^.#*^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/1600to1890eu00steprich BY THE SAME AUTHOR.* A HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOL^U- TION, Vol. I., 1789-91; Vol. II., 1791-93 (New York; Charles Scribner's Sons). THE PRINCIPAL SPEECHES OF TAE STATESMEN AND ORATORS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1795. Eai- ted with Introduction, Notes and Indices. 2 Vols. (Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New York; The Macmillan Company). EUROPEAN HISTORY, 1789-1815 (Periods of European History Series ; New York : The Macmillan Company). HISTORY OF PORTUGAL (Story of the Na- tions Series; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons). ALBUQUERQUE AND THE EARLY POR- TUGUESE SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA ( Rulers of India Series. Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New York : The Macmillan Company). SYLLABUS OF A Course of Eighty-Seven Lectures ON Modern European History (1600- I 890) BY H. MORSE STEPHENS Professor of Modern European History in Cornell University NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1903 Si Copyright, 1899 By H. Morse Stephens Set up, electrotyped and printed October, 1899 Reprinted August, 1903 • • • • • • • • • • » •' '• • Press OF fHE New era Printing Company. Lancaster, Pa. PREFACE. This volume is the second, revised and enlarged edition, of a syllabus of lectures on modern European history, which has been used in Cor- nell University during the past five years. It is published in book form at the request of former pupils and of other teachers of history in colleges and universities. The problem of teaching history is complicated with regard to modem European history by certain special considerations. Whatever may be said for or against the lecture method as opposed to the holding of reci- tations on a text-book, either with classes of young students or in such subjects as English or American history, in which the subject-matter is more easily made intelligible, there can be no doubt of the expediency of the lecture method in teaching modern European history to classes in colleges and universities. The complexity of the subject, the im- possibility, arising from this very complexity, of providing an adequate text-book, the strangeness of the proper names, and the confusion of the historical perspective, owing to the absence of any particular cen- tralizing institution or motive, contribute to make teaching through lectures the accepted method of instruction in modem European history. The best that can be done is, in each successive lecture, to fix the at- tention of the class upon some of the changing phases of the subject, and to Indicate where and how fuller information can be obtained. This may be done by lecturing upon topics already studied by the class in an approved text-book, which is also brought into the lec- ture room, but there are certain special advantages in the use of a sylla- bus. The practical assistance in the. taking of notes may be counted as the chief of these advantages. It is hardly practicable for listeners to a lecture to use the actual pages of the text-book as a guide in taking notes. There is an inevitable difficulty in apprehending and inserting the additional matter introduced by the lecturer in his treatment of the subject. The literary form of the text-book and the diffusion of matter over a number of pages also distract attention from the words of the lecturer. There is next to be noted the question of dates. Unless the iii 227428 iv Preface. more important dates to be given in the lecture are conspicuously writ- ten upon the blackboard or previously extracted from the pages of the text-book, it is almost impossible for the members of the class to get them correctly, however often they may be repeated. Still more diffi- cult is it to take down correctly in notes proper names of unusual diffi- culty in foreign languages. The pronunciation seldom indicates the right spelling, and when in the course of a lecture French, German, Italian, Polish and Russian proper names all have to be mentioned, it is too much to expect that they can be correctly heard or rendered. A syllabus containing the skeleton of a lecture, and giving the bare facts in the order in which they are to be treated, with the dates and proper names to be mentioned, is of positive value before, during, and after the lecture hour. In the first place, it is possible for the students, by looking through the syllabus of the lecture they are about to attend, to note the arrangement of the subject and to get a general idea of the manner in which it is to be handled. During the lecture hour, they have before them the skeleton of the facts which it is the teacher's busi- ness to develop and illustrate. They can take their notes either upon pages interleaved in the syllabus itself, or in a note-book with references to the corresponding pages and paragraphs. They are not distracted by the effort to catch dates correctly, or to spell unfamiliar words in foreign languages. After the lecture it is possible to review their knowledge of the subject with the certainty that they have correctly before them all the main facts, which have been narrated and made the subject of comment. It is not, of course, to be asserted that the use of a syllabus necessa- rily dispenses with the use of a text-book. On the contrary, it presup- poses either the use of a textbook or a considerable amount of supple- mentary reading. It is advisable for the lecturer, when entering upon a new topic to review briefly the secondary and primary authorities deal- ing with it, and it is hoped that the bibliographies affixed to each lecture in the present Syllabus may be of use in this respect. Every teacher of history has his own preferences with regard to text-books, and some may choose, like the compiler of this Syllabus, to refer his students directly to brief secondary authorities rather than to any one particular text-book. It need hardly be added that during the lecture Preface. v hour the syllabus should always be supplemented by a good historical atlas, such as Putzger's Historischer Schul-Atlas, and that large wall maps, such as MacCoun's, are indispensable for purposes of illustration. It is always well to prefix to a course of lectures on modern European history a general sketch of the historical geography of Europe. Some points with regard to the Syllabus now published need special explanation. First, the number of lectures has been decided by the consideration that eighty-seven lectures allow for three lectures a week for twenty- nine weeks, which is as much time as can be given during the college year to a single introductory course in modern European history. Where a greater number of lectures can be given or a longer period than one year it is possible to devote more than an hour to a single lec- ture topic. Where the number of lectures proves too great, the difficulty may be met by beginning the course at some date later than 1600, such as 1648 or 1 7 15, or by stopping at some earlier date, such as 18 15 or 1848. A course of lectures may also be given upon any one of the three centuries. Differences of opinion with regard to proportion and to perspective in modern European history necessarily exist. The ar- rangement adopted would need too long a defense to be entered upon in a brief preface, but it may be stated that it has stood the test of five years' experience. Other teachers might prefer to begin earlier or later, or might prefer to devote more time to the period of the French Revolu- tion and of Napoleon, but the conditions in Cornell University make it expedient to begin this course with the Seventeenth Century ; while the compiler gives, in alternate years, special advanced courses on the pe- riod of the French Revolution and on the Napoleonic Era. The sylla- buses of certain lectures, as for instance those upon the War of the Aus- trian Succession and upon the Seven Years' War, are excessively long, and need more than one hour's discourse, but the advantage of compre- hending each topic as a whole has seemed to outweigh the disadvantage of the exceeding length of an occasional syllabus. It will be noted that the length of the syllabuses increases as they progress ; this is partly due to the greater complexity of the later period, owing to the larger number of important political factors, and partly due to the fact that students as they get accustomed to the subject and to the use of the vi Preface. Syllabus can handle a greater quantity of material. A knowledge of English and American history is presupposed and therefore events in the internal history of England and the United States are not touched upon. It will be observed that the side of modern European history treated in this Syllabus is the political. The primary object is the study of the international relations of the different states of Europe from the begin- ning of the Seventeenth Century to the present time. The internal de- velopment of each state is only touched upon or summarized at intervals, as when a new principle of national government comes into existence and works its way through Europe, such as that expressed in the sys- tem and ideas of the monarchy of Louis XIV., and of the enlightened despotism, and in the movement for popular government which fol- lowed the French Revolution. No attempt is made in these lectures to deal with the history of European civilization or " Kulturgeschichte," although political history, when adequately treated, affords many opportunities for dwelling upon the general history of human pro- gress. It has been found of advantage, however, to pause occasion- ally in the political narrative, in order to touch in the briefest possible manner upon the history of literature, philosophy, art and science. Six lectures in three groups are interpolated upon these subjects at ap- propriate dates. The syllabuses of these six lectures are on a different plan from those on political history, and are intended to bring out the great contemporary movements of thought and art, through the na'mes of the leading masters, rather than to attempt an exhaustive treatment. It is important to know in what period of European political history Moliere wrote, or Rembrandt painted, or Beethoven composed his sym- phonies, even if it is not possible to dwell upon their achievements in their own special lines of work. Since one of the chief uses of a syllabus of lectures on modern Euro- pean history is to keep before the students' eyes the dates of important facts, not so much to impress them upon the memory as to make clear the chronological sequence of events, the greatest care has been used to give correct dates ; but it is inevitable that in such a mass of dates as is contained in this Syllabus, mistakes must have been committed, or passed over in the process of printing. In every case the Gregorian date Preface, vii is given and this causes an apparent discrepancy with the dates given in many primary and secondary authorities. It is devoutly to be wished that modern historians would always convert dates in the his- tory of Protestant countries, until they adopted the "new style", and of Russia and other countries under the Greek Church, into the Gre- gorian dates. It may be noted here that, although the Gregorian cal- endar was accepted in all Roman Catholic countries a^id in the provinces of Holland and Zealand by 1587, it was not adopted in the Protes- tant states of the Empire, the remainder of the Protestant Netherlands, and Denmark until 1700, in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland until 1 701, in Great Britain until 1752, and in Sweden until 1753, and that it has not yet been adopted in Russia, Greece and the Balkan States. This Syllabus contains not only a mass of dates, but also, as has been already explained, a mass of proper names, and a few words must be said as to the system of spelling adopted. With regard to the names of individuals, the Anglicized forms of Christian names have been used wherever possible. Thus, Charles, Henry and John have been used in the place of their French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Swedish and Danish equivalents. An apparent exception is made in case of Louis, which is now so far accepted in English as to have super- seded the older spelling of Lewis. With regard to surnames, the spell- ing of the country of origin has been adopted, except in such cases as that of Mazarin, in which it would be pedantic to continue the original spelling of Mazarini. A far greater problem is presented by the spell- ing of names in Russian and other Slavonic languages. It has been thought better to adopt the Anglicized forms of such Christian names as Peter, Alexander and Nicholas ; but Ivan, Feodor and Vasili, in ac- cordance with the best modern usage, have been retained in spite of the temptation to change them into John, Theodore and Basil. Slavonic surnames have been transliterated directly into English upon the prin- ciples already adopted in the author's Europe, lySg-iSi^, and more fully explained in Mr. J. B. Landfield's article in the American Histor- ical Review, vol. 2, pp. 766-768. This is the only rational method of spelling Slavonic proper names, since neither the French nor the German transliterations indicate the correct pronunciation in English. Muhammadan names are spelled according to the Hunterian standard, which has been adopted by the British Government of India. viii Preface, With regard to the spelling of names of places, the rule adopted has been to use the English spelling wherever an English spelling has been established. No one will contest the correctness of using Florence, Lyons and Vienna for Firenze, Lyon and Wien, nor the adoption of an English usage wherever it can be found, as in the case of Strasburg, Basle and Ratisbon. Where the name of the place has both a French and a German form, as in the Rhenish provinces, it has been thought better to retain the French form of spelling, since Cologne for Koln, Treves for Trier, Mayence for Mainz, Munich for Miinchen, Nimeguen for Nymwegen, and some others are not only the French forms, but have also been practically adopted into English. It would be absurd to speak of the Treaty of Aachen, when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is the recognized designation in every English document and book. For all places of minor importance, except Blenheim, the local spelling has been retained. A new departure has been made in rejecting the forms Roumania and Rumania, which are based upon French and German spellings, and using the correct form Romania. The appended tables of rulers and ministers have been found of prac- tical value in teaching, by the opportunity afforded of seeing at a glance the names of contemporary rulers. The number of genealogical appen- dices might have been greatly increased, but the three given explain the three most confusing genealogical puzzles of modern European history. It is most essential, if the study of modern European history is to be of greater value than to provide a mere skeleton knowledge, that every student should be required during his undergraduate course to work out particular problems for himself and to familiarize himself with some field of historical literature. It has been the custom in Cornell Univer- sity, during the past five years, to demand each term of every student an essay, which shall not be a mere paraphrase of hastily read books, but an exercise in using historical materials. Out of the need for pro- viding authorities for these essay subjects arose the compilation of the bibliographies subjoined to the syllabus of each lecture. These bibli- ographies do not pretend to be complete, and they necessarily show, by their greater fullness on some subjects than on others, the bias of the compiler's own studies. An honest attempt has been made, however, to give the names of books generally recognized as secondary authori- Preface. ix ties, with a list of the chief primary authorities, and occasionally refer- ence is made to some small book in English for a brief summary. Most of these bibliographies mention only books, which should be in every good college library, and it is hoped that they may be serviceable on this account to teachers of history, who desire to know to what books to refer their students. Much assistance has been derived in revising the bibliographies for the second edition of this Syllabus from the excellent bibliographies contained in Lavisse and 'R.o.mhdiudi's Histoire generale. A list of some of the most useful historical bibliographies, collections of primary authorities, general histories, and other works of a general character, is appended to this preface. It remains to be said that the first edition of this Syllabus has been used for the past five years in Cornell University with a class consisting chiefly of juniors, who have already had courses in Mediaeval and Eng- lish history, and that it has been found to give a fair basis on which to found more detailed courses for seniors, as well as to afford some pre- liminary training, both in historical perspective and in the use of his- torical materials. The thanks of the compiler are especially due, and are hereby given, to Mr. G. M. Butcher, A.B., of Cornell University, to whose painstaking care this revised edition owes its superior accuracy over its predecessor. H. MORSE STEPHENS. CoRNEi^i, University, ITHACA, N. Y. July, 1899. TABLE OF CONTENTS. General Bibliography xv LECTURES. 1. Introductory : Europe in 1600, i 2. The Policy of Henry IV. of France, 2 3. The Thirty Years' War : To the Death of Gustavus Adolphus and of Wallenstein, 4 4. The Policy of Richelieu, 7 5. The Thirty Years' War : From 1634 to 1648, 9 6. The Treaties of Westphalia, 11 7. The Fronde, and the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 14 8. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : i. France, 17 9. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 2. The Empire, the House of Austria, and the German Princes, 19 10. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 3. The Netherlands, . 22 11. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century ; 4. Sweden and Den- mark, 25 12. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 5. Russia and Poland, 28 13. Europe in the. Middle of the 17th Century : 6. The Ottoman Turks, 30 14. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 7. Italy, 33 15. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 8. Spain and Portugal, 36 16. France under Louis XIV. and Colbert : To the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685, 38 17. The Foreign Policy of Louis XIV. : To the Treaties of Nimeguen, 1678, 41 18. Frederick William, the Great Elector, 45 19. The Foreign Policy of Louis XIV. : To the Treaties of Ryswick, 1697 47 20. The Siege of Vienna by the Tm-ks, 1683 : Poland under John So- bieski, 51 21. Russia under Peter the Great, 54 22. Charles XII. of Sweden, 56 23. The Spanish Succession, 59 24. The War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-14, 61 25. The Treaties of Utrecht, 65 26. Germany to 1715, 67 xii Table of Contents. 27. The Southern Countries of Europe to 17 15, 73 28. The Papacy in the 17th Century : The Jesuits and the Jansenists, . 76 29. The Last Years of the Reign of Louis XIV., 79 30. Literature and Philosophy in the 17th Century, 82 31. Art and Science in the 17th Century, 84 32. The Regency of Orleans, and the Schemes of Alberoni, 86 33. The End of the Northern War, 89 34. The Policy of the Emperor Charles VI 91 35. The War of the Polish Succession, 93 36. Frederick William I. of Prussia, and the Tsaritsa Anne of Russia, . . 96 37. The War of the Austrian Succession, 99 38. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the Austro-French Alliance, . 105 39. The Seven Years' War, 108 40. France under Louis XV,, 112 41. The Suppression of the Jesuits, 115 42. The First Partition of Poland, 118 - 43. The War of American Independence, 122 ' -^ "44. France under Louis XVI., 124 45. Prussia under Frederick the Great, 127 46. Russia under Catherine the Great, 131 47. The Emperor Joseph II., 135 48. The Northern Countries of Europe to 1789, 139 49. The Southern Countries of Europe to 1789, 144 50. Germany to 1789, . - 149 51. The Enlightened Despots, 153 52. Literature and Philosophy in the i8th Century, 156 53. Art and Science in the i8th Century, 158 - - 54. The French Revolution, 162 55. The Belgian Revolution, and the Policy of the Emperor Leopold II., 165 56. The War of the French Republic against Europe 169 . 57. The Second and Third Partitions of Poland, 173 58. The Treaties of Basle, 176 59. The French Directory, and the First Victories of Bonaparte, . . . 179 60. The Second Coalition against the French Republic, 184 61. The Treaties of Lundville and of Amiens, 187 62. The Consulate in France, and the Re-constitution of Germany, . 190 ^ 63. The Power of Napoleon at its Height, 193 / 64. Europe during the Ascendency of Napoleon, .......... 197 65. The Overthrow of the Power of Napoleon, . 201 66. The Congress of Vienna, 205 67. The Holy Alliance .209 Table of Contents. xiii 68. The Eastern Question : The Independence of Greece, 213 69. The Revolution of 1830 in France, 217 70. The Belgian Insurrection 220 71. Insurrection and Civil War in Spain and Portugal, 223 72. Europe during the Reign of Louis Philippe, 226 73. The Revolution of 1848 in France, 231 74. The Revolution of 1848 in Italy, 235 75. The Revolution of 1848 in Austria, 239 76. The Revolution of 1848 in Germany, 244 77. Europe after the Revolutions of 1848 247 78. Literature and Philosophy from 1789 to 1848, 251 79. Art and Science from 1789 to 1848, 254 80. The Eastern Question : The Crimean War, 257 81. The Union of Italy, 261 82. The Overthrow of Austria, 265 83. The Re-constitution of Germany and Austria, 269 84. The Franco-German War, 274 85. Europe after the Franco-German War : The Dreikaiserbund, . . . 278 86. The Eastern Question : The Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, .... 282 87. Europe to 1890 : The Triple Alliance, 286 APPENDIX. I. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : The Great Powers, . . 293 II. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : The Lesser Powers, , 300 III. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : Italy, 305 IV. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : Germany, 310 V. The Rulers of Independent and Semi-independent States formed from the Turkish Empire during the 19th Century, 315 VI. Genealogical Table representing the Relationship of the Claim- ants to the Spanish Succession (1700), 317 VII. Genealogical Table representing the Succession to the Russian Throne in the i8th Century, 318 VIII. Genealogical Table representing the Claimants to the Austrian Succession (1740) and the Children of Maria Theresa, .... 319 General Bibliography. Bibliographies. Langlois : Manuel de bibliographie historique. Monod : Bibliographic de Thistoire de France. Franklin : Les sources de I'histoire de France. Dahlmann-Waitz : Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte. (ed. Steindorff.) Pirenne : Bibliographic de Thistoire de Belgique. Historische Gesellschaft zu Berlin: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissen- schaft. (Since 1878.) Atlases. Putzger : Historischer Schul- Atlas. Poole : Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. (Clarendon Press. — In course of publication. ) Schrader : Atlas de geographic historique. Droysen : Allgemeiner historischer Hand-Atlas. Spruner-Menke : Hand-Atlas fiir die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit. Chronologies. Bond : Handy-Book of Rules and Tables for Verifying Dates. Pioetz : Epitome of Universal History, (ed. Tillinghast, to 1883.) Hassall : Handbook of European History, 476-1871. Qhillany : Europaische Chronik von 1492 bis Ende April, 1877. L'art de verifier les dates des faits historiques. (To 1827. ) Belviglieri : Tavole sincrone e genealogiche di storia italiana dal 300 al 1870. Genealogies. Lorenz : Genealogisches Handbuch der europaischen Staatengeschichte. Grote: Stammtafeln. George : Genealogical Tables illustrative of Modern History. Almanach de Gotha. (Since 1764. ) Historical Dictionaries. Haydn : Dictionary of Dates. Harper's Book of Facts. (Ed. Lezvis. American edition of Haydn.) Herbst : Encyklopadie der neueren Geschichte. Lalanne : Dictionnaire historique de la France. xVi General Bibliography, Biographical Dictionaries. Thomas : Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and Mythology (1886). GEttinger : Moniteur des dates. (1869, with supplements to 1882.) Michaud : Biographic universelle. (1854-65.) Hoefer : Nouvelle biographic generale. (1857-66.) Vapereau : Dictionnairc universel des contemporains. (Sixth edition, 1892.) Stephen and Lee : Dictionary of National Biography. (1885— In progress.) Liliencron and Wegele : Allgemcine deutsche Biographic. (1877— In progress.) Wurzbach : Biographisches Lexicon des Kaiserthums CE)sterreich. (1856-91.) Van der Aa : Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlandcn. (1852-78.) General Histories. Hassall : Periods of European History. (To 1815— final volume to appear.) Lavisse and Rambaud : Histoire generale du iv® si^cle £i nos jours. (To 1871 — final volume to appear.) Collections of Histories. (Putnams*): The Story of the Nations. Oncken : Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen. Heeren, Ukert, Qiesebrecht and Lamprecht : Geschichte der europaischen Staaten. General Histories of Countries. riartin: Histoire de France. (To 1789.) Sismondi : Histoire des Fran^ais. (To 1789.) Michelet: Histoire de France. (To 1789.) Dareste: Histoire dc France. (To 1848.) Lafuente: Historia general de Espaiia. (To 1789.) Canovas del Castillo : Historia general de Espana escrita por individuos de numero de la Real Academia de la Historia. Botta: Storiad'Italia. (To 1789.) Cantil : Histoire des Italiens. (Tr. Lacombe, to 1856.) Daru : Histoire de la republique de Venise. (To 1798.) Miiller, Qloutz-Blozheim and Hettinger : Histoire de la confederation Suisse ; traduite de I'allemaud et continuee par Monard et Vulliemin. (To 1815.) Finlay : History of Greece. (To 1864.) , Hammer: Histoire dc Tempire ottoman. (Tr. Hellert, to 1774-) Sayous : Histoire g^n^rale des Hongrois. (To 1815.) Xenopol : Histoire des Roumains dc la Dacic Trajane. (To 1859.) Rambaud: History of Russia. (Tr. Za«^, to 1891.) General Bibliography, xvil L6ger: History of Austro-Hungary. (Tr. Hill, to 1889.) Krones : Handbuch der Geschichtc O^stcrreichs. (To 1870.) Allen : Histoire de Danetnark. (Tr. Beauvois, to 1866.) Blok : History of the People of the Netherlands. (Tr. Bierstadt and Putnam, In progress. ) Juste: Histoire de Belgique. (To 1865.) Historical Geographies. Freeman : Historical Geography of Europe. (To 1879.) Himly : Histoire de la formation territoriale des ^tats de rEurope centrale. (Second Ed., to 1890.) Hertslet : Map of Europe by Treaty, 1814-1891. Collections of Memoirs. Petitot and Monmerque: Collection complete des m^moires relatifs ^ I'his- toire de France depuis I'avenement de Henri IV. jusqu'a la paix de Paris, conclue en 1763. Michaud and Poujoulat : Nouvelle collection des m^moires pour servir i This- toire de France depuis le XIIP siecle jusqu'd la fin du XVIIP si^cle. Collections of Treaties and Diplomatic Correspondence. Dumont and Rousset de flissy : Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens coutenant un recueil des traitez. (To 1737.) Wenck: Codex juris gentium recentissimi. (1735-1772.) Martens: Recueil de traites etc., depuis 1761 jusqu'a present. (Continued by others, with slight changes of title, to the present day.) Martens: Recueil des traites et conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances etrang^res. Sorel : Recueil des instructions donndes aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France depuis les traitds de Westphalie jusqu'a la Revolution franjaise. National Collections of Documents. France : Collection de documents in^dits sur I'histoire de France. (Since 1835. ) Spain : Coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de Espaiia. (Since 1842.) Netherlands : Werken uitgegeven door het Historisch Genootschap, gevestigd te Utrecht. (Since 1846.) Austro-Hungary : Fontes Rerum Austriacarum. CGsterreichische Geschichts- Quelleu. (Since 1855.) Russia: Russkoe Istoricheskoe Obshchestvo : Sbornik. (Since 1867). Prussia: Publicationen aus den k. preussischen Staatsarchiven. (Since 1878.) xviii General Bibliography, Publications of Academies. Academic des sciences morales et politiques : Memoires. (Since 1798.) Comptes rendus des seances et travaux. (Since 1840.) Die konigliche bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen: Gelehrte Anzeigen. (1835-1860.) Sitzungsberichte. (Since i860, ) Die konigliche preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: Bericht iiber die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen. (1836-1855.) Monatsberichte. (1856-1881.) Sitzungsberichte. (Since 1882.) Die kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna): Sitzungsberichte. (Since 1848.) Denkschriften. (Since 1850.) Archiv fiir Kunde osterreichischer Geschichts-Quellen. (1848-1865.) Archiv fiir osterreichische Geschichte. (Since 1865.) Koniglich Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig: Berichte. (Since 1849.) Abhaudlungen. (Since 1850.) Historical Reviews. Historische Zeitschrift. (Since 1859.) Revue des questions historiques. (Since 1866.) Revue historique. (Since 1876.) English Historical Review. (Since 1886.) American Historical Review. (Since 1895.) LECTURES ON MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY. LECTURE 1, INTRODUCTORY: EUROPE IN 1600. The first half of the 17th century was marked by the same charac- teristics as the last half of the i6th, but traces of the modern European system, which existed after the Treaties of Westphalia and of the Pyre- nees, were to be seen in the policy pursued by Henry IV. of France and Cardinal Richelieu. The period covered by the i6th and first half of the 17th century was a period of transition from the ferment caused by the Reformation, the discovery of the New World and of the direct sea route to Asia, the invention of printing, etc., to the more settled conditions of internal government and international relations, which lasted from the Treaties of Westphalia to the French Revolution. The characteristic features of this transition period were the Wars of Religion. Causes of the Wars of Religion : the earnestness imparted by the Reformation supplemented by the work of the Counter- Reformation ; so that war on behalf of religion, and persecution came to be considered religious duties ; religious intolerance among earnest men matched by the unscrupulous conduct of politicians. During the Wars of Religion the sense of National Unity began to be felt, binding peoples by their countries rather than by their faiths: in this way the Wars of Religion helped to modify the results of feudalism. 2 ^ , .,",'."; ^ c :Henfy IV. of Fraiice. Different effects of the Wars of Religion in different countries, e. g.^ (i) in the Netherlands, (2) in France, (3) in Germany. Tendency toward strong government and standing armies to avert the horrors of religious and civil wars ; France being the first country to obey this tendency became, during the first half of the 17th cen- tury, the most important nation in Kurope. Where the national spirit developed, countries became strong in spite of religious internal differences, e. g.^ France, England, the United Provinces. Relative position of the powers of Europe toward each other in 1600. The condition of Germany : unsatisfactory settlement made of the religious question by the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; the pretensions and actual strength of the Holy Roman Empire ; the electors, and the princes of the Empire ; certainty of further religious war in Germany. The Papacy : its increased spiritual strength after the Council of Trent (1545-1563), due to the Counter- Reformation and the work of the Jesuits. In the year 1600, although religious war impended in German 3^ owin^ to German conditions, it was practically at its close elsewhere, for Henry IV. had just issued the Edict of Nantes, Philip II. of Spain was just dead, and Elizabeth of England was at the very end of her reign. LECTURE 2. THE POLICY OF HENRY IV. OF FRANCE. The character and early career of Henry IV. (b. 1553). His part in the Wars of Religion in France. On the death of Henry III. (1589), Henry of Bourbon, who had been King of Navarre since 1572, claimed the throne of France as next male heir ; his struggles as Huguenot leader against the Catholics. He adopted the Catholic religion (1593), and thus became a national king. Henry IV, of France. 3 * The issue of the Edict of Nantes (13 April, 1598), and the pacifica- tion of the Huguenots : terras of the Edict. Conclusion of the war with Philip II. of Spain by the Treaty of Ver- vins (2 May, 1598): terms of the treaty. The internal policy of Henry IV. as worked out by the Due de Sully (b. 1560, d. 1641). L His absolutism in government; justified by the turbulence and want of patriotism of the nobles : execution of Biron (31 July, 1602). ii. His administrative reforms. in. His judicial reforms : seats in the Parlements made hereditary. iv. His financial reforms : the new taxation. V. His advancement of the material prosperity of his people : a. by encouraging agriculture : Olivier de Serres. b. by undertaking public works. c. by establishing manufactures. d. hy reviving commerce. vi. His interest in trans- Atlantic exploration and emigration: foundation of Annapolis (1604), of Quebec (1608). The foreign policy of Henry IV.: the '* Grand Design": the ques- tion of its authenticity. Assassination of Henry IV. at Paris by Francois Ravaillac (14 May, 1610): its eJBFect on France and on Europe. Authorities : The most recent small book in English on the life of Henry IV. is a biography by Willert. The best secondary authorities are Poirson, His- toire du regne de Henri IV., 4 vols. ; Guadet. Henri IV. sa vie etses Merits ; Per- rens, Les manages espagnols sous le regne de Henri IV. et la r^gence de Marie de Medicis, and L'Eglise et I'Etat en France sous le regne de Henri IV. et la r^geuce de Marie de Medicis ; Zeller, Henri IV. et Marie de Medicis ; Lacombe, Henri IV. et sa politique ; Philippson, Heinrich IV. und Philipp III. ; Anquez, Henri IV. et I'AUemagne, d'apres les m^moires et la correspon dance de Jacques Bon- gars; Rotty Henry IV., les Suisses et la Haute-Italie; Kertnaingant, L*ambassade de France en Angleterre sous Henri IV. ; Puyol, Edm. Richer : dtude sur la reno- vation du gallicanisme au commencement du XVII. ieme siecle, 2 vols.; Read, Henri IV. et le ministre Daniel Chamier ; Henrard, Henri IV. et la princesse de Coudd ; and Phet, Henri IV. et I'Eglise ; see also the essays on •' La France sous Henri IV." in Hanoiaux^ Etudes Historiques sur le XVI« et le XVIP siecle, and on 4 The Thirty Years' War, 1618-34.. "Ravaillac et ses complices" in Loiseleur, Questions historiques du XVII®. siecle, as well as Vol. i, chap. 6 of I^es Finances fran9aises, by the Baron de Nervo. Short excerpts from the ■primary authorities are to be found in three volumes in the series edited by Zeller, Henri IV. et Sully, Henri IV. et Biron, and La Fin de Henri IV. The chief primary authorities are the various collections of the letters of Henry IV., including the Lettres missives, ed. Berger de Xivrey and Guadet, 9 vols., in the Documents inedits, the Lettres intimes, a selection ed. Dus- sieux^ and the Correspondance avec Maurice le Savant, ed. De Rommel; Benoity Histoire de I'Edit de Nantes, 5 vols.; the first three volumes of M. Ritter, Briefe und Acten zur Geschiclj^e des dreissigjahrigen Krieges; the Memoires of Villeroy; the contemporary histories of Mathieu, Agrippa d'Aubigni and De Thou; the M^moires-journaux oi U Estoile; the Chronologic novenaire and Chronologic sep- tenaire oi Raima Cayet ; the Negociations oijeannin; the Journal of Bassompie7're; and above all, the Economies royales, or Memoires, of Sully ^ with the recent criti- cisms by Rfister in the Revue Historique,|lrols. 54, 55, 56. LECTURE 3. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR: TO THE DEATH OF GUSTAVUS ADOIvPHUS AND OF WALLENSTEIN. The approach of renewed religious war in Germany : changes in Ger- man conditions since the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; political effect of the Reformation ; secularisation of ecclesiastical states. The spread of Calvinism : the Ecclesiastical Reservation ; the Coun- ter-Reformation. lUuw Fore warnings of the war : (i) the case of the Elector of Cologne (1584) ; (2) the case of the city of Aix-la-Chapelle (1589); (3) the case of the town of Donauworth (1607). Formation of the Protestant Union (1608), and of the Cathoilc League (1609). The Emperor and his political position in Germany : the three lay- electors — the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Duke of Saxony, and the Elector Palatine ; the three ecclesiastical electors — the Archbishops of Mayence, Cologne, and Treves ; the Duke of Bavaria. The Emperor as head of the House of Hapsburg : his position in The Thirty Years' War, 1618-34, 5 Bohemia, in Austria, and in Hungary ; the Emperors RudolpV II. (1576-1612), and Matthias (1612-1619). The disputed succession to Juliers-Cleves (1609): interference of Henry IV. of France and the Dutch. The outbreak of the Thirty Years' War: the " throwing from the v^^indows" at Prague (23 May, 161 8); accession of Ferdinand II., and election of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, who had married Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England, as King of Bohemia (1619); the battle of the White Mountain (8 Nov., i62o),^nd occupation of the Rhenish or Lower Palatinate by Spanish troops (Apr., 162 1); the Duke of Bavaria made an Elector (1623), and granted the Upper Palat- inate ; triumph of the Catholic League ; Tilly (b. 1559), in com- mand of the army of the League^ defeated the Margrave of Baden at Wimpfen (6 May, 1622), and Christian of Brunswick at Hochst (20 July, 1622) and at Stadtlohn (6 Aug., 1623). Intervention of Christian IV., King of Denmark, in aid of the Protes- tants (1625) : Wallenstein (b. 1583), in command of the Emperor's army, defeated Mansfeld at Dessau. (25 Apr., 1626); death of Christian of Brunswick (9 June); Tilly defeated the Danes at Lutter (27 Aug.); death of Mansfeld (29 Nov.); the siege of Stralsund (1628); Christian IV. made peace at Liibeck (22 May, 1629). Height of the Catholic success : the Emperor Ferdinand II. issued the Edict of Restitution (6 March, 1629); Diet of Ratisbon (1630); dis- missal of Wallenstein. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, induced to come to the rescue of Protestantism : his conquest of Pomerania (1630); the sack of Mag- deburg by Tilly (20 May, 1631 >; the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony forced to join Gustavus Adolphus ; the battle of Breitenfeld or Leipzig (17 Sept., 1631); the policy of Gustavus; his march to the Rhine ; defeat of Tilly at the Lech (15 Apr., 1632); death of Tilly (20 Apr.); the conquest of Bavaria and the capture of Munich by Gus- tavus ; Wallenstein recalled ; Gustavus Adolphus killed at the battle of Liitzen (16 Nov., 1632). * The character of Gustavus Adolphus ; his military genius ; the Swedish nation and army ; his political schemes ; the startling changes caused by his intervention in the Thirty Years' War, and by his death. 6 The Thirty Years' War^ i6i8-j^. Assassination of Wallenstein (25 Feb., 1634) ; his character and po- litical aims. Knd of the earnest period of the Thirty Years' War. Authorities : Of small books in Knglish, Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War, and Fletcher, I^ife of Gustavus Adolphus, may be recommended. In French, Charveriat, Histoire de la guerre de Trente ans, 2 vols., is readable, and in Ger- man, Winter, Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges. The best secondary histories for the early part of the war are, Gindely, Geschichte des dreissig- jahrigen Krieges, 5 vols., of which a popular and abridged edition has been trans- lated into English by Ten Brook, and Klopp, Der dreissigjahrige Krieg bis zum Tode Gustav Adolfs, 3 vols.; Schiller, Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges, is still read as a German classic : among more special books should be noted Huber, Geschichte (Esterreichs, vol. v.; Gindely, Rudolf II. und seine Zeit (1608-1612), 2 vols.; Stieve, Der Ursprung des dreissigjahrigen Krieges ; Ritter, Geschichte def Deutschen Union (1598-1612) ; Hurler, Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II., 4 vols., being vols. viii. to xi. of his Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands 11. und seiner Eltern ; Markham, The Fighting Veres ; Opel, Der Niedersachsich-Danische Krieg ; Droy- sen, Gustav Adolf ; Gfrorer, Gustav Adolf, Konig von Schweden, und seine Zeit, 3 vols.; Harte, History of Gustavus Adolphus, 2 vols.; Vincent Chapman, History of Gustavus Adolphus and of the Thirty Years' War, 2 vols.; Dodge, Gustavus Adolphus ; Biihring, Venedig, Gustav Adolf und Rohan ;K. A. Midler, Kiirfurst Johann Georg der Erste ; Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins ; Gindely, Waldstein wahrend seines ersten Generalats, 2 vols.; Forster, Wallenstein als Feldherr und lyandesfiirst ; Vonjanko, Wallenstein ; Hurler, Zur Geschichte Wallensteins, and Wallensteins vier letzten Ivcbensjahre ; Gddeke, Wallensteins Verhandlungen mit den Schweden und Sachsen (1631-1634) ; Hildebrandt, Wallenstein und seine Verbindungen mit den Schweden ; Hallwich, Wallenstein's Ende, and Gestalten aus Wallensteins Lager ; Klopp, Tilly, and Villemiont, Tilly, and Ernest de Mans- feldt. Among primary authorities consult Abelin, Theatrum Europaeum, 2 vols., and Arma Suecica, 4 vols.; /. L. Gottfried, Fortgesetze historische Chronick ; Lotichius, Rerum Germanicarum sub Matthia, Ferdinandis II. et III. imperatori- bus gestarum libri 55 ; Khevenhiiller, Annales Ferdinandei, 12 vols ; Brachelius, Historia sui temporis ; Riccius, De bellis Germanicis libri x. ; Gualdo Priorato, Historia delle guerre di Ferdinando II., e Ferdinando III., imperatori, e del re Fil- ippo IV. di Spagna contra Gostava Adolfo, re di Svetia, e Luigi XIII., re di Francia (1630-1640) ; Konung Gustaf II. Adolfs Skrifter, ed. Styffe; Irmer, Die Verhand- lungen Schwedens und seiner Verbiindeten mit Wallenstein und dem Kaiser, 3 vols. ; Forster'' s and other collections of Wallenstein' s Letters ; M. Ritter, Briefe und Acten zur Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges in den Zeiten des vorwal- tenden Einflusses der Wittelsbacher, 5 vols., and Gardiner, Letters and other Doc- uments illustrating the relations between England and Germany at the commence- ment of the Thirty Years' War (Camden Society, 1865). Richelieu, LKCTURK 4. THE POLICY OF RICHELIEU. The government of France from the death of Henry IV. (1610) to the ministry of Richelieu (1624) a period of court intrigues, of weakness of the central authority, and of vacillating foreign policy. The Regency of Marie de Medicis in the name of her son, Louis XIII. (16 10-16 1 7): her favorites; the one event of importance the Spanish marriages, Louis XIII. marrying Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, and Philip, the heir to the Spanish throne, marrying Elizabeth, sister of Louis XIII. (16 12); murder of Concini, Marechal d'Ancre (24 April, 16 17). The States- General held in 16 14: what it was, what it might have done, and how it failed. The government of the favorite, the Due de Luynes (1617-1621): the escape of Marie de Medicis from Blois (1619); the struggle between mother and son; attack commenced on the political power of the Hu- guenots; capture of St. Jean d'Angel)^ (1621); Peace of Montpellier (1623). Richelieu (b. 5 Sept., 1585; Bishop of Lu^on, 16 Apr., 1607; Car- dinal, 5 Sept., 1622) appointed chief minister of France (19 Apr., 1624); his early career; his character; his political aims. Richelieu's policy: /. To make the crown of France all-powerful by overcoming the nobility: first conspiracy of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the King's brother (1626); the edict against duelling, and execu- tion of Montmorency-Boutteville (1627) ; the " Day of Dupes" (11 Nov., 1630); imprisonment and exile of Marie de Medicis; intrigues of the exiles, including Gaston of Orleans, with Lorraine and Spain; invasion of Gaston of Orleans; execution of Montmorency (30 Oct., 1632); part played by the queen, Anne of Austria; her relations with the Duke of Buckingham; birth of the Dauphin (5 Sept., 1638) ; the conspiracy of Cinq- Mars; his execution (12 Sept., 1642). 8 Richelieu. iu To unite the force of France by destroying the political power of the Huguenots: the rights possessed by the Huguenots under the Edict of Nantes; their unpatriotic spirit a remnant of the ideas of the i6th century; the civil war of 1625-26; the siege of La Rochelle (1627-28); help sent to the Hugue- nots by England; the surrender of La Rochelle (28 Oct., 1628); the Peace of Alais (^28 June, 1629), granting the Huguenots religious liberty, but destroying their political independence. in. To overthrow the power of the House of Hapsburg: Riche- lieu's adoption of part of the ' ' Grand Design' ' ; his endeavors to assist the Protestant princes, and to cut the communica- tion between the Hapsburgs of Austria and of Spain; mar- riage of Charles I., of England, with Henrietta Maria (i May. 1625); the fii;st war in Italy (1624-26); the Valteiline restored to the Grisons; the second war in Italy (1628-30) against Spain, the Empire and Savoy; Richelieu in the field; Pignerol captured (22 March, 1630), and his candidate recog- nized as Duke of Mantua by the Treaty of Cherasco (6 April, 1 631); Richelieu's support of the Protestant Nether- lands; Richelieu and the German Protestants; Pere Joseph at the Diet of Ratisbon (1630); Gustavus Adolphus induced to enter Germany; his relations with Sweden; intervention of France in the Thirty Years' War (1635). Death of Richelieu (4 Dec, 1642), followed by that of Louis XIII. (14 May, 1643): the relations between them; effect of Richelieu's policy on the French monarchy and on the position of France in Europe. Authorities : The best small book in English is Lodge, Richelieu, and refer- ence may be made to Bridges^ France under Richelieu and Colbert. Among secondary works, founded on documents, consult Perkins, France under Riche- lieu and Mazarin; Perrens works cited under Lecture 2; Zeller, La minorite de Louis XIII.; Louis XIII., Marie de Medicis, chef du conseil; Le Connetable de Luynes; Richelieu et les ministres de Louis XIII.; Puyol, Louis XIII. et le Beam; Bazin, Histoire de France sous Louis XIII.; Picot, Histoire des Ktats Generaux, vols. 4, 5; Georges d'Avenel, Richelieu et la monarchic absolue, 4 vols.; Topin, Louis XIII. et Richelieu ; Houssaye, Le Cardinal de Berulle et le Cardinal de Richelieu; Basserie, La conjuration de Cibq-Mars ; La Garde, Le Due The Thirty Years' War^ 16^4-^8. 9 de Rohan et les Protestants sous Louis XIIT. ; Laugel, Henry de Rohan; the Vicomte de Meaux^ La Rdforme et la politique fran9aise en Europe, 2 vols.; Fagniez, Le Pcre Joseph et Richelieu 2 vols.; and above all the first two volumes (all yet pub- lished), containing the latest account of Richelieu's early years, o{ Hanotaiix, His- loire du Cardinal de Richelieu. Among seventeenth century histories reference should be made to Aubery, Memoircs pour Thistoire du Cardinal-Due de Riche- lieu, 5 vols. The great primary authority is the collection of Lettrcs, instruc- tions diplomatiques et papiers d'Etat of Richelieu, edited by Georges d'Avenelt 8 vols., in the Documents inedits; with his Maximesd' Etat in the same collection, his Memoires, and his Memoire, ^crit de sa main, I'annee 1607 ou 1610, alors qu'il m^ditait de paraitre a la cour, ed. Baschet. See also the Memoires of Rohan, Omer Talon, Montglat, Brienne, Mathieu Mole, Madame de Motteville, D'Estrees and Fotiletiay-Mareuil, the Correspondance of Cardinal de Sourdis, and the Mercure Frangois. LECTURE 5. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR : FROM 1634 TO 1648. With the death of Gustavus Adolphus and of \yallenstein the war ceased to be a war for religion and assumed a more political aspect; the ruin of Germany; national and personal ambitions; the mercenary troops and military adventurers. Wallenstein's army brought directly under the Emperor: position of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar (b. 1604); the Swedish armies and the pol- icy of Chancellor Oxenstiern (b. 1583, d. 1654). The battle of Nordlingen (5 and 6 Sept., 1634): defeat of the Swedes under Bernard and Horn; its important results; victorious position of the Emperor and the Catholics; the Elector of Saxony made peace with the Emperor at Prague (30 Maj'-, 1635); the plans of Oxenstiern; if the Swedes could have been pacified and the French had not inter- vened, the Thirty Years' War might have ended. The intervention of Richelieu: occupation of Lorraine ; Alsace granted to France by the German Protestant princes for active aid (Nov., 1634); purchase of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and his army (25 Oct., 1635); Richelieu's alliance with Oxenstiern (Apr., 1635); lo The Thirty Years' War, 16^4.-^8. his treaty with the Dutch, after the death of Isabella, for the division of the Catholic Netherlands (8 Feb., 1635); his negotiations with the Swiss and the Dukes of Savoy, Mantua, and Parma; effect of Richelieu's intervention the prolongation of the war. France invaded by the Spaniards on the northeast and by the Im- perialists on the east (1636); the Swedish general, Baner, forced back to the Baltic; closer alliance made between Richelieu and Oxenstiern; the Saxons and the Imperialists defeated by Baner (b. 1595) at Wittstock (4 Oct., 1636). Ferdinand III. elected Kmperor (22 Dec, 1636); death of Ferdinand II. (15 Feb., 1637). The last years of Richelieu's foreign policy: the successes of Bernard of Saxe- Weimar on the Rhine; his ambitions; capture of Breisach (17 Dec, 1638); death of Bernard (18 July, 1639); invasion of France by the vSpaniards (1640); battle of Chemnitz (14 April, 1639) and death of Baner (20 May, 1641); Richelieu's attempt to divert Spain from Ger- man affairs by causing an insurrection in Catalonia (1640) and by en- couraging the revolution in Portugal (1640). The first negotiations for a general peace (1640-41) ; accession of Frederick William as Elector of Brandenburg (1640) ; his declaration of neutrality (1642). The progress of the war after the death of Richelieu : rise into prom- inence of Conde (b. 1621, d. 1686), Turenne (b. 1611, d. 1675), Torsten- son (b. 1603, d. 1651), and Wrangel (b. 1613, d. 1676); Spain unable to assist the Emperor without further subsidies ; destruction of the Im- perial and Saxon army by Torstenson at Breitenfeld (2 Nov., 1642); outbreak of war between Denmark and Sweden (1643), ended by the Treaty of Bromsebro (1645) ; Conde' s defeat of the Spaniards at Rocroi (19 May, 1643) »* reorganization of Bernard's army by Turenne. Congresses for the consideration of terms of peace meet at Osnabriick and Miinster. The battles of Freiburg (3-5 Aug., 1644), where Turenne and Conde defeated Mercy, and of Jankau (6 March, 1645), where Torstenson de- stroyed an Imperialist army ; truce made by the Elector of Saxony with the Swedes (31 Aug., 1645) ; the battles of Marienthal (5 May, 1645), where Mercy defeated Turenne, and of AUersheim (3 Aug., 1645), The Treaties of Westphalia, II in which Mercy was killed ; the invasion of Bavaria : the Elector Max- imilian forced to make a truce at Ulm (15 March, 1647) J Turenne and Wrangel defeated the Bavarians and Imperalists at Zusmarshausen (17 May, 1648) ; Conde's defeat of the Spaniards at Lens (10 Aug., 1648) ; the Castle of Prague seized by the Swedes under Konigsmark (26 July, 1648). The Thirty Years' War concluded by the Treaties of Westphalia ( 24 October, 1648) : peace made by the Emperor with France and Sweden, but Spain remained at war with France. Authorities : Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War, is the best small book in English ; Gindely should be replaced among secondary authorities by Bart- holdy Geschichte des grossen deutschen Krieges vom Tode Gustav Adolfs ab, niit besondere Riicksicht auf Frankreich, 2 vols. ; Droysen, Bernhard von Weimar, 2 vols.; Sugenkehn, Frankreich's Einfluss auf und Beziehungen zu Deutschland, vol. i.; Koch, Geschichte des deutschen Reichs unter der Regierung Ferdinands III., 2 vols.; Des Roberts, Campagnes de Charles IV., due de Lorraine (1634-1636); Heilmann, Die Feldziige den Bayern in 1643, 1644 und 1645 ; Dudik, Die Schwedeu in Bohmen und Mahren (1640-1650) ; Biedemtann, Deutschlands triibste Zeit, oder Der dreissigjahrige Krieg in seine Folgen fiir den deutsche Cul- turleben ; the Due d'Aiimdle, Histoire des princes de la maison de Cond^, vols. 5, 6. The primary authorities as for Lecture 3, with the addition of Georges d* Avenel, Richelieu's Letters, cited for Lecture 4 ; SzHagyi, Actes et Documents pour servir a I'histoire de I'alliance de Rakoczy avec les Fran^ais et les Suddois ; Bou- geant, Histoire du Traite de Westphalie, 6 vols., and Axel Oxenstiema' s Skriflen och Brefvexling, 6 vols., and omitting Gardiner, Letters, Styffe, Irtner and Wal- lenstein. LECTURE 6. THE TREATIES OF WESTPHALIA. The history of the Treaties of Westphalia : a congress for peace re- solved upon in 1641 ; suggested by the Elector of Mayence in 1639 ; approved by the Imperial Diet at Ratisbon (1640-41); suggestion that two congresses, in one of which the Emperor should deal with the Swedes. Dutch and Protestant princes, and in the other with France, 12 The Treaties of Westphalia. should be held to arrange terms of peace, at Liibeck and Cologne ; at the wish of the Swedes Osnabriick and Miinster chosen instead; by a resolution of the Imperial Diet, with the assent of the Kmperor, the Ger- man princes and free cities allowed to be represented at the congresses. Meeting of the congresses (1644) • Cardinal Chigi, Papal Nuncio, and Contarini, Venetian ambassador, were present as mediators ; Traut- mannsdorf, Nassau an^^V^lmar, Lamberg and Crane were prej^ent for the Emperor ; Lon guev me, D^Avaux, GrouUart and Abel Servien for France ; John Ox enstiern and Salvius for Sweden; Penaranda, the Archbishop of Cambrai, Saavedra and Brun for Spain ; and Adrian de Pauw, with seven others, for the United Provinces ; delays about precedence ; the envoys of France and Sweden presented their demands (June, 1645) ; effect of the military operations on the negotiations ; the part played by the Elector of Bavaria ; the Treaties of Westphalia signed at Miinster (24 October, 1648). Chief points of the Treaties of Westphalia: A. With regard to non-German states: /. France received the Three Bishoprics (Metz, Toul and Verdun) occupied in 1552, Alsace, except Strasburg and reserving the rights of the Empire, Breisach and the right to garrison Philipsburg, and Pignerol; the Dufee oJ[ Lorraine not to be aided by the Emperor and left to niake^a*. separate treaty with France. ii. Sweden received Western Pomerania wnth the island of Riigipn, Stettin, Wismar, the archbishopric of Bremen and the bisho- pric of Verden, with representation in the Diet of the Empire. Hi. The Swiss cantons were recognized as independent of the Empire. iv. The Protestant Netherlands, which had been recognized as independent of Spain by Philip IV. (30 Jan., 1648), were declared independent of the Empire, and received certain districts in Brabant and Luxemburg. B. With regard to German states: /. Brandenburg received, in compensation for Western Pomerania, the archbishopric of Magdeburg, and the bishoprics of Hal- The Treaties of Westphalia, 13 berstadt, Cammin and Minden. [The succession to Cleves- Julierswas settled in 1666 by Brandenburg receiving Cleves, the Mark and Ravensberg, and Neuburg receiving Juliers and Berg.] ii. Saxony retained Lusatia and part of Magdeburg. Hi, Mecklenburg received, in compensation for Wismar, the bis- hoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg. iv. Hesse-Cassel received the abbey of Hirschfeld. V. Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate and retained the elec- torate conferred in 1623. vi, Charles Louis, eldest son of the expelled Elector Palatine, re- ceived the lyower or Rhenish Palatinate, and a new electorate was created for him. C. With regard to the religious question: /. The terms of the Peace of Augsburg were confirmed, fixing the date for ecclesiastical property at i Jan., 1624. ii. The Ecclesiastical Reservation was acknowledged by the Protestants. Hi. Calvinism was recognized as well as Lutheranism. D. With regard to the Empire (efiect of the book " Hippolithus a L,apide " ) : /. Territorial supremacy, including the right of making alliances, granted to the States of the Empire. ii. Powers of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) defined. Hi. Concurrent jurisdiction of the Imperial Chamber (Reichskam- mergericht) and Aulic Council (Reichshofrath) acknowl- edged. K. General amnesty declared, and the Peace of Westphalia made a fundamental law of the Empire. Effect of the Treaties of Westphalia on Germany: the practical dis- integration of the Holy Roman Empire. Effect of the Treaties of Westphalia on Europe: commencement of a new era, in which political succeeded religious distinctions. Authorities : All secondary histories of the Thirty Years' War devote their concluding chapters to the Treaties of Westphalia, but see also Kennter, Abel Servien; Odhner, Die Politik Schwedens im Westphalischen Friedenscongress • 14 The Fronde, J. S. Putter, Geist des Westphalischen Friedes,aiid his Historical Development of the Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, vol. ii. The primary au- thorities are, for the terms of the treaties, /. G. von Meiern, Acta Pacis West- phalicae oder Westphalische Friedeshandlungen und Geschichte, 6 vols.; and, for the history of the negotiations, Bougeant, Histoire du Traite de Westphalie, useful as being founded on D'Avaux, Memoires; Contarini, Relazione del con- gresso di Munster; Ogier, Journal du Congres de Munster (1643-47); and the Cor- respondencia diplomatica de los plenipotenciarios E^^paiioles en el congreso de Munster, 1643-1648 (vols. 82-84 of the CoUeccion de documentos ineditos). LKCTURK 7. THE FRONDE AND THE TREATY OF THE PYRENEES. Richelieu on his deathbed (1642) named Mazarin his succcessor; six months later the child, Louis XIV. (b. 5 Sep^., 1838), succeeded to the throne of France ; the Parlement of Paris declared Anne of Austria, the queen-mother, Regent ; she gave both power and affection to Mazarin; character and previous career of Mazarin (Giulio Mazarini, b. 1602; entered the French service and became cardinal, 1639). Mazariu followed accurately Richelieu's foreign policy; during his administration Conde and Turenne won their first victories and the Treaties of Westphalia were signed. What France gained by the Treaties of Westphalia: a foothold on the Rhine by the annexation of Alsace, which also enabled her to surround the independent Duchy of Lorraine and the Spanish province of Franche-Comte. Spain refused to make peace with France at Miinster owing to the outbreak of the civil war known as the " Fronde." The nature of the Fronde : * ' playing at civil war " ; its fruitlessness and intrigues ; the ' ' importants ' ' ; the Mazarinades. The Fronde, first phase (1648-49) : part played by the Parlement of Paris and the Parisians ; arrest of Broussel (26 Aug., 1648) ; the '' bar- ricades ' ' ; Conde and the Court ; Conde and Mazarin ; the Peace of Rueil (11 March, 1649) ; flight of the Court from Paris ; second phase V' The Treaty of the Pyrenees. 15 (1650-51): arrest of Conde (18 Jan., 1650); France invaded by Tu- renne with a Spanish army ; the battle of Rethel (15 Dec, 1650) ; union of the "princely" and the "parliamentary" Frondes; the Cardinal de Retz (b. 1614, d. 1679) ; Mazarin in voluntary exile (6 Feb. 1651) ; third phase (1651-52): Conde's insurrection in the south ; return of Mazarin (Dec, 1651) ; the royal party joined by Turenne ; battle of the Faubourg Saint- Antoine (2 July, 1652) ; Mazarin again in exile (19 Aug., 1652) ; fourth phase (1652-53) ; the king and the queen- mother once more in Paris (21 Oct., 1652) ; Conde welcomed by the Spaniards ; De Retz imprisoned ; Gaston of Orleans exiled to Blois ; final return of Mazarin (2 Feb., 1653) ; end of the Fronde. Mazarin' s foreign policy : the war with Spain pursued with vigor ; Turenne commanding the French and Conde the Spanish army ; Ma- zarin's alliance with Cromwell (3 March, 1657); the battle of the Dunes (14 June, 1658); capture of Dunkirk and advance on Brussels; formation of the League of the Rhine (14 Aug., 1658) ; the new Em- peror, Leopold I. (elected 1657), bound by the terms of his capitulation not to send help to Spain. Negotiations for peace with Spain : Mazarin's hands freed by the death of Cromwell (3 Sept., 1658). The Treaty of the Pyrenees signed by Mazarin and Don Luis de Haro in the Isle of Pheasants (7 Nov., 1659). Its terms : (i) France received Roussillon, Artois, and parts of Flan- ders, Hainault and Luxemburg. (2) Spain abandoned all claims to Alsace. (3) Charles IV., Duke of Lorraine, was to cede the Barrois and cer- tain towns to France, but to recover Lorraine, in which all the for- tresses were to be dismantled; (Charles IV. did not accept these condi- tions, and by a later treaty (28 Feb., 1661) received back the Barrois as a fief of France, ceded the towns mentioned in the Treaty of Pyrenees and others to France, and agreed to dismantle Nancy). (4) The Prince de Conde was to be forgiven and reinstated. (5) France abandoned the King of Portugal. (6) Louis XIV. was to marry Maria Theresa, elder daughter of Philip IV., King of Spain : she was to renounce forever, for herself and her descendants, all rights of succession to the throne of Spain, on pay- ment of a dowry of 500,000 crowns. 1 6 Mazarin, Importance of the Treaty of the Pyrenees as the supplement to the Treaties of Westphalia. Marriage of Louis XIV. to the Infanta (9 June, 1660). Death of Mazarin (9 March, 1661) ; success of his foreign policy ; his internal policy ; neglect of the finances ; destruction of feudal castles in France. lyife and work of Saint Vincent de Paul (1576-1660). Authorities : The best secondary histories, founded on documents, for the administration of Mazarin are Cheruel, Histoire de la France pendant la minorite de lyouis XIV., 4 vols., and Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin, 3 vols. ; Perkins^ France under Richelieu and Mazarin ; Comte de Cosnac, Mazarin et Colbert ; Bazm, Histoire de France sous le ministere du Cardinal Mazarin ; Gaillardin, Histoire du regne de Louis XIV., vols, i, 2 ; Comte de Sainte-Aulaire, Histoire de la Fronde, 2 vols. ; Due d'Aumdle, Histoire des Princes de Conde, vols. 5. 