Whole or in meal, peas are susceptible to the attacks of insects. The acarus, a sort of itch insect, may be well defined with a pocket lens. Sea kale. — This plant is related to the asparagus, and derives its name from growing on certain sea-shores. It is easily cultivated from seed or roots. It is in season from February to June. Spinach. — There are many varieties of this, the best known, perhaps, being the " round-leaved," the " straw- berry," and the rapid-growing " New Zealand." It is ordinarily in season from March to July. The " prickly,'' or winter spinach, is in season from October to February. Spinach should be bright in colour, should last well, and not run to seed early. The leaves should be soft and succulent, and not stringy. Tomatoes are cultivated in hot-houses and out of doors in 1^1 this country ; but large quantities are imported. They vary in colour from deep crimson to scarlet or yellow ; in size, from that of a large apple to that of a cherry. Indeed, there is a currant tomato, producing bunches of fruit looking like fine red currants. They are in season from August to October, and those grown under glass much earlier. The plant has an unpleasant odour. Truffles are tubers, possessing an animal rather than a vegetable flavour, in this as in other aspects they somewhat Fig. 40. resemble mushrooms. They are not subjected to regular culture, but grow some inches below the surface of the earth in damp calcareous soils, especially in oak and chestnut forests. They are of irregular form, ordinarily the size of a walnut, but sometimes attaining to the size of a turkey's egg, and have a rough, brown, warty surface. There are at least three species, black, white, and red, but only the black is ordinarily seen. They grow in clusters without roots. They are found in parts of England (Hamp- 152 shire, Wiltshire, and Kent, &c), and in France, Italy, Spain, and Holland. Large quantities are imported from France, the best coming from Perigueux, and about Angouleme. They are seldom found twice in the same place, and they have to be scented out with the help of a pig or a trained dog. Truffles are in season from November to March. They should be light in proportion to their size, elastic when pressed, and of fine aroma. They are in use chiefly for seasoning and garnishing. When dried much of their aroma Fig. 41. is lost. The best way of preserving them is to partially boil them in a tin, and then seal them up in in their own diluted juice. Turnips may be obtained all the year round, but young turnips (best suited for the table) are in season from April to June, and turnip tops from March to May. The turnip should be regular in shape, firm-fleshed, white or yellow, and sweet. Turnip-tops should be bright green in colour, fresh and tender. The swede, a large variety of turnip, is 00 when young sometimes sold for the table. Swedes are distinguished from other turnips by the leaves being smoother, and usually the swede has a neck at the top of the root from which the leaves spring. Compare Fig. 40 (turnip) with Fig. 41 (swede). There is a kind of turnip, Fig. 42. the "navet,' ; which is light buff" in colour, shaped like a carrot, and especially full-flavoured. (See Fig. 42). It is much esteemed in France, and sometimes imported to this country. Turnips are much injured by parasites. The larva of the turnip fly eat the leaves, and the larvce of the turnip moth J 54 eats roots as well as leaves. "Gall" is caused by the turnip gall weevil — the female pierces the turnip and deposits an egg, the grub from which lives to maturity in the turnip forming a swelling on the surface, called a gall. The surface of a single turnip may show many galls of various sizes, as represented in Fig. 43. Swedes are also affected with "gall." Clubbed turnips — that is, roots disfigured with knobs — are ordinarily infested with the club root fungus. Fig. 43. Vegetable marrows are grown in this country in many varieties, under glass and in the open garden. They should be young, quite firm, bright coloured, smooth on the surface, and of good flavour. They are in season July, August, and September. Vegetables, like fruit, are subject to disease, or may be in a state of decay. The chief indications are softening, change of colour, and external mould. The insects and parasites attacking them have been already referred to. 3D Tinned goods. — There is good reason for believing that nearly all tinned fruit and vegetables are more or less con- taminated with tin, the amount present being from one-tenth of a grain to over one grain per pound. Fortunately, this metal is not known to be poisonous, except in large doses. Green peas and French beans, and some other preserved green vegetables and pickles, are frequently deliberately adulterated with copper, which metal is undoubtedly injurious to the health of the consumer. The presence of copper can be detected by leaving the blade of a penknife in the liquor round the vegetables for a short time. The copper will deposit itself on the blade. i56 CHAPTER X. Corn, Bread, and Flour. Corn, different kinds — How distinguished when ground — Diseases of corn : Bunt, Smut, and Ergot — Flour — Wheat flour — Varieties of wheat — Yield of a quarter of wheat— Good flour — Diseased, mouldy, damp, fermented, and decomposing flour— Adulteration with other flours or starch — Mineral adulterants — Readily applied test for presence of alum — Bread defined — Wholemeal bread — Good bread described — Sodden, sour, bitter, or mouldy bread— Adulteration of bread. Corn is generally understood to include wheat, barley^ oats, and rye. Maize and rice also come under the term " corn.'' It is by far the most important food substance in use in this country, and if stored in a dry place keeps well. Barley will grow even in the Arctic circle, and oats in quite a cold climate. Rye requires more warmth, wheat yet more, and maize more again, while rice is the corn of tropical countries. In all kinds of corn the bulk consists chiefly of starch contained in a husk. It is easy to tell one kind of corn from another before grinding. The difference in the struc- ture of the husk, and the size and shape of the starch particles, as seen under the microscope, serve to distinguish between the different kinds of corn when ground. Rice, as ordinarily sold, has been deprived of its husk. Diseases of corn. — The most common diseases of corn in this country are bunt, smut, and ergot. Bunt (called also pepper brand), frequently affecting wheat, grows within its l 57 •seed, producing a fine powder. This powder, rubbed between the fingers, feels greasy, and gives an unpleasant smell. Its appearance under the microscope (magnified 350 diameters) is shown in Fig. 44. Smut (called also dust 1 mi IP Fig. 44. brand), most frequently affecting barley, oats, and rye, develops a fine powder like bunt, but it is finer, and has no smell. Its appearance under the microscope (magnified 350 diameters) is shown in Fig. 45. Ergot, for the most D Fig. 45. part confined to rye, develops early in the grain by taking the place of the solid contents. It has a peculiar sour smell. The appearance of an ear of rye, when ergoted, is shown in Fig. 46. All these diseases are due to a low form '53 of plant growing in the grain, and if the powder produced be examined under a microscope, they may all be distin- guished with certainty. Little is known as to the effect of bunt or smut on those who may eat them, but eating ergot is distinctly injurious to health. However, no corn in which parasitic fungi have developed can be considered wholesome. Corn is also attacked by the iveevil (an insect nearly as big as a grain) and by an acarus (too small to be seen by the naked eye). Flour. — The term " flour " may reasonably be held to include groats, barley meal and oat meal, ground rye, maize Fig. 46. flour, and ground rice and rice flour. In other words, flour is coarse or fine ground corn. Wheat-flour. — Ordinarily the term "flour," used without qualification, means wheat flour. The varieties of wheat naturally divide into two classes — white wheat and red wheat. Most of the wheat grown in this country is un- bearded ; a few varieties are bearded like barley. Among remarkable varieties is a one-sided wheat, the spike yielding but one row of corns, and the so-called Egyptian wheat, the stalk of which is branched and bears several ears. In the process of thrashing wheat is deprived to some extent of its husks, but when it reaches the mill it is well sifted before grinding. The quality of the flour is to a. 159 great extent dependent on the care exercised in grinding and dressing the wheat. A quarter of wheat, weighing 504 lbs., is estimated to yield 333 lbs. of fine flour, 53 lbs. of "seconds," 34 lbs. of "middlings," 51 lbs. of fine and coarse pollard, 26 lbs. of bran, and 7 lbs. of waste. Good flour should be of faint yellow colour, smooth to the touch, and not gritty or lumpy. If a handful be com- pressed it should adhere, taking the form given it. It should be slightly acid to test-paper (reddening litmus), but should not taste acid. When made into dough with water it should stick together well, drawing out easily into strings Flour may be made from diseased corn, in which case the presence of the spores of some fungus will probably be detected on examining it under the microscope. Flour may also be mouldy, a condition which is at once known by the characteristic smell. It may be exposed to damp, to make it weigh heavier, when it is more liable to mould. It may have undergone a kind of acid fermentation. This gives it a peculiar smell, an acid taste, and makes it some- what gritty to the touch. Flour may be in a state of active decomposition, when it will be moist, discoloured, and of an offensive smell. Flour is also subject to two forms of adulteration — it may be mixed with a cheaper flour, with meal, or starch, or with some mineral substance to increase its weight or improve its colour. Wheat flour is thus liable to be adulterated with the flour of barley, oats, maize, rice ? and, less frequently, rye, or buckwheat, beans, peas, and linseed. Potato starch is also sometimes used for this purpose. Most of these adulterants can be certainly detected by examining the flour under the microscope. Some will appreciably alter the colour and taste of the i6o flour, and would thus afford sufficient indication to one who is not an expert. The mineral substances used as adulterants of flour are alum, chalk, gypsum, powdered soapstone, silicate and car- bonate of magnesia, and sulphate of barytes. All these, except alum, which is only added in very small quantity, can be readily detected by the simple process of burning the flour down to ash. The ash, which in wheat or maize flour should not exceed 2 per cent., and in barley, rye, or oats flour should not exceed 3 per cent., would be immensely increased. The best readily-applied test for the presence of alum is that known as the logwood test. It will give distinct indications, even though the proportion of alum in the flour be but a grain in the pound. The method of applying the test is thus given in Bell's well-known hand- book : — " The reagents required are recently-prepared tincture of logwood, and a solution of carbonate of ammonia. The former is prepared by digesting 5 grams of logwood chips in 100 cubic centimetres of strong alcohol; and the latter by dissolving 15 grams of carbonate of ammonia in 100 cubic centimetres of distilled water. The test is applied as follows : — A small quantity, say 5 grams, of flour is made into a paste, with 5 cubic centimetres of water ; 1 cubic centimetre of logwood solution is then mixed with the paste, and this is followed immediately by the addition of 1 cubic centimetre of the solution of carbonate of ammonia. If alum be present, the colour produced will be more or less lavender or blue, according to the quantity of alum in the flour ; but if the colour be pink, which soon fades to a dirty brown, then, according to our experience, alum is invariably absent. Should there be any doubt as to the colour, the paste is put aside for several hours, and then, if i6i alum be present, even in very small quantity, there will be a decided tinge of lavender on the sides of the capsule near the edge of the partly-dried paste." Obtaining the lavender tinge is not absolutely conclusive proof of the presence of alum or of any salt of alumina, but it is quite enough to cast some suspicion on the genuineness and wholesomeness of the flour. It is im- portant to note that all wheat flours contain some amount of alumina in the form of silicate, and perfectly pure samples have been found to contain a quantity of alumina equivalent to from 2 to upwards of 40 grains of ammonia alum in four pounds of flour. Bread may be defined as the flour or meal of any corn mixed with water, and dried or baked. The flour or meal may be freed from the husk or may contain part or the whole of it. The so-called " wholemeal bread " is made from the flour of wheat from which only the bran has been removed. The bread may be unleavened or it may be aerated with leaven or yeast, by kneading the flour with water charged with carbonic acid, or by means of a baking powder or a chemical compound. Thus, bread includes oat cakes, passover cakes, water biscuits, black or rye bread, &c. The word is, however, in this country usually restricted to wheaten bread leavened, fermented, or aerated. Good wheaten bread should be well baked (not burnt), light and spongy, the crumb being well permeated with little cavities. It should be thoroughly kneaded, of good colour (white or brown), not acid to the taste, not bitter, not too moist. When set aside, the lower part should not become sodden. A 4-lb. loaf loses about ij oz. in twenty-four hours, about 5 oz. in forty-eight hours, and about 7 oz. in sixty hours. This loss will vary with the temperature, draughts of air, &c. M 162 Bread may have many defects. It may be sodden and heavy owing to bad flour or yeast, the sponge never having risen properly, or owing to imperfect baking. It may be sour owing to bad flour, or to fermentation having been allowed to proceed too far. A slight degree of sourness in leavened bread is not objected to. It may be bitter owing to bitter yeast. Finally, it may be mouldy, which is due to the bread having been too moist originally, having been kept in a damp place, or kept too long, or to bad flour having been used. Wheaten bread may be adulterated with barley, maize, pea or bean flour, and with boiled rice or potatoes. For the purpose of improving the appearance of bread made from inferior, damaged, or mixed flour, a small quantity of alum is added. Its effect is to make the bread lighter and whiter. The quantity present is generally less than fifty grains to the 4-lb. loaf. The best rough test for alum in bread is the logwood test. The process, as applied to bread, is very simple. The tincture of logwood and solu- tion of carbonate of ammonia, before referred to, are used. A teaspoonful of each is mixed with a wineglassful of water, and in this a piece of the crumb of bread is soaked fur about five minutes. The bread is then removed and dried at a gentle heat. If no alum be present, the bread dries of a dirty brown colour ; if a little be present, the bread dries of a lavender colour ; if much alum be present, the bread dries of a dark blue colour. 163 CHAPTER XI. Milk. Importance of its being pure — Good milk — Unwholesome milk- Epizootic disease, anthrax, cattle-plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease — Tuberculosis — Garget — Primaril v good milk infected with animal disease germs — Primarily good milk infected with human disease germs, diphtheria, scarlatina, and typhoid fever — The Hendon cow disease — Dishonesty or uncleanliness of milk-sellers — Sour milk — " Blue " and " red" milk — Tainted milk — Adulterated milk — Skimmed milk — Separated milk— Cream — Clotted cream — Preserved milk — Butter milk — Koumiss — Kefyr — Galazyme. Milk, though an animal food, occupies a position between this and vegetable food, and possesses to a considerable extent the nourishing properties of both. As it is largely used in a raw state, it is important it should not be infected with disease, and as it often forms the sole food of young children, it is important that it should be delivered without addition to it or abstraction from it. The milk ordinarily exposed for sale in this country is obtained from cows. There is also some sale for asses' and goats' milk, but it is inconsiderable. The same constituents are present in all, the proportions, however, differing appreciably. Good milk is a yellowish-white opaque liquid, having a specific gravity of from 1026 deg. to 1036 deg. It has a fresh smell and a bland sweet taste. After the milk is allowed to stand from four to eight hours the cream rises, and the remainder of the milk is less opaque, and nearly or quite white. The amount of milk a cow gives varies much. About twelve quarts is the average daily yield ; just after m 2 164 calving it may be double this. Milk varies in quantity and composition with the breed of the cow, age of the cow, her health, the food given her, with the number of her pregnancies, with the time since calving, and probably, to a slight extent, with the season of the year. The first milk obtained after calving differs most noticeably from normal milk. It is a rich yellow colour, clots more readily, tastes like beaten eggs, and has a specific gravity of about 1050 deg. This milk is called "colostrum," popularly the "beestings." At a single milking there is also considerable difference between the " fore milk " and the " stoppings," the latter being richer in cream. Goats' milk is, as a rule, rather richer than cows' milk, asses' milk is rather poorer. The peculiar smell of goats' milk always serves to distinguish it. The specific gravity of goats' milk is from 1032 deg. to 1036 deg., that of asses' milk from 1023 deg. to 1035 deg. In using a lacto- meter it is important to remember that they are usually adjusted to 60 deg. Fan. ; thus a correction should be made for temperature to the extent of nearly one deg. in specific gravity for every 10 deg. of temperature above or below 60 deg. Fah. The whole of the cream never separates from milk, even if it be allowed to stand for twenty-four hours or longer ; the amount by volume which separates varies from 2 to 25 per cent, of the milk. Usually it is from 6 to 12 per cent. Milk should contain not less than 3 per cent, of butter fat, and 8-5 per cent, of solids not fat. A well- known dairy company requires that milk supplied to them must contain 3*25 per cent, of butter fat, and 875 per cent, of " solids not fat." Unwholesome Milk.