6, 7 ; Victor Cousin, La jeunesse de Mazarin, Madame de Longueville, 2 vols., Madame de Sable, Madame de Chevreuse and Madame de Hautefort ; Cuk- nier^ Le Cardinal de Retz et son temps; Chantelauze, Louis XIV. et Marie Mancini, Le Cardinal de Retz et I'afFaire du chapeau, and Saint Vincent de Paul et les Gondi; Perey, Louis XIV. et Marie Mancini; Cherot, La premiere jeunesse de Louis XIV.; Renee, Les nieces de Mazarin; Valfrey, Hugues de Lionne ; Vast, Les grands traites du regne de Louis XIV. ; Barante, Vie de Mathieu Mole ; Feillet, La Misere au temps de la Fronde ; Loth, Saint" Vincent de Paul et sa mission sociale ; Em- manuel de Broglie, Saint Vincent de Paul ; Bourelly, Cromwell et Mazarin, and Le marechal de Fabert ; and Tessier, Le Chevalier de Jant et les relations de la France avec le Portugal au temps de Mazarin. Several volumes have been pub- lished on the local history of the Fronde, among which may be noted Saint-Marc, Bordeaux sous la Fronde, Debidour, La Fronde angevine, Audiat, La Fronde en Saintonge, and Salomon, La Fronde en Bretagne. The chief primary authority is the collection, ed. by CkSruel, of the Lettres du Cardinal Mazarin pendant son ministere, 8 vols., in the Documents in^dits ; and use may be made of Turenne^ Correspondance inedite avec Le Tellier et Louvois, ed. Barthelemy ; Estrades, Am- bassades et negotiations en Italie, en Angleterre, et en Hollande depuis 1637 jusqu'en 1662 ; Moreau, Choix de Mazarinades, 2 vols.; the Journal of Olivier Lefevre d'Or- messon ; and the Lettres of Qui Patin : for the period of the Fronde there are many interesting personal memoirs, to be used with caution, among which may be noted the M€mo\r&so^ Madame de Motteville,Omer Talon, Gourville, Mademoiselle de Montpensier, Montglat, Brienne, Guy Joly, Mathieu MoU, Fontenay-Mareuil, La Rochefoucauld, and above all, those of Cardinal de Retz, with the addition of the Historiettes of Tallemant des Reaux, and Loret, La Muze Historique, ed. Ra- venel qnr^ La Pelouze. Franci, 17 LECTURE 8. EUROPE IN THE MIDDI.E OF THE 17TH CENTURY. I. FRANCE. Importance of the study of the history of France in the 17th century rests on the fact that, during the Age of Louis XIV., its institutions were copied all over Europe, while its foreign policy was the keynote of political history; it was France w^hich led the way to strong central government at home, supported by standing armies, and the adoption of foreign alliances independent of religious considerations. Government of France as moulded by Richelieu and Mazarin for the use of Louis XIV. i. The Monarchy: growth of its powers; its strength; the Court. it. The Nobility: blows dealt by Richelieu; tendency to become a caste; distinction between grande and petite noblesse; sur- vival of privilege. in. The Church in France: its struggle with the Huguenots; con- trast between Galilean and Ultramontane ideas. iv. The Central Administration: its strengthening, the great aim of the French monarchy; creation of the "intendants." V. Local Administration : distinction between pays d' election and pays d'Etats ; the provincial Estates ; the cities and towns; privileges of the municipalities; the ** Bourgeoisie." w. The Judicial Administration: the Parlement of Paris having jurisdiction, and being court of appeals in criminal matters, over half of France; the seven provincial Parlements of Bor- deaux, Dijon, Rennes, Rouen, Toulouse, Aix and Grenoble; Louis XIII. created two at Pau (1620) and at Metz (1633), and Louis XIV. two more at Tournai (1668), moved to Douai (1713), and at Besangjon (1676); the " Noblesse de la Robe' ' ; the strength of the bar; the pays du droit coutumier and the pays du droit ^crit. 1 8 France. viz. The Financial Administration: the farmers-general; the taille, . the gabelle, the aides, the douanes. viii. Manufactures and Commerce: I^yons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Dieppe and I^e Havre; the guilds; the ouvriers. ix. Agriculture: the seigneur, the farmer and the peasant; grande culture and petite culture; '' copyhold " tenure and its relics of feudalism; ' * noble land. ' ' X. The condition of the poor : hospitals ; charit5^ xi. Material condition : roads and canals ; public works. xii. Intellectual condition : education ; colleges and village schools ; the Academic Frangaise (1635) ; provincial acade- mies ; the press, pamphlets and newspapers ; foundation of the Gazette by Renaudot (1631). xiii. The army and navy: their organization; their control concen- trated in the hands of the monarchy. Position of France in Europe in the middle of the 17th century. i. Geographical conditions : additions -made hy Richelieu and Mazarin ; desire for a defensible frontier ; boundaries of lan- guage and race disregarded ; Alsace ; independence of lyor- raine ; Franche-Comte subject to Spain and Avignon to the Pope. ii. Growth of political tradition : the Foreign Office ; the diplo- matists. Extra-European expansion of France. /. New France : Canada and Acadia ; efforts at colonization. ii. The French Antilles: their importance to France. Hi. The French East- India Company of Richelieu (1640) : Mada- gascar. Strength and weakness of France in the 17th century. Authorities : The chapters on the condition of France in the secondary bis- tories, noted under Lectures 2, 4 and 7, and especially in Hanotaux, Histoire du Cardinal de Richelieu, vol. i., in Georges d^Avenel, Richelieu et la monarchie abso- lue, and Cheruely Histoire de la France pendant la minority de Louis XIV., and Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin. See also Cheruely Histoire de I'administration monarchique en France, 2 vols. ; Dareste^ Histoire de Tadminis- tration et des progres du pouvoir royal en France ; Caillet, ly'administration en The Empire. 19 Prance sous le minist^re de Richelieu ; Gasquet, Prdcis des institutions politiquea et sociales de I'ancienne France ; Lugay, Les origines du pouvoir minist^riel en France : les Secretaires d'Etat depuis leur institution jusqu'd la mort de Louia XV. ; Hanotaux, Origine de I'institution dcs inteudants des provinces ; Bastard d'Estang^ Les parlements de France ; Nervo, I^es finances fran9aises, 2 vols. ; Claniageran^ Histoire de I'impot en France, 3 vols. ; Fagniez, L'^conomie sociale de la France sous Henri IV. ; Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France, 2 vols. ; Dareste, Histoire des classes agricoles en France ; Susane, Histoire de I'ancienne infanterie fran9aise, 8 vols., and Histoire de la cavalerie franjaise, 3 vols. ; Guirin, Histoire maritime de la France, 6 vols. ; Gougeard, hs. marine de guerre sous Richelieu et Colbert ; Gi/les de la Tourette, Theophraste Renaudot ; Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World ; Boyer-Peyreleau, Les Antilles fran^aises ; Dessalles, Histoire g^n^rale des Antilles ; Bonassieux, Les grandea compagnies de (otnmerce. and Castonnet des Fosses^ L'Inde franjaise avant Dupleix. LECTURE 9. EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 2. THE EMPIRIC, THS HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, AND THE GERMAN PRINCES. The Holy Roman Empire, in its inception the lay authority ruling Western Europe in conjunction with the Papacy, became towards the close of the Middle Ages the ruling power in Germany, and by the Treaties of Westphalia lost even that function. The form, precedence and tradition of the Empire remained the only symbol of German unity, and the different states and categories of states of the Empire must be regarded as independent political units, very loosely federated. There were about 360 sovereign princes in Germany and about 50 free cities. The constitution of the Empire: (i) the elective Emperor; (2) the Imperial Diet comprising (i) the College of Electors, consisting of seven members; (ii) the College of Princes, consisting of about one hundred voices (some princes had more than one voice, e, g,, Brandenburg six, 20 The Hapshurg Dominions, Sweden four, etc., while the petty princes in Franconia and Swabia elected representatives, known as "collegiate" voices); (iii) the Col- lege of Free Cities; (3) the Imperial Chamber; (4) the Aulic Council; (5) the Circles. Distinction between immediate and mediate members of the Holy- Roman Empire. The Diet of Ratisbon declared perpetual (1663) and resident envoys took the place of Princes and Electors. The House of Hapsburg the most powerful in Germany from its hereditary dominions, more than from the repeated election of its head as Emperor; but its expansion was henceforth toward the east and not toward the west, and it gradually ceased to act chiefly for German interests. ' f The dominions of the House of Hapsburg : (i) Austria proper, Styria. Carinthia, etc. [the Tyrol ceded by Fer- dinand II. to his brother (1623) reverted to the Austrian dominions (1665)]; their administration; the powers of the provincial Diets and extent of local self-government. ^ ^ (2) Bohemia: a home of Protestantism; its sufferings during the Thirty Years' War; deprivation of its local autonomy and attempts at Germanizing the Czechs. (3) Part of Hungary: divisions of the kingdom of St. Stephen at the commencement of the 17th century: (i) Transylvania yt^o82 square miles : its diverse races, Magyar, German, Romanian, Slav, and its diverse religions, Roman Catholic, Eutheran, Calvinist and Greek Church; the reign and policy of Gabriel Bethlen (1613-29); George Rakoczy I. (1629-48); George Rakoczy II. (1648-60); spasmodic in- tervention in the Thirty Years' War; encouragement of Protestantism; wary policy needed for maintenance of inde- pendence. "(O'KOdO (ii) Turkish Hungary: 1859 square miles : its condition under Turkish rule, (iii) Hapsburg Hungary, governed by the. Palatine : 1222 square miles : the power of the Diet ; progress of the Counter- Re- formation ; the work of Cardinal Pazmany (primate 16 16- Germany. 21 37); national policy of Nicholas Esterhazy (palatine 1625- 45); Peace of I^inz (1645), recognizing the rights of Protes- tants. Administration of the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria: the councils at Vienna; the army and foreign politics; the influence of the Jesuits. The ecclesiastical electorates: Mayence, Cologne and Treves. The lay electorates: (i) Saxony: its condition at the Treaties of Westphalia; its wealth and compactness; the Elector the recognized chief of the German Pro- testants; policy of John George I. (1611-1656); the ambitions of Sax- 5jny turn eastward. (2) Brandenburg: the Elector John Sigismund recognized as Duke bi Prussia (161 8), as a feudatory of Poland; the claims on Pomerania and Juliers-Cleves ; the policy of George William, brother-in-law of Gustavus Adolphus, during the Thirty Years' War; accession of the Great Elector (1640); compensation for Pomerania and settlement of Juliers-Cleves pase (1666) gave Brandenburg an increased German interest; Brandenburg's advantages from the Northern War (1656-60). (3) Bavaria: the Elector Maximilian (i 596-1 651) and the Counter- Reformation; his part in the Thirty Years' War. (4) The Palatinate: importance of its position on the Rhine with regard to France. The lay princes of the Empire: their varying power; introduction of primogeniture in i6th and 17th centuries; its effects; their love of independence. The ecclesiastical princes of the Empire: the Catholic and Protestant bishoprics; their chapters take the place of provincial Estates or Diets and make their government oligarchical. The free cities of the Empire: their decline during the Thirty Years' War; decay of the Hanseatic League; only Hamburg, Bremen and Liibeck renew the League (1630); trade passes to the Dutch and the English. The knights of the Empire: their dependence on the Emperor. General character of the administration in Germany: the provincial Diets; tendency to imitate France. 22 The Netherlands. Depopulation and misery caused by the Thirty Years' War; poverty of Germany. Intellectual condition: the foundation of universities and academies. Authorities : Among books in English may be noted Leger^ Autriche-Hongrie, translated by Mrs. Blrkbeck Hill, Coxe^ History of the House of Austria, 4 vols., and Vehse, Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy and Diplomacy of Austria, 2 vols., for Austria; Tuttle, History of Prussia, vol. i., and Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, vol. i., for Prussia; and Putter, Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des deutschen Reichs, translated by Dornford, vol. 2, for the Holy Roman Empire. All histories, whether of the Empire or of separate states, give a general review of the condition of Germany at the time of the Treaties of Westphalia, but special reference may be made to Erdmannsdorffer ^ Deutsche Geschichte, 1 648-1 740, vol. i., Biedennann ^ Deutschlands triibste Zeit, oder Der dreissigjahrige Krieg in seine Folgen fur den deutsche Cultureleben and Hanser Deutschland nach dem dreissigjahrige Kriege. I^ECTURE 10. EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE lyTn CENTURY. 3. THE NETHERI^ANDS. The situation of the Netherlands at the beginning of the century : the Protestant Netherlands, the seven United Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Gelderland, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen and Overyssel, had practically secured their independence ; the Catholic Netherlands (now Belgium) were governed by the Infanta Isabella (i599-i633),to whom they had been granted as dowry by Philip II. The constitution of the United Provinces : difference in character of the seven provinces ; their local independence ; the provincial Estates ; the weak federal power of the States- General, consisting of one vote for each province ; the Council of State of twelve members, three for Hol- land, two each for Zealand, Friesland and Gelderland, and one each for the remaining provinces, with two votes for the Captain-General and Ad- The Netherlands, 23 miral-General ; the executive authority in each province was held by the Stadtholder of the province ; the executive authority of the Union was held by the Captain- and Admiral- General. William the Silent, Prince of Orange, had been Stadtholder of three provinces, as well as Captain- and Admiral-General ; his son Maurice ( 1 585-1 625) was Stadtholder of five provinces, and after 1620 of all the provinces but Friesland, as well as Captain- and Admiral General. The two parties in the Protestant Netherlands : the supporters of the Stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau (b. 1567), and the republicans led by John van Olden Barneveldt (b. 1547), Advocate of the province of Hol- land ; the strength of the former among the country gentlemen, noble- men and peasants ; of the latter among the burghers of the cities, and especially of Amsterdam ; the former was the war and the latter the peace party. The war of independence with Spain closed by a twelve years' truce, negotiated by Henry IV. of France (1609), The political struggle combined with a religious difference : the Ar- minians, or Remonstrants, against the Gomarists, or Calvinists ; the Synod of Dort condemned the Arminians (16 18) ; execution of Barne- veldt (19 May, 16 1 9) ; the province of Holland forced to ask the confir- mation by the Stadtholder of the election of its Pensionary, the leading civil officer. The end of the truce (1621) : part played by the Dutch in the Thirty Years' War ; Maurice and his brother, Frederick Henry (1625- 1647), the Stadtholders, occupied Cleves and resisted Spanish invasion ; great- ness of Frederick Henry ; his son married to Mary, daughter of Charles I. of England, and his daughter to Frederick William, the Great Elec- tor of Brandenburg. The Catholic Netherlands under Isabella remained contented with their local government and in comparative tranquility, but when France joined in the Thirty Years' War, Artois was occupied, and, after Maz- arin's treaty with Cromwell, the English and French conquered nearly up to Brussels ; by the Treat}^ of the Pyrenees, Artois was ceded to France (1659). By the Treaty of Miinster (30 Jan., 1648) with Spain, the Dutch promised to support the Spanish rights to the Catholic Netherlands in 24 The Dutch, return for closing the Scheldt to commerce ; by this means the United Provinces secured a buffer against France, and Amsterdam secured commercial supremacy at the expense of Antwerp. William II. (b. 1626), elected Stadtholder of all the provinces but Friesland (1647), disapproved of the reduction of the army as a result of peace ; he resolved on a coup d'etat ; attempt to seize Amsterdam (30 July, 1650); death of William II. (6 Nov., 1650); birth of William III. (14 Nov., 1650; ; the offices of Captain- and Admiral- General abol- ished ; the Stadtholderate of five provinces left vacant ; William Fred- erick of Nassau, Stadtholder of Friesland, obtained the Stadtholderate of Groningen ; government divided between the States- General and the provincial Estates ; election of John de Witt (b. 1625) as Pension- ary of Holland (1653) in the place of Adrian de Pauw ; the province of Holland and John de Witt took the direction of Dutch policy. War between England and the United Provinces (1652-54) owing to the Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament and aimed at the Dutch carrying trade ; act excluding William III. forever from the Stadtholderate of Holland passed at the wish of Cromwell (1654) ; repealed (1661) ; Perpetual Edict abolishing the Stadtholderate in Hol- land and Utrecht (1667). The prosperity of the Dutch in the first half of the 17th century : their naval and commercial monopoly; its causes ; its political, social and material effects. The Dutch in Asia : the first voyage of Houtman (1596); they seize the spice and pepper trade ; foundation of Batavia (1619); rivalry with the English ; massacre of Amboyna (1623) ; expulsion of the Portu- guese ; settlements at the Cape of Good Hope and in India, Ceylon, the Spice Islands, China and Jap^n. The Dutch in South America : their establishment in Brazil (1624- 37) ; the government and great views of John Maurice of Nassau- Siegen (b. 1604, in Brazil 1637-44, d. 1679); their expulsion by the Portuguese (1655). The Dutch in North America : foundation of New Amsterdam ; the New Netherlands and the emigration thither. Contrast between the Protestant and the Catholic Netherlands. Authorities: Motley ^ History of the United Netherlands, vols. 3 and 4, and Sweden. 25 Life and Death of John of Barneveldt, 2 vols. ; Wenzelburger, Geschichte der Niederlande. (t > 1648); Kervyn de Letienhove, La Flandre pendant les trois demiers si^cles, 3 vols.; Groen van Prinsferer, Archives ou correspondance inddite de la maison d' Orange-Nassau, 6 vols. ; A. Waddington, La Rdpublique des Provinces- Unies, la France et les Pays-Bas espagnols de 1630 4 1650 ; Van der Capellen, Ge- denkschriften ; Left^vre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt, translated into English ; Cotnbes, Correspondance Franfaise du grand pensionnaire Jean de Witt ; Geddes, History of the Administration of John de Witt, vol. i. ; Meinsma, Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche Oost-Indische Bezittingen, 2 vols.; De Jonge, De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch Gezag in Oost-Indie, 14 vols., and the documents published by Aitzema and Sylvius y and by the Utrecht Historical Society. LECTURE 11. EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. ' 4- SWEDEN AND DENMARK, Sweden at the commencement of the 17th century: it had been sepa- rated from Denmark and Norway by the valour of Gustavus Vasa (1523); the Reformation in Sweden; the people became sturdy Protestants; reigns of Eric XIV. (1560-68) and John III. (1568-92); expulsion of the son of John III., Sigismund Vasa, who had been elected King of Poland (1587), on account of his Catholicism, and election of Charles v^ IX., youngest son of Gustavus Vasa (1598); reign of Charles IX. ^:^---' (1598-1611), a reign of perpetual war with the Danes, Poles and Russians. - ' ^ -o^ - '> ^ Accession of Gustavus Adolphus (b. 1594), son of Charles IX. (161 1): his vigor and military skill; he defeated the Danes and forced them to make peace at Knarod (16 13); his campaigns against the Russians; by the Treaty of Stolbovo (16 17) he restored Novgorod, but retained Fin« land, Carelia, Ingria and Esthonia; his marriage to Maria Eleanor, sister of the Elector George William of Brandenburg (1620); his wars with his cousin, Sigismund, of Poland, whom he defeated both on sea 26 Sweden. and land (1621-29); by the Truce of Altmark (16 Sept., 1629), Sweden kept lyivonia; Gustavus Adolphus then rqsolved to intervene in the Thirty Years' War. The constitution of Sweden: the restrictions on the royal authority; the royal title — "elected king and hereditary prince"; the Diet (Riks- dag); its four orders — nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie, peasants; its pre- rogatives fixed (1617); the Senate (Riksrad); its composition and functions. \ v^ The position acquired by Sweden by the Treaties of Westphalia: the chief territorial power on the Baltic, as ruler of Finland, Carelia, Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia and Western Pomerania, with an outlet on the North Sea as possessor of Bremen and Verden; she controlled the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser and the Oder, but her own southern provinces were occupied by Denmark. Sweden recognized as the chief military power in Europe. The Chancellor, Axel Oxenstiern (b. 1583, d. 1654): his policy; his organization of the Swedish monarchy on an oligarchical basis; the material condition of Sweden; its sturdy Lutheranism. The reign of Queen Christina (b. 1626), only child of Gustavus Adol- phus (1634-54): her assumption of the direction of affairs (1644) on the outbreak of war with Denmark; the Treaty of Bromsebro (13 Aug., 1645); her influence in favor of peace in the negotiations at Osnabriick; her internal government; abdication in favor of her cousin, Charles Gustavus of Deux-Ponts or Zweibriicken (6 June, 1654); her fondness for literature and science; her later life; she became a Catholic (1655), and died at Rome (19 April, T68g\ The reign of Charles X. (b. 1622): as a soldier he desired to utilize the Swedish army; his conquest of Poland (1656); previous relations be- tween Poland and Sweden; the conduct of the Great Elector; Charles X. attacked Denmark (1657), and by the Treaty of Roskild (7 March, 1658) obtained the Danish provinces in Sweden, namely, Halland and Scania, with the island of Bornholm; his proposal to divide Denmark, and attack on Copenhagen (1659); interference of the Dutch and other powers; death of Charles X. (23 Feb., 1660). Accession of Charles XI. (b. 1655): regency of the queen-mother, Hedwiga of Holstein-Gottorp; the war closed, owing to the mediation Denmark, 27 of the powers, by the Treaty of Oliva with Poland, by which Poland ceded Lithuanian Livonia to Sweden and John Casimir resigned his claims to the Swedish throne (3 May, 1660), by the Treaty of Copen- hagen with Denmark, confirming that of Roskild (7 June, 1660), and by that of Kardis with Russia (t July, 1661), confirming the cession to Sweden of Ingria and Carelia. Position of the kingdom of Denmark and Norway at the Treaties of Westphalia : it included the southern provinces of Sweden, and thus controlled the commerce of the Baltic ; relations with the Empire ow- ing to the connection with Schleswig and Holstein. The aristocratic constitution of Denmark ; the monarchy elective ; all power in the hands of the Senate (Rigsraad) ; the Diet (Rigsdaag) never called ; the peasants reduced to serfdom. The rivalry^etween Denmark and Sweden the keynote of Danish foreign policy : the reign of Christian IV. (i 588-1648); his court ; his fondness for Norway and foundation of Christiania ; his misfortunes during the Thirty Years' War ; foundation of the Danish East India Company (1615) and occupation of Tranquebar in India. The reign of Frederick III. (1648-70J : the government of Ulfeldt and the nobles ; Ulfeldt joined Charles X. of Sweden and induced him to attack Denmark ; Denmark's losses by the Treaty of Roskild. i^rL^W*^ The Revolution of 1660 : overthrow of the power of the nobles'Tthe monarchy of Denmark made hereditary and absolute ; regular meet- ings of the Diet or States- General promised, but it was never called ; resumption of lands granted to noblemen ; improvement in adminis- tration. The Germanizing of Denmark ; the situation in Norway ; its pov- erty and hatred for Sweden. The supremacy of the Baltic moved from Denmark to Sweden. Authorities : As small books see Otte, Scandinayian History; Bain, Christina, Queen of Sweden, and Geffroyy Les ^tats Scandinaves. Among secondary an- thorities consult the large general history by Fryxell (not translated); Carlson f Geschichte Schwedens, vols. 5, 6, translated and continued from Geijer ; Cron- holm, Sveriges Historie under Gustaf II. Adolphs Regering, 6 vols, (not trans- lated); Grauert, Christina, Konigin von Schweden, und ihr Hof, 2 vols.; Arcken- holtz, M6moires pour servir ^ I'histoire de la reine Christine, 4 vols.; Haumant^ 28 Russia, La Guerre du Nord ( 1655-60) ; Allen, Histoire de Danemark, and Spittler, Ge- schichte der Danischen Revolution im Jahre 1660, being vol. 5 of his Sammtliche Werke. I^ECTURE 12. EUROPE IN THE MIDDI.E OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 5. RUSSIA AND POI.AND. The contrast between the Slavs of the Greek Church in Russia, and the Slavs of the Roman Church in Poland, the former being essentially- Asiatic, and the latter essentially European. The backv^^ardness of Russia and its Asiatic character due to histor- ical circumstances, but chiefly to the conquest by the Mongol hordes, and its derivation of Christianity from Constantinople. The epic character of the great struggle with the Mongols, and its effect in forming the Russian people. The reign of Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) marked the emergence of Moscow as the centre from which the Russian Empire was to grow ; he took the title of Tsar (1547) ; bis wars with the Tartars on the south and east, and with the Poles and Lithuanians and Livonians on the west and northwest ; his endeavors to reach the Baltic ; his relations with the powers of western Europe, and especially with Elizabeth of England ; opening up of trade between Russia and England by way of the White Sea and Archangel ; the Muscovy Company ; invasion of Siberia ; the government of Ivan the Terrible ; his autocracy ; his struggles with the nobility ; his " States -General "; his personality. Russian history in the 17th century, until the time of Peter the Great, a commentary on the aims and ideals of Ivan the Terrible. The reign of Feodor Ivanovitch (1584-98): institution of serfdom (1597) and creation of the patriarchate of Moscow (1589); the reign of Boris Godiinov (1598-1605); the first and second "false" Dimitri ; civil war and anarchy; the " troublous times " ; the Poles at Moscow (161 2); election of Michael Romanov as Tsar (16 13) by the States General. Poland. 29 The reign of Michael Romdnov (1613-45): restoration of internal peace and tranquility; his wars with the Swedes (1613-17), and with the Poles (1613-19, 1632-35); moral and material condition of Russia. The reign of Alexis Romdnov (1645-76): autocracy legalized ; the boyars ; the code of Alexis ; Nikon's reform of the Russian liturgy ; popular risings ; Stenka Razin (1666-71); the Cossacks. The insurrection of the inhabitants of Little Russia and the Cossacks against Poland under Bogdan Khmelnitzski (1648); his dream of an independent Cossack state; Cossacks declared themselves subjects of the Tsar (1654); importance of this act; death of Khmelnitzski (1657); war with Poland; by Truce of Androussovo (1667) Russia obtained the left bank of the Dnieper as its frontier, with Kiev and Smolensk on the right bank. The condition of Poland in the 17th century: the turbulence of the nobles; the pacta conventa; the right of confederation; the "liberum veto " first employed by a single individual to check legislation (1652); the work of the Jesuits; the Counter- Reformation; intensity of religious bitterness between the Roman Catholics of Poland and the Greek Catholics of Lithuania. The most notable events since the Union of Lublin (1569) uniting Poland and Lithuania; contrast between Poland and Lithuania; the death of the last of the Jagellons, hereditary Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1572); election to the throne of Poland thrown open; contest between the Lithuanian party, looking to Russia, and the Polish party, looking to Austria; the secularization of Prussia by Albert of Hohenzollern, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, as a fief of Poland (1525); the suppression of the Knights of the Sword (1561), j^ielding Riga to Sweden, Livonia to Poland, and making Kettler, the last Grand Master, Duke of Courland, as a feudatory of Poland. The reign of Sigismund III., Vasa (1587- 163 2): his Catholicism; expelled from the throne of Sweden (1598); his wars with Sweden, Russia and the Turks ; granted Ducal Prussia to the Elector of Brandenburg as a fief (16 18); his war with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1621-29) and numerous defeats; the "Union" (1595); a third party, the "uniates", thus added to the religious strife; the reign of Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa (1632-48); Poland during the Thirty Years' War. 30 The Turks. The reign of Cardinal John Casimir Vasa (1648-68): his wars with Sweden and Russia; by the Treaty of Wehlau (24 Sept., 1657) the Elector of Brandenburg recognized as independent Duke of Prussia, free from the suzerainty of Poland; the insurrection of Bogdan Khmel- nitzski; the Truce of Androussovo; abdication of John Casimir (1668); he died at Paris (1672). In the middle of the 17th century Russia is growing politically stronger from her concentrated autocracy and Poland politically weaker from her anarchic constitution. Authorities : Morfill, Story of Russia, and Story of Poland; Ramhaud, Histoire de la Russie, translated by L. B. I^ang, 2 vols.; Karamzine, Histoire de I'empire de Russie, translated from the Russian, 11 vols.; Merimee, Les faux Demetrius, and Les Cosaques d' autrefois : Bogdan Chmielnicki ; Chodzko, La Pologne histo- rique et monumentale; Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne avant et sous le Roi Jean Sobieski, 3 vols. LECTURE 13. EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 6. THE OTTOMAN TURKS- The extent of Islam at the commencement of the 17th century: origin of the Turks. The Ottoman Turks at the height of their power in the i6th century: Sulaiman the Magnificent (1520-66); the European possessions of the Turks; their northern capital at Buda, in Hungary; their control of the Levant; blow dealt to them by the loss of the passage of the Asiatic trade through Egypt; Venice induced the Turks to oppose the Portuguese in Asia ; their power in Northern Africa and in the Medi- terranean; the Barbary Corsairs. Organization of the Turkish power: the Sultan as Caliph; the Ule- mas; the Janissaries. Resistance of the Knights of St. John: the defense of Malta (1565). The Turks, 31 Attitude of Europe towards the Turks: spasmodic attempts of the Popes to stir up Christendom against them; the battle of Lepanto (7 Oct., 1571); the alliance with France; the "capitulations"; the Eng- lish Levant Company obtained similar privileges (1580); and the Dutch traders (161 2). Poland and Hungary the bulwarks of Christendom against the Turks; the Turkish suzerainty over the Danubian Provinces and Transylvania; the religious attitude of the Turks: the Greek Church and the Turks; their welcome of renegades. Fortunately for Christian Europe during the critical period of the Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years' War, the Turks remained quiet; the Sultans degenerated in character; and between the death of Sulaiman the Magnificent (1566) and the accession of Muhammad Kiuprili to power (1656) their only conquests were Cyprus, taken (1571) and Tunis retaken (1574); causes of this sudden degeneracy. The Janissaries became Sultan-makers; they were permitted to marry and the tax of Christian children ceased. Internal dissensions marked the reign of Muhammad III. (1595- 1603): Ahmad I. (1603-17): by the Truce of Komorn with the Emperor (11 Nov., 1606) the Sultan renounced his claim to tribute from the Emperor, and his exclusive suzerainty over Transylvania ; treaties with England and the United Provinces, and war with Persia ; the imbecil- ity of Mustapha I. (161 7-18, 1622-23); the reign of Othman II. (1618-22) and his murder. Murad IV. (1623-40): his capture of Bagdad (25 Dec, 1638); his cruelty ; execution of the Grand Mufti (1634), and of the Patriarch of Constantinople (1636); Ibrahim I. (1640-48); recapture of Azov (1642); attack on Candia in Crete (1645); his order to murder all Christians ; assassinated by the Janissaries; accession of Muhammad IV. (1648); troubles during his minority. Appointment of Muhammad Kiuprili (b. 1585), a renegade Albanian, to be Grand Vizier with full powers (1656): his great reforms; he restored the force of the Ottoman Turks ; his internal policy ; the execution of the Greek Patriarch ; his foreign policy ; his victories over the Venetians and the Cossacks : new feudatory princes appointed in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia ; his death (1661). 32 The Turks. Ahmad Kiuprili (b. 1626) appointed Grand Vizier, (1662): he ravaged Transylvania (1661), invaded Hungary (1663) and prepared to march on Vienna ; the Emperor Leopold resolved to resist the Turks and called for the help of Christendom ; the Diet of the Empire agreed, and Louis XIV. sent 6,000 Frenchmen ; Montedt^ccoli (b. 1608, d. 1680) de- feated the Turks at the battle of Saint-Gothard (i Aug., 1664) and saved Vienna; the Truce of Vasvar (10 Aug., 1664); Michael Apafy recognized as Prince of Transylvania by both Emperor and Sultan, but to pay tribute to the latter ; the seven provinces of Hungary left as before, three to the Emperor and four to the Sultan. The siege of Candia; aid sent to the Venetians by Louis XIV.; sur- render of Morosini to Ahmad Kiuprili (27 Sept., 1669). The Cossacks called in the help of the Turks against Poland (1672); Ahmad Kiuprili took Kaminietz and conquered Podolia ; by the Treaty of Budziak or Buczac (18 Oct., 1672) Poland ceded Podolia and the Ukraine to the Turks and promised to pay tribute ; the treaty disavowed by the Polish Diet (1673); John Sobieski defeated the Turks at Choczim (10 Nov., 1673) and at Lemberg (24 Aug., 1675); by the Treat}' of Zuravna (27 Oct., 1676) the Turks retained Kaminietz and Podolia, but gave up the Ukraine and the tribute ; death of Ahmad Kiuprili (30 Oct., 1676). The greatness of the Kiuprilis : the sudden resurrection of the Otto- man power ; its significance. Authorities : Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, and Stanley Lane-Poole, The Story of Turkey, and The Story of the Barbary Corsairs are readable books ; Ranke, Fiirsten und Volker von Siid-Europa ; die Osmanen und die spanische Monarchic im i6ten und lyten Jahrhundert (vols. 35, 36 of his Sammtiiche Werke) is more scientific; modern works are mainly based on Von Hainmer, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs., 4 vols., translated into French as L'Histoire de I'Bmpire Ot- toman, 18 vols., and on Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs in Europa, 7 vols. See also Naima, Annals of the Turkish Kmpire from 1591 to 1659, trans- lated from the Turkish by Eraser, Sir Thomas Roe, Negotiations (1621-28). Gon' taut-Biron, Ambassade en Turquie de Jean de Gontaut-Biron (1605-10), and Xen^ opoly Histoire des Roumains de la Dacie Trajane. Italy, 33 LECTURE 14. EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE .17TH CENTURY. 7. ITAI^Y. Italy at the commencement of the 17th century : the idea of Italian unity preached by Dante and Machiavelli had been extinguished by the vitality of local life and local rivalries ; the Italians preferred local to national patriotism ; therefore Italy was largely ruled by foreign powers. The three prominent factors : i. The power of the Papacy represented more than the actual ex- tent of its dominions, ii. The great extent of Spanish power, comprising Sicily, Naples. Milan, Finale, the Tuscan presidios and Sardinia ; Spain and the Pope ruled two-thirds of Italy, iii. The growth of Savoy. The divisions of Italy and their relations to each other. I. The States of the Church consisted of the Patrimony of Saint Peter, and the surrounding districts ; of the duchy of Spoleto, including Perugia (1520) ; of the March of Ancona (1532) ; of the Romagna C1503) ; of Bologna (1513), and of Ferrara (1598), together with the duchies of Benevento and Ponte-Corvo, within the borders of Naples, and the city of Avignon and the county of the Venaissin, within the borders of France; to these were added, during the 17th century, Urbino (1631) and Castro (1649). Alteration in the character of the Popes : they become more Italian and temporal in their aspirations ; their attitude towards European af- fairs ; their influence in Italy ; their nepotism ; their administration ; the Roman nobility ; the beautification of Rome. Clement VIII — Al- dobrandini — his anti-Spanish policy ; annexed Ferrara (1598) ; died 1605 ; Leo XI. — Medici — 1605 ; Paul V. — Borghese — 1605-21 : his quar- rel with Venice; Gregory XV. — Ludovisi— 1621-23 ; Urban VIII. — Barberini — 1623-44 : his anti-Spanish policy and friendship for Riche- lieu ; his administration ; fortification of Rome ; annexation of Urbino 34 li^b- (1631) ; war with Parma (1641-44) ; Innocent X. — Pamfili — 1644-55 • destruction of Castro (1649) ; his negotiations with Mazarin ; condemna- tion of Jansenism ; favoritism; Alexander VII. — Chigi — 1655-67: rise in power of the " Congregations"; the plague at Rome (1656} ; his quarrel with Louis XIV.; Avignon occupied by the French (1663-65); Si^^omission of the Pope. II. The Spanish dominions : i. Sicily: its feudal nobility ; the rising against^pain (1647) and its suppression. ^ ii. Naples : the government of the Spaniards ; Ossuna's attempt at revolt (1620) ; the tax on fruit imposed by Arcos ; the ris- ing of Masaniello (1647) 5 action of the Due de Guise ; sup- pression of the insurrection (April, 1648). iii. The following ports and cities in Tuscany, known as the ''presidios", occupied by Spain since 1555: Argentaro, Porto Ercole, Santo Stefano, Talamone, Orbitello, Piombino and Porto Longone. iv. Duchy of Milan : exactions of the Spanish government. V. Marquisate of Finale. vi. Sardinia. III. Grand Duchy of Tuscany : the later Medici ; the tranquil reign of Ferdinand II. (1620-70) ; his encouragement of science and art. IV. Duchy of Parma and Piacenza : government of the Farnesi ; the war with the Pope (1641-44, 46-49) about the Duchy of Castro. V. Duchy of Modena and Reggio : government of the Estensi ; their friendship for France ; their desire to recover Ferrara. VI. Duchy of Mantua and Montferrat : the war for the Mantuan Succession (1627) on the death of Vincent Gonzaga II.; the Em- peror and Spain supported the Duke of Guastalla ; Richelieu sup- ported Charles Gonzaga, Due de Nevers ; the city of Mantua sacked by the Imperialists (18 July, 1630) ; by the Treaty of Cherasco (1631) Charles was acknowledged as Duke, but Savoy obtained part of Mont- ferrat ; in return for its assistance, France was allowed to garrison Casale. VII. Duchy of Guastalla : Duke Ferdinand Gonzaga I. claimed Man- tua (1627) ; influence of Spain and the Emperor. Italy. 35 VIII. Republic of Venice : the decline of its commerce ; its political importance in the I^evant and in Italy ; the government of the Republic its internal policy ; its foreign policy ; the quarrel with Pope Paul V. Venice under an interdict (1606-07); Fra Paolo Sarpi (b. 1552, d. 1623) the conspiracy of Bedmar (161 8) ; struggle with the Turks ; the war in Crete (1645-69). IX. Republic of Genoa : its weakness ; its troubles with Corsica ; wealth of its bankers ; its fidelity to Spain the cause of attacks and menaces by France and Savoy. X. Republic of Lucca : its commercial prosperity. XI. Duchy of Savoy : the importance of its position holding the passes of the Alps between France and Italy ; possession of Piedmont makes the dukes more Italian than French. Charles Emmanuel I. (i 580-1630) ; at first a faithful ally of Philip II., whose daughter he had married ; ceded Bresse, Bugey and Gex to Henry IV. (1601) in exchange for Saluzzo ; Henry IV. 's dream of a kingdom of the Alps ; Charles Emmanuel declared for national inde- pendence of Italy against Spain; the Mantuan Succession (1627); Savoy obtained part of Montferrat (1631). Victor A^^^:eki\. (1630-37) : his alliance with France ; married to a daughter of Henry IV. ; by the treaty of Rivoli (1635) formed a league against Spain with Mantua and Parma ; cession of Pignerol to France. Charles Emmanuel II. (1638-75) ; regency of Maria Christina of France (1637-48) ; civil war (1639-42), the Regent being aided by France and the late king's brothers by Spain ; his policy ; persecution of the Vaudois ; schemes on Genoa ; the House of Savoy regarded Italy " as an artichoke to be eaten up leaf by leaf. ' ' Authorities: Among small books in Mnglisb, or translated into English, may be noted Trollope, Paul the Pope and Paul the Friar; H. F. Brown, Venice ; Malleson, Studies from Genoese History ; and for Masaniello and Naples during this period, Von Reurnont, The Carafas of Maddaloni ; Naples under Spanish Do- minion. Among secondary histories consult Botta, Storia delP Italia, vols. 5-8 ; Cantti, Storia degli Italiani ; Ranke, Die romischen Papste im i6ten und lyten Jahrhundert, 3 vols., translated by Austin, vol. 3 ; Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchen- staates, 2 vols. ; De Mouy, L'Ambassade du Due de Cr^qui (1662-65), 2 vols. ; Giannone, Istoria civile del Regno di Napoli ; Hervey de Saint- Denis, Insurrection de Naples en 1647, translated from Rivas, 2 vols. ; Loiseleur, Mazarin et le Due de 36 Spain. Guise in his Questions historiques du XVIP siecle ; Von Reumont, Geschichte Tos- canas unter die Medici, 2 vols. ; Cantii, Ragionamenti suUa Storia Lombarda del secolo XVII. ; Bianchi-Giovini, Biografia da Fra Paolo; Cornet, Paolo V e la republica Veneta (1605-7) I -Daru, Histoiie de Venise, vols, x-xiv ; Garzoni, Istoria della re- publica di Venezia ; Ricotti, Storia della monarchia piemontese ; Costa- Beauregard y Memoires historiques sur la Maison royale de Savoie, 4 vols. ; Belgiojoso, Histoire de la Maison de Savoie ; Baux, Histoire de la reunion a la France des provinces de Bresse, Bugey, Gex; Carutti, Storia della diplomazia della corte di Savoia, 4 vols., and Claretta, Storia del regno di Carlo Emanuele II., 2 vols. ^hQ primary authori- ties are to be found in Muratori, Botero, the collections of official documents, and the Archivio Storico Italiano, while for the attempt of Guise on Naples may be noted Modene, Histoire des revolutions de la ville et du royaume de Naples, and Loiseleur and Baguenault de Puchesse, ly'expddition du Due de Guise a Naples, and for the quarrel between the Pope and Venice, Sarpi, Opere. LECTURE 15. EUROPE) IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 8. SPAIN AND PORTUGAI,. The extent of the dominions of the Spanish Hapsburgs at the com- mencement of the 17th century : vSpain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples, Sicily, the Milanese, Roussillon, Franche-Comte, the Catholic Nether- lands, Central and South America, the West Indies, the Philippine Is- lands and the various settlements of the Portuguese in Africa and Asia. The policy of Philip II. and its effect on the strength of Spain at home and abroad : Spain and the Catholic Church. The weakness of Spain at home : bad internal administration ; steril- izing effect of the wealth drawn from the colonies ; colonial adminis- stration. The weakness of Spain abroad : the war with England and the Protestant Netherlands ; the attitude of France and of the Empire. Yet the seeming power of Spain overshadowed Protestant Christen- dom : policy of Henry IV. of France, James I. and Charles I. of England, Richelieu, Mazarin and Cromwell toward Spain. Spain and Portugal, 37 Reign of Philip III. (i 598-1 621): the administration of the Duke of Lerma ( 1598-1618); his internal policy ; the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609); his foreign policy ; peace with England (1604); truce with the Protestant Netherlands (1609) ; the French alliance and marriages (1612) ; Lerma made a cardinal and dismissed (1618); succeeded by his son, the Duke of Ucedo. Reign of Philip IV. (1621-65): administration of the Count-Duke Olivares (1621-43);. Spain in the Thirty Years' War ; Spinola occupied the Palatinate (1621); renewal of war with the Dutch (1621); Spain struggled with France for supremacy in Northern Italy and was three times worsted, (i) in the affair of the Valtelline (1625), (2) in the Man- tuan Succession (1627-30), (3) in the Valtelline (1635); Richelieu's efforts to overthrow the power of Spain ; the revolt of Catalonia and of Portugal (1640) ; dismissal of Olivares (1643^ Administration of Don Luis de Haro (1643-65): defeat of the Span- iards at Rocroi (1643) ; and again at Lens (1648) ; Spain recognized the independence of the Protestant Netherlands at Miinster (1648); Spain's attempts to take advantage of the Fronde in France ; Cromwell and Mazarin ; defeat of Spain ; conclusion of the Treaty of the Pyre- nees (7 Nov., 1659), by which Spain lost Roussillon and Artois ; mar- riage of Louis XIV. to Maria Theresa of Spain ; the question of the Spanish Succession ; death of Philip IV. (17 Sept., 1665). Condition of Portugal during the " Sixty Years' Captivity " to Spain (1580-1640^; ruin of her commerce; loss of her monopoly of the Asiatic trade ; the Dutch seized the Spice Islands and established themselves in Brazil ; discontent felt in Portugal ; preparations for revolt ; negotiations with Richelieu. The Revolution of 1640 : the Duke of Braganza hailed as John IV.; independence of Portugal recognized by France and the Dutch ; help sent ; revolt of the Asiatic and African possessions and Brazil against Spain ; commencement of the War of Independence; difficulties of John IV.; his death (1656). Reign of Affonso VI. (1656-67): government of the queen-mother (1656-62); Schomberg (b. 161 8, d. 1690) organized the Portuguese army ; by the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Mazarin promised Spain to abandon his support of Portugal ; but he brought about the marriage 38 France Voider Louis XIV. and Colbtn, of Charles II. of England with Catherine of Braganza (1662;; impor- tance of the English alliance; administration of Castel Melhor (1662- 67); continuation of the War of Independence; victories of Schomberg; court revolution (1667); Dom Pedro declared Regent and AfFonso VI. sent to the Azores; treaty of peace with Spain signed at Lisbon (13 Feb., 1668) and the independence of Portugal recognized. Significance of the Revolution of 1640 : condition of Portugal and its importance as an ally of England. ^ Authorities : As small books may be noted Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, vols. 3, 4, which is old-fashioned but fairly correct for Spain, and Morse Stephens^ Story of Portugal. As secondary authorities consult, for Spain, the volumes on this period in Lafuente, and other consecutive histories of Spain ; WeisSy I/'Bspagne depuis le regne de Philippe II. jusqu'a I'av^nement des Bour- bons, 2 vols.; Philippson, Heinrich IV. und Philipp III.; Melo, Guerra de la Cata- luiia, translated by L,eonce de Lavergne ; Watson, History of the Reign of Philip III., and Dunlop, Memoirs of Spain during the reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II., 2 vols., both old-fashioned but containing much that is valuable; for Portu- gal, Oliveira Martins, Historia de Portugal ; Rebello da Silva, Historia de Portu- gal durante os seculos XVI. et XVII., 5 vols. (1557-1656); Vertot, Revolutions de Portugal, and Tessier, Le Chevalier de Jant : relations de la France avec le Portu- gal au temps de Mazarin. Among primary authorities for Spanish history during the century may be noted, in addition to the Coleccion de documentos in- editos, Morel- Fatio, L'Espagne au XVI^ et XVIP. siecle : documents historiques et litteraires, Denans de Courchetet, Histoire des n^gociations et du traits de paix de Pyrenees, and Mignet, Negociations relatives a la succession d'Espagne sous Louis XIV., vol. i.; for Portugal, Borges de Castro and Judice Biker, Colleccao dos actos publicos celebrados entre a Coroa de Portugal e as mais potencias desde 1640 ; Carte, History of the Revolutions of Portugal with the Letters of Sir R. Southwell to the Duke of Ormond ; and Sir Richard Fanshaw, Original Letters during his Embassies in Spain and Portugal. V LECTURE 16. •'-w^ FRANCE UNDER LOUIS ^IV. AND CQLBERT : TO THE REVOCATION OFTHE^EDICT OF NANTES, 1685. Louis XIV. assumed the actual government of France on the death of Mazarin (1661): his personality ; his political aims ; how far he con- France Under Louis XIV. and Colbert. 39 tinned the work of Richelieu and Mazarin ; how far he was an orig- inator. His first ministers : the chancellors Seguier (1656-72), d'Aligre (1672-77) and I^eTellier (1677-85); Hugues de L,ionne (1663-71), Pom- ponne (1671-79) and Colbert- Croissy (1679-96), foreign affairs ; Le Tel- lier (1643-66) and Louvois (1666-91), war ; Fouquet (1653-61) and Col- bert (1661-83), finances ; Colbert (1668-76) and Colbert-Seignelay (1676-90), marine. The overthrow of Fouquet (1661). The work of Colbert (b. 16 19, d. 1683): he arranged the finances of France ; he built up manufactures by a protective policy ; he encour- aged commerce and occupied San Domingo ; he created the French navy ; his personal probity ; his hatred of war ; his love of public works ; the great canal of Languedoc made by Riquet. Louvois (b. 1641, d. 1691) and his work : he organized the army ; his military reforms ; formation of uniformed regiments, etc ; the great French generals, Turenne and Conde, Luxembourg and Vauban. The internal policy of Louis XIV.: he attracted the nobility to Court and kept them out of politics ; he built up the administrative sj^stem ; the intendants of the provinces ; the new official nobility ; the police system ; the suppression of local liberties and municipal government ; the "King and his ministers the pivot of the highly centralized govern- ment. The position of the Parlements : especially the Parlement of Paris ; growing importance of the noblesse de la robe. The splendor of Louis XIV.: he established himself at Versailles and made it the seat of government (1682); importance giv^en by him to the Court ; influence of society and social observances ; etiquette ; effect of the removal from Paris ; his absolutism in society as well as in politics. Immorality of Parisian society : the case of'jMadame de Brinvilliers (1676); the " poisoning affairs " (1680). Louis XIV. and the Catholic Church : his quarrel with Pope Alex- ander VII. (1662-64) ; his quarrel with Pope Innocent XI. (1687-89) ; the claims of the Gallican Church ; the Assembly of 16S2 ; the attitude of Louis XIV. to the Papacy ; the Jansenists and their doctrines ; the 40 France Under Louis XIV. and Colbert. position of the Huguenots ; the new policy adopted by the King ; the dragonnades ; Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (22 Oct., 1685). Condition of the French provinces under Louis XIV. : suppression of brigandage and crime ; the " Grands Jours d' Auvergne " (1665-66); hard lot of the peasants ; provincial life among the petite noblesse and the bourgeois ; prosperity of the cities, and, under Colbert, of industry and commerce. Louis XIV. and literature : the classic age ; French tragedy and comedy created by Corneille, Racine and Moliere ; the great French preachers, Bossuet, Mascaron, Flechier and Bourdaloue; the prose writers, Pascal and La Bruyere ; Boileau and the canons of poetry ; history and Mezeray ; the work and position of the Academic Frangaise. Louis XIV. and art : the painters, Poussin, Le Sueur and Le Brun ; the architects, Mansart and Perrault ; the gardener, Le Notre ; founda- tion of the Academies of Sciences and of Inscriptions and of the School of Rome. Private life of Louis XIV.: his principal mistresses, Mdlle. de La Valliere, Madame de Montespan and Mdlle. de Fontanges ; death of the Queen (1683) ; his private marriage to Madame de Maintenon (1684). The year of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) marked a change in the character and policy of Louis XIV : he is henceforth in- fluenced by Madame de Maintenon and his confessors Pere La Chaise, and Pere Letellier ; after the death of Colbert the Spanish Succession became his one aim. Impression which the days of the glory of Louis XIV. made on Europe : the imitators of his ideas and of his splendor. Authorities : Hassall, Louis XIV. and the Zenith of the French Monarchy is the best little book in English on the period ; but Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV., is not likely to be superseded. Among secondary authorities may be noted Gail- lardin, Histoire du regne de Louis XIV., vols. 3. 4 ; Lair, Louise de Valliere et la jeunesse de Louis XIV., and Nicolas Fouquet, 2 vols. ; Cheruel, De I'administra- tion de Louis XIV. ( 1661-72), and Memoires sur la vie publique et privee de Fou- quet, 2 vols.; Clement, Hi-^toire de Colbert et de son administration, 2 vols; Le Gouv- ernement de Louis XIV., ou la cour I'administration, les finances et le commerce de 1683-89 ; La Police sous Louis XIV., and Madame de Montespan et Louis XIV.; Neymarck, Colbert et son temps, 2 vols.; Rousset, Histoire de Louvois, 4 vols.; Kerviler, Le chancelier Pierre Seguier ; Chantelauze, Le Cardinal de Retz et ses Foreig7i Policy of Louis XIV, 41 missions diplomatiques d Rome; Gazicr, Les dernieres anndes du Cardinal de Retz; Loyson, L'Asseuiblec du clcrg6 de France de 1682; Michaud, Louis XIV. et Inno- cent XI., 4 vols.; Baiisset, Histoire dc Bossuet, 4 vols., and Histoirc de F^nelon, 4 vols.; Benoit, Histoire de 1' ^dit de Nantes; Douen, La Revocation de 1' Edit de Nantes a, Paris ; Bianquis^ La Revocation dc 1' Edit de Nantes d Rouen; Soulice^ L'intendant Foucault et la Revocation en B^arn; Puaux and Sabniier, Etudes sur la Revocation de I'l^dit de Nantes, and Lemontey^ Essai sur retablissement monarcb- ique de Louis XIV ; Martin^ La Monarchie au XVIIi^me si^cle ; essai sur le sys- timc et I'influence personelle de Louis XIV. The primary authorities for the administration of Louis XIV. are Louis XIV., Oeuvres, ed. Grouvelle^ 6 vols. ; M^m- oire de Louis XIV. pour I'instruction du Dauphin, ed. Dreyss ; Clement, Lettres, instructions et m^moires de Colbert, 7 vols.; Boislisle, Correspon dance des control- eursg^n^raux des finances avec les intendants des provinces, 2 vols., and M^m- oires des intendants sur I'^tat des g^n^ralit^s, and Depping, Correspondance admin- istrative sous leregne de Louis XIV., 4 vols., in the Documents inddits ; for the ad- ministration in the provinces see also the works cited under Lecture 29. Among the vast number of memoirs, etc., maybe noted the Journal of Lefivre d' Onnesson; the Me moires of Madame de Motteville, Mademoiselle de Montpensier, La Fare^ Gomuille and Foucault; Cosnac, Souvenirs du r^gne de Louis XIV., 8 vols. ; Flech' ier, Memoires sur les Grands Jours tenus a Clermont en 1665-66, ed. Gonod ; and Bussv-Rabutin, Correspondance ( 1663-93), ed. Lalanne; with,above all,the Letters of Madame de ^vign^f with Combes^ Madame de Sevign^ historien. LECTURE 17. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF LOUIS XIV. : TO THE TREATIES OF NIMEGITEN, 1678. Position of the powers of Europe toward each other when Louis XIV. assumed the government of France (166 1). The 17th century theory of the State : the idea of religious unity was giving way to the conception of national unity concentrated in the person of the Monarch ; exceptions, the Protestant Netherlands and England. The Restoration in England (1660): extinction of feudal relics ; the power of Parliament and development of commercialism ; the contest for the commerce of the world between England and the Dutch. 42 Foreigfi Policy of Louis XIV, , 1661-68. Advantages possessed by France in the new era of diplomatists and standing armies : lyouis XIV. understood and dominated the new era ; his foreign office and diplomatists ; his army, its organization and its generals ; his navy. I,ouis XIV. resolved to use these advantages to enlarge the borders of France, and, for internal and external reasons, decided on a war policy. Louis XIV. and diplomatic privileges : the case of D'Estrades at London (1661), and of Crequi at Rome (1662). Louis XIV. and England : marriage of Henrietta of England, sister of Charles II., to the Duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. (1661) ; purchase of Dunkirk (17 Oct., 1662). Louis XIV. and Spain : his hopes of the succession ; his claims for diplomatic precedence granted. Louis XIV. and Germany : help sent to the Emperor against the Turks (1664) ; Ms influence with the League of the Rhine and the west German princes. Louis XIV. and the Turks : Beaufort defeated the Barbary Corsairs (1663-65) ; help sent to the Venetians in Candia. Louis XIV. and the Dutch : his relations with John de Witt ; efiect of Colbert's protective policy on the Dutch. The naval war between England and the Dutch (1664-67) : causes of the war in commercial rivalry ; the republican party and the House of Orange ; capture of New Amsterdam ; battle of Lowestoft (3 June, 1665) ; the attack of Galen, Bishop of Miinster, on the Dutch ; Louis XIV. declared war against England (26 Jan., 1666); battle of the Downs (1-4 June, 1666); Louis XIV. made an agreement with Charles II. (March, 1667) ; the Dutch in the Medway ; Treaty of Breda (31 July, 1667) ; England abandoned the trade of the Spice Islands, but kept the New Netherlands. The War of Devolution (1667-68) : pretext for the war ; isolation of Spain ; Louis XIV. took the border fortresses of the Catholic Nether- lands and occupied Franche-Comte ; the Triple Alliance ; by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (2 May, 1668) France kept French Flanders, but re- stored Franche-Comte to Spain. The Triple Alliance between England, Sweden, and the Dutch (23 Tlic Dutcli IVar, 16'/ 2-^8. 43 Jan., 1668) : its importance; the principle of the Balance of Power, one of the keynotes of European policy for more than a century, devised by Sir William Temple, to check the ambition of Louis XIV. The position in the Protestant Netherlands : the policy of John de Witt ; his opposition to the House of Orange ; character of William III. Louis XIV. broke up the Triple Alliance by the Treaty of Dover with England (i June, 1670), and by detaching Sweden (14 April, 1672); secret treaty with the Emperor for dividing the Spanish Succession (19 Jan., 1668), followed by a treaty of neutrality (i Nov., 167 1) ; treaty with the Elector of Bavaria (17 Feb., 1670). Louis XIV. attacked the Dutch (1672) : their sole ally the Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg ; William III. appointed Captain- General by the States- General of the United Provinces (4 Feb., 1672) ; passage of the Rhine by the French army (12 June) ; the Dutch cut their dykes (18 June); William III. proclaimed Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand (4 July) ; murder of John d^ Witt (20 Aug.) ; treaty with the Emperor (27 Oct.) ; the Great Elector forced to make peace with France at Vossen (10 Apr., 1673). The naval war : England joined France; the battle of Solebay (7 June, 1672); the Dutch successful under Cornelius Tromp (b. 1629, d. 1691), and Ruyter (b. 1607, d. 1676), in 1673 (7 June, 14 June, 21 August); peace between England and the Dutch (19 Feb., 1674). The continental war : coalition formed against Louis XIV. by the Em- peror and the Great Elector (23 June, 1672); conference at Cologne (June, 1673) ; the Emperor formed a second coalition with the Dutch, joined in succession by Spain and the Duke of Lorraine (30 Aug., 1673), Denmark and the Elector- Palatine (Jan. and March, 1674), the Empire (28 May, 1674), and the Great Elector (i July, 1674); the Electors of Treves and Cologne forced to abandon France (1673); Sweden re- mained her only ally. Campaign of 1673 : capture of Maestricht (29 June, 1673) ; Turenne's strategy ; campaign of 1674 ; Louis XIV. occupied Franche-Comtd ; William III. defeated by Conde at Senef (11 Aug., 1674) ; Turenne crossed the R^iine and ravaged the Palatinate ; campaign of 1675 ; Tu- renne and Mootecuecoli in Alsace ; Turenne killed (27 July) ; naval 44 T^i^ Treaties of Ni7iieg7ie7i, i6y8, victories of Du Quesne (b. 1610, d. 1688) in the Mediterranean; death of Ruyter (Apr., 1676); subsequent campaigns; capture of the border fortresses by the French. Treaties of Peace signed at Nimeguen ; i. Between France and the Dutch (10 Aug., 1678) by which France restored Maestricht and the Dutch ceded nothing. ii. Between France and Spain (17 Sept., 1678) by which Spain ceded Franche-Comte, and Valenciennes, Cambrai and other towns in French Flanders, to France, iii. Between France and the Emperor (5 Feb., 1679) by which France restored Philipsburg, but retained Breisach and Frei- burg. These treaties supplemented by (i.) that of Saint- Germain-en-Laye (29 June, 1679) between Brandenburg and Sweden ; (ii.) that of Fontainebleau (26Sept , 1679) between Denmark and Sweden; by which Brandenburg and Denmark restored their conquests to Sweden. Authorities: Among secondary works dealing with the diplomatic and military history of the period, founded on documents, may be noted, Philippso7i, Das zeitalter lyudwigs des Vierzehnten ; Filon, La France et I'Autriche au XVII* Siecle : Lonchay, La rivalite de la France et de I'Espagne aux Pays-Bas (1635- 1700) ; Lef^vre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt ; Groen van Prinsterer and Combes, cited under Lecture 10 ; Baillon, Henriette Anne d'Angleterre, duchesse d'Orleans ; Forneron, Louise de Keroualle, duchesse de Portsmouth; Segur-Dupeyron, Histoire des n^gociations Commercial es et maritimes de la France au XVII ieme et XVIII ieme Siecle, vol. i ; Jusserand, A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II. ; le comtede Cominges ; Moiiy, Louis XIV. et le Saint-Siege : I'ambassade du due de Crequi (1662-1665) ; Rousset, Histoire de Louvois, .4 vols.; Peter, DerKrieg des Grossen Kurfiirsten gegen Frankreich (1672-1675) ; Depping, Geschichte des Krieges der Miinsterer und Coiner im Bundnisse mit Frankreich gegen Holland ; Ennen, Frankreich und der Niederrhein, 2 vols. ; Guhrcrtter, Kur-Mainz in der Epoche von 1672 ; Piepape, Histoire de la reunion de la Franche-Comt^ a la France, 2 vols. ; Roy, Turenne, sa vie et les institutions militaires de son temps ; Ramsay, Histoire du Vicomte de Turenne, 4 vols ; Choppin, Campagne de Turenne en Alsace ( 1674-75 ) ; Campori, Raimondo Montecuccoli,la sua famiglia e i suoi tempi ; Michel, Histoire de Vauban ; Mellion, Vauban ; Ambert, Le Marechal de Vauban ; Jal, Abraham Du Quesne et la marine de son temps, 2 vols., and Paulliat, Louis XIV. et la compagnie des Indes. The chief primary authorities are the text of the treaties in Fast, Les grandes traites du regne de Louis XIV. ; Mignet, N^gocia- tions relatives d, la succession d'Espagne, 4 vols. ; Griffet, Recueil de Lettres pour Willii Frederick lv(illia7n, the Great Elector. 45 servir k I'histoire militaire de Louis XIV., 8 vols.; Turenne, Correspondance in^dite avec Le Tellier et Louvois ( 1652-72), ed. Barthelemy, and the M^moiresof Turenne, Montccuccoli and the Marcchal Gramont. LECTURE 18. FREDERICK WILLIAM, THE GREAT ELECTOR. The scattered nature and diverse character of the dominions r-uled by Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, known as the Great Elector (b. 1620, succeeded 1640). In 1648 Brandenburg, the nucleus, was not yet entirely evacuated by the Swedish troops ; Eastern Pomerania still full of Swedes ; Prussia only held in feudal subjection to Poland ; and Cleves garrisoned by the Dutch ; the additional territory given to him by the Treaties of West- phalia — Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Cammin and Minden. Contrast between the policy pursued in Brandenburg and in the rest of Germany during the latter half of the 17th century: the importance of the reign of the Great Elector ; he prepared the way for the future greatness of the House of HohenzoUern. The Great Elector's national policy : his desire to hold Prussia free from Polish suzerainty the motive for his actions in the Northern War of 1656-60 ; that relief, granted by the Treaty of Wehlau (1657), confirmed by the Treaty of Oliva (1660); his desire to get the Dutch garrison out of Cleves the motive for aiding the Dutch in 1672 ; his desire to con- quer Western Pomerania the motive for joining the coalition against Louis XIV. To carry out his schemes the Great Elector, like Louis XIV., created and organized a standing army and looked solely to national interests. In 1666 he finallj^ divided the Juliers- Cleves dominions, and took Cleves, Ravensberg and Mark ; in the same year he occupied Magde- burg, which afterwards legally devolved on him according to the Treaties of Westphalia, on the death of Augustus of Saxony in 1680. Part taken by the Great Elector in the wars against Louis XIV : in 1672 he aided the Hwtrh., but made peace in 1673 ; in 1674 he joined the 46 Frederick William, the Great Elector, coalition against France, and was attacked by Sweden ; he defeated the Swedes at FehrbelUn (28 June, 1675), took Stettin (1677), and Stralsund (1678) ; but by the Treaty of Saint- Germain-en-L,aye (29 June, 1679), he had to restore all Western Pomerania except a small district. The Great Elector and the Emperor : his German policy ; a member of the lycague of the Rhine ; strife for the leadership of the Protestant princes with Saxony ; his friendship with Denmark ; his attitude to- wards Poland ; his claims to Jagernsdorf in Silesia, confiscated by Fer- dinand II. in 1623, and to I^iegnitz on death of the last duke (1675), compromised in 1686 by the Emperor Leopold's ceding to him Schwebus in Silesia. The internal policy of the Great Elector : his struggle for absolutism and centralized administration with the nobility, united in their pro- vincial Estates, and with the municipal rights of the cities ; local jeal- ousy of the different provinces. i. In Brandenburg : the Estates were enfeebled and could not meet without being convoked ; no Estates of the province, only provincial Estates in the Old, and New, Mark, ii. In Cleves : the nobility I^utheran and opposed to the Cal- vinist Elector ; their alliance with the Dutch ; the adminis- tration in the hands of the Estates ; the resistance of the nobility overthrown by the use of troops in 1651 and 1654 ; the administration taken into the hands of the Elector, iii. In Prussia : the nobility with full feudal power taxing and ruling their dominions ; their friendship with and imi- tation of the Polish nobility ; independent attitude of the Estates, supported by the city of Konigsberg ; the Great Elector's struggle for the recognition of his sovereignty (1660-63); the execution of Kalkstein (1670). The keynote of the struggle the definition of the position of the Elector and the Estates : the main battle over taxation ; in Branden- tmJ^ (1653), in Cleves (1661), in Prussia (1663) the right of self-taxa- tion by the Estates was acknowledged ; but in Cleves from 1670, in Brandenburg from 1678, in Prussia and in Magdeburg from 1682 the direct taxes were recognized as permanent, and future taxes imposed without asking the Estates ; excise introduced (1677). Louis XIV. and William III. i^i In return for the subordination of the nobles, the Great Elector rec- ognized serfdom on their properties and re-established it in Prussia. To carry out his ambitious hopes for his House, the Great Elector saw that Brandenburg must be a military power : his efforts to create a standing army ; at his accession it consisted of 1,200 men, at his death of 30,000. Material progress encouraged by the Great Elector : agriculture im- proved ; marshes drained ; canal made from the Elbe to the Oder ; growth of Berlin ; welcome of more than 20,000 Huguenots after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Death of the Great Elector (28 April, 1688): comparison between his aims and methods and those of Louis XIV. Authorities : In English see Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, vols, i, 2, and TuUle, History of Prussia, vol. i. Among secondary histories consult Berner, Geschichte des preussischen Staats ; Stenzel^ Geschichte des preussischen Staats, vols, i, 2; Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, vol. 3; Ratike, Zwolf Biicher preussischer Geschichte ; Treitschke^ Deutsche Geschichte, vol. i ; Philipp- son, Geschichte des preussischer Staatswesens, vol. i ; Bornhak, Geschichte des preussischen Verwaltungsrechts. vol. r ; Isaacsohn, Geschichte des preussischen Beamtenthums, vol. 2 ; Cavaignac, La Formation de la Prusse contemporaine, vol. i; Hedestrom, Die Beziehungen zwischen Russland und Brandenburg wahrend des ersten nordischen Krieges (1655-60) ; Musedeck, Die Feldziige desGrossen Kurfursten in Pommern (1675-77) I and Peter, cited under Lecture 17. The best biography is Erdmannsdorffer, Der Grosse Kurfiirst. The primary authority is the collec- tion, edited by Erdmannsdorffer and others, of the Urkunden und Actenstiicke zur Geschichte des Kurfiirsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg. LECTURE 19. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF LOUIS XIV : TO THE TREATIES OF RYS- WICK, 1697. The rivalry between William III., Prince of Orange, and Louis XIV. : the character of William III.; his adherence to the doctrine of the Bal- ance of Power ; the question of the Spanish Succession. The position of William III. in the United Provinces : he was pro- 48 Foreign Policy of Louis XIV., i6y8-88. claimed hereditary Captain- and Admiral-General (1674), and hereditary Stadtholder of Holland, Zealand and Utrecht (1674), and of Gelderland and Overyssel (1675) ; his chief agent, Fagel, Pensionary of Holland (1672-88) ; after the Treaties of Nimeguen the republican party raised opposition to him; Heinsius (b. 1641, d. 1720J elected Pensionary of Hol- land (March, 1689). The position of L^ouis XIV. after the Treaties of Nimeguen ; his re- lations with Charles II. and James II. of England ; the *' chambers of reunion ' ' declared certain towns and districts belonging to the Elector- Palatine, the Elector of Treves, the Bishop of Spires and the Duke of Wiirtemberg, with the duchy of Deux-Ponts (Zw^eibriicken), a posses- sion of the King of Sweden, to be fiefs of the Three Bishoprics, Alsace or Franche Comte ; seizure of Strasburg and purchase of Casale (30 Sept., 1681) ; secret alliance between the Ernperor, William III., Spain and Sweden (i 681) negotiated b}^ Ernest, Duke of Hanover, to preserve the arrangements made at Nimeguen in 1678 ; prevented from acting by the invasion of the Turks and the siege of Vienna (1683) 5 capture of Luxemburg (1684) ; the Imperial Diet made a truce of twenty years with Louis XIV., and consented to the reunions (15 Aug., 1684). Formation of the League of Augsburg (17 July, 1686) between the allies of 168 1. joined by Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, the Elec- tor of Bavaria and others. Louis XIV. and the Mediterranean : Du Quesne bombarded Tripoli (1681) and Algiers (1682-83) and Genoa (1684) ; Seignelay's work in improving the French navy. Louis XIV. and Pope Innocent XI.: the ambassador's right of asy- lum ; occupation of Avignon (1688). Louis XIV. and the administration : Colbert succeeded by Le Pele- tier (1683-89), and Pontchartrain (1689-99) ; Louvois by Barbezieux (1691-1701) ; Colbert- Croissy assisted by Colbert-Torcy (1689) ^^^ suc- ceeded by him (1696). Effect of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) on Europe, especially on England and Germany. Outbreak of war (1688) : its immediate causes ; (i) the Palatine Suc- cession (1685) ; pretensions of Louis XIV. on behalf of the Duchess of Orleans ; (2) the electorate of Cologne, France supporting Cardinal War of the League of Augsburg ^ 1688-97, 49 von Fiirstenberg and the Emperor, Joseph Clement of Bavaria ; devas- tation of the Palatinate, occupation of Bonn, Cologne, Mayence and Treves and capture of Philipsburg (1689). The situation changed by the Revolution of 1688 in England, by which William III. became ruler of England ; effect on the position of Louis XIV.; despatch of an army and a fleet to support James II. in Ireland. Campaign of 1690 : De Tourville defeated the English and the Dutch off Beachy Head (10 July), but James II. was defeated in the battle of the Boyne (11 July), and left Ireland ; Luxembourg (b. 1628, d. 1695) defeated the Prince of Waldeck at Fleurus (i July, 1690), and Catinat (b. 1637, d. 1712), the Duke of Savoy at Staffarda (17 Aug., 1690). The campaign of 1691 : preparations of Louis XIV. for the invasion of England ; capture of Mons (9 April) by the king ; of Nice (2 April) by Catinat ; of Urgel by Nop.illes ; death of Louvois. The campaign of 1692 : Russell defeated De Tourville in the battle of La Hogue (29 May) ; end of the French supremacy in the Channel : regular naval war abandoned for frigate fighting and privateering ; Duguay-Trouin and Jean Bart ; the invasion of England abandoned ; capture of Namur by the king (5 June) ; Luxembourg defeated William III. at Steenkirk (3 August) ; the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene invaded Dauphin^. The campaign of 1693 • Luxembourg defeated William III. at Lan- den or Neerwinden (29 July) and took Charleroi (11 Oct.); Catinat de- feated the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene at the Marsaglia (4 Oct.); Rosas captured by Noailles (9 June) ; Pondicherry , the chief French set- tlement in India, taken by the Dutch. Exhaustion of France : feebleness of the ministers ; depreciation of the currency. Defensive campaign of 1694 • death of Luxembourg (4 Jan., 1695) ; William III. recaptured Namur (4 Aug., 1695); Louis XIV. made peace (29 June, 1696) with Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, who recov- ered Pignerol and Casale, and whose daughter married the eldest grand- son of Louis ; he declared himself the ally of France. Negotiations for peace opened at Ryswick (May, 1697): Vendome's capture of Barcelona (10 Aug.). The Treaties of Ryswick signed 20 Sept. and 30 Oct., 1697 • 50 The Treaties of Rysivick, i6gy. i. I/)uis XIV. recognized William III. as King of England, but refused to expel James II. from France, ii. The Dutch restored Pondicherry and were allowed to garrison the frontier towns of Belgium as " barrier fortresses." iii. Louis XIV. restored to the Empire Philipsburg, Breisach and Freiburg, the fortresses held by France on the right bank of the Rhine, and all places adjudged to him or seized by him since the Treaties of Nimeguen, except St];;§sburg, Longwy, Sarrelouis and Landau. iv. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, restored to his father's dominions, with all fortresses dismantled. Position of the powers of Europe at the Treaties of Ryswick awaiting the settlement of the Spanish Succession. Authorities : Of the secondary histories cited for Lectures i6 and 17, Vol- taire, Gaillardin, Clement, lyC Gouvernement de Louis XIV, de 1683-89 ; Rousset, Michaud, Bausset, Lemontey, Martin ^Philippson, Filon,Lonchay, Segur-Dupeyron^ vol. ii., Ennen, Roy, Michel, Mellion, Ambert and Jal are still valuable, and of the primary authorities Louis XIV., Dreyss, Boislisle, Depping, Foucauit, Cos- nac. La Fare, Bussy-Rabutin, Madame de Sevigne and Griffet. To the second- ary authorities should be added for this period Macatilay, History of England, vols. 1-4 ; Sirtemade Grovestins, Guillaume III. et Louis XIV., 8 vols. ; Wolseley, Life of the Duke of Marlborough to the Accession of Queen Anne ; Noailles, His- toire de Madame de Maintenon et des principaux dvenements du regne de Louis XIV., 4 vols.; Geffroy, Madame de Maintenon ; Wilson, James II. and the Duke of Berwick ; Reuss, L'Alsace au XVII. ieme siecle ; Legrelle, Louis XIV. et Stras- bourg ; Gerin, Louis XIV. et le Saint-Siege ; Schulte, Markgraf Ludwig von Baden und der Reichskrieg gegen Frankreich, 2 vols.; Delarbre, Tourville et la marine de son temps ; Carutti, Storia del regno di Vittorio Amedio II., and D' Haussonville, La Duchesse de Bourgogne et 1' alliance savoyarde sous Louis XIV., and Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France, 4 vols. To the primary authorities add State Papers and Correspondence illustrative of the social and political state of Europe, 1688-1715, ed. Kem,ble ; Lexington Papers, 1694-98, ed. Sutton; Span- heim. Relation sur la cour de France en 1690 ; Madame de Maintenon, Correspond- ance generale,and CBuvres, ed. by Lavallee, 12 vols.; the Letters of the Duchesse d* Orleans, known as Madame Palatine, ed. by Bodemann, 2 vols, translated and ^d.Jaegle, 3 vols.; Catinat, Memoires et Correspondance, 3 vols.; Dumont von Carlscroon, Memoires politiques pour servir a la parfaite intelligence d-e I'histoire de la paix de Ryswick, 4 vols ; and the documents of the Peace of Ryswick, ed. Fritsch ; the Memoires of Mdlle. de Lafayette, Madame de Caylus, the Abbe Choisy, and Torcy, and the Journal of Dangeau, vols. 1-6. The Siege of Vieyina, 1683, 51 I^ECTURE 20. V o ; THE SIEGE OF VIENNA BY THE TURKS, 1683: POLAND UNDER JOHN SOBIESKI. The Emperor I^opold I. (1658-1705): his character and his govern- ment. The Emperor Leopold I. and Hungary : his efforts (i) to extirpate Calvinism, (2) to destroy local independence, in the portion of Hungary left to him ; the situation after the Treaty of Vasvar (1664); the con- spiracy of 1670 ; the office of Palatine abolished and a policy of relig- ious persecution and Germanization adopted ; the insurrection of T6- koli (1675-79) encouraged by Louis XIV. to embarrass the Emperor ; effect of Western on Eastern European politics ; the Treaty of Nime- guen (1678) followed by the Diet of CEdensberg (1681), by which the office of Palatine was restored, arbitrary taxes abolished, all offices thrown open to Magyars and liberty of worship promised to the Protest- ants ; Paul Esterhazy chosen Palatine to the disgust of Tokoli. The Emperor Leopold and Transylvania ; attitude of that province to the Turks ; on the death of George Rakoczy II. (1660) Michael Apafy appointed Prince of Transylvania ; recognized by both Emperor and Sultan by the Truce of Vasvar (1664), but to pay tribute to the Sultan. The Turks declared Tokoli Prince of Hungary (1682), and under com- mand of the brother-in-law of Ahmad Kiuprili, Kara Mustapha, (Grand Vizier since 1676), marched on Vienna (1683); the siege of Vienna (March-Sept., 1683) ; its significance in history ; help demanded by the Emperor from other states ; heroic defense of Vienna under Ernest Riidiger von Starhemberg ; appeal for the help of John Sobieski, King of Poland ; attempt of Louis XIV. to isolate the Emperor. John Sobieski (b. 1629) elected King of Poland (21 May, 1674) ; feeble reign of Michael Koributh Vichnevetski (1669-74) \ Sobieski's diffi- culties in Poland since the Treaty of Zuravna (27 Oct., 1676); his treaties with Russia and the Dutch ; his fame as a general ; his desire for a crusade against the Turks ; his friendship with Pope Innocent XI.; his disputes with Louis XIV. ; his determination to come to the help of the Emperor with the Polish army. 52 The War with the Turks, 1684.-98. John Sobieski, with Charles V., Duke of Lorraine (b. 1643, d. 1690), in command of the Austrian army, defeated the Turks in their camp (12 Sept., 1683) and raised the siege of Vienna ; pursuit of the Turks ; capture of Gran (24 Oct.) ; execution of Kara Mustapha (25 Dec, 1683). War with the Tux^s : first phase (1684-89); excitement caused in Christendom by the siege of Vienna ; the ' ' Holy I^eague -^ ^(g^\AjListria, Poland, Venice and Malta, formed by Pope Innocent XL^the Venetians under Mor^ini gDjicju^ed the ^^reaT and AthensXi 684-87) : the Poles in Moldavia (1686); the Duke of Lorraine captured Buda'^^ SepTT^' 1686);' he and Louis of Baden (b. 5655,4^ iTOTV^efeated the Turks at Mohacs (12 Aug., i6§7)7^ffi?^26saries^epb^a Muhammad IV. and placed Sulaiman II. on the throne (8 Nov., 1687) ; Michael Apafy, Prince of Transylvania^^declarecl himself a vassal of the Emperor (28 July, 1686) ; capti'ir3l)lr]Be1grkde|&^gept~, 1688) ; Louis of Baden in- vaded Servia ; the Russian attack on the Crimea ; Mustapha Kiuprili, brother of Ahmad Kiuprili, appointed Grand Vizier (Sept., 1689). The Emperor Leopold's actions on the conquest of Hungary : mas- sacre of the friends of Tokoli ; the * ' butchery ' ' at Eperies ; the crown of Hungary made hereditary, instead of elective, in the House of Haps- burg (31 Oct., 1687); abolition of the coronation oath and of the right of insurrection ; persecution of the Protestants. War with the Turks : second phase (1689-91); the Emperor forced to detach the Duke of Lorraine to fight Louis XIV. on the Rhine ; Louis of Baden in command against the Turks ; Mustapha Kiuprili appointed Tokoli Prince of Transylvania and recaptured Belgrade (1690); acces- sion of Ahmad II. ; Louis of Baden defeated the Turks at Szalankemen (19 Aug., 1 691) ; Mustapha Kiuprili killed ; Transylvania conquered ; the Hapsburgs recognized as Princes of Transylvania (Dec. 1691) ; John Sobieski's last campaign ; his march to the Pruth (1691) ; Louis of Baden sent to the Rhine ; failure of the negotiations for peace. War with the Turks : third phase {i6()i-(^d>') ; unimportant operations (1691-95) ; accession of Mustapha II. (1695) ; he assumed command of the Turkish army ; his invasion of Hungary and capture of many for- tresses ; confusion caused by the death of John Sobieski ; Peter the Great captured Azov (28 July, 1696) ; Prince Eugene destroyed the The Treaty of Carlawitz, i6gg, 53 Turkish army in the battle of the Zenta (11 Sept., 1697) ; Hussain Kiuprili appointed Grand Vizier ; the Turks forced to sue for peace. Reasons which induced the Emperor Leopold to make peace with the Turks ; the imminence of the falling-in of the Spanish Succession ; medi- ation of the English and Dutch. Treaty of Carlowitz (26 Jan., 1699) : • i. The Emperor obtained Hungary, except the Banat of Temes- var ; the whole of Transylvania ; Croatia ; and Slavonia as far as the Save, ii. Venice obtained Dalmatia and the Morea. iii. Poland recovered Podolia with Kaminietz. By separate treaty (3 July, 1700) Russia obtained Azov. Since the siege of Vienna the Turks have receded in Europe : the Treaty of Carlowitz marks the first stage of their decline. The condition of Poland under John Sobieski : rivalry between the Poles and Lithuanians ; the factious nobility ; SobiCvSki's schemes for reform rejected ; he was without subsidies or support ; attitude of foreign powers ; Sobieski's attempt to abdicate ; approach of civil war ; Sobieski's advancement of civilization in Poland ; death of John Sobieski (17 June, 1696). Election of the Elector Augustus of Saxony to be King of Poland (i June, 1697). Authorities : Among small books Leger, Autriche-Hongrie ; Creasy, Otto- man Turks, and Morfilly Story of Poland, as before, with Maiden, History and Con- sequences of the Defeat of the Turks before Vienna in 1683. As secondary authorities see Co:ve, History of the House of Austria, 4 vols. ; Krones, Hand- buch der Geschichte CEsterreichs : Mailath, Geschichte der CEsterreichischen Kaiserstaats ; Michiels, Histoire secrete du gouvernement autrichien ; Gerando, La Transylvanie ; Teutsch, Geschichte der Siebenbiirger Sachsen ; Klopp, Das Jahr 1683 und der folgende grosse Turkenkrieg bis zum Frieden von Carlowitz ; Thur- heim, Feldmarschall Ernst RUdiger, Graf Stahremberg ; Roder von Diersburg, Des Markgrafen Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden Feldziige wider die Tiirken, 2 vols. ; Ameth, Prinz Eugen von Savoyen, 3 vols. ; Bntzzo, Francesco Morosini e la con- questa della Morea ; Von Hammer, Histoire de I'Empire Ottoman, vols. 12, 13 ; Coyer, Histoire de Jean Sobieski, 3 vols., and Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne avant et sous Jean Sobieski, 3 vols,, are old-fashioned and do not give sources, but inter- esting ; a more recent book is Waliszezvski, Maryzienka, being a sketch of the life of Marie d' Arquien, wife of John Sobieski. 54 Russia under Peter the Great. I^ECTURB 21. RUSSIA UNDER PETER THE GREAT. Condition of Russia under the first Romanovs, Michael (1613-45) and Alexis (1645-76) : internal and foreign policy of the Tsars. The reign of Feodor Alexievitch, eldest son of Alexis Romanov (1676-82). Peter Alexievitch (b. 9 June, 1672), youngest son of Alexis, recog- nized as Tsar (7 May, 1682) ; the rising of the Streltsi at Moscow ; Ivan v., his half brother, proclaimed joint Tsar with Peter (28 May, 1682) ; Princess Sophia made Regent. The government of Sophia and Vasili Galitzin (1682-89) : confirma- tion of the Peace of Kardis with Sweden and the Treaty of Androus- sovo ; Galitzin's expedition against the Crimean Tartars (1687-89); overthrow of Sophia ; Peter assumed the government (i7Sept., 1689). The boyhood of Peter the Great : his education ; his character ; his passion for boat-building ; his foreign friends ; Lefort ; his amusements and occupations ; his longing for a navy ; condition of Russian com- merce ; Archangel ; the Baltic ; the government of the boyars ; by death of Ivan V., Peter became sole Tsar (8 Feb., 1696). Peter the Great's first war ; the capture of Azov (28 July, 1696) ; by treaty with the Turks Azov granted to Russia (3 July, 1700). Peter the Great's visit to Western Europe (1697-98) : its political re- sults ; its effect on Peter's character. Destruction of the Streltsi (1698) : first steps taken for the formation of a regular army and navy ; forcible introduction of Western usages. First appearance of Russia in European politics : negotiations be- tween Augustus I., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick IV., King of Denmark, and Peter the Great for an attack on Sweden ; motives of the attack ; Peter's de- sire for a port on the Baltic. The schemes of Patkul : on behalf of the Livonian nobility he offered lyivonia and Esthonia to Augustus, Ingria and Carelia to Peter, at an interview between the two monarchs (July, 1698). Russia under Peter the Great, 55 Peter the Great's invasion of Ingria : the Russians defeated by Charles XII. at the battle of Narva (13 Nov., 1700) ; Charles XII. marched into Poland. Capture of Noteburgby the Russians (22 Oct., 1702), and foundation of St. Petersburg by Peter the Great : occupation of Ingria and Ca- relia ; capture of Narva (20 Aug., 1704). The Tsaritsa Catherine (b. 1684) : private marriage (1707) ; public marriage (1712) ; her influence over Peter; Menshikov (b. 1672;. Closeness of the alliance between Peter and Augustus I. : the devasta- tion of Livonia ; the Swedes defeated at Kalisch (29 Oct., 1706) ; Au- gustus made peace with Charles XII. at Altranstadt (1706) ; Peter left without allies ; the war in Lithuania ; fortification of Moscow. Charles XII. invaded the Ukraine (1708) : treachery of Mazeppa, Hetman of the Cossacks of the Dnieper ; the battle of Liesna (9 Oct., 1708) ; the winter of 1708-9 ; destruction of the Swedish army at Pol- tava (8 July, 1709) ; escape of Charles XII.; importance of the victory; Russia takes rank with European nations ; the result of a trained and disciplined army ; immediate effects of the victory ; Augustus, aided by Peter, resolved to recover the Polish throne and to conquer Livonia ; the Russians made safe in Ingria and Carelia, with an outlet to the Bal- tic ; failure of the proposed marriage between the sister of the Emperor and the Tsarevitch Alexis, who married Princess Charlotte of Bruns- wick- Wolfenbiittel (25 Oct., 1711); league of Russia, Denmark and Prussia formed against Sweden ; by Treaty of Marienwerder (i Nov., 1709), Elbing promised to Prussia. The partition of Poland suggested by Frederick of Prussia and Au- gustus to Peter the Great : Frederick wanted Royal Prussia ; Augustus was not unwilling to give it, as well as White Russia to Peter, if they would guarantee him the rest of Poland as an hereditary monarchy. Peter the Great's internal reforms : the new administration ; the Privy Council in the place of the Council of Boyars ; the new departments ; formation of the eight governments ; the taxes and financial system ; commerce and monopolies ; encouragement of foreigners ; ecclesiastical reforms ; reformation of the monasteries ; the Senate ; unpopularity of these changes ; local insurrections and discontent. Continuance of the war with Sweden : capture of Viborg (21 June, 56 Russia under Peter the Great. 1710), of Riga (July) and of Revel (September) ; occupation of I^ivonia and Esthonia ; marriage of Peter's niece Anne to the Duke of Courland ; occupation of Courland. The Turks declared war against Peter the Great (i Dec, 17 10) ; Con- stantine Brancovano, Hospodar of Wallachia, and Demetrius Cantemir, Hospodar of Moldavia, invited him to help them to throw off their sub- jection to the Sultan and to become the liberator of the Romanian Christians ; Peter the Great invaded Moldavia ; surrounded by the Turks on the Pruth ; Catherine came to his help ; by treaty of 23 July, 171 1, Peter agreed to surrender Azov, which was given up to the Turks in 1712. The campaigns in Pomerania (1711-13) : sequestration of Stettin. Peter the Great's position at the time of the Treaties of Utrecht. The greatness of the work Peter had done for Russia. Authorities: Of small books the most readable is still, despite some mis- takes and misconceptions, Voltaire^, Histoire de 1' empire de Russie sous Pierre le Giand, which should be checked by the chapters on his reign in Morfill, Story of Russia, and Rarnbaud, Histoire de la Russie, translated by L. B. Lang, 2 vols. The best secondary authorities are Schuyler^ Peter the Great ; Waliszewski, Pierre le Grand ; Bruckner, Peter der Grosse, and Hemnajin, Russland unter Peter der Grosse ; more special works are Merimee, Cosaques d'autrefois, Stenka Razin ; Wernich, Der Livlander Johann Reinhold von Patkul und seine Zeitgenossen, and Posselt, Der General und Admiral Franz Lefort, sein I^eben und seine Zeit. 2 vols. The correspondence of English, French and German diplomatists, as well as other papers bearing on the reign of Peter, are to be found in the "Sbornik," the collection of documents, published by the Imperial Historical Society of St. Peters- burg. LECTURE 22. CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. The reign of Charles XI. of Sweden ( 1660-97) : during his minority and the government of his mother, Hedwiga of Holstein-Gottorp, peace was made with Poland, Denmark and Russia (1660-61), and Charles XII. of Sweden. 57 Sweden joined the Triple Alliance (1668) ; the political position in Sweden ; the government of the nobles, who even granted to them- selves the crown lands. Charles XI. assumed the government (1672) : his alliance with France; his invasion of Brandenburg; attacked by Denmark and the Dutch; his navy was defeated by Cornelius Tromp (11 June, 1675 y and his army by the Great Elector at Fehrbellin (18 June, 1675); he de- feated the Danes at Lund (11 Dec, 1675), but lost all Pomerania, and his fleet was destroyed by Admiral Juel (11 June, 1678); by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (29 June, 1679) he recovered all his lost ter- ritory by the influence of Louis XIV.; disgusted at the action of the "chambre de reunion" of Louis XIV. with regard to his duchy of Deux- Fonts, he entered the secret alliance against Louis XIV. (1681); joined the League of Augsburg (1686); and aided the Dutch with 6,000 men (1688-97). The Revolution of 1682 : the power of the Senate had been over- thrown with the help of the Diet (1680) ; absolute power placed in the hands of the king by the Estates, or Diet; he resumed all lands granted to the nobility since 1609 ; his excellent administration ; economy and large savings ; encouragement of Swedish commerce. Christian V., King of Denmark (1670-99) : the administration of Grif- fenfeld ( 1670-76); result of the war with Sweden ; his troubles with Hol- stein-Gottorp ; the Convention of Altona (1691); his attempts to imitate Louis XIV. ; his creation of a privileged nobility ; excellence of his navy and commerce ; his administration ; his invasion of Schleswig (1698) ; succeeded by Frederick IV. (1699), Charles XII. of Sweden (b. 1682^ : succeeded his father (1697); ^is education and character ; declared of age (1699); danger threatened by the alliance against him of Denmark, Brandenburg, Saxony, Poland and Russia. The first campaign of Charles XII. : his invasion of Denmark in aid of his cousin and brother-in-law, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (July, 1700) ; attack on Copenhagen ; Frederick IV. made the Treaty of Tra- vandahl (18 Aug., 1700), granting practical sovereignty to the Duke in Schleswig. The second campaign of Charles XII. ; he defeated the Russians at 58 Charles XII. of Sweden, Narva (30 Nov., 1700) and the Saxons at Klissow (19 July, 1702), and at Pultusk (I May, 17031. Charles XII. despised Russia and resolved to drive Augustus I. out of Poland ; the Polish Diet declared the throne of Poland vacant ; elec- tion of Stanislas Leczinski as King of Poland (12 July, 1704) ; Charles XII. invaded Saxony ; by the Treaty of Altranstadt (24 Sept., 1706) Augustus recognized Stanislas as king ; execution of Patkul (10 Oct.) ; commanding position of Charles XII. in European politics ; expectation of his intervention in the War of the Spanish Succession ; visit of Marl- borough to his camp. Charles XII. invaded the Ukraine (1708) : his army destroyed or cap- tured by Peter the Great at Poltava (11 July, 1709); his escape to Bender ; his efforts to induce the Turks to attack Russia ; arrested by the Turks and imprisoned at Adrianople (17 13). The Northern War during the residence of Charles XII. at Bender : Augustus I. disregarded the Treaty of Altranstadt and with Peter the Great reconquered Poland ; Stanislas Leczinski escaped to Sweden C1710) and joined Charles XII. at Bender (17 13) ; the Russians recon- quered Esthonia and the shores of the Gulf of Finland ; Frederick IV. of Denmark invaded Sweden, but was defeated by Stenbock (b. 1664, d. 1 717) at Helsingborg (10 March, 17 10); Stenbock defeated the Danes at Gadebusch (20 Dec, 17 12) and burnt Altona ; joined by the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp ; Stenbock forced to surrender at Tonning (May, 17 13) ; the Danes conquered Bremen and Verden ; campaign of the Russians, Prussians, Saxons and Danes in Pomerania ; the wholtj province occupied, except Stralsund. Position of the northern powers at the Treaties of Utrecht : exhausted condition of Sweden ; triumphant attitude of Russia, Prussia and Den- mark ; Sweden ceased to be a great power ; the position given her by the Treaties of Westphalia too great for her to hold ; sources of her strength and weakness. The character and career of Charles XII.: "the Madman of the North." Authorities: The best small books are, Voltaire, Charles XII.; Bain, Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire ; Otte, Scandinavian History, and Geffroy, I^es :^tats Scandinaves For more detailed information see Wernich, The Spanish Succession. 59 cited under Lecture 21; Lundblad, Geschichfe Karls des Zwcilften. 2 vols.; Beskow^ Karl'der Tolfte, and Sarauzu, Die Feldzuge Karls XII,; while Schuyler^ Peter the Great; Morfill^ Story of Poland, and Tutile, History of Prussia, can be consulted for the Russian, Polish and Prussian sides of the Northern War. The general his- tories of Sweden by Fryxell^ and by Geijer, translated into German and continued by Carlson^ devote much space to the reigns of Charles XI. and Charles XII. LECTURE 23. THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. The question of the succession to the Spanish dominions upon the long-expected death of the childless Charles II. was the most important question in European politics for half a century: efforts made to settle the question by peaceful means; the doctrine of the Balance of Power. The reign of Charles II. of Spain (i 665-1 700): the regency of the queen-mother, Donna Marianna (1665-75); the influence of P^re Nithard (1665-69); he was forced to retire by Don John; the king declared of age (1675); the government of Don John (1675-79); Spain lost French Flanders and Franche-Comte by the Treaties of Nimeguen (1678). Feeble health of the king: the influence of his first wife, a French princess, Maria Louisa of Orleans (1679-89); her quarrels with her mother-in-law; influence of his second wife, Marianna of Neuburg, exercised in favor of Austria; position and influence of Cardinal Porto Carrero (b. 1631, d. 1709); his support of the claims of the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, and after his death of those of the Duke of Anjou; Spain invaded by the French (1694-97), but lost nothing by the Treaties of Ryswick (1697); steady decline of Spanish power and prosperity. The Secret Partition Treaty between Louis XIV. and the Emperor Leopold (19 Jan., 1668) : Louis to have the Catholic Netherlands, Franche-Comte, Navarre, the Philippine Islands, the African settle- ments, Naples, Sicily and northern Catalonia; Leopold to have Spain, the Canary Islands, the Indies, Sardinia, Milan, Finale and the Tuscan 6o The Spanish Succession. presidios ; these terms made impossible by the Treaties of Ryswick. The claimants to the Spanish Succession and their claims : Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV.; the Archduke Charles, younger son of the Emperor Leopold ; and the Electoral Prince of Ba- varia. (See Appendix V.) Charles II. recognized the Electoral Prince of Bavaria as heir to all his dominions (1696). The First Partition Treaty between William III. and Louis XIV. (11 Oct., 1698): the Electoral Prince to have Spain, Sardinia, the Indies and the Catholic Netherlands; Charles to have the Milanese; Philip to have Naples, Sicily, Finale, the Tuscan presidios and Gui- puzcoa; arrangement accepted by Spain; death of the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, at Brussels (6 Feb., 1699). The Second Partition Treaty between William III. and Louis XIV. (13 Mar., 1700): Charles to have Spain, the Indies, the Netherlands and Sardinia; Philip to have the same as before, with the addition of the Milanese, which was to be exchanged for Lorraine. Intrigues around the death bed of the king at Madrid : Charles II. made a will leaving all the Spanish possessions to Philip (2 Oct., 1700*) and died (i Nov., 1700). Louis XIV. accepted the will and acknowledged his grandson as ruler of all the Spanish dominions (16 Nov., 1700); "the Pyrenees no longer exist"; the Duke of Anjou proclaimed King of Spain at Mad- rid as Philip V. (24 Nov., 1700); crowned at Madrid (10 Apr., 1701); his title was recognized reluctantly by William III. ; his marriage to Marie Gabrielle of Savoy (11 Sept., 1701). First mistake of Louis XIV.: introduction of French troops into the " barrier fortresses " (6 Feb., 1701); formation of the Grand Alliance (7 Sept., 1701) between the Emperor, England, the Dutch and the King of Prussia ; second mistake of Louis XIV. : recognition of the Pretender as King of England after the death of James II. (17 Sept., 1701); the English Parliament enthusiastic for war ; death of William III. (19 March, 1702) and accession of Queen Anne. The Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. joined by the Empire (30 Sept., 1702); its leading spirits the Duke of Marlborough (b. 1650, d. 1722); Prince Eugene (b. 1663, d. 1736) in the service of the Emperor; War of the Spanish Succession, 6l and the Grand Pensionary Heinsius (b, 164 1, d. 1720); the allies of France were the Dukes of Modeiia, Mantua, Guastalla and Savoy, and the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne ; the Duke of Savoy for his alli- ance obtained the hand of the new king for his second daughter ; the chief French generals were Vendome (b. 1654, d. 17 12); Villars (b. 1653, d. 1734); Tallard (b. 1652, d. 1728); ViUeroi (b. 1644, d. 1730), and Berwick (b. 1670, d. 1734). u* , .-. . The advantages possessed by Louis XIV. at the commencement of the War of the Spanish Succesion : central position and centralized government. Authorities : For Spain during the reign of Charies II., see Diinlop, Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Phihp IV. and Charles II.; Weiss, l^'Espagne depuis le regne de Philippe II., jusqu'd I'av^nement des Bourbons; Alexander Stan- hope, Spain under Charles II. (1690-99); and Villars, M^moires sur la cour d'Espagne (1679-81) and Muret, Lettres ^crites de Madrid en 1666-67. both ed. by Morel Fatio. For the diplomatic history of the period, see Macaulay, Sirtema de Grovestins, Kemble, and Lexington Papers, cited under Lecture 19 ; Reynold^ Louis XIV. et Guillame III., histoire des deux trait^s de partage et du testament de Charles II.; Courcy, La coalition de 1701 contre la France, and Renonciation des Bourbons au trone d'Espagne ; Legrelle, La diplomatie frangaise et la succes- sion d'Espagna ; Hippeau, Av^nement des Bourbons au trone d'Espagne, corre- spondance in^dite du marquis d'Harcourt; Gritnblot, Letters of William IIJ. and Louis XIV. (1697-1700); Loiiville, Memoires secrets sur I'dtablissement de la maison de Bourbon en Espagne; Gddeke, Die Politik CEsterreichs in der spanischen Erbfolgegrage, and Mignet, N^gociatious relatives a la succession d'Espagne sous Louis XIV. (to 1679). LECTURE 24. THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION, 1701-14. The War of the Spanish Succession : the four theatres of the war, the Netherlands Germany, Italy and Spain. Campaign of 1701 : Eugene turned the position of Catinat in Lom- bardy and defeated Villeroi at Chiari (i Sept.). 62 War of the Spanish Succession, Campaign of 1702 : Eugene surprised Villeroi at Cremona (i Feb.) ; the Dukes of Modena and Guastalla abandoned France ; Vendome de- feated Eugene at Luzzara (15 Aug.) ; Louis of Baden invaded Alsace and seized Landau (10 Sept.); Bavaria declared war and occupied Ulm (8 Sept.) ; Villars defeated Louis of Baden at Friedlingen (14 Oct.) ; Marlborough captured Liege and other fortresses on the Meuse. Campaign of 1703 : the Emperor recognized his son Charles as King of Spain (Sept.); French plan of marching on Vienna ; Francis Rakoczy raised an insurrection in Hungary ; critical position of the Emperor ; Villars entered Bavaria ; Vendome entered the Tyrol ; Vendome forced to retire owing to the conduct of Victor Amadeus of Savoy, who joined the Allies (8 Nov.) ; importance of this event ; the Duke received from the Emperor Alessandria, Valenza, the Val Sesia and the Lomelline ; Villars defeated the Austrians at Hochstadt (21 Sept.) ; Tallard de- feated the Imperialists before Spires (14 Nov.) and recaptured Landau (17 Nov.) ; Marlborough took Bonn (May) and occupied the Electorate of Cologne ; insurrection in the Cevennes of the Protestants, known as the " Camisards", under Cavalier ; Portugal joined the Grand Alliance (16 May). Campaign of 1 704 : Vend6me conquered Piedmont ; successes of Rakoczy ; Marlborough joined Eugene in Bavaria and crushed Tallard at Blenheim (13 Aug.) ; Louis of Baden retook Landau (24 Nov.) and Marlborough, Treves ; importance of the battle of Blenheim ; Sir George Rooke seized Gibraltar (4 Aug.) ; the Archduke Charles landed at Lisbon, escorted by an English fleet (May), and was recognized as King of Spain by the King of Portugal. Campaign of 1705 : Joseph I. succeeded Leopold as Emperor (6 May); his conciliatory policy towards Hungary ; Villars put down the revolt in the Cevennes, took Wissembourg and invaded Baden ; Vendome be- sieged Turin and defeated Eugene at Cassano (16 Aug.) ; Marlborough in the Catholic Netherlands ; Galway invaded Spain from Portugal ; Peterborough (b. 1658, d. 1735) took Barcelona (13 Sept.), and Cata- lonia declared for the Archduke Charles. Campaign of 1706 : Galway occupied Madrid (2 July), but the Span- iards rose for Philip V. and drove him out (Auo^.) ; Peterborough took Valencia and relieved Barcelona ; Eugene defeated Orleans, relieved War of the Spanish Succession. 63 Turin, (7 Sept.) and drove the French out of Italy ; Villars retook La u- terbourg and Hagueuau ; Marlborough crushed Viileroi at RamUlies (23^ay) and occupied the Catholic Netherlands, y^^ 7y-vLC>w/i >u Campaign of 1707 : Berwick defeated Galway at Almanza (15 April) ; all Spain, except Catalonia, now supported Philip V.; Naples ac- knowledged the Archduke Charles ; the Emperor confiscated the duchy of Mantua, and granted Montferrat and Casale to the Duke of Savoy, but added Mantua to the Milanese ; Eugene and the Duke of Savoy iQvaded France and besieged Toulon ; Villars stormed Stolhofen (23 May), invaded Germany and invited Charles XII. of Sweden to join him ; Marlborough conducted no itnportant military operations, but visited Charles XII. and kept him from intervening. Campaign of 1708: Rakoczy, utterly defeated, escaped to Poland; Stanhope took Port Mahon, in Minorca ; the Austrians, under Daun, occupied Naples and Sardinia ; Pope Clement XI. prepared to resist ; Vendome conquered the Catholic Netherlands, but was defeated by Marlborough and Eu gene at Oudenarde Tii Tulv). ; the Allies invaded France ; capture of Lille (22 Oct.). 3^-L rs-^ ^ ^ ^O^Ur^^o^^^ Negotiations of Louis XIV. for peace; the demands of the Allies; Louis appealed to France and continued the war. Campaign of 1709: the Pope, by the approach of Austrian troops, forced to recognize the Archduke Charles as King of Spain (15 Jan.) , Marlijornugh and Eugene took Tou rnai (2 Sept.); the battle of JNIal^. Plaquet (11 Sept.). X{,^,,^^^iuua ^ ^^ -r v-^.^. Xr^^tu^^ '~" Negotiations of Geertruidenberg. Campaign of 17 10: Guido Starhemberg and Stanhope (b. 1673, d. 1721) defeated Philip V. at Almenara (27 July) and Saragossa (20 Aug.); the Archduke Charles occupied Madrid (21 Sept.); Vendome made Stanhope prisoner at Brihuega (9 Dec.) and defeated Starhemberg at Villa Viciosa (10 Dec.) ; Marlborough and Eugene took Douai (25 June), Bethune (29 Aug.) and Aire (8 Nov.); conquest of Acadia; capture of Port Royal (16 Oct.). ^ ^ General wearmess^of the war : the Tory Ministry formed in Eng- land (17 10) ; the Archduke Charles succeeded his brother, Joseph I. (17 April. 171 1) ; elected Emperor as Charles VI.; effect of this change. Campaign of 171 1 : Marlborough captured Bouchain (12 Sept.); 64 War of the Spanish Succession. Torcy (b. 1665, d. 1746) and_Bolingbroke (b. 1678, d. 1751), the French and English ministers, secretly arranged preliminaries of peace ; Marlborough removed from the command of the army (31 Dec); Du- guay Trouin captured Rio de Janeiro (23 Sept.). The congress of plenipotentiaries to decide on terms of peace met at Utrecht (Jan., 17 12). Campaign of 1712!. truce made by the English (17 July); Villars defeated Eugene at Denain (24 July) and recaptured Douai (8 Sept.), Ee Quesnoy (4 Oct.) and Bouchain (18 Oct.). The Emperor refused to accept the Treaties of Utrecht, signed 11 April, 17 13, and continued, the war. Villars took Eandau (20 Aug.) and Freiburg (3 Nov.). The Emperor made peace with France at Rastadt (7 March, 17 14); the treaty confirmed by the Empire at Baden (7 Sept., 17 14). Contrast between the War of the Spanish Succession and the Thirty Years' War. Authorities-: For a short account of the War of the Spanish Succession see Stanhope, History of England during the Reign of Queen Anne, 2 vols. Among general secondary authorities see Philippson, Das Zeitalter Ludwig's des Vierzehnten ; Wyon, History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne, 2 vols. ; Cojre, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon ; Reynald, Guerre de la succession d'Bspagne ; ndgocialions entre la France, I'Angleterre et la Hollande (1705-06); Moret, Quinze Ans du regne de Louis XIV., 3 vols.; Noailtes, Histoire de Madame de Maintenon, 4 vols. ; Von Noorden, Europaische Geschichte im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert, vols. 1-3 ; Krohn, Die letzten Lebensjahre Ludwigs XIV.; Ennen, Der spanische Erbfolgekrieg und der Churfiirst Joseph Clemens von Coin; Gachard, Histoire de la Belgique au commencement du XVIII. siecle; Caruttiy Storia del regno di Vittorio Amadeo, and Landau, Geschichte Kaiser. Karls VI. als Konig von Spanien, and Rome, Wien, Neapel wahrend des spanischer Erbfolgekrieges. Among diplomatic secondary authorities see Legrelle, La diplomatic fran^aise et la succession d'Bspagne, 4 vols., and Une ndgociation iu- connue entre Berwick et Marlborough (1708-9) ; Fazy, Les Suisses et la neutrality de Savoie (1703-4); Hill, Diplomatic Correspondence from the Court of Savoy (July, 1703, to May, 1706), ed, Blackley ; D'' Haussonville , ha duchesse de Bour- gogne et I'alliance savoyarde sous Louis XIV.; Cooke, Memoirs of Lord Boling- broke, and Gddeke, Die Politik CEsterreichs in der spanischen Erbfolgefrage. Among military secondary authorities see Cojire, Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough, 6 vols.; Alison, Military Life of the Duke of Marlborough ; Stan- hope, History of the War of the Succession in Spain ; Parnell, The War of the The Treaties of Utrecht, 65 Succession in Spain ; Wilson, The Duke of Berwick, Marshal of France; I'ogui, Villars; Du Casse, L'amiial Du Casse (1646-1715); Malleson, Prince Eugene of Savoy; Babeau, La marechal do Villars, gouverneur de Proven9e; Court de Gcbelin^ Histoire dcs troubles des Cevennes ; Arneth, Prinz Eugcn von Savoyen, 3 vols., and Leben des Feldmarschalls Graf Guido Stahremberg ; and Ottieri, Istoria delle guerre avveuute in Europa e particolaramente in Italia (1696-1725) 5 vols. The chief primary authorities are Pelet, M^moires militaires relatifs d la succession d'Espagne, 11 vols. (Collection des Documents in^dits), and Matuschka, Feldziige des Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen, 17 vols. ; Heller, Militarise he Korrespondenz des Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen (1694-1705), 3 vols.; Bellerive, Histoire des derni^res campagnes du Ducde Veudosme ; but see also Baudrillart, Philippe V. d'Espagne et la cour de France, 3 vols ; Murray, Letters and Despatches of Marlborough, 5 vois.; Rambuteau, Lettres du marechal de Tess^ (1701-14); Rodervon Diersburg, Kriegs- und Staats-schriften des Markgrafen Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden iiber dea spanischen Erbfolgekrieg ; Fiedler, Actenstiicke zur Geschichte Franz Rdk6czy's (Fontes rerum Austriacarum, vols. ix. and xvii. ); Lamberty, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire du XVIIIi^me siecle, 14 vols., and the Memoires of Berwick, Villars, Duguay-Trouin^ Forbin and Torcyt with the Journal in^dit, 1709-1711, of Torcy\ edited by Masson. LECTURE 25. THE TREATIES OF UTRECHT. The first negotiations made by Louis XIV. after Ramillies (1706) ; his attempt to detach the Dutch from the Grand Alliance ; refusal of the Grand Pensionary, Heinsius, to treat separately (19 Nov.). Second negotiations at the Hague with the Allies after Gudenarde and the loss of Lille (May-June, 1709) ; hard terms offered to Louis XIV. (28 May) ; his refusal to accept themi (2 June). Conference at Geertruidenberg after Malplaquet (March-July, 1710) ; Louis XIV. willing to accept the terms offered at the Hague ; the con- ference broken up (25 July). Effect on the situation of the accession of the Tories to power in Eng- land (1710) and of the recall of Marlborough (1711). Death of the Dauphin (14 April, 1711).^^^ Congress for peace opened at Utrecht (w Jan., 1712) ; the chief plenl- 66 The Treaties of Utrecht. potentiaries, Torcy for France, Bolingbroke for England, Heinsius for the Protestant Netherlands and Mellarede for Savoy ; progress of the negotiations ; treaties of peace signed between France, England, the Netherlands, Prussia and Savoy, at Utrecht (ii April, 1713) ; the Etnperor Charles VI. continued at war with France and Spain. Treaties signed between France and the Emperor at Rastadt (7 March, 1714), confirmed by the Empire at Baden (7 Sept., 1714), and between Spain and Portugal at Madrid (6 Feb., 1715); but theEmpeior madeno peace with Spain and refused to acknowledge Philip V. The whole series may be considered together as the Treaties of Utrecht. Chief provisions: A. The Spanish succession. 2. Philip V. recog- nized as King of Spain and the Indies, on condition that the crowns of Spain and France should never be united, ii. The Emperor Charles VI. received the Milanese, Naples, Sardinia and the Catholic Nether- lands, iti. Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy received Sicily, iv. England received Gibraltar and Minorca. B. Louis XIV. of France restored Tournai, Ypres and Furnes to the Catholic Netherlands, but in other respects maintained his borders as settled by the Treaties of Ryswick ; the principality of Orange in the south of France, which had belonged to William III., was granted to Louis XIV.; he ceded Acadia (Nova Scotia) to England, recognized the Protestant Succession, and promised to expel the Stuart Pretender and to dismantle Dunkirk. C. England received Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain, and Acadia from France ; her sovereignty in Newfoundland (subject to certain fish- ing rights) and Hudson's Bay recognized; the Protestant succession in the line of Hanover acknowledged ; and by an Assiento she obtained certain rights of commerce with Spanish South America. D. The Emperor Charles VI. received the Catholic Netherlands, sub- ject to an arrangement with the Dutch; Naples, with the Tuscan pre- sidios, which were governed from Naples until 1801 ; Sardinia ; the Milanese, together with Mantua, whose last Gonzaga duke had di(.d in 1708 ; and Finale, which he sold to Genoa on 20 August, 1713. E. The creation of the Electorate of Hanover (1692) recognized. F. The Elector of Bavaria and the Elector- Archbishop of Cologne, Prince Joseph Clement of Bavaria, restored to their dominions. The Treaties of Utrecht. 67 G. The title of the King of Prussia recognized; in satisfaction of his claims as heir to William III., he received Upper or Spanish Gelder- land and was confirmed in the possession of Neufchdtel. H. The Dutch have the closing of the Scheldt to commerce and their right to garrison the eight "barrier fortresses" in the Catholic Nether- lands — Charleroi, Furnes, Ghent, Menin, Mons, Namur, Tournai and Ypres— confirmed. I. Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, had the cessions of Alessan- dria, Valenza, the Val Sesia and the Lomelline, granted in 1703, and of Casale and Montferrat, granted in 1707 from the duchy of Mantua, confirmed, and received Sicily, with the title of King of Sicily. J. The Catalans abandoned. Importance of the Treaties of Utrecht : comparison with the Treaties of Westphalia ; the most notable points ; France left upon the Rhine and in close alliance with Spain; England showed further development in the direction of commerce and colonies ; the dominions of the House of Hapsburg became nominally larger but more unwieldy and less Ger- man; Spain lost its Italian and Belgian possessions and was confined, in Europe, to the Peninsula ; Brandenburg took a step in advance among the nations in becoming the kingdom of Prussia, and Savoy also became a kingdom with its chief interests in Italy. The doctrine of the Balance of Power in the Treaties of Utrecht ; neglect of the Principle of Nationality. Authorities : Most of the general and diplomatic secondary atttborities cited under Lectures 23 and 24 devote much space to the Treaties of Utrecht. Good special volumes have been written by Gerard, The Treaty of Utrecht; Giratid, Le trait6 d'Utrecht, and Weber^ Der Friede von Utrecht, and & primary authority of importance is Torcy, M4moires. LECTURE 26. GERMANY TO 1715. Comparison between the condition of Germany after the Treaties of Utrecht and the Treaties of Westphalia. 68 The Holy Roman Empire to I'/iS- The Holy Roman Empire : constant election of the chief of the House of Austria to be Emperor owing to the votes he commanded as the leading Catholic power ; decreasing influence of the Emperors in German affairs; the perpetual capitulation; changes in the constitution of the Empire. i. Recognition of Prussia as a kingdom: the Emperor Leopold agreed to give the Elector Frederick of Brandenburg the title of King of Prussia, as Prussia was a state independent of the Empire, in return for assistance in the War of the Spanish Succession; the other powers of Europe recognized the title by the Treaties of Utrecht; as a member of the Empire he remained Elector of Brandenburg. ii. College of Electors: the Emperor Leopold made the Duke of Hanover an Elector (1692), at the same time restoring the full electoral powers to the kingdom of Bohemia ; opposition of the other Electors and of the Princes of the Empire ; league formed against the new electorate (1700) ; the Emperor promised to make no further electorates without the consent _oftheJEmpire (1706) ; electorate of Hanover accepted by the Diet (1710). Hi. CoUege of Princes : the Emperor's right to create new Princes limited (1654) ; settlement of the " collegiate " votes ; crea- tion of new Princes made still more difficult and dependent on the consent of the Electoral College, the Princely College and his Bench(i7ii) ; growth of the custom of primogeni- ture and its effect in causing the accumulation of votes ; ex- ception of Saxony. iv. College of Free Cities : its decay owing to the falling off in the prosperity of the cities ; only the three Hansa cities remained powerful ; conquest of Miinster by Bishop Galen (1661), of Erfurt by the Elector of Mayence (1664), of Magdeburg by the Elector of Brandenburg (1666), of Brunswick by the Duke of Brunswick (1671) and seizure of vStrasburg by Louis XIV. (1681) ; general tendency of the Free Cities to decline in importance. V, The Imperial Diet: its policy after it became perpetual and Austria to 17 fS- 69 attended only by envoys ; disputes about precedence ; its cumbrous procedure ; inefficiency of its military action. VI. The Imperial Chamber : its seat moved from Spires, after the burning of that city by the French in the devastation of the Palatinate in 1689, to Wetzlar in 1691 ; quarrels among the assessors; the Chamber dissolved ( 1 700) ; its reorganization. vil. The Aulic Council : its claim to deal with cases concerning States. viii. The religious question : the application of the doctrine ' ' cujus regio, ejus religio ' ' ; failure of the modifications arranged by the Treaties of Westphalia ; the persecution of the Protest- ants in the Palatinate. ix. The question of coinage : agreement made between Saxony, Brandenburg and Brunswick at Zinna (1667) and at Leipzig (1690). X. The Gregorian Calendar adopted by the Protestant States by a decree of the Diet (1700). Austria : additional dominions gained by the Treaties of Utrecht, no additional strength ; the more valuable gains of the Treaty of Carlowitz in Hungary and Transylvania tended to turn its policy still more to- wards the East ; internal administration ; the rebellion of Francis Rakoczy, grandson of George Rakoczy II., Prince of Transylvania and stepson of Tokoli, in Hungary (i 703-11) ; the brief reign of Joseph I. ( 1 705-11) ; his concessions to the Hungarians and consequent over- throw of Rakoczy ; his concessions to the Protestants of Silesia at the request of Charles XII. of Sweden ; his penal code and the promise of his reign ; the Emperor Charles VI. crowned King of Hungary (17 12) ; his settlement of Hungary. Prussia : the aims of Frederick III., Elector of Brandenburg (1688- 17 13), to become a king and to increase his dominions ; his character ; his policy. i. His foreign policy : he pursued the ideas of the Great Elector; he joined the League of Augsburg (1688) and sent i5,o?o men to serve under William III. against France (1691-97) ; he sent 6,000 men to assist the Emperor against the Turks (1691-99) ; he sent 26,000 men to serve through the War of 70 Prussia to 17 15. the Spanish Succession (1702-13) ; his conduct in the North- ern War ; his propositions to Peter the Great for a partition of Poland. ii. His arrangements for the title of king : he promised aid in the War of the Spanish Succession, to excuse the Emperor's debts to him, to vote for an Austrian prince for Emperor, and to use only his title as Elector in the Imperial Diet ; he crowned himself at Konigsberg as Frederick I., King of Prussia (18 Jan., 1 701) ; importance of this step ; the title recognized by the Treaties of Utrecht. Hi. His territorial policy : he restored Schwebus to Austria with- out abandoning his claims on Silesia (1694); he purchased Nordhausen of the Elector of Saxony (1697); ^^ took pos- session of Elbing in Polish Prussia (1703) ; he occupied Moeurs, lyingen, Heristal and Turnhout, as heir of William III. (1702), and they were confirmed to him by the Emperor (1707) ; he seized Upper Gelderland (1703), which was ceded to Prussia, in compensation for the loss of the principality of Orange, by the Treaties of Utrecht ; he was elected Prince of Neufchtel (1707) and purchased the county of Tecklen- burg (1707). iv. His internal policy : he followed the lines of the Great Elector and prepared the way for Frederick William I.; foundation of the University of Halle (1694). V. Accession of Frederick William I. (25 Feb., 17 13): by the Treaties of Utrecht his royal title was recognized and his possession of Neufchatel and Upper Gelderland confirmed ; he occupied Stettin and Wismar in sequestration during the war against Sweden. Other states of Germany : i. Electoral Saxony : division made on the death of John George I. (1656); its prosperity sacrificed to the Polish policy of Augustus I.; when elected King of Poland (1697) he be- came a Catholic, but was yet allowed to remain the Director of the Protestant party in the Diet, his change of faith be- ing personal and not political ; by a convention (1700) re- ligious matters were left to the Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. Germany to 17 15. 7 1 ii. Ducal Saxony : the rule of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe- Gotha (1640-74); further division made (1680), but no more votes allowed in the College of Princes. ni. Bavaria: Ferdinand Maria, Elector (1651-79) ; his refusal to be a candidate for the Empire (1657); quarrels with the Elector Palatine about the Vicariate of the Empire ; no Ba- varian Diet or Landtag summoned after 1669 ; Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector ( 1679- 1726); candidature of his son, the Electoral Prince, for the throne of Spain ; joined Louis XIV. in the War of the Spanish Succession ; his campaigns in the Tyrol ; put to the ban of the Empire, and from the battle of Blenheim in 1704 to 17 14 Bavaria was administered by the Emperors ; he acted as Governor- General of the Spanish Netherlands under Charles II. from 1692 to 1701, and again under Philip V. from 1702 until driven out after the battle of Ramillies (1706); restored to his dominions by the Treaty of Rastadt ; condition of Bavaria under Austrian rule. iv. The Palatinate : the last Protestant Electors of the House of Simmern, Charles Louis I. (1648-80) and Charles Louis II. (1680-85); Charles Louis I. joined the league against Louis XIV. (1672); devastation of the Palatinate by Turenne (1675); the question of the succession (1685); the claims of Louis XIV. ; Philip William of Neuburg succeeded ; fresh devastation of the Palatinate by Duras (1689); destruction of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, etc.; accession of John Wil- liam (1691); his ardent Catholicism ; persecution p£__tlie Protestants ; extensive emigration - PhilSTWilTiam paid 300,000 scudi (a scudo at this time almost equallea a dollar) to Louis XIV. to compensate for his claims ; his internal government ; he moved his capital from Heidelberg to Mann- heim (1720). V. Hanover : character and career of Ernest Augustus (b. 1629), fourth son of the Duke of Brunswick-Liineburg and first Elector of Hanover ; married Sophia, daughter of Frederick v., Elector Palatine, and grand-daughter of James I., of 72 Gennany to I'/i^. England (1658); his reputation as a statesman and a soldier ; he made peace between England and the Dutch (1667); be- came William III.'s chief German ally, and his intermediary with Brandenburg and the Emperor ; he took the title of Duke of Hanove r (1679); helped to form the League of Augs- burg (i688)7an^"was^ade Elector of Hanover (i6q£ ): his share in the Treaty of Ryswick ; established primogeniture in his family ; his death (1697) \ the Elector George I.; his increased importance in German aflfairs after his m^tiiej- was recognized by the E nglish_Pa diamQaL as heirj£L.Engl^nd (1701); he united the Duchy of Zell (1705); his policy ; his territorial importance between Brandenburg and the United Provinces ; his attitude toward France and the Emperor ; admitted to the Diet as an Elector (17 10); the Hanoverian succession to Great Britain recognized by the Treaties of Utrecht (17 13); death of the Elec tress Sophia (8 June, 17 14); George I. succeeded Queen Anne in England (i Aug., 17 14). vi. The ecclesiastical Electors and Princes of the Empire: methods of their government ; restrained by the capitulations made with them at their election by the chapters ; the power of the chapters ; large sums paid to the Popes. The petty princes of Germany : their imitation of Louis XIV. in their absolutism, in refusing to summon or consult their Estates or Diets, in their extravagance and in their court ceremonials. Authorities : For the condition of Germany in 1715 in addition to works like those of Ltger, cited under Lecture 9, dealing with general history, see Bieder- tnanfiy Deutschland im achtzehnten Jahrhundert : Vol. i., Deutschlands poUtische, materielle und sociale Zustande ; for the Empire, see Putter, Historical Develop- ment of the Constitution of the Germanic Empire, translated by Dornford, vol. ii. ; for the relations between Austria and Prussia, Pribram, CB^terreich und Bran- denburg (1681-86) and CEsterreich und Brandenburg (1688-1700) ; for Austria, Krones, Handbuch der Geschichte (Esterreichs, 5 vols.; Mailath, Geschichte der CEs- terreichischen Kaiserstaats ; Huber, Geschichte der CEsterreichischen Verwaltungs- organisation ; Coxe, History of the House of Austria, 4 vols., and Bidennann, Ge- schichte der CEsterreichischen Gesammt-Staats-Idee ; for Prussia, in addition to the general works cited under Lecture 18, Ledebur, Konig Friedrioh I. von Preussen ; WaddingtoUy L'acquisition de la couronne royale de Prusse par les Hohenzollern ; The Mediterranea7i in ijt^. 