— Milk may be unwholesome from various causes, viz. :— (1) It may be derived from a cow suffering from a specific epizootic disease. (2) It may be derived from a consumptive cow. (3) It may be i6 5 drawn from an inflamed udder. (4) It may have become infected with the germs of an animal disease. (5) It may have become infected with the germs of a human disease. (6) It may have become sour. (7) It may have become "blue" or "red." (8) It may be tainted from things stored near it. (9) Injurious substances may have been added. Epizootic Disease, fortunately, often arrests the secretion of milk, and in one disease especially liable to be injurious to man — anthrax — if there is any milk yielded, it is thick and of bad colour, probably containing traces of blood, and readily decomposes. Still there is a case on record where this disease was communicated to a child who drank milk from an infected cow. Cattleplague seldom occurs in this country. The milk is, as a rule, so diminished in quantity, that it is difficult to obtain a sample. In appearance it differs from ordinary milk far more than colostrum. The sugar is scarcely a quarter of the normal amount, and the butter is very largely increased. Pleuro=pneumonia does not appear to interfere appreciably with the milk secretion, and here, as well as in foreign countries, when the disease has prevailed, milk has been sold in the open market, and there is no way by which it may be recog- nised. Though there is no evidence of this disease bein^ communicated to man, milk from a pleuro-pneumonic cow must be less than wholesome. Foot=and=mouth disease nearly always exercises a marked influence on the milk supplied by the cow infected. The total yield of milk is diminished, it is richer in butter, and has a tendency to get stringy. It may contain traces of blood or pus, or small portions of sore-crusts. It soon sours, and sometimes has a faint cheesy odour. From the fact that sucking calves fed from infected animals get a very 1 66 severe and fatal form of the disease, drinking the raw milk would appear to be one of the readiest ways of transmitting the disease. Children fed on such milk have developed an eruption in the mouth and throat and between the fingers* the eruption resembling that seen in infected animals' This milk should certainly be seized and destroyed when recognised. Tuberculosis. — The question whether milk derived from a consumptive cow can be used for human food with impunity has been much debated. The almost unanimous opinion of those best qualified to judge is that such milk cannot be drunk without grave risk. It is proved that it can induce tuberculosis in many animals ; and there are a few isolated cases in which children have developed the disease after having been fed on milk from infected cows. There is r therefore, warrant for pronouncing tuberculous milk unfit for human food, and endeavouring to prevent its sale. As regards the quality of the milk, it is, probably, always some- what deteriorated ; but there is no means by which its being infected with the bacillus of tubercle can be ascertained except by submitting a sample to an expert, that he may experiment with it on animals (guinea pigs). Searching for the bacillus by means of the microscope, and failing to find jt, is no proof that the milk is not tuberculous. When the udder is infected with tuberculosis, the probability of find- ing the bacillus in the milk is enormously increased. However, milk from a tuberculous udder may be held to be infective, and its sale or use for human food can be prevented." * Article 15 of the Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order of 1885 is as follows : — Article XV. If at any time disease exists among the cattle in 167 Consumers of milk who would avoid all risk should obtain their milk supply from a herd tested with tuberculin and passed, or sterilise the milk, or simply raise the tempera- ture of the milk to boiling point before using it. Garget is a very common term among cattle salesmen and farmers. For instance, when a pig suffers from repletion, it is said to have garget of the maw ; and in some parts of the country garget is used to signify a disease of the throat. Ordinarily the word means inflammation of the udder, and when milk is drawn from such an udder it is usually said to be gargety. Cows allowed to get into high condition, through being turned into a very rich pasturage, or other- wise, are predisposed to this. The most common causes of the malady are cold and exposure, over distention of the udder from being long unmilked, bruising from unskilled milking, and pressure on the udder from an awkward way of lying. When from one or more of these causes inflam- mation of the udder is set up, great care is needed, or per- manent injury may result. Taken in an early stage of the disease the most important indication is to milk the udder dairy or cowshed, or other building or place, the milk of a diseased cow therein — (a) shall not be mixed with other milk ; and (b) shall not be sold or used for human food ; and (c) shall not be sold or used for food of swine, or other animals, unless and until it has been boiled. Article 2 of the Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order of 1899 is as follows : — Article II. Article 15 of the Order shall be altered so that, for the purposes of the provisions of paragraphs (a) and (b) thereof the expressions in the said Article which refer to disease shall include in the case of a cow, such disease of the udder as shall be certified by a veterinary surgeon to be tubercular ; and the Order and the Amending Order shall apply and be construed with the modifica- tions necessary to give effect to this Article. i6S quite empty twice a day ; but owing to the painfulness of the operation and the difficulty of getting the milk to flow, this can seldom be done. It is, however, always attempted, so that a cow with garget is regularly milked. Being ropy and often quite curdled, and not infrequently containing traces of pus and blood, it would not meet with a ready sale by itself ; but mixed with the rest of the produce of a dairy (perhaps twenty times its volume of sound milk) it may pass muster. It should be borne in mind that this kind of unwholesome milk is especially liable to be mixed with good milk. Epizootic disease, being for the most part readily communicated, may affect the whole stock of a farm at the same time ; similarly, ill-ventilated town cowsheds, in which animals are fed and stalled under the usually insanitary con- ditions, commonly have several inmates suffering from consumption at one and the same time ; but cases of inflamed udder occur singly, and have no tendency to spread beyond the case first affected. There is, therefore, usually plenty of good milk to mix with the tainted, and it is ordi- narily mixed. Again, inflamed udders being due to causes always obtaining, milk is probably very frequently tainted from this cause. Indeed, the admixture of gargety milk with good milk may be done inadvertently, the fact that one cow in a large dairy has garget being occasionally not noticed till after two or three milkings. That gargety milk is un- wholesome is beyond doubt. Besides being always changed in appearance, it will ordinarily contain some traces of blood or pus or broken-down tissue. It is not likely that gargety milk is ever sold unmixed. Even mixed there is evidence of its producing indigestion and diarrhoea. Of course such milk when drunk has no power to produce any disease at all allied to garget. 169 Primarily good milk infected with animal disease germs. — Milk from healthy cows may become infected with the con- tagium of an animal disease in many ways. It will suffice to give three examples. In small dairies, where only a few cows are kept and the horse for the delivery cart is stabled in the cowhouse (not an uncommon arrangement), milk may become contaminated with the contagium of glanders, a disease which is undoubtedly communicable to man by means of the nasal discharges which are given off so abun- dantly by affected animals. In the second place, where the dairyman and his employes are not as scrupulously clean and careful as they ought to be, milk may be fouled by portions of the bowel discharge, and if the cow should chance to have some disease, the specific contagium of which is contained in this discharge, the milk would assuredly be specifically tainted. Again, healthy milk may be infected with the contagium of foot-and-mouth disease. The contagium liquid is in the vesicles on the udder and teats, and these vesicles get broken in milking, part of the contents being mixed with the affected animal's own milk. If the milker, without washing his hands, proceed to milk an unaffected cow, the contagium will be mixed with her milk also. Primarily good milk infected with human disease germs.— That good milk may become infected with the contagium of human disease is but too well known. Again and again outbreaks of diphtheria and scarlatina have occurred, the germs of the disease having been delivered in the morning's milk-can. Again and again have milk-pails, rinsed out in polluted water, so contaminated the milk that customers drinking it have sickened with typhoid fever. The dairy- man's family is suffering from an infectious disease, or one of his employes, or the farmer from whom he buys ; a few 170 contagium particles get mixed with the milk, and the disease is soon spread over a wide district. How many other diseases beside the three named may be carried by milk is as yet uncertain. It is at least probable that measles may be sometimes thus conveyed. It is stated on evidence not quite sufficient to amount to proof positive that a certain cow disease, which has been conveniently called the Hendon disease, so affects the milk of the infected animal that it is capable of producing scarlet-fever in those consuming it. If further investigation should support this view, one more will be added to the many dangers menacing those who drink raw milk. The sum of the matter is, that wherever disease is com- municated by milk it is, with few exceptions, owing to the dishonesty or uncleanliness of milk sellers, wholesale or retail. Inspection to be effective must be not only of the milk shops and dairies, but of the cow byres and farms. The food inspector will ordinarily be able to ascertain where there is epizootic disease and where there is human infec- tious disease, while inflammation of the udder is easily recognised. Indeed, with the help of the medical officer of health, he should be able to prevent the sale of milk speci- fically infected, tuberculous milk alone excepted. The prevention of the sale of tuberculous milk has only quite lately been seriously attempted. Owing to the exercise of special powers given to many large urban districts, much, more will be done in the near future to remove obviously tuberculous cows from milking herds, and to prevent the sale of milk found to be tuberculous. There is an objectionable form of delivery which must occasionally result in milk becoming infected with the germs of human disease — the practice of milk sellers leaving their own cans at houses and calling for them a little later. iyi Such cans are commonly given back without being washed, and may be used again on the same round. This practice should be checked. Sour Milk. — Under the influence of an organism 'called the bacillus of lactic acid) introduced from without, the sugar of milk is converted into lactic acid, and it is this which causes milk to turn sour. Milk only slightly soured, exposed or offered for sale as "milk," may be seized as unsound, and an application for an order to destroy it applied for. However, butter-milk is ordinarily sold some- what "turned;" sour butter-milk may therefore be held to be the normal condition of butter-milk. When milk sours, the part that forms the cheese, the casein, coagulates. In fresh milk the casein is combined with phosphate of lime, which keeps it fluid. The acid converts the neutral alkaline phosphate into an acid phosphate, and the casein coagulates. Warmth, as is well known, assists the change — thus milk in which only a very little lactic acid has been formed may appear perfectly fresh when cool and yet curdle on boiling. The curd produced by the action of rennet on milk is different from that produced when milk turns sour or where acid is added. " Blue " or " Red " Milk. — Neither of these milks are common. In each a special organism has been discovered, and the development of the organism in the milk occasions the change of colour. The change is quite marked enough to attract the attention of the food inspector. " Blue " milk looks dirty, " red " a light pink, as if slightly stained with blood. Neither of them would sell readily. It may be well to note here that the colour of milk is affected when the cow yielding the milk has been brousing on certain plants. Thus the polygonum and some other plants would give the milk a blue tinge, and the rhubarb and other plants I 72 would give the milk a red tinge. However, an expert would not mistake milk thus coloured for " blue " or " red " milk. Tainted Milk. — Milk readily becomes tainted by noxious vapours, liquids, or solids. Thus coal-gas will taint it, paraffin, turpentine, urine, and the exhalations from con- tiguous middens. Tainted milk has the smell of the absorbed impurity, and is certainly unfit for human food. Milk may also be tainted by purgative or poisonous herbs, as meadow saffron and colchicum, which have been eaten by the cow. It is alleged that milk may be tainted when the cows yielding it have fed on sewage farms, or drunk from polluted ponds, but there is no reliable evidence in support of the theory. Adulterated Milk.— Of the many adulterants added to milk, water is the most common, and this water may be dirty or (as already stated) infected with the germs of disease. The specific gravity, taken in conjunction with the amount of cream, will enable the inspector to judge if the milk has been watered to any considerable extent. Taking the specific gravity alone gives no useful information whatever, and, indeed, would probably lead the inspector to suspect an unusually rich sample of milk of being watered. The amount of cream varies so much that the inspector will not be able to detect the abstraction of cream. The method ol analysis adopted by chemists consists in ascertaining the percentage of fats and non-fatty solids and the incombustible matter (ash) in a sample, and from the results obtained they form an opinion as to whether the milk is watered or skimmed, and the amount of water added or cream removed. In individual cows, a good authority finds the fat vary from 1-92 to 6*87 per cent., and the non-fatty solids from 8 * 00 to 11*27 P er cent. The other adulterants of milk, cane sugar, glycerine, carbonate of soda, salt, starch, borax, boracic / :> acid, salicylic acid, &c , are many of them innocent. Some- are added simply to make the milk keep, others to cover the addition of water. Annatto, or other colouring matter, is often added to make the milk look rich. Whether chalk is ever added may be doubted ; as milk should have no sediment on standing, chalk would be easily detected. The presence of any of the adulterants named would be indicated if a sample of suspected milk were submitted to analysis. Skimmed Milk is simply milk from which the cream has been removed by skimming after it has stood some hours. It is perfectly lawful to sell skimmed milk, provided it be sold as such. Milk with a specific gravity of 1026 deg. would ordinarily, after skimming, have a specific gravity of 1030 deg. Separated Milk is milk from which the cream has been removed in a machine called a "cream separator." The milk is placed in a horizontal rotating vessel, driven at the rate of 6000 revolutions per minute, which sends the milk to the circumference, the cream coming to the centre of the upper part of the vessel. Arrangement is made for the gradual removal of both cream and separated milk. There is also a vertical rotating cream separator, which at a reduced rate of speed is said to be as effective. Almost the whole of the cream is separated from the milk, and in this respect separated milk differs from skimmed milk, in which only the cream which rises is removed. Cream varies in composition according to the quality of the milk from which it is obtained and the method used in obtaining it. In skimming it from cold milk a varying proportion of milk is removed along with it. The propor- tion of fat in cream ranges from 25 to 40 per cent. Cream as ordinarily sold in bottles or jars is nearly always scalded, or mixed with a little boric acid, borax, or other i?4 chemical. Opinions vary greatly as to the amount of added chemical permissible. Clotted Cream, sometimes called Devonshire cream, is solid, not fluid like ordinary cream. The milk from which it is collected is allowed to remain for about twelve hours, and then heated over hot plates, to cause slight coagulation of the albuminous matter and a more complete separation of cream. It keeps much better than the ordinary cream. The proportion of fat it contains is usually from 56 to 60 per cent. Preserved Milk is now largely sold in airtight tins. It is condensed by the simple process of removing water by evaporation. Two kinds are ordinarily sold, that sweetened by cane sugar, and the "unsweetened."' The milk is reduced to about one-quarter of its original volume. The sugar added is stated to be from 1 lb. to ij lb. for every quart of condensed milk. Sweetened condensed milk keeps well, but "'unsweetened'' does not remain good for any length of time after exposure to the air. It has been stated that when milk, deprived of part of its cream, is condensed, the product iooks better, and is more pleasant in flavour than when a rich milk is used. Even if this were so, it would afford no valid excuse for abstracting cream from milk before condensing it. " Condensed milk " must be taken to mean whole milk deprived of a proportion of its water, and water only. If, therefore, this milk is reduced to about a quarter of its original volume, the minimum of butter-fat should be about four times the minimum which would be required in ordinary milk. Some brands of condensed milk recently analysed have been found to contain only from 1+ to 2f per cent, of butter-fat. These were obviously samples of condensed skimmed milk. '75 Unsweetened condensed milk, imported from abroad, is occasionally mixed with four times its weight of water and sold as pure new milk. The boiled flavour of such a mixture would ordinarily serve to distinguish it from new milk. Butter=milk is the milk left after the manufacture of butter. It is thicker than new milk, slightly sour, and the casein, though coagulated, is in a finely-divided state. The proportion of fat is usually less than i per cent. Koumiss is an alcoholic drink made by the fermentation of milk. It is prepared in Asia from mares' milk and camel's milk, and in this country from cows' milk. Koumiss is made by the Tartars as follows : — One part of sour milk is mixed with ten parts of warm fresh milk, and a small quantity of sugar, and stirred from time to time. In three or four hours part of the sugar of the fresh milk is changed into lactic acid and part undergoes alcoholic fermentation — ■ that is, is changed into carbonic acid, alcohol, and water. There is, doubtless, also some change in the casein, making it more digestible. Koumiss contains from i to nearly 3 per cent, of alcohol, and a little over or a little under 1 per cent, of fat. The name kefyr is given to fermented cows' milk made in the Caucasus. The koumiss manufactured from cows' milk in England is of three qualities, the one being neutral, one slightly acid, and one very acid. Even after bottling it is not constant in quality, the acid fermenta- tion, and to some extent the alcoholic fermentation, con- tinuing. A drink somewhat similar to koumiss is galazyme. A solution of sugar and a special ferment are added to a bottle of milk, which is then corked and tied down. The result is an effervescing beverage containing about 1 per cent, of alcohol. i 7 6 CHAPTER XII. Arrowroot and similar Preparations. — Butter and its Substitutes. — Cheese, Lard and Eggs. Purified starches— Arrowroot — Sago — Pearl sago — Tapioca, tapioca flour — Corn-flour — Farina — Tous les mois — Semolina— Reva- lenta-arabica — Macaroni and vermicelli — Butter — Whey butter — Rancid butter — Adulterated butter — Margarine — Le Dansk — Cheese — Annatto — Adulterated cheese— Cheesine — Skim cheese — Soft cheeses — Parasites — Damaged cheese — Lard — Adulter- ated lard— How to tell fresh eggs— Preserved eggs, In this and the following chapters it is proposed to treat ot foods not mentioned in the Public Health Act. This chapter will deal with arrowroot, sago, tapioca, corn-flour, farina, &c, as well as butter, margarine, cheese, lard, and eggs, leaving for the two next chapters, tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, sugar, honey, treacle, mustard, pepper, Cayenne pepper, spices, salad oil, vinegar, and certain foods sold cooked. Though, as has been already stated, the term " flour " may be held to include the flour or meal of any corn (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, and rice), it does not include preparations of purified starches, the best known of which are arrowroot, sago, tapioca, and so-called " corn- flour.'' It is well to remember that all these, being nearly pure starches, are incomplete foods by themselves, and cannot take the place of flour. Combined with flesh- forming and bone-forming material, prepared starches are excellent food. Chemically all the starches are alike, but under the microscope each description of starch is readily 177 distinguished by the form, size, and marking of the granules. The envelope of the granules being tough, starch is indigestible in a raw state. To make starch digestible, it must be heated sufficiently to rupture the granules. The descriptions of starch having large granules rupture at a comparatively low temperature (113 deg. Fah.) ; the descrip- tions with small granules require to be heated to nearly 194 deg. Fah. to ensure rupture. The proportion in which one starch is mixed with another is estimated by means of the microscope. Each kind of starch has its own peculiar flavour. Fig. 47. Arrowroot is derived from the rhizomes (underground stems) of a plant which is a native of the West Indian Islands, India, and the tropical parts of America. Several species of this plant, Marcmta, are cultivated for the manu- facture of arrowroot. The plant is from 4ft. to 6ft. high, with broad pointed leaves, and the rhizomes are long and pointed and as thick as a ringer. The preparation of arrowroot is as follows : — The rhizomes when mature are dug up, washed, peeled, and reduced to pulp. The fibrous matter is then separated from the starch by washing the pulp in a sieve. The starch which passes through the sieve with the water is i 7 8 again repeatedly washed till pure, when it is dried. The rhizome .yields at most about 25 per cent, of starch. The value of arrowroot depends largely on its purity, and this is generally fairly indicated by its brilliancy and white- ness. Arrowroot consists simply of starch, about 16 per cent, of water, and a trace of mineral matter. The form of the starch granules as seen in Bermuda arrowroot is shown in Fig. 47. Arrowroot is adulterated with cheaper purified starches, or these may be even substituted for it, and sold under the name of arrowroot. It is not possible to distinguish arrow- Fig. 48. root from any pure starch by simple inspection or chemical analysis, but this is done with certainty by means of the microscope. Even a small admixture of another starch can be detected. Curcuma starch, a preparation manufactured in the East .Indies from the tuberous roots of curcuma plants, and called sometimes East India arrowroot, bears some resemblance to Bermuda arrowroot, and a close resemblance to Natal arrowroot. The form of the granules, shown in Fig. 48, very closely resembles arrowroot. Sago is manufactured from the pith of the stems of several species of palm. The sago-palm grows in the islands of the Indian Ocean and in the south-east of Asia. 179 It attains a height of 20ft. to 50ft., and measures 5ft. or 6ft, round the trunk. The tree is cut down at maturity, and the trunk cut into lengths of 6ft. or more, and split lengthwise. The pith is then scooped out, and powdered and