73 Varnhagen von Ense, Leben der Konigin Sophie Charlotte, 3 vols.; Dohna. M^moires originaux sur le regne et la conr de Frederic I.; Bourgeois, Ncufchatel et la politique prussienne en Franche-Conit^ (1702-13), and Lavisse, Etudes sur I'histoire de Prusse; for Electoral Saxony, Boftiger, Geschichte des Kurstaates und Konigreichs Sachsen, 3 vols.; for Ducal Saxony, Gelbke, Herzog Ernst der Erste, genannt der Fromme, and Beck, Ernst der Fromme ; for Bavaria, Schreiber, Geschichte Bayerns, 2 vols.; fur the Palatiuate, Haiisser, Geschichte der rhein- ischen Pfalz, 2 vols, and for Hanover, Heinemaiin, Geschichte von Braunschweig und Hannover; Kocher, Geschichte von Hannover und Braunschweig (1648-1714) and IMemoiren der Kurfursiin Sophie von Hannover; Leibnitz, Correspondance avec I'electrice Sophie, vols. 7-9 of his Werke, and Spittler, Geschichte des Fiir- slenthums Hannover in vols. 6 and 7 of his Sammtliche Werke. LECTURE 27. THE SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1715. Decreasing naval importance of the Mediterranean countries : the commerce of the Levant passed to the Dutch and the English ; after the loss of Candia, Venice became an Adriatic instead of a Mediter- ranean power ; injury inflicted by the Barbary corsairs ; efforts of Louis XIV. to become master of the Mediterranean ; the Dutch and English fleets in that sea ; significance of the capture of Gibraltar by the Eng- lish (1704); the English became the preponderating naval power in the Mediterranean by the cession of Gibraltar and Minorca (17 13). The Turkish power after the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699). The reign of Mustapha II. (1695-1703): his military disasters com- pensated by his naval successes over the Venetians ; while surrender- ing the Adriatic and the Morea to Venice, and Hungary, except the Hanat, to the Emperor, the Turks retained the islands of the Archipe- lago and the control over the Levant ; Hussain Kiuprili, Grand Vizier (1697- 1 702); he endeavored to reorganize the Turkish army and navy; he reduced Bussora, pacified North Africa and regulated Turkish au- thority in Arabia ; the Turks begin to be influenced by European ideas and to translate European books ; revolt of the Janissaries and over- throw of Mustapha II. (1703). 74. Ii<^ly io ^7^5' Early years of the reign of Ahmad III. (1703-30): he announced his accession to the Christian powers ; Charles XII. of Sweden induced the Sultan to attack Russia ; the Treaty of the Pruth (11 July, 171 1) ; the government of the Danubian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia ; after 17 16 in Wallachia and 171 1 in Moldavia the Sultan appointed hos- podars of these two provinces from Greek families instead of from the national nobility. Italy during the half century before the Treaties of Utrecht. I. The Popes abandoned the territorial aggrandizement of the States of the Church ; their attitude towards the Catholic powers, and partic- ulary towards Austria, France and Spain ; loss of their political influ- ence ; Clement IX. — Rospigligsi;:;^i667-7o ; his friendly relations with France; Clement X. — ATtien— i6^-7^bueb.ec QJ^de a bishjOpric (1676); Innoce nt XI. — Odescalc hij^i076'-^^9Tms endeavors to reform abiisesJmS^ a ha nd on men t ofjie^otism ; his quajTcls with I^ouis XIV. ; A lexander VIII.- tude towards France; Clement XI.^^Alban!— 17 ^^^ ; hTs' a"ttitude on ^Ic^ the Spanish Succession ; forced to recognize the Archduke Charles ; ^ issue of the bull "Unigenitus" (1713) ; action of the Papacy during ]J2 this period towards the Jansenists, the Jesuits and the Quietists. ^~~ II. Kingdom of Naples : its welcome to the Archduke Charles (1707); his promise to observe its local rights ; separated from Sicily by the Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and given to the House of Austria. III. Kingdom of Sicily : given to Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, by the Treaties of Utrecht ; the character of Victor Amadeus_ II. ; cro wned at Palermo (24 Dec, 1713) ; growth of the House of C^^ ^^ ^a^ ^^y by his polic y ; he acquired Alessandria, etc. (1703), Montferrat jj^ >Xi^,v^4C*fhd Casale (1707), and the restoration of Savoy and Nice (1713) ; mar- ^K -j^ riage of his two daughters to two grandsons of Louis XIV., to the Duke ^a^. "^ of Burgundy, father of Louis XV., and to Philip V. of Spain ; his inter- ^ nal policy ; his encouragement^p^ublic works ; his code of law^s ; his quarrel with Pope Clement XL ; taxationof ecclesiastical property.*^ IV. The Northern Duchies: Cosmo III., Grand Duke of Tuscany (1670-1723), last ruler but one of the House of Medici; his payment of large sums to remain neutral during the War of the Spanish Succe.ssion; -Ottoboni — 1689-91 ; madepeace with Louis ^TV. ; Innocent -Pignatd li — i6Qr^^?7oo t^is econcony anduprightnessjJhis^atljrA ^ •wards France ; Clement Xl.^^^^Xlban! — 17 00=^ fms^attitude onj^ Spain afid Portugal to 1715, 75 bad management of his duchy and misery of his people; Francesco, Duke of Parma, remained neutral during the War of the Spanish Succession, but Rainaldo, Duke of Modena, took part in it and obtained the Duchy of Mirandola from the Emperor ; the Duchy of Mantua divided ; Man- tua given to Milan and Montferrat to Savoy in 1707 by the Emperor, because Charles IV. — Gonzaga — supported Louis XIV. in the War of the Spanish Succession, but a small district given to the Duke of Guas- talla, who supported the Emperor ; Milan and Mantua granted to the Emperor by the Treaties of Utrecht (1713). V. Venice: successes obtained by Morosini in the war against the Turks ; by the Treaty of Carlowitz the Republic obtained the Morea, the Ionian Islands and Dalraatia, and became the preponderant power on the coasts of the Adriatic ; close alliance formed between the Em- peror and the Venetians. VI. Genoa : its independence threatened by the Dukes of Savoy ; conspiracy of Raphael della Torre (1672) ; bombarded by a French fleet (1684) ; the Doge Imperiali at Versailles (Feb., 1685). Switzerland : the Swiss Confederation ; the thirteen cantons ; the central and the cantonal governments ; division into Catholic and Prot- estant, and into oligarchic and democratic, cantons ; the Swiss mercen^i^^^^ ary soldiers; the independent republics of the GrisohsTGraubiinden) and of Geneva. '-^^^" ^' ^- V-"^*—t - Spain : the reign of Philip V ; his reception in Spain ; influenced by Orsini or Des Ursins ; interference of Louis XIV. in the internal affairs his wife Marie Gabrielle of Savoy, who was controlled by the Princess " JiS of Spain ; administration of Amelot (1705-09), the French ambassador; the War of the Spanish Succession in Spain ; Philip V. twice driven from Madrid ; enthusiasm of the Spaniards for him and his queen ; by the Treaties of Utrecht Spain lost her continental possessions as well as Gibraltar and Minorca ; treatment of the Catalans ; the Catalans organ- ized a republic ; gallant defence of Barcelona ; captured by Berwick (12 Sept., 1 7 14) ; death of the queen (14 Feb., 17 14) ; influence and character of Madame des Ursins (b. 1641, d. 1722). v^Porl^al : the^eign of Pedro II. (168 5-1706) ; the signature of the MethuenTreaty wilb England (27 Dec, 1703) ; its results ; part taken by Portugal in the War of the Spanish Succession ; accession of John V, (1706) 76 The Jesuits, Authorities : For the Turks see the books cited for Lecture 13 ; for Italy, the books cited for Lecture 14, with Michaud, Louis XIV. et Innocent XL, 4 vols., and Carutti, Storia del regno di Vittorio Amadeo IL; for Spain, Legrelle, Ban- driUart, Stanhope, Parnell, Rambuteau and Berwick^ cited under Lectures 23 and 24, with Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, vols, i, 2; Correspondance de Louis XIV. avec M. Amelot, ed. Girardot ; Combes, La Princesse des Ursins, the Princess des Ursins, Correspondance avec Madame de Maintenon, and Lettres in^dites, ed. Geffroy; and the Mdmoires of Saint-Simon; for Portugal, see Oliveira Martins, cited under Lecture 15. LECTURE 28. THE PAPACY IN THE 17TH CENTURY: THE JESUITS AND THE JANSENISTS. The spiritual power of the Papacy in the 17th century as opposed to its political and territorial power. ^ Gradual decline in the spiritual power to be observed in the first half of the 17th century, the Age of the Thirty Years' War, when political considerations were becoming paramount over religious considerations ; more rapid decline during the latter half of the century, when Catholic monarchs, like Louis XIV., openly quarrelled with the Pope, and tried to check his spiritual authority. The effect of the Counter- Reformation on the position of the Papacy: its chief agents the Jesuits ; with the decline of the Jesuits from their original energy the Counter-Reformation died away. The main lines of the work of the Jesuits : i. Education : success of their method of teaching ; their col- leges and universities ; they controlled higher education in Catholic countries. ii. The Confessional : they become the confessors of kings and statesmen ; Pere La Chaise, Pere Letellier and P^re Nithard. iiu Missions. A. Among the Protestants : their work in Eng- land, Sweden and Poland. B. Among the heathen : in Asia, in India and China ; in America, in Canada and Para- guay. Jesuits atid Jansenists. 77 The decline in Jesuit energy after the death of General Acquaviva (1615J: the generalship of Muzio Vitelleschi (1615-45); ** professed" members began to accept offices of power ; education ceased to be gen- erally free ; devotion to the prosperit^f the Society took the place of devotion to the Papacy ; limitation of the general's power (1661); the Society interested in commerce ; i ts commercial center at Lisbon_ : the Society supported absolutism against the Papacy ; it supporte d g^M* Louis XIV. against Innocent X L: opposed by the Jansenist influ-a_:t. ^"•^ence; Pere La Chaise and Archbishop Harlay of Paris; Innocent^ T^y^ XI. and Alexander VIII. endeavored to check the power of the Society and went so far as to forbid its admitting novices : Clement XI. con- demned its practices in foreign missions in Asia (17 15). ^^^ _ The Jesuit theology : the adoption of ' ' free will ' ' doctrines mlnicans quarrel with them for differing from St. Thomas Aquinas ; growth of casuist ry ; its application to politics and the result ; to private life 7 the^^^//^'^5' Provinciales of Pascal (b. 1623, d. 1662) overthrew the belief in scholastic morality ; the theological dis- tinction between the Jesuits and-the Jansenists ; Pere Letellier and ■ Archbishop Noailles of Paris ; after the issue of the bull Ujiigeiiitus the Jesuits rallied to the Papacy and became Ultramontane. The Jansenists : their doctrines a reaction against the theology of the Jesuits ; their nickname of Catholic Puritans ; the Augustinus of Cor- nelius Jansen, Bishop of Ypres, published in 1640, after his death ; its theological views ; the doctrines of grace, sin and forgiveness ; its rapid success, even among priests and bishops, but still more among the educated laity of France and the Catholic Netherlands; Duvergier, Ahbp de 5>ain t-Oyrji n ; his appli qatjo n of JapsenJst. yjews to life; his^.^ influence on At^g^lique Arnaul(^ TCl 15917a. 1651); rorr Royal ; Ws imprisonment by Richelieu (1638-42); the Jansenists implicated in the Fronde ; their quarrel with the Jesuits ; Port Royal the home of moral and intellectual France ; the influence exerted by Amauld (b. 161 2, d. 1694), Nicole, Lemaitre de Sacy, Pascal and Racine ; the publication of-*^ the Port Royal educational works ; influence oossessed bv the Jansen- *^ ists in France. ^ First struggle with the Papacy (1642-69): Urban VIII. condemned Jansen's Augustinus (1642); the "five propositions" declared heret- 78 The Jansenists. ical by the bull hi Occasione, issued by Innocent X. (31 May, 1653); Ar- nauld denied that the ' ' five propositions' ' were contained in the book by Jansen ; Alexander VII. declared that they were ; the Jansenist writers denied the infallibility of the Pope in dealing with matters of fact; Louis XIV. imprisoned De Sacy and persecuted the Jansenists, including the nuns of Port Royal ; Clement IX. made the " Peace of Clement IX." (1668), when the Jansenists agreed to condemn the " five propositions " without acknowledging whether they were contained in Jansen's book or not. In spite of the King's dislike of them, the Jansenists became more powerful in France, especially in bourgeois and legal circles. Second struggle with the Papacy (1702-15): the Rifiexions morales of Quesnel and the Cas de consciejice ; Archbishop Noailles manifested moderate Jansenist opinions ; he distinguished between human and di- vine faith in the Pope's infallibility on questions of fact ; opposition of Pere Letellier, the King's confessor, and the Jesuits ; they appealed to Rome ; Clement XI. tried to settle the question by the bull Vineain Domini (15 July, 1705); the nuns of Port Royal refused to accept the bull ; the community suppresse^rtT? July7i709; and Port Royal or- dered to be destroyed (22 Jan., 17 10); persecution of the Jansenists ; use of lettres de cachet ; loi propositions from Quesnel's book condemned by the bull Unigenitus (8 Sept., 17 13); the Parlement of Paris, led by D' Aguesseau, declined to register the bull as law without modifications ; Noailles and fifteen bishops refused to accept it ; a council summoned. to depose them ; they^ were save d by the death of Louis XIV-^vi^^UJiA^ uietists : Molinos and his doctrines ; condemned b5'nf*ope1Kno- '^^'-^'^^^ cent XI. (1687) >* Madame Guyon ; her mysticism ; her relations with Fenelon ; controversy^ between Bossuet and Fenelon ; Innocent XII. condemned Fenelon's Explications des Maximes des Saints (1699) J lyouis XIV. and his attitude towards the Quietists. Marie Alacoque (b. 1647, ^- 1690) and the worship of the Sacred Heart ; the Abbe de Ranee (b. 1626, d. 1700) and the monastery *of La Trappe. Authorities : For an account in English of the Jansenist movement see Beard, Port Royal, 2 vols. Among secondary authorities consult CrHineati-Joly\ Histoire religieuse, politique et littdraire de la compagnie de Jesus, 6 vols.; Rapin, Madafuc de Maintenon. 79 Histoire du Jansdnisme; Sainte-Beuve, Port Royal, 7 vols.; Reuchlin, Geschichte von Port Royal, 2 vols.; SoyreSy The Provincial L/Ctters of Pascal; Victor Cousin^ Jacqueline Pascal ; Lajitau, Histoire de la Constitution Uuigenitus; Le Roy. Le Gal- licanisme au XVIII* sidcle ; la France et Rome de 1700 d 1715 ; histoire diploma- tique de la bulle Unigenitus jusqu'a la mort de Louis XIV.; Bigelow, Molinos the Quietist; Guerrier, Madame Guyon, sa vie, sa doctrine et son mfluence; Matter^ Le mysticisme en France au temps de Feuelon; Bausset, Histoire de Bossuet, 4 vols., and Histoire de Fenelon, 4 vols.; Rdaume, Histoire de Bossuet, 3 vols.; Fhl'lipeaux, Relation de I'origine, du progres et de la coudamnation du Quidtisme; Dubois, Histoire de I'abbd de Rauc^, with the works of Arnauid^ Fascai, lUadatne Guyon, Bossuet and Fenelon. LECTURE 29. THE LAST YEARS OF THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. The government of France during the last thirty years of the reign of Louis XIV. influenced by Madame de M aintenon^ but carried on by the King in spite of his decreasing powers and increasing belief in himself; he devoted himself more and more to foreign politics and the question of the Spanish Succession, leaving internal administration to his minis- ters, who inherited the offices of Colbe rt and Louvois without their ability. ' The change in the King's character between the Treaties of Nimeguen and the outbreak of war with the League of Augsburg : Louis XIV. becomes moral and religious ; the gaiety of the Court disappears ; it becomes more ceremonious ; the King governed by Madame de Main- tenon and his confessors ; the great result of this change of character, ^he Revocation of the Edict-of Nantes (1685). Character and position of Fran^oise d'Aubigne, Madame de Main- tenon (b. 1635, d. 17 19): her previous career; her rivalry with Madame de Montespan; reconciled the king and queen together; after the death of the queen (1683), secretly married to Louis XIV.; nature of her influence at court ; her ardent zeal for the Catholic religion and prudery; her difficult position ; her foundation of Saint Cyr. 8o Last Years of Louis XIV. Character and influence of Pere La Chaise, confessor of Louis XIV. (1675-1709), and of his successor, Pere Letellier (1709-15); they directed the ecclesiastical policy of the king in favor of the Jesuits; the persecution of the Huguenots and the Jansenists. The ministers of the last years of Louis XIV. : their inability to con- trol or oppose the King; they acted as head clerks and feared responsi- bility; the typical minister, Michel de Chamillart; the last ministers; Boucherat (1685-99), Louis Phelypeaux, Comte de Pont^chartram (1699-1714) and Daniel Voysin (1714-15), Chancellors; Torcy (1696- 1715), foreign affairs; Le Peletier (1684-89), Louis, Comte de Pontchar- train (1689-99), Chamillart (1699- 1708) and Desmarets (1708-15), finances; Barbezieux (1691-1701), Chamillart (1701-1709) and Daniel Voysin (1709-14), war; Louis, Comte de Pontchartrain (1690-93), and Jerome, Comte de Pontchartrain (1693-17 15), marine. The French nation approved the successful war of 1688-97 against ) the League of Augsburg, but welcomed the Treaties of Ryswick; gen- eral delight at the acceptance of the Spanish Succession for the Duke of Anjou; " the Pyrenees have ceased to exist"; confidence felt by the people in the success of Louis XIV. Surprise felt at the defeats of Blenheim and Ramillies; general dis- sJJL content at^ the mismanage aient_ of Chamillar t; his financial methods, ,.jjJ*^\)i\^ creation and sale of sinecure ofiBces; Chamillart made the scapegoat >^^^ and succeeded by Desmarets, the nephew of Colbert (1708); improve- ment of credit; the loans of Desmarets; the armies thus raised defeated; despair of the French people after the defeat of Oudenarde ^ ( - ^ '--^ inrw^i j The terrible winter of 1708-1709: general misery of the people; the loss of Lille left the way open to Paris ; the appeal of Louis XIV. to his people, on the advice of Torcy; France rallied round the King ; vol- untary gifts to the royal treasury; melting down of the royal plate; ladies contributed their jewelry; result of the wave of enthusiasm, to make Louis XIV. persist in his resistance ; effect of the battle of Mal- plaquet ; the rising of Spain and the accession of the Tory Ministry in England enabled Louis XIV. to get much better terms at Utrecht and Rastadt than had ever been expected by him ; his position at the close of the war ; France retained most of the towns in Europe which had been gained at Ryswick, and only lost Acadia in North America. Last Years of Louis XIV. 8l Religious persecution increased in France during the War of the Spanish Succession : the suppression of the Camisards in the Cevennes ( 1 703-1 705); Letellier increased the King's ardor against the Jan- senists; destruction of Port Royal (17 10); Louis XIV. 's in dignation at the op position made^ xthe Parlement of Paris, led by D'Aguesseau, to r egistering the bu ll Unigenitus ; his intention of deposing the bishops who favored Jansenism ; influence of Lete ll ier. Last year of Louis XIV. 's foreign policy : his intrigues with the English Jacobites to secure the accession of the Catholic ' ' Old Pre- tender " in. England ; a fleet prepared for the support of the Pretender. Bad effect of the financial maladministration: decline of agricultural, industrial and commercial prosperity; Vauban's Dzjne Roy ale published (1707). Gloom of the Court during the last years of the life of Louis XIV. : contrast with its opening years; death of the Dauphin, only son of Louis XIV. (14 April, 1711); his education by Bossuet ; his three sons: 'T-'-fTfLouis, Duke of Burgundy, educated by F^nelon, died 18 Feb., 17 12, g^ leavmg an only child, who succeeded as Louis XV.; (2) P hilip^ Duke of Anjou, became King of Spain as Philip V. in 1700; (3) Charles, Duke of Berry^ died 4 May, 17 14; the illegitimate children of Louis XIV.; his fondness for them ; rank and favors bestowed upon them. Death of Louis XIV. (i Sept., 1715): effect of his reign on France and Europe ; his personal character. Louis XIV. andAgia : the French East India Company; foundation of Pondicherr y'^yr^T^j. '^aken by the D utch (1693), but restored to France (1698); embassy to Siam (1685). Louis XIV. and America : the development of Canada ; the work of the Jesuits ; the government of Frontenac (1672-82 and 1689-98); La Salle's voyage down the Mississippi (1682); first French settlement in Louisiana (1699). ^ Authorities: Of the secondary antborities cited under Lecture 16, Vo/- iaire, Baussei aud Martin ; of those cited under Lecture 17, Michel Bind Mellion; of those cited under Lecture 19, Noailles 2in6. Geffroy; of those cited under Lecture 24, Moret and Krohn, are still useful ; and may be supplemented for the light thrown on the character of Madame de Maiutenon by Th. Lavallee, Histoire de la maison royale de Saint Cyr; by Provari, Vie du Dauphin, p^re de Louis XV., 82 Literature in the lyth Century. 2 vols.; by Castonnet des Fosses, L'Inde frau^aise uvant Dupleix ; by Lanier, ifetude historique sur les relations de la France et du royaume de Siam de 1662 ^ 1703, and by Farkman, Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV., The Jesuits in America in the 17th century, and La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. For the administration of Louis XIV. see Dareste, Lugay, Nervo and Clamageran, cited under Lecture 8, and Clement, Histoire du systeme protecteur en France depuis le ministere de Colbert ; Reuss, L' Alsace au XVIIieme siecle ; Thomas, Une province sous Louis XIV., situation politique et administrative de la Bourgogne de 1661 a 1715 ; Monin, Essai sur I'histoire administrative du Langue- doc pendant I'intendance de Basville (1685-1719); Marchand, Un intendant sous Louis XIV., etude sur 1' administration de Lebret en Provence (1687-1704), and Arbois de Jubainville, L'administration des intendants d'apres les archives de 1* Aube. Among primary authorities on administration and finance Depping, Boislisle and Foucault, cited under Lecture 16, should be supplemented by Es- nault, Michel Chamillart, correspondance et papiers in^dits ; by Desmarets, Memoire sur l'administration des finances depuis le 20 fevrier 1708 jusqu'au i sep- tembre 1715, and by Vauban, Projet d'une Dime royale ; while for the Court of Louis XIV. and his personality during the latter years of his reign to the Corre- spondance of Madame de Maintenon, the Letters of the Diichesse d'Orlians and the Memoires of Madame de Caylus, Choisy and Torcy, cited under Lecture 19, must be added the Duchesse de Bourgogne, Lettres et correspondance, ed. Gag- ni^re; Anthoine, La mort de Louis XIV., journal des Anthoine, ed. Drumo7it; the Journal of Dangeau, vols. 7-15 ; the :^crits inddits, ed. Fraug^re, 6 vols, and, above all, the Memoires of the Due de Saint-Simon ed. CMruel, 21 vols ; the famous work of Saint-Simon, however, must be read with Cf uticn and on this sub- ject reference may be made to Chh'uel, Saint-Simon considere comme historien de Louis XIV., and to Baschet^ Le Due de Saint-Simon, son cabiucit et Vhistorique de ses manuscrits. LECTURE 30. ^' / LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY IN THE 17TH CENTURY. Importance of the 17th century literature : the literary languages of Europe created ; development from the study of the classics, which characterized the Renaissance, into the use of vernaculars ; effect of this literary movement on the growth of nationalities ; the study of the Literature iH the xyth Century. 83 classics as models continued ; literature ceased to concern itself mainly with religion and dealt with more sides of human interest. Spain produced the first man of letters of genius of the 17th century: the life, character and works of Cervantes (1547-16 16) ; Don Quixote and its effects; the Spanish drama; Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and Calderon (1600-87). The Elizabethan period of English literature : Shakespeare (1564- 16 16) and his contemporaries and successors ; the English drama ; the growth of English prose ; Bacon (i56i-i626)y^^vyjN> v>nfJ>VA Development of French literature under Richelieu and Mazarin : the Academic ^rangaise founded 1635 ; Malherbe (i 555-1628); La Roche- foucauld (1630^) ; the application of literature to politics ; tTie ^az- arinades; journalism ; the rise of the French drama ; Pierre Corneille (1606-84). The Age of Louis XIV : the classic or " golden " age of French lit- erature ; literature owed to Louis XIV. patronage, but not inspiration ; the greatest writers of the time were born and had begun to write before Louis XIV. impressed his personality on France ; tragedy : Raciji e (1639-99); comedy: Moliere (1622-73) ; poetry : influence of classicism; correctness took the place of inspiration ; Boileau (1636-17 11), the critic, and his influence ; development of French prose : Pascal (1623- 62); the influence of Port Royal; La Fontaine (1621-95) and his Fables; La Bruyere (1644-96) and his Characters ; ficjion ^^Idlle^ e Scudery X»^ (1607-1701) ; Fenelon (1651-1715); T elimaqu e ; theology and history : ^^'^ Bossuet ( 1 627-1 704) ; the great French preachers, Bossu et, BourdalouVf^ (1632-1704) and Flechier (1632-1710) ; memoir- writers : Madame de^v--»- Motteville (1621-89), Cardinal de Retz (1614-79) and Saint-Simon (1675-1755) ; letter writers : Madame de Sevigne (1626-96). . Growth of taste for literature in France : the Hotel de Rambouillet '^ ^gl^nd the " grecieuses " ; their successors. ^'^T Tendency of later writers of the Age of Louis XIV. to fulsome adu- A -^ lation of the king. English literature of the Puritan period : Milton (1608-74). Influence of the Age of Louis XIV. on the literature of other countries: in Germany, French became the language of the courts and educated people ; consequent sterility of German literature ; in Italy poetry on 84 ^^^ 2^ ih^ ^7^^^ Century, classical lines was produced; Tassoni (1565-1655), Guidi (1650-1712), and Filicaja ( 1 642-1 707); in Spain pedantry of criticism caused sterility; in England the literature of the reign of Charles ll. stowed French in- fluence ; Dryden (1631-1701) ; Congreve (1670-1729). Relation of literature to philosophy in the 17th century. Revolution effected in philosophical method by Bacon (i 561 -1626) ; Descartes ( 1596-1650) destroyed the scholastic methods; the speculations of Spinoza (1632-77) ; the theories of Leibnitz (1646-1716). In political philosophy France produced no great thinkers : but Hobbes (1588-1679) and Locke (1632- 1704) started the lines of thought which were to lead to great results in the i8th century. Grotius(i583-i646) and Puffendorf (1632-94) created and developed international law. Variety of the literary and philosophical movements of the 17th cen- tury ; their diverse characteristics. LECTURE 3L ART AND SCIENCE IN THE 17TH CENTURY. The revolution in thought and method effected by Bacon and Des- cartes created amew era in science : e xper iments took the place of the- ories ; andtneiTth century is marked by many important scientific discoveries ; on the other hand art tended to lose its virility and, de- spite two painters of genius, the art of the 17th century is governed by classical conventions ; and is thus on an inferior level to its condition during the Renaissance. The Spanish school of painting : Velasquez (1599-1660); Murillo (1617-82); the greatness of Velasquez. e.rv^f a o^^ The Flemish school of painting : Rubens (1577-1640); Van DyckJ^^ (1599-1641) ; Teniers the elder (1582-1649) ; Teniers the'"y^unger 5 (1610-85). V^tr.-\>^..S^."wvA^A^J>^^- The Dutch school of painting : tHe isolated greatness of Rembrandt Art in the lyth Century, 85 van Ryn_( 1 608-69); characteristics of the Dutch gchopl ; Frans ^als (1584-1666); Gerard^u^w.i^^,i3-8o); Jan^te^( 1 626-79)^P3^ijP^ ter (1625-54); Ruys^^^eljj (1630-81); Cuyp (1066-62); W6uve?ma3 (1620-68); Van der Velde ([1633-1707). The Italian school of painting : its decline from the great .days of>^^ Italian art into septim^ntaJ^sm^^^jGuM Reni (i 574-1642); ^ssoferrato (1605-85); SalvaJinL-Rosa\i6i5-73)/ The French school of painting ; its conventionality ; Poussin (1593- 1672); Le Brun (1619-90); Claude Lorraine (1600-^.^^^^^,^ c 1^ The English school of painting : de^ted^to oortrai^; influence of VanDyck; Lely (1618-80); Kneller(T648-i7S3)!: ""^ " Architec ture dominated by classic ideals and styles : their inappro- priateness ; the forms patronized by Louis XIV. adopted in other European countries. ^^ A^jt^*^-^'^ '* The other arts : absence of great sculptors ; improvement in engrav- ingj classical style of decoration. VCommencement of classical gardening : the gardens of Vaux and Versailles; Le N6tre (1613-1701). . ^ Ji> ...v.^«J^ ^^-^ "^usic in the 17th century : thedevelopment of Jheopera in Italy ; jis popularity ; mdody cuffivatea as weUas harmony ; th^e Roman school; Carissimi Ti '^82-1672); h is church music ; introduction of the orchestra into the churches ; his cantatas and songs; Scarlatti (1659- 1725), founder of the Neapolitan school ; his songs and operas ; Lully pc -.^1633-87) developed the music written for masques ; he became the chief musician to Louis XIV.; his operas, ballet s ana musical come- dies; his services to theatrical music ^ Fr^gc^ • ^^^ a^gpciation with - Moliere and Quinault ; music mmglaiS^ ; Purcell (1058-95). Bacon and Descartes, by overthrowing old methods of thinking and ^ arguing, prepare the way for experimental science : scientific experi- ments become fashionable; foundation of the Royal Society (1662); science not yet divided and differentiated ; attempts at universality of scientific knowledge ; Leibnitz (1646-17 16). The great mathematicians : Napier, the inventor of logarithms (1550-1617); Descartes (1596-1650) and the application of numerical exponents to geometry; Pascal (1623-62) and conic sections ; Newton (1642-1727) and the infinitesimal calculus and mathematical optics; i 86 Sciefice in the lyth Century. \h!^ Principia : Bernouilli (i 654-1 705) and the application of the cal- culus. The great biologists: Harvey and the demonstration of the circulation of the blood (1578-1657); Sydenham (1624-89); Boerhaave (1668-1738)!^^ The great astronomers : Galileo (1564-1642) and the demonstration wu-» that the earth moves round the sun ; Kepler (1571-1631) and the laws of planetary motion ; Cassini (1625-17 12) and the measurement of the earth; Huyghens (1629-95) ^^^ the discovery of the satellites of Saturn ; Newton (1642-1727) and the lunar theory ; Gregory (1633-75) and the invention of the reflecting telescope; Halley (1656-1742) and eclipses. The great physicists : GaUl^o (1564-1642) the inventor of the ther-l ^^ mometer and the pendulum ; Toriicelli (1608-47) the inventor of the ba-l rometer ; Descartes and the law of refraction ; his theory of ** whorls"; Boyle (1626-91) and the air pump; Huyghens and the pendulum clock ; Newton and the theory of gravitation. These names and discoveries only indicate the progress and first gains of experimental science; the 17th century was in this respect also the commencement of riodern history. Effect on the material conditions of life of the discoveries of men of science ; contrast between the intellectual and material conditions of life at the beginning and the end of the 17th century. \£^ I.ECTURE 32. , THE REGENCY OF ORLEANS, AND THE SCHEMES OF ALBERONI. A Condition of France at the death of Louis XIV. (i September, 17 15); accession of his great-grandson as Louis XV. (b. 15 Feb., 1710). The Parlement of Paris revoked the will of Louis XIV., and the Duke of Orleans (b. 1674) became Regent of France with full powers (2 Sept., 17 15); revocation of the precedence granted to the illegitimate children of Louis XIV. (26 Aug., 1718). Alberoni, 87 The character of the Regent : his attitude towards politics ; his agent and minister, the Abbe Dubois, (b. 1656); the character of Dubois. The loieigu policy of the Regent : the schemes of Alberoni caused the Regent and Dubois to enter into a close alliance with England (1716) ; influence of the English ambassador, Stair. The condition of Spain in 1715 : marriage of Philip V. to Elizabeth Farnese, of Parma (b. 1692, d. 1766) ; her character and ambition; dismissal of Madame des Ursins (25 Dec, 1714) ; Alberoni by his. influ- ence over the queen became the director of Spanish policy ; character and ideas of Cardinal Alberoni (b. 1664, d. 1752) ; his administration; Philip V. hoped to enforce his claim to the throne of France in case of the death of Louis XV. ; the queen aimed at obtaining Parma and Tus- cany for her children. The attitude of England : the accession of George I. placed the Whigs firmly in power ; Stanhope, a friend of the Emperor, became the direc- tor of English foreign policy; the principal objects of English policy, the maintenance of the Treaties of Utrecht, and the exclusion of the Stuarts from the English throne; failure of the Jacobite rising of 1715 in Scotland and the north of England. The alliance formed between England and France joined by the United Provinces and became the Triple Alliance ; the execution of the Treaties of Utrecht guaranteed b)^ the allies (4 Jan., 1717). Causes of the renewal of war between Spain and the Emperor Charles VI.; the Spaniards conquered Sardinia (Aug., 17 17) and at- tacked Sicily (July, 171 8). The Emperor joined the Triple Alliance, which thus became the Quadruple Alliance (2 Aug., 17 18). The Spanish War : Byng destroyed the Spanish fleet off" Cape Pas- saro (\\ Aug., 17 18); a French army under Berwick invaded Spain (April, 1719). The plots of Alberoni : he endeavored to induce Sweden and Russia to support the Jacobites ; he prepared a fleet for the Old Pretender ; he conspired with the illegitimate children of Louis XIV. for the over- throw of the regency of Orleans \ discovery ef the conspiracy of Cel- lamare (8 Dec, 17 18). All the plots of Alberoni foiled ; exiled from Spain (5 Dec, 1719). 88 The Regeyit Orleans. Peace signed between Spain and the Quadruple Alliance (i Feb., 1720): the Emperor Charles VI., obtained Sicily ; Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy received Sardinia in compensation for the loss of Sicily ; the succession to Parma and Tuscany guaranteed to the children of Philip V. by his second marriage ; Saint-Simon's embassy to Spain ; arrange- ments made for the marriage of Louis XV. to a Spanish infanta and of the two elder sons of the King of Spain to two daughters of the Re- gent Orleans. The internal history of France during the regency of Orleans : ces- sation of the persecution of the Jansenists ; exile of Pere Letellier ; John Law (b. 1671, d. 1729) and his financial schemes ; the mania for speculation in France ; the Mississippi Company ; ruinous results of Law's administration ; dismissal of Law (1720); Dubois made a cardi- nal (1721). Louis XV. declared of age (19 Feb., 1723); death of Dubois (10 Aug., 1723) and of the Regent Orleans (7 Dec, 1723). Authorities : Among books in English on this period see Moore, Lives of Al- beroni, Ripperda and Pombal ; Perkins, France under the Regency, and Arm- strongs Elizabeth Farnese, the "Termagant of Spain". Among secondary authorities may be noted Cojxre, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, vol. ii.; BeCourcy, L'Espagne apres la paix d'Utrecht (1713-1715) ; Combes, La princesse des Urs-ins ; Seilhac, L'abbe Dubois; Wiesener, Le Regent, I'abb^ Dubois et les Anglais; Chdteauneuf, Histoire du regent, Philippe d'Or- l^ans ; Thiers, Histoire de Law, translated by F. Fiske, as The Mississippi Bubble ; Horn, Jean Law; Cochut, Law, son systeme et son ^poque; Vuitry, Le desordre des finances et les exces de la speculation a la fin du regne de Louis XIV. et au com- mencement du regne de Louis XV.; Sichi, Les derniers jansenistes, vol. i.; Rous- set de Missy, Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni jusqu' a 1719 ; Vaiouf, La conspiration de Cellamare ; Lemontey, Histoire de la Rdgence, et de la minorite de Louis XV., and O. Weber, Die Quadrupel-AUi^nz vom Jahre 1718. For the part played by England see Stanhope, History of E"glanv-..,oiiX 4 ^..cxJj^ Authorities : Among small books in English upon the reign of Charles VI. may be noted /,£g;^ Autriche-Hongrie, translated by Mrs. Birkbeck Hill, and for the war with the Turks, Cre asy, H istory of the Ottoman Turks. Ihe chief secondary authorities on Xustrian history of this time are Krones, Hand- buch der Geschichte CBsterreichs ; Arneth, Karl VI. (in Allgemeiue Deutsche Bio- graphie, vol. xv.); Hq/ler, Fragmente zur Geschichte Kaiser Karls VI. (Srtzungs- berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. Ix., Vienna, 1868); Beer, Zur Geschichte der Politik Karls VI. (Historische Zeitschrift, 1862); Ameth, Prinz Eugen, vols, ii, iii ; A. Wolf, Geschichte der pragmatischen Sam - tion ; Forster, Die Hofe und Kabineue Europas im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert ; Vehse, Memoirs of the Court of Austria, translated by Demmler ; VanRiiikel- ingen, Geschiedenis der oosterryksche Nederlanden ; Belgien onder Karel VI. (1700-1740), axidi Bidemtann, Geschichte der (Esterreichischen Gesammtstaatsidee. The secondary authorities for Turkish history are Hammer, Histoire de I'em- pire ottoman, and Zi7ikeise7i, Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs in Europa. For the policy of Spain see Coxe, Moore and Armstrong, cited under Lecture 32, with Syveton^ Le Baron de Ripperda ; Baudrillart, Philippe V. et la cour de France, vol. iii.; Ripperda, Memoirs, and Montgon, M^moires ; and for England Sta?ihope and Lecky, cited under Lecture 32, with Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole. On the marriage of Louis XV. see Raynal, Le manage d'un Roi. As primary authorities for the Turkish war reference should be made to Ameth, Relationen der Botschaften Venedigs iiber CE)sterreich im iS**" Jahrhundert (in the Fontes rerum Austriacarum, vol. xxii.), and Matuschka, Feldzuge des Prinzen Eugens, and for diplomatic historv to Lettres ec Mdmoires cnire ic> nuuistres des cours de la Grande-Bretagne, de France, et d'Hcp^gne (1727), and the texts of the treaties. LECTURE 35. THE WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION. Charles VI. abandoned Spain and made peace with the allies of the League of Hanover C31 May, 1727), suspending the Ostend Company and referring other disputed questions to a Congress of the Powers. Spain abandoned the siege of Gibraltar and made peace with Eng- 94 Fleury and Walpole. land (5 March, 1728); meeting of the Congress of Soissons; by the Treaty of Seville (9 Nov., 1729) Spain made an oJBfensive and defensive alliance with England, France and the Dutch, who guarantee the suc- cession of Don Carlos to Parma and Tuscany. The Treaty of Seville accepted by the Emperor after the death of the last Farnese Duke of Parma (16 March, 1731); England and the Dutch guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction; Charles VI. dissolved the Ostend Company; Don Carlos took possession of Parma. The Emperor Charles VI. submitted the Pragmatic Sanction to the Diet of the Empire (Jan., 1732); accepted by the ecclesiastical Electors and the Electors of Brandenburg and Hanover, but rejected by the Elector Palatine and the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria. The internal government of Charles VI.: influence exercised by Prince Eugene up to his death in 1736; his chief ministers, Sinzen- dorff, State Chancellor (1705-42), and Gundacker Thomas Starhemberg, in charge of the finances (1703-45). The peace policy of Cardinal Fleury; his endeavors to improve the finances of France; Orry, Controller- General of the Finances (1730-45); Chauvelin, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1727-37); renewal of the attack on the Jansenists, which involved Fleury in conflicts with the Parle- ment of Paris (1729, 1731-32). The peace policy of Sir Robert Walpole, who had become Prime Min- ister of England in 172 1; his foreign policy governed by commercial considerations; his power increased by the death of George I. (1727). In spite of the peaceful tendencies of Walpole and Fleury, the death of Augustus I., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony (i Feb., 1733), caused a general war. The two chief candidates for the Polish throne were Augustus, Elec- tor of Saxony, son of the late king, and Stanislas I^eczinski, who had been king from 1704 to 1709 and was father-in-law of Louis XV. of France. Stanislas was elected king (11 Sept., 1733) and was supported by a small body of French troops ; an opposition diet elected Augustus II. (24 Sept., 1733) ', the Emperor Charles VI. recognized Augustus in return for a guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the Tsaritsa Anne of Russia sent troops to his assistance. War of the Polish Succession. 95 The Russians under Miinnich took Dantzig (9 July, 1734), the last refuge of Stanislas, who escaped to France ; Biren made Duke of Cour- land(i737). Fleury resolved to attack the Emperor on the pretext that Charles VI. had shown himself hostile to Stanislas, and formed the League of Turin with Spain and Sardinia for the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy (26 Sept., 1733) ; by the secret treaty of the Escurial (7 Nov., 1733) a close alliance was formed between France and Spain ; his main intention in entering upon war was to acquire Lorraine for France, an intention quickened by the betrothal of Francis, Duke of Lorraine, to Maria Theresa, elder daughter of Charles VI. The campaign of 1733 : the French, under Berwick, conquered Lor- raine, and under Villars took Milan , Walpole refused to assist the Em- peror ; campaign of 1734 : the French took Philipsburg, where Berwick was killed, and Don Carlos conquered Naples ; campaign of 1735 : Don Carlos conquered Sicily ; little effected in Northern Italy and on the Rhine ; first appearance of Russian troops in Western Europe, an army being sent by the Tsaritsa Anne to the help of Charles VI. Preliminaries of peace signed between France and Austria (3 Oct., 1735) : (i) Stanislas Leczinski renounced the throne of Poland to Augustus of Saxony, and received the duchy of Lorraine, with the title of king. (2) Francis, Duke of Lorraine, the future son-in-law of the Emperor, guaranteed Tuscany on the death of the last of the Medici. (3) Don Carlos recognized as King of Naples and Sicily, including the Tuscan presidios, and surrendered the duchy of Parma to the Emperor. (4) Charles Emmanuel III., King of Sardinia, received Novara and Tortona. (5) France to receive Lorraine on the death of Stanislas. These preliminaries of peace were eventually ratified in the Treaty of Vienna (18 Nov., 1738), when France also guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. Charles VI. endeavored to obtain revenge for his losses in the War of the Polish Succession by attacking the Turks (1737), who were since 1736 at war with Russia ; attitude of France ; Villeneuve and Bonneval ; the Turks generally successful ; by the Treaty of Belgrade (i Sept., 96'^ Frederick William I. of Prussia. 1739) Austria restored to the Turks, Belgrade, Orsova, and all the terri- tories acquired by the Treaty of Passarowitz, except Temesvar. Death of the Emperor Charles VI. (20 Oct., 1740). Authorities : For the military history of the War of the Polish Succession see Pajol^ IvCS Guerres sous Louis XV., vols, i., ii., Siwd. Raihery, Le comte de Plelo ; for the policy of Austria see Krones, Arneth, Beer, A Wolf, Forster, Vehse and Bidermann, cited under I^ecture 34, Hq/ler, Der Congress von Soissons ( Pontes re- rum Austriacarum, xxxii., xxxviii) ; for the policy of France sqq. Lacretelle, His- toire du XVIII ieme siecle; yb^^^, Iva France sous Louis XV.; Tocqueville, Histoire philosophique du regne de Louis XV.; Bonhomme, Louis XV. et sa famille ; Des Reaulx, Le roi Stanislas et la reine Marie Leczinska; Boye, Stanislas Leczinski et le troisieme traite de Vienne ; Vandal, Une ambassade fran9aise en Orient sous Louis XV. ; la mission du Marquis deVilleneuve (1720-41), and Le Pacha Bonne val, and D^ Haussonviile, Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France. Among primary authorities on French history should be noted the Memoires oi Du- clos, Barbier, D^ Argenson, Maihieu Marais and Luynes. LECTURE 36. FREDERICK WILLIAM I. OF PRUSSIA, AND THE TSARITSA ANNE OP RUc^blA. The character of Frederick William I. (b. 15 August, 1688J, King of Prussia (17 13-1740). The foreign policy of Frederick William I. : in spite of his love for military organization, he avoided war as much as possible ; his only important territorial conquest was the district of Pomerania between the Oder and the Peene, which gave him the port of Stettin on the Baltic (21 Jan., 1720) ; after the conclusion of the Northern War, Frederick William I. supported the doctrine of the Balance of Power in Europe ; his relations with England ; married to Sophia Dorothea, daughter of George I. ""^ ri Vi>~Nr'^'"'^^^^*J^>>>^*»^^' Iv One keynote of Frederick William's policy was his desire to inherit the duchies of Juliers and Berg, which it had been arranged should fall to Brandenburg on the extinction of the House of Neuburg, then ruling Frederick Williajii I. of Prussia. 97 "in the Palatinate ; on the promise of the Emperor to secure Juliers and Berg to him, Frederick William I. guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, deserted ihe League of Hanover and signed the Treaty of Wuster- hausen (12 Oct., 1726); his schemes for obtaining Royal Prussia and negotiations with Augustus I. of Poland ; Frederick William I.'s atti- . tude towards Austria and towards the Empire ; he disapproved of the election of Augustus II. to the throne of Poland, but nevertheless sup- ported Charles VI. in the War of the Polish Succession. The internal policy of Frederick William I. : his creation of the ad- ministrative system ; he deprived the nobility of all share in civil ad- ministration, which he entrusted to a middle-class bureaucracy; his centralized system and paternal government ; his improvement of the finances and economic administration ; his attitude towards religion ; he welcomed the Lutheran exiles from Salzburg and gave them lands to cultivate (1731-33). The military policy of Frederick William I.: he introduced strict discipline and a new system of drill ; his passion for tall soldiers ; the excellence of his army ; he filled the ranks of all grades of ofl&cers from the nobles ; he recruited the army partly by compulsory service, partly by voluntary enlistment ; he increased the Prussian army from 38,000 to 84,000 men \ the work of Leopold of Anhalt- Dessau (b. 1676, d. 1747)- Frederick William I. and his family : his quarrels with the Crown Prince, afterwards known as Frederick the Great. Death of Frederick William I. (31 May, 1740). Accession of Frederick II. (b. 24 Jan., 171 2): his character and early training ; his life at Rheinsberg. Russia under the Tsaritsa Anne (1730-40) : circumstances under which Anne obtained the throne ; she drove from power the oligarch- ical party led by Ivan £)olgoruki, which had placed her on the throne, and was proclaimed Autocrat (21 March, 1730); governed by her lover, Biren (b. 1690, d. 1772), who became Duke of Courland on the extinc- tion of the House of Kettler (1737); she carried out the policy of Peter the Great in home administration and maintained Western ideas ; in the administration of Russia, she employed German generals and ministers; Ostermann (b. 1686, d. 1747); Miinnich (b. 1683, d. 1767); discontent of the Old Russian party at the internal policy of Anne. 98 The Tsaritsa Anne. The foreign policy of the Tsaritsa Anne : she maintained the alli- ance with the Emperor Charles VI., entered into by Catherine I., and guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction ; she carried out the ideas of Peter the Great with regard to the Poles and the Turks ; in the War of the Polish Succession she placed Augustus II. of Saxony upon the throne of Poland; in the war with the Turks (i 736-1 739) a Russian army under Miinnich and Peter Lacy (b. 1678, d. 1751) conquered the Crimea and took Azov (i July, 1736); by the treaty of peace with the Turks (18 Sept., 1739), Russia abandoned the Crimea and obtained Azov, but promised to maintain no fleet on the Black Sea. Death of the Tsaritsa Anne (28 October, 1740). Accession of Ivan VI. (b. 23 Aug., 1740), grand-nephew of Anne, under the regency of Biren ; by a coup d' etat (20 Nov., 1740) Biren was over- thrown and the mother of the infant king, Anne of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Brunswick- Be vern, was made regent ; unpopularity of the new Regent on account of her German tendencies ; quarrel between Miinnich and the Tsar's father ; disgrace of Miinnich ; Elizabeth (b. 1709), younger daughter of Peter the Great, supported by the Old Russian party and some personal friends, overturned this government and was proclaimed Tsaritsa (6 Dec, 1741); imprisonment of the Tsar Ivan VI. and his parents. (See Appendix VI.) Authorities : Of books in English on this period of Prussian history see TuUle, History of Prussia, and Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great. Among general secondary histories consult Berner, Gescbichte des preussischen Staates ; Stenzel, Geschichte des preussischen Staats; Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, vol. iv. ; Ranke, Zwolf Biicher preussischer Geschichte ; Pariset, L' etat et les eglises en Prusse (1713-1740); Philippson, Geschichte des preussischen Staatswesens ; Bornhak, Geschichte des preussischen Verwalt- ungsrechts ; Isaacsohn, Geschichte des preussischen Beamtenthums ; Stadelmann^ Preussens Konige in ihrer Thaiigkeit fur die Landeskultur, vol. i., and Cavaignac lya Formation de la Prusse contemporaine. More special studies of the reign are contained in Forster, Friedrich Wilhelm I., Konig von Preussen ; Paulig, Fried- rich Wilhelm I.; Beheim-Schwarzbach, Friedrich Wilhelms I. Kolonisationswerk in Littauen, vornehmlich die Salzhurger Kolonie; Schntoller, Das politische Testa- ment Friedrich Wilhelm's, and the numerous articles of Schmoller in different periodicals, of which a complete list is given in Historische Zeitschrift, vol. Ivii. For the early h^istory of Frederick the Great see the Memoirs of the Margravine of Baireuth ; Koser, Friedrich der Grosse als Kro-prinz ; Lavisse, I^a jeunesse du The Austrian Succession. 99 grand Fr^ddric, and Le grand Frdddric avant Tavdnement, and Hamilton, Rheins- berg, Memorials of Frederick the Great and Prince Henry of Prussia. For the Tsaritsa Anne reference may be made to Morfill Story of Russia ; Rambaiid^ Histoire de la Russie ; Baitty The Pupils of Peter the Great, a history of the Rus- sian Court and Empire from 1697 to 1740; Manstein, Contemporary Memoirs of Russia (1727-44) ; Halem, Lebensbeschreibung des russischen general- feldmar- schalls MUnnich ; Miinnich, Memoiren, ed. Jiirgefisohn ; Jafisen, Graf zu Lynar, and the despatches of foreign ministers in the Sbornik. LECTURE 37, THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSIOM. Important changes caused in Europe in 1740 by the deaths of Fred- erick William I. of Prussia (31 May), of the Emperor Charles VI. (20 October), and of the Tsaritsa Anne of Russia (28 October). The two questions with regard to the succession to Charles VI. : (i) the succession to the Hapsburg dominions ; (2) the succession to the Empire. The claimants to the Hapsburg succession : (i) the Elector of Ba- varia ; (2) the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland ; (3) the King of Spain; (see Appendix VII.); nevertheless Maria Theresa (b. 1717), elder daughter of Charles VI., whose peaceful accession had been guaranteed by the powers of Europe under the Pragmatic Sanction, ascended the throne and declared her husband, Francis of Lorraine,, who since 1737 had been Grand Duke of Tuscany, to be joint ruler with her of the Austrian dominions ; character of Maria Theresa. Of the guarantors of the Pragmatic Sanction, Russia, England and the United Provinces supported Mai^ Theresa ; Saxony, Spain and Bavaria were openly hostile ; Sardinia and France favored the opposi- tion ; and Prussia took the opportunity to attack Austria by invading Silesia. England's attitude towards Maria Theresa : the opposition of France and Spain to her succession caused the English ministry to support her loo First Silesian War, claims ; war had been declared between England and Spain in October, 1739; causes of this war; Anson's voyage (1740-44) ; Vernon's cap- ture of Porto Bello C1739) and failure before Carthagena (1741) ; influ- ence of this war in defining England's attitude towards Austria ; retire- ment of Sir Robert Walpole (17 Feb., 1742) ; position attained by- England during Walpole' s peace administration ; the aims of his policy. The attitude of France towards Maria Theresa : Fleury, like Wal- pole, was essentially a peace minister, but a war party existed in Fiance as in England ; the French war party desired to attack Austria; the schemes of Belle- Isle (b. 1684, d. 1761); by the Treaty of Nymphen- burg(i8 May, 1 741) he formed a league, against Maria Theresa, of France, Spain and Bavaria, joined later by Saxony, Sardinia, and (5 June, 1 741) by Frederick the Great of Prussia. The attitude of Russia towards Maria Theresa : the Regent, Anne of Mecklenburg, proposed to assist her and to maintain the Pragmatic Sanction ; France induced Sweden to declare war against Russia (4 Aug., 1 741). The First Silesian War (1740-42) : Frederick II. of Prussia invaded Silesia (22 Dec, 1740) ; his demands and claims (see pp. 46, 70) ; he defeated the Austrians under Neipperg at Mollwitz (10 April, 1741 ); his agreement with France (5 June); capture of Breslau (10 Aug.) ; the Convention of Klein Schnellendorf (9 Oct.). Maria Theresa's appeals to the Magyar nobility; '^ Moriajuur pro rege nostra, Maria Theresa ' ' ; enthusiasm in Hungary for her cause, whether these words were used or not ; the three ceremonies at Press- burg; the coronation (25 June, 1741), the vote of troops (13 Sept) and the oath of regency (20 Sept.). War of the Austrian Succession: Campaign of 174 1: the Bavarians aided by a French army invaded Austria (July) and Bohemia (Oct.) ; Convention of Klein Schnellen- dorf (9 October) ; the French took Prague (25 November) ; the Elector of Bavaria crowned King of Bohemia, (17 Dec.) ; the Russians under Eacy defeated the Swedes at Wilmanstrand (3 Sept.); Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, seized the throne of Russia (6 Dec.) ; death of Ulrica Eleanor, Queen of Sweden (5 Dec.) ; Frederick the Great refused to observe the terms of the Convention of Klein Schnel- lendorf (Nov.), invaded Moravia and took Olmiitz (26 Dec). War of the Austrinti $^4,Cces%tm\ loi The question of the election of an Emperor to succeed Charles VI. : Maria Theresa put forward her husband, Francis of Lorraine ; the French supported the Elector of Bavaria, who received the adhesion of the Rhenish Electors, of Frederick the Great, and of Augustus II of Saxony and Poland ; he was unanimously chosen (24 January, 1742) and crowned as the Emperor Charles VII. (12 Feb.). Campaign of 1742 : the effect of Maria Theresa's appeal to the Mag- yars ; the Austrians under Khevenhiiller conquered Bavaria and took Munich (12-14 Feb.) ; Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians un- der Charles of Lorraine, brother-in-law of Maria Theresa, at Chotusitz (17 May) ; the policy of Carteret (b. 1690, d. 1763) ; through the medi- ation of England, Maria Theresa made peace with Frederick the Great (28 July, 1742), and, by the Treaty of Berlin, ceded Silesia to Prussia ; the Elector Augustus II. made peace with Maria Theresa at Dresden (7 September) ; critical position of the French army in Prague ; escape of part of the French army under Belle- Isle (16 December), and sur- render of the remainder (25 Dec); the campaign in Italy; the policy of Charles Emmanuel III., King of Sardinia ; he broke away from the alliance of Nymphenburg (i Feb.), joined the Austrians and took Parma and Modena ; campaign in Finland ; the Swedish army surrendered to the Russians at Helsingfors (4 Sept.). Campaign of 1743 : death of Fleury (29 January) ; attitude towards politics of Louis XV. ; the failure of the campaign caused the ruin of Belle- Isle; the English ministry induced the United Provinces to support Maria Theresa (May); an English army invaded southern Germany; George II. defeated the French under Noailles at Dettingen (27 June) ; Treaty of Worms (13 September) between Maria Theresa, England and Sardinia, by which Maria Theresa ceded Piacenza, Bobbio and the county of Anghiera with Vigevano to Charles Emmanuel III. ; England promised him a large subsidy for effective assistance in Italy ; this alli- ance met by the Treaty of Fontainebleau between France and Spain (25 October), closely uniting the two Bourbon kingdoms ; France de- clared war against Charles Emmanuel (30 September): by the Treaty of Abo (23 June), peace made between Sweden and Russia; southern Finland to the Kiiimen ceded to Russia ; Adolphus Frederick of Hol- stein, Bishop of Liibeck, recognized as heir to the Swedish throne ; I02 War of lAe Austrian Succession. Christian VI. of Denmark made an alliance with George II. of England (December). Campaign of 1744 : influence of Madame de Chateauroux ; France, which had hitherto taken part in the war as ally of Bavaria, declared war against England (15 March) and Austria (26 April) ; Marshal Saxe (b. 1696, d. 1750) invaded the Catholic Netherlands ; Charles "ot J^or- raine invaded Alsace ; illness ofLLQuis-KV. ; Frederick the Great mar- ried his sister Louisa TThiua Lo Adolphus of Holstein, heir to the Swedish throne, and thus offended the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia ; Frederick the Great resolved again to attack Austria ; he formed the U nion o f "P'^^nkfor^ \m\\\\ the Emperor Charles VII., the Elector Pala- tine, and the King of Sweden as Eandgrave of Hesse- Cassel (9 June); he declared himself forced as an Elector to defend the Emperor (9 Au- gust) ; the Second Silesian war (1744-45) : Frederick invaded Bohemia and took Prague (2 September) ; Charles of Lorraine, recalled from Al- sace, evacuated Bavaria ; the Prussians forced to retire from Bohemia : D'Argenson (b. 1694, d. 1757) Minister of Foreign Affairs in France (18 November) ; in Italy the Austrians, advancing on Naples, were de- feated by the Neapolitans and the Spaniards under Gages at Velletri (11 August), and a French and Spanish army under Conti and Don Philip conquered Nice and defeated Charles Emmanuel III. at the Madonna dell 'Olmo C30 Sept.); dismissal of Carteret, who was succeeded in the control of English foreign policy by Pelham (23 Nov., 1744) ; death of the Emperor Charles VII. (30 Jan., 1745). Campaign of 1745 : Maria Theresa signed the Treaty of Fiissen with the new Elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph (22 April), by which Bavaria renounced all claims to the Austrian succession, guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, and promised to vote for the election as Emperor, of Francis of Lorraine ; Marshal Saxe defeated the English at Fontenoy ( 1 1 May) and took the fortresses of the Catholic Netherlands ; the Jaco- bite rising in Scotland headed by the Young Pretender distracted the attention of the English government ; Louisburg, on Cape Breton, cap- tured by the American colonists (28 June) ; Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland declared himself on the side of Maria Theresa (18 May) and invaded Silesia with the Austrians ; Frederick the Great defeated the invaders at Hohenfriedberg (4 June) and at Soor (30 September) ; War of the Austrian Succession. 103 Francis of IrOrraine elected Emperor by seven votes to two (13 Septem- ber); Frederick tlie Great defeated the Saxons at Kesselsdorf ( 1 5 De- cember), took Dresden and conquered Saxony ; the Spaniards under Gages and the French under Maillebois defeated Charles Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, at Bassignano (27 September) and took all his for- tresses, except Turin and Alessandria ; the Spaniards took Parma, Pia- cenza and Milan (16 December) ; by the Treaties of Dresden (25 December) Maria Theresa confirmed the cession of Silesia and all privileges granted to Frederick by the Emperor Charles VII., and Au- gustus paid 1,000,000 thalers in gold, while Frederick recognized the Emperor Francis and evacuated Saxony. Campaign of 1746 : the Young Pretender defeated at CuUoden (16 April); the Austrians recovered Milan (19 March) and defeated the French and Spaniards at Piacenza (16 June) ; offensive and defensive alliance signed between Maria Theresa and the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of P.ussia (26 July) ; death of Philip V. of Spain (9 July) ; the Spaniards and French withdrew from Italy; the Austrians took Genoa (6 Sept.) ; in the Netherlands Marshal Saxe captured Brussels and Antwerp and de- feated the English and Austrians under Charles of Lorraine at Raucoux (11 October) ; resumption of the duchy of Guastalla on the death of the last duke (16 August) by Maria Theresa ; the Austrians under Browne with the Sardinians invaded Provence ; the Genoese expelled the Austrians (5-10 December) ; capture of Madras by I^a Bourdonnais (14 September). Campaign of 1747 : dismissal of D'Argenson (10 Jan.) ; the Confer- ence of Breda ; Marshal Saxe invaded the Protestant Netherlands ; revolution there ; William IV. of Orange-Nassau declared Stadtholder (3 May) and the stadtholderate made hereditary in his family ; Marshal Saxe defeated the English, Dutch and Austrians under Cumberland at Lauffeld (2 July); storm of Bergen-op-Zoom (16 Sept.) by Lowendal ; defense of Genoa by Boufflers ; battle of the Col d'Assiette (19 July). Campaign of 1748 : the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia sent help to Maria Theresa ; England and France determined upon peace. Preliminaries of peace signed between England, France and the Dutch at Aix-la-Chapelle ''30 ApriH, and accepted by Austria (25 May), and by Spain and Genoa (28 June). I04 War of the Austriaji Succession. Definitive treaty of peace signed at Aix-la-Chapelle by England, France and the Dutch (i8 Oct.), Spain (20 Oct.), Austria (23 Oct.), Modena (25 Oct.), Genoa ^28 Oct.) and Sardinia (7 Nov). Authorities: Tlie best small book in English \s, Bright, Maria Theresa, • The most recent and most thorough secondary books on the diplomatic history of this period are the Due de Broglie, Frederic II. et Marie Th^rese, 1740-42; Fred- ^ricll. et Ivou's Xv^., 1742-44; Marie Therese imperatrice, 1744-46; Maurice de Saxe et D'Argenson, 1746-48; and La paix d' Aix-la-Chapelle (1747-48); as a primary authority see Matscheg, Storia politica di Europa, 1740-41, studiata sui dispacci dci Veneti ambasciatori. For the Austrian side, see Coxe, History of the House of Austria ; Vitlermont, Marie Therese ; Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, vols. 1-3; Podewils, Berichte iiber der Wiener Hofs (1746-48); A, Wolf. CBsterreich unter Maria Theresia, and Aus dem Hofleben Maria Theresia nach den Memoiren des Fiirsten J. Khevenhiiller, and G. Wolf, Aus der Zeit der Kaiserin Maria Theresia ; for the Emperor Charles VII., Heigel, Der oester- reichische Erbf olgestreit und der Kaiserwahl Karl's VII., and Das Tagebuch Kaisers Karl's VII ; for Vr\xss\.a.,Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, vols. 11 and 12; Carlyte, History of Frederick the Great; Tuttte, History of Prussia; Koser, Konig Priedrich der Grosse; Preuss, Friedrich der Grosse; Preussische Staatschriften aus der Regierungszeit Friedrichs II. vols, i, 2, ed. Koser, and Raumer, Konig Fried- rich II. und seine Zeit, with the Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen, SiU.^ Frederick the Great, Histoire de mon temps ; for Holland, Beer, Uber Holland und der CEsterreichische Erbfolgekrieg (in the Sitzungsberichte des kaiserlichen Akademie fiir Wissenschaft, vol. Ixvii.) ; for England, Ballantyne, Lord Carteret ; and for France, Correspondance de Louis XV. et du marechal de Noailles, ed. Rous- set ; the Memoires of D' Argenson, ed. Rathery; Chdteaiiroux, Correspondance ; the Journal of Barbier ; the Memoires of Valory, Noailles, Duclos, and the Due de Luynes \ Taillandier, Maurice de Saxe; Karl Weber, Moritz, Graf von Sachsen; Vitzthum, Maurice, comte de Saxe et Marie Joseph e de Saxe, dauphine de France ; SinHy, Vie du marechal de Lowendal; Ogle, The Marquis D'Argenson, and Zevort Le marquis d'Argenson et le ministere des affaires etrangeres. For the military history of the war in western Europe consult Pajol, Les guerres sous Louis XV., vols. 2, 3; De Vault, Les guerres des Alpes ; guerre dela succession d'Autriche, ed. Aruers; Crousse, La guerre de la succession d'Autriche dans les provinces Belgiques, avec une biographie du Marechal de Saxe ; Valfons Souvenirs ; Moris, Opera- tions militaires dans les Alpes pendant la guerre de succession d'Autriche; and Thiir- helm, Graf von Khevenhiiller^ and Graf von Abenberg und Traun ; and of the first Silesian war, Gricnhagen, Geschichte des ersten schlesischen Krieges ; and Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen, ed. the Prussian General Staff, vols 1-3. The text of the treaties and other diplomatic documents are contained in Wenck, Codex juris gentium recentissimi (1735-1772). The Treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe, 105 LECTURE 38. Vhe treaty of aix-la-chapelle, and the; austro-french alliance. The first negotiations for peace: Conference of Breda (i 746-1 747); the Conference broken up by the refusal of Maria Theresa to negotiate with France ; the dismissal of D' Argenson. Negotiations resumed at Aix-la-Chapelle : the chief plenipotentiaries were for England, Sandwich ; for France, Saint-Severin ; for Spain, Soto- Mayor ; for the United Provinces, Bentinck, and for Austria, Kau- nhz-4 Maria Theresa refused to surrender a principality in Italy for 5on Philip ; the negotiations broken off ; after the defeat of Lauflfeld, England resolved that peace should be made ; on 30 April, 1748, Eng- land, France and the Dutch signed preliminaries of peace at Aix-la- Chapelle ; Austria forced to assent, and by the end of 1748 the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was accepted by all the powers. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle : (i) Austria : Francis I. acknowledged as Emperor ; the Pragmatic Sanction again confirmed ; the Catholic Netherlands recovered ; Silesia, part of Lombardy, Parma and Piacenza lost. (2) France evacuated the Catholic Netherlands, which had been con- quered by Marshal Saxe ; acknowledged the Protestant succession in England, and undertook to expel the Pretender. (3) England received again the commercial advantages given by Spain by the Treaties of Utrecht [which were modified, 5 Oct., 1750], and the status, quo ante bellum was restored in Asia and America ; by this clause England recovered Madras, and France, Cape Breton. (4) Spain acknowledged the Emperor Francis I. and Don Philip re- ceived a principality in Italy. (5) The Dutch were confirmed in the right to garrison the barrier for- tresses (see p. 67). (6) Don Philip of Spain, second son of Philip V. and Elizabeth Far- nese, the younger brother of Don Carlos, King of Naples and Sicily, and son-in-law of Louis XV., received Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, which were to revert to Austria on the failure of male heirs. io6 • Europe^ 17^8-17^6, (7) Charles Emmanuel III. recovered Savoy and Nice, and was con- firmed in the possession of the districts of Lombardy ceded to him by the Treaty of Worms, with the exception of the duchy of Piacenza; this extended his eastern frontier to the Ticino. (8) Frederick the Great of Prussia was confirmed in the possession of Silesia. The two states which profited most by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle were Prussia and Sardinia ; France and Spain gained nothing ; Austria lost less than might have been expected ; England was saved from ex- tinction in India. After the close of the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa, dissatisfied with the sacrifice of Silesia, which England had imposed upon her, was ready to alter the policy of Austria ; her one desire the recovery of Silesia. Kaunitz (b. 171 1, d. 1794) : his character and policy ; his suggestion of an alliance between France and Austria ; sent to Versailles to accom- plish this end (1749)- Louis XV. and his foreign policy : contrast between his avowed policy and his secret diplomacy ; the influence of Madame de Pompadour (b. 1 72 1, d. 1764) ; her dislike for Frederick the Great caused her to favor the new departure: The relations between Austria and Spain : the character of Ferdinand VI. (1746-59) ; he entered into close alliance with Maria Theresa (1752) ; the relations between England and Austria ; Maria Theresa attempted to revive the foreign commerce of the Catholic Netherlands, and thus offended the maritime powers of England and the United Pro- vinces. The relations between Austria and Russia : the Tsaritsa Elizabeth, owing to her dislike for Frederick the Great, allied herself with Maria Theresa. The two issues which threatened to bring on a general war: (i) the desire of Maria Theresa to recov^er Silesia; (2) the rivalry between Eng- land and France in Asia and America. The rivalry between France and England in India: the French and English supported opposing native princes in the Deccan and the Kar- natik; the schemes of Dupleix; first successes of Clive; the defence of Arcot (1751); the recall of Dupleix (1754). The Atistro-Frcnch Alliance. 107 The rivalry between France and England in America: the defeat o^ Braddock (9 July, 1755). Maria Theresa refused to assist England against France; Frederick the Great and George II., by the Convention of Westminster (16 January, 1756), made an alliance and guaranteed each other's terri- tories. Outbreak of war between England and France; Admiral Boscawen seized two French frigates (1755); attack on Minorca by the Due de Richelieu (17 April, 1756); war formally declared by England (17 May); by France (9 June); surrender of Minorca (28 June). Louis XV., disgusted at the alliance between Prussia and England, resolved to accept the propositions of Kaunitz; Madame de Pompadour assisted, and a secret treaty of alliance was signed between Austria and France (i May, 1756). Maria Theresa on this basis combined a general league against Fred- erick the Great, which was joined by the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia, Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland, and other continental rulers. Frederick the Great, hearing of these negotiations, invaded Saxony (26 Aug., 1756), and thus commenced the Seven Years' War. The Emperor Francis declared that Frederick had exposed himself to penalties by thus attacking the Empire, and the Diet declared war against Prussia (January, 1757); the Tsaritsa Elizabeth made an ofiFensive alliance with Austria against Prussia (2 Feb., 1757), and prepared an army; Sweden entered into alliance with France and Aus- tria (21 Mar., 1757), and was promised eastern Pomerania ; Bernis, who had made the secret treaty with Austria, concluded the second treaty of Versailles with Austria (i May, 1757), and became Minister for Foreign Affairs of France (July). Importance of the diplomatic revolution effected by Kaunitz ; the classic policy of France from the time of Richelieu had been based on enmity against the House of Hapsburg ; causes of this change of front ; unpopularity of the Austro- French alliance in France; its effects upon Europe. Authorities : The best secondary -wotk on the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is the Due de Broglie, La paix d' Aix-la-Chapelle; for the diplomatic revolution see the Due de Broglie^ ^'alliance autrichienne ; R. IVaddiugton, I^ouis XV. et le to8 The Seven Years' War, renversement des alliances (1754-56), preliminaires diplomatiques de la guerre de sept ans ; Von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, vol. iii., and Bernis, M^moires et lettres, ed. Masson ; for the struggle between the French and English in India, SQQMalleson, History of the French in India; and in America, Parkman, Half Cen- tury of Conflict ; for the situation in Prussia, Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, should be used with care, and more reliance can be placed on Tuttle, History of Prussia, vol. iii.; on Taysen, Zur Beurtheilung des siebenjahrigen Krieges, and on Ra7ike, Der Ursprung des siebenjahrigen Krieges ; for Saxony, see Vitzthum, Die Geheimnisse des sachsischen Kabinets Bnde 1745 bis Knde 1756 ; and for Russia, Vandal, Louis XV. et Elisabeth de Russie ; for Austria, the works of Von Arneth, A. Wolf and G. Wolf, cited under Lecture 37, may 'still be used with Bentinck, Aufzeichnungen iiber Maria Theresia, mit einer Einleitung iiber die CEsterreichische Politik in 1749-55, ed. Beer; for Prussia, the works cited under Lecture 37, with Valory, Memoires ; and for France, with Barbier, D'Argenson, De Luynes, Duclos, and Roussel, Correspondance de Louis XV. et du marechal de Koailles, should be consulted Madame de Pompadour, Correspondance, ed. Ma- lassis; Campardon, Madame de Pompadour et la cour de Louis XV.; Goncourt, Madame de Pompadour; Broglie, Le secret du Roi ; Rousset, Le comte de Gisors,' and Boutaru, Correspondence secrete inedite de Louis XV. I.ECTURK 39, THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. The position of the powers of Europe at the outbreak of the {Seven Years' War : difference of the aims of England and Prussia ; the chief desire of Maria Theresa and. the Tsaritsa Elizabeth was to humble Frederick the Great and to reduce the power of Prussia ; the policy of France was not so much to defeat Prussia as to check the expansion of England. The United Provinces, owing to the death of the Stadtholder, Wil- liam IV. (1751), and the minority of his son, pursued a peace policy and declared neutrality. England desired to fight at sea and in America and India, but was drawn into the continental war by the connection with Hanover ; Pitt (b. 1707, d. 1778) perceived the solidarity of the struggle upon the Continent with the maritime and colonial war, and advocated vigorous TTie Seven Years* War. 109 support of Frederick the Great ; Prussia had to meet the assault of Austria, Russia, Sweden and France ; excellence of the Prussian army; Frederick the Great as a statesman and a general. The Seven Years' War : the campaign of 1756 ; Frederick the Great invaded Saxony (26 August) and occupied Dresden ; the Saxon army surrounded at Pirna ; the Austrians under Browne marched to their assistance ; the battle of Lobositz (i October); surrender of the whole Saxon army at Pirna (16 October); anger of Louis XV. at the attack on Saxony ; capture of Oswego by Montcalm (14 August). The campaign of i7S7 : scheme of an invasion of Prussia by the* Austrians, French, Imperialists, Russians and Swedes ; Frederick took the offensive and invaded Bohemia ; he defeated the Austrians at Prague (6 May); Daun (b. 1705, d. 1766) advanced to the relief of Prague and defeated Frederick at Kolin (18 June); retreat of the Prus- sians from Bohemia ; the French under D'Estrees defeated the Duke of Cumberland at Hastenbeck (26 Julyj; Cumberland made the Conven- tion of Kloster-zeven (10 September) ; the Russians under Apraxin defeated the Prussians under Lehwaldt at Gross- Jagerndorf (30 August) and conquered Ducal Prussia ; the Imperialists with a French army under Soubise utterly defeated by Frederick the Great at Rossbach (5 November); the Russians retired and the Swedes were driven out of ^^^^ Pomerania ; Frederick defeated the Austrians at Leuthen (5 Decem^^JJ^ ber) and recovered the whole of Silesia ; Pitt repudiated the Conven- j\ .^^^j^ tion of Kloster-zeven, granted a subsidy to Frederick and placed an English and Hanoverian army under the command of Ferdinand of Brunswick (b. 1721, d. 1792); failure of an English expedition against Rochefort ; Montcalm's capture of Fort William Henry (9 August). Campaign of 1758: renewal of the alliances between England and Prussia, and between Austria, France and Russia ; Choiseul (b. 1719, d. 1785) became chief minister of France and supported more strongly the Austro- French alliance ; Fermor with a Russian army took Konigsberg (21 Jan.); Frederick took Schweidnitz (16 April), and invaded Bohemia ; forced to retreat to meet a Russian invasion; battle of Zorndorf (25 Au- gust) between Frederick and Fermor ; Frederick defeated by the Aus- trians under Daun at Hochkirch (14 October); the Austrians retreated into Bohemia ; Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French out of Han-. no The Stjen Years' Way. over and Westphalia, crossed the Rhine, and defeated them at Crefeld (26 June); Amherst and Boscawen took Louisburg (26 July), but Aber- cromby was repulsed from Ticonderoga (8 July); occupation by the English of Fort Frontenac (27 Aug.) and of Fort Duquesne (25 Nov.); unsuccessful English attacks on the French coast at Saint-Malo, Cher- bourg and Saint-Cast. Campaign of ij.SQ^ the Russians under Soltikov defeated Wedell at yy^ Kay (23 July), took Frankfort- on- the- Oder, and were joined by the Aus- 1 ^ trian army under Loudon ; Frederick utterly defeated at Kunersdorf by the Russians and Austrians (12 August) ; Saxony occupied by the Austrians and Imperialists ; surrender of a Prussian army to Daun at Maxen (21 November); desperate position of Frederick the Great; Ferdinand pf^ Brunswick defeated the French under Contades at /^ fiin^en ( i August) ; English victories at sea: Boscawen defeated one French fleet at Lagos (17 August), and Hawke another off Qui- bergn (21 November) ; capture of Guadeloupe (20 April) ; Lally's fail- ure to take Madras ; the English took Fort Niagara (25 July) and Fort Ticonderoga (26 July); Wolfe defeated Montcalm, and took Quebec (18 September). Campaign of 1760 : Loudon (b. 1717, d. 1790) defeated the Prussians at Landeshut (23 June) ; defeated by Frederick at Liegnitz (15 Au- gust); the Russians and Austrians occupied Berlin; Frederick recovered his capital and defeated Daun at Torgau (3 November) ; Ferdinand of Brunswick kept the French out of Hanover and Westphalia, but his nephew was defeated by Broglie at Kloster-Camp (16 Oct.); Eyre Coote defeated the French at Wandewash (22 January), and overthrew the power of France in India ; Amherst took Montreal (8 September), and completed the occupation of Canada ; death of George II. of Eng- land (25 October). Campaign of 1761: exhaustion of the nations engaged in the war ; Loudon took Schweidnitz ; Frederick fought no pitched battle ; Ferdi- nand of Brunswick prevented Broglie from advancing ; the Russians conquered Pomerania, but failed to take Stettin ; the English captured Belle- Isle off the coast of France (7 June); capture of Pondicherry (15 Jan.); Choiseul signed the Pacte de Famille between France and Spain (15 Aug.); resignation of Pitt (5 Oct.). The Sci'Di Years'^ War. Ill Campaipfn of 1762: Spain declared war against England (16 Jan- uary;; the English took Martinique (13 Feb.); Grenada (4 March); Saint Vincent (Mar. j; Havana (14 Aug.), and Manilla (6 Oct.); Bute be- came Prime Minister of England (26 May); he refused to continue pay- ing subsidies to Frederick ; death of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia (5 Jan.); her successor, Peter III., made an offensive and defensive al- liance with Frederick (5 May); revolution at St. Petersburg (9 July); Peter III. overthrown by his wife, Catherine ; ^,3he~^ecl ared neu - trality ; Frederick took Schweidnitz (9 Octob^); the Prussians invaded South Germany ; the Diet of the Empire d eclared neutrali ty; negotia- tions for peace ; a truce signed between Austria and Prussia. The Seven Years' War concluded by the Treaties of Hubertsburg and Paris. By the Treaty of Hubertsburg (15 February, 1763), the status quo ante bellmn restored between Austria and Prussia ; Silesia again guaranteed to Prussia ; Frederick promised to vote for Joseph as King of the Romans and to evacuate Saxony. By the Treaty of Paris (10 February, 1763), France ceded Canada, Cape Breton, Senegal, Tobago, Dominica, Saint Vincent, Grenada and the Grenadines, and restored Minorca, to England ; Spain ceded Florida to England, in return for which France ceded Louisiana to Spain ; the English restored Belle-Isle, Guadeloupe, Martinique and the settlements in India to France, and Havana ^.d Manilla to Spain. General results of the Seven Years' War ; policy of Frederick the Great and its results ; the policy of Pitt and its results. Authorities : An excellent short book in English is Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War ; the volumes devoted to this period hy Carlyle^ in his History of Frederick the Great, are the most valuable in his book. For the military history of the war, see Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges, ed. the Prussian General Staff; Frederick the Greats Histoire de la guerre de Sept Ans; Lloyd, History of the late War in Germany ; Joniini^ Grand Military Opera- tions ; Tielcke, Beytrage zur Kriegskunst und Geschichte des Krieges von 1756 bis 1763; ArchenhoHz, Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges in Deutschland ; Schoning, DersiebenjahrigeKrieg; Schdfer, Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges; Ranihaud, Russes et Prussiens, guerre de Sept Ans ; Hasenkamp, Ost-Preussen unter dem Doppelaar, historische Skizze der russischen Invasion in der Tagen des siebenjahrigen Krieges; Imrnich, Die Schlacht bei Zorndorf; Malleson, London? JU^ ^ 112 France under Louis XV. Bernhardt^ Pri'ediricli der Grosse als Feldherr ; Westphalen^ Geschichte der Feld- ziige des Herzogs Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Iyuneburg ; Renouard, Geschichte: des Krieges in Hannover, Hessen und Westphalen ; Valfons^ Souvenirs \Roussety Le comte de Gisors ; Blention, I^e comte de Saint-Germain, and Pajol, Les guerres sous lyouis XV., vols, iv., v. For the diplomatic history of the war see the works, cited under Lecture 38 with Due de Broglie, Voltaire avant et pendant la guerre de Sept Ans ; Filon, L'ambassade de Choiseul a Vienne en 1757-58 ; Bisset, Memoirs and Papers of Sir A. Mitchell ; Bonhomme, Madame de Pompadour general d'armee ; Ruville, Die Auflosung des preussisch-englischen Bundnisses im Jahre 1762, and Beaulieu-Marconnay, Der Hubertsburger Friede. For the policy of Pitt, see Stanhope, History of England from the Peace of Utrecht, vols, v.-vii. For the struggle in India, Malleson, History of the French in India, and in America Park* man, Montcalm and Wolfe. ^ECTURE 40. FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XV. The internal government of France during the 18th centttry r the ad- ministrative machinery created in the 17th century retained without modification ; the central government ; the work of the intendants in the provinces ; growth of the importance of the police ; condition of Paris ; introduction of lighting and fire- protection by Sartine. The Court of Louis XV. and its influence on internal politics after the death of Fleury ; its influence on foreign politics ; the power of the king's mistresses; Madame de Chateauroux (1740-44); Madame de Pompadour (1745-64) ; the attempt of Damiens to murder the king^ (5 Jan., 1757) ; the Queen, Marie Leczinska (d. 1768); the Dauphin (b. 1729, d. 1765) ; his wives, Marie Therese of Spain and Marie Josephe of Saxony ; his three sons ; the king's daughters ; their circle and influ- ence ; typical courtiers ; Richelieu, Maurepas, Nivernais. The ministers of Louis XV. : their dependence on the Court and the mistresses ; growth of ministerial families ; constant changes of minis- ters ; court intrigues ; the most notable ministers from the death of Fleury to the dismissal of Choiseul ; D'Aguesseau (1757-50), and La- France under Louis XV. 1 13 moignon (1750-68), Chancellors ; Amelot (1737-44), Rend Louis, marquis d'Argenson (1744-47), Rouille (1754-57), Bernis (1757-58), Choiseul (1758-61 and 1766-70), and Choiseul-Praslin (1761-66), For- eign Affairs ; Machault (1745-54), Finances ; Marc Pierre, comte d'Ar- genson (1742-57J, Belle-Isle (1758-61), and Choiseul (1761-70), War ; Maurepas (1723-49), Rouille (1749-54), Machault (1754-57), Berryer (1758-61), Choiseul (1761-66), and Choiseul-Praslin (1766-70), Ma- rine; Lieutenants-General of Police, Herault (1725-40), Berryer (1747- 57) and Sartine U 759-74)- The private foreign policy of the king, the "secret du Roi "; its con- flict with the diplomacy of his ministers ; the comte de Broglie. The foreign policy of Choiseul : its chief features, the Pacte de Famille (1761) and the marriage of Marie Antoinette to the heir of France (16 May, 1770) ; popularity of the Spanish and unpopularity of the Austrian alliance in France ; Favier ; annexation of Lorraine on the death of Stanislas Leczinski (1766) ; purchase of Corsica from the Genoese (1768) and its conquest (1769) ; his policy in Poland and at Constantinople ; the dismissal of Choiseul (24 Dec, 1770). The weak points in the internal administration: confusion and mis- management of the finances after the administrations of Orry and Machault; condition of the provinces; steady improvement in manu- factures; prosperity of commerce with the West Indies; Bordeaux; success of the planters in San Domingo, the French Antilles and the Mauritius; abandonment of rivalry with the English in India; suspen- sion of the French East India Company (1769); decline in the pros- perity of agriculture ; state control of the internal grain trade ; the Pacte de Famine. The part played by the Parlements and especially by the Parlement of Paris down to the time of the dismissal of Choiseul; exile of the Par- lement (1753-54); the reforms of 13 Dec, 1756; the strength and weak- ness of the Parlements; their attempt to interfere in internal politics; their Jansenist proclivities cause them to support Choiseul against the Jc .;its. Affairs in Brittany: quarrels of the governor, D'Aiguillon, with the Estates of Brittany and the Parlement of Rennes; La Chalotais; resig- nation of the Parlement and arrest of La Chalotais (1765); triumph of the Estates and Parlement, and resignation of D'Aiguillon (i769\ 114 France under Louis XV. The last mistress of Louis XV.: the career and character of Madame du Barry (b. 1746, d. 1793), and her influence; her presentation at Court (1769); the dismissal of Choiseul; France governed by D'Aig- uillon, Terrai and Maupeou ; the work of these ministers; D'Aig- uillon, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1771-74) ; his foreign policy; position of France during the partition of Poland ; its influence in the Russo-Turkish war ; the financial policy of Terrai, Controller- General of the Finances (1769-74); he declared partial bankruptcy; Maupeou, Chancellor of France (1768), and the Parlements ; he exiled the former judges and created the Parlements Maupeou (1771). Degradation of the Court of France in the last days of Louis XV.; his conduct destroyed the prestige of the French monarchy. Condition of France during the reign of Louis XV. : its advance in material wealth; general improvement in education, the work of the Oratorians. Rise of the French school of political economists known as the Physiocrats; their works drew attention to the importance of the agri- cultural interest ; Quesnay ; attempts made to improve agriculture ; effect of the physiocratic theories on commerce; Vincent de Gournay; the works of the Marquis de Mirabeau.^^ui^' <^ 4AJcnM\AMp) t^ Intellectual condition of France under Louis XV. : effect of the works of '' the philosophes " ; Voltaire and his influence ; Diderot ; the publi- cation of the Encyclopidie Methodique ; Jean Jacques Rousseau ; his influence on political and social ideas, and upon education; the Contrat Social, the Profession de foi d'un Vicaire Savoyard, the Nouvelle Heloise and Emile. (^-^^ Position of affairs at the death of Louis XV. (10 May, 1774); weak- ness of the administrative machine : prosperity and intelligence of the middle classes ; political insignificance of the nobility; condition of the Church ; evil effect of privilege ; general expectation of a new or^er of things inspired by the intellectual movement. Authorities: Among secondary AistonVs may be noted Voltaire, SSkoX^ ^^ Louis XV. ; Lacretelle, Histoire de France pendant le XVIIIieme siecle, 6 vols., and La France sous Louis XV., 6 vols., and Tocqueville, Histoire philosophique du r^gne de Louis XV. The memoirs dealing with the period are described in Aubertin, L'esprit public au XVIIIieme siecle ; among them may be particularly The Suppression of the Jesuits » 115 noticed .those of the Due de Luyfies, Ptisident Henauli, D'Argenson^ ed. Rathery^ Barbier, Madame du Hausset, Pierre Narbofine, Dufort de Cheveniy, At- lonville, and Bachaumoni (those of the Due de Richelieu and the Souvenirs of Madame de Crequi are compilations) and Tilly, Souvenirs. Upon the finances, Stounn^ Les Finances de I'aucien regime et de la Revolution, and Marion, Machault d'Arnouville, ^tude sur I'histoire du contr61e g^n^rale des finances de 1749 d 1754, may be consulted ; on the Physiocrats, Higgs, The Physiocrats ; Lavergne^ Les economistes frangais au XVIIIieme si^cle ; Schelle, Vincent de Goumay, and Du- pont de Nemours et I'^cole physiocratique ; Galianiy Correspondance, ed. Perey and Maugras ; Turgot, CEuvres ; and the writings of the Physiocrats, ed. Duponide Nemours, 10 vols., or ed. Daire, 15 vols.; on the Pacte de Famine, Biollay, Le pacte de famine, and A/anassiev, Le commerce des c^r^ales en France au X VIII* si^cle ; on the secret diplomacy, Broglie, Le secret du Roi; Boutaric, Correspondance secrete de Louis XV. ; Gaillardet, M^moires sur la chevali^re d'Eon, and Telfer, The Strange Career of the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont; on the policy of Choiseul, Soulange-Bodin, La diplomatic de Louis XV. et le Pacte de Famille, and Daubigny, Choiseul et la France d'Outre-mer apres le traitd de Paris ; on local administration, Legrandy Senac de Meilhan et I'iutendance du Hainaut ; Dumas, La g^neralitd de Tours au XVIII* sidcle ; Garni, Les Eiats de Bretagne ; Garre, La Chalotais et le due d'Aiguillon ; Marion, La Bretagne et le due d' Aiguillon (1753-1770); Mathieu, L'ancien regime dans la province de Lorraine, and D' Haussonville, His- toire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France, vol. iv.; on the latter years of Louis XV., Vatel^ Histoire de Madame Du Barry, and Flamynertjwnt, Le chancelier Maupeou et les Parlements ; and on the king's court and his personality, Bon^ hommey Louis XV. et sa famille ; D'Armaille, La reine Marie Leczinska ; Emm. de Broglie, Le fils de Louis XV., Louis, Dauphin de France, (1729-1765); Barthelemy, Mesdames de France ; Correspondance secrete entre IMarie Th^rese et le comte de Mercy- Argenteau, ed. Ameth and Geffroy ; Grelineaujoly, Histoire des trois derniers princes de la maison de Conde, and Maugras , Le due de Lauzun et la cour intime de Louis XV. LECTURE 41. THE SUPPRESSION OF THE JESUITS. The condition of the southern countries of Europe in the middle of the 18th century : their internal development under reforming kings or great ministers ; influence exerted by the philosophic doctrines of the Ii6 The Suppression of the Jesuits, time towards religious toleration and general reform ; altered attitude towards the Pope and the Church. The Popes of the i8th century : Clement XI. — Albani — 1700-1721 ; disputes with Victor Amadeus, King of Sicily ; Innocent XIII. — Conti — 1721-24; Benedict XIII. — Orsini — 1724-30; he confirmed the con- demnation of the Jansenists, and maintained the bull " Unigenitus" as an article of faith ; his personal piety and amiability ; rapacity and misgovernment of Cardinal Coscia ; Clement XII. — Corsini — 1730-40 ; punishment of Coscia ; Benedict XIV. — Lambertini — 1740-58 ; his skill as a statesman ; his philosophicaTtendencies and moderation ; his correspondence with Voltaire ; his buildings at Rome ; he died before the opposition to the Jesuits reached its height ; Clement XIII. — Rez- zonico — 1758-69 ; his refusal to consent to the suppression of the So- ciety of Jesus. The general discontent in Roman Catholic countries caused by the commercial operations of the Jesuits ; the Society ceased to be self- sacrificing and devoted to the Papacy ; faults and virtues of the Jesuits in the i8th century. The first attack on the Jesuits was directed by Pombal, who had be- come chief minister of Portugal under King Joseph ; causes of Pom- bal' s hatred of the Jesuits ; they opposed his measures of reform ; they monopolized what remained of Portuguese commerce with India, and they fought against the cession of Paraguay to Portugal ; Pombal for- bade the Jesuits to come to court without leave (1757) ; the Tavora plot (1758) ; Pombal deported the Jesuits to Italy (1759), and confis- cated all their property in Portugal ; Pope Clement XIII. defended the Jesuits ; execution of Malagrida (1761). The example of Pombal followed in other countries : (i) in France : discredit caused by the failure of Jesuit traders; Choiseul was supported by the Parlements, who remembered the persecution of the Jansenists ; the Parlement of Paris condemned the constitutions of the Society (1761) ; abolition of the Society in France by a royal edict (1764) ; (2) in Spain : Charles III. banished the Jesuits from his kingdom (1767); (3) in Italy: the Jesuits expelled from Naples (1767) and Parma (1768). Pope Clement XIII. defended the Society of Jesus ; he attacked the weakest of their opponents, excommunicated the Duke of Parma, and The Suppression of the Jesuits. 1 17 declared the duchy confiscated (1768) ; the Catholic powers supported Parma ; the French occupied Avignon, and the Neapolitans Bene- vento and Ponte Corvo ; Spain, the Two Sicilies, France and Portugal demanded the suppression of the Society of Jesus (Jan., 1769) ; death of Pope Clement XIII. (3 Feb., 1769). Election of Pope Clement XIV. — Ganganelli — (19 May, 1769) ; his character and previous career ; pressed by Cardinal Bernis on the part of France to suppress the Society of Jesus ; difficulties of his position ; reconciled to Parma and Portugal ; the evacuation of Avignon and Benevento ; eventually he issued a brief suppressing the Society of Jesus (27 July, 1773). Effect upon Europe of the overthrow of the Jesuits ; their suppression typical of the changed attitude of the Catholic powers towards the Pope and of the people towards the Catholic religion. Attempts made to replace the Jesuits as a teaching organization ; the Oratorians ; Catherine II. protected and encouraged the Jesuits in the part of Poland which fell to her at the first partition ; the Society con- tinued to exist in Russia and Prussia. Death of Clement XIV. (22 Sept., 1774) ; election of Pius VI.^ Braschi (14 Feb., 1775). Internal administration of the States of the Church under the Popes of the 1 8th century ; condition of the Legations ; Rome became the chief place of resort for wealthy travellers ; effect upon Protestant coun- tries of the increased tolerance of the Papacy. Improved personal character of the Popes in the i8th century: d^-jj^ crease of personal and family ambition ; disappearance oi^no^^o^smJt^^^'fi Significance of the suppression of the Society of Jesus as a typical act "v of the 1 8th century. Authorities : For the suppression of the Jesuits see Crttineau-Joly, Histoire religieuse, politique et litt^raire de la compagnie de J^sus, vols v., vi., and Le Pape Clement XIV.; Senac de Meilhan, Histoire abreg^e de I'expulsion des J^suites; Saint-Priest, Histoire de la chute des J^suites ; Masson, Le cardinal de Bernis depuis son ministdre (1758-94); Theincr, Histoire du pontificat de Clement XIV.; Von i?^ttWd?n/, Ganganelli, Papst Clemens XIV., seine Briefe und seine Zeit; Artaud^ Histoire de Pie VI., and Crousaz-Critet, L'EgUse et I'fetat (1715-89). Ii8 The Tsar it sa Elizabeth. LECTURE 42. THE FIRST PARTITION OF POLAND. The internal history of Russia from the death of Peter the Great : formation of two opposing parties, of which one desired to continue the progress in Western civilization commenced by Peter, and the other de- sired to recur to the old Russian customs and system of government; the Church, the nobles and the mass of the population favored throughout the century a reaction against Peter's innovations ; it was due to the personal character of successive rulers that Russia was further developed on Western lines. Both the Tsaritsa Anne (1730), and the Tsaritsa Elizabeth (1741), were raised to the throne of Russia because they were believed to be in sympathy with old Russian id^s, and it was expected that they would leave the control of affairs to the Russian nobles, but both Tsaritsas, when firmly established, carried on the system of Peter the Great in in- ternal government. Although the Russians disliked the Western system and the employ- ment of foreigners introduced by Peter the Great, they enthusiastically believed in his foreign policy and in the ideas he had formed for the expansion of Russia ; the foreign policy of the government was popular or unpopular in so far as it adhered to or departed from the lines laid down by Peter the Great. The foreign policy of t^e Tsaritsa Elizabeth (1741-62): influence of La Chetardie, the French ambassador (1741-44); her alliance with Maria Theresa (1746), to whom she sent an army (1748); her hatred for Frederick the Great of Prussia; the director of her policy, the Chan- cellor B^slJlS^v (1744-58): his Austrian sympathies; part of Russia in the Seven Years' War; open partisanship of the Grand Duke Peter for Frederick the Great, and of his wife the Grand Duchess Catherine for England; overthrow of Bestushev (1758); the administration of the Chancellor Vorontsov (1758-67). The internal government of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth : her character and her court ; her lovers ; Lestocq, Razumovski, Ivan Shuvalov; intolerance and revival of religious persecution ; French took the Poland in the i8th Century, 119 place of German influence at the Russian Court; the Grand Duchess Catherine and the Shuvalovs and Vorontsovs ; Ivan vShuvalov founded the University of Moscow (1755). The Tsaritsa Elizabeth succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (5 Jan., 1762); unpopularity of Peter as a for- eigner and adherent of foreign ideas ; Peter III. overthrown by his wife Catherine (9 July, 1762). Murder of Peter III. (17 July) ; the character of this revolution ; character of Catherine (b. 1729) ; unsoundness of her title ; attempt to bring forward the Tsar Ivan VI- from his prison (see p. 98); his murder (16 July, 1764). The Tsaritsa Catherine II. desired to emphasize her belief in the policy of Peter the Great ; to satisfy the Old Russian party, she re- solved to pursue an aggressive policy in Poland ; the popularity of this policy in Russia ; Catherine showed her intention of interfering in Po- lish afifairs by reinstating Biren in Courland (Jan., 1763); Charles of Saxony, son of the King of Poland, who had been Duke of Courland since 1758, forced to retire (27 Apr., 1763). Attitude of Frederick the Great towards Poland :/^edesired to u nite Royal Prussia to his dominions ; this had been a keynote of Hohenzol- lem policy since the proposal of Frederick I. to Peter the Great to dis- member Poland ^fyir ther, Frederick was afraid that Saxony and Poland might be permanently united, and thus~cbunterbalance the power of Prussia. The attitude of Maria Theresa towards Poland : her determination that Russia and Prussia should not divide Poland without giving her a portion ; she was urged in this direction by her son Joseph II., who had become Emperor in 1765. Condition of Poland : its poverty and bad government under the Saxon kings ; the Roman Catholic majority persecuted the Protestants and the Greek Church ; non-Catholics excluded from sitting in the Diet (1719), and from all political rights (1733). The two parties in Poland : the Pro-Saxon and the Anti-Saxon par- ties ; Louis XV. supported the Pro-Saxon party owing to the marriage of the Dauphin to aSaxon orincess ; the candidature of Conti. Death of Augustus II., King of Poland (5 Oct., 1763) : his death fol- 120 First Partition of Poland » lowed by that of his eldest son (17 Dec, 1763) ; Frederick Augustus, who succeeded as Elector of Saxony, was too young to obtain the throne of Poland. Election of Stanislas Poniatovski (b. 1732, d. '1798) as King of Po- land (7 Sept., 1764), by the influence of Russia and Prussia ; Frederick and Catherine had made a defensive alliance for this purpose, in which they guaranteed the constitutions of Poland and Sweden (11 Apr., 1764). The reign of Stanislas Poniatovski : he endeavored in vain to per- suade the Diet to revoke the decree of 1733, and to admit non-Catholics to office (1766) ; the Confederation of Radom ; the reforms of 1768.: Catherine declared her intention of maintaining the Polish constitutioqi. Opposition to the interference of Russia : formation of the Confedera- tion of Bar (28 Feb., 1769) ; C hoiseul desired to support the Confedera- tion of Bar, an d incited the Turks to att£.ck Russ ia ; the Russians marched against the Confederates of Bar ; resistance of Pulaski ; war between the patriotic Poles and the Russians fighting in the name of King Stanislas (1768-72) ; help sent by Choiseul ; the missions of Taules (1768), Chateaufort (1769), Dumouriez (1770) and Viomesnil (1771); attempt to carry off the King (Nov., 1771); the Confederation of Bar overthrown by Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops. The Russo-Turkish war ; the Turks declared war against Russia (6 Oct., 1768); the Russians conquered Moldavia (1769); Wallachia (1770); and the Crimea (1771); a Russian fleet under Alexis Orlov sailed around into the Mediterranean and incited the Greeks to rebel ; the Turkish fleet destroyed at Tchesme (7-8 July, 1770). Frederick the Great proposed the partition of Poland ; his agreement with the Emperor Joseph II. at Neiss (Aug., 1769); the proposition made to the Tsaritsa Catherine. The negotiations for the partition of Poland (1770-72); a final agree- ment made by the Treaty of St. Petersbui«g (25 July, 1772); the Polish Diet forced to consent to the partition treaty (18 Sept., 1773). By the first partition of Poland : (i) Frederick received Royal Prussia, with the exception of Dantzig and Thorn, thus cpinecting his eastern dominions with Brandenburg ; (2) Maria Theresa received the county of Zips, lyodomeria and Red Russia ; (3) Russia received Polish Livonia Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji, 121 and Lithuania to the east of the Dwina and the Dnieper ; while (4) Stanislas Poniatovski remained ruler of the diminished central district as King of Poland. The respective advantages gained by the three powers in the first partition of Poland. Conclusion of the Russo-Turkish war: campaign of 1773; death of the Sultan. Mustapha III. (25 Dec, 1773); campaign of 1774; victor- ies of the Russians unde r Rumiantsov; Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji (21 July, 1774): the Russians restored Moldavia and Wallachia, but re- tained Azov and Kinburn ; the Tartars of the Crimea declared inde- ^■^ent of Turkey; Russian ships allowed free passage through~lhe j^^rdanelles and on the Danube ; Russia acknowledged as the protector of the Danubian principalities ; the Austrians occupied the Bukovina, which was ceded to them by the Turks (7 May, 1775). Effect of the partition of Poland and of the Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji upon the position of the Tsaritsa Catherine II. Authorities: The best small book on this subject is Sorei, La Question d'Orient au XVIIIidme Siecle. The most important secondary works are Karhf^ Les causes de la chute de la Pologne (Revue Historique, 1891); Saint- Priest, ifetudes diplomatiques, vol. i., Partage de la Pologne; Herrmann, Die oes- terreichisch-preussische AUianz und die TheilungPolens; Beer, Die erste Theilung Polens, and Friedrich II. und Van Swieten ; De Smitt, Frederic II., Catherine et le partage de la Pologne ; Michael, Englands Stellung zur ersten Theilung Polens ; Von der Briiggen, Polens Auflosung ; Schlozer, Friedrich der Grosse und Kath- arina die Zweite ; Janssen, Zur Genesis der ersten Theilung Polens ; Gross- Hofinger, Die Theilung Polens ; Ropell, Polen um die Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhun- derts ; Bfirral, ifetudes sur I'histoire diplomatique de I'Europe ; Bofineville de Marsangy, Le Chevalier de Vergennes, son amhassade a Constantinople, and Broglie, Le secret du Roi. The celebrated work of Rulhih'e, Histoire de I'anarchie de Pologne et du demembrement de cette rdpublique, was left unfinished and only goes to 1770; it was continued in much inferior style by Ferrand, Les trois de- membrements de la Pologne. Among primary authorities see Stanislas Poniatovski, M^moires secretes et intimes, and Correspon dance avec Madame Geoffrin, ed. De Blotiy; Viomesnil, Lettres particulieres sur les affaires de Pologne (1771-2), ed. Grimoar^^umouriez, M^moires, and Angeberg, Recueil des trait^s, conventions, et actes ^H|catiques concernant la Pologne ( 1762-1S62), in addition to the documents in th^Bfciik and the Politische Korrespondenz Friedrich's des Grossen. 122 The War of American Independence. LECTURE 43. THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. Interest taken it? Europe in the struggle of the American colonists for independence: unpopularity of England on the Continent; France and Spain desired to revenge themselves for the humiliations of the Seven Years' War and the Peace of Paris ; Austria v^^as bound to France by the treaty of 1756; Frederick the 'Great of Prussia was disgusted by the way in which he had been deserted by England after the fall of Pitt ; Catherine of Russia was jealous of the commercial pretensions of EMt land; the republican party in the Protestant Netherlands, in its oppHp tion to the House of Orange and to England, desired to help the American colonists. Enthusiasm in France for the cause of American liberty: La Fayette and other volunteers joined Washington (1777); Verg;ennes, Minister of Foreign Affairs in France from 1774, took advantage of this enthusiasm against England; treaty of alliance signed between France and the United States (6 Feb., 1778); Turgot and Necker opposed to war for financial reasons; neglect of the effect which assistance to a republican movement might have in France itself; commencement of war between England and France (June, 1778). Spain commenced war against England (June, 1779); causes for this action; influence of the Pacte de Famille. The position in the United Provinces : war declared by England against the Dutch (20 Dec, 1780). Attitude of the Tsaritsa Catherine: formation of the Armed Neu- trality or Neutral League of the North ; Catherine's declaration (9 Mar., 1280) acceded to by Denmark (9 July 1780), Sweden (i Aug.,. 1780), the Dutch (4 Jan., 1781), ,£russia^i9 May, 1781), Austria (9 Oct., i78i),"PQ^gal (24 July, 1782), and the Two Sicilies (21 Feb., 1783). Complete isolation of England during the War of American Inde- pendence; her internal troubles ; weakness o^^^overnment; danger threatened in Ireland ; England's fall from iWPeat position she had occupied during the ministry of Pitt ; England's only resources her The War of Americajt Indepeyidence, 123 naval eflficiency and wealth ; her naval supremacy threatened by the new French and Spanish navies created by Choiseul and Sartine, by ArandaandX)'Reilly. England's efforts to extend the war against France to Europe, in con- nection with the question of the Bavarian Succession, frustrated by the policy of Vergennes and the Treaty of Teschen (13 May, 1779). Owing to the absence of a base of operations on the Continent, the war was essentially naval. Campaign of 1778: the battle off Ushant between Keppel and D'Or- villiers (27 July); a French fleet under D'Estaing came to the help of the American colonists; Bouille took Dominica (8 Sept.); the English took Saint Lucia (14 Dec.) and Pondicherry (17 Oct.). Campaign of 1779: Spain commenced war and a French and Spanish army and fleet laid siege to Gibraltar ; Eliott's defence of Gibraltar ; D'Estaing took Saint Vincent (19 June) and Grenada (4 July); defeated in an attack on Savannah (9 Oct.); D'Orvilliers with a French and Spanish fleet commanded the Channel, but failed to effect a landing in England; failure of Nassau-Siegen' s expedition against Jersey (i May); the French took Senegal (30 Jan. -6 Mar.), and the English took Goree, on the west coast of Africa; the English took Mahe, in India. Campaign of 1780: Rodney relieved Gibraltar and defeated the Span- iards off Cape Saint Vincent (16 Jan.); Rochambeau arrived in America with a French army; naval battles in the West Indies between De Guichen and Rodney (17 April, 15, 19 May); Haidar Ali overran the Presidency of Madras and asked for French help. Campaign of 1781: Rodney took Saint Eustatia (3 Feb.); Bouille took Tobago (2 June); DeGrasse by sea and Rochambeau on land cooperated with Washington in forcing the surrender of Cornwallis at York town (19 Oct.); battle between the English and Dutch off the Doggerbank (5 Aug.); Bouille took Saint Eustatia (26 Nov.); defeat of Haidar Ali by Eyre Coote at Porto Novo (7 July). Campaign of 1782: the Spaniards took Minorca (5 Feb.); Bouill6 took Saint Kitts (12 Feb.); Rodney (b. 1717, d. 1792) won a great vic- tory over De Grasse (12 Apr.); Howe relieved Gibraltar (18 Oct.); series of battles between De Suffren and Hughes off the coast of India; Bussy took command of a French force in India; death of Haidar Ali (7 Dec). 124 The Treaty of Versailles. General weariness of the war: retirement of Lord North (20 March, 1782); the i^ew English ministry resolved to recognize the independ- ence of the American colonies; preliminaries of peace signed with the United States (30 Nov., 1782), with France and Spain (20 Jan. :^3); signature of the Treaty of Versailles (3 Se^tj,^83), accepted later by the Dutch. Terms of the Treaty of Versailles : England recognized the inde- pendence of the United States, restored Minorca and Florida to Spain, and ceded Tobago and Saint Lucia, Senegal and Goree, to France; the status quo ante bellum restored in India, except that England obtained Negapatam from the Dutch. Results of the War of American Independence : weakening of Eng- land by her colonial losses and the belief that her naval supremacy had gone forever ; increase in the confusion of the finances of France ; spread of a current of opinion favorable to self-government and opposed to monarchy. Foreign policy of the younger Pitt, who had become Prime Minister of England in 1784, during the first years of his administration. Authorities : Stevens, Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European Archives; the Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution ed. Wharton; Franklin, Works ; Adams, Works ; Lecky, History of England in the iSth Century; Mahan, Influence of Sea Power in History; Doniol, Histoire de la participation de la France ^ la liberation des Eitats-TJnis d'Amdrique ; Batchy Les Fran9ais en Am^rique pendant la guerre de I'independance des ifetats-Unis ; Chevalier^ Histoire de la marine fran5aise pendant la guerre de I'independance americaine ; Fauchille, La diplomatie fran^aise et la ligue des neutres de 1780 ; Ber^bohm, Die bewafifnete Neutralitat (1780-3); Andrews, History of the War with America, France, Spain and Holland, in 1775-83 ; Mundy, Life of George, Lord Rodney; Drinkwater, The Three Sieges of Gibraltar ; Sayer, History of Gibraltar, and Malleson, Final French Struggles in India. LECTURE 44. FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XVL Character of Louis XVI. (b. 1754): his attitude towards measures of internal reform ; his interest in naval affairs ; his attitude towards for- The Policy of Vergermes. 125 eign politics ; his personal relations with the Emperor Joseph ; Marie Antoinette (b. 1755); her influence in internal and foreign politics. Ma urepas (b. 1701), Chief Minister (1774-81) ; his character and career; recall of the Parleraents (12 Nov., 1774) ; the colleagues of Maurepas; Vergenne s (1774-87), Foreign Affairs ; Turgot (1774-76), Necker (1776-81), Finances; Saint-Germain (1775-77), M9pthflrrev (1777-80), M arechal deS^g^ur 1 1780-87). War; Sartine (1774-80), Cas- tries (1780-87)7 Marine. The administration of the army : reforms of Saint-Germain ; writings of Guibert ; improvements in organization ; the military schools ; or- ganization of the artillery by Gribeauval ; formation of the general stafif(i783); decree of 22 May, 1781, excluding all but nobles from commissions in the army. The administration of the navy : the vigor of Sartine in ship build- ing ; foundation of Cherbourg (1779) ; the regulations of Castries. The f oreip;n policy of Vergennes (b. 17 17) : his attitude towards / the Span ish and the Austrian alliances . Vergennes and the smaller states of Europe : Vergennes and Sweden ; Vergennes and Italy ; Vergennes and the Turks ; embassies of Saint- Priest (1768-84), and of Choiseul-Gouflfier (1784-92) ; the treaty of 1779 by which the Turks gave free navigation in the Black Sea to the Russians, and the Convention of 1784 by which they recognized the . annexation of the Crimea to Russia. • Vergennes and Russia : joint mediation for the Treaty o f T^grh^n (1779) ; the Armed Neutrality (1780") ; visit of the Grand Duke Paul to Paris (1782) ; the embassy of Segur (1784-89) ; the commercial treaty of 1787 ; Vergennes' attitude towards Joseph II. and Frederick the Great. The part taken by France against England during the War of Amer- ican Independence ; Vergennes induced Spain to commence war against England; gains made by France by the Treaty of Versailles (1783); conclusion of a commercial treaty between England and France (1786). Vergennes and the Dutch : his intervention in the dispute between Joseph II. and United Provinces ; by his mediation the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed (10 Nov., 1875); his attitude in the troubles between the Stadtholder and " the Patriots." 126 Turgot and Necker, Death of Vergennes (13 Feb. 1787); a bility shown bv Verg^ennes. i n rnnrrnjjji^; the rrni wrnVnrnn of Frnnnr ; v^ergennes succeeded as Min- ister for Foreign Affairs by Montmorin. Internal administration during the reign of Louis XVI. : influence of the Court; p^^-tnrrnr^nri" fif Mnrir An toinette : her unpopularity at Court and among the people. The r eforms of Turcot / b. 1727, d. 1781): his previous career and eco- nomic ideas ; his attempts to reform the financial administration ; op- position to his schemes; he established i nternal f|-pf^ traHf^ i n grain (13 Sept., 1774), and attacked all restrictions on freedom of labo r and free- dom of trade ; his decrees replacing the corvee, or forced labor on the roads, by a tax and abolishing guilds passed in spite of the opposition of the Patlement of Paris (12 March, 1776); his desire to o yerthrow the r elics of feudalism and to improve agriculture^ his scheme of national education ; tHe"°work of Malesherbes (1775-76); dismissal of Turgot (13 May, 1776). The financial administration of Necker (b. 1732, d. 1804): his endea- vors to dra3aiLlipAinlance...shaQt>4^~^aace ; his financial methods and proposed reforms ; excitement caused by the publication of the Compte Rendu; dismissal of Necker (19 May, 1781). Attempt at improving l ocal administration ; formation of Eroiiincial Assemblies for Be rrv (1778), Upper Guienne (1779) and the Bourbon- nais(i78o). The financial administrations of Joly de Fleury and D'Ormesson (1781-83). The financial administration of Calonne (b. 1734, d. 1802): his sys- tem of loans ; his propositions for in creased taxation ; increase of the^ deficit; convocation of the Assembly of Notables (1787); first mention of summoning a States- General; dismissal of Calonne (8 April, 1787). Administr a tion of L omenie de Brienne f b. 1727, d. 1794): his struggle with the Parlements ; his measures of reform ; excitement in France at the exile of the Parlements; the Assembly at Vizille (21 July, 1788); promise of a speedy convocation of the States- General; dismissal of Lomenie de Brienne (25 Aug., 1788). Qor^j^^^ o^miticfrafinn nf Mpp1?pf his prepa rations for the elections-t o the States- Gener al; second meeting of the Notables (Nov., 1788). France u?ider Louis XVI. 127 Attitude of the King, Queen and the Court during these years; grow- ing unpopularity of the Queen ; the affair of the Diamond Necklace (1784-85). T t]creasing demand fr>r rpfnrm in Pranrp- general desirc to remodel the administrative system and submit it to some degree of popular con- trol ; the ^anrial rnnrlitinn preHpitnted a politioal ypsis- the King and his ministers looked upon the States-General as a financial expe- dient; the people, as the commencement of political and administrative r^orm. Position of France at home and abroad on the eve of the French Revolution. Authorities : Most histories of the French Revolution begin with a sketch of the reign of Louis XVI. and all studies of the causes of the French Revolution and accounts of the Ancien Regime describe the condition of France during his reign. Of general secondary works, reference may be made to Jobez^ La France sous Louis XVI.; Droz, Histoire du regne de Louis XVI.; Chtrest, La chute de I'ancien regime ; Tratchevsky, La France et TAllemagne sous Louis XVI., and Tocqueville, Coup d'oeil sur le r^gne de Louis XVI. Of a more special character are: Correspondance secrete entre Marie Th^rese et Mercy-Argenteau, ed. Ameth and Geffroy ; Mention, Le comte de Saint-Germain et ses rdformes ; Barral-Mont/errat, Dix ans de paix arm^e cntre la France et I'Angleterre (1783-93); Segur-Diipeyron, Histoire des negociations commerciales et maritimes de la France, vol. iii ; Lord Auckland, Journal and Correspondence ; Foncin, Essai sur le minis- t^re de Turgot ; Neymarck, Turgot et ses doctrines ; Tissot, Etude sur Turgot ; Condorcet, Vie de Turgot ; Necker, CBuvres ; Lavergne, Les Assemblees provin- ciales sous Louis XVL, and Lominie, Beaumarchais et sou temps ; La Rocheterie, Histoire de Marie Antoinette ; Campardon, Marie Antoinette et le proc^ du collier ; Renke, Louis XVL et sa cour ; Louis XVL, Journal, ed. Nicolardot, and Lanzac de Laborie, Jean Jacques Mounier. Among primary authorities see the Memoires of Besenval, Weber, Augeard, Madame Campan, Montbarrey, Sigur an^ Th iiba7ilt, dindi the Souvenirs of D' Hezecques. LECTURE 45. Prussia under Frederick the great. Ruined condition of the dominions of Frederick the Great after the close of the Seven Years' War. 128 Frederick the Great. The internal administration of Frederick: his measures for restoring prosperity ; paternal government ; Frederick's attitude towards agri- culture, manufactures and commerce ; his attempt to improve farming; distribution of seeds and introduction of the potato ; his encouragement of colonists ; establishment of ' ' land-banks ' ' ; his East India Com- pany ; Frederick regarded the material prosperity of his people as the chief end of the administration. Frederick's conception of monarchy : his understanding of the " Aufgeklarte Despotismus " ; he held that his absolutism could be justified only by earnest work for the good of his people. The administrative machinery created by Frederick the Great : fol- lowing his father's example, he confided the administration to a bureau- cracy composed of men of the middle class and dependent entirely upon himself; comparison between the French and the Prussian bureau- cracies : the former hindered, while the latter promoted, general pros- perity at the close of the i8th century, because Prussia was more back- ward in civilization than France. Frederick the Great's attitude towards his nobility : he employed no- bles in the army rather than in the civil service, and formed them into a military caste. Frederick the Great and serfdom : he maintained the authority of the nobles upon their estates as part of the compensation for excluding them from political power and as an inducement to them to continue their services in the army ; but he endeavored to abolish or reduce the harsh- ness of serfdom on the royal domains. Frederick the Great and the Prussian army : he perceived that the very existence of Prussia depended upon the efiiciency of the army ; he therefore devoted his attention to the maintenance of a standing army of 200,000 men, a force disproportionate to the size and population of his dominions ; the excellence and the weakness of the Prussian army dur- ing the latter years of Frederick's reign ; his camps of exercise ; perfec- tion of drill and discipline maintained in the Prussian army ; Frederick's system imitated in other countries. Admiration felt in Germany for the administrative and military sys- tem of Frederick the Great ; he was thus enabled to draw upon the whole of Germany for able servants, and the Prussian idea of govern- ment penetrated beyond the borders of Prussia. Frederick the Great. 129 Contrast between the absolutism of Louis XIV. of France and of Frederick the Great of Prussia : Louis X^Vj. said, "I am the State "; Frederick the Great said, " I am the first servant of the State". Frederick the Great considered as a typical enlightened despot of the i8th century: (i) his great public works, as the making of canals and roads, the draining of marshes and the improvement of Berlin ; (2) his endeavors to simplify and codify the system of laws in the Codex Fre- dericiana, the work of the Chancellor Cocceji ; (3) he discouraged all idea of local or municipal self-government ; (4) he insisted upon abso- lute toleration of religious worship while ready to pose as the protector of Protestantism ; (5) he established a system of compulsory primary- education. Frederick the Great differed from the other enlightened despots in his neglect of national higher education and in his refusal to adopt sound economic ideas in collecting his revenue ; no general advance in intel- lectual development or in material prosperity is therefore to be per- ceived during his reign. The foreign policy of Frederick the Great may be considered as national and as German ; after the close of the Seven Years' War he abandoned* all hope of a close alliance with England and entered into intimate re- lations with Catherine II. of Russia ; with her help he carried out the first partition of Poland, and thus united Prussia with Brandenburg territorially; close alliance with Russia the keynote of Frederick the Great's later national policy ; Frederick the Great joined the Armed Neutrality started by the Tsaritsa Catherine against England ( 1781). Frederick the Great's German policy : his relations with Maria Theresa and the Emperor Joseph II. ; the War of the Bavarian Succes- sion, or " Potato War "; on the death of Maximilian Joseph, Elector of Bavaria (30 Dec, 1777), the succession passed to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore, who was induced to cede eastern Bavaria to Austria in return for a guarantee of the rest ; Frederick the Great intervened, basing his interference on the rights of the Princes of the Empire ; a Prussian army invaded Bohemia (1778), but no battle took place ; France, engaged in the War of American Independence against Eng- land, declined to interfere to help Austria, and eventually, under the mediation of France and Russia, the Bavarian question was settled by the Treaty of Teschen (13 May, 1779). 