washed with water till the starch has been separated from the fibre. A sieve or similar apparatus is used as in preparing arrow- root. After repeated washings the starch is dried. The form of the starch granules is shown in Fig. 49. The produce of the trunk of a single tree may exceed 500 lbs. of sago, and, after the trunk is cut down, a new trunk grows from the root. Fig. 49. Pearl Sago, large and small, is prepared from sago-flour by mixing it with water into a paste and granulating it with a sieve. Pearl sago is dried in shallow pans over a slow fire, a large proportion of the starch granules being ruptured and much of the starch gelatinised. Pearl sago consists of starch, about 15 per cent, of water, and a trace of mineral matter. Sago is rarely adulterated, but sago-flour, which is largely used in making household starch, may be adulterated with potato starch, or the latter may be substituted for it. Tapioca is derived from the tuberous roots of several N 2 i8o species of the cassava plant, cultivated in Africa and tropical America. The plants grow to a height of 5 ft. or 6ft., and are propagated by cuttings. The tuberous roots are about J4-in. long, and from 4m. to 5m. thick. The tubers, which occur in clusters, are washed and peeled and reduced to pulp. The pulp is pressed, and the juice therefrom allowed to settle. The deposit is repeatedly washed and then sun-dried, and the outcome is tapioca flour. The appearance of this flour, which is simply cassava starch, is shown in Fig. 50. The remainder of the pulped tubers (what is left after the expulsion of the juice) is used for », Q Fig. 50. making cassava meal and bread. Tapioca, as known to commerce, is made by heating the deposit from the cassava juice when moist on hot plates, and stirring it. A large portion of the starch granules rupture, and much of the starch is gelatinised. Tapioca, therefore, except in deriva- tion and external appearance, closely resembles pearl sago. Tapioca consists of starch, about 15 per cent, of water, and a very minute trace of mineral matter. Tapioca is rarely adulterated, but it might be with a cheaper prepared starch. Corn=flour is not the flour of maize or rice, but a prepara- tion therefrom. Much of the flesh-forming and bone-forming i8i parts of the flour are extracted by soda or lime. About 2 per cent, of flesh -forming and bone-forming matter is left. There is rather less water than in arrowroot, pearl sago, and tapioca, and more mineral matter. The appearance of maize starch under the microscope is shown in Fig. 51. Fig. 51. In rice starch the granules are much smaller than in any other commercial starch, so that no other starch could be mistaken for it. Fig. 52. Farina literally means simply flour, but the article ordinarily sold under this name is a purified starch made from potatoes. The potatoes are washed and peeled and reduced to a pulp, and the fibrous matter separated from l82 the starch by washing, as in the preparation of arrowroot. The appearance of potato starch granules is shown in Fig. 52. Farina, being cheaper than other starches, is not adulterated. Tous les Mois is the French name given to another purified starch, made from the rhizome of the Canna edulis v a plant grown in the West Indies. The appearance of the starch granules under the microscope is very characteristic. It is shown in Fig. 53. Tons les Mois is prepared like arrowroot. The illustrations of starches here given are all drawn to Fig. 53. the same scale, and represent the appearance of the granules magnified 350 diameters. There are many preparations of farinaceous food which do not come within the description " purified starches." Thus there are (1) certain granular preparations of wheat, &c., such as semolina, made from the inside of the grain of wheat : (2) certain proprietary foods, of which Revalenta- arabica will serve as an example, largely composed of the highly nutritious flour of lentils ; and (3) macaroni and vermicelli, made from hard Italian wheat, with or without the addition of eggs. The meal or flour used in the manu :3 3 facture of macaroni and vermicelli is derived from the inside of the grain (semoule), which must be of good quality, soft or tender wheat being useless for the purpose. In macaroni made with eggs, the proportion is four or five to the pound of flour. These being worked up together, the paste is damped with hot water, and kneaded and rolled out into very thin sheets, which are left till dry on the surface, and then rolled up tightly and cut. Water macaroni and vermicelli are manufactured from dough of semoule and hot water. The dough is rolled out and cut into ribbons, or forced through moulds, which give it its familiar forms. Butter consists of the fatty portion of milk — chiefly cows milk. It is suspended in the milk-liquid in the form of minute fat globules. When milk is left at rest some time most of the fat globules (being lighter than the rest of the milk) rise to the top, forming a layer of cream. The cream, which contains casein and milk-liquid as well as fat, is ordinarily removed by skimming, and violently shaken or beaten up in a churn or other suitable vessel, till the fat globules unite and form a mass. This mass, carefully washed and squeezed, with or without the addition of salt, is the butter of commerce. Butter varies much in colour, flavour, and quality. The colour ranges, according to the season and the food and breed of the cow, from deep yellow to almost white. The flavour is influenced by the food of the cow and the quality by the state of the cream, the method of churning and making up the butter, &c. Carefully prepared butter has a pleasant odour and agreeable taste, and is of the same consistency and colour throughout. It is easily cut and moulded into shapes, and melts to a light coloured oil. It always contains water and i8 4 curd and a trace of mineral matter, and nearly always a minute portion of sugar of milk. The curd is especially liable to decompose, and the change in the curd is soon followed by decomposition of the fat ; hence the addition of salt as a preservative. Butter fat, freed from curd and water, and fairly excluded from the air, will keep a long time without change. It seems superfluous to say that butter of fine flavour cannot be made from sour cream. Yet much butter is made from sour cream, particularly in small farms and dairies. The best method of collecting cream for churning and securing its sweetness is by setting the milk to cream in iced coolers. Where there is a large quantity of milk to be dealt w T ith, it is convenient to use the cream separator, an apparatus already described. The temperature of the milk at the time of churning should be raised to from 55 deg. to 65 deg. Fah, In some places the entire milk is churned instead of the cream only, this practice prevailing where there is a ready market for butter-milk. The amount of fat in butter ranges from about 80 to 90 per cent. The amount of water generally ranges from 7 or 8 to 16 per cent., and any amount exceeding this is injurious to the keeping qualities of the butter. More than 16 per cent, of water is forbidden under the Sale of Butter Regulations, 1902. The amount of curd should not exceed 1 or 2 per cent.; when the butter is badly made there may be as much as 5 per cent, present. The amount of salt in butter varies much, from less than 1 per cent. to 15 per cent. There is no clear distinction between salt and fresh butter, so much depends on custom. A degree of saltness which would be allowed in fresh butter in one country might constitute salt butter in another. Whey Butter. — Butter made from cream (or new milk) is i85 often called cream butter to distinguish it from butter made from whey. When in cheese-making the whey is drained from the curd, it brings with it more or less butter, which is worth recovering. The whey is collected in a large tank, and left to cool, and the butter is then easily gathered from the surface. It is then washed and salted and made up. If the washing is very carefully and thoroughly done, very good butter may be made from whey. Its value is ordinarily about two-thirds of the value of good cream butter. Whey butter is, like cheese, not infrequently coloured with annatto. Rancid Butter. — The fat of butter consists of many fatty acids in union with glycerine. On the decomposition of the fat, butyric and other acids are liberated, and the butter is said to be rancid. At first it has a cheesy, and after- wards, as the rancidness increases, an acrid taste. Adulterated Butter. — There is no doubt that occasionally the practice is resorted to of working up a quantity of water with butter (in addition to the water incorporated in the process of manufacture) for the purpose of increasing the weight. Butter thus treated must be regarded as adulterated. There is an instance on record in which upwards of 42 per cent, of water was found in a sample of butter. An undue proportion of salt may also be regarded as an adulteration. Sometimes this appears to be added to enable the butter to take up more water. An instance is on record in which upwards of 28 per cent, of salt was found in a sample of butter. The amount of water allowable in butter should not exceed 16 per cent., and the amount of salt should not exceed 8 per cent. It is stated that butter is adulterated with flour or mineral matter, but such frauds must be very uncommon and could be easily detected. Ordinarily adul- terated butter is butter mixed with other animal fats or t86 vegetable fats ; or such fats coloured and salted and churned up with a little milk to give them the appearance and flavour of butter. Such admixture or substitution can be readily and certainly detected owing to the difference in the specific gravity of butter fat and foreign fat, and the differ- ence in their melting points. Chemists are also guided by the difference in the proportion of soluble and insoluble acids yielded by butter fat and foreign fat. Margarine was up to the time of the passing of the Margarine Act called butterine. It cannot, of course, adequately take the place of butter, but is a wholesome low- priced substitute. It should be made from perfectly fresh ox fat, the fat ordinarily being derived from the omentum (the "kells") and the mesentery. These are hung up to cool, soaked in warm and cold water to cleanse them, and then minced in an apparatus resembling a sausage machine. The minced fat is then put in a pan heated to a tempera- ture of 1 20 deg. Fah. by a steam coil or otherwise. After melting the clear fat is drawn off and cooled slowly at a temperature of 70 deg. Fah. Then the granulated fat is divided into parcels, wrapped in canvas, and subjected to hydraulic pressure. The connective tissue, if any, and stearine remain in the canvas, nearly all the oleomargarine (about 50 per cent.) is pressed out. The latter is churned up, at a temperature of about 70 deg. Fah., with milk, colour- ing matter (annatto), and sometimes a little carbonate of soda. The product is suddenly cooled and then churned again. Finally, about 5 per cent, of salt is mixed in, and the butterine (now called margarine) is ready for the market. This process is varied more or less in different factories, and in some a certain proportion of olive oil or nut oil is mixed with the sweet fat. Margarine resembles butter in appearance and keeps well. i8 7 Le Dansk is the name given to a butter substitute introduced into this country from France. Clean fat is cut up and melted at a temperature of about 120 deg. Fah., and cooled slowly, and the oleomargarine separated from the stearine, &c, by hydraulic pressure. The product is then churned up with new milk and oil and pure butter, cooled in ice water, salted and packed. Cheese is made from whole milk, or skimmed milk, or milk enriched with cream. Its colour, flavour, and quality vary according to the breed and food of the animals giving the milk, the richness of the milk, and the mode of manu- facture and age or ripeness of the cheese. The process of cheese-making may be described as follows : — -The milk is first heated till it reaches a temperature of about 80 deg. Fah., and converted into curds and whey by means of rennet. When annatto or other colouring matter is used it is usually stirred in with the rennet. The coagulation should be com- pleted in an hour, and then the curd may be cut up or gently broken down and stirred and left to settle. As it is needful that the curd should develop a little acidity, this is effected in various ways. Thus the curds and whey are heated to a temperature of 98 deg. Fah., and allowed to stand, or a little sour whey is added with the rennet, or the souring of the curd is not encouraged till the whey is drained off or removed with a syphon. Sweet curd gathered in a heap, covered with a cloth, and allowed to stand for an hour or so, becomes slightly acid. Again, the curd may be put into the press vats quite sweet, and the necessary acidity will be produced in a few hours. In cheese factories the breaking up of the curd is effected in curd-mills. If the curd is rich in fat, only a little salt is needed to prevent excessive fermentation in the cheese ; if the curd is poor more salt is needed. Excess of salt spoils a cheese, pre- i88 venting its ripening. The curd is pressed in cloths in the press-vat for two or three days, during which time the cheese is turned from time to time and the wet cloths changed for dry ones. From the press the cheese is taken to the curing- room (which is kept at a uniform temperature) to mellow and acquire flavour. The ripening is due to slow fermen- tative changes. When it is complete the constituents of the cheese are similar to those of milk, except that part of the butter has been drained off with the whey, and that the milk sugar is in part changed into lactic acid, and in part into alcohol and carbonic acid. There is also present some common salt, and usually a little colouring matter. Cheese may be made on what is termed the early ripen- ing principle, so that it may be quickly brought into the market; but such cheese will not keep long without deteri- orating, so that it must be sold within a very limited time. However, makers who have abundance of good storage are able, if they desire, to make long-keeping cheese, an article that will keep twelve or eighteen months, and be improved by keeping. The best-known cheeses produced in this country are probably Cheshire cheese, Cheddar cheese, double Glou- cester cheese, and Stilton cheese. The first three are made from whole milk, Stilton from a mixture of whole milk and cream. American cheese, largely consumed in this country, is ordinarily made from whole milk, and more uniform in quality than English cheese. Annatto is so much used for colouring cheese, and so regularly sold in cheese-making districts, that a few words with reference to it may be of service. It is sold in roll and cake, and dissolved in water or spirit. It is a colouring matter derived from the seeds of an evergreen, the Bixa orellana^ prepared in Brazil, Cayenne, and elsewhere. The 189 colour is on the outside of the seeds, which are in pods. The seeds, with or without bruising, are steeped in water, and usually subjected to some amount of fermentation. The extracted colour is then strained from the rest of the seeds, precipitated, and dried. Preparations containing more or less turmeric are sometimes sold. Solid annatto is said to be adulterated with flour or chalk, or with sulphate of lime, and as this reduces the colour- intensity, salt and alkali are added. In the aqueous solution the presence of a little alkali as a solvent is not considered an adulterant. At one time annatto was much adulterated with Venetian red or other ferruginous earth. Adulterated Cheese. — Annatto, or some other vegetable colouring matter, is the only foreign ingredient ordinarily found in English cheese, and, as long as this is not injurious, it need not be considered as an adulteration. It is reported that starches have been occasionally worked up with the curd, which would constitute an adulteration, but the practice cannot be common, and is easy of detection. Pastes and washes containing arsenic, lead, or other poisonous metals, are sometimes applied to the surface of cheeses to preserve them from the attacks of insects. This may be termed injurious adulteration of the rind, and is easily tested for. However, for some years past an inferior American cheese has been imported in which the natural milk fat has been replaced by ordinary animal fat. The fats used appear to be either lard or eleomargarine, and the cheeses thus made are known to the trade as cheesine. Probably a sort of artificial milk is first made by shaking up foreign fat with warmed skim milk, and then cheese is made as it would be from new milk. Such an article sold simply as cheese must be regarded as adulterated, and the adulteration can be detected by analysis. Cheese made in this way may be of good flavour, and is doubtless quite wholesome. There is no objection to it if sold at a low price for what it is. Even the term " cheesine " is not definite enough. Cheese made with lard should be called lard cheese, and that made with oleomargarine should be called margarine cheese. Good English or American cheese ordinarily contains from 30 to 40 per cent, of water, from 25 to 35 per cent, of fat, from 25 to 35 casein, under 1 per cent, free acid, and under 2 per cent, of salt. A cheese containing less than 25 per cent, of fat is probably not a whole-milk cheese, and a cheese containing less than 10 per cent, of fat should be classed as skim cheese. A very rich cheese, such as Stilton ordinarily contains less than 30 per cent, of water and more than 35 per cent, of fat ; and a very dry cheese, such as Parmesan, will contain less than 30 per cent, of water, much less than 20 per cent, of fat, and more than 40 per cent, of casein. Dutch cheese is also below the standard per cent, as regards fat, and has 4 or 5 per cent, of salt. Soft Cheeses.— In the manufacture of soft cheeses the rennet is ordinarily added to the milk at a low temperature, the development of acidity in the curd is not encouraged, and the cheese is subjected to very little pressure. The cheeses best known in this country are English cream cheese, which varies much in quality, but usually contains very little (say, 5 percent.) casein, and upwards of 50 per cent, of fat, and Neufchatel cheese, containing 15 to 20 per cent, of casein, and about 40 per cent, of fat. There is a favourite soft cheese imported from France (Roquefort), which is made from ewes' milk. It contains less fat and much more casein than English or Neufchatel cream cheeses. Parasites. — The blue mould, so much esteemed, and also I 9 I the red mould, are vegetable fungoid growths, and specially affect the finer and richer kinds of cheese. The maggots often found in new cheese are the larvae of the piophila fly. The cheese mite (acarus) attacks, for the most part, old and dry cheeses. Ordinarily cheese is not considered unsound owing to the presence of parasites, but cheese may be so badly infected with multitudes of maggots or mites as to justify seizure. Damaged Cheese. — Cheese may be so damaged, from sea water for instance, as to warrant its being seized ; or through being kept in an unsuitable place, or otherwise, the butter fat in it may become rancid. Lard is the fat of swine, rendered at a temperature of 1 20 deg. Fah., and freed from connective tissue. The fat is cut up and melted in a vessel heated by steam coil, or otherwise, the clear liquid is run into bladders, kegs, or tierces. Lard should be white and free from smell. It should also be free from all but the merest trace of water, having not more than one part in 300. Its specific gravity usually ranges from 903-5 to 905 at 100 deg. Fah. Sometimes a small portion of salt is added during melting. Adulterated Lard. — Flour or starch, it is said, is some- times added to the lard, but this would only rarely be done, as the sophistication would be noticed by most housewives. There is no doubt water is often worked up with lsrd, even in considerable quantity, but this, too, is easily detected. Lately it has been found that cotton-seed oil, or other cheap favourite oils, are used for the adulteration of lard. Experts are able to prove the adulteration, and estimate the quantity of foreign oils present. Eggs, like milk, form a complete food, but only if the shells be included. As eaten, they are a highly nutritious 192 food in a very digestible form. The eggs of the domestic fowl are. the most plentiful, but those of the duck, goose, turkey, guinea fowl, and plover are also used. Eggs of all birds have the same composition, but their flavour depends on the bird laying them and its food. The white of the egg consists of albumen and water, and a very small amount of fats and salts. The yolk consists of water, albuminous matter, and fats, and a very small amount of colouring matter and salts. The egg albumen coagulates at 158 deg. Fah. The egg of the domestic fowl weighs from 600 to up- wards of 950 grains. The average weight is 750 grains, of which 105 grains are shell, 405 white, and 240 yolk. The white contains about 85 per cent, of water, the yolk about 5 1 per cent. An egg weighing two ounces is estimated to contain nearly 200 grains of solids. The food inspector may often be called upon to judge of the freshness or otherwise of eggs exposed for sale. Dealers commonly test them by holding them up one after the other before a candle — fresh eggs are most transparent in the centre, old ones at the top. Another way of testing eggs is by putting them in salt water (two ounces of salt dissolved in a pint of water). Good eggs sink in salt water, indifferent ones swim. Really bad eggs float in fresh water, but these may sometimes be known by the smell even when the shell is whole. Eggs may be preserved for many months by various devices which prevent the entrance of air through their porous shells. Thus they may be covered with salt, which soon gathers moisture, or coated with gum, or buttered and wrapped in paper, or painted over with a solution of bees- wax in warm oil, or placed in lime water containing a little cream of tartar. For a comparatively short time eggs may 193 be kept by boiling them for half a minute. Eggs may be removed from their shells and dried, but they keep better if previously mixed with a little flour or ground rice. 194 CHAPTER XIII. Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, and Sugars. Tea — Compressed tea — Adulterated tea — Coffee — Adulterate coffee — Chicory — Cocoa — Adulterated cocoa — Chocolate — Sugars— Cane sugar — Beetroot sugar — Maple sugar — Jaggery — Treacle — Glucose — The sugar-mite — Sweetmeats — Honey. Tea is the dried leaf of the Chinese plant Thea sinensis the Assam plant Jhea Assamica, &c. It is an evergreen, and in cultivation not allowed to attain to its full growth, but kept as a dwarf tree at from three to six feet. Only the young leaves are used, those from two inches long and under, but usually there are present portions of young branches and flower-buds. The leaves are gathered several times a year, the tea prepared from the first, or early spring gathering is the best. The finest teas, other things being equal, are produced from young plants. The differ- ence in the many varieties of teas imported depends not alone upon the age of the plant and leaves, the differences of soil, climate, and cultivation, &c., but largely also upon the process followed in manufacture. Whatever the mode of preparation adopted, it proceeds on these general lines : — The leaves after gathering are artificially warmed, or thrown into a heap to develop heat, or beaten with the hand till they are sufficiently soft to roll, and then (with or without previous exposure to the air for some hours) dried over a charcoal fire. Except in rapidly-made teas, a certain amount of fermentation takes place before rolling and drying. After the drying is complete, the tea is i95 sorted and sifted and hand-picked. Ill-dried leaves are thus removed, and the whole gathering is divided into many parcels, each containing leaves of nearly the same size. The difference between green tea and black is that the former is rapidly made from choice young leaves, more carefully rolled, and not subjected to fermentative change. Some of the best known varieties ot green teas are Hyson, Young Hyson, Gunpowder, and Imperial ; some of the best known varieties of black teas are Congou, Moning, Oolong, Souchong, Indian Souchong, and Assam. Some teas are scented to impart an agreeable flavour, as scented Pekoe, the leaves of which are placed in contact with the flowers of the Olea fragrans. Tea is not a food, but a stimulant. Its most important constituent, which is easily isolated and identified by chemists, is a crystalline substance — theine. Besides this, there is in tea a very small quantity of an essential oil (to which much of the smell of tea is due), albumen, tannin, woody fibre, resin, gum, &c, water and incombustible matter or ash. The proportion of theine in tea ranges from about \\ to 3^ per cent., the proportion of albumen, or vegetable casein, is about 17 per cent: the proportion of tannin is from 10 to 27 per cent.; the proportion of woody fibre is from 20 to 35 per cent.; the proportion of resin, gum, &c, is 7 or 8 per cent.; the proportion of water is from 5 to 12 per cent.; and the proportion of ash from 3 h to 8 per cent. Tea of good quality should have delicacy and fulness of flavour and a certain amount of body. Its value depends upon this rather than on the amount of theine it contains. Compressed Tea. — Tea compressed into hard tablets differs in no respect from ordinary tea, except that the finer teas are not prepared in this way, and that sometimes a little o 2 196 starch water or similar preparation is used to assist the tea to bind. ' The brick-tea of Thibet differs from this — little care is bestowed on the cultivation of the tree, and the leaf is coarse. The leaves are exposed to the sun till flaccid ,. hand-rolled, and put aside to ferment, then pressed into wooden moulds, and dried with charcoal fires. Adulterated Tea. — When tea was high-priced, probably few articles were so generally adulterated. Now seldom Fig. 54. adulterated, and probably only before shipment. The adulterations which have been practised are as follows : — (1) Leaves from which an infusion has been obtained and which are partially exhausted have been re-dried and added. (2) Leaves from other plants, such as the sloe, willow, and eldei, have been prepared and added. 197 (3) Black teas have been coloured, or "faced," with Dutch pink or plumbago. Green teas have been faced with Prussian blue or indigo, French chalk or sulphate of lime. Fig. 55. (4) Sand, magnetic oxide (iron filings), and gum or rice water have been added. Tea adulterated with partially exhausted leaves might be Fig. 56. tested by making an extract from a given quantity of the suspected tea, evaporating it down to dryness, and seeing if it was markedly below the amount of extract yielded by 198 ea of the description indicated. A considerable admixture of exhausted tea would be thus detected, but not a small admixture. The adulteration of tea with the leaves of other plants is easily detected by making an infusion in the usual way and unrolling many of the leaves. The appearance of the genuine tea leaf is given in Fig. 54, that of the sloe leaf in Fig. 55, the leaf of the willow in Fig. 56, and the leaf of the elder in Fig. 57. Fig. 57. Artificial colour, or facing, of tea may be washed off by shaking up the tea in cold water. The substances used may then be seen under the microscope, or their presence proved by chemical tests. The presence of sand and the amount of it can be demonstrated by reducing a weighed quantity of tea to ash. For demonstrating the presence of magnetic oxide the tea may be powdered and stirred with a magnet. Starch may be washed off the tea with cold water and tested for in: the usual way. 199 Coffee is the seed of an evergreen plant, the Caffea Arabica. In cultivation it is not allowed to attain to a height of more than about six feet, a third of its natural height. The fruit of the plant is a dark scarlet berry, the size of a small cherry. Each berry usually contains two beans, enveloped in (i) an inner skin, (2) a tough envelope known as the parchment, and (3) an outer husk. The natives sun-dry the berries, and remove the outsides by- passing them between rollers ; but the European planter, dealing with large quantities, uses a "pulper," a kind of mill, into which the fresh berries are thrown, with a stream of water — the husk is thus removed as pulp, and the beans left in parchment. Small portions of the inner skin of the husk are often attached to the bean. The coffee tree begins to produce when three or four years old. The beans are sorted according to size by machinery, and then roasted at a temperature of 320 deg. Fah. A small proportion is retailed raw. Mocha coffee is considered the finest. The coffees of Java and Ceylon have also a good reputation for quality. Coffee is largely grown in Jamaica, India, and Brazil. Coffee, like tea, is not a food, but a stimulant. The most important constituent of coffee, raw or roasted, is a crystalline substance, caffeine. Besides this, there is, in coffee, fat, legumen or albumen, caffeotannic acid, woody fibre, sugar, gum, water, and incombustible matter, or ash. As a result of roasting caffeone is produced, an oil which gives the coffee aroma, and the woody fibre is much changed and rendered more brittle. The proportion of caffeine in coffee is about 1 per cent, (roasting somewhat reducing the quantity), the proportion of fat is 12 or 13 per cent., the proportion of legumen or albumen is 10 to 13 per cent., the proportion of caffeotannic acid is from 3 to 5 per cent, (about twice as much in raw coffee), the proportion of 200 woody fibre is from 34 to 50 per cent. The proportion of sugar is about 9 per cent, in raw coffee, nearly all of which is changed by roasting into caramel (burnt sugar), which gives to coffee infusion its rich brown colour. The proportion of gum is less than 1 per cent, in raw coffee, about ij per cent, in roasted coffee. The proportion of water is about 9 per cent, in raw coffee, and about 1 per cent, in roasted coffee. The incombustible matter, or ash, ordinarily amounts to nearly 4 per cent, in raw coffee, and nearly 5 per cent, in roasted coffee. The value of coffee and its aroma and flavour depend upon the country or district from which it comes, more than upon the amount of any of its constituents. Adulterated Coffee. — As coffee beans vary much in size, weight, and quality, it is possible, by careful sorting, out of one crop to obtain varieties so different in appear- ance that they may be sold as Mocha, Java, and Ceylon. Though a green colour is ordinarily evidence of immaturity, small beans of Brazil coffee, according to a recent report, are dyed green, and sold as a choice product of Arabia. Adulterated ground coffee has also been compressed by machinery into the shape of coffee beans. Coffee, as ordinarily sold — that is roasted and ground — may be adulterated with chicory, dandelion root, mangolds, carrots, parsnips and turnips, peas, beans, acorns, date stones, locust beans and pods, corn, and figs. These roots, seeds, &c, after roasting and grinding, sufficiently resemble coffee in general appearance, to permit of their being added to it in varying quantities, without attracting attention. There is not one of them, however, which resembles coffee under the microscope, or has the same chemical composi- tion ; thus coffee adulteration may always be detected by microscopical examination and chemical analysis. 201 One coffee adulterant, chicory, is so much more used than all others that it may almost be regarded as the sole adulterant of coffee in this country. Roast chicory has little in common with roast coffee, except burnt sugar, and it has a large proportion of this. The strong taste of burnt sugar, and the increased depth of colour it gives to the infusion, apparently leads many consumers to prefer coffee and chicory to pure coffee. Indeed, a beverage resembling in flavour and colour that made from a mixture of coffee and chicory may be made from a mixture of coffee and burnt sugar. The presence of chicory in coffee is easily detected by microscopic examination, by the specific gravity and depth of colour of an infusion, by the examination of the ash, &c. There is also a direct chemical test. There are several ready ways by which the food inspector may come to an opinion as to whether a sample is adulterated, and should be submitted to an expert for examination. Thus, if coffee cakes when pressed between the fingers, or in the paper in which it is folded, it is probably adulterated. When grains of coffee, spread on a piece of glass, are moistened with a few drops of water, the coffee should remain hard ; any particles softening indicates adulteration. Thirdly, there is the colour test. When a few grains of coffee containing chicory are let fall on the surface of cold water in a glass, a yellowish-brown colour is given off by each particle of chicory, which soon spreads through the water. This is due to chicory in cold water having four times the colouring power of coffee. The difference in taste between coffee and chicory is also some guide to the food inspector. Chicory, otherwise known as succory, grows wild in this country. In many parts its bright blue blossoms are very 202 abundant in August and September. The stem is from one to three feet high, higher when cultivated. The root grows deep into the ground, is white and fleshy, and yields a milky juice. Foreign chicory is considered superior to that of English growth. It is pulled before the plant blossoms, and the root is carefully dried. When roasted 2 lbs. of lard or butter is added to each cwt. of dried root. Usually it is ground before being sold. It has some outward resemblance to ground coffee, but lacks its charac- teristic aroma. Roast chicory differs from roast coffee chiefly in containing a much larger proportion of burnt sugar, a much smaller proportion of fatty matter, and no caffeine or caffeotannic acid. In chicory the ash is for the most part insoluble, in this respect also differing from coffee. Chicory also absorbs moisture freely, which coffee does not. Chicory may be adulterated with dandelion root? mangolds, carrots, parsnips, and turnips. The quantity of sugar in these is nearly as great as in chicory. Chicory may be distinguished from these roots, and other possible adulterants, by means of the microscope. All substances employed to adulterate coffee may be used to adulterate chicory. Indeed, when adulterants other than chicory are found in coffee, it is commonly due to their having been first used to adulterate the chicory added. Rust of iron, or other mineral red, may occasionally be added to give colour. It is easily detected by analysis. It is stated that in the preparation of inferior chicory rancid fat is used. Cocoa is prepared from the seed of the plant Theobroma cacao. It is extensively cultivated in the West Indies, Brazil, and Guiana, and usually attains a height of from 12k. to 20ft. 203 The tree begins to bear when three years old, and the fruit is chiefly gathered in June and December. The fruit is from 5m. to 12m. long and 3m. thick, or smaller. The rind is fleshy, and within the seeds are arranged in five rows embedded in pulp. After removal from the fruit, the seeds are left in pits or heaps for four or five days to ferment, and are then dried in the sun, or otherwise. They are next roasted over a charcoal fire, in the process losing about 10 per cent, in weight. The seeds are broken in a machine, and finally the husks are separated from the cocoa nibs by winnowing. Only a small portion of the cocoa imported is sold as nibs, the bulk is reduced to paste. A cheap form of cocoa is prepared from the whole roasted seed, which is ground and made into a coarse paste, and, when dry, sold as "flake cocoa." What is called "rock cocoa " is prepared from the nibs ground to a paste with sugar, with or without the addition of some starchy sub- stance. So-called " soluble cocoas " are various kinds of rock cocoa reduced to powder. The starchy substance added to prepared cocoa absorbs the fat of the cocoa, and the whole is easily miscible with boiling water. There is a preparation of cocoa known as "cocoa essence " or otherwise, in which a portion of the cocoa fat is removed by hot-pressing the nibs. Cocoa thus treated agrees better with invalids and others. In cocoa nibs are nearly all the substances constituting a perfect food. About half of the raw nibs is cocoa fat or butter. There is about 13 per cent, of albuminous matter, and 4 or 5 per cent, of starch. The proportion of moisture and woody fibre is relatively very low. Its most important constituent is theobromine, a crystalline substance re- sembling theine. This is a volatile principle which gives cocoa its characteristic odour, but which is not an essential 204 oil, and an astringent principle, of the nature of tannin, part of which is changed into a colouring matter during roasting, besides a very small quantity of gum-like matter. The ash, or incombustible matter, in the nibs, ranges from about 3 to 6 per cent. Working up sugar and prepared starches with ground cocoa nibs cannot fairly be termed an adulteration of cocoa. The product is sold as prepared or soluble cocoa, or by some fancy name, and neither the trade nor the public are induced to believe that the manufactured article is pure ground nibs. Prepared, or soluble cocoas contain from 23 to 28 per cent, of non-fatty cocoa, trom 17 to 25 per cent. of fat, and about the same proportion of added starch, from 23 to 33 per cent, of sugar, and about 5 per cent, of moisture. Adulterated Cocoa. — It is said that cocoa nibs are some- times adulterated with portions of roast chicory root. This could be detected, even after grinding, by a microscopic examination, and by the high colour of a cold-water ex- tract. The addition of chalk or sulphate of lime, with or in place of starch, has been reported, and also the addition of mineral red colouring matter. The presence and amount of such adulterants would be at once indicated on analysis. Ordinarily the only substances added to manufactured cocoa are sugar and prepared starches, and so long as these are not in great excess, or the mixture is not sold as pure cocoa, manufactured cocoa is not considered an adulterated article. Chocolate is ordinarily manufactured from ground cocoa nibs a large quantity of sugar, and a little sago flour or arrowroot, or other prepared starch. It is flavoured with vanilla, cinnamon, or other aromatic substance. The pro- 205 portions vary much. Thus the sugar may be absent or may amount to 60 per cent.; the starch may be absent or may amount to 30 per cent., or may be replaced by wheat, flour, &c. In many preparations a portion of the cocoa fat is removed. The addition of red earth or colouring matter is rightly regarded as an adulteration, and can be detected on analysis. Sugars have been divided into the fermentable and non- fermentable sugars. To the latter class belong many sweet principles found in plants, but with these the food inspector has nothing to do. The ordinary com- mercial sugars are all fermentable — that is to say, cane sugar, beetroot and maple sugar, jaggery, molasses, and glucose. Cane Sugar is derived from many varieties of sugar cane cultivated in tropical or sub-tropical climates. The cane matures in from 12 to 16 months, and after being cut down fresh stems spring up. The plantation is renewed every five or six years. The cane, stripped of leaves and top joints, is crushed between rollers to express the juice, which is then heated. A little sulphate of lime, or similar sub- stance, is added to neutralise any acid present, and prevent fermentation, and the impurities which rise to the top are skimmed off. The juice, thus evaporated down and crystal- lised, is known as "raw sugar." Much of this is refined in this country. The refiner dissolves it in a small quantity of water, and usually heats it with bullocks' blood and filters it. The syrup is again heated and run through animal charcoal, and passed on to a vacuum pan to be concen- trated, aftei which it is allowed to crystallise. If loaf sugar is required, the air is admitted when the liquor has got just beyond the crystallising point, and the temperature is 2o6 raised. The hot liquid and crystals are then thrown rapidly into moulds, and left to drain and harden. After two days a saturated solution of pure white sugar is passed through the moulds to remove any impure syrup. The sugar is then turned out of the moulds and slowly dried in a stove. Beetroot Sugar is prepared from the fresh roots washed and trimmed. They are reduced to pulp, from which the juice is pressed ; or sliced, and treated with warm water. The expressed juice or juice and water is heated with milk of lime to a temperature of about 140 deg. Fah., and the scum removed. Carbonic acid is then forced in to free the liquid from all trace of lime. The liquid is next passed through animal charcoal into a vacuum pan, and evaporated to a thick syrup, about half of which is pure sugar. The loaf sugar is made as already described. Maple Sugar is prepared from the sugar-maple, a tree abundant in parts of America. The tree is tapped in the spring, and the sap drawn is freed from gross impurities, boiled down, run into small moulds, and dried. Jaggery. — This name is given to a coarse kind of raw sugar obtained by boiling down the sap of various palm trees, such as the cocoanut and the wild date-palm. It is ordinarily the cheapest sugar imported. Treacle, or Molasses. — This is the name given to the liquor left after the crystallization of raw sugar. The liquor left after the crystallization of raw sugar is ordinarily ■called " golden syrup." These liquors vary in composition, but always contain a large quantity ot uncrystallizable sugar derived from cane sugar, the change being aided by the heat employed. Since the introduction of the vacuum pan, sugar liquor is boiled at a lower temperature than previously, more sugar crystallizes, and less treacle is pro- 207 duced. The product corresponding to treacle resulting from the manufacture of beetroot sugar is of inferior quality, and not commonly sold for domestic use. Glucose is altogether different from the other fermentable sugars. It exists ready formed in some fruits, and honey is largely composed of it. Its manufacture from grain and other substances containing starch is carried on extensively in this country. There are two or three processes of manu- facture. The following is an approved method. The grain or other substance is ground and mixed in a vat with about four times its weight of water and 2 to 4 per cent, of sul- phuric acid. The mixture is heated to a temperature of 306 deg. Fah. for nearly half an hour, by which the starch is converted into sugar. Chalk is then added to remove the sulphuric acid, the syrup is filtered, and partially evapo- rated in a vacuum pan, and run through charcoal. It is then boiled down in a vacuum pan, the boiling taking place at a temperature not exceeding 150 deg. Fah., run into moulds, and allowed to cool, when it is quite solid. A liquid form of glucose is also sold. Glucose is largely used as a substitute for malt in the brewing of beer. Glucose may occasionally be used to adulterate cane sugar, but the expert would have no difficulty in proving the quantity present. However, sugar is now so low-priced it would hardly pay to adulterate it. Moist sugars having very little colour are not necessarily of a superior quality, as they may be made from the lower products of the refiner. The sugar mite {acarus) is sometimes found in raw sugar. Like the cheese mite, it is plainly visible without the use of a magnifying glass. In samples of sugar containing these insects they and their eggs are present in great numbers. 