130 Frederick the Great. By the Treaty of Teschen, Charles, Duke of Zweibriicken, or Deux- Ponts, was recognized as heir to both the electorates of the childless Charles Theodore ; Austria received the district between Passau and Salzburg, called " the Quarter of the Inn "; the Elector of Saxony was was given 6,000,000 florins ; while Frederick the Great was guaranteed the succession to Anspach and Baireuth. The schemes of Joseph II. upon Bavaria induced Fre -erick the Great at the close of his reign oncg more to stand forth as defender of the rights of the Empire ; Joseph II. proposed to cede the Catholic Nether- lands to Charles Theodore in exchange for Bavaria ; to thwart this scheme Frederick the Great in 1785 formed the Fiirstenbund, or League of Princes, for the maintenance of the constitution of the Empire as established by the Treaties of Westphalia ; Joseph II. forced to abandon his scheme. Death of Frederick the Great (17 Aug., 1786). Extension of the Hohenzollern dominions during his reign ; annexa- tion of Silesia (1742) ; succession to East Friesland (1744) under a grant of the Emperor Joseph I. to Frederick I., and acquirement of Royal Prussia at the first partition of Poland (1773). Increase of the power of Prussia during his reign ; Prussia ceased to be merely a German state and became an European power. Prussia was, after the battle of Rossbach, the state to which be- lievers in the unity of Germany looked for inspiration and guidance. Character of Frederick the Great : he was the typical monarch of the i8th as Louis XIV. was of the 17th century. Authorities: For the internal development of Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great, see the general works by Berner, Stenzel, Droysen, Ranke^ Philippson and Cavaignac, cited under Lecture 36, with the special works on Frederick by Koser and others, cited under Lectures yj, 38, 39 and 41, and Oncken, Das Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen ; Lavisse, :fetudes sur I'histoire de ?russe ; Reimann, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen. On his idministration see Bornhak, Isaacsohn, Stadelmaun, vol. ii, cited under Lecture 36 ; Griinhagen, Schlesien unter Friedrich den Grossen ; Grilnberg^ Die Bauernbe- freiung in Bohmen, Mahren, und Schlesien ; Bornhak, Die Bauernbefreiung und die Gutsherrlichkeit in Preussen ; Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung und der Ursprnng der Landarbeiter in den alteren Theilen Preussens : Trendelenburg, Friedrich der Grosse und sein Grosskanzler Samuel vonCocceji; Holtze, Geschichte des Kammer- Catherine the Great, 131 \ gerichts in Brandenburg-Preussen, and Ring, Asiatische Handlungscompagnien Friedrichs des Grossen. The primary authorities are Frederick's own Worka, his Politische Korrespondenz, ed. Koser, etc., and the State Papers published by the Prussian government. For his latter years see Reimantiy Gcschichte des Bairischen Erbfolgekrieges ; Beer, Zur Geschichte des Bairischen Erbfolgekrieges (Historische Zeitschrift, vol. xxxv.); Saint-Priest, ifetudes diplomatiques, vol. i. Le Congr^s de Teschen ; Taysen, Die militarische Thatigkeit Friedrichs des Gros- sen wahrend seines letzten Lebensjahres ; Ranke, Die Deutschen Miichte und der Fiirstenbund (in his Werke, vols, xxxi, xxxii); G. IVoif, CEsterreich und Preussen, 1780-90 ; Schmidt, Geschichte der Preussisch-Deutschen Unionsbestrebungen ; Erdmannsdorffer, Aus den Zeiten des Deutschen Fiirstenbundes, and C. W. von Dohm, DenkwUrdigkeiten, and Uber den Deutschen Fiirstenbund. For his per- sonality, see in addition to Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great ; Lavisse, La jeunesse du grand Fr6d^ric, and Le grand Frederic avant I'av^nement ; Rigollot^ Fr^d^ric II., philosophe ; Zeller, Friedrich der Grosse als Philosoph ; Cauer, Friedrichs des Grossen Gedanken liber die furstliche Gewalt ; Thiebault, Mes souvenirs de vingt ans de s6jour a Berlin ; Margravine of Baireuth, Memoirs ; Pollniiz, Memoirs ; De Catt, Memoiren, ed. Koser, and Desnoiresterres, Voltaire et Fr^ddric II. For a contemporary account of the actual condition of Prussia and the working of the government, see Mirabeau ( and Mauvillon), Dela Monarchic prussienne sous Frederic le Grand. LECTURE 46. RUSSIA UNDER CATHERINE THE GREAT. Catherine the Great's administration of the Russian Empire : she fol- lowed the ideas of Peter the Great in ruling through a bureaucratic sj'S* tem entirely dependent upon the will of the ruler and consisting chiefly of foreigners, but she preserved the attachment of the Russian people by meeting the national wishes for territorial expansion. Catherine summoned an assembly from all parts and all classes of the Empire to draw up a code of laws (1766-68), but Russia was not suflS- ciently advanced in civilization for such a benefit. Catherine's reforms in internal administration : the Empire divided into forty-four governments, in the place of the eight of Peter the 132 Catherine the Great. Great ; subdivision into districts ; the assemblies of the nobility ; lib- eral treatment of the towns, which were given muncipal independence ; formation of courts of justice for the nobles, the bourgeois and the free peasants in each district and government, with final appeal to the Sen- ate ; resumption of the lands and serfs of the Church, the profits from which, after paym^fit^'The^monks, were used for educational and charitable purposes ; general religious tolerance shown even to Muham- madans and Jesuits. Catherine's great public works : she made canals and improved agri- culture and means of communication ; she encouraged commerce and manufactures ; her commercial treaties with England and France ; establishment of German colonies ; foundation of new cities. Catherine and the intellectual development of Russia : she founded the Russian Acadv:imy (1783) and encouraged foreigners to visit and describe her country ; like Frederick the Great, she kept in touch with the intellectual movement of Western Europe ; her friendship with Diderot and correspondence With Grimm. Attitude of Catherine towards serfdom : she endeavored to regulate but not abolish it ; she forbade the public sale of serfs or the separation of families ; the case of Daria Soltikov. Catherine's method of government : she kept the direction of affairs in her own hands ; her diligence and insight ; her attitude towards her ministers and her lovers. Catherine and her Court : she made use of her discarded lovers in the management of affairs ; the importance of the Orlovs (1762-72), and of Potemkin (1774-76) ; her wisdom in selecting her lovers from among the Russians and not from foreigners ; her last lover, Zubov (1789-96). Catherine's zeal in carrying out the plans of Peter the Great and in fulfilling the ambitions of the Russian people in foreign politics kept the Russians, and even the members of the Old Russian party, faithful to her in spite of her being a German and of her maintenance of West- ern ideas ; her adherence to Russian ideals necessary for the mainten- ance of her power. The foreign policy of Catherine the Great (1762-80) marked by alli- ances with England and Prussia ; treaty of commerce with England (1766) ; the administration of Panin ; the partition of Poland (1773), Catherine the Great. 133 and first Turkish war (1768-74) ; Catherine remained on good terms with Frederick the Great, and expected the assistance of Prussia in the further partition of Poland, but she began to look to Austria for as- sistance in the final overthrow of the Turks. Catherine and Germany : first interference of Russia in a purely Ger- man matter at the time of the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778) ; Catherine declared for the maintenance of the rights of the Princes of the Empire ; her joint mediation with France brought about the Treaty of Teschen (13 May, 1779). Catherine's change of attitude towards England and France ; the Armed Neutrality (1780) ; administration of foreign affairs entrusted to Bezborodko (1781) ; the embassy of Segur (1784-89) ; treaty of com- merce with France (1787). Catherine and Joseph II. : the interview at Mohilev (May, 1780); Catherine, believing the Turkish question more pressing than the Po- lish question, entered into a close alliance with Austria ; Joseph II. agreed, in the hope of separating Russia from Prussia ; gradual alien- ation of Catherine from Prussia ; effect of the death of Frederick the Great (1786). The policy of Potemkin (b. 1736, d. 1791): after being the lover of Catherine from 1774 to 1776, he became her chief executive agent and practically independent ruler of southern Russia; he desired to overthrow the Turks and conquer Constantinople ; the Turks, by the intervention of Vergennes, permitted the Russians free navigation in the Black Sea (1779). Potemkin put down the rising of Cossacks and Tartars under Pugatchev (1774), and in 1783 conquered the Crimea, which had been declared an independent state by the Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji ; the annexation of the Crimea to Russia recognized by the Turkish Sul- tan, through the influence of the French ambassador at Constantinople (11 Jan. 1784); Catherine's famous journey to the Crimea (1787); Catherine proposed a Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Austria , France and Spain . ^ "" ' The Turks declared war against Russia (16 Aug., 1787); Joseph II. came to the help of Russia (9 Feb., 1788). Campaign of 1787 : Suvorov (b. 1729, d. 1800) repulsed the Turkish attack on the Crimea. v^.^*^ 1^4 The Russo-Turkish War^ iy8j-g^. Campaign of 1788 : the Austrians under Loudon took Dubitza and Novi-Bazar (3 Oct.), and under Coburg, with the help of the Russians, occupied Moldavia and took Choczim (19 Sept); defeat and flight of the Austrian army commanded by the Kmperor Joseph (14, 20 Sept.); the Russians under Potemkin and Suvorov stormed Ochakov (17 Dec); Pitt prepared an English fleet ; Gustavus III. of Sweden declared war against Russia and invaded Russian Finland (July). Campaign of 1789 : death of the Sultan Abdul Hamid I. and acces- sion of Selim III. (7 Apr.); the Turks defeated by the Austrians and Russians under Coburg and Suvorov at Foksany (i August) and on the Rymnik (22 Sept.); the Austrians under Loudon took Belgrade (9 Oct.) and under Coburg took Bucharest; the Russians under Po- temkin defeated the Turks at Tobac and took Bender (14 Nov.); the Russian fleet under Nassau- Siege^defeated the Swedes (24 Aug.). Campaign of 1790 : Clerfayi took Orsova (16 Apr.) and defeated the Turks at Kalafat (26 June); armistice was made between the Austrians and Turks at Giurgevo (19 Sept.); the Russian fleet defeated by the Swedes at Svenska Sound (28 June), and the Treaty of Verela signed betw^een Sweden and Russia (14 Aug.); the Russians under Suvorov stormed Ismail (22 Dec). Campaign of 1791 : the Austrians made peace with the Turks at Sistova (4 Aug.); Catherine continued the war alone; the Russians under Repnin defeated the Turks at Matchin (9 July); negotiations for peace ; death of Potemkin (16 Oct., 1791). By the Treaty of Jassy (9 Jan., 1792), peace was made between Russia and the Turks, by which Russia retained Ochakov and the coast line between the mouths of the Bug and the JQniester;- Political history of the war with the Turks ; the Swedish war ; the \^ attitude of Frederick William II. of Prussia, and of England under Pitt; ^^' the ' ' Russ ian Armame nt ' ' ; change in the position of affairs caused by the deatK^f Joseph II. and the accession of Leopold II. (1790) ; Cath- erine made peace with the Turks in order to h ave he r bands frpe to deal with Poland. -> v^-^ V -- ^Av-- ^^ 7.^^^^^:'^^(^'^.>x.-^ Importance of Catherine's foreign policy in maintaining her position in Russia ; she brought Russia forward more prominently as a Euro- pean power ; changing phases of the Eastern question. Maria Theresa. 135 Catherine's claim to be considered one of the typical enlightened des- pots of the i8th century ; her difficulties and advantages. Authorities : For short accounts of the reign of Catherine s^^Morfill, Story of Russia, and Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie, translated by Lang ; and, for a lively account of her personality and life, IValiszewski, Le roman d'une iraperatrice, and Autour d'un trone. A good small book in English is Spalding; Suv6roflF. Among secondary works should be noticed, in addition to those cited under Lecture 41, Bruckner^ Katharina die Zweite ; Bilbassoff, Geschichte Katharina II., and Herrmann, Geschichte des russischen Staates; also D' Aragon, Le Prince Charles de Nassau-Siegen (1784-89). Of primary author itieSy Sigur, Md- moires ; Malmcsbiiry, Diaries and Correspondence ; Ameth, Joseph II. und Kath- arina von Russland : ihr Briefwechsel ; Catherine^ Correspondance avec Grimm, are most accessible ; Beer, Die oiientalische Politik CBsterreichs seit 1774, analyzes the policy of Austria during the latter part of Catherine's reign, and the Turkish side can be read in Von Hammer, Histoire de I'empire ottoman, and Zinkeisen^ Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs. The documents relating to the reign of Catherine, published in the Sbornik, are numerous and important, and a full bibli- ography of works on the period is contained in Bilbassoff^ Katharina II., Kaiserin vou Russland, im Urtheile der Weltliteratur, 2 vols. LECTURE 47. -^^^ ao THE EMPEROR JOSEPH IL The administration of the Austrian dominions under Maria Theresa : her maintenance and even encouragement of local liberties and local self-government so long as they did not interfere with the ascendancy of 4:he Catholic Church ; for this reason the Catholic Netherlands and the Milanese were given greater independence than Bohemia, where Czech ideas were identified with Protestantism; contentment of the scat- tered provinces of the House of Hapsburg under the rule of Maria Theresa ; personal admiration and enthusiasm felt for her character ; attempt to substitute dynastic for national loyalty. f The conservatism of Maria Theresa in administration : progress of centralization ; her husband, the Emperor Francis, aided by Kinsky, Chotek and Haugwitz, regulated the finances; abolition of exemptions 136 Ma via Theresa . from taxa tion; Kaunitz managed foreign affairs; organization and en- couragement of education; improvement of the condition of the serfs on the royal domain; attempt made to codify the laws; encouragement of foreign commerce; revival of the Ostend Company with Trieste for its headquarters (1759). Foreign policy of Maria Theresa: her hatred of Frederick the Great; the Austro- French alliance ; its results for Austria; her share in the partition of Poland; her Italian policy; she made use of her family to support Austrian influence abroad; thus her second son, lyCOpold, be- came Grand Duke of Tuscany; the third, Ferdinand, Governor-General of lyombardy and by marriage heir to the duchy of Modena; the fourth, Maximilian Elector- Archbishop of Cologne; while of her daughters Maria Carolina married Ferdinand IV., King of Naples and Sicily; Maria Amelia, Don Ferdinand IV., Duke of Parma; Marie Antoinette, Louis XVI. of France ; and Maria Christina, Albert, Duke of Saxe- Teschen, third son of Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland, through whom she governed the Austrian Netherlands. (See Appendix VII.) On the death of the Emperor Francis I. (18 Aug., 1765) his eldest son, Joseph II., was elected Emperor, while his second son, the Arch- duke Leopold, succeeded him as Grand Duke of Tuscany. Character and training of Joseph II. : for fifteen years he held the posi- tion of Emperor without being ruler of the Austrian dominions ; diffi- culties of this position ; his endeavors to make the power of the Emperor more of a reality ; his interference in foreign affairs ; his admiration for Frederick the Great followed by a still greater admira- tion for the Tsaritsa Catherine ; his share in the first partition of Po- land and in the War of the Bavarian Succession. Death of Maria Theresa (29 Nov., 1780) and accession of Joseph II. to the Austrian dominions. The Emperor Joseph II. in many wnys the most typical of the en- lightened despots ; his personality ; his ardent desire to improve the condition of his people ; the three vices which led to the failure of his schemes for reform : (i) his desire to do every thing yi7r the people and not by the people ; (2) his wish to weld the Austrian dominions into a homogeneous realm like France, or an administrative entity like Prussia and Russia ; (3) the rapidity with which he forced his reforms on the people without any preparation. Joseph II. IT,'] Joseph II. 's national reforms : his attempts to unify and centralize the administration ; he made German the official language in the home dominions of the House of Hapsburg ; he endeavored to destroy all local franchises and to establish the same system throughout his dominions ; his efforts for administrative and judicial unity and regularity ; he divided his dominions into thirteen governments, subdivided into cir- cles ; in each government he established a court of justice with two chambers, one for the nobility and one for the bourgeoisie ; in each circle there was appointed an official to execute justice and protect the peasants. Joseph II. 's religious reforms : he issued an edict of toleration, per- mitting freedom of thought and worship (1781) ; the visitj of Pop e Pius VI. to Vienna (1782) ; Joseph II. suppressed numerous convents and religioiis^rders, and endeavored to reform the administration of the Church ; he freed the Jews from their disabilities and permitted them to e nter the army ; he endeavored to make education secular and to take it out of the hands of the Church. 1 *" 'ru^ ^ 2. *-v-t. ^ i «-trv« >v^v>^ ^ Joseph II. 's attack upon infringements of personal liberty : he abol- ished serfdom in Bohemia (1781), in Carinthia, Carniola and the Breis- gau (1782), and in Hungary (22 Aug., 1785), and inaugurated a system for removing feudal burdens and forced labor ; he abolished all guilds — and corporations interfering with freedom of labor. Joseph II. 's efforts to improve the intellectual condition of his peo- ple : he established a system of primary education and freed the press from the censorship (178 1). Joseph II. 's encouragement of public works and improvement of means of communication." T c-v>. y •-— ^^ '*-'*-~^— Joseph II. 's encouragement of trade and commerce : his endeavors to obtain from the Dutch the freedom of the River Scheldt. Joseph II.'s fiscal reforms : his endeavors to introduce the physiocratic principles of taxation. ^ lAA vx*>^b^v>v^6^W* The result of Joseph 11.^ reforms was to rouse discontent and even rebellion throughout his dominions ; che Hungarian magnates were dis- gusted at his freeing the serfs and all the Magyars at his attempts at Germanization ; the Czechs in Bohemia Avere apprehensive that his re- forms would crush them further ; the Tyrolese were in a ferment at his 138 Joseph II. measures against the Church, and the Belgians were forced into open rebellion, both by his interference with their local government and by his measures against the Catholic Church. In spite of the seething discontent in his own doinmions, Joseph II. pursued an active German and foreign policy. The German policy of Joseph II.: he endeavored to make the Em- pire a reality; fears of the German princes at this action ; his attempt to create a German Church practically independent of the Papacy; the suspicion created that his German policy was to promote only the power of Austria heightened by his proposal to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria ; this scheme thwarted b}^ the formation of the Fiirstenbund by Frederick the Great (1785). Joseph II's Dutch policy: he endeavored, while the Protestant Neth- erlands were torn by the struggle between the Stadtholder and the ** Patriots," to induce the Dutch to give up the barrier fortresses and to free the Scheldt to commerce ; by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (10 Nov., 1785) the barrier fortresses, which Joseph had seized in 1781-82, were confirmed to him by the mediation of France, but the closing of the Scheldt was maintained ; effect of Joseph II. 's Dutch policy on England ; it led to the hearty support of the House of Orange and indirectly to the formation of the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia and the United Provinces (1788). Joseph II. 's Russian policy: his admiration for the Tsaritsa Cath- erine led him to engage, while bis dominions were in almost open in- surrection, in war_with_the_Turks. fl^^M^ S*"^"" ^^^'^^ '"cft-^^wUt Position of the Eastern Question during the reign of Joseph II.: attitude of the Triple Alliance towards the schemes of Joseph and /. , ..--..--.- >| / Catherine. »r^^^^ V / Importance of the reisrn of Joseph II.'T liis activi i Importance of the reign of Joseph Wr. his activity and endeavor 10 promote internal reforms contrasted with the attitude taken in France by his brother-in-law, Louis XVI. - -v^ ^^^"^i^^^^jT^ - tn. A., n>-^. -'^rrar^^ Authorities: The best small bdoks'in English are Bright, Maria Theresa, and Bright, Joseph II. Among secondary works on the period are A. IVo/f and Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst, CE'^terreich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold II., and Beidtel, Geschichte der oesterreichischeu Staatsverwaltung, vol. i, 1740- 92. On the policy and government of Maria Theresa see the books cited under Lee- Joseph II. 139 ture 37, especially Ameth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, 10 vols ; A. Wolf, CEster- reich unter Maria Theresia, with Plot, Le regne de Marie Th^rese dans les Pays-Baa autrichiens ; A/eyneri, Kaiser Franz. I., and the invaluable collections of letters con- tained in Ameth, Maria Theresia und Joseph II.: Ihre Correspondenz sammt Bricfen Joseph's an seiuem Bruder Leopold, 3 vols, and Briefe der Kaiserin MariaTheresia an ihre Kinder und Freunde, and in Arneth and Geffroy, Correspondance secrete entre Marie Th^rese et le Comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec les lettres de Marie Thdr^se et de Marie Antoinette. For the reign of Joseph II. see Huber, Geschichte Josephs II.; Gross-Hoffinger, Lebens und Regierungsgeschichte Josephs II.; Paganel, His- toire de Joseph II.; Von Hock and Bidennatm, Der CEsterreichische Staatsrath (1760-1848); G. Wolf, CEsterreich und Preussen, 1 780-1 790, Das Unter richtswesen in CEsterreich unter Josef II., and Josefiua ; Ranisfiorn, Kaiser Joseph II. und seine Zeit ; Meynert, Kaiser Joseph II. ; IVendritisky, Kaiser Josef II. ; Jdger, Kaiser Joseph II. und Leopold II., Reform und Gegenreform ; Ritter, Kaiser Joseph II. und seine kirchlichen Reformen ; Zieglauer von Blumenthal, Die politische Reforrabcwegung in Siebenburgen zur Zeit Josefs II. und Leopolds IL; ^ra«^, Das Toleranz-Patent Kaiser Joseph II. ; Gachard, Etudes sur I'histoire des Pays-Bas, vols, ii, iii ; Hubert, De Charles-Quint a Joseph IJ., ^tude sur la condition des Protestants en Belgique, ^dit de tolerance de 1781 ; Schlitier, Die Reise des Papstes Pius VI. nach Wien (Pontes rerum Austriacarum, vol. xlvii); Beer, Die orieutalische Politik CEsterreichs seit 1774; Lindtier, Die Auf- hebung der Kloster in Deutsch-Tirol, 1782-87; A. Wolf, Die Aufhebung der Kloster in Inner-oestcrreich, 1782-90; Lustkandl, Die Josephinischen Ideen und ihr Erfolg, and Brunn^r, Joseph II. : Charakteristik seines Lebens, seiner Regierung, und seiner Kirchen reform. For this reign there are also several invaluable collec- tions of letters : Arneth, Joseph II. und Leopold von Toscana : Ihr Briefwechsel von 1781-90; Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland : Ihr Briefwechsel; and Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II.: Ihr Briefwechsel; Arneth and Flammermont, Correspondance secrete du Comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec I'em- pereur Joseph II. et le prince de Kaunitz ; Beer, Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz ; Ihr Briefwechsel, and Brunner, Correspondances intimes de I'cmpereur Joseph II. avec le comte de Cobenzl et le prince de Kaunitz. LECTURE 48. THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1789. Condition of the Protestant Netherlands during the i8th century : their commercial and financial prosperity, but decline of their naval and 140 The Dutch Revolutmi {lySd-Sy). military power ; the two parties — the Republican burghers and the sup- porters of the House of Orange ; the French invasion caused William IV. of Orange to be declared hereditary Stadtholder (1747) ; William IV., and, after his death (i 751), his widow, Anne of England, daugh- ter of George II., to 1759, and lyouis Ernest of Brunswick to 1766, pursued a policy of close alliance with England, but remained neutral /uring the Seven Years' War. William V. (b. 1748) undertook the Stadtholderate in 1766, but Eouis of Brunswick remained his chief adviser; growth of the " Patriot " party, which embraced the doctrines of the French writers, and was opposed to the semi-royal authority 'of the Stadtholder and the oligarchical power of the burghers ; this party, especially in Holland, desired to help the insurgents in America, while commercial interests caused the adhesion of the Dutch to the principles of the Armed Neutrality ; their conduct caused England to declare war (1780) ; by the Treaty of Versailles the Dutch ceded Negapatam, their chief factory in India, to England. \ •The Dutch Revolution : William V. accused of favoring the English during the war ; Louis of Brunswick forced to resign (1784) ; riots in the cities ; William V. driven from the Hague (1785) ; the Dutch " Pa- triots " appealed for help to France ; excitement in the cities ; insurrec- tion of the provinces of Holland and Utrecht against the Stadtholder (1786-87) ; Vergennes, and after him Montmorin, afraid to send regular troops for fear of renewing the war with England, but permitted the raising of a body of French volunteers, the Legion of Maillebois. / Pitt resolved to restore the power of the Stadtholder : Wilhelmina, Princess of Orange, arrested by the " Patriots " (28 June, 1787) ; Har- ris, afterwards Lord Malmesbury (b. 1746, d. 1820), induced Frederick William II. of Prussia to restore his brother-in-law, William V. ; a Prussian army under Charles William Ferdinand. Duke of Brunswick (b. 1735, d. 1806) occupied Amsterdam (10 Sept., 1787) ; the " Patriot " leaders exiled ; Van de Spiegel made Grand Pensionary ; Malmesbury concluded the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia and the United / Provinces (15 April, 1788). ' History' of Denmark and Norway during the i8th century : growth of commercial prosperity, and literary and scientific development, under the autocracy of enlightened kings and ministers ; struggle between Denmark in the i8th Century, 14I G erma nizing and national ten the massacre of the Champ de Mars (17 July, 1791); the Manifesto of Padua issued by the Emperor Leopold (6 July); the Declaration^of Pilnitz, signed by the Emperor Leopold and Frederick William II. of Prussia, threatening France (27 Aug.); the Constitution of 1791 accepted by Louis XVI.; dissolution of the Constituent Assembly (21 Sept.). Growth of public opinion : means of influencing it ; importance of the newspaper press ; the journalists ; Marat (b. 1744, d. 1793),' Camilla Desmoulins (b. 1762, d. 1794), and Loustalot (b. 1762, d. 1790); im- portance of the clubs ; the Jacobin Club ; the Cordeliers Club ; the provincial clubs. The Municipality or Commune of Paris. The Legislative Assembly : influence of the Girondin orators ; their war policy; Brissot (b. 1754, d. 1793); their decrees against the emigres; Louis XVI. 's demands of the Rhenish Electors ; French armies raised and diiected to the frontier under Rochambeau, La Fayette and Liick- ner ; debates on the expediency of war with Austria in the Legislative Assembly and in the Jacobin Club ; declared opposition to the alliance with Austria ; attitude of the Emperor Leopold ; his death ( i Marc h 164 The French Revolution. 1792); v/ar declared by France against Austria (20 Apr., 1792); the policy of Dumouriez (b. 1739, d. 1823); position of I^ouis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. Europe and the French Revolution : contemptuous views originally held by foreign rulers who believed that the Revolution would destroy the position of France among the nations ; apprehension felt, as time went on, in the states bordering on France of the contagion of demo- cratic principles ; admiration at first felt in England for the French Revolution ; effect of Burke's writings ; attitude towards the French Revolution of the Tsaritsa Catherine, Frederick William II. of Prussia, and Gustavus III. of Sweden. Effect of the outbreak of war en the development and internal his- tory of the French Revolution. Authorities : The best small books on the French Revolution are Mignet, Histoire de la Revolution fran^aise, translated into Knglish ; Carnot, La Revolu- tion fran^aise ; and B. M. Gardiner, The French Revolution ; Morse Stephens, Europe, 1789-1815, lays special weight on the European relations of the Revolu- tion. Among secondary histories, Carlyle, The French Revolution, is a prose epic but not a trustworthy history ; MicheleVs history is likewise rather a rhapsody than a history ; Louis Blanc and Thiers are out of date ; Taine, La Revolution, is able and interesting, but prejudiced ; Morse Stephens^ History of the French Revo- lution, vol. I (1789-91), vol. 2 (1791-1793) is an attempt to summarize the latest authorities. Among secondary works of a special character may be noted ; for the elections to the States- General, Chassin^ Le gdnie de la Revolution; for the cahiers. Champion, La France de 1789 d' apres les cahiers ; for Mirabeau, Lominie, Les Mirabeau, 5 vols., MezQres,W\e de Mirabeau, and Stern, Das Leben Mirabeaus ; for the financial history, Stourm, Les finances de I'Ancien Regime et de la Revolu- tion ; for the ecclesiastical history, Sciout, Histoire de la constitution civile du clerge ; for the army, Duruy, L'arm^e royale en 1789, lung, Dubois-Cranc6, and Maire, Histoire de Tafifaire de Nancy ; for the flight to Varennes, Fournel, L'evenement de Varennes, and Br owning, "Da^ Flight to Varennes ; and for a careful and modern sketch of the statesmen of the period, Aulard, Les Orateurs de I'Assemblee Constituante, and Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention. Numerous volumes on the Revolution in the provinces have been published, among which may be noted Seilhac, Scenes et portraits de la Revolution en Bas-Limousin, Desmasures, Histoire de la Revolution dans le department de I'Aisne. Bouvier, Les Vosges pendant la Revolution, Lecesne, Arras sous la '^€yo\vX\ou, Babeau, Troyes pendant la Revolution, and the numerous volumes on Auvergne published by Mege. Upon the foreign policy of the Revolution and the relations of Revolu- The French Revolution, 165 tionary France with Europe all earlier books have been superseded by Sorely L' Europe et la Revolution fran^aise ; but reference may also be made to Sybel. Geschichte der Revolutionszeit von 1789 bis 1800, 5 vols., of which the first 3 vols, have been translated into English by Perry. With regard to primary authori- ties, notice must first be taken of such contemporary histories as Rabaut Saint- ^iienne^ Precis historique de la Revolution fran9aise, Lameth, Histoire de I'Assem- blde constituante, ''Deux Amis^\ Histoire de la Revolution fraujaise, and of the files of contemporary newspapers, especially the Mo7iiteur^ of which a reprint was published in 1850. Many valuable collections of documents, very carefully edited, have recently been published at the expense of the French government, of the municipality of Paris, etc., among which should be noted the Archives Par- lementaires ed. Mavidal and Laurent ; Recueil des actes relatifs k la convocation des Etats G^ndraux de 1789, ed. Brette ; Assembl^e ^lectorale de Paris, ed. Chata- vay ; I^cs Elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789, ed. Chassin, and La Soci^te des Jacobins, ed. Aulard. Many documents of value have likewise been published by the Societe de V histoire de la Revolution fran^aise, and by the Societe d' histoire contemporaine, and have appeared in the special periodicals devoted to Revolu- tionary History, namely the Revue de la Revolution, which came to an end in 1889, and the Revolution Frangaise^ ed. Aulard, which is still in course of publication. Numerous memoirs have been published in the collections edited by Berville and Barri^re, and by Barriire and Lescure, among which may be specially noted those of Baillyy Bouille^ Ferrit^res, Brissot and Weber ; not published in these collec- tions may be noted the Mdmoires oi Malouet, Mallet du Pan, Beugnot and Bertrand de Moleville. Of primary importance for Mirabeau's policy is his Correspondance avec La Marck, ed. Bacourt. Mirabeau's most important speeches have been pub- lished in Morse Stephens, Orators of the French Revolution. For the attitude of foreign countries towards the French Revolution, see in addi- tion to Sorel, Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France ; Mackintosh, Vin- diciae Gallicse ; Romilly, Memoirs; Gower, Despatches from Paris 1790-92. e«^ Browning; Jefferson, Writings, ed Ford and Memoir, Correspondence and Mis cellanies, ed. Randolph; Couvern/ ur Morris, Mettiorial, and Diary and Lt-tters ; Geffroy, Gustaye IH. et la cour de France, and Larivi^re, Catherine H. et la Revo- lution fran^aise. LECTURE 55. THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION, AND THE POLICY OF THE EMPEROR LEOPOLD IL The extent of insurrectionary feeling in the Austrian dominions in 1789 : contrast between the popular movements in the Austrian do- minions and in France ; causes of this contrast. c 1 66 The Belgian Revolution. The opposition to the policy of Joseph II. reached its height in the Austrian Netherlands. The Belgian Revolution of 1789 : Maria Theresa's government of the Austrian Netherlands ; the administrations of Charles of Lorraine (1744-81) and of the Archduchess Maria Christina (1781-93); Joseph's policy in the Austrian Netherlands; he enraged the Belgians, (i) by his political measures infringing their local liberties and rights of local self-government ; (2) by his religious policy and attempts to introduce secular education ; the clerical opposition led by Cardinal Frankenberg, Archbishop of Malines ; stern suppression of riots in the Belgian cities ; Joseph abolished the constitution of Hainault (31 Jan., 1789), and of Brabant (18 June, 1789); the Belgian exiles, encouraged by the Triple Alliance, raised an army at Breda. The army of Belgian patriots under Van d er Mersch crossed the fron- tier (23 Oct.): general insurrection; evacuation of Brussels (12 Dec), and abandonment of the Catholic Netherlands by the Austrian troops ; meeting of a general convention at Brussels ; constitution promulgated for the Belgian Republic (10 Jan., 1790); formation of the United States of Belgium ; influence of Van der Noot (b. 1735, d. 1827); in- dependence declared; death of the Emperor Joseph (20 Feb., 1790). The two parties in Belgium— the Van der Nootists or Statists, and the Vonckists or Democrats : the Statists persecuted the Democrats, and drove their leaders from the country ; jealousy felt of Van der Noot ; the Emperor Leopold offered to restore the government of the Austrian Netherlands as it had existed under Maria Theresa ; the^oger rejected by the Belgian leaders ; the country entirely re-occupied by the Austrians without a blow (Nov.-Dec, 1790). Comparison of the Belgian with the French Revolution. The Revolution in Liege : the people of Liege rose in insurrection and expelled the Prince-Bishop (16-18 Aug., 1789) ; the Prussians restored the authority of the Bishop (Nov., 1789); the Austrians eventu- ally occupied Liege, at the request of the princes of the neighboring Circle, and restored the Bishop (13 Jan., 1791). The Emperor Leopold II (b. 1747): condition of Austrian affairs at the time of his accession (20 Feb., 17,9(3}^ his character and previous career as Grand Duke of Tuscany ; succeeded in Tuscany by his second son, the Archduke Ferdinand. Policy of the Emperor Leopold II. 167 Internal policy of Leopold : his concessions to the insurgents and malcontents in the different provinces ot the House of Hapsburg; he gave up Joseph's schemes of unification and restored local government and liberties to provinces not in open insurrection ; he maintained Joseph's edict of religious toleration and many other reforms, and quieted the fear among the people of further innovations. Leopold's foreign policy : first period ; he determined to make peace with the Turks and to frustrate the schemes of Prussia by breaking up the Triple Alliance • the relations between Prussia and Poland ; the Treaty of 29 March, 1790, by which the Poles agreed to cede Thorn and Dantzig to Prussia in exchange for the retrocession of Austrian Galicia ; Leopold convinced England and the Dutch that he would hand over the Austrian Netherlands to France if they supported Prus- sia in its schemes against Austria ; the Prussians concentrated an army in Silesia and Leopold an army in Bohemia ; the Conference of Reich- enbach (June, 1790); hy the Convention of Reichenbach (27 July), Austria engaged to make peace with the Turks, the Triple Alliance guaranteed the restoration of Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and Prussia promised to withdraw its support from the malcontents in Hungary and Belgium, and to support Leopold's candidature for the imperial throne ; great diplomatic victory thus won by Leopold ; dis- missal of Hertzberg from the Prussian foreign office. Leopold and the Turks : the Armistice of Giurgevo (19 Sept., 1790); by the Treaty of Sistova (4 Aug., 1791) Austria obtained from the Turks Old Orsova and part of Croatia. Leopold and the Hungarians : the position in Hungary consequent on the measures taken by Joseph ; the Magyar nobles assumed semi- independence, and sent envoys to Reichenbach ; Leopold marched an army to Pesth ; he refused to grant semi-independence to Hungary and appointed his fourth son, Alexander Leopold, to be Palatine of Hun- gary (12 Nov., 1790) ; submission of the Magyars ; Leopold crowned King of Hungary (15 Nov.); concessions made to the national pride of the Magyars. Leopold and the Empire: crowned Emperor (^9 Oct., 1790); his steps to win back the leadership of the German princes, which Prussia had secured by the formation of the Fiirstenbund in 1785; he availed him- 1 68 Policy of the Emperor Leopold II. self of the opportunity afforded by the disgust of the German priiicts at the measures taken by the French Constituent Assembly with re- gard to the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace. Position of I^eopold in 1791 : success of his diplomacy ; he had re- stored Austria to the position she had lost under Joseph II. ; he had won the support of the Triple Alliance ; his attitude towards France. Leopold's foreign policy: second period; his sister Marie Antoinette appealed to him for armed help ; Leopold's dislike for war ; the Mani- festo of Padua (6 July, 1791); Leopold desired to maintain the power of Louis XVI. because the Franco-Austrian alliance depended upon it ; he persuaded the King of Prussia to issue the Declaration of Pilnitz with him (27 Aug., 1 791); he protested, as Emperor, against the violation of the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace (3 Dec.) and de- fended the Rhenish princes for sheltering French emigres ( 14 Dec); in this position he was heartily supported by the Diet of the Empire ; sig- nature of an offensive and defensive alliance with Frederick William II. of Prussia (7 Feb., 1792); death of Leopold (i March). Assassination of Gustavus III. of Sweden (29 March, 1792); his brother Charles, Duke of Sudermania, regent during the minority of Gusta- vus IV., pursued a neutral policy. Parties at the Court of Prussia : Frederick William II. determined to adhere to the alliance with Austria, and after the death of Leopold became the leader of the alliance. Francis II., eldest son of Leopold, crowned Emperor (14 July, 1792): the last Holy Roman Emperor. Victor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia, entered into an alliance with Austria against France (July, 1792). Conditions under which the war with France commenced. Authorities : On Belgium in the i8th century and the Belgian Revolution, see Juste, Histoire de la Belgique ; Discaitles, Les Pays-Bas sous le regne de Marie Th^rese ; Piot, Le regne de Marie Therese dans les Pays-Bas autrichiens ; Borg- nety Histoire des Beiges a la fin du XVIIIieme siecle ; Gachard, Etudes surl'histoire des Pays-Bas, and Documents sur la revolution beige de 1790 ; Poullet, Mdmoire sur I'ancienne constitution braban5onne ; A. Wolf, Maria Christina, Erzherzogin von CEJsterreich, and Leopold II. und Maria Christina, ihr Briefwechsel ; Magnette, Joseph II. et la liberie de I'Escaut, 1781-85 ; Delplace, Joseph II. et la revolution brabangonne ; Juste, La revolution braban^onne, Les Vonckistes, La republique The War of the Freiich Revolution. i(n; beige, and Le comte de Mercy-Argenteau ct I'Hbandon dc la Belgique ; Ve>hdf;^fH. Le cardinal de Prankenberg; Thn'nrr. Jean-Henri, comte de Frankenberg, car- dinal-archeveque de Malines et sa lutte pour la liberty de I'Eglise ; Lorenz, Kaiser Joseph II. und die Belgische Revolution, nach den Papieren des Grafeu Murray, in his Drei Biicher Geschichte und Politik ; Zeissherg, Zwei Jahre Belgischcr Gc- schichte ( in the Sitzuugsberichie des kaiserlichen Akademie liir VVisseuschaft, 1891 ) ; Artieth Sind, Flammennont, Correspondance secrete du Comte de Mercy-Argeuieau avcc I'empereur Joseph II. et le prince de Kaunitz ; Discailles, Lc g6ndral Van der Mersch avant la revolution braban^onne, and Alexandre de Bronx ; Galestoot^ Chronique des ^v^nements les plus remarquables arrives a Bruxellcs (1780-1827); Gerard, Rapedius de Berg, m^moires et documents pour servir a I'hisioire de la revolution braban^onne ; Van de Spiegel, ZijneTijdgenooten, ed. Vreede, and Staes, De Belgische Republiek van 1790. On the revolution in Liege, see Borgnet, His- toire de la revolution liegeoise de 1789 ; C. W. von Dohm, Die Liitticher Revolu- tion von 1789, and Chestret, Papiers dc Jean Remi de Chestret pour servir k I'his- toire de la revolution liegeoise. For the policy of Leopold, see Schels, Geschichte CEsterreichs unter der Regierung Leopolds II.; Zeissberg, Kaiser Leopold II. (in AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic); Sorely L'Europe et la Revolution fran^aise ; Von Sybel, Geschichte der Revolution szeit ; Vivenot, Quellen zur Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserpolitik CEsterreichs wahrend der Franzosischen Revolutions- kriege ; Huffer, Diplomatische Verhandlungen aus der Zeit der Franzosischen Revolution; Beer, Joseph II., Leopold IT. und Kaunitz, and Leopold II., Franz II. und Catharina, ihre Correspondenz, nebst einer Eiuleitung zur Geschichte der Politik Leopolds 11. ; Vivenot, Die Politik des oesterreichischen Staatskanzlers Fiirsten Kaunitz-Rietberg unter Kaiser Leopold II., and Crenx, Pitt et Frederic GuiUaume II., I'Angleterre et la Prusse devant la question d'Orienten 1790 et 1791. LECTURE h^. THE WAR OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AGAINST EUROPE. French reverses at the commencement of the war : the invasion of the Tuileries (20 June, 1792); the proclamation of the Duke of Bruns- wick ; the plan of campaign ; the Austrians invaded French Flanders, and the Prussians, Lorraine and Champagne ; rapid advance of the in- vaders ; excitement in Paris ; general belief in France that the Court sympathized with the invaders ; capture of the Tuileries and suspen- sion of the King (10 Aug.) ; summons of a National Convention. 170 The War of the French Revolution, Desperate efforts made for the defense of France : the work of Dan- ton (b. 1759, d. 1794) and of Vergniaud (b. 1759, d. 1793); desertion of La Fayette (20 Aug.); capture of Verdun by the Prussians (2 Sept.); the massacres in the prisons of Paris (2-6 Sept.); the Prussians re- pulsed by Dumouriez at Valmy (20 Sept.); retreat of the Duke of Brunswick ; gallant defense of Lille. Meeting of the National Convention (20 Sept., 1792); declaration of the French Republic ; parties in the Convention ; the Girondins and the Mountain ; the Marsh or Plain ; Louvet's attack on Robespierre (29 Oct.) and Robespierre's reply (5 Nov.). Successes of the French armies : attack made upon the King of Sar- dinia ; Montesquiou occupied Savoy, and Anselme, Nice (Sept., 1792) ; Custine invaded Germany and took Spires (i Oct.), Worms (4 Oct.) and Mawnce (21 Oct.) ; Dumouriez invaded the Austrian Nether- lands, defeated the Austrians at Jemappes (6 Nov.), and occupied the whole of Belgium and Liege ; excitement and delight caused in France by these successes ; the Revolutionary Propaganda ; decree of 19 November ; Savoy declared annexed to the French Republic (27 Nov.), and Belgium (15 Dec). The debates in the Convention ; trial of Louis XVI. ; his execution (21 Jan., 1793). Dumouriez's plan for conquering the United Provinces : France de- clared war against King George III. and the Stadtholder William V. (i Feb., 1793) ; other countries joined in the war against France, namely, Spain, Portugal, Tuscany, the Two Sicilies, and eventually, on 22 March, the Holy Roman Empire ; Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Geneva, Genoa, Venice, the Turks and the United States of America remained neutral ; attitude of the Tsaritsa Catherine. Change in the character of the war : want of discipline in the French army and navy; England became the paymaster of the coalition; the policy of Pitt and Grenville in England ; Thugut (b. 1734, d. 18 18) be- came chief minister in Austria, and Haugwitz (b. 1752, d. 1832) in Prussia. Campaign of the spring and summer of 1793 : failure of Dumouriez's military operations (Feb. -March); the Austrinns under the Prince of Coburg defeated Dumouriez at Neerwinden (18 March), and, with the The Reign of Terror. lyi help of the English under the Duke of York, drove the French out of Belgium ; desertion of Dumouriez (5 April); the English and Austrian army invaded France and took Conde (15 July) and Val enci ennes (28 July); Custine driven from Germany (March); the Prussians under Brunswick took Mayence (23 July), crossed the frontier (August) and defeated the French at Pirmasens (14 Sept. ); the Austrians and Imperi- alists under Wurmser invaded Alsace, laid siege to Landau, and carried the lines of Wissembourg (13 Oct.); French attacks repulsed by the Sar- dinians ; Toulon occupied by the English and Spaniards under Hood and Langara (28 Aug.); the Spaniards invaded France at both enSs of the Pyrenees. Effect of these disasters on the Convention : decree for the levy of 300,000 men (24 Feb.); establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal (9 March) and of the first Committee of Public Safety (7 Apr.); struggle between the Girondins and the Mountain ; overthrow of the Girondins, (31 May-2 June). Outbreak of civil war : the insurrection in the Vendee ; the rising in Normandy ; revolt of Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon. Thg_ Constitution of 179,^ : formation of the Great Committee of Public Safety (July-Sept., 1793); it established the Reign of Terror. The Reign of Terror in France : the Law of the Maximum ; the Law of the Suspects (17 Sept.); suspension of the Constitution of 179;; and autocracy of the Great Committee ; causes of the power of the Great Committee ; its chief means for maintaining its authority: (i) the Revolutionary Tribunal ; executions in Paris ; (2) the Representa- tives on Mission ; their repression of internal disturbances ; the Grea^ Committee restored discipline in the army and navy, and concentrated the resources of France for the foreign war ; incidents of the Reign of Terror ; the Wo rship of Reason ; the Novades^ at Nantes. Campaign of the ^all and winter of 1793 : plans of Carnot (b. 1753. d. 1823); Houchard raised the siege of Dunkirk and defeated the Duke of York at Hondschoten (8 Sept.); Jourdan (b. 1762, d. 1833) raised the siege of Maubeuge and defeated the Prince of Coburg at Wattig- nies (16 Oct.); Hoche (b. 1768, d. 1797), after being defeated by the Prussians at Kaiserslautern (28-30 Nov.), combined operations with Pichegru (b. 1761, d. 1804); battle of the Geisberg (26 Dec); relief of 172 The War of the ]rrt7ich Revolution, lyandau (28 Dec); retreat of the Prussians to Mayence ; the Aus- trians and Imperialists driven across the Rhine ; Toulon recovered by Dugommier (19 Dec); the Spaniards driven across the Pyrenees ;. capture of Lyons (9 Oct.) and defeats of the Vendeans at Le Mans (12 Dec.) and Savenay (22 Dec). Opposition to the Great Committee of Public Safety and to the Reign of Terror in the Convention and in Paris ; exejcution of the Hebertists (24 March, 1794) and of the Dantonists (5 April); increased stringency of the Reign of Terror ; the position of Robespierre (b. 1758); decree establishing the Worship of the Supreme Being (7 May). Naval operations : occupation of Corsica by the English under Hood and Graham (May-June, 1794); George III. offered the throne of Cor- sica (June); conquest of the French West Indies by Grey and Jervis ; Martinique (22 March, 1794), Tobago and Guadeloupe (April, 1794); the situation in San Domingo ; occupation of the French settlements in India (1793); attempt of Jeanbon Saint-Andre to revive the French navy; defeat of the Brest fleet by Howe (b. 1722, d. 1799) in the Battle of the First of June (1794). Campaign of 1794 : organization of the volunteer army ; work of Dubois-Crance ; victories of the French armies ; Jourdan defeated the Austrians at Fleurus (26 June), and with Pichegru occupied Belgium ; Rend Moreaux (b. 1758, d. 1795) defeated the Prussians near Kaisers- lautern (12-14 July) and occupied Treves (9 Aug.); the French de- feated the Sardinians on the Italian frontier and occupied the passes of the Alps (May); invasion of Spain by Dagobert and Muller at both ends of the Pyrenees (May-June). With the French victories and the repulse of the invaders the neces- sity for submitting to the Reign of Terror ceased ; identification of ^ Robespierre and his friends with the Reign of Terror ; the Revolution jC\ of 9 Thermidor (27 July); execution of Robespierre and his friends (28 0" July); end of the Reign of Terror. Characteristics of the Reign of Terror in France ; triumph of the French Republic over the powers of Europe. Authorities : In addition to the general works cited under Lecture 54 should be noted the following special secondary works : For the summer of 1792 and the overthrow of the monarchy, Mortimer- TernauXy Histoire de la Terreur ; for The Reign of Stanislas Poniatovski. 173 the Girondins, Vatel, Vergniaud ; Dauban, Madame Roland ; Guadet^ Les Giron- dins, aud Eire, La Idgeude des Giroudius, which explodes the fancies of Lamar- tine and others ; for the overthrow of the Girondins, IVallon, La R, H "7 ^'' Second treaty of partition signed by Catherine and Frederick William (4 Jan., m^), and agreed to by Stanislas and the Polish Diet at Grodno under the pressure of Russian troops (24 Sept., 1793); by this second partition Russia annexed Minsk, Podolia, Volhynia and Little Russia, while Prussia received Posen, Gnezen, Kalisch and the cities of Dant- zig and Thorn ; disgust of the Emperor Francis II. and of Thugut at Austria 's receiving no s hare in the second partition of Poland ; their resolution that the war witEi the French Republic should not prevent them from looking after Austrian interests in Poland. The Polish insurrection of 1794 : the standard of national indepen- dence raised by Kosciuszko at Cracow (23 March); general insurrec- tion throughout Poland ; Kosciuszko defeated the Russians at Racla- wice (4 Apr.) and occupied Warsaw (19 Apr.); the Prussians besieged Warsaw (July-Sept., 1794); retirement of the Prussians; invasion of Poland by a Russian army under Suvcrov ; Kosciuszko defeated and taken prisoner at Ma^yjnwice (12 Oct.); capture of Warsaw (9 Nov.); complete overthrow of the patriots. Third and final partition of Poland (3 Jan., 1795): Prussia received Warsaw and the neighboring provinces ; Austria received Cracow and the rest of Galicia ; Russia rectified its frontier as arranged in 1793; extinction of Poland as an independent state. Stanislas Poniatovski removed from Poland (7 Jan., 1795); his abdi- cation (25 Nov., 1795). Causes of the failure of Poland to maintain her independence ; com- parison between the Polish insurrection of 1794 and the successful na- tional resistance of France to foreign invaders in the same year. Influence of Polish affairs upon the progress of the war against France : weakening of the Prussian and Austrian armies upon the French frontier ; commencement of dissensions between Prussia and Austria. Authorities : In addition to Sorel, Von der Briiggen, Ferrand,fin(\ Angfberg, cited under Lecture 42, see Lelewel, Geschichte Polens unter Stanislaus Augustus, 176 The Policy of the Thermidoriayis. translated into German, and his Analyse et parallele des trois constitutions polo- naises de 1791, 1807 et 1815, translated into French; Kalinka, Der vierjahrige Polnische Reichstag (1788-1791); Kollontai, Vom Entslehen und Untergange der Polnischen Konstitution vom 3 May, 1791, translated into German by 5. B. Linde; Bain, The Second Partition of Poland (Eng. Hist. Rev., vol. 6); Adam Czartoryski, Memoires et Correspondance ; Oginski, Memoires sur la Pologne et les Polonais de 1788 a 1815 ; Smitt, Suworrow und Polens Untergang ; Herrmaftn, Die GEster- reichisch-Preussische Allianz von 7 Feb., 1792, und die zweite Theilung Polens; Zeissberg, Geschichte der Raiimung Belgiens und des Polnischen Aufstandes, 1794 (in the Archiv fiir C^sterreichische Geschichte, Vol. Ixxii.); Vivenot, Quel- len zur Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserpolitik GBsterreichs wahrend der Fran- zos schen Revolutionskriege, vol. v.; Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit ; and Sorel, L' Europe et la Revolution fran^aise. L E C T U R E 58. THE TREATIES OF BASI,E. The government of the Thermidorians in France : they continued the system of vigorous organization and centralization initiated by the Great Committee of Public Safety, but discontinued the bloodshed of the Reign of Terror. The internal policy of the Thermidorians : they retained the su- premacy of the Committees of Government and the power of the Dep- uties on Mission ; rising cry for vengeance against the Terrorists ; execution of Carrier (16 Dec, 1794); decree closing the Jacobin Club (12 Nov., 1794) and repeal of the Law of the Maximum (24 Dec, 1794); readmission to the Convention of most of the proscribed Girondins (8 Dec, 1794), and of the remainder (8 March, 1795). Foreign policy of the Thermidorians : the continued victories of the republican armies changed the attitude of France from that of a nation fighting for existence to that of a conqueror; Merlin of Douai (b. 1754, d. 1838) defined the bases on which France might honorably make peace (4 Dec, 1794), and the Convention finally abandoned the idea of the Revolutionary Propaganda. The War oj the French Revolution. 177 Campaign of 1794-5 • The French under Pichegru conquered the Protestant Netherlands : occupation of Amsterdam and capture of the Dutch fleet in the Texel (20 Jan., 1795); withdrawal of the English army to England; the Thermidorians refused to annex the Protestant Netherlands ; return of the Dutch " Patriots" who had been exiled in 1787 ; organization of the Batavian Republic; the mission of Sieyes and Reub ell:, alliance signed between the French and Batavian Republics (16 May, 1795). Jourdan defeated the Austrians at Aldenhoven (2 Oct., 1794), and occupied Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn, Cologne (9 Oct.; and Coblentz (22 Oct.); two French armies invaded Spain, that of the Eastern Pyrenees under Dugommier took Figueras (27 Nov., 1794) and under Perig- non took Rosas (3 Feb., 1795) and that of the Western Pyrenees under Moncey took Vittoria (17 July, 1795) and Bilbao (19 July); defeat by Hoche of the Emigres landed at Quiberon Bay from English ships (July, 1795)- Result of French victories at home and abroad. Increasing vehemence of the attacks on the Terrorist leaders ; the Thermidoiians ousted from power by the returned Girondins and depu- ties of the Marsh ; influence of the Jeunesse Doree in Paris ; popular in- surrections and attacks on the Convention on 12 Germinal (i April, 1795), and on i Prairial (20 May); disarmament of the Faubourg Saint- An- toine ; execution of Fouquier-Tinville (8 May) and abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal (31 May); reaction in the provinces against the Terrorists ; the * ' White Terror ' ' in the South ; preparations made for drawing up a new constitution for France ; death of the Dauphin, de jure Louis XVII. (8 June). Changed attitude of Europe towards France : general readiness to make peace with France, now that she had abandoned the Revolution- ary Propaganda and had shown herself too formidable to be conquered ; commencement of negotiations for peace ; treaty of peace signed with Tuscany (9 Feb., 1795); the French Republic thus received into the comity of nations. The negotiations at Basle between B arthdlem y (b. 1750, d. 1830) for France and Hardeaber.g (b. 1750, d. 1822) for Prussia: the demands made by the French Republic ; the question of the natural limits of 1 78 , The Treaties of Basle. France ; treaty of peace signed with Prussia (5 April, 1795); line of demarcation established, protecting the Northern States of Germany from French invasion ; importance of this provision, which placed North Germany under obligations to Prussia ; by a secret article Prus- sia recognized the river Rhine as a natural boundary of France, and promised to cede all her possessions on the left bank in exchange for ecclesiastical states to be secularized in Germany. The Treaty of Basle with Prussia followed by other treaties signed at the same place : the most important, the treaty of peace with Spain (22 July); the political situation in Spain ; power of Godoy (b. 1767, d. 185 1), the Queen's lover, who was created Prince of the Peace. Other treaties signed at Basle : with Hesse-Cassel (28 Aug.), and other German states. Importance of the Treaties of Basle in the history of Europe : Prus- sia's assent to the proposition that the French boundary should be the Rhine, thus diminishing the Empire, and her readiness to further break up the Empire by annexing ecclesiastical territory. Austria's reasons for continuing the war : the policy of Thugut ; negotiations for the exchange of Madame Ro^le, daughter of Louis XVI., for certain deputies of the Convention helS prisoners by Austria. Persistence of England in continuing the war ; influence of the ad- vice of the French emigres ; popular feeling in England with regard to the French Republic ; Pitt and Grenville refused to believe in the sta- bility of the government in France. Work of the Thermidorians : sudden change in the position of France from an invaded country, seemingly on the point of dissolution, to a victorious and triumphant nation. Authorities : No authoritative work exists upon the government of the Ther- midorians and hardly any documents of importance have been published on this period. The most useful secondary work on the period is contained in the various articles by Sorel in the Revue Historique, with the same author's more exhaustive treatment of the foreign policy in his L'Europe et la Revolution fran- 5aise, vol. 4. The most accessible primary authorities are Fain, Manuscrit de r an III.; Aulard, Paris pendant la reaction thermidorienne et sous le Direc- toire, and Schmidt, Tableaux de la Revolution fran^aise, which contains the reports of the spies on the condition of Paris. The material collected by Schmidt was worked up by him in his Pariser Zustande wahrend der Revolutionszeit, which has The French Coyistitution of the Year III. 179 been translated iuto French by Viollet. For the rising of Prairial, see Claretie^ Les derniers Montagnards, and IVallon, Les Repr^sentauts du peuplc en mission, vol. 5 ; for the royalist risings, Daudel, La reaction royalistc an Midi en 1795; for the affair at Quiberon, Thomas de Closntadeuc, Quiberon, 1795, and Chassin, Le general Hoche a Quiberon ; and for the conquest and reorgan- ization of Holland, Legrand, La Rdvolution francjaise en Hollandc la Re- publique batave ; and of Belgium, Lanzac de Laborie, La Domination fran- $aise en Belgique (i795-i8r4). For the Treaties of Basle and the events leading to them, see Sorely L'Europe et la Revolution fran9aise and La Paix de Bale (Revue Historique, vols. 5-7); Hdusser, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Griindung des deutschen Bundcs ; Heigel^ Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Auflosung des alten Reichs ; Philippson, Geschichte des preussischen Staatswesens vom Tode Fried- richs des Grossen ; Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit ; Gentz, Cber den Ursprung und Charakter des Kriegs gegen die franzosische Revolution ; Zeissberg^ Zur deutsche Kaiserpolitik CBsterreichs : ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Revolu- tionsjahre. 1795 { S tzungberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1889); Hiiffer^ Diplomatische Verhandlungen aus der Zeit der franzosischen Revolution; Vivenot and Zeissberg, Quellen zur Geschichte der deutschen Kaiser- politik CEsterreichs wabrend der franzosischen Revolutionskriege; Vivenot^ Ver- trauliche Briefe des Freiherrn von Thugut (1790-1801), Herzog Albrecht von Sachsen-Teschen als Reichsfeldmarschall, Thugut, Clerfait und Wurmser ( 1794-97), and Zur Geschichte des Baseler Friedens ; Witzleben, Prinz Friedrich Josias von Coburg-Saalfeld, Herzog zu Sachsen ; Combes, Memoire sur la correspondance ofificielle de Merlin de Thionville relativement aux ndgociations de Bale ; and above all, Kaulekf Papiers de Barth^lemy, ambassadeur de France en Suisse, 1792-97. LECTURE 59. THE FRENCH DIRECTORY, AND THE FIRST VICTORIES OF BONAPARTE. The Constitution of the Year III. (1795): its most important feature, the attempted separation of the executive and legislative authorit3% the former being vested in five Directors, the latter in two Chambers, the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred. The Convention resolved that two-thirds of the first legislature, un- der the new constitution, should be elected from among themselves ; i8o The Policy of the First Directors. discontent expressed among those who wished for further reaction against the Terrorists at this resolution ; insurrection of 13 Vendemi- aire (5 Oct., 1795) in Paris, and its suppression. The first Directors : Barras (b. 1755, d. 1829), Reubell (b 1746, d. 1810), Revelliere-Lepeaux (b. 1753, d. 1824), Carnot (b. 1753, d. 1823) and Letourneur (b. 1751, d. 1817). The foreign poHcy of the first Directors : adoption of the principles of the Thermidorians ; readiness to make peace on the terms of receiv- ing the natural boundaries of France ; the only enemies of the Repub- lic left were England, Austria and Sardinia ; the treasonable intrigues of Pichegru ; the activity of the emigres ; exchange of Madame Roy- ale (20 Dec, 1795); attitude of Austria, England, Prussia, Spain and the smaller states of Europe towards the French Republic; endeavors of the Directors to form an alliance with Prussia and Spain. Failure of the French armies upon the Rhine in the winter campaign of 1795, owing to the treachery of Pichegru; Pichegru succeeded by Jean Victor Moreau (b. 1763, d. 1813). The condition and military situation of the Army of Italy : Scherer pushed forward and by the victory of Loano (23-25 November, 1795) opened communications with the Republic of Genoa, which was w^ell affected to France. Napoleon Bonaparte (b. 1769, d. 1821) in command of the Army of Italy (27 March, 1796); his previous career. Campaign of 1796 in Italy : first stage : Bonaparte turned the Mar- itime Alps and separated the Sardinian from the Austrian army ; he defeated the Sardinians under Colli at Montenotte (12 April), Millesimo (13 April), Dego (15 April), Ceva (16 April) and Mondovi (22 April); Victor Amadeus III. of Sardinia signed the Armistice of Cherasco (28 April), and made peace with the French Republic, ceding Savoy and Nice to France (15 May). Campaign of 1796 in Italy : second stage : Bonaparte crossed the Po, and (10 May) forced the passage of the Adda at the bridge of Lodi ; the Austrians evacuated Eombardy ; Bonaparte occupied Milan and laid siege to Mantua ; the Dukes of Parma and of Modena forced to sue for peace ; Bonaparte occupied the Legations of Ferrara and Bologna ; Pope Pius VI. signed the Armistice of Foligno (23 June). The Caf}ipaig?i of 1796. 