2oS The sugar mite was first detected by Dr. Hassall in 185 1. Fig. 58 is. copied from his drawing of the insect. Sporules of fungus are also found in raw sugar,"and small portions of woody fibre and grit. Sweetmeats. — Sugar confectionery as sold in this country in generally wholesome, the ingredients being sugar, gum Fig. 58. citric or tartaric acid, butter, gelatine, albumen, and^some innocent flavourings. The colouring matter is,*however, not always harmless. Cochineal, saffron, and thefcolours derived from beetroot and many fruits are not objectionable, but metallic colouring matters are all more or less injurious. 209 The food inspector should look with suspicion on bright opaque colours, especially emerald green. It is stated that what are called "Scotch mixtures" are occasionally adul- terated with plaster of Paris or chalk. All injurious foreign substances are readily detected by analysis. Honey is exuded from the nectaries of flowers, collected by bees, and stored by them in the cells of the comb. It may be removed from the comb without injuring it by means of a special apparatus, but usually the comb is cut and the honey allowed to drain from it. Honey contains about 70 per cent, of glucose sugars, from 5 to 10 per cent, of other sugars, from 17 to 23 per cent, of moisture, and very minute quantities of wax, gum, pollen, and mineral matter. The odour and flavour of honey depend on the blossoms from which it has been collected. When new it is transparent and flows freely, but after a time it crystallizes and becomes nearly solid. Thus honey, not removed from the comb when fairly fresh, has to be extracted with heat and pressure. Honey is faintly acid, and undergoes slight fermentation. The only substances likely to be used as adulterants of honey are cane sugar and glucose. Any amount of the former is easily detected ; but the addition of a small quantity of glucose would be difficult to prove. Water, also, may occasionally be added. Adulteration with starches is not now practised. 2 lO CHAPTER XIV. Condiments, Spices, &c. Mustard — Adulterated mustard — Pepper— Adulterated pepper — Cayenne pepper— Ginger — Adulterated ginger — Cinnamon — Adulterated cinnamon — Nutmegs — Adulterated nutmegs — Mace — Cloves — Allspice— Mixed spice— Curry powder — Olive oil — Vinegar — The vinegar plant — Lemon juice and lime- juice — Certain foods sold cooked. Mustard is made from the seeds of black mustard, white mustard, or a mixture of both. The seeds are first finely ground and then sifted two or three times. What passes through is pure flour of mustard. The " dressings " sifted out are subjected to pressure and yield a fixed oil. Mustard, as sold, always contains more or less husk. Both black and white mustard contain about 28 per cent, of myrosin and albumen, 35 per cent, of fixed oil, about 16 per cent, of woody fibre, about 5 per cent, of moisture, and 5 per cent, of ash. Black mustard also contains about 5 per cent, of myronic acid, and 3! per cent, of acrid salt ; while white mustard contains no myronic acid and about 11 per cent, of acrid salt. The myronic acid in black mustard exists as myronate of potash, but the acid is con- verted into the volatile oil of mustard through the agency of myrosin, when the two are brought into contact through the medium of water. The acrid bitter salt, sulphocyanate of sinapin, exists in both black and white mustard. The pungency and acridity are due to this volatile oil and bitter salt. 211 Adulterated Mustard. — It is a question whether the addition of wheat flour, or some prepared starch, to mustard should be regarded as an adulteration. It is said that without some such addition the whole of the fixed oil •cannot be retained, and is absorbed by the papers in which the mustard is packed. Certainly whatever is sold as pure mustard should be simply mustard flour. Mixtures con- taining wheat flour or starch should be sold as mixtures. Mustard diluted largely with wheat flour, or any allied sub- stance, is deficient in pungency and colour, and attempts are made to restore these qualities by the addition of Cayenne pepper, ginger, or ground radish seed, turmeric, gamboge, yellow ochre, or chromate of potash. The ground seed of the common charlock is also used as an adulterant, probably because the husk of the seed resembles very closely the husk of black mustard. The adulterants in use may all be detected by analysis or microscopical exami- nation. Three or four different qualities of mustard are ordinarily supplied by the manufacturer. When these are all genuine the higher qualities contain larger proportions of black mustard, and the lower qualities little or no black mustard. Pepper. — Black pepper is the dried immature fruit of the black pepper plant, one of the pepperworts. White pepper is the same, deprived of its outer black husk. Some varie- ties are, however, always sold as white pepper. To these may be added the long pepper derived from another plant belonging to the pepperworts. It is chiefly used for culinary purposes. The black pepper plant grows in India and the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the West Indies. It is a climb- ing plant, which in cultivation attains to a height of from 8 to 12 feet. The peppercorns grow on terminal flower- p 2 212 stalks ; they are at first green, then red, and if left un- gathered turn black. When any of the peppercorns on a flower-stalk have begun to turn red, the whole are gathered and dried in the sun. In drying, the outside becomes con- tracted and wrinkled. The plant begins to produce about the third year, and continues producing for ten or twelve years. Two crops are yielded annually. The best pepper- corns are those which are not too small nor too shrivelled ; they are heavy, and sink readily in water. There are many commercial varieties of pepper, the names Malabar, Penang, Tellicherry, and Sumatra, signifying the localities in which they are grown. Ground pepper, as sold, is probably always a mixture of two or more varieties. The active properties of pepper depend on the presence of a volatile oil, an acrid resin, and a crystalline substance called piperin. The proportion of volatile oil is about ij per cent., and the proportion of piperin about 5 per cent. Pepper also contains from about 12 to 18 per cent, of starch and nearly 30 per cent, of woody fibre, about 5 per cent, of ash, a little gum and albumen, and from 9 to 16 per cent, of moisture. Long pepper is not nearly as strong as the other kinds of pepper. It yields less than half the propor- tion of piperin and about 3 per cent, more ash. The cheaper sorts of pepper are often dirty, mixed with stalks and dust. Adulterated Pepper. — Pepper is said to be adulterated with wheat, sago, rice, and pea flour, linseed meal, mustard husk, and a preparation known to the trade as poivrette, which is believed to be ground olive stones. Peppercorns are also liable to an injurious method of adulteration. As their value depends, among other things, upon their weight, the lighter sorts may be soaked in brine for twenty-four hours, and thus made heavier. It is reported also that 213 peppercorns have been artificially manufactured from oil- cake, pepper dust, clay, &c. Experts are able to detect and .estimate the amount of all adulterants, Cayenne Pepper consists of the pods or seed vessels of different species of capsicum ground to a coarse powder. It is a native of America, but cultivated in India and the West Indies, and (in greenhouses) in European countries. The pods are sold entire under the name of chillies, and are used both in the green and in the red state for pickling. They vary much in size and shape, and are termed long-podded, short-podded, and heart-shaped. A minute portion of Cayenne pepper, if heated strongly, volatilizes an acrid vapour, causing intense irritation to the throat and eyes ; thus, any particles in a sample suspected of being some added foreign substance might be carefully separated and tested by heat. If they did not give off an acrid vapour they could not be Cayenne. The vapour appears to be due to a crystalline substance which has been called capsaicin. Besides about 2 or 3 per cent, of acrid oil, Cayenne con- tains starchy matter, albuminous matter, gum, wax, woody fibre, 10 to 13 per cent, of moisture, and about 6 per cent, of ash. Cayenne pepper is rarely adulterated. In the past, starches, brick-dust, and metallic red colours are said to have been added. The chief spices ordinarily sold in this country are ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, and allspice. Ginger is the root, or rhizome, of the ginger plant, which grows in many tropical countries. It is dug up when the plant is about a year old, and washed ; what is called white ginger is also scraped. Ginger of good quality should have no outer coat; it should be plump, of a whitish or faint straw colour, soft in texture, with a short fracture showing a 214 reddish ring round the outside : the taste should be hot and aromatic'. The taste and aroma of ginger appear to be due to a volatile oil and soft resin. Ginger also contains gum, starch, woody fibre, and some undetermined ingredients. It has about 12 per cent, of moisture. Adulterated Ginger. — Ginger may be rubbed over with lime to improve its colour, or washed in chalk and water, or exposed to the fumes of sulphur, or bleached with chloride of lime. As the object of such whitewashing is to give an inferior ginger the appearance of better descriptions, it is a form of adulteration. Ground ginger is often adulterated with wheat flour, ground rice, or some kind of prepared starch ; and when much is added the loss of strength and colour may be masked by the admixture of small quantities of mustard husks and turmeric. All the adulterations named are easily detected. Cinnamon is the bark of a tree belonging to the laurel family, which is chiefly cultivated in Ceylon. Branches about three years old (from half an inch to two or three inches in diameter) are selected and cut off. Two or more cuts are then made lengthwise, and the bark gently lifted with a peeling knife. In twenty-four hours the outer skin of the bark and the pulpy matter are scraped off. The smaller quills are introduced into the larger ones, and the bark is dried in the sun. Cinnamon has a sweet taste and an aromatic flavour. It is light brown in colour, well curled, and scarcely thicker than drawing paper. It breaks with an uneven fibrous margin. It contains a volatile oil, tannin, mucilage, colouring matter, resin, an acrid principle, woody fibre, starch, and a little moisture. Cassia, the bark of another tree belonging to the laurel family, is sometimes substituted for cinnamon. Cassia bark 215 is brown, much stouter than cinnamon, and breaks short off, without splintering. Cassia is also redder in colour and stronger in taste, but less sweet. Adulterated Cinnamon. — Ground cassia may be substituted for ground cinnamon, or mixed with it. Wheat flour or some prepared starch has also been used to adulterate cinnamon, the flour or starch being first browned by baking. Bark from which the cinnamon oil has been removed may also be ground and used for mixing. The expert finds no difficulty in detecting any of these frauds. Nutmegs are the seeds of three species of the myristica, a tree said to resemble a pear tree. In the Banda Islands three crops are obtained yearly. The fruit of the nutmeg tree is about as big as a peach ; outside is a fleshy covering, next the mace, which, when recent, is of a bright scarlet colour, and inside this the nutmeg in its hard smooth shell. After the shell is broken the nutmeg is found to be closely invested with a thin coat, sending off prolongations which enter the substance of the seed, giving it the characteristic mottled appearance. There are two kinds of nutmeg known to trade — the true, round or female nutmeg, and the inferior description, called the false, long or male nutmeg. After the fruit is gathered the mace is separated, and the nutmegs dried in their shells, on hurdles, over a slow wood fire. The drying takes about two months. Sometimes they are 'first dried in the sun for a few days. When the drying is complete the nuts rattle in their shells, and these are cracked. On account of their liability to the attacks of the " nutmeg insect," the nuts are frequently rubbed with lime or dipped in a mixture of lime and water. This is considered to injure their flavour, and brown unlimed nut megs are preferred. 2l6 Nutmegs contain a considerable proportion of volatile oil (about 6 per cent.), besides about 30 per cent, of fat and 54 per cent, of woody fibre. There are present also small quantities of starch, gum, and acid. Adulterated Nutmegs. — As nutmegs are never sold ground they are not as liable to adulteration as powdered spices. However, the following frauds are practised, which are prac- tically adulterations. Nutmegs are deprived ot a portion of their essential oil by distillation and sold as entire nutmegs. Good long nutmegs are mixed with wild long nutmegs having scarcely any flavour or odour. Nutmegs riddled by insects are "stopped" and mixed with sound nutmegs; or the thick paste used for stopping, made of flour, oil, and nutmeg powder, has been moulded into false nutmegs. Damaged or shrivelled and refuse nutmegs have been ground and moulded with clay into false nutmegs. An analyst will be able to prove the abstraction of the volatile oil. The size and form of the wild nutmeg will serve to distinguish it from the cultivated kinds. Stopped nutmegs or false ones may be discovered by soaking them in water. The story that wooden nutmegs are manufactured in America may be true ; that they are imported to this country is doubtful. Mace, as already described, forms when recent a bright scarlet coat, enveloping the hard shell of the nutmeg. It is cured by drying. There are two kinds of mace, correspond- ing to the two kinds of nutmeg, the produce of the same plants. The inferior kind is darker in colour and deficient in flavour and aroma. The composition of mace closely resembles that of nutmeg. Mace, like the nutmeg, may be deprived of its essential oil by distillation, and may be mixed with wild mace. Cloves are the unexpanded flower-buds of a tree, belong- 217 ing to the myrtle tribe, from 15ft. to 30ft. in height. The flower-buds are arranged on terminal flower-stalks. They are gathered and dried in the sun or by a fire. Cloves con- tain about 20 per cent, of volatile oil, 6 per cent, of resin, 13 per cent, of gum, 13 per cent, of tannin, &c, 28 per cent, of woody fibre, and 18 per cent, of moisture. The volatile oil is composed of two oils — the light oil of cloves and the heavy oil of cloves. The fruit called " mother cloves," shaped like olives, but smaller, are occasionally met with. They have the odour and taste of cloves in a mild degree. The quality of cloves may be impaired in two ways — by abstracting from them a portion of their volatile oil, and by placing them in damp places where they absorb moisture and increase in weight. Allspice, sometimes called pimento, is the fruit of a beautiful tree belonging to the myrtles, growing to a height of nearly 30ft. It is imported from the West Indies. It is gathered while yet green, and sun-dried or kiln-dried. When dried the fruit is reddish brown. The essential oil is a mixture of a light and heavy oil, and has the characteristic smell of allspice— the yield is about 4or 5 per cent. It also contains starch, resinous and gummy matter, an astrin- gent extract, colouring matter, sugar, &x., woody fibre, and very little moisture. Allspice is divided into husk and seed. The husk is soft and brittle when dried, and holds its seeds in two compart- ments. Though allspice is sold ground, it appears to be too cheap to tempt the adulterator. The only adulteration ordinarily referred to is the addition of mustard husk. Mixed Spice.— What is sold under this name is a mixture of various spices ground. It is usually composed of ginger, 2l8 cinnamon or cassia, and allspice, with sometimes a small quantity of powdered cloves. Whatever the constituents or proportions it should contain nothing but spice. It is, how- ever, frequently adulterated with wheat flour and ground rice and similar substances. Curry Powder is ordinarily a mixture of turmeric, black pepper, coriander seeds, cayenne, cardamoms, cumin, fenu- greek, ginger, allspice, and cloves. Turmeric, the ingredient furnishing the colouring matter, forms the largest proportion. There is only a small quantity of cayenne, cardamoms, cumin, and fenugreek. Ginger, allspice, and cloves are often omitted. Turmeric powder is obtained from the Curucma longa. The ground turners of the plant are dried and ground to flour. It is said to be adulterated with alkali to heighten the colour, and with yellow ochre. The fruit of the coriander is round, and nearly as large as white pepper. It contains two brown-coloured hemispherical seeds, having an aromatic taste and odour. The seed-vessels, or pods, of cardamom are of triangular form, each containing several hard, reddish-brown seeds, having a pungent taste, and popularly known as "grains of paradise." Cumin and fenu- greek seeds are aromatic seeds having a peculiar medicinal taste and odour. The characteristic flavour of curry is due largely to the cumin it contains. Curry has been found to be adulterated with ground rice, potato starch, common salt, red lead, and ferruginous earths. Olive Oil is expressed from olives, the fruit of a well-known tree cultivated in many European countries. Olives should furnish from 20 to 25 per cent, of their weight of oil, but the whole yield is not usually of the same quality. The pure oil is pale yellow, transparent, of agreeable odour and bland taste. It keeps well, being little liable to become rancid. 219 Olive oil is not infrequently adulterated with cotton-seed oil, rape oil, and other cheap vegetable oils. Taking the specific gravity is often sufficient to show there is an adul- terant present, and to warrant the food inspector in sending a sample to an expert. The specific gravity of olive oil is 917-6 at 59 deg. Fah. Vinegar. — Commercial vinegar is a more or less impure acetic acid. Besides acetic acid it usually contains some alcohol, acetic ether, sugar, gum, various salts, &c, its com- position depending to some extent on the substances from which it has been produced. The different varieties of vinegar, according to their source, are malt, wine, cider, beet, sugar, and wood vinegars. Acetic acid is the volatile principle in all, to the presence of which vinegar mainly owes its aroma and pungency. It may be generated by the fermentation * of many vegetable and some animal substances. Any vegetable infusion capable of yielding alcohol will furnish vinegar. In most cases, when vinegar is made on a large scale, the alcoholic fermentation precedes the acetous, the vinegar being formed entirely at the expense of the alcohol. A condition essential to acetification is the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen. * Fermentation by oxidation can only be set up by organisms in the presence of a free supply of oxygen, and the process appears to be due to special organisms which, attacking the substance to be fermented, remove some of its constituents, and set free others, which are at once seized upon by the oxygen of the air. Pasteur pointed out that mycoderms known as " flower of wine," " flower of vinegar," &c, were able to produce different forms of fermentation according to the presence of but little oxygen, or abundance of it. Mycoderma aceti, for instance, bring about the splitting up of sugar into alcohol, i.e., set up alcoholic fermentation when there is too little oxygen present, but in presence of plenty of oxygen give rise to the formation of acetic acid, i.e., set up acetic fermentation. 220 Two other conditions which greatly facilitate acetification are the presence of a ferment and an increased tempera- ture. The great majority of commercial vinegars in this country are derived from the acetous fermentation of a wort made from mixtures of malt and barley or other grain. Malt vinegar is brown in colour, and has a specific gravity of 1 017 deg. to 1 01 8 deg. It is made of several strengths, the strongest containing about 4J per cent, of acetic acid. In France, and other Continental countries vinegar is prepared from grape juice, and inferior new wine. The pro duct is white or red, according to the colour of the wine from which it is prepared. That made from white wine is most esteemed. All wine vinegar has an alcoholic odour. The specific gravity is from 1014 deg. to 1022 deg. Wine vinegar is often flavoured by the addition of a little wine. Vinegar is occasionally made from other substances besides those named, as beer, pears, gooseberries, currants, and other fruit, and even seaweed. A pure and wholesome vinegar may be prepared from a mixture of sugar and water, or treacle and water, fermented by the agency of a fungus called the vinegar plant. Legally, vinegar is not allowed to contain more than one-thousandth part of its weight of pure sulphuric acid. Adulterated vinegar. — The principal adulterations of vinegar are with water, sulphuric acid, and burnt sugar, and sometimes with chillies, grains of paradise, and pyroligneus acid, &c. All these are easily detected, except the addition of water, which is difficult to prove, as each manufacturer makes four or five different strengths of vinegar. A rough test is afforded by the specific gravity — anything below 1 014 deg. points to watering. Vinegar is not infrequently contaminated with arsenic, 22 I this being introduced through sulphuric acid used in its adulteration. It may contain traces of copper, lead, zinc, or tin from the solvent action of the acid on metallic sur- faces from which it has been in contact. Lemon juice and Lime juice are expressed from the fruit when ripe or nearly ripe. They contain about 32 grains of citric acid per ounce, a little malic acid, sugar, vegetable albumen, and mucus. It is largely prepared in Sicily and the West Indies. As found in commerce, it is frequently mixed with varying proportions of spirit to make it keep better, but it may be obtained pure. Sometimes olive oil is poured on the top to exclude the air. Good lime juice or lemon juice is free from turbidity or stringiness, keeps well, has a pleasant acid taste, but is not bitter. It should not contain more than 5 per cent, of alcohol. It is adulterated with water, tartaric acid, sulphuric acid, or other acid. Artificial lemon-juice, made from citric acid, water, and essence of lemons, may be substituted for the genuine article. It is, however, deficient in flavour, and the fraud can be detected by evaporation. Foods sold Cooked. — Many of the articles of food already referred to come under this description, as bread, tinned milk, preserved fruit, &c. ; yet it appears desirable to draw the food inspector's special attention to some of the victuals for sale in poor neighbourhoods. Biscuits, Cakes, Pastry, &c. — At the cheap pastrycooks and at little shops frequented by children, are sold biscuits damaged with damp and attacked with mould, cakes and pastry originally made with butter beginning to be rancid, and stale beyond all possibility of wholesomeness. Then what are the contents of the penny meat pies in such shops ? They are usually so highly seasoned with pepper that it is impossible to judge by the taste. A few purchases 222 by intelligent inspectors might be the means of improving the quality, and wholesomeness of what may be called the dainties of the poor. Coffee and Bread and=butter. — There are many shops and stalls where working men are provided with early breakfast, and in which the staple of the business is coffee and bread- and-butter. This is what the customer asks for, and what he probably never gets. Why should the grocer be so fre- quently prosecuted for selling chicory for coffee, and the coffee-shop keeper escape ? Why should the butterman be so frequently prosecuted for selling margarine as butter, and the vendor of slices of bread-and-margarine escape ? The difficulty of proving an offence against a coffee-shop keeper or stall-keeper is not insurmountable. Polonies, Blackpuddings, Brawn, &c, have a large sale among the poor. Undoubtedly cheap cooked sausages are not infrequently made with horseflesh or adulterated with it. Indeed, there is a distinct advantage in using horse- flesh, as it is firmer and keeps better. Such sausages are commonly made and cooked on the premises where they are sold, and those imported and sold as " small Germans " are not above suspicion. They are also more liable than uncooked sausages to contain diseased meat. Black- puddings are made from pig's blood and fat, with herbs and spice. They are ordinarily genuine, but often prepared in close little living-rooms. Collared brawn is supposed to be potted pig's head, and may contain portions of tongue and beef, to which there is no objection. However, objec- tionable offal is sometimes added, and the best brawn is liable to be injured by the sun from exposure in the window. Spiced balls, otherwise known as " savoury ducks," are a favourite delicacy with the poor. They are supposed to be made from pig's lungs, but " lights " from 223 sheep and oxen are doubtless also used, to which there is no objection. There is reason, however, to believe that " graped " lungs find their way into the food market in this form. Boiled cow's udder is usually sold cold in slices, with or without vinegar. Udders more or less inflamed, or even containing abscesses, may thus be got rid of. Boiled tripe, too, though generally of good quality, may be the subject of inflammation, as is often indicated by its dark colour. THE END 2 2 J INDEX. Abstracting part of article of food, 39 Acetic fermentation, 219 Actinomycosis, 81 Adulterated food in tins, Sec, seller protected, 55 Adulteration of food, 29 of tea and coffee, Acts relating to, 29 of Bread Acts, 33 ., of corn or grain, 34 of meal or flour, 34 of meal, search war- rant, 35 ,, of tea, earl)- Act relating to, 29 of tea, 31 Agriculture, Board of, milk stan- dards, 51 Allspice, 217 Alum in bread, 162 ,, flour, 160 Analysis, by chemical officers of Somerset House, 41 , , forwarding article tor, 40 officers entitled to pro- cure, 39 of margarine, sample may be taken in transit, 47 of milk, refusing sample for, 44 ,, no defence to allege pur- chase for, 43 refusing to sell article for, 40 ,, purchasing sample for, procedure, 40 Analyst, appointment of, 39 ,, certificate of, 40 appeal to Somerset House Quarterly Report, 41 Anchovy paste, 124 Annatto, 188 Anthrax (meat), 77 (milk), 165 Arrowroot, 177 Arsenical liquid, spraying with, 131 Artichokes, 144 Asparagus, 144 B Barrelled cod, 127 Beans, 144 Beetroot, 146 ,, sugar, 206 Birkenhead Corporation Act, 18S1, Section 74,- 17 Biscuits, cakes, pastry, &c, 221 Black cock, 105 Black-puddings, 222 Black-quarter, 77 " Black-spot," 138 Bloaters, 129 " Blue disease," 83 " Blue milk," 165 Bone forceps, 10 Bone of the ox heart, 66 Bowel scissors, 10 Brawn, 222 Braxy in sheep, 78 Bread, 161 Act (London), 36 ,, ,, (Ireland), 36 ,, (Scotland), 36 Acts, 33 226 Baker, &c, search warrant for premises of, 35 Board of Agriculture to make standards re butter, milk, &c, 5i Brill, 113 Broccoli, 145 " Buckthorn," 127 Bunt, 156 Butter, 1S3 adulterated, definition of, 45, 185 definition of, 45 imported, impoverished, must be marked, 48 milk, 175 ,, rancid, 185 ,, whey, 184 Cabbage, 145 Cane sugar, 205 Capercailzie, 106 Capon, 100 Carcases, 62 Carrots, 146 Cassava starch, 180 Cassia, 214 Cattle-plague (meat), 76 ,, (milk), 165 Cauliflower, 145 Cayenne pepper, 213 Celeriac, 146 Celery, 146 Charr, 124 Cheese, 187 definition of, 59 adulterated, 189 damaged, 191 lard, 190 margarine, 190 parasites, 190 soft, 190 Cheesine, 190 Chicken Cholera, 103 Chicory, 211 Chillies, 213 Chip, 102 Chocolate, 204 Cinnamon, 214 ,, adulterated, 215 Clotted cream, 174 Cloves, 216 Cockles, 132 Cocoa, 202 ,, adulterated, 203 Cod, 114 ,, barrelled, 127 Codlin moth larvae, 138 Coffee, 199 Acts relating to adultera- tion of, 29 ,, adulterated, 200 ,, and bread and butter, 222 Conger eels, 115 Consumption in oxen and sheep, 90 in swine, 79 Corn, 156 ,, adulteration of, 34 Corn flour, 180 Corncake, 107 Crabs, 129 Cream, 173 Cucumber, 146 Curcuma starch, 178 Cured salmon, 129 Curry powder, 218 Cysticercus, 84 Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order, 1885, Article XV., 166 and 167 Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order, 1899, Article II., 167 Destroying meat, &c, unfit for food, 19 Devonshire cream 174 " Diamonds," 96 Director, 10 Diseases of corn, 136 ,, rendering meat unfit for food, 75 227 Diseases rendering milk unfit for food, 165 Dissecting forceps, 9 Dried salt cod, 127 ,, salted, or smoked fish, 127 ,, sprats, 124 Dropsy, 94 Dust brand, 157 Eels, 115 Eggs, 191 preserving, 158, 192 tests for fresh, 192 Elder leaf, 196 Endive, 147 Equipment of food inspector, 8 Ergot, 156 Erysipelas of swine, 82 Examination (proposed) for meat inspector, 10 Food, preservative, or colouring matter allowed, under conditions, 49 ,, samples taken on delivery, 54 Foods sold cooked, 221 Foot-and-mouth disease (meat), 93 ,. ,, (milk), 165 Forceps, dissecting, 9 ,, bone, 10 Front teeth of ox at two years, 71 t. >. ,, three ,, 71 four ,, 72 .» ,. M five ,, 72 Frozen meat, 73 Fruit, 134 diseased or decayed, 13S preserved, 141 stone, 136 when in season, 135 Farina, 181 Feathered game, 104 Fermentation, acetic, 219 Filaria, 96 Fish, bruised, 112 ,, diseased, 113 ,, dried, salted, or smoked, 129 ,, freshness of, 111 ,, from foul water, 112 ,, when in season, no ,, shell, 129 Flounder, 116 Flour, 158 Food, definition of, 59 ,, inspector, appointment of, 2 :, ,, duties, 7 ,, equipment of, 8 qualifications and obligations, 3 ,, obstructing or bribing, 54 mixing, colouring, or stain- ing, 37 Galazyme, 175 Game, 104 ,, Act of 183 1, 105 diseases of, 109 for invalids, 108 when in season, 105 Gapes, 102 Garget, 107 Ginger, 213 ,, adulterated, 214 Glanders and farcy, 87 Glucose, 207 " Grapes," 90 Grilse, 120 Grouse, 105 H Haddock, 117 ,, smoked, 128 Hake, 116 Halibut, 117 Q 2 22$ Hares, ioo Hendon cow disease, 170 Herring, 11S ,, red, 129 Hog cholera, 83 Homelyn ray, 124 Honey, 209 Hoof rot, 91 Horse, fat and flesh of, 65 heart and liver of, 66 kidney of, 66 skeleton of, 64 tongue of, 68 Horse mackerel, 119 Horse radish, 149 Lemon juice, 221 Lettuce, 147 Lime juice, 221 Ling, 118 ,, dried salt, 12S Live animals, 62 Liver fluke, 95 Lobsters, 129 Logwood test for alum in bread, 162 Logwood test for alum in flour, 160 Lung plague, 76J Immature veal or lamb, 73 Instruments, post-mortem, 9 Jaggery, 206 Joint-ill, or joint-felon, 82 K Kefyr, 175 Kelts, 120 Kidney of the horse, 66 Kippers, 129 Koumiss, 175 L Lactometer, correction for tern perature, 164 Lard, 191 adulterated, 191 cheese, 190 Le Dansk, 187 M Macaroni, 182 Mace, 216 Mackerel, 119 horse, 119 Maize starch, 181 Maple sugar, 206 Margarine, 186 Act, 44 ,, definitions under, 45 cheese, 190 ,, definition of, 59 ,, if imported must be marked, 48 ,, package to be branded or marked, 52 ,. register to be kept by dealer, 52 >. to be labelled, 52 definition of, 45 if imported must be marked, 48 ,, factories to be regis- tered, 47 regulations as to label- ling, 46 restriction of fat to be added, 53 22Q Margarine, sample may be taken for analysis in tran- sit, 47 Markets and Fairs Clauses Act, 1847, Section 15, 14 Meat, bruised, 70 characteristics of good, 63 ,, frozen and chilled, J3 kept too long or ill kept, 67 ,,. not of description repre- sented, 63 of aged animals, 71 of animals injured by acci- dent, 69 ,, of animals killed when moribund, 69 ,, of animals newly landed or off a journey, 70 ,, of animals not killed by man, 69 ,, of animals over-driven or frightened, 70 of animals recently phy- sicked, 70 Milk, 163 adulterated, 172 ,, " blue " or " red," 171 fever, 98 imported, condensed, Sec, 48 impoverished, must be marked, 48 ,, infected from human disease, 169 infected from animal disease, 169 ,, preserved, 174 sample of, in course of delivery, 44 ,, sample of, refusing, for analysis, 44 ,, separated, label not to be obscured, 54 skimmed, 173 sour, 171 tainted, 171 unwholesome, 164 ,, vehicle or receptacle for sale of, to show owner's name, 53 Mite in sugar, 207 Mixed spice, 217 Molasses, 206 Moor fowl, 105 Mushrooms, 149 Mussels, 132 Mustard, 210 adulterated, 211 N "Navet," 153 Nutmegs, 215 adulterated, 216 Nuts, 139 Nut weevil, 139 •'Oath," meaning of, 21 "Offal," meaning of, 62 Olive oil, 118 Onions, 149 Oysters, 129 Ox, skeleton of, 64 ,, tongue of, 67 Parasites in cheese, 190 Parsnips, 146 Partridge, 106 Parturient animals, 97 fever, 98 Pearl disease, 90 ,, sago, 179 Peas, 150 Pepper, 211 adulterated, 212 brand, 156 Periwinkles, 132 Pheasant, 106 Pigeons, 103 Pimento, 217 Pip, 102 2 3 6 " Place," meaning of, 18 Plaice, 120 Pleuro-pneumonia (meat), 76 (milk), 165 Plover, 107 Poisoned animals, 98 Polonies, 222 Post-mortem instruments, 9 Potatoes, 142 Potato starch, 181 Poularde, 100 Poultry, 100 Prawns, 132 Prepared starches, 176 Preserved milk, 174 Preventing or obstructing an in- spector, 20 Probe, 10 Ptarmigan, 106 Public Health Act, 1875, Sections 116 to 119, 14 Public Health Acts Amendment Act, 1890, Section 28, 17 Public Health (London) Act, 1891, Section 47, 22 Quail, 107 Quinsy in swine, 84 Rabbits, 104 Rancid butter, 185 "Reasonable times," meaning of, 16 Red herrings, 129 " Red " milk, 171 " Red soldier," 83 Revalenta-arabica, 182 Rheumatism, 82 Rinderpest, 76 " Rot " in sheep, 94 Roup, 101 Sago, 178 Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, Acts included in, 60 Act, 1875, 37 Acts Amendment Act, 1879, 43 Analysis referred to Somerset House, 58 Appeal to quarter sessions, 41 Certificate of warranty, 42 Duty of local authority to put in force, 51 False warranty in writing, 57 Proceedings against warrantor, 56 Provisions as to use of warranty or invoice as defence, 56 Seller of adulterated food in tins or packets protected, j=, Summons to state particulars of offence, &c, 56 Warranty in prosecution under, 42 Sale of Horseflesh, &c, Regula- tion Act, 1889, 24 Sale of horseflesh as beef, 65 Salmon, 120 cured, 129 ,, Fishery Act, 1873, Sec- tion 19, in Scad, 119 Scalpel, 9 Scissors, bowel, 10 " Scour," 102 Sea kale, 150 Search warrant, 21 Semolina, 182 Separated milk, 173 Sewen, 124 Sheep-pox, 79 Sheep scab, 96 ,, insect, 96 Shell fish, 129 Shrimps, 132 Skate, 124 Skeleton of horse, 64 ox, 65 2*1 Skimmed milk, 173 Sloe leaf, 196 Smelt. 124 Smoked haddock, 128 Smolts, 120 Smut, 157 Snipe, 107 Soft cheeses, igo Soles, 125 Sourkraut, 145 Sour milk, 171 Sparling, 124 Spiced balls, 222 Sprats, 124 dried, 129 Spinach, 100 Splenic fever, 77 Starches, 176 Starch, arrowroot, 177 ,, curcuma, 178 ,, maize, 180 potato, 181 sago, 178 tapioca (cassava), i< ,, tons les mois, 182 " Strangles," 84 Sugar, 205 beetroot, 206 cane, 205 ,, maple, 206 mite, 207 Swede turnips, 153 Sweetmeats, 208 Swine fever, 83 ,, plague, 83 Thornback skate, 124 Tinned fruit and vegetables, 155 Tomatoes, 150 Tongue of horse, 68 ,, ox, 69 Tons les mois, 182 Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 1847, Section 131, 13 Treacle, 206 Trout, 123 Tuberculosis (meat) in oxen and sheep, 79, 90 Tuberculosis (meat) in swine, 79 ,, (milk), 166 Turbot, 126 Turmeric, 218 " Turn," 102 Turnips, 152 Turnip-gall, 154 Trichina, 54 Truffles, 151 Typhoid fever of swine, 83 Vegetables, 142 Vegetable marrow, 154 Vegetables, when in season, 143 Venison, 104 Vermicelli, 182 Vinegar, 219 ,, adulterated, 220 plant, 220 Tapioca, 179 Tainted milk, 172 Tea, 159 adulterated, 31, 196 as imported, 43 containing terra japonica, 30 compressed, 195 exhausted, 43 leaf, 196 Teal, 107 Texan fever, 79 W Warbles, 94 Wheat, 158 Whelks, 129 Whey butter, 185 Whitebait, 126 Whiting, 126 Widgeon, 107 Wild duck, 107 Willow leaf, 197 Woodcock, 108 Worms affecting swine, CATALOGUE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY The Sanitary Publishing Co., LIMITED, 5, Fetter Lane, London, B.C. 1905. Sanitary Law and Practice. A Handbook for Students. By W. ROBERTSON", M.D. (Glas.), D.P.H., Medical Officer of Health, Leith, and CHAS. PORTER, M.D. (Ed)., B.Sc. (P. H.), &c, Lecturer on Bacteriology, University College. Sheffield. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. Postage 6d. [Just Ready. It is specially designed for those preparing for the degree or diploma in Public Health or Sanitary Inspectors' Certificates. All the laws relating to the public health of England and Wales, Ireland. London, and Scotland are given ; also by-laws, regulations, forms of notices, and headings for office books. The Public Health Acts are dealt with in sections, the duties and difficulties of the official being fully explained under each part. Smoke Nuisance Prevention, Offensive Trades, Infectious Diseases, Isolation Hospitals, Reception Houses, and Methods of Disinfection are very fully dealt with. Under the various Acts, such important questions as Housing of the Working Classes, River Pollution, Sewage Purification, Milk Supply, and Cowsheds are discussed in a manner foreign to text- books on public health. There are many explanatory drawings, which have been specially prepared. [1905. CONTENTS. — Section I. — Administration. Section II. — Appointment of Health Officials. Section III. — Qualifications and Duties of Health Officials. Section IV. — The Sanitary Inspector. Section V. — Definitions of Terms used in the various Public Health Acts. Section VI. — Nuisances. Section VII. — Smoke Nuisance Prevention. Section VIII. — Offensive Trades. Section IX. Scavenging and Cleansing. Section X. — Pig Styes and the Keeping of Animals. Section XL — Slaughter-houses. Section XII. — Unsound Food. Section XIII. — Sale of Food and Drugs. Section XIV. — Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops. Section XV. — Infectious Diseases, Notification and Pre- vention. Section XVI. — Prevention of Epidemic Diseases. Section XVII. — Infectious Diseases. Section XVIII. — Isolation Hospitals. Section XIX. — Mortuaries. Section XX. — Disposal of the Dead. Section XXI. — Water- supply. Section XXII. — Sewers, Drains, and Water-closets. Section XXII L Water and Earth-closets and Privies. Section XXIV. — Sewage Purification. Section XXV. — Common Lodging-houses. Section XXVI. — Houses Let in Lodgings. Section XXVII. — Underground or Cellar Dwellings. Section XXVIII. — New Streets and Buildings. Sectien XXIX. — Housing. Section XXX.— Tents and Vans. Section XXXL— Bye-laws. Section XXXIL— 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 2 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. Legal Proceedings. Section XXXIII. — Power of Kight of Entry. Section XXXIV. — Public Health Acts. Section XXXV. — Diseases of Animals Act and Anthrax Order. Section XXXVL— Canal Boats Acts. Section XXXV1L— The Factory and Workshop Act. Section XXXVIII. — Infant Life Protection Act. Section XXXI £. — Vaccination Acts. Section XL. — Alkali Works Regulation Acts. Section XLI. — Rivers Pollution Prevention. Section XL [I. — Extracts from Burgh Police Acts. Section XLIIl. — Cleansing of Persons Act. Section XLIV. — Appendix, Vital Statistics Tables. Index. The Factory and Workshop Act, 1901 : Duties of Local Authorities (County Boroughs, Non=County Boroughs, Urban District Councils, and Rural District Councils). By JAMES ROBERT KAYE, M.B., D.P.H., County Medical Officer for the West Riding of Yorkshire. Crown 8vo, 2s. net. This book has been compiled with a view of assisting Sanitary Officers and others to a better comprehension of their duties under this iinpojtant Act. Part I. sets out the duties of Local Authorities under the several headings, and indicates (by framed marginal notes having references to Part 51.) the particular classes of work to which each duty is to be applied by the District Council. Part II. gives briefly the practical definitions of the various premises to which the Act applies, and al%o shows what duties are to be performed by Sanitary Authorities in regard to each. Part III. contains suggestions for books to be kept by Sanitary Authorities in order to effectually carry out their duiies. [1903. Disinfection and the Preservation of Food. Together with an Account of the Chemical Substances used as Antiseptics and Preservatives. By SAMUEL RIDEAL, D.Sc. (Lond.) Third Edition. Medium 8vo. 15s. net. Postage 6d. Phis Edition has been entirely rewritten, and revised, with such additions as to bring the subject up to the present time. The enlargement of the section on Eood Preservatives will make it a manual of practical value to those engaged in many of our largest trades and industries. "This useiul and authoritative work . . . The chapters dealing with tie various proprietary disinfectants are of great interest, and practically embody a history of the subject, ... A trustworthy guide to those con- cerned in determining the accual germicidal value of disinfectant preparations. . . . The subject is most important, and Dr. Rideal's contribution to it will be thoroughly appreciated by all those concerned not only in broad sanitary measures hut m surgical science also." — Lancet, March 12th, 1904. " Those who are acquainted with the author's work in every department of sanitary activity will recognise his claims to a hearing, and however high their expectations may have been pitched on that account, they will not be dis- 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.G. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 3 appointed by a careful study of these pages. The work is, in fact, an essential to the Medical Officer of Health and to the Analytical Chemist. Municipal Engineers and Sanitary Inspectors will find much valuable information." — Surveyor, January 29th, 1904. " Contains an immense body of facts on the subject. . . . Dr. Rideal has himself contributed so largely to our knowledge of disinfectants and their properties that we look to him and others in a similar position to elucidate or eliminate in such a way as to place disinfection on a sound basis." — British Medical Journal, March 19th, 1904. " This useful book gives a review of methods of disinfection, sterilisation, and preservation. To the section on preservation of food special attention has been given." — Grocer. January. 