181 Campaign of 1796 in Italy: third stage: an Austrian army under Wurmser invaded Italy for the relief of Mantua; Bonaparte broke up the siege and defeated the Austrians at Castiglione (5 Aug.); Wurmser retreated, but in the following month entered Italy by the valley of the Brenta, and reinforced the garrison of Mantua ; delegates from the whole of northern Italy summoned by Bonaparte to meet at Milan. Campaign of 1796 in Italy : fourth stage : renewed effort made by the Emperor Francis II. for the recovery of Lombardy ; his appeal to his people ; the Austrian army under Alvinzi invaded Italy by the Brenta ; the French repulsed at Caldiero (12 Nov.); Bonaparte victorious in the battle of Areola (16 Nov.); retreat of the Austrians. Campaign of 1796 in Italy : fifth stage : the Austrians made a last effort to relieve Mantua by way of Lake Garda ; Bonaparte defeated Alvinzi at Rivoli (14 Jan., 1797); surrender of Mantua (2 Feb., 1797); advance of Bonaparte on Rome ; Pope Pius VI. signed the Treaty of Tolentino (19 Feb., 1797). Effect of the campaign of 1796 on Italy, on Austria and on Europe ; its effect on the position of the Directors in France. Campaign of 1 796 in Germany : Jourdan and Moreau invaded South- ern Germany, but were out-manoeuvred and driven back by the Arch- duke Chailes (b. 1771, d. 1847); battle of Altenkirchen (27 Sept.) and death of Marceau (b. 1769); famous retreat of Moreau ; effect of this campaign on Germany ; Frederick William II. of Prussia signed a secret supplement to the Treaty of Basle (5 Aug., 1796); Baden, Wiir- temberg and Bavaria entered into negotiations with the French Re- public. Charles IV. of Spain, under the influence of Godoy, signed an offen- sive and defensive alliance with the French Republic at San Ildefonso (19 Aug., 1796), and declared war against England (8 Oct.) ; with- drawal of the English from Corsica (Oct.); Sir John Jervis defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape Saint- Vincent (14 Feb., 1797): an English army under Sir Charles Stuart (b. 1753, d. 1831) sent to defend Portugal against Spain. The Directory and England: Lord Malmesbury sent to Paris to dis- cuss bases of peace (Nov.-Dec, 1796); Hoche's expedition for the invasion of Ireland foiled by stormy weather (Dec. 1796). 1 82 The Treaty of Cainpo-Formio, lypy. Internal policy of the first Directors: pacification of Brittany and the Vendee by Hoche; conspiracies of Babeuf (May, 1796) and oi the camp of Crenelle (Sept., 1796); 'financial condition of France. Death of the Tsaritsa Catherine II. of Russia (17 Nov., 1796); acces- sion of the Tsar Paul ; his character. Campaign of 1797 : Bonaparte invaded the Tyrol and approached Vienna; preliminaries of peace between France and Austria signed at Leoben (18 April, 1797), by which Austria agreed to recognize the Rhine as the frontier of France, which involved the cession of Belgium, and to take Venetia in exchange for Lombardy; a congress was fixed to meet at Rastadt to arrange terms of peace between the French Repub- lic and the Holy Roman Empire. The elections of 1797 in France : Barthelemy elected a Director in the place of Letourneur ; the majority of the legislature opposed to the majority of the Directors ; fresh negotiations for peace with England, which had been commenced at Lille, broken off; the majority of the Directors were supported by Hoche and Bonaparte. The coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor (4 Sept., 1797); Merlin of Douai and Francois de Neufchateau elected Directors in the place of Carnot and Barthelemy; death of Hoche (18 Sept.). Bonaparte's policy in Italy: occupation of Venice (16 May); disso- lution of the ancient government of Genoa and formation of the Ligurian Republic (14 June, 1797); formation of the northern Italian states, except Piedmont, into the Cisalpine Republic (9 July); annexation of the Ionian Islands to the French Republic ; effect of Bonaparte's Italian policy. Signature of the Treaty of Campo-Formio between Austria and France (17 Oct., 1797): the Preliminaries of Leoben followed; its open and its secret clauses ; capture of Mayence by Hatry (29 Dec, 1797). Critical position of England in 1797 : she remained the only nation in arms against the French Republic ; the mutiny of the Nore and other naval mutinies ; Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet in the battle of Camperdown (11 Oct., 1797). Arrival of Bonaparte in Paris (5 Dec, 1797); his reception by the Directors ; appointed to the command of an army intended to invade England; finding this impracticable, he suggested and prepared an ex- pedition to Egypt. The Directory. 183 Authorities : There is no complete and satisfactory history of the Directory ; Barante, Histoire du Directoirc, is out of date, and the moyP( Tilsit, destroyed the last relics of the ^ Holy Rom an Empire and reorganized Germany ; under his system the ^- uTConfederaTion ot the Rhine, of which he was entitled the Protector, be- [G^^came the chief power in Germany ; it consisted, when at its greatest ^rf^-^tent, of th irty-seven reigning princes ; its population of 15,000,000 ^/w* Germans was bound to contribute 120,000 soldiers to the army of Na- '^^^^poleon ; and its policy was conducted b}^ a Diet, sitting at Frankfort, composed of two colleges, the College of Kings, including four kings and five grand dukes, and the College of Princes, including thirteen dukes and fifteen princes. The four kingdoms in the Confederation of the Rhine were Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Westphalia and Saxony ; the Kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg allied their families with that of Napoleon and received ■:i98-. Italy tmder Napoleon. their reward in extension of territory ; the King of Saxony made Grand Duke of Warsaw and included in the Confederation from the impor- tance of his geographical position between Austria, Prussia and Russia ; the Kingdom of Westphalia created by Napoleon (i8 Aug., 1807) from the dominions of Prussia to the west of the Elbe, with Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, part of Hanover, etc., and conferred on Napoleon's youngest brother, Jerome Bonaparte (b. 1784, d. i860). The five grand duchies in the Confederation of the Rhine were Baden ; Jl£Sse:P3ftnatadt ;- Berg, created by Napoleon and conferred by him on his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat (b. 1771, d. 18 15) ; Frankfort, con- ferred on Dalberg (b. 1744, d. 181 7), formerly Archbishop- Elector of Mayence ; and Wiirzburg, conferred on the Grand Duke Ferdinand, formerly ruler of Tuscany. Effect of the new organization in Germany ; the French system of centralize d adn^j^^j^t^a^i'"'^ ^"^ of military conscription everywhere in- troduced ; serfdom and other feudal abuses abolished ; the codified law of France introduced into Westphalia and Berg ; the Knights of the Empire deprived of their sovereign rights ; the petty dukes, counts and princes whose territories lay within those of the reigning princes were mediatized, that is to say, lost their immediate sovereignty, while retaining their titles and rank as a class of privileged aristocracy. Effect of these measures : Germany became a confederation of more or less powerful states instead of a collection of petty feudal princi- palities. Napoleon's Italian policy : he appointed his step-son, Eugene de Beauharnais (b. 1781, d. 1824), Viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy, which comprised the former Cisalpine Republic, with the addition, after the Treaty of Pressburg, of Venetia ; Napoleon kept Piedmont as part of the French dominions, and annexed Parma (q Oct., 1802), the Ligurian ^''^'^epublic (4 June, 1805), Etruria or Tuscany (10 Dec, 1807), and event- ually Rome (13 Dec, 1810) directly to France, giving his sister Elisa the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Princess of Lucca, and his sister Pauline that of Duchess of Guastalla ; the relations of Napoleon with the Pope ; arrest of Pius VII. (6 July, 1809) ; the Kingdom of Naples conferred upon Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte (30 March, 1806), and on Murat (15 July, 1808;; great reforms accomplished in Italy, but failure of Napoleon to recognize the principle of nationality. NapoleoiC s Power at its Height. 199 Napoleon and the Protestant Netherlands : further change in the constitution of the Batavian Republic; Schimmelpenninck (b. 1761, d. ^_^ 1825) made Grand Pensionary (22 March, 1805) ; Louis Bonaparte '" made Kin^ of Holland (24 May, 1806) ; dislike of the Dutch for the Continental Blockade ; Holland annexed to Napoleon's dominions (9 July, 1810). The Valais annexed, as the department of the Simplon, to Napoleon's empire (13 Dec, 1810). Neufchatel, Benevento and Ponte Corvo granted by Napoleon as sovereign principalities, feudatory to himself, to Berthier, Talleyrand and Bernadotte (l8o6). -, , ._ ^ Denmark during the ascendency 'of Napoleon : Napoleon's scheme for seizing the Danish fleet ; the English, hearing of this scheme, bom- barded Copenhagen and seized the Danish fleet (2-7 Sept., 1807); friendship of Frederick VI. of Denmark for Napoleon. Sweden 'Sfurmg the ascendency of Napoleon : Gustavus IV., an enemy of Napoleon and ally of England ; after the Treaty of Tilsit the French under Brune occupied Swedish Pomerania ; the Tsar Alexander con- quered Finland (1808); insanity of Gustavus IV.; his attack upon Denmark; dethroned (13 March) and his uncle, the former regent, made king (5 June, 1809); Bernadotte (b. 1764, d. 1844), one of Napo- leon's marshals, elected Prince Royal of Sweden and heir to the throne (5 Nov., \^io\^^^^^j,^ t^^^^ Jir^y The Turks /during the ascendency/of Napoleon : the Sultan Selim III. refused to enter Pitt's coalitioji against Napoleon (1805), and an English expedition under Duckworth was sent against him (1807); overthrow of Selim (31 May 1807); after an interval Mahmud II. be- came Sultan (28 July, 1808);^ his vigor and ability; inclined to the side of France, but disliked theestablishment of the French in the Illyrian Provinces ; the Tsar Alexander attacked the Turks (1809); the Russians occupied Moldavia and Wallachia (18 10), and crossed the Danube (181 1). The greatest exte nsion of Napoleon's empire attained by the annex- ation of the districts along the northern coasts of Germany from the borders of Holland to the mouth of the Weser, including Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck (13 Dec, 18 10); these districts were partly taken from Westphalia and Berg, and partly consisted of Oldenburg and three 200 Napoleoji' s Administration, petty states of the Confederation of the Rhine ; this annexation was caused by the difl&culty of maintaining the Continental Blockade. At this time Napoleon's empire was divided into 130 departments, extending from Rome to lyiibeck ; the organization and administration cf these departments. Napoleon's administration when at the height of his power : excel- lence of his civil service ; his ministers and the Council of State ; sup- pression of the Tribunate (19 Aug., 1807); growing importance of the police department ; Fouche (b. 1763, d. 1820), Minister of Police (1804- 10), and Savary (18 10-14); organization of the army, and services of Clarke, Minister of War ; Napoleon's legal reforms ; the codes ; his financial reforms ; his reforms in education ; the formation of the Uni- versity of France (17 March, 1808). Napoleon's belief in the hereditary principle ; his new nobility ; his desire for an heir ; resolution to divorce his wife, the Empress Josephine (b. 1763, d. 1814). Failure of Napoleon to appreciate the forces working against him at the height of his power ; he had failed to ruin England, in spite of all his efforts ; he had rous^ 4 the natiotial spirit, which had_inade_France great, agains^ himJn_Sp ain and in Germany; the Grande Armee which had^onliis victories was being destroyed, and the vacancies in its ranks filled by foreigners and young French conscripts. Authorities : Upon Germany during the Napoleonic period, see Rambaud, La Domination frangaise en Allemagne (1804-11); Beck, Zur Verfassungsgeschichte des Rheinbunds ; Lucchesini, Sulle cause e gli effetti della confederazione rhenana ; Perthes, Politische Zustande und Personen zur Zeit der franzosischer Herrschaft ; Dumoulin-Eckart, Bayern unter dem Ministerium Montgelas ; Montgelas, Denk- wiirdigkeiten (1799-1817); Pfister, Konig Friedrich von Wiirttemberg und seine Zeit; Normann-Ehrenfels, Denkwiirdigkeiten (1756-1817); Kleinschmidt, Ge- ' schichte des Konigreichs Westfalen ; Du Casse^ Memoires et correspondance du roi Jerome ; Beugnot, Memoires ; Goecke, Das Grossherzogthum Berg unter Joachim Murat ; Beaulieu-Margonnay, Karl von Dalberg und seine Zeit ; Kramer, Karl Theodor, Reichsft-eiherr von Dalberg ; Bockenheimer, Geschichte der Stadt Mainz, wahrend der zweiten franzosischen Herrschaft ; and Hesse, Geschichte der Stadt Bonn, wahrend der franzosischen Herrschaft. Upon Italy, see Vaudoncourt, Histoire politique et militaire du Prince Eugene Napoleon ; Lafolie, Histoire de Tadministration du royaume d'ltalie pendant la domination franjaise; Eugene de Beauharnais, Memoires et correspondance, ed. by Du Casse; and Melzi, Memoire. Napoleoti's biterjerence in the Peni7isula. . 201 Oa the arrest of the Pope, see Artaud, Histoire du Pape Pie VII.; Critineau-Joly, Mdmoires du Cardinal Consalvi ; Pacca, M^nioires historiques ;. Coittbier, M^- moires du G^n^ral Radet, and Maury, Correspondance et nidnioircs. Ou Holland, see Jorissetiy Napol^oa I et le roi Louis ; and Louis JJotLipatle, Documents his- toriques et rdflexions sur le gouvernetneut de la HuUdnae. On Sv\edeu, Svtderus, Schwedens Politik und Kriege (1808-1814). On the Code,/a^, Bonaparte et le Code CiviL LECTURE 65. THE OVERTHROW OF THE POWER OF NAPOLEON. The struggle between England and Napoleon : the policies repre- sented by Castlereagh (b. 1769, d. 1822) and Canning (b. 1770, d. 1827), the latter desiring to raise national insurrections against Napoleon, the former to make coalitions and to act directly against the French with English armies; duel between Castlereagh and Canning (21 Sept., 1809); Lord Wellesley (b. 1760, d. 1842), director of English foreign policy (1809-1812); capture by the English of the remaining colonial possessions of France and Holland, Martinique (23 Feb., 1809), Guade- loupe (6 Feb., 1810) and the Mauritius (2 Dec, 1810), and Java (18 Sept., 181 1). Napoleon's resolution to attack Portugal, because the Prince- Regent declined to join in the Continental Blockade ; by the Treaty of Fon- tainebleau with Spain (27 Oct., 1807) he arranged for the division of Portugal ; a French army under Junot invaded Portugal ; flight of the Prince-Regent to Brazil; Junot entered Lisbon (30 Nov., 1807), occupied the whole of Portugal, and declared that the House of Bra- ganza had ceased to reign (i Feb., 1808). Napoleon's interference in the affairs in Spain : the people of Madrid attacked Godoy, the Queen's lover, and supported Prince Ferdinand, the heir to the throne ; the royal family of Spain appealed to Napoleon and proceeded to France ; Charles IV. ceded his throne to Napoleon, who proclaimed his brother Joseph, King of Spain (6 June, 1808); a French army entered Spain to support Joseph and occupied Madrid ; 202 Vimeiro, Coriinna and Wagram. general insurrection of the Spaniards ; surrender of 18,000 French soldiers to the Spaniards at Baylen (20 July, 1808); the English minis- try assisted the Spanish insurgents with money and arms. The Portuguese in insurrection against the French ; the English min- istry sent an army to their help under Sir Artitur Wellesley (b. 1769, d. 1852), who won the battles of Roliga and Vimeiro (17, 21 Aug., 1808); by the Convention of Cintra (30 Aug.) Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal. Napoleon in person invaded Spain, and occupied Madrid (4 Dec, 1808); Sir John Moore (b. 1761, d. 1809) with the English army ad- vanced from Portugal to Salamanca to save Andalusia; retreat of Sir John Moore to Corunna ; battle of Corunna (16 Jan., 1809). The difficulties of Napoleon in the Peninsula and the promise of support from England caused the Emperor Francis to believe the time propitious for a fresh war ; unpopularity of the French in Germany ; Napoleon's contempt for the popular feeling against him ; Stadion (b. 1763, d. 1824), who had become State Chancellor of Austria in 1806, desired to make Austria the representative of this German national feel- ing ; the services of Gentz (b. 1764, d. 1832); re-organization of the Austrian army by the Archduke Charles. Campaign of 1809 : the Archduke Charles invaded Bavaria, and the Archduke John, Italy ; Napoleon entered Germany, defeated the Arch- duke Charles at Abensberg and Eckmiihl (20. 22 Apr.) and occupied Vienna (13 May); the battle of Aspern or Essling (21-22 May); Na- poleon shut up in the island of Lobau ; the Tyrolese insurrection under Hofer ; Napoleon, joined by reinforcements, defeated the Austrians at Wagram (6 July). By the treaty of Vienna or Schonbrunn (14 Oct., 1809) Austria ceded Trieste, Carniola, and most of Croatia to Napoleon, who added these districts to the Illyrian Provinces; Austria also ceded Salzburg to Bavaria, Northern Galicia, including Cracow, which she had taken in the final partition of Poland in 1795, to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and the Circle of Tarnopol in Southern Galicia to Russia. Causes of the failure of Austria to arouse German national feeling ; Stadion suceeded by Metternich (b. 1773, d. 1859); Napoleon married to the Archduchess Marie Louise (b. 1791, d. 1847), daughter of the Emperor Francis (2 Apr., 18 10). The Reorgajiization of Prussia. 203 The English ministry resolved to pursue the war vigorously on land against Napoleon ; failure of the expedition to Walcheren (Aug., 1809); successes in the war in the Peninsula ; gallant defense ot Saragossa by the Spaniards ; though the Spanish armies were defeated, their guerilla warfare reduced the power of the French ; Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Lord Wellington, placed in command of the English army in the Pe- ninsula ; his capture of Oporto (12 May, 1809); his victory at Talavera (27-28 July); Wellington held the lines of Torres Vedras and repulsed a French invasion of Portugal under Massena (1810-1811) ; battles of Fuentes de Onor (5 May, 181 1), and Albuera (16 May); Wellington's capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (19 Jan., 1812), and Badajoz (6 Apr.), and defeat of Marmont at Salamanca (22 July); Joseph Bonaparte evacuated Madrid (10 Aug.); the English forced to retreat from Burgos (21 Oct.), and Joseph recovered Madrid for the last time (2 Nov.). The growth of the national spirit in Germany : the Germans looked to Prussia to lead them ; the Tugenbund. The re-organization of Prussia : the ministry of Stein (b. 1757, d. 1831) ; he abolished serfdom and introduced other reforms; the war ministry of Scharnhorst (b. 1755, d. 18 13); he passed the youth of Prussia through the army, and in the place of conscription adopted universal military service ; Napoleon obtained the dismissal of Stein (24 Nov., 1808) and of Scharnhorst (June, 18 10); the ministry of Har- denberg (1810-1822); he completed the work of Stein by making the former serfs owners of their holdings (14 Sept., 181 1) ; foundation of the University of Berlin (18 10); assistance rendered by William von Humboldt (b. 1767, d. 1835); Frederick William III. forced to sign an ofifensive and defensive alliance with Napoleon (24 Feb., 18 12). Growing disagreement between Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander : its causes ; Napoleon's resolution to invade Russia ; Castlereagh, who returned to office (28 Feb., 1812), offered to aid Russia ; through Eng- lish mediation Russia made peace with the Turks at Bucharest (28 May, 181 2) ; Russia signed the Treaty of Abo with Sweden (5 Apr., 1 81 2) by which Bernadotte promised to aid Russia against Napoleon and to cede Finland in exchange for Norway. Outbreak of war between England and the United States (18 June, 1812). 204 Overthrow of Napoleo?i. Campaign of 1812 : Napoleou invaded Russia (May); retreat of the Russians; battle of Borodino (7 Sept.); Napoleon occupied Moscow (14 Sept ) ; the retreat from Moscow ; almost complete destruction of the French army. Campaign of 18 13 : during the retreat from Moscow the Prussian con- tingent under York abandoned the French army (30 Dec, 18 12) ; Prussia declared war against France (16 Mar., 1813); Napoleon rallied his army and won the battles of Liitzen (2 May) and Bautzen (20 May); Austria signed the Convention of Reichenbach (27 June), and promised to join the Allies, if Napoleon refused the terms offered to him ; Congress of Prague; Austria declared war against Napoleon (12 Aug.); the French under Oudinot and Macdonald defeated by Bernadotte and Bliicher (b. 1742, d. 18 19) at Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach (23, 25 Aug.); Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Dresden (26-27 ^ug.) ; sur- render of Vandamme to the Russians at Kulm (30 Aug.); the Treaty of Toplitz between Austria and Bavaria (19 Sept.) ; Bavaria and Wiirtem- berg deserted Napoleon ; great defeat of the French at Leipzig (16-19 Oct.); defeat of the Bavarians at Hanau (30 Oct.); Napoleon withdrew from Germany ; general rising of the Germans against the French. Campaign of 18 13 in the Peninsula : Wellington defeated the French at Vittoria (21 June) and invaded France (7 Oct.). The allied armies reach the Rhine ; negotiations with Napoleon ; the Proposals of Frankfort (9 Nov., 18 13) ; attitude towards Napoleon and France of the Tsar Alexander, Metternich and Castlereagh. Campaign of 1 8 14 in France: the Allies invaded France (31 Dec, 1813); Napoleon's victories ; the Congress of Chatillon (3 Feb.-i9 Mar.) ; Frederick VI. of Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden in exchange for Swedish Pomerania by the Treaty of Kiel (14 Jan.) ; the Dutch insur- rection ; Carnot's defence of Antwerp ; the position in Italy ; Eugene de Beauharnais remained faithful, but Murat negotiated with the Allies; the English under Bentinck occupied Genoa (21 Apr.) ; attitude of France towards Napoleon ; the nation refused to rise in his defense ; the Allies signed the Treaty of Chaumont (i Mar.); Napoleon's last battles; the Allies occupied Paris (31 Mar.); abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau (6 Apr.). Causes of the fall of Napoleon. The Restoration. 205 Authorities : On Napoleon's interference in Spain and Portugal and on the history of the Peninsular War, the best small book is Shand, The War in the Pen- insula ; see Murat, Murat en Espagne ; Du Casse, M^moires et Correspondance du Roi Joseph ; Wellington, Despatches ; Napier, History of the Peninsular War ; Toreno, Historia del levantamieuto, guerra y revolucion de Espaiia ; and Gomez de Arteche, Reinado del Carlos IV., and Guerra della ludependencia ; for the campaign of Wagram, see Pelei, M^moires sur la guerre de 1809; Hormayr, Gcschichte An- dreas Hofer, and Angeliy Erzherzog Carl von CEsterreich als Feldherr und Heeres- organisator ; for the reorganization of Prussia, see Seeley, Life of Stein ; Periz, Das Leben des Ministers Freiherrn vom Stein ; Ranke, Denkwiirdigkeiten des Fiirsten von Hardenberg ; Cavaignac, Formation de la Prusse contemporaine, vol. 2, ; Stem, Abhandlungen und Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte der preussischen Reformzeit ; and Lehtnann, Scharnhorst, Der Tugenbund, and Knesebeck und Schon ; for Napo- leon's campaign in Russia, see Segur, Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Arm^e pendant I'annde 1812 ; for the campaign in Germany of 1813, and the rising of Ger- many against Napoleon, see Berlin, Campagne de 1813 ; Droysen, Das Leben des Grafen York von Wartenburg ; Pertz, Das Leben des Grafen Neithardt von Gneisenau ; Oncken, CEsterreich und Preussen im Befreiungskriege; Droysen, Vor- lesungen iiber die Freiheitskriege ; for the Dutch insurrection bqq Juste, Le souleve- ment de la Hollande en 1813 ; for the defensive campaign of 1814 in France, see Houssaye, 1814; Didot, Royautd ou Empire : la France en 1814 ; Berlin, La Cam- pagne de 1814 ; and Fain^ Manuscrit de 1814 ; and for the diplomatic proceedings of the period, Alison, Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart; Castlereagh^ Correspondence ; Mettemich, Memoirs ; and Vitrolles, M^moires. LECTURE 66 THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA. The abdication of Napoleon was followed by the Provisional Treaty of Paris (11 April, 18 14) assigning to him the island of Elba and an income, and to the Empress Marie Louise the duchies of Parma and Piacenza, The provisional government of France under the guidance of Talley- rand accepted Louis XVIII. as King ; on his arrival he issued the De- claration ol Saint-Ouen (2 May), promising representative government, liberty of worship and of the press, responsibility of ministers, guaran- y^ 206 Tiie Congress of Vienna. tee of property acquired during the Revolution, etc., which were after- wards embodied in the Charter (4 June, 18 14). ^Irtr-v'-t^ By the First Treaty of Paris (3c May, 18 14) Fran(^^s reduced to the limits of 1792, with the addition of AvignonfaSd other districts within these limits, and of part of Savoy ; she received back all her colonies, except the Mauritius, Saint Lucia and Tobagcvwhich were ceded to England, ^/^t.^i^t.c.^^ x^^^t.*-^ c^ ^ / 7 f 2- zul6e::j^ ^ ^tJ^i^^ It was agreed that a congress of representatives of the states of Eu- rope should be held at Vienna to dispose of the territories on the left bank of the Rhine, taken from Frani^e, and in generaLto settle the .affairs of Europe, ^^n^ti:^:^/) {C2^^ -^-^ "^ .*)^|^2^^ The Congress of Vienna met^n i I\ov. 1814 ; it was attended by *^^^nrast of the sovereigns of Europe, and those who were not present sent ^t>^jpedal envoys. ^^II^^tT-. ^^^^T" (,*2:^X>5?t:&to The most important ambassadors were Metternicb^foi Austri ^Hard - O^ l^enberg for Prussia, Castlereagh for England, and Razumovski and m^-^'^^Sesselrode for Russia ; these representatives of the four victorious powers arrogated to themselves the right to arrange the decisions of the Congress. ^ i.xjJ'j*^^ •g -C^.*^*.^ gu*-*^^-^^ , ,»A£((jUjA^^:^ft^-'t(^^^^^ The chief political questions at issue : (i) tire Tsar Alexander de- sired the whole of Poland and Frederick W illia m TIT of Prussia the whole of Saxony, whose king had remained faithful to Napoleon ; (2) •^•'^^'Tilie disposition of the territories on the left baj^^ of the Rhine ; (3) the /ij*^ treatment of Italy, especially of Murgt, wno had abandoned Napoleon: ^■'^^^ Talleyrand's attitude upon these questio^S-^ a-^.^^-*-*-^ ^r^^^^cr*^. In order to oppose the claims of Russia and Prussia, Austria, Eng- land and France signed a secret treaty of alliance (3 Jan., 1815). Eventually it was settled that Prussia should receive Eusatia, being about two-fifths of the Kingdom of Saxony, and Russia the greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including the city of Warsaw ; Prussia recovered from the Grand Duchy the province of Posen, with Thorn and Dantzig, while Austria recovered the Circle of Tamopol in Southern Galicia, and Cracow was madeaTree stater, ^a-'^p^-cx. ^tUA^c^-x^c/) >f- The Co7igress of Vienna. 207 ^^y^ In order to establish strong powers upon the Rhine to curb France, i>*Holland and Belgium were united as the Kingdom of the Netherlands .^^''^and granted to the Prince of Orange, who was also made Grand Duke of Luxemburg ; the districts comprising the former electorates of Treves and Cologne, etc., were granted to Prussia ; the districts farther south to Bavaria, in compensation for the loss of Salzburg and the Tyrol, and the fortress of Mayence to Hesse-Darmstadt, to be garri- soned by the Germanic Confederation. -v. ^ ^t»vt^ The re-arrangement of Italy : Lombardy and Venetia were given to Austria ; Genoa was added to the Kingdom of Sardinia, in which the succession was fixed in the Carignano line ; Tuscany and Modena were restored to their former rulers, both Austrian princes ; Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were given to the Empress Marie Louise for her life, with succession to the rightful heir, who was for the time made Grand Duke of Lucca ; the States of the Church were restored to the Pope, and the ques- tion of retaining Murat on the throne of Naples remained unsettled until he defied Austria and endeavored to summon Italy to arms ; after the defeat of Murat at Tolentino (3 May, 1815) Naples was restored to Fer- dinand IV., who took the title of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies. The districts on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, which Napoleon had governed as the lUyrian Provinces, were annexed by Austria. In the North, Sweden was confirmed in the possession of Norway, ceded to -her by Denmark by the Treaty of Kiel, but Denmark lost Swedish Pomerania and received instead the Duchy of Lauenburg. In Germany, Prussia regained her acquisitions of 1803, with Swedish Pomerania, the greater part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, and Rhenish Prussia ; Hanover received East Friesland and other districts; and the mediatization of the petty states of Germany was maintained. JL^ ^ England, in addition to the colonial gains made by the Treaty of ^^,>^Amiens, retained the Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius, Malta, Heligo- land, and the Ionian Islands, but restored Martinique to the French and Java to the Dutch ; Castlereagh's chief preoccupation at Vienna was, however, to secure the abolition of the negro slave trade. Peace signed between England and the United States at Ghent (24 Dec, 1814). >1 J^- '"-Tf^^Vfe^ ic, i«i4). -y^. lJUy/t.>CXi->^' Before its w^ork wa^completed, the Congress of Vienna was startled 205 The Hundred Days, by the news that Napoleon had left Elba and was again masterof France ; it, therefore, hurried through the rest of its work by reorganizing Ger- i. . many and Switzerland. ^'^"^^i The Germanjc Confederatioji took the pl ace of the Confederation^ of fKTi'Oii^ Rhin e ; it consisted of thirty -five stages, in addition to Austria, \^^ Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands, namely : the four kingdoms of ;.-*4r^ Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony and Wiirtemberg, the seven grand duchies of Baden, Hesse-Cassel or Electoral Hesse, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklen- burg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Saxe- Weimar, nine duchies, eleven principalities, and the four free cities of Bremen, Frankfort, Hamburg and Liibeck ; the aflfairs of the Confederation were entrusted to a Diet (Bundestag^ presided over by Austna and consist- ing of an Ordinary Assembly of seventeen and a General Assembly of siijcty-niue members. '^^^...^^i^L^-^fe^^^'-^^ti^^i^'^^^ guaranteed neutrality by the powers of E)uxop.e ; three new cantons, Geneva, Neufchatel and the Valais were added ; entire independence' was given to the individual cantons and presidency of the FgitoaLJIiet was reserved to Zurich, Berne and Lu- I . cernejn turn. myW^^-z ^mportan^- e of the jEQtk of the CongressjoUiZiemia ; it showed a re- on to. i^th 'cejitury id eas in tra mpUng on. the ideas. of natiQiialit:^^ nd the sovereignty of the people. ^^^^jt^*^'^/^^- y*J^ The story of the Hundred Days : unpopularity and unms^cotfiduct jZr^ of Louis XVIII.; return of French prisoners of war from Germany and \^ Russia; Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed in France (i Mar., 1 8 15); he reached Paris (20 Mar.); flight of Louis XVIII.; Napoleon promised to establish representative institutions ; the Additional Act (23 Apr.); his endeavors to raise France against the Allies ; defeated by the English and Prussians at Waterloo (18 June); surrender of Napo- leon to Captain Maitland (15 July); sent to St. Helena; the Allied armies occupied Paris (6 July); restoration of Louis XVIII. By the vSecond Treaty of Paris (20 Nov., 1815) France lost the part of Savoy granted to her in 1814 and other rectifications of her frontier; she had to restore to their former owners the works of art accumulated in Paris ; she was forced to pay a war contribution of 700,000.000 francs and to maintain an army of 150,000 troops of the Allies in possession of her eastern fortresses for five years. The Holy Alliance. 209 Authorities : For the history and acts of the Congress of Vienna, see Flassan^ Histoire du Congres dc Vienne ; Kliiber^ Akten des Wiener Congresses ; Angeberg^ Le Congres de Vienne et les Traitds de 1815 ; De Pradt, I^e Congrds de Vienne; Lagatde, Fetes et souvenirs du Congres de Vienne ; Sorel, Les Trait^s de 1815 ; Schoell, Recueil de pieces officielles relatives au Congres de Vienne ; Talleyrand^ M^moires ; Pallain, Correspondance iu^dite du Prince de Talleyrand et du Roi Louis XVIII. pendant le Congres de Vienne ; Metiernich, Memoirs ; Alison, Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart ; Castlereagb, Correspondence ; Wel- lington, Supplementary Despatches ; Ranke, Hardenberg ; Miinster, Depeschen vom Wiener Congress ; Pidet, Biographie, travaux et correspondance de C. Pictet de Rochemont, and Pozzo di Borgo, Correspondance. For the Hundred Days» see the books on Napoleon already cited, with Ho us say e, 1815 ; Constant, Me- moires sur les Cent Jours ; Vitrolles, Memoires ; and Rochechouart, Souvenirs ; and for the campaign of Waterloo, Siborne, History of the War in France and Bel- gium in 1815 ; Ropes, The Campaign of Waterloo ; Gardner, Waterloo ; Chesney^ Waterloo Lectures ; Ollech, Geschichte des FeldzUges von 1815 ; La Tour d' Au- vergne, Waterloo ; and Charras, Histoire de la campagne de 1815. ^ LECTURE 6 ^ 1> THE HOLY ALLIANCE. i^^^ u^^^^^ After the signature of the Second Treaty of Parjs^e Tsar Alexander of Russia, influenced by Madame de Krudfiner^proposed the formation of a Holy Alliance declaring the obligation^ of nionarchs to the Chris- tian religion; it was signed by the Emperor Francis of Austi:ia and Kfag Frederick William III. of Prussia (26 Sept. , j8.i^l, bu t got by the Prince Regent of England ; the objects and aims, secret and"avowed, of the Holy Alliance. Metternich recognized as the leading statesman of the Holy Alliance ; his fear of democratic principles greater than his attachment to religion; his intimacy with Castlereagh ; he proposed to preserve the neace^of Europe and the force of government by frequent congresses of repre- sentatives of the Great Powers, which should consult and act together. Metternich's Austrian policy the reverse of that of Joseph II.; he be- lieved in maintaining authority by preserving the diversity of language and law in the different provinces of the Austrian Empire. 2IO Europe^ 181^-1820. The internal policy of the Tsar Alexander I.: his attempt to establish constitutional government as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Fin- land ; his friendship with Adam Czartor^ski (b. 1770, d. 1861), and other Polish patriots ; his interest in the Eastern Question, and desire to overthrow the power of the Turks ; he encouraged the Greeks, espe- cially through Capo d'Istria, in their desire for independence. The government of Louis XVIII. in France : the system of the Char- ter ; establishment of responsible government on the English model ; the two Chambers ; the two parties, Royalists and Constitutionalists ; suppression of the liberty of the press ; repression of the partisans of the Revolution ; the White Terror ; the first administration of the Due de elieu (i 815-18 1 8). The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle ; agreement of the Allies to evacuate France (9 Oct., 18 18). The spread of constitutional principles in Germany : indignation of /i the Young German party at the refusal of the Congress of Vienna to ' n^b recognize the principle of nationality or the establishment of represent- Q ative institutions ; the spirit of the universities ; the Burschenschaft. Certain German rulers, notably the Kings of Bavaria and Wiirtem- berg and the Grand Dukes of Baden and Saxe- Weimar, granted repre- sentative constitutions to their states; Frederick William III. of Prussia had promised a constitution in 18 15 and took steps in that direction in 1818 ; the work of William von Humboldt ; Metternich's opposi- a tion to the liberal movement in (^^xx^xxy.p' /^i^.scJt^tr-i '^ "*^Li /^V --^^'-^^^-'^ Th ^ murder of Kn tzehne ("23 Mar., 1819) ; its effecfon Germany; Frederick William III. dismissed Humboldt and did not issue his promised constitution ; riots in Germany ; Metternich took advantage of these risings to oppose liberal ideas; the Congress of Carlsbad (Aug., 1819) ; the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (15 May, 1820), strengthening the power of the Diet of the Germanic Confederation to interfere in the different states ; the police measures taken against Ger- man liberalism. The demand for representative institutions and for the recognition of liberal principles stigmatized by Metternich as Jacobinism ; the Holy Alliance, including the Tsar Alexander, induced to declare against liberalism. Insurrectio7is in Spain and Italy. 211 Secret societies formed by the supporters of liberal principles all over Europe, in relation with each other ; in Germany and in Italy their cause associated with the spirit of nationality. ^"^^ Insurrection in Spain (1820) caused by the reactionary government of Ferdinand VII.; the Spanish colonies in Central and South America were fighting for their independence ; San Martin, Francia, Bolivar and Iturbide ; the Spaniards demanded the Constitution of 1812 ; Ferdinand VII. appeared to yield, but appealed for help against his people to the Holy Alliance ; Catalonia and Navarre opposed to the reforms of the Cortes. The situation in Italy : policy of the Italian governments ; restoration of the Society of Jesus by the Pope (7 Aug., 1814) ; the movement for reform, both democratic and national ; the Carbonari ; Pepe (b. 1783, d. 1855) seized Naples (July, 1820) and forced Ferdinand I. to adopt a liberal constitution ; democratic rising in Piedmont (Mar., 1821); part played by Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano ; abdication of Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia. Metternich laid the question of the liberal movement in Italy before a congress of the powers at Troppau (Oct.-Dec, 1820J and at Laybach (J an. -May, 182 1); Austria authorized to interfere ; suppression of the liberal movements in Naples and Piedmont by Austrian troops. Q\ Suicide of Castlereagh (12 Aug., 1822); succeeded by CangiilJ^^fe^Xc« Englisn foreign minister; Canning's liberal ideas and dislike of Met- v ternich; Castlereagh's death the first blow at the solidarity of the Great Powers in the system of governing Europe by congresses. .Attitude of France towards the other powers ; policy of Louis XVIII.; administration of Decazes (1818-20) and of Richelieu (1820-21) ; forma- tion of an ultra-Royalist ministry under Villele (15 Dec, T821). Meeting of the Congress of Verona (Oct., 1822), summoned to deal with the revolutionary movement in Spain ; attitude taken by Canning, who declared the intention of England to recognize the independence of the South American republics and warned the powers not to interfere in Portugal ; the Congress requested France to re-establish the authority of Ferdinand VII. A French army invaded Spain C7 Apr., 1823), occupied Madrid (19 May) and suppressed the Constitutional party in Spain ; unpopularity 212 Disruption of the Holy Alliance. of this action among the French liberals ; plots formed against the Bourbons. Death of Louis XVIII. (i6 Sept., 1824); accession of his brother, the Comte d'Artois,as Charles X. (b. 1757, d. 1836); his ultra- Royalist ideas ; Villele retained in power. Death of the Tsar Alexander I. (i "Dec, 1825) ; the character of his influence on European politics since the Congress of Vienna ; the Holy Alliance broken up by his death ; determination of his suc- cessor, Nicholas I., to carry out his own policy without consulting the other powers ; Metternich remained the director of the policy of Austria and Prussia, but England, owing to the death of Castlereagh, and Russia, owing to the death of Alexander, were no longer submis- sive to his leadership. Authorities : For the diplomatic history of this period, see Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de I'Europe ; Seignobos, Histoire poHtique de I'Kurope contempo- raine (1814-96) ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe : Stern, Geschichte Europas, seit 1815 ; Muhlenbecky ]&tudes sur les origines de la Samte- Alliance ; Metternich, Memoirs ; Mazade, Un Chancelier d'Ancien Regime, regne diplomatique de M, de Metternich \ Castlereagh^ Correspondence; Canning, Speeches ; Stapleton, Political Life of George Canning, and Canning and hisTimes ; De Maistre, Memoires poht- iques et correspondance diplomatique ; Pozzo di Borgo, Correspondance diploma- tique ; Maggiolo, Pozzo di Borgo ; and Ranke, Hardenberg ; for special Congresses, see De Pradt^ L' Europe apres le Congres d'Aix-la-Chapelle, and Le Coogres de Carlsbad ; Bignon, Le Congres de Troppau ; and Chateaubriand, Le Congres de Verone ; for the history of the Restoration in France, see Viel-Castel, Histoire de la Restauration; Duvergier de Hauranne, Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en France (1814-48) ; Dulaure and Augtds, Histoire de la Revolution depuis 1814 jusq'ai83o; Cisternes, Le due de Richelieu (1818-21); Crousaz-Cretet, Le due de Richelieu ; Rochechouart, Souvenirs ; Hyde d e Nouville, Memoires ; Barante^ Souvenirs ; Pasqider, Memoires ; -^^^Discours ; Marcellus, Souvenirs diploma- tiques; Ferrand, Memoires: smd^ Vitiate. Mdmoires ; for Germany, see Gervinus, Geschichte des Neunzehuten Jahrhunderts ; Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im Neunzehnten Jahrhundert ; Pfister, Konig Friedrich von Wiirtemberg und seine Zeit; on Italy, see Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia ; Nisco, Storia d'ltalia (1815-30) ; Stillman, The Union of Itaiy (1815-95); Tivaroni, Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano ; Colletta, Istoria di Reame di Napoli ; Pepe, Relation des ^venements politiques et militaires de Naples en 1820 et 182 1, and Memoires historiques, politiques, et militaires sur la revolution du royaume de Naples ; and Costa de Beauregard, La jeunesse du roi Charles Albert ; The Easteryi Question. 213 for Spain, see Hubbard, Histoire contemporaine de I'Espagne ; Hugo, Histoire de la guerre d'Espagne en 1823 ; and Mariignac, Essai historique sur la revolution d'Espagnc ; and for Russia, Fordy Life and Letters of Madame de Kriidener ; La correspondance entre le Tsar Alexandre et le Prince Adam Czartoryski ; Schnitz- ler Histoire intime de la Russie sous les Empereurs Alexandre et Nicolas ; Bern- hardt, Geschichte Russlands und der europaischeu Politik ; and Korff, Av^ne- ment au trone de I'Ecipereur Nicolas I. LECTURE 68. THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE INDEPENDENCE OF GREECE. The importance of the Eastern question in the history of Europe dur- ing the 19th century ; owing to the extinction of Poland, it becomes practically a Turkish question ;££n gland and Austria have devoted themselves to checking the disruption of the Turkish Empire, which it has been the traditional policy of Russia to promote?) yo^^>-6---^ a^Tv^ ^^ The position of the Turks at the time of the Congress of Vienna J^ ^^ ^linetef-th^ old Muhammadan fanaticism and energy ; influence of the 's^^ Phanariot Greek families ; the government of the Sultan Mahmud II. ^ (1808-30); quasi- independence in Egypt attained by Mehemet AH (b. 1769, d. 1849) after his destruction of the Mamelukes (181 1); the power of AH Pasha of Janina (b. 1741, d. 1822) in Albania ; discontent of the Christian populations under Turkish rule, of the Romanian in- habitants of the Danubian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, of the Vrinr^iiniiiirection of the Servians under Kara George (1804) ; recog- nition of independence by the Treaty of Bucharest (28 May, 18 12) ; the Turks nevertheless reconquered Servia and expelled Kara George ; the second Servian insurrection under Milosch Obrenovitch (i8i5'> ; murder of Kara George (July, 181 7) ; Milosch Obrenovitch declared himself Prince of Servia (6 Nov. 1817). Condition of the Danubian provinces ; loss of Bessarabia by the Treaty of Bucharest ; continued government of Moldavia and Wallachia by Hospodars appointed from the Phanariot Greek families of Constant!- 214 The Greek hisurrection, \J nople ; failure of the attempt of Alexander Y psilanti. to raise an insur- rection on behalf of the Greeks among the Romanians (1821) ; absence of sympathy between Greeks and Romanians ; appointment by the Sultan of two Romanian boyars or nobles, John Stourza and Gregory Ghica, as Hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia (1822). The Greek insurrection (1821) ; encouraged, but not openly, by the Tsar Alexander I. ; his friendship for Capo d'Istria (b. 1776) ; gallan- try of the Greek insurgents ; Metternich declared against assisting them ; Alexander, therefore, dismissed Capo d'Istria from office (1822) ; strong feeling among the educated classes in England and France in favor of the Greeks ; m any volu nteers, inc luding Byron , went to their Q>^ assistance ; large loans raised for them in England; "Seath of Byron >^ (19 Apr. 1824) ; arrival of an Egyptian army under Ibrahim Pasha, sent by Mehemet Ali at the request of the Sultan (March, 1S25). Change caused in the attitude of Russia towards the Eastern Ques- tion by the accession of Nicholas ; his resolution to promote Russian I interests in Turkey without consulting the other powers ; agreement of l^^t^^icholas with Canning to force th e Turks to recognize the independ- 1^' ence of Greece (4 Apr., 1826) ; increased sympathy for the Greeks aroused by the atrocities of the Turks at the capture of Missolonghi (22 Apr., 1826) ; by the Treaty of Ackerman with Russia (7 Oct., 1826) the Sultan agreed to appoint local boyars, elected by the local divans, for a term of seven years as Hospodars or princes of the two Danubian provinces, who could not be removed without the consent of the Tsar, and to recognize the quasi-independence of Servia under Turkish suzerainty. Canning, prime minister of England (j o Apr , tS?;;:)^; Capo d'Istria elected President of the Greek State (14 Apr.) ; Russia, England and France signed an agreement for securing absolute independence for ^ - Greece (6 July) ; the Turks, encouraged by Metternich, refused to *^ yield ; death of Canning (8 Aug.) ; destruction of the Turkish and fleet by the allies at Navarino (20 Oct., 1827). osition of the Sultan Mahmud II . ; by the massacre of the Janissa- ries (15 June, 1826) he had destroyed his army ; the battle of Navarino had destroyed his fleet ; nevertheless, he refused to consent to the inde- pendence of Greece. The Russo- Turkish War, 1828-1829. 215 The Tsar Nicholas, in the name of the Triple Alliance, attacked the Turks, and a Russian army crossed the Pruth (7 May, 1828) ; changes of ministry in England and France caused England under Wellington to be less eager, and France under Martignac to be more eager, to sup- port the cause of the Greeks ; a French force under Maison occupied the Morea, which was evacuated by the Egyptian troops ; the Russians repulsed from Shumla and Silistria ; successful campaign of Paskievitch (b. 1782, d. 1856) in Armenia. . '^/'v-^a^ . The Conferences of Toplitz (7-16 Aug., 1833), and Miinchengratz ' (10-20 Sept., 1833) ; the three powers of Austria, Prus^a and Russia, guaranteed each other's rights in Poland and took measures for crush- ing the idea of Polish nationality ; they also resolved against the doc- trine of non-intervention, and declared the right of any monarch, whose position was assailed by internal rebellion, to appeal for aid to other monarchs. With regard to Germany, a law was passed in the Federal Diet, through the influence of Metternich, that, in case of disagreement between a German ruler and his people, the Confederation could interfere to restore the powei of the ruler, and it was declared that no constitution granted by himself could limit the right of a ruler to collect taxes. The elGfect of the Revolution of 1830 in Italy : the Carbonari directed a series of insurrections ; the Empress Marie Louise driven from Parma, and Duke Francis IV. from Modena (Feb., 1831) ; insurrections in the States of the Church due to the repressive government of Pope Leo XII. — Delia Genga — (1823-29) and of Pope Pius VIII. — Castiglioni — (1829-30) ; the election of Pope Gregory XVI. — Cappellari — (2 Feb., 1 831) ; provisional government formed for the Legations at Bologna, under Carlo Pepcli, and rejection j)fjthe temporal_power of the^Papacy^> Metternich sent A ustria n troops^ to restore^ order. in Parma, Modena, and the States of the Church (March, 1831) ; the Italian insurgents exj-j^ ^ pected help from France ; the attitude taken by Louis Philippe and Revolution in Portugal. 223 Casimir Perier ; the French occupied Ancona (22 Feb., 1832), which they asserted their right to hold as long as the Austrians occupied the "Legations ; the French evacuated Ancona, when the Austrians with- drew (Dec, 1838). Significance of the movement of 1830 in Europe. Authorities: On the government of Belgium by the Dutch, see Getlache, Histoirc du royaume des Pays-Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830; on the Belgian Revolution, see White ^ The Belgic Revolution of 1830 ; Nothomb, Essai historique et politique sur la revolution de Belgique ; Juste, La revolution beige de 1830, Lecongres national de Belgique, Les fondateurs de la monarchic beige, and Leopold I. et Leopold II., leur vie et leur regne ; Bavay, Histoire de la revolution beige de 1830 ; and Potter, Souvenirs. Primary authorities are Discussions du congres national de Belgique, 1830-31, ed. Huyttens, 5 vols.; and Recueil de pieces diplomatiques rel- atives aux affaires de la Belgique en 1830-32, ed. Verstolk van Soelen ; Thofii^setit La constitution beige annot^e. On the revolutionary movement in Germany in 1830, see Gervinus and Treitschke, cited under Lecture 67 ; Butle, Gcschichte der neuesten Zeit ; Deventer, Cinquante annees de I'histoire f^d^rale de I'Allemagne ; Mucke, Die politischen Bewegung in Deutschland von 1830 bis 1835 ; and Bieder- tnann, 1815-1840, funf und zwanzig Jahre deutscher Geschichte ; and, in Italy, see Thayer, The Dawn of Italian Independence, Italy from the Congress of Vienna, 1814, to the Fall of Venice, 1849 ; Stillman, The Union of Italy ; and Tivatoni, Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano. LECTURE 71. INSURRECTION AND CIVIL WAR IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. The condition of Portugal after the Peninsular War; extent of English influence in the Regency and the army; expulsion of the Eng- lish officers (1820) and adoption of a democratic Constitution (1822). Return of John VI. to Portugal (4 July, 1821); Brazil declared its independence under his elder son, the Emperor Pedro I. (Aug., 1822); on the death of John VI. (10 Mar., 1826), the Emperor Pedro issued the Charter of 1826 (26 Apr.) establishmg moderate parliamentary govern- ment and then abdicated the throne of Portugal (2 May, 1826) in favor of his daughter, Maria da Gloria (b. 1819); the English force sent by / Canning to Portugal to maintain order, withdrawn in 18: 224 Civil War in Pprtugal. , Dom Miguel (b. 1802, d. 1866), younger brother of the Emperor Pedro, who was appointed Regent (3 July, 1827), seized the throne (30 June, 1828) ; he declared himself an absolute monarch, and persecuted both the moderate adherents to the Charter of 1826, and the more radi- cal supporters of the Constitution of 1822. The reign of Dom Miguel ; both Chartists and Constitutionalists rose in rebellion (1829) and declared in favor of Maria da Gloria ; the Em- peror Pedro resigned the throne of Brazil (7 April, 1831) and came to the support of his daughter's cause ; attitude of the powers of Europe towards the civil war in Portugal ; many English officers entered the Queen's service; the siege of Oporto; Napier (b. 1786, d. i860) de- stroyed Miguel's fleet off Cape Saint Vincent (5 July, 1833); the Ped- roites occupied Lisbon (24 July). England, France and Spain recognized Maria da Gloria and formed the Quadruple Alliance (22 Apr., 1834) ; Dom Miguel surrendered to a Spanish and Portuguese army at Evora Monte (26 May, 1834) ; by the Convention of Evora Monte (29 May) he was expelled from Portugal. Death of the ex-Emperor Pedro (24 Sept., 1834) ; troubled reign of Maria da Gloria (1834-53); repeated outbreaks of civil war and fre- quent military pronunciamentos in favor of the Charter of 1826 and the Constitution of 1822 ; revision of the Charter (1852) ; the career of Sal- danha (b. 1790, d. 1876). ^ Revival of national feeling in Portugal ; rejection of the Iberianist V £- idea. The latter years of the reign of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, after his restoration to absolute power by the French in 1823; the question of the succession to the throne : Ferdinand VII., by a Pragmatic Sanction, dieclared his elder daughter, Isabella, to be his heir ; opposition of Don Carlos (b. 1788, d. 1855), his brother, who claimed the succession as j male heir. Death ot Ferdinand VII. (29 Sept., 1833) ; Isabella, a child of three years old, recognized as Queen by the greater part of Spain, under the regency of her mother, Christina (b. 1806, d. 1878), a daughter of Ferd- inand I., King of the Two Sicilies ; character of Christina ; the regency recognized by England and France. Don Carlos opposed the regency and declared himself king ; his cause The First Car list War. 225 favored by the clericals and by the mountaineers of Northern Spain ; outbreak of civil war ; victories of the Carlists ; death of Zumalacarregut (25 June, 1835). Rivalry of England and France in the affairs of the Peninsula : per- sonal rivalry between Palmerston and Louis Philippe ; both countries prevented by jealousy of each other from openly assisting the Chris- tinists, though they both as constitutional monarchies desired her success over the Carlists; "Legions" of volunteers were, how- ever, raised both in France and in England for the support of the Chris- tinists ; services of Sir De Lacy Evans. Perilous position of the Christinists ; the military revolt of La Granja (12-13 Aug., 1836) ; Christina summoned a Cortes, which promulgated the liberal constitution of 1837 (June) ; vigorous prosecution of the war against the Carlists ; victories of Espartero ; defeat and flight of Don Carlos (Sept., 1839). Espartero forced Christina to leave Spain (Oct., 1840), and ruled the country as Regent for three years ; his strong government and en- deavors to put down brigandage and to restore the prosperity of Spain. Narvaez overthrew Espartero (July, 1843), recalled Christina, and declared the young Queen Isabella of age (8 Nov., 1843). The rivalry between England and France for influence in Spain be- comes more pronounced ; the policy of Louis Philippe ; the question of the Spanish marriages ; Queen Isabella married to her cousin Don Francisco de Assisi, Duke of Cadiz, and her sister and heiress to the Due de Montpensier, fifth son of Louis Philippe (10 Oct., 1846). Condition of Spain during the reign of Queen Isabella : frequent changes in the ministry between Narvaez (b. 1800, d. 1868), Espartero (b. 1792, d. 1879) and O'Donnell (b. 1809, d. 1867) ; backwardness of Spain in material and intellectual progress. Characteristics of the history of the Peninsula during the period sue- 1 ceeding the overthrow of Napoleon ; failure of representative institu- tions and party government • to meet the conditions in Spain and Portugal ; the meaning and effect of the pronunciamentos and civil wars. Authorities : Upon the civil wars in Portugal and the establishment of repre- sentative government there, see Morse Step/tens, The Story of Portugal: StmfH Memoirs of the Duke of Saldanha ; Luz Soriano^ Historia da Guerra civi e do E>- 226 The Monarchy of July. tabelecimento do Governo Parlamentar em Portugal ; Arriaga, Historia da Revo- lu9ao portugueza de 1820 ; Freire de Carvalho, Memorias para a historia do tempo que duron a Usurpacao de Dom Miguel ; Gomes de Barros e Cunha, Historia da Liberdade em Portugal, and Bollaert, The Wars of Succession in Spain and Portu- gal ; upon the same period in Spain, see Reynald^ Histoire de I'Kspagne depuis la mort de Charles III.; Hubbard, Histoire contemporaine de I'Espagne; Pirala, Historia de la guerra civil y de los partidos liberal y Carlista ; Mariano, La rcgencia de Baldomero Espartero ; Los Valles, Don Carlos ; Bollaert; and Duncan, The English in Spain, or the War of Succession between 1834 and 1840. LECTURE 72. EUROPE DURING THE REIGN OF LOUIS PHILIPPE. The characteristics of the Monarchy of July : its founders moulded their ideas on the English parliamentary system, including the responsi- bihty of ministers, the annual voting of supplies, and the selection of ministers from the legislature, but the upper House consisted of life and not of hereditary peers, and the popular House was elected by the large taxpayers and members of the learned professions, the franchise being restricted to about three hundred thousand persons. The difficulties of the position of Louis Philippe : he was opposed on the one side by the Legitimists, who caused disturbances in the South, and on the other by the Republicans, who caused many riots in the great industrial cities, and especially in Lyons. Effect of the foreign policy of Louis Philippe and of his refusal to help the insurgent Belgians, Poles and Italians upon his position at home. Death of Casimir Perier (16 May, 1832). Repression of a Republican rising in Paris (6 June), and arrest of the Duchess of Berry (7 Nov.), who had endeavored to raise the Vendee for the Legitimists. Commencement of parliamentary government ; formation of the Soult administration (11 Oct., 1832); difficulties in the way of establishing regular parliamentary government in France ; absence of definite par- The Foreign Policy of Louis Philippe. 227 liainentary parties; the chief parliamentary leaders, Thiers (b. 1797, d. 1877), Guizot (b. 1787, d. 1874), the Due de Broglie (b. 1785, d. 1870), Mole (b. 1781, d. 1855), Berryer (b. 1790, d. 1868), and Odilon Barrot (b. 1791, d. 1873) ; frequent ministerial changes. Numerous industrial and democratic insurrections in France ; Fieschi's attempt on the king's life (28 July, 1835); attempt of Louis Napoleon upon Strasburg (30 Oct., 1836). The foreign policy of Louis Philippe : his intimate relations with England (1830-34) ; the cause of this close alliance, the distrust of him felt by the other Great Powers; gradual weakening of the alliance ; Palmerston, the English foreign minister, endeavored to keep France from interfering in the affairs of Spain and Portugal ; Louis Philippe then weakened in his attachment for England, and negotiated with Austria, endeavoring to obtain an Austrian archduchess as wife for his eldest son ; France and England came into collision on South American, Asiatic, African and other questions. The occupation and gradual conquest of Algeria by France : the re- sistance of Abd-el-Kader (b. 1807, d. 1883); the campaigns of Bugeaud (b. 1784, d. 1849). Revolution in Servia ; abdication of Milosch Obrenovitch (13 June, 1839) ; death of his son and successor, Milan (8 July) ; brief reign of Michael Obrenovitch, second son of Milosch ; his expulsion (27 Aug. , 1842) ; election of Alexander Karageorgevitch by the Skuptchina, or Diet, as Prince of Servia (14 Sept.). A fresh crisis in the Eastern Question nearly caused war between France and England ; the Sultan Mahmud IL had not forgiven Mehe- met Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who had conquered Syria in 1832, and had only been prevented from overthrowing the Ottoman Empire by the intervention of Russia and the Great Powers; the Turks invaded Syria, but were defeated by the Egyptians near Aleppo (24 June, 1839) ; death of Mahmud II (30 June), and accession of Abdul Medjid. The French sympathized with Mehemet Ali, but England feared that his success would overthrow the Turkish Empire, and therefore agreed with Russia, Prussia and Austria to intervene on behalf of the Turks ; Palmerston resolved to break the Anglo-French alliance and by the Treaty of London (15 July, 1840) agreed with the other three Great 2?8 The Spa7iish Marriages. Powers to act without France ; Napier and Stopford bombarded Bey- rout (i2 Sept.) and Acre (2 Nov.); the Egyptians retired from Syria; and eventually (13 Feb., 1841) Mehemet Ali was forced to accept an hereditary title to Egypt under certain conditions, and to abandon all other claims; the Great Powers guaranteed the neutrality of the Dar- danelles under Turkish sovereignty C13 July, 1841). Indignation felt in France against England : war averted with diffi- culty ; formation of the Guizot administration (29 Oct., 1840), which remained in office till the end of the reign of Louis Philippe. Growth of the Napoleonic legend in France : attempt of Louis Na- poleon on Boulogne (6 Aug., 1840) ; the remains of the first Napoleon brought to France and interred in Paris (15 Dec, 1840). Changes brought about in the political attitude and conditions of England during the reign of Louis Philippe ; the passing of the Reform Bill (7 June, 1832) transferred political power from the aristocracy to the middle classes, and subsequent reforms made the administration more democratic ; the accession of Victoria (20 June, 1837) separated English from continental interests, for the Kingdom of Hanover passed to her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, who ascended the throne as Ernest I. Marriage of Victoria to Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (b. 18 19, d. 1861) ; his character, and interest in foreign politics ; the Queen's first ministers, Melbourne and Palmerston ; influence of Wellington ; Sir Robert Peel (b, 1788, d. 1850) prime minister (1841) ; his endeavors for peace. The question of the Spanish marriages : Louis Philippe tricked the English ministry, and after preventing the marriage of Queen Isabella of Spain to the English candidate, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, secured the marriage of the young Queen to her cousin Don Francisco and of her only sister to his own fifth son, the Due de Montpensier (10 Oct., 1846). Indignation of the English court, and ministry at the Spanish mar- riages; Lord John Russell (b. 1792, d. 1878), who came into office with Palmerston as foreign minister (6 July, 1846), resolved to isolate Louis Philippe ; this government refused to discourage the revolutionary movements on the point of breaking out all over Europe. The Zoilverein, 229 Position of Austri a during the reign of Louis Philippe: the death of the Emperor Francis I. and the accession of the Emperor Ferdinand I. (2 Mar., 1835), strengthened the position of Metternich ; his close rela- tions with the Tsar Nicholas; occupation of Cracow (1836-4:) by Austria ; annexation of Cracow by Austria (6 Nov., 1846) ; Metternich's continued efforts to repress all movements for parliamentary institutions or national independence in Italy and Germany ; Metternich's friend- ship with Russia strengthened, while his influence over Prussia de- creased after the accession of Frederick William IV. (1840). Insignificant part played by Pruss ia in European politics during tne latter years of the reign of Frederick William III.; the king's fidelity to the ideas of the Holy Alliance and to the settlement reached by the Congress of Vienna ; he refused to grant to the Prussians the constitu- tion he had promised ; under Metternich's influence he opposed liberal and parliamentary ideas all over Germany; discontent caused in Rhenish Prussia by his Protestant sympathies j death of Frederick Wil- liam III. (7 June, 1840). In spite of this opposition to liberal ideas Prussia was regarded as the one power which could unite Germany ; this doctrine held especially in Northern Germany, fostered by the universities, and encouraged by Prussian statesmen and administrators ; excellence of the Prussian ad- ministrative and military system ; maintenance of the system of Scham- horst ; Prussia became especially the guardian of the smaller states of Germany ; the first step taken towards hegemony by the formation of the ZoUverein. The history of the ZoUverein or Customs-union ; the ideas and arguments of Lisfc-(b. 1789, d. 1846) ; the Federal Diet of the Ger- manic Confederation refused to establish a customs- union ; formation of the ZoUverein (1833"); its chief members, Prussia, Bavaria, Wiirtem- berg, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and the petty states of the Thuringian Union ; joined by Baden, Nassau and Hesse-Homburg (1835), Frankfort (1836), Waldeck (1838), Brunswick (1841) and Lux- emburg (1842); opposed to it was the Steuerverein, consisting of Han- over, Oldenburg, Brunswick (to 1841), and Schaumburg-Lippe, as well as the two Mecklenburgs, and the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen and Liibeck ; commercial and political importance of the ZoUverein. 