1904. " Altogether, a work replete with health authorities and medical prac- titioners." — Sanitarian, New York, March, 1904. " The third edition, which is an entire re-writing, will be found of much interest." — British and South African Export Gazette, February 5th, 1904. " All the popular disinfectant liquids and powders are referred to in the book, and their merits and demerits plainly set out without bias to any of them. This edition is all the more valvable from the fact that the author has had the opportunity of much experience on special points and has undertaken researches which have yielded interesting results." — Local Government Journal, March 5th, 1904. Public Lighting by Gas and Electricity. By W. J. DIBDIN, F.I.S., F.C.S., &c, formerly Chemist and Super- intending Gas Examiner to the London County Council. Author of " The Purification of Sewage and Water," "Lime, Mortar, and Cement." "Practical Photometry," &c. With numerous Illustrations, Diagrams, and Tables. Demy 8vo., 21s. net. [1902. The subject matter is dealt with under the following chapter headings : — Artificial Light — Its Source and Measurement — Photometers — Radial Photometry — Illuminating Value of Coal Gas — Jet Photometer — Physical Properties of Coal Gas— Chemical Composition of Coal Gas — Enrichment — Methods of Enrichment — Gas Meters — Gas Burners — Incandescent Gas Lighting — Self-intensifying Gas Pressure — Anti-vibrators — Lamp Governors and Average Meter System — Torch Lighting and Extinguishing — Street Lighting Tables — Effects of Improved Methods of Lighting by Gas — Heating Value of Coal Gas — The Generation of Dynamic Electricity by Mechanical Means — Electric Generators — Electromotors — Transformers — Measurement of Current — Distribution of Light — Efficiency of Arc and Electric Incandescent Lamps — Comparison of Cost and Heating Effect of Lighting oy Gas and Electricity — Practical Examples of Electric Lighting by Direct and Alternating - Current Systems — Acetylene — American Experience. APPENDICES :— Board of Trade Regulations as to Electricity Supply. Eiectric Lighting Acts, 1882 to 1890. Provisional Orders. Table for Use with Carcel Lamp. Table for Use with Candles. Tables I. to IV. — Public Lighting in England. The Illustrations number close upon one hundred and fifty. ■5) FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 4 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. New Streets : Laying Out and Making Up. By A. TAYLOR ALLEN. Crown 8vo., 3s. net. The purpose' of this book is chiefly to serve as a condensed form of reference and examples of carrying out the essential parts and work entailed by the Surveyor under the Public Health Act, 1875 (Sec. 150), and the Private Street Works" Act, 1892. Part I. deals with the laying out and general construction of " new streets/' with an appendix of By-laws with respect to the level, width, and construction of new streets. Part II. comprises the points which have to be considered in the making ap of private streets under powers conferred by various Acts, with selected enact- ments and an appendix of the Private Street Works Act, 1892. Part III. consists of a reproduction of the work entailed in actual practice, and comprises complete Plans, Specifications, Estimates, and Apportionments, with specimen notices. [1905. Footpaths: Their flaintenance. Construc= tion, and Cost. By A. TAYLOR ALLEN, C.E., Engineer and Surveyor, Portslade-on-Sea. With Illustrations, Diagrams, &c. Crown 8vo., 6d. net. This little hand-book gives the mode of construction of pavings, with approximate cost, and a synopsis of the law relating to existing pavements, clauses for specification, model form of tender and specimen quantities, &c. Illuminating Power of Gas : A Table for Ascertaining the True Illuminating Power of Gas Deduced from Pole's Law. By W. J. DIBDIN, F.I.C., F.C.S., &c. Size 30 by 22, 21s. net. Owing to the diversity of opinion which has been widely expressed as to the correct method of estimating the illuminating power of gases, Mr. W. J. Dibdin, the well-known expert on gas-testing, who for fifteen years held the position of Superintending Gas Examiner to the Metropolitan Board of Works and the London County Council, has prepared a table based on the law enunciated by the late Dr. Pole, F.R.S., one of the Metropolitan Gas Referees, by means of which the true illuminating power of any gas may be determined. This important law was deduced more than thirty years ago, but, owing to its complicated character, it has been little understood, and considered to be far too involved to render it practicable for ordinary use. By means of an ingenious arrangement, however, Mr. Dibdin's table indicates almost at a glance the true illumi- nating power of practically any gas with the same facility that a rule-of- three calculation is made on the slide rule, the plutometrical observations involved being but very slightly more than is necessary with the ordinary methods now in use, and which are subjected to so much debate. 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 5 The table is applicable for any gas, whatever the illuminating power, provided the standard rate of consumption is the usual parliamentary one of five cubic feet per hour. The table is printed on stiff board, protected by brass rim and varnished, and is accompanied by a descriptive pamphlet fully explaining the law ; the table calculated therefrom, with a number of illustrations of its working, and an abstract from the table, which is suitable for directly reading the illuminating values of gases, such as are ordinarily met with in gasworks practice, in a manner comparable to the well-known method of ascertaining the " Tabular Number " for correcting the volume of a gas and standard temperature and pressure. 1903. The Food Inspector's Hand=book. By FRANCIS VACHER, County Medical Officer for Cheshire. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. net. Just ready. [1905. The Ox : Its External and Internal Organisation. By A. SEYFFERTH, Municipal Veterinary Surgeon to the District of Ftirth, Revised and Edited by Professor G. T. BROWN, C.B. With Coloured Anatomical Plates and Descriptive Matter. New Edition. 3s. 6d. net. Public Abattoirs and Cattle Markets. From the German of OSCAR SCHWARZ, M.D., Director of the Public Slaughter-house and Cattle Yards, Staffs. Edited by G. HARRAP, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., &c, and LOUDON M. DOUGLAS, A.M.I.M.E., M.S. A. Third Edition. Numerous Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 21s. net. CONTENTS. Chapter I.— Introduction. II.— Laws Relating to the Erection of Public Slaughter-houses. III. — The Arguments for and against Compulsory Slaughter in Public Abattoirs. IY. — By W T hom shall the Slaughter-house be Built. V. — General Remarks on the Situation of a Slaughter-house. YI. — Special Description of Individual Buildings of a Slaughter-house. VII. — Auxiliary Buildings. VIII. — Purification of Sewage and Utilisation of Manure. IX. — Frontier Slaughter-houses and Quarantine Establishments. X. — Management and Staff. XL — Corporation Regulations. XII. — The Utilisation and Destruction of Unsound Meat. XIII. — The Insurance of Animals for Slaughter. XIV. — The Cattle Market. XV. — The Market Halls. Appendices. The Drainage of Villages. By WILLIAM SPINKS, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Member of the Incor- porated Association of Municipal and County Engineers ; Member uf Sanitary Institute ; Lecturer on Sanitary Engineering, Yorkshire, College Victoria University ; President of Sanitary Engineering Section of the British Institute of Public Health, 1895. Crown Svo. Is. net. q. FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 6 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.— Part I.— Statutory Powers— Pollution of Streams — In case of Failure to Provide Schemes — Existing Sewers — Present Means of Disposal — Composition of Sewage — Self- purifying Power of Rivers. Part II. — Areas of District to be Sewered — Power to Enter Private Lands — Works without District — Special Drainage Dis- tricts — Power to Agree with neighbouring Authority to take and deal with Sewage — Joint Sewerage Boards — Rainfall — The Geological Character of the District — Present and Prospective Number of Inhabitants — Supply of Water — Sanitary Appliances — Position of Outfall Works — Power to Purchase Lands — Borrowing Powers. Part III. — Requirements of a Sewerage System — Depths — Gradients — Lines — Sewer s and their Jointing — Manholes — Flushing — Ventilation. Part IV. —Sewage Disposal — Puri- fication through Land — Tanks — Sludge — Filtration. The Sanitation of Domestic Buildings. Bv F. LATHAM, C.E., Assistant Engineer and Surveyor, Borough of Margate. With Introduction by BALDWIN LATHAM, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., Past-President Society of Engineers. Fully Illustrated. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d. net. General Remarks — Drains — Section of Pipes — Junction with Drains — Soil Pipes — Ventilation of Drains — Traps and Gullies — Inspection Chambers — Internal Sanitary Fittings — Flushing Apparatus — Sinks — Urinals- Drain Testing — Baths and Lavatory Basins, &c. A Healthy Home. By FRANCIS VACHER, County Medical Officer for Cheshire. Second Edition. Fully Illustrated. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d. net. CONTENTS. — Introduction— Site — Soil- Aspect— Building Material — Con- struction — Design and General Arrangement — Warming — Lighting — ■ Ventilation — Hot and Cold Water — Sanitary Requisites — Decoration and Furniture — Stables — Cowhouses, &c. — How to Keep the House Clean — Obligations of Householders and Sanitary Authority. Defects in Plumbing and Drainage Works. New and Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by 120 Woodcuts. By F. VACHER. Net Is. Modern Drainage Inspection and Sanitary Surveys. By GERARD J. G. JENSEN, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d. net. This volume has been mainly framed to supply a much-needed want in the shape of a reliable up-to-date work on Drainage Inspection and Sanitary Surveying for the use of students in the examinations in Sanitary Science held by the Sanitary Institute, the Institute of Sanitary Engineers, and other examining bodies. At the same time it will be found of equal *, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 7 value to those more advanced, who wish to possess a reliable work of reference on the matters of which the author treats. SYNOPSIS OF CONTEXTS —Chapter I. Introductory.— Chapter II. Testing Apparatus. —Chapter III. The Inspection of the Interior of a House. — Chapter IV. The Inspection of the Exterior of a House. — Chapter V. Testing. — Chapter VI. Notes and Note-Books. — Chapter VII. Reports — Chapter VIII. Supervision of Alterations. Appendix. House Drainage and Sanitary Fitments. By GERARD J. G. JENSEN, C.E. Profusely Illustrated. 5s. net. " Even the most unacquainted with sanitary matters cannot fail by a perusal of this book to learn how to correctly arrange the drains, &c, of houses." — The Engineer. " We can heartily recommend it as a trustworthy guide to the subject of which it treats. . . . Mr. Jensen may be congratulated on having crowded so much information into so small a space." — The Builder. "... Will no doubt be one of the text books of the future." — Sanitary Inspectors' Journal. The fundamental principles of House Drainage are herein detailed in their most advanced form. CONTENTS. Chapter I.— General Remarks. Chapter II.— The Planning of House Drainage. Chapter III. — Miscellaneous Materials Used in Drainage Work. Chapter IV. — Form and Materials of Piping Used in Drainage Work. Chapter V. — Joints. Chapter VI. — Junction and Bends. Chapter VII.— Traps. Chapter VIII. — Inspection Eyes and Chambers. Chapter IX. — Man- hole Covers. Chapter X. — Gradients and Dimensions of Drains. Chapter XL — Ventilation of Drains, &c. Chapter XII. — Drain Flushing and Flushing Tanks. Chapter XIII. — Trenches and Foundations for Drains. Chapter XIV. — Drain Laying and Pipe Fixing. Chapter XV. — Sanitary Fitments. Chapter XVI. — Lavatories. Chapter XVII. — Baths. Chapter XVIII. — Sinks. Chapter XIX. — Water Closets. Chapter XX. — Water- waste Preventers. Chapter XXI. — Hiousemaids' Slop Sinks. Chapter XXII. — Trough Closets and Latrines. Chapter XXIII. — Waste-water Closets. Chapter XXIV. — Urinals. Chapter XXV.— Testing. By=Laws as to House Drainage and Sani= tary Fittings made by the London County Council. Annotated by G. J. JENSEN, C.E., Author of " House Drainage and Sanitary Fitments," "Modern Drainage Inspection and Sanitary Surveys," &c. 109 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. net. 'This Annotated Edition will, it is hoped, be found useful, not only in London but in Urban districts generally. As the by-laws of these districts are mostly based upon the Model By-laws of the Local Government Board, and are therefore very similar in character and wording to those contained in this volume, footnotes have been appended where they have been found to differ materially. [1901 :, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 8 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. Modern House Drainage, Plans and Dia- grams. By GERARD J, G. JENSEN, C.E., Author of "By-Laws as to House Drainage," "House Drainage and Sanitary Fitments," "Sanitary Inspection Note Book," &c. Size 17£in. by 22Jin., in Two Sheets, folded in Cloth Case, net Is. 6d. Mounted on Linen and folded in Thumb Case, net 2s. 6d. "The Sanitary Publishing Company, Limited, 5, Fetter-lane, E.C., have forwarded us a copy of ' Modern House Drainage, Plans and Diagrams,' by Mr. Gerard Jensen, consulting engineer, two convenient sheets of plans and details drawn to a working scale on cloth, which will be found to comply with the by- laws and regulations of Sanitary Authorities, and are convenient for reference. The sheets are made to fold, and are enclosed in a cloth case for the pocket. The architect and builder are often in want of a compact plan illustrating the principles of house drainage, showing the several modes of connection between closets and fittings, and the waste pipes, anti-siphonage pipes, bath and lavatory connection ; also a plan of a house showing the lines of stoneware and iron drain pipes, the best position for manholes, disconnecting traps, trapped rain-water pipes, outlet ventilator and air inlet, gully traps, &c. Mr. Jensen's two sheets will enable the draughtsman to introduce these details. The plan. Sheet II., represents a detached country residence of large accommodation, with a back yard, with lines of 4in. stoneware drains carried round three sides of house, with the various gully traps, trapped rain-water pipes, and bath wastes entering the manhole at the back. Six other manholes are indicated at the chief corners of house taking the discharges of gullies, also the inspection and cleaning eyes, and the disconnecting trap at the lower corner of site, kc. Large scale sections through manholes and disconnecting traps, with air-tight iron covers, sections of cellar drainage, and window area, and a section of main drain drawn above a datum line, and indicating the gradients, enable the practical man to see at a glance the whole scheme. The details are given on Sheet I., and furnish all necessary information relating to soil and waste pipes, anti-siphonage pipes, and the ventilated discharging over gully traps, bath and lavatory arrangements, ventilated soil pipes, cistern, and flushing tank details. The pipe joints and junctions of siphonage, with waste pipes, are also shown. The plan and details are clearly drawn, with ample references." — Building News. [1904. The Prevention of Infection in Public Vehicles. By ALFRED GREENWOOD, M.D., Ch.B., Medical Officer of Health, Crewe. Is. net. The object of this work has been to describe the conditions at present existing in public vehicles which tend to spread disease, and to make certain recommendations which, if carried out, would improve the conditions materially. 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 9 The Plumbers' Company, Diagrams for the Use of Classes of Technical Instruc= tion for Plumbers, 8£in. by o^in. Price Is. each net. No*. 1 and 2 now ready. The diagrams, about one-eighth full size, are the first of a series intended to illustrate some of the more important scientific principles underlying the operations of the plumber ; types of apparatus ; the principles of their construction ; and the workmanship employed in fitting them. The diagrams and accompanying descriptions comprise : — Bends, corbel and washdown w.c.'s, hydrostatics, lead work, levers applied to ball valves, overflows, and wastes, soil-pipe joints, specific gravity, siphons, trap showing water seal, valve closet, ventilated sink waste and gulley. The diagrams are admirably executed, and will be ot value not "only to plumbers, but to those engaged in both the practice and study of sanita- tion. Full-size diagrams (53in. by 31in.) are also obtainable for teaching purposes. Either set might be kept in the offices of local authorities for the benefit of builders, plumbers, and others. First Series Now Ready. The Zymotic Enquiry Book. By J. STOREY, Sanitary Inspector, Nantwich. This book is handy in size, and each opening gives all the headings necessary for making a complete report of every case of zymotic disease occurring in a district. It is based upon the results of a long experience in the Public Health Service. Is. net. Special terms to Councils for Quantities. [1904. Form of Deed of Covenant as to Drainage of Property. Specially prepared for District Councils. Blank space for Plans. 9d. The Preservation of Health and the Hygiene of the Home. By EDWARD J. SQUIRE, M.D. (Lond.). D.P.H. (Camb.), Physician to the North London Hospital for Consumption. 3d. Dangerous Infectious Diseases. By Dr. FRANCIS YACHER, M.O.H., Cheshire. Is. 6d. net. Hand-book of Scotch Sanitary Law. By THOS. W. SWANSON. 2s. 6d. net. A hand-book of the Law relating to the Public Health of Scotland. [1902. 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 10 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. Digest of Public Health Case=Law. By J. E. R. STEPHENS, Barrister-at-Law. Svo. 21s. net. " This volume will form a very useful supplement to the ordinary text- books on the Public Health Acts." — Municipal Jon , " The book should be useful to all connected with local government affairs, as well as to lawyers." — Law Quarterly Review. " Should prove very serviceable to legal practitioners, and other persons specially interested in public health law." — Law Jov " We have no doubt that Mr. Stephens' book will find a place on the shelves of the numerous class of persons who are associated with the administration of the public health statutes." — Justice of the Peace. Digest of Highways Case=Law. By J. E. R. STEPHENS, Barrister-at-Law, Author of " Digest of Public Health Case-Law," &c. Svo. 21s. net. This work contains in full all the principal statutes relating to Highways and Bridges from Magna Charta down to the Locomotives on Highways Act, 1898, together with an epitome of all the cases decided in the High Court from the earliest times down to Easter Term, 1903. There are numerous cross references, and a complete table of cases giving the page on which each case is referred to in the body of the book. The subjects with which the cases deal are placed in alphabetical order, and there is in addition a complete index to all the matter contained in the book. By .means of the index it will be easy to find not only all the cases dealing with a particular point, but also all the sections of the various statutes dealing with the same point. No other Digest relating to Highways has ever been published on the same lines as the present one. [1903. " This is one of the most useful books on highway law that has yet been published, and as the digest is supplemented by all the important Highway Acts, the volume makes a complete hand-book to highway law. . . . No other digest relating to highways has ever been published on the same lines as the present one." — Local Government Chronicle. "A more useful compilation of cases could hardly have been made." — Law Notes. " We can heartily recommend the book to highway authorities and their surveyors and advisers." — Surveyor. "Everyone who in his professional capacity has much to do with highways will find this work useful."— Solicitors'' Journal. "A book of this kind, which, as it were, consolidates in a form that is handy for reference the whole of the law upon a particular important subject, must prove of very considerable advantage both to professional men and laymen. . . . The usefulness of the book is increased by the inclusion of the principal statutes dealing with highways, bridges, and locomotives on highways. An index that appears to be reliable makes the book complete."' — Estates Gazette. 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 11 Lime, Mortar, and Cement: Their Com= position and Analysis. By W. J. DIBDIN, F.I.C., F.C.S., late Chemist to the London County Council. Crown 8vo., 5s, net. Will prove invaluable to Surveyors, Municipal Engineers, Builders, Clerks of Works, &c. . Introduction — Characteristics of various Limes— Clay— Sand and its Sub- stitutes—Mortar and Cement— The Setting of Mortar and Cements— Rough Technical Tests of Mortar without Chemical Analysis— The Chemical Analysis of Lime, Mortar, Cement, &c— Typical Analyses of Mortar and Cement— Mechanical Tests of Cement— The Adulteration of Portland Cement— The Strength of Brickwork— Concrete— Artificial Stone — Asphalt. The Construction of Roads, Paths, and Sea Defences. With Portions relating to Private Street Repairs, Specif i= cation Clauses, Prices for Estimating, and Engineers' Replies to Queries. By FRANK LATHAM, C.E., Borough Engineer and Surveyor, Penzance. With Illustrations and Tabular Statements. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. Introduction. The necessity of good roads for traction, line of roadway, setting out, drainage and coverings of roads, road-rolling, stone-breaking, paving with wood, stone, brick, artificial slabs, &c. Short chapters also deal with scavenging, watering, and snow removal from roads. The portions of the book which probably afford the greatest interest are those containing new material on sea-walls, with illustrations of walls at Penzance and Margate, and also short chapters on road bridges and artificial stone plants. ... Useful specification clauses on roads and streets, sewers and sea-walls, and also a table of approximate prices of road materials, are added at the end of the book, and in a pocket in the cover is a tabulated statement of details of road construction, compiled from replies of various engineers and of interest for reference The book will prove a useful addition to the professional library. [1903 Model Answers to Questions, Set by the Sanitary Institute. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d. net. The entire work has been re-modelled and brought up to date, the latest papers, with elucidatory answers and diagrams, being included. The advice to Candidates has also been wholly re-written and brought up to date, while the number of pages is materially increased. This volume is primarily compiled for candidates for the examination of the Sanitary Institute for Sanitary Inspectors, and contains model answers to 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 12 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co. ; Ltd, some 152 which have been set at examinations between the years 1901 and 1903. The questions have been carefully selected to illustrate the various subjects which are dealt with in the Institute's syllabus, and the answers have been compiled by one who thoroughly understands the subjects of which he writes. There is a good chapter on "Advice to Candidates," a list of text books to be studied, and numerous illustrations,. The volume will not only be found useful to candidates — to whom it must prove of very great value — but also to acting Inspectors, as it deals with subjects which are continually occurring in practice, and explains in general the best and most up-to-date methods of overcoming difficulties which present themselves. [1904. The Elements of Sanitary Law. By ALICE RAVENHILL, Lecturer to the National Health Society, Assoc. San. Inst. With Introduction by Sir RICHARD T. THORNE, K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D. Second Edition. 6d. net. The Premier Self = Instructor. Comprising Directions as to Course of Study and How to Pursue it, with Questions and Answers ; together with the necessary Text Books, Three Acts of Parliament (besides those included in the Books), and Seven Sets of Model By = laws. Examinations. Questions, and Answers (30 Papers in all). Seeond Edition. 10s. 6d. net, or including Books, &c, 30s. net. Ventilating, Lighting, and Heating, being Part I. of Notes on Practical Sanitary Science. By WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, Author of " Drainage Work and Sanitary Fittings," &c. Profusely Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 2s. net. "The book will not only be useful to candidates for examination, but also to busy men in practice who desire a summary of the chief points to be observed in carrying out any schemes of ventilation, lighting, and heating." Calculation of Areas, Cubic Space, &c, being Part II. of Notes on Practical Sanitary Science. By WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, Author of " Drainage Work and Sanitary Fittings," &c. With Numerous Diagrams. Demy 8vo. 2s. net. " The ' Xotes ' will, we believe, be found to be of use to engineers and surveyors in practice, being prepared in a concise form and of ready reference. Some of the most important theories as demonstrated in Euclid are given, and a passing reference is made to the use of Trigonometry and Logarithms. The concluding chapter treats of the calculation of quantities of earthwork." 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 13 Diagrammettes, Photozincograph Reduc= tions from Large Diagrams. With Brief Descriptive References for use as Students Notes and Sketches. By W. H. KNIGHT. Third Edition. ll£ X 8. Is. net. [1902. The "Sanitary Record" Year Book and Diary for 1905. Twenty-third Annual Issue. Contains : — Sanitary Legislation of Past Year ; Use '.a Memoranda for Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors ; Directory of Government Depart- ments ; Sanitary and Allied Associations, &c. Interleaved throughout with Blotting Paper. 2s. 6d. net. Cloth, Gilt. The Sanitary Record and Journal of Sanitary and Municipal Engineering. Vol. XXXIV., July-December, 1904. Cloth, Gilt. 8s. 6d. ClOth Cover for Binding ditto, Is. 6d The Sanitary Engineer's Pocket Book. Compiled by E. A. SAXDFORD FAWCETT, A.M.I.C.E., Mem. San. Inst. For the use of Sanitary Engineers and Experts in Examining, Testing, and Reporting on the Drainage, Water Supply, and General Sanitary Con- dition of Premises. Contains 100 Report Forms, with Index, &c. &c. Leather Binding, with Elastic Band. 7J x 5. 3s. 6d. net. Sanitary Inspection Note Book (For Sanitary Engineers, Surveyors, and Inspectors of Nuisances). Compiled by GERARD J. G. JENSEN, C.E., Author of "Modern Drainage Inspection and Sanitary Surveys," &c. &c. 6J x 4, Is. net. Special terms to Councils for quantities. The Sanitary Inspector's Guide. By H. LEMOINSON-OANNON. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. net. Local Government Board Requirements. Sewage Disposal Schemes. By S. H. ADAMS. Second Edition. 2s. 6d. net. [1903 c 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.G. 14 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. The Utilisation of Sewage Sludge. By Professor W. B. BOTTOMLEY, M.A. Paper cover. 6d. net. The Sewage Problem : A Review of the Evidence Collected by the Royal Com- mission on Sewage Disposal. By ARTHUR J. MARTIN, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Mem. San. Inst. 8vo, 360 pages, 8s. 6d. net. Just Published. CONTENTS. Introductory. — The Purification of Sewage on Land. Question I.— Are some Sorts of Land Unsuitable for the Purification of Sewage ? Question II.— Is it Practicable to Produce by Artificial Processes an Effluent which shall not Putrefy ?— Chemical Precipitation— Principles Involved in the Bacterial Purification of Sewage — The Need for Preliminary Treatment — Preliminary Bacterial Processes — Comparative Value of Modes of Preliminary Treatment— Final Treatment — Bacterial Filters— Contact Beds— Flow Filters —Filtering Material— Contact Beds v. Trickling Filters— Filters v. Land- Other Aspects of the Problem— Supplementary Reports of Land Treatment, &c. — The Outlook. Appendix A. — Brief Chronological Summary. Appendix B. — List of Reports issued by Present Commission. [1905. Simple Methods of Testing Sewage Efflu= ents : for Works Managers, Surveyors, &c. By GEORGE THUDICHUM, F.I.C. Foolscap Svo, 2s. 6d. net. Just Published. CONTENTS. Introduction— The Method of Collecting Samples— Exam- ination for Colour, Odour, &c. — Chemical Tests — Behaviour on Keeping — Meaning of Results of Analysis — Standards — The Care of Bacterial Filters — Appendix. [1905. The Purification of Sewage and Water. By W. J. DIBDIN, F.I.C, F.C.S., &c, formerly Chemist to the London County Council. Third Edition. Re-written and considerably Enlarged. With additional Tables, Illustrations, and Diagrams. Demy Svo. 21s. net. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.— Introduction.— Chapter I. General Con- siderations — Chapter II. Antiseptics, or Preservation for Limited Periods ; Bacteriological Methods. Chapter III. Precipitation. — Chapter IV. Experiments at Massachusetts and London. — Chapter V. Sutton Experiments. — Chapter VI. The Septic Tank and other Systems. Chapter VII. Land Treatment v. Bacteria Beds. — Chapter VIII. Manchester Experiments. — Chapter IX. Leeds Experiments. — Chapter X. The Bacterial Treatment of Factory Refuse. — Chapter XL 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 15 Screening. — Chapter XII. The Purification of the Thames. — Chapter XIII. The Discharge of Sewage into Sea-water. — Chapter XIV. The Filtration of Potable Water. — Chapter XV. Systematic Examination of Potable Water — Chapter XVI. The Character of the London Water Supply. — Chapter XVII. The Action of Soft Water upon Lead. — Chapter XVIII. The Absorption of Atmospheric Oxygen by Water. — Chapter XIX. Analyses and their Interpretation. — Chapter XX. Ventilation and Deodorisation of Sewers. — Chapter XXI. The Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal. — Appendices. (I.) Examination for Matters in Suspension. (II.) Dissolved Oxygen. [1904, ". , . . It is quite obvious that this book will serve as a very valuable source of reference upon the subject of purification of sewage by organisms. It will be of service to those interested both in the theory and the practice of the resolution of complex waste injurious compounds into simple innocuous substances. The sanitary engineer and the bacteriologist will, as a matter of course, avail themselves of the very practical and valuable experience recorded by Mr. Dibdin." — Lancet. " The condensed summaries of the results obtained in various places are, by themselves, most valuable." — Engineer. " Is indispensable to everyone dealing with the complicated problems to the discussion of which it is devoted." — Surveyor. " Those who are attempting to keep posted on the subject of sewage dis- posal will find this book of great value." — Engineering News, New York. "This book contains an immense amount of information on a subject which the author has made a life study of, and it cannot but be of the greatest value to all who have to advise upon, or are in any way interested in, this import- ant subject." — The Analyst. The Full Solution of the Sewage Problem. Being the Presidential Address to the Association of Managers of Sewage Disposal Works at Carshalton, March 28th, 1903. By W. D. SCOTT MONCRIEFF. 6d. net. Paper cover 1904 Recent Improvements in Methods for the Bacterial Treatment of Sewage. With a Description of the Author's Multiple Surface Bacteria Beds (Patent No. 16851, io<>3)> giving Double the Usual Working Capacity, with Aerobic Action throughout. By W. J. DIBDIN, F.I.C., F.C.S., &c, formerly Chief Chemist to the Metropolitan Board of Works and the London County Council. Paper cover. Is. net. Just ready. [1904. Sewage Works Analyses. By S. J. FOWLER, M.Sc. (Vict.), F.I.C. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 6s. net. 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 16 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. The Effective Dispersion of Noxious Gases in Sewers and Drains. By FRANK LATHAM, C.E., Borough Engineer and Surveyor, Penzance Author of " The Sanitation of Domestic Buildings." Paper cover. 6d. net. The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria. By ARTHUR J. MARTIN, Assoc. M. Inst, C.E. Fourth Edition. Paper cover. 6d. net. [1903. Sewage Disposal : A Resume, Historical and Practical, with Notes and Comments. By W. H. KNIGHT, Author of " Diagrammettes./ Paper cover. 6d. net. 1904. " . . . . The whole forms a useful series of drawings, valuable not only to engineers, but also to those who are contemplating having such work carried out for them." — Engineer. The riodern Treatment of Sewage. The Preparation of Schemes, Laying of Sewers, and Sewage Disposal. By H. C. H. SHENTON, M.S.E. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. net. Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage. By S. RIDEAL, D.Sc. (Lond.), &c, Author of "Water and Its Purification," and " Disinfection and Disinfectants." Second Edition. Revised Throughout. Illustrated. 8vo. 14s. net. The Bacterial Treatment of Sewage. A Handbook for Councillors, Engineers, and Surveyors. By GEORGE THUDICHUM, F.C.S. Is. net, Practical Smoke Prevention. By W. NICHOLSON, Smoke Inspector, Sheffield. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. net. CONTENTS. — Colours and Densities of Smoke — Smoke from Private Dwelling House Chimneys — Black Smoke from Steam Boilers — Certain Cures — Air in the Furnace — Smoke - preventing Appliances — Black Smoke from Metallurgical Furnaces — Special Furnaces — Mechanism to the Use of Man — Gas-fired Furnaces — Low Chimneys — General Conclusions. [1902. 53 FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.< THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 17 "Deserves the attention of both workmen and manufacturers." — Sheffield Weekly Independent. "Such practical hints should be of the utmost value." — Sheffield Daily Independent. "The book should be in the hands of every person interested in this question." — Surveyor. "The book is well written, and with abundance of proof and sound argument." — Ashton-under-Lyne Weekly Herald. " We should dearly like to see a copy of this book in every fireman's hands, and to compel our leading manufacturers, and especially our Sanitary Com- mittees, to pass an examination in it." — The Baton. " It is, we feel assured, for the public good that this book should be carefully'studied."— Sheffield Daily Telegraph. municipal Engineering. Model Answers to Questions Set at Recent Examinations of the Incorporated Association of Municipal and County Engineers. 3s. 6d. net. The Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse. By WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, C.E., Assistant Engineer and Surveyor to the Urban District Council, Leyton, E. Demy 8vo., nearly 400 pages. ;Fully Illustrated throughout. 15s. net. ABRIDGED SYNOPSIS OF CONTEXTS. Chapter I.— A detailed resume of the law bearing upon the subject. By-laws of Local Government Board. London County Council, &c. The Scaveng- ing and Cleansing of Streets. Disposal of Street Refuse. Street Watering. Chapter II.— House Refuse : Its Collection and Ultimate Disposal. Definition of Refuse : Its Composition, Quantity, &c. Temporary Storage of Refuse. Collection of Refuse. Chapter III.— The Removal of Excreta— Full Descriptions of all Methods Employed. Chapter IV.— Disposal of Town Refuse— Full Descriptions of the various Methods in Use. Chapter V. — Refuse Destructors— Detailed and Illustrated Descriptions of all Types of Furnaces, with their Merits, Defects, &c. Chapter VI.— Destructor Accessories — Cremators, Carboniser, Charging Apparatus, Fire Bars, &c. Chapter VII.— General Observations on Refuse Destructors— Cost of Construc- tion, Cost of Working, Value of Town Refuse for Power Production, Duty per Cell, Amount of Residuum and its Uses, Manufacture of Flagging, Nuisance from Destructors, &c. Chapter VIII.— Chimneys— Construction of Tall Chimneys, their Stability, &c. Chapter IX. — Water-tube Boilers. Chapter X.— Refuse Disposal and Destructor Installations of various Towns- Detailed and fully Illustrated Descriptions of the Installations and 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 1- THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co.. Ltd. : about 120 Refuse Destructors throughout the Chapter XI. — Therm for Storage of Energy. Methods of Mr, Druirt Halpin : Thermal Storage. Prae j2, Thermo-Dynamic A : Thermal Storage. kc. Maxwell seems to have consulted every known authority. He posse " degree the art of condensing information,, and the resu>. :-ok which, as a mark of reference on the subject, stands alone. — rehensive, accur; horoughly adequate book on this subject long: been wanted that the want has been a: last supplied by Mr. T\"rn. H. Maxwell. Assistant Engineer and Sur- vey : Irban District Council, in his book. ' The Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse." . . — : : pal and I drst work ir .anguage dealing in a compreU manner with the collection and disposal of garbage and other city refuse, and we -i to add that it is a good one. . . .'" — E utd A book which it would be worth the while of many in our profession in. read, and keep for reference. . . . Electrical engineers will certainly have to qualify i • ourning. in addition to the other branches of knowledge which t ? hitherto had to master. . . .'" — Electrical . Maxwell has produced a most serviceable book. . . Such a volume, containing results up to date, appears at a very opportune ti„ . . . and, "in view of the progre- made in the direction of refuse or en- « widely read by engineers, councillors, and all other- sted in mtu — Journal. ti:: :ng books for the use of municipal officers. The Register of Letters Received, and the Office Call Book. The each boc k and they are strongly bound in half leather with el . the leaves consisting of strong ledger paper. Each book cont ins 2 . and each page is ruled and headed. The deceived, for dates, names, and addresses ; and the all Eook for name of caller, from whom, and on what business. i ie 12s. 6d. net. each. [1903. Books and Book=Keeping in a Public Health Department. By ALBERT TAYLOR : Author of the " Sanitary Inspectors' Hand-book." 11 X 8 J. Paper covers, Is. net. Cloth, Is. 6d. net. [IS A L; and Forms kept in a Public Health Department, together with Specimen Pages of the most important of them. 5, FETTER LANE. LONDON, E.C. THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. 19 Rural Water Supplies. By J. C. RUSSELL McLEAN. MP.. M.Oh , P.P.H .. Fellow of Royal Institute of Public Health, Medical Officer of Health, Doneaster Rural and Tiekneil Urban Districts. Is. net. In this work the author deals concisely, and in a practical manner, with the important subject of Rural Water Supply in its various phases. v:j. : — Purity of Atmosphere, Catchment Area. Suitable Conducting Channels Adequate Storage, Filtration. Upland Surface Water. Streams and Rivers, Springs and Wells The information in its pages, which is based on a large experience, will be found of great value to Rural Authorities seeking a reliable guide, and desiring to avoid or overcome the evils resulting from unwholesome and polluted water supply. Some useful legal extracts regarding the Water Supply of Rural Districts are appended. "1903. " A brochure which we can confidently recommend to the rural sanitarian." — Journal of State Medicine. "Will be found most useful by menbers of Lteil Authorities and other men, to whom it can be heartily recomaien lei." — Bri JtmrwU. The Student's Guide to Success in Sani- tary Inspectors' Examinations. By MATTHEW CHAPMAN, Sanitary Inspector. Grimsby. Fully Illustrated. Paper cover. Is. 6d. net. This little work conveys in a compact and concise form a wealth of u*eful information to the student. It not only gives model questions, but explains the best mode of answering, and when necessary, of illustrating Them. As a supplementary volume to the standard text-books, such as R-id's and Taylor's, it will be found invaluable, as it shows at a glance how to put the knowledge gained from these works iuto answers suitable for exauiiuers. West Riding of Yorkshire Sanitary Lec- tures. This important series of Lectures on Sanitation to the Health Officers of Yorkshire v West Riding] in pamphlet form, 6d* each. No. 1.— Nuisances and Methods of Inspection. By SPOTTIS WOODE CAMERON, Mil, B.SC., Medical Officer of Health. Leeds. No. 2. Infectious Diseases, Disinfection, Ventilation. Bj W. ARNOLD EVANS, M.P . D.P.H., Medical Officer of Health. Bradford. No. 3. Sanitary Law (A): The Public Health Act. 1S73, and the Model By-Laws thereunder. By TREVOR EDWARDS, West Hiding S^li.'itor. ;. FETTER I AXK. I OND )N, E.C. 20 THE SANITARY PUBLISHING Co., Ltd. No. 4.-Sanitary Law (B). By JOSEPH PRIESTLEY, B.A., M.D., D.P.H. No. 5.— Water Supplies; Domestic Plumbing 1 . By J. MITCHELL WILSON, M.D., Medical Officer of Health, Doncaster. No. 8.— Scavenging' and Refuse Disposal; Smoke Abate- ment. By W. L. HUNTER, M.D., Medical Officer of Health, Pudsey. NO. 10.— Sanitary Inspectors' Work (General and Recapitu- latory). By J. R. KAYE, M.B., Medical Officer to the West Riding County Council. Tables of Flow in Circular Sewers and Pipes. By J. P. DALTON. 6d. net. Calculation of Cubic Space, &c, for Sani= tary Officers. By C. H. CLARKE. Fifth Edition. Is. net. Trade Nuisances : Their Nature and Abate- ment. By C. H. CLARKE. 6d. net. Practical Drain Inspection. By C. H. CLARKE. Fifth Edition. 6d. net. Notes in Sanitary Law for Students. By C. H. CLARKE. Fifth Edition. Is. 6d. net. The Study of Sanitary Law. A Supplement to above. By C. H. CLARKE. 6d. net. Handbook of Sewer and Drain Cases. By J. B. R. CONDER. 2s. 6d. net. Consumption. By J. EDWARD SQUIRE, M.D. (Lond.), D.P.H. (Cantab), M R.C.P., Physician to the North London Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Ciiest and to the St. Marylebone General Dispensary. With an Introductioa by Sir WILLIAM BROAD BENT, Bart., M.D., F.R.C.P., &c. Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. 5, FETTER LANE, LONDON, E.C. RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS • 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 • 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF • Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW SENT ON ILL SEP 2 1 2005 U.C. BERKELEY DD20 6M 9-03 ID b/Ol£ (ni