230 The War of the Sonderbund. Accession of Frederick William IV. as King of Prussia (1840); his character ; his hatred for France ; his liberal ideas ; he placed Kichhorn and Boy en in ofifice, allowed exiled liberals to return, patronized German literature and gave a measure of liberty to the press ; he formed a States- General out of the Provincial Estates with taxing and consultative powers only (3 Feb., 1847). Civil war in Switzerland : the desire of the majority of the Swiss cantons for a stronger federal bond than that devised by the Congress of Vienna ; changes in the constitutions of individual cantons ; intro- duction, especially since 183c, of democratic ideas ; cantonal revolutions ; formation of the Sonderbund, by which the seven Catholic cantons of lyucerne, Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, Zug, Freiburg, and the Valais made an armed union to resist centralization and defend the Jesuits ; the majority in the Federal Diet, presided over by Ochsenbein, decreed the dissolution of the Sonderbund (20 July, 1847) and the expulsion of the Jesuits ; attitude of the Great Powers; mutual apprehensions of lyOuis Philippe and Metternich ; they deny the right of the Swiss to alter the constitution laid down by the Congress of Vienna ; the Sonderbund declared its intention to resist (29 Oct.); the Federal Diet declared war (4 Nov.) ; General Dufour defeated the troops of the Sonderbund and occupied their cantons, which submitted (29 Nov.) ; declaration of the new federal constitution, giving greater strength to the federal power and organizing a Swiss army, but recognizing cantonal rights in in- ternal administration. General apprehension of democratic risings felt in 1847 5 preparations for revolution ; the persistence of liberal and national ideas. Authorities : For the general history of\ the period see Z>^^/6li!J2^^~~H L ouis Napoleon, son of Louis Bonaparte. King of Holland, and Hortense de Beauharnais, and nephew of the first Napoleon, elected President of the Republic (10 Dec, 1848) ; he received 5.562,834 votes, Cavaignac 1,469,166 votes, Ledru-Rollin 37 7,236 vote s, Raspail 37,106, and Lamartine 21,000. Character and previous career of Louis Napoleon (b. 1808, d. 1873) : difficulties of his position ; distrusted by the Constituent Assembly, and both feared and hated by the extreme republicans. Foreign policy of the Prince President : a French army, under Oudinot, sent to Rome, which, after a repulse (30 April, 1849), occu- pied Rome (3 July), overturned the Roman Republic and reestablished the authority of the Pope. Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, and installment of the Legislative Assembly (28 May, 1849) ; the position of parties in the new Assembly ; the majority were moderates, in favor of parliamentary government after the English system, believers in limited monarchy, and very suspicious of the Prince President, w^hom they suspected of planning to restore the Empire ; the minority called itself the Mountain, and, under the leadership of Ledru-Rollin, hoped to establish a demo- cratic republic. The deputies of th e3Iountain appealed to the people of Paris ; insur- rection ot 13 June, 1849 ; arrest of the deputies of the Mountain ; their expulsion from the Assembly ; escape of Ledru-Rollin. The majority of the Legislative Assembly, now frankly reactionary, endeavored to establish a bourgeois republic ; influence of Thiers, Ber- ryer, Mole, Montalembert (b. 18 10, d. 1870) and De Broglie ; by the law of 31 May, 1850, the suffrage was restricted to three years' resi- dents in a commune or canton, which practically disfranchised the working classes ; declaration of Thiers on this subject. The Legislative Assembly on adjourning left a permanent commis- sion of deputies to watch the proceedings of the government : disgust of the Prince President at this action ; his resolution to appeal to France ; his first provincial tour. 234 The Coup d'J^tat of 2 December, 185 1. The political position in 1851 : the incurable distrust between the Prince President and the Assembly ; struggles between the executive and legislative authority, and frequent changes of ministry. The Prince President, having made himself popular in France by provincial tours, declared himself in favor of universal suffrage and the sovereignty of the people ; his explanation of the ideas of the Empire ; his demand that the Assembly should repeal the law of 31 May, 1850 (4 Nov., 1851). The Coup d'E)tat of 2 Dec, 1851 : the Prince President declared the Legislative Assembly dissolved, universal suffrage reestablished, and Paris in a state of siege ; the advisers of Louis Napoleon and his agents; his half brother, the Due de Morny (b. 181 1, d. 1865), General de Saint-Arnaud (b. i 798, d. 1854), Minister of War, and M. de Maupas (b. 1818, d. 1888), Prefect of Police ; arrest of the leading mem- bers of the Legislative Assembly ; the troops shoot down opponents of the Coup d'Etat in Paris. The Prince President submitted a new Constitution to a plebiscite of the people, establishing a strong executive and institutions resembling those of the Consulate and the Empire ; the Constitution accepted (21 Dec.) by 7,481,231 votes out of 8, 165,650 votes, and promulgated 14 Jan., 1852. The Prince President's provincial tour of 1852 : his reception ; enthu- siasm in the army ; his declaration at Bordeaux (9 Oct.) ''L' Empire, c'est la paix " ; the Senate voted the reestablishment of the Empire (7 Nov.); it was voted by a plebiscite (22 Nov.), and the Prince President declared himself Napoleon IILJgmperor of the FrencKl(2 Dec, 1852). Authorities : On the history of the second French Republic, see Gamier-Pa' ges, Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 ; Louis Blanc, Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 ; Lamarfine, Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 ; Pierre, Histoire de la R^- publique de 1848 ; La GorcCj Histoire de la Seconde Republique frangaise ; Spuller, Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Republique ; with Normanby, A Year of Revolution ; Odilon Barrot, M^moires ; Falloux, Me moires d'un Royaliste ; Ber- ryer, Discours parlementaires ; Thiers, Discours parlementaires, and Veron, M6- moires d'un bourgeois ; for the coup d'etat of 185 1, see Maupas, Memoires sur le Second Knipire ; Persigny, Memoires ; Ollivier, L' Empire liberal ; Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea ; Victor Hugo, Histoire d'un crime ; Tenot, Le Coup d'l^tat ; Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III. ; Forbes, Life of Napoleon the Third ; Be- lord, Histoire du Second Empire, and Viel Castel, Memoires. Italy from iSjo to 1848. 235 LECTURE 74. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN ITALY. The condition of Italy from the suppression of the insurrectionary movement of 1830 by Austria to the outbreak of the revolutions of 1848 : the work of the Carbonari and of other secret societies ; attempts made upon the lives of the Italian princes, and repeated outbreaks in dififerent cities and country districts ; complication caused by the very existence of the Papacy ; the writings of Gioberti (b. 1801, d. 1851) and Massimo d'Azeglio (b. 1798, d. 1866). Double tendency to be perceived in the popular movements in Italy : with regayd ^o gover nment the middle classes desired representative institutions and limited monarchy, while the secret societies advocated pure democracy ; withj^egardJoJJbejyjjityjoiLItaly, one section desired a f^eral government either monarchical or republican, while the other favored an Italy, one and indivisible, either monarchical or republican ; these different tendencies prevented partisans of the national spirit and of political revolution from acting harmoniously together ; the most influential writer and thinker was Mazzini (b. 1808, d. 1872), but his advanced republican ideas made him obnoxious to moderate men. Conditions of the different Italian states at the outbreak of the revo- lutionary movement in 1848 ; the severe and arbitrary government of Naples and Sicily under Ferdinand II. (1830-59), afterwards called King Bomba ; unpopularity of the Austrian government in Lombardy and Venetia ; Parma, ruled by the Empress Mariej^ouise, and Modena, under Duke Francis IV. (1814-46) and Duke Francis V.,were entirely under Austrian influence ; death of Marie Louise (18 Dec, 1847), ^"^ accession as Duke of Parma of Charles II., formerly Duke of Lucca ; the government of Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany (1824-1859); he purchased Lucca (1845), ^'^^ granted a constitution (1847); C harles '^^^toi (b. 1798, d. 1849), King of Sardinia since 1831, was desirous of setting himself at the head of the national Italian movement, but feared the republicans and the Carbonari ; he favored parliamentary govern- ment and granted a constitution to his kingdom in 1846 ; his character and ambition. 236 The Revolutioji of 18^8 in Italy. The worst governed provinces in Italy were those of the States of the Church, in which Pope Gregory XVI. ruled in the most arbitrary manner with cardinals, bishops and priests as his only ministers and administrators ; yet it was in the States of the Church that the first im- pulse was given to the revolutionary movement of 1848 ; death of Gregory XVI. (i June, 1846). Election of Pope Pius IX. — Mastai-Ferretti — (16 June, 1846); his known liberal and national ideas ; his reforms in internal administra- tion ; he reorganized the tribunals, established municipal government, permitted the raising of civic guards, and allowed a measure of liberty to the press ; he proposed a customs -union between the States of the Church, Tuscany and Sardinia ; Metternich protested against the re- forming policy of Pius IX.; but the people of Rome accused him of not going far enough ; a Fundamental Statute, establishing lay gov- ernment and ministerial responsibility, issued (14 March, 1848). Outbreak of insurrection at Palermo (12 Jan., 1848), which spread through the whole of Sicily ; Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies, forced by tumults at Naples to promise a constitution (29 Jan.), which was promulgated (10 Feb.). Effect of the overthrow of Metternich in Italy ; the people of Milan rose in insurrection and expelled the Austrian garrison (18-22 Mch., 1848) ; formation of a provisional government which appointed Gari- baldi ( b. 1807, d. 1882) commandant of its troops; similar movement in Venice (16-22 Mch.), where Daniel Manin (b. 1804, d. 1857) was elected Dictator ; Francis V. driven from Modena (21 March) ; Charles II. driven from Parma (20 March). Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, summoned by all Northern Italy, set himself at the head of the National movement ; he entered Milan (26 Mch.) ; concentration of the Austrian troops under Radetzky (b. 1766, d.1858); the Austrians defeated at Goito (8 Apr.); Leopold of Tuscany compelled by his people to send troops to assist Charles Albert ; Ferdinand II. , King of the Two Sicilies, forced to send a fleet to assist Venice and an army under Pepe to join Charles Albert ; the papal troops, under Durando, joined the Sardinians ; Charles Albert took Peschiera (30 May); reinforcements demanded by Radetzky. Desperate position of the Austrians in Italy; terms offered to Charles ^^L* Italia fara da se.** 237 Albert ; the intervention of England and France declined ; " L' Italia fara da se." ""Q^iU^ wOU ^ ^-^ oSu-^w*^ " - W-:l cJU^ cS-!l.-3^, Pope Pius IX. disavowed the action of General Durando(29 April): Mamiani appointed Minister of the Interior of the States of the Church (4 May). Ferdinand II. withdrew his constitution and dissolved the Neapolitan parliament (15 May); he vigorously pursued the war with the Sicilian insurgents, and called back his fleet from Venice, and his army ; never- theless, Pepe, with 3,000 men, threw himself into Venice, of which he took military command. Progress of the revolution in Sicily : Settimo (b. 1778, d. 1863), presi- dent of the Sicilian Committee (24 Jan., 1848) ; services of Crispi ; Settimo appointed Lieutenant- General of Sicily by Ferdinand II. and a Sicilian Parliament summoned (6 March) ; the throne of Sicily ofiered to Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa, second son of Charles Albert (11 July) ; his refusal to accept it ; bombardment of Messina (2-8 Sept.). Radetzky, joined by Nugent (b. 1777, d. 1862), defeated Charles Albert at Custozza (25 July) and occupied Milan (6 Aug.) ; armistice proclaimed between Sardinia and Austria (9 Aug.); gallant defence of Venice ; return of Francis V. to Modena (10 Aug.) ; the Pope dismissed Mamiani (2 Aug.), and appointed Rossi (14 Sept.), who desired to form an Italian Federation. Assassination of Rossi (15 Nov.) ; flight of the Pope to Gaeta (24 Nov.) ; provisional government of Rome under the triumvirate of Gal- letti, Camerata and Corsini (11 Dec); meeting of the Roman Consti- tuent Assembly (5 Feb., 1849) : proclamation of the Roman Republic {9 Feb.) ; vsolemn appeal of Pius IX. to the Catholic rulers of Austria, France, Spain and the Two Sicilies for help (18 Feb., 1849) ; Mazzini made dictator with Armellini and Safii (30 March) ; "garibaldi ap- pointed commander-in-chief. Progress of the revolution in Tuscany : Montanelli appointed chief minister (26 Oct., 1848) ; a liberal constitution granted ; flight of the Grand Duke Leopold II. to Gaeta ; the Florentine Republic proclaimed under the triumvirate of Montanelli, Guerrazzi, and Mazzoni (8 Feb., 1849). Difficult position of Charles Albert : forced to form a radical ministry 238 Failure of the Italian Revolutions, under Rattazzi (15 Dec, 1848) ; declared the armistice at an end and appealed to united Italy (12 March, 1849^ Radetzky utterly defeated Charles Albert at Novara (23 Mch.) ; abdication of Charles Albert in favor of his son, Victor Emman uel ; favorable terms of peace granted to the Sardinians it Au ^. ). Triumphant progress of the Austrians : Francis V. of Modena com- pleted the reoccupation of his duchy (April, 1849) ; overthrow of the Florentine Republic and restoration as Grand Duke of Tuscany of Leo- pold II. (28 July), who withdrew the constitution he had granted; Charles III., to whom his father had resigned the Duchy of Parma (14 March), returned to Parma (25 August) ; capitulation of Venice to the Austrians (24 August). Ferdinand II. cruelly suppressed the Sicilian insurrection ; surrender of Palermo to the Neapolitans (11 May, 1849). y^ The Prince President of the French Republic, afraid of allowing Austria too much predominance in Italy, sent a French army under Oudinot to Rome : repulse of the French (30 Apr.) ; the siege of Rome ; capture of Rome by the French (3 July) ; Garibaldi withdrew to the mountains where his troops were cut up by the Austrians ; return of Pius IX. to Rome (12 Apr., 1850) and reestablishment of the Papal government under the direction of Cardinal Antonelli ; a French garri- son retained in Rome. Causes of the entire and disastrous failure of the Italian revolutions in 1848: Victor Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, alone maintained par- liamentary government in his dominions. fi5-W^ Qjp %ZU^ Authorities : On the Italian insurrection, see Stillman, The Union of Italy ; Martinengo Cesar esco, The Liberation of Italy ; Thayer^ The Dawn of Italian In- dependence (1814-1849) ; Maurice, The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-49 in Italy, Austria and Hungary; Tivardni_ Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano ; Cantil, Delia Indipendenza Italiana; Ricciardi, Histoire de la Revolution d'ltalie; Ulloa, Guerre de I'ind^pendance italienne ; Perrens, Deux ans de revolution en ItaHe ; Pepe, M^moires, and Histoire des revolutions et des guerres d'ltalie en 1847, 1848, et 1849 ; Balleydier, Histoire de la Revolution de Rome; Spada, Storia dellajfivgluzione di Roma e della restaurazione del governo pontifico (1846-49), 3 vols.; Farini, The Roman State, 1815-50, ed. Gladstone; Bianchi, Storia docu- mentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia ; Costa de Beauregard, Les dernieres annees du Roi Charles Albert ; Rattazzi, Rattazzi et son temps ; Mazzini, Scritti, The National Spirit in the Austrian Dominio7ts. 239 editi ed inediti ; Nardi, Giuseppe Mazzini, la vita, gli scritti c le dottrine; Simoni^ Histoiredes conspirations mazziniennes ; Martin, Daniel Manin; Errera, La vita e i tempi de Danielo Manin, and Danielo Manin e Vcnezia ; Manin, I^ettere ; Nisco, Ferdinando II. eilsuo regno; La Farina, Storia documentata della rivoluzione di Sicilia nel 1848-49; Montanelli, M^moires; Caniu, Storia ragionata e documentata della rivoluzione Lombarda ; Cattaneo, ^'insurrection de Milan en 1848; Schonhals, Erinnerungen eines CE)sterreichischen Veteranen, translated into French as Cam- pagnes d'ltalie de 1848-49; Della Rocca, Autobiography of a Veteran ; Garibaldi, Me- moirs ; Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi tempi ; Sirao, Storia della rivoluzione d'ltalia dal 1846 al 1866; Riistow, Der italienische Krieg von 1848 und 1849, and Hubner, Une ann^e de ma vie. LECTURE 75. ' n I THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN AUSTRIA. Internal condition of the Austrian dominions during the reign of the Emperor Ferdinand I. (1835-48) ; the home policy of Metternich ; he encouraged the national spirit in the different provinces of the Empire in order to play off one province against another, but he sternly re- pressed all aspirations for self-government. The growth of national spirit was especially perceptible in Hungary and Bohemia, but it was also to be found in smaller provinces, such as Transylvania, Croatia and Galicia ; condition of the German provinces; the diverse nationalities of which the Empire was composed, prevented any tendency towards union, and encouraged schemes of federation or of entire independence. The national spirit in Htmgary : the amount of local self-government allowed to the Magyars ; the growth of Magyar literature and of attachment to the Magyar language ; the national spirit of Hungary becomes, under the guidance of its men of letters, also democratic ; the Diet of 1833 abolished serfdom ; attitude of the Magyars towards other nationalities within the limits of Hungary ; influence of Szech^n jf^, (b. 1792, d. 1 860), ^Kossuth (b. 1802, d. 1894), ^^ (b. 1803, d. 1876) and Petofi (b. 1823^ d. 1849). The national spirit in Bohemia : revival of the Czech language and 240 The Overthrow of Metternich. literature ; the Czechs desired to place themselves at the head of the Austrian Sfavs ; in Bohemia, as in Hungary, the national spirit became also democratic, and demands were made, not oi)ly for national, but also for popular government; influence of Dobrovski (b. 1753, d. 1829), Kollar(b. 1793, d. 1852) and Palacky (b. 1798, d. 1876). The German spirit concentrated in Vienna, where democratic ideas, resembling those in vogue among the working classes in Paris and Berlin, had taken deep root. Effect of the news of the Revolution of February in Austria : insur- rection of 13 March in Vienna; the Emperor Ferdinand dismissed Metternich from office ; flight of the disgraced minister to England ; Ficquelmont appointed minister (20 March); the Emperor promulgated a representative constitution (25 April). Effect of the fall of Metternich upon the Austrian provinces : general demand for liberty and popular government. The Hungarian Diet seized the opportunity to demand the formation of a responsible Hungarian ministry with entire self-government; the Emperor yielded (17 March), and the Palatine of Hungary, the Arch- duke Stephen, appointed Louis Batthyany prime minister, with Kossuth as Minister of the Interior ; delight of the Magyars at this success ; a Constituent Diet summoned to draw up a constitution for Hungary. The Emperor further held out hopes of constitutions and self-govern- ment to the Slavonic Provinces (March to April) : a Pan-Slavonic as- sembly summoned to meet at Prague on 31 May. Effect of the insurrection in the Austrian province? in Italy : defeat of Radetzky at Goito (8 April) ; the Emperor obliged to strip his home dominions of troops in order to send reinforcements to Radetzky. Dissatisfaction of the people of Vienna at the prospect of the Austrian Empire being split into autonomous provinces : disgust of the working classes at the non-recognition of democratic principles ; dismissal of Ficquelmont (4 May) ; second popular insurrection in Vienna (15 May); a Constituent Assembly for the whole Austrian Empire called to meet in Vienna ; the Emperor Ferdinand escaped to Innsbruck (17 May) and threw himself upon the fidelit}^ of the Tyrolese. Desperate position of the Austrian monarchy : seeming approach of The Revolution of 184.8 in Austria. 241 disintegration ; the strength of the opposition to Austria in Italy, Hungary and Bohemia; attitude of the Parliament of Frankfort towards the Hapsburgs; desire expressed to keep Austria out of reconstituted Germany. In the diversity of aims of the dififerent revolutions the Hapsburg monarchy found safety ; the Emperor Ferdinand, to please his German subjects, resolved to act vigorously against the Slavs. Insurrection of the Poles at Cracow X 26 Apr.) suppressed; Francis Stadion (b. 1806, d. 1853) pacified Galicia and granted reforms. The Pan-Slavonic Congress opened by Palacky at Prague (2 June); a popular demonstration against Windischgrat^(b. 1787, d. 1862;, the Austrian governor of Prague, ended In'stree't-fightrng (12-14 June); bombardment of the city (15-17 June); end of the Pan-Slavonic Con- gress ; reduction of Bohemia to obedience. In Transylvania the Magyars and Germans, who controlled the prov- incial Estates, voted to unite Transylvania with Hungary (30 May), because the Romanian population demanded equal rights in the gov- ernment ; an insurrection in the Danubian provinces (22-25 June) brought about the occupation of those provinces by the Russians and the Turks. At the demand of the southern Slavs the Emperor appointed Jelia- chich (b. 1 801, d. 1859), Ban of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia (23 Mar.); popular movement for a united kingdom of the southern Slavs, independent of Hungary ; the Hungarian ministry persuaded the Em- peror to disgrace Jellachich (10 June). Progress of the revolution in Hungary ; meeting of the Constituent Diet (5 July); the new Hungarian constitution ; influence of Kossuth ; the Magyars issued oppressive decrees against the Slavs and Romanians in Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Transylvania and the Banat of Temesvar ; insurrections in those districts against the Magyars ; the Russians in Transylvania. The Constituent Assembly, containing representatives of all parts of the Empire, except Hungary, met at Vienna (22 July); the Archduke John, who had been elected Vicar of the Empire at Frankfort (29 June), returned to represent the Emperor at Vienna; the Constituent Assembly abolished the corvde, noble-land and other relics of feudalism. 242 WindLSchgratz a?id Schwar 2671 berg. After the news of the victory of Custozza (25 July), the Emperor resolved to act more firmly against Hungary ; he reentered Vienna (12 Aug.); he restored Jellachich to all his dignities (4 Sept.); Jellach- ich invaded Hungary (9 Sept.); the Diet prepared to resist and chose Kossuth, President of the Committee of Public Safety (22 Sept.); the Palatine of Hungary, the Archduke Stephen, refused to obey the Diet and escaped to Vienna (24 Sept.); I^amberg, who was sent to replace the Palatine, murdered at Pesth (28 Sept); the Emperor declared the Hungarian Diet dissolved, appointed Jellachich, Commissioner Plenipo- tentiary in Hungary, and ordered the army to suppress the revolt (3 Oct.). Third insurrection in Vienna (6 Oct.); sympathizers with the Mag- yars^ attempted to prevent troops from reinforcing Jellachich in Hun- gary ; murder of Latour, the Minister of War ; flight of the Emperor to Olmiitz ; he directed the Constituent Assembly to leave Vienna (20 Oct.) and to assemble at Kremsier ; only the Slav deputies obeyed ; the German deputies remained in Vienna to form a provisional government ; they negotiated with the German Parliament at Frankfort, which recog- nized them and sent Robert Blum and two other deputies to their as- sistance ; Jellachich, from Hungary, and Windischgratz, from Prague, hastened against the insurgents ; bombardment of Vienna ; attempt of the Magyars to relieve the city ; Windischgratz entered Vienna (31 Oct.), established martial law, and shot Robert Blum (8 Nov.); wrath of the Parliament of Frankfort. /Schwarzenberg (b. 1800, d. 1852) appointed chief minister (21 Nov.); reopening of the Constituent Assembly at Kremsier (22 Nov.), but \ Schwarzenberg occupied it in aimless discussions ; abdication of the AXiTEuiperor Ferdinand (2 Dec.) in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph (b. y 1830). ^ Vigorous policy of Schwarzenberg : Kossuth and the Diet forced to withdraw from Pesth to Debreczin (i Jan., 1849) ; Windischgratz and Jellachich occupied Pesth (5 Jan.) ; formation of Hungarian armies, placed under the command of Dombrovski, Bem and Gorgei; Schwarz- enberg dissolved the Diet of Kremsier (4 Mar.) and promised a unitary constitution to the Austrian Empire and the recognition of the equality of the various nationalities ; Kossuth and the Diet declared the inde- End of the Insurrection in Hungary, 243 pendence of Hungary (14 Apr.) ; Kossuth chosen Governor- President ; Gorgei recaptured the fortress of Buda (21 May) ; return of the Hun- garian government to Pesth (5 June). The Emperor Francis Joseph announced (i May, 1849) that the Tsar Nicholas had consented to assist in subduing the Magyars ; a Russian army under Paskievitch entered Hungary (May) ; the armies under Paskievitch, Haynau, Nugent and Jellachich defeated the Hungarian armies and drove them toward the Turkish frontier ; Kossuth resigned in favor of Gorgei (11 Aug.) and escaped into Turkey ; capitulation of Gorgei at Vildgos (13 Aug.); Klapka held out at Komorn until 27 Sept., when he was forced to sign a capitulation by which he surrendered the place (4 Oct.) ; atrocities committed by Haynau ; execution of Batthy- any and the leading Magyar generals (6 Oct.) ; end of the insurrection in Hungary. End of the insurrection in Italy : capture of Venice (24 Aug., 1849). The German policy of Schwarzenberg : his attitude toward the Parlia- ment of Frankfort ; he prevented Frederick William IV. of Prussia from accepting the imperial throne offered to him by the Parliament, and insisted upon the right of Austria to be treated as a constituent part of Germany. Authorities : Leger, Histoire de rAutriche-Hongrie, translated by Hill ; Mau -* rice. The Revolutionarj- Movement of 1848-49 in Italy, Austria and Hungary ; £al- /^jj'fi?/>/^""HTstoire"^s Revolutions de I'Empire de I'Autriche ; Piliersdorf, Riick- blick auf die politische Bewegung in CEsterreich in den Jahren 1848 und 1849 ; Ficqiielmont, Aufklarungen iiber die Zeit vom 20 Miirz bis zum 4 Mai 1848 ; Frobely Briefe iiber die Wiener Oktober-Revolution, mil Notizen iiber die letzten Tage Robert Blums ; Auerbach, Tagebuch aus Wien ; Hubner, Une Anti6e de ma Vie , Helfert, Geschichte CEsterreichs vom Ausgange des Wiener Oktober-Aufstandes ; Berger, Felix, Fiirst zu Schwarzenberg ; Windischgrdtz, Eine Lebens-Skizze, aus den Papieren eines Zeit-genossen der Sturm jahre 1848 und 1849; Reschauer, Das Jahr, 1848; Bach, Die Wiener Revolution, 1848; Yranyi and Chassin, Histoire politique de la Revolution de Hongrie en 1847-49 ; Bur}\ Souvenirs et R^cits des Campagnes d'Autriche ; Martin, Guerre de Hongrie en 1848 et 1849 ; Riistow, Geschichte des ungarischcn Insurrectionskrieges in den Jahren 1848 und 1849 ; Gorgei, Mein I^eben und Wirken in Ungarn ; Klapka, Der Nationalkrieg in Un- garn und Siebenbiirgen, of which there is an English translation, and Kossuth^ Memoirs. 244 Insurrections in Berlin a?id Munich. IvECTURE 76. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN GERMANY. Effect of the Revolution of February in Germany : general desire for £0^ulaT_government in Western Germany ; the states upon the Rhine and in the former kingdom of Westphalia were especially forward in this direction ; there had been numerous riots in Rhenish Prussia, Hesse- Cassel and Brunswick; as in Italy, the natiqnal spirit and the demo- cratic movement were sometimes in harmony and sometimes opposed to each other ; one section of advocates of German.jtuuly_loQk£d_la Prussia to lead them ; the other, which was more democratic, hoped for an independent and ppsgibly r epublican Germ an nation. ^tsl^l^^Jlil^itl*'^ Both the national and the democratic spirit were most evident in the smaller states and in Rhenish Prussia : but they were also developed to some extent in the South German states of Bavaria under King Eouis I. (1825- 1 848), of Wiirtemberg under King William I. (18 16-1864), and of Baden undei the Grand Duke Charles Leopold (1830-1852), while in Hanover under Ernest I. (i 837-1 851) they were especially de- veloped. The share of the German universities in promoting the national and liberal spirit ; the dismissal of Gervinus, Dahlmann, Ewald and the two Grimms, from their chairs at Gottingen, for protesting against the abolition of the Hanoverian constitution by Ernest I. in 1837. The first effect of the Revolution of February was seen in risings in the great cities, similar to those which occurred in Paris and in Vienna ; the most important of the risings were in Berlin and in Munich. The first insurrection in Berlin (15-19 March, 1848): Frederick Wil- liam IV. (b. 1795, d. 1 861) gave way before the popular feeling; sent his brother and heir. Prince William (b. 1797, d. 1888), who was suspected of opposition to popular wishes, to England; convoked the States-Gen-' erai, and summoned a Constituent Assembly to draw up a constitutiotl for Prussia (22 March). i Insurrection in Munich against King Louis I. (b. 1786, d. 1868), who was accused of showing too much favor to his mistress, Lola Montes ; The Parliament of Frankfort, 245 he abdicated the throne (20 March) in favor of his son Maximilian Joseph II. (b. 181 1, d. 1864), who promised reforms. A group of German patriots and unionists met at Heidelberg (5!^ March) and summoned a Vor-Parlament, which assembled at Frankfort l vw^ (31 March); this assembly' convoked a Constituent Parliament, to be V^ elected by universal suffrage by the whole of Germany, which should I ^ organize a federal German government under a monarch ; it was re- 1 ^ solved that the decisions of this Constituent Parliament should be W' final, and not subject to the control of the Federal Diet. y^ The Federal Diet, established by the Congress of Vienna, withdrew its decrees of 1832-34, controlling state governments, and then ceased to oppose the new movement. In the face of the strength of the revolutionary movement the Ger- man Princes permitted elections to the Constituent Parliament. Meeting of this Parliament in St. Paul's church at Frankfort (18 »^ May, 1848), with Heinrich von Gagern (b. 1799, d. 1880) as its presi- dent ; it elected the Ar chduke John of Austria as Vicar of the Empire j ^ (29 June); he took office (12 July), dissolved the Federal Diet, and appointed Schmerling chief minister; the Parliament of Frankfort, with long debates, drew up the "Grundrechte," or bases of a German Constitution (July-Oct.) ; the undemocratic nature of this scheme caused protests from many of the cities of Germany. ^^^^ '""^-^^-''^'^^^'^X^c^ZX, The position in Prussia : Frederick William IV. took advantage of the condition of affairs in Denmark to stand forward as the defender of German interests. Death of Christian VIII. of Denmark and accession of Frederick VII. (20 Jan., 1848); the king promised (28 Jan.) to summon a Constituent Assembly, chosen by universal suffrage, to draw up a Constitution which should unify Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Hol- stein, in spite of the latter being parts of the Germanic Confederation ; wrath in Germany at this news ; insurrection in the duchies (18 Mar.); jdemand made for the entire separation of Schleswig- Holstein from Den- Imark and their union with Germany ; provisional government for the ■duchies established by tne insurgents at Kiel (24 Mar.); the Duke of Augustenburg set himself at the head of this opposition in the two duchies ; the Danes routed the insurgents near Flensburg (9 April), 246 The Revolution of 184.8 in Gennany. but Prussia, with the sanction of the Parliament of Frankfort, invaded the duchies, defeated the Danish army (23 Apr.), and had almost con- quered the whole of Denmark, when the Great Powers intervened and insisted on the signature of the Armistice of Malmo (26 Aug.). Frederick William IV. of Prussia, though he showed himself by his conduct in Denmark in favor of German interests, also showed himself the enemy of democracy ; at the request of the Parliament of Frank- ^'^^^Tort he sent Prussian troops to that city to put down a republican insur- 'TV rection (18 Sept.), and then, also at their request, put down democratic *'^*^^.risings throughout the Rhenish territories. ^*'**^^ 'Second insurrection in Berlin (31 Oct., 1848); the king appointed Brandenburg (b. 1792, d. 1850) and ManteufFel (b. 1805, d. 1882) his ministers (3 Nov.), declared Berlin in a state of siege (10 Nov.;, dis- solved the Prussian Constituent Assembly which had shown in the Junker party a strong minority opposed to democratic ideas (5 Dec), and issued of his own authority a new constitution for Prussia, giving a moderate amount of representative government C5 Dec). lyater history of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern succeeded Schmerling as chief minister (15 Dec, 1848) ; completion of the new German Constitution (3 Feb., 1849), with two chambers, the Volkhaus, elected by universal suffrage, and the Staatenhaus, chosen by the par- liaments of the different states ; it recognized no direct representation of the German princes, and gave to the supreme executive authority only a suspensive veto. The question of the admission of Austria, with her non-German popu- lations, as part of the new German Empire ; it was resolved that Aus- tria should be completely excluded (14 Jan., 1849); the imperial crown offered to Frederick William IV. of Prussia (28 Mar.); he declined to accept unless invited by the princes of Germany (3 Apr.), and eventu- ally, under the influence of Schwarzenberg, refused unconditionally (28 Apr.). Indignation of Schwarzenberg at the decree of 14 Jan.; he with- drew the Austrian deputies from the Parliament of Frankfort (5 Apr.). Last days of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern resigned office (10 May), and with his followers formed a secession parliament which met at Gotha (26-28 June); Prussia withdrew its deputies (14 May); Failure of the Germaii Revolutions. 247 the Parliament, reduced to 105 members, forced to leave Fr^kfort (30 May); it met at Stuttgart and eventually was broken up by the King of Wiirtemberg (18 June). Frederick William IV. of Prussia lent troops to the Kings of Saxony and Hanover to establish order in their dominions (June) ; under the command of Prince William of Prussia order was also reestablished by Prussian soldiers in Baden and along the Rhine (July). Continuation of the Danish war : Frederick VII. of Denmark granted a liberal constitution (5 June, 1849); gallant struggle of the Danes against the Prussians; conclusion of peace (2 July, 1850); it was eventually arranged that the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein should be garrisoned by a joint force of Austrians and Prussians, and that their fate should be decided by a conference of the Great Powers. Result of the revolutionary movement of 1848 in Germany; entire failure both of the democratic party and of the supporters of the parlia- mentary system ; postponement of the unity of Germany. Authorities : There are several reports of the proceedings of the Parliament of Frankfort, of which the most complete is Wigard, Stenographische Bericht, 9 vols.; see also Duncker, Zur Geschichte der deutschen Reichsversammlung in Frankfurt ; Haym, Die deutsche Nationalversammlung ; Raumer, Briefe aus Frankfurt und Paris ; Biedermann, Erinnerungen aus der Paulskirche ; Ranke^ Politische Denkschriften aus den Jahren 1848-185 1 (Wcrke, vols. 49, 50); Deym^ Graf Deym und die CEsterreichische Frage in der Paulskirche ; Becker, Die Reak- tion in Deutschland gegen die Revolution von 1848 ; Syhel, Die Begriindung des deutschen Reich es ; Moltke, Geschichte des Krieges gegen Danemark, 1848-49, and Bunsen, Memoirs. LECTURE 77, EUROPE AFTER THE REVOLUTIONS^ 1848. The revolutionary movement of 1848 ^n England ; the Chartists ; results of the abolition of the Corn -laws. ^^ rTl^ The revolutionary movement of 1848 in -W^Wira : the reign of William II. (1840-49) ; succeeded by William III. (17 March, 1849) ; 248 ^/^ g/^ ' The Danubian Proviiices in 184.8. the representative constitution of the kingdom of the Netherlands re- modelled in a more liberal sense; administration of Thorbecke (b. 1798, d. 1872). The revolutionary movement of 1848 in Belgium : excitement caused by the news of the Revolution of February ; Leopold I. evaded a re- publican movement by skillful policy^ ; his ability as a parliamentary sovereign. ;?Xi^:;:i^i^(&r:^*^^r*:^ The revolutionary movement of 1848 in the two Danubian provinces: growth of national Romanian sentiment and of liberalism; attitude CtD'wards the Slavs and Magyars ; resentment against Russia ; influence of France ; deposition of Alexander Ghica and election of George ^^.Bibescoas Hospodar of Wallachia ri8zi2^ : attempted insurrection at Jassy (27 March, 1848); prudent conduct of Michael Stourza, Hospodar of Moldavia ; insurrection at Bucharest (22 June, 1848) ; abdication of Bibescc (25 June) ; intervention of Russia and the Turks ; Ri^ssian and Turkish troops occupied the two provinces; by the Convention of Balta-Liman (12 May, 1849), the hospodarship for seven years was revived, the assemblies of boyars were suppressed and replaced by divans nominated by the princes, and Russian and Turkish troops were to garrison the two provinces until they were organized; resignation of Michael Stourza ; appointment of Gregory Ghica as Hospodar of -^Moldavia, and of Barbe Stirbeiu as Hospodar of Wallachia. rV A^ Influence exercised by Prussia in Germany after the suppression of f\A the revolutionary movement : F rederick William IV. hoped to exclude Austria^ and to^ be chosen Emperor by the pnnces5llG^5?^-By 5 the League of the Three Kings — Prussia. Saxony and Hanover (26 May<^^ 1849) ; scheme of a Restricted Union ; Prussia prepared a scheme for a united Germany under her leadership to be submittted to a revived German Parliament at Erfurt and to the German princes ; only the petty princes accepted the Prussian scheme. Austria, having put down all rebellion and supported by Russia, re- solved to intervene : the Archduke John resigned his authority as Vicar of the Empire to a committee of four, appointed half by Austria and half by Prussia (20 Dec, 1849). Beust's scheme of a Middle Germany : treaty of alliance made be- tween Saxony, Bavaria and Wiirtemberg (27 Feb., 1850). ^ Austria and Prussia after 184.8. 249 The Parliament of Erfurt (20 Mar.-29 Apr., 1850) : only attended by^ V\ Prussia and representatives of the petty princes ; part played by Bis-* scheme, followed by a similar refusal by the German princes, who had been assembled at Berlin (8 May). Growing influence of Austria in German affairs during the ministry of Schwarzenberg : ad interim revival of the Diet of the Germanic Con- federation or Bundestag (2 Sept., 1850), which undertook to deal with the disturbances in Schleswig-Holstein and Hesse-Cassel ; opposition } of Prussia ; approach of war ; the Prussian and the German federal troops, supported by Austria, faced each other in Hesse-Cassel; the Tsar Nicholas intervened and threatened to attack whichever side began war. Frederick William IV. yielded : Manteuffel (b. 1805, d. 1882) ap- pointed provisional Minister of Foreign Affairs (2 Nov., 1850), and Minister- President (19 Dec, 1850); the Convention of Olmiitz (29 Nov., 1850); apologies of Prussia; r3storation of the Bundestag (30 May, 1851) ; T^ifyinfirrk appoint ed PrussJan re presentative in the Bundestag at Frankfort. Negotiations for the renewal of the ZoUverein : endeavors of Austria to enter the Union ; opposition of Prussia ; the Steuerverein declared ^ its readiness to enter the ZoUverein Ty Sept.. i8'^i) : reconstitution of ^ ^ the ZoUverein on this basis, with Austria exclud ed (4 Apr., 1853). General reaction in Germany : most of the German princes withdrew or modified the constitutions they had granted in 1848 ; the Bundestag repudiated the " Grundrechte " decreed by the Parliament of Frankfort (23 Aug., 1851). The reaction in Prussia : repressive administration of Manteuffel ; Prince William commenced to re organize the army . The reaction in Austria ; the Emperor Francis Joseph withdrew the Constitution of 4 March, 1849 (31 Dec, 1851); death of Schwarzenberg (5 April, 1852) ; appointment of Buol-Schauenstein as chief Austrian minister. Temporary settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question : Frederick VII., of Denmark, issued a unitary constitution for all his dominions (28 Jan., 1852) ; Prince Christian of Gliicksburg recognized as heir to throne of Denmark by the Conference of London (8 May, 1852). 250 , ^ ^ The Emperor Napoleoji III. ^ The institutions of the Second Empire in Fran ce : relations of the government to the Council of State, the Senate and the I^egislative j^ Body ; while granting the widest extension of the franchise for electing ^ the lyCgislative Body, the administration_s^ematically interfered to pro- mote the election of government candidatesT^^^f^g^u^^L'^i^^^' Napoleon III. and his ministers : the Bonapartists and some of the partisans of the Monarchy of July rallied to him, but he had to face the opposition of the Legitimists and the Republicans ; he was unfortunate in the selection of ministers and had to make use of men of doubtful ^^ honesty in the work of administration ; the influence of the Due de ) ^ Morny, Persigny (b. 1808, d. 1872), Rouher and Maupas. Parliamentary opposition during the Second Ernpire : Thiers ; exile or deportation of the leading Republicans. |;t2^^^ . ^^^^ ^^^ Attitude of the Great Powers towards the Second Empire : England, hoping for the assistance of France in the settlement of the Eastern Question, at once recognized him as Emperor ; the Tsar Nicholas recog- nized him in an insulting fashion, and was followed by Austria and Prussia (6 Jan., 1853); Napoleon's first foreign ministers; Drouyn de Lhuys (b. 1805, d. 1881) and Walewski (b. 1810, d. 1868). Being unable to obtain the hand of a foreign princess, Napoleon III. m arried Eugenie de M ontijo. Comtesse de Teba (29 Jan., 1853). Internal policy of Napoleon III. : he professed, owing to his election hy plSbiscite, to represent the sovereignty of the people, and stood forth as the opponent of bourgeois or middle class politics ; he exploited the wealth of France in extravagant buildings and public works ; Paris re- built by Haussmann ; corruption of the administration ; attempts of Napoleon III. to blind the people by a vigorous foreign policy. Foreign policy of Napoleon III. ; though he declared the Empire to mean peace, he really desired war, in order to establish himself firmly at home and abroad. Authorities : For the general history of this period see, in addition to Seigno- bos, Debidour, and Fyffe, cited under Lecture 67; Rothan, L' Europe et I'avenement du Second Empire ; Vitzthum von Eckstddt, Berlin und Wien in den Jahren 1845- 1852, and Viel-Castel, Memoirs ; for the Second Empire, Delord, Histoire du Second Empire ; La Gorce, Histoire du Second Empire ; Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III.: Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyn de Lhuys ; Maugny, Souven- The Romantic Movemertt in Literature. 251 irsof the Second Empire ; Falloux, M^iuoires d'un royaliste ; Persigny, M^moircs; Haussntann, M^moires ; Ollivier, L' Empire liberal ; Senior, ConversHtioiis, 2 series ; Castellane, Journal, and Thiers, Discours parlemeutaircs ; for Germany, see Berger^ Felix, Furst zu Schwarzenberg ; Bunsen, Memoirs ; Beust^ Memoirs ; Lowe, Life of Prince Bismarck ; Bismarck, Gedenkschriften uud Erinnerungen, translated by Butler, Gesammelte Werke, and Politische Reden ; Hahn, Furst Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Poschinger, Furst Bismarck, and Simon, Histoire du Prince de Bismarck ; for English foreign policy, Martin, Life of the Prince Consort ; Dalling and Ashley, Life of Lord Palmerston ; IVal'pole, Life of Lord John Russell, and Malmesbury, Memoirs of an ex- Minister ; for Belgium, Juste, Leopold L et Leopold II., rois des Beiges, leur vie etleur regne; Thonissen, La Belgique sous le regne de Leopold I., and Hymans, Histoire parlementaire de Belgique de 1830 a 1880; for Holland, Bosch-Kemper, Geschiedenis van Neder- land na 1830 ; and for Romania, Xenopol^ Histoire des Roumains, and Bibesco^ R^gne de Bibesco (1829-59;. LECTURE 78. LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY FROM 1789 To 1848. Effect of the French Revolution and of Napoleon's conquests on European literature ; political unrest accompanied by a great literary- outburst ; this not so noticeable in France, where politics absorbed the nation, as in England and Germany; the spirit of nationality aroused by Napoleon began to show its effect before Waterloo. The period between 18 15 and 1848 was marked by the romantic movement in literature, which developed independently all over Europe : causes of the romantic movement ; reaction against classicism ; its de- velopment affected, in some writers, by revival of Christian religious sentiment, as in Chateaubriand ; in others, by a new sympathy with the Middle Ages, as in Scott and Hugo ; in others, by love of nature and an attempt to interpret her, as in Wordsworth ; in others, by a mystic sentimentalism, as in Jean Paul Richter ; and in others, by a pessimistic self- consciousness, as in Byron, Lamartine and Pushkin. The feeling for nationality showed itself in literature, after an out- burst of patriotic poetry, in the revival of the study of history ; over- 252 Literature from lySg to 184.8. throw of national legends and beginning of scientific history ; influence of Niebuhr ; intere^ taken in the history of the Middle Ages ; com- mencement of the systematic publication of documents ; the English Record Commission (1802), the Monumenta Germanice Hlstorica (1826), the Documents inedits sur Vhistoire de France (1835); the foundation of the £^cole des Chartes (1821). French literature of the Revolution : its political character ; the great orators and their written speeches; Mirabeau (i 749-1 791); Vergniaud (1759-1793); Robespierre (1758-1794); poUtical journalism ; Camille Desmoulins (1762-1794); the Revolutionary drama ; CoUot d'Herbois (1750-1796); Marie Joseph Chenier (1764-1811); poetry; Andre Che- nier (1763-1794); criticism ; La Harpe (i 739-1 803). French literature of the Empire ; its classicism and sterility ; Ducis (1733-1816); Fontanes (1757-1821); Napoleon's attitude towards liter- ature ; his admiration of the so-called poems of Ossian ; the most popu- lar French writer of the period, Madame de Stael (1766-1817); publi- cation of Chateaubriand's Le Genie du Christianisme (1802) and oi Les Martyrs (1809). The romantic movement in France; Chateaubriand (i 767-1 848); Lamartine (i 792-1 869); Alfred de Vigny (i 799-1 863); Victor Hugo (1802-1885); Alfred de Musset (1810-1857); Theophile Gautier (1811- 1872). French literature in the reign of Louis Philippe generally influenced by the romantic movement; history; Sismondi (1773-1842); Guizot (1787-1874); Mignet (1796-1884); Thierry (i 797-1 873); Thiers (1797- 1877); Michelet (1798-1874); drama; Eugene Scribe (1791-1861); Casi- mir Delavigne (1793-1843); poetry; Beranger (1780-1857); fiction; Balzac (1799- 1850); Alexandre Dumas, the elder (i 803-1 870); Georges Sand (1804- 1 876). English literature ; romanticism in England : the two groups of poets ; Byron (i 788-1 824); his influence in Europe ; Shelley (i 792-1 822); Keats (1795-1821) : the Lake poets; Wordsworth (1770-1850) ; Coleridge (1772-1834) ; Southey (1774-1843): the Victorian poets; Browning (1802-1889); Tennyson (1809-1892); the influence of Scott (i 771-1832) as poet and novelist : English prose writers ; DeQuincey (1785-1859); Carlyle (1795-1881) ; Macaulay ( 1 800-1 859) : history; Grote (1794- Literature from lySg to 184.8. 253 1871) ; Thomas Arnold (1795-1842) : fiction ; Thackeray (1811-1863) ; Dickens (181 2-1 870) : criticism ; Hazlitt (i 778-1 830) : the representa- tives of the ideas of 1848 in English literature ; Maurice (i 805-1872) ; Charles Kingsley (1819-1875). German literature : its greatest period, that of the French Revolution and Napoleon ; the supremacy of Goethe (i 749-1832) ; his influence ; the ejGfect of the French Revolution on German literature ; Herder (1744- 1803); Fichte0762-i8i4): beginning of a feeling for German national- ity ; Schiller (1759- 1805) ; influence of his historical and dramatic works : enthusiasm for German nationality aroused by the Napoleonic conquest; Arndt (1769- 1860) ; Korner (1791-1813): history; Niebuhr (1776- 1 831) ; Ranke (1795- 1886) ; Droysen (1808 -1884) : influence of the universities on German literature : romanticism in Germany; its mysticism; Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825); Tieck (1773-1853); De la MotteFouque(i777-i843): criticism; Schlegel (1767- 1845): theSwab- ian poets ; Uhland (1787- 1862): the isolated greatness of Heine (1810- 1856), as poet and prose writer. Italian literature : influence of romanticism ; Ugo Foscolo (1777- 1827); Leopardi (1798-1837); Silvio Pellico (1789- 1854): fiction; Man- zoni (1784-1873) : history; Botta ( 1 766-1 837 ) ; CoUetta (1775-1833) ; Cantu (1805- 1 895); Amari (1806- 1889): the national movement in Italy and its effect on Italian literature : the political writings of Balbo (1789-1853); Gioberti (1801-1851); and Mazzini (1808-1872). Spanish literature : special attention paid to the study of history ; the leading historians; Masdeu (1740-1817) ; Conde ( 1 760-1 82 1) ; Navarette (1765- 1844) ; Toreno (i 786-1 843). Portuguese literature ; its nationalist character and effect in destroy- ing the Iberianist idea: poetry; Almeida- Garrett (i 799-1 854); Castilho (1800- 1 875) : revival of the study of history; its leader, Herculano (1810-1877). Scandinavian literature : its tendency to bring together Sweden and Denmark : Swedish poetry ; Tegner (i 782-1 846) : history ; Geijer (1783-1847); Fryxell (1795-1881) : Danish poetry; Ohlenschlager (1779-1850) : prose; Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875). Russian literature : its first national development ; the historian. Karamsin ' 1765-1826) ; the fabulist, Krilov (1768-1844) : influence of 254 Philosophy from lySg to 18^8. romanticism in Russia: Pushkin (1799- 1837): commencement of mod- ern Russian literature: Gogol (1810-1851); Lermontov (1811-1841). Intense nationalism the characteristic of the literature of oppressed peo- ples ; Poland: poetry, Michiewicz (1798-1855); history, Chodzko (1800- 1871) ; Bohemia: history, Palacky (1798-1876) ; Hungary: poetry, Petofi (1823-1849). The chief development of philosophy during this period was in Ger- many : Fichte (1762-18 14) ; Schleiermacher(i 768-1 834) ; Hegel (1770- 1831); Schelling (1775-1854) ; Herbart (1776-1841); Schopenhauer (1788-1860). The attempt made to interpret German philosophy to France : Cousin (1792-1867); the positivist philosophy : Comte (1798-1857); the reaction to Christianity : Lamennais (1782- 1854); Lacordaire (1802-1861); Mon- talembert (1810-1870). Political philosophy in France : the ideas of the French philosophers of the 1 8th century put into action during the French Revolution ; reaction against them under Napoleon ; growth of the socialist philoso- phy : Saint-Simon (1760-1825) ; Fourier (1772-1837) ; Proudhon (1809-1865). The Utilitarian philosophy in England: Bentham (1748-1832); James Mill ( 1 773-1 836); John Stuart Mill (i 806-1 873) ; the application of phil- osophy to j urisprudence : Austin (1790-1867); political philosophy: Sir G. C. Lewis (1806- 1863); the Scottish school of philosophy: Du- gald Stewart (1753-1828) ; Hamilton (1788-1856). Growth in political importance of political economy ; its chief ex- ponents in England after the death of Adam Smith : Malthus (1764- 1834) ; Ricardo (1772-1823) ; John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) ; in France : J. B- Say (1767-1832) ; in Germany : List (1789-1846). LECTURE 79. ART AND SCIENCE FROM 1789 TO 1848. Art at the commencement of this period was dominated by classical ideals ; the influence of the French Revolution on art enforced this Art and Music frofft lySg to 184.8. 255 spirit, and during the Napoleonic era classicism became conven- tional ; after the fall of Napoleon the romantic movement greatly influenced art, and produced a reaction against both classicism and con- ventionality. The French painters: the classical school: David (1748-1825) ; his career during the Revolution and his influence on French art ; his greatness as a draughtsman ; his career under the Empire ; his pupils : Gros (1771-1S35) ; reaction to romanticism and realism: Ingres (1781-1867) ; Horace Vernet (1789-1863) ; Gericault (1790-1824) ; Dela- croix (1798-1863) ; Flandrin (1809-1864). The English painters : Constable (1766- 1837) ^^^ ^is influence on landscape painting ; Turner (i 775-1 851) ; portrait painhng : Lawrence (1769-1830) ; genre painting : Wilkie (1785-1841). The German painters : the mysticism of the first romantic painters ; Overbeck (1789-1869) ; the idealists : Cornelius (1787-1867) ; patriotic idealism and mysticism : Kaulbach (i 805-1 874) ; importance of Munich as the art centre of Germany during this period. The Spanish painters : their one great master, Goya (i 745-1 828). Sculpture during this period : the leading sculptors : Canova (1757-1822) ; Flaxman (1755-1826) ; Thorwaldsen (1770-1844) ; Rauch (1777-1857); David d' Angers (1793-1856). Improvement in the arts of reproduction : line engraving : Raphael Morghen (i 758-1 833) ; etching ; invention of lithography (1796) : Sene- felder (i 771-1834). Music developed more than painting or sculpture during this period : the veritable great masters in music exerted their influence, aided by great improvements in the means for rendering their compositions. Music studied with greatest success in Germany ; its chief centre, Vienna : the supreme greatness of Beethoven (1770- 1827) ; Schubert (1797-1828). The school of classical correctness in music : Cherubini (1760-1842) ; Spohr (1784- 1 859). Development of the opera : the opera in Germany : Weber (1786- 1826); the Italian opera : Rossini (1792-1868) ; Donizetti (1798-1848) ; Bellini (1802-1835) ; the opera in France: Harold (1791-1833) ; Meyerbeer (1794-1864) ; comic opera: Boieldieu (i 775-1 834) ; Auber (i 782-1 871). 256 Science from lySg to 184.8. Romanticism in music : Berlioz (1803-1869) ; Chopin (1810-1849). Growth of a higher idealism in music, especially in Germany : Men- delssohn (1809-1848) ; Schumann (1810-1856) ; attempt of Wagner (18 10-1883) to widen the sphere and heighten the realism of music ; effect of his writings ; production of Taiinhauser (1845). Application of science to material needs : introduction of steam trans- port ; railroads; Boulton (1728-1809); Watt (1736-1819); Fulton (1765- 1815); Stephenson (1781-1848). The application of chemistry : Chaptal (1756-1832) ; J. B. Dumas (1800-1884) ; Liebig (1803-1871). The application of electricity: the electric telegraph : Gauss (1777- 1855) ; Morse (1791-1874); Wheatstone (1802-1875). The discovery of photography : Niepce (1765-1833); Daguerre (1789- 1851). The development of the natural sciences : attempts at a general har- mony of natural phenomena : Lamarck (i 744-1 829); Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859); Darwin (1809-1882). The great biologists : Cuvier(i 769-1 832); K. H. Weber (1795-1878); Miiller (1801-1858). The great physiologists : Bichat (i 771-1802), the first writer on physiology ; Broussais (1772-1838); Bell (1774-1842). The great zoologists: Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire ( 1 772-1 844) ; Agassiz (1807-1873). The great botanists : Jussieu (1747-1836); De Candolle (1778-1841); Brongniart (i 801-1876). The great geologists : William Smith (1769-1839); Dufrenoy (1792- 1857); I^yell (1797-1875); filie de Beaumont (1798-1874). The great mathematicians: the French school: Lagrange (1736- 1813); Monge (1746-1818); Laplace (1749-1827); Legendre (1752-1833); Carnot (1753-1823); Fourier (1768-1830); Cauchy (1789-1857); de- velopment of mathematics in other European countries : Gauss (1777- 1855) ; Green (i 793-1 841) ; Lobachevski (i 793-1 850) ; Abel (1802- 1829) ; Sturm (1803-1855) ; Sir W. R. Hamilton (1805-1865) ; De Morgan (i 806-1 871). The great astronomers : Herschel (1738-1822) ; Piazzi (1746-1826) ; Bessel (i 784-1 846) ; Arago (i 786-1 853) ; Olbers (i 788-1 840) ; Hansen (1795-1874) ; Airy (1801-1892) ; Leverrier (1811-1877). The Eastern Question ^ 18^1-34.. 257 The great physicists : interest taken in electricity : Rumford (1753- 1814) ; Young (1773-1829) ; Biot (1774-1862) ; Ampere (1775-1836); Oersted (1777-1857) ; Davy (1778-1829) ; Fresnel (1788-1827) : Ohm (1788- 1 854) ; Faraday (i 791-1867); mathematical physics : Lain6 (1795-1870). The great chemists : Cabanis (i 757-1 808); Gay-Lussac (i 778-1 850); Berzelius (1779-1848) ; Chevreul (1786-1889); Liebig (1803-1871). The extension of scientific knowledge brought about a greater degree of specialization in the natural, mathematical and experimental sciences. LECTURE 80. THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE CRIMEAN WAR. The Eastern Question from the settlement of the crisis brought on by the war between the Turks and Mehemet AH ( 1839- 1 841). Protest of England and France against the pressure placed upon the Turks by Russia and Austria to surrender Polish and Hungarian fugi- tives : an English fleet entered the Dardanelles (1849) ; influence at Constantinople of Sir Stratford Canning (b. 1788, d. 1880), created Vis- count Stratford de Redclifle (1852), the English ambassador (1841-1858). Reasons for England's interest in the preservation of the independence of Turkey ; proposal of the Tsar Nicholas to divide the territories of the "Sick Man" with England. The attitude of the Tsar Nicholas towards the Turks : consistency of his policy since the Treaties of Adrianople (1829) and Unkiar Skelessi (1833); evacuation of the Danubian principalities by the Russian troops (1851 ) after the reorganization, which followed the Convention of Balta- Liman ; accession of Daniel, as Prince of Montenegro (1851). The Tsar Nicholas believed the time propitious for the final over- throw of the Turks ; Francis Joseph of Austria was bound to him by gratitude for assistance in 1849, and almost dependent on him ; Fred- erick William IV. of Prussia, his brother-in-law, was desirous of ob- taining his help to establish his control over Germany ; England could 258 The Crimean War. nat fight without allies and might be induced to share the spoil ; while Napoleon III. was distrusted by the European powers, and maintenance of his position in France was doubtful ; the conversations of Nicholas with the English ambassador at Saint Petersburg, Sir George Hamilton Seymour (Jan., 1853). The condition of Turkey ; reforms attempted by the Sultan Abdul Med j id under the direction of Rashid Pasha and the encouragement of Stratford Canning. Disputed questions likely to lead to war : the difficulty about Mon- tenegro ; the quarrel with France about the Holy Places in Palestine. Mission of Menshikov (b. 1787, d. 1869) to Constantinople (28 Feb.- 21 May 1853); demand of Nicholas to be recognized as official protector of the Greek Christians in the Turkish dominions ; the Russian ulti- matum of 5 May, and its modified form of 21 May ; Nicholas' Note to the Powers (11 June); English and French fleets under Admirals James Dundas and Hamelin anchored in Besika Bay (14 June); a Russian army under Michael Gorchakov crossed the Pruth (2 July) and occu- pied the Danubian principalities; Gregory Ghica, Hospodar of Moldavia, and Stirbeiu, Hospodar of Wallachia, withdrew to Vienna; the Vienna Note (28 July); the English and French fleets entered the Dardanelles (22 Oct). The Turks at war with Russia (23 Oct., 1853): destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope (30 Nov.); the English and French fleets en- tered the Black Sea (4 Jan., 1854). England and France signed a treaty of alliance with Turkey (12 Mar. 1854) and declared war against Russia (27 Mar.); alliance signed be- tween England and France (10 Apr.). The attitude and policy of Austria and Prussia : they demand, with France and England, the evacuation of the Danubian principalities ; offensive and defensive alliance signed between Prussia and Austria (20 Apr., 1854). Gallant defence of Silistria by the Turks (19 May-23 June, 1854); English and French armies under Raglan and Saint- Arnaud landed at Varna (May-June); the Danubian principalities evacuated by the Rus- sians (2 Aug.); the allied armies landed in the Crimea (14-16 Sept.). Austria occupied the Danubian principalities and restored the au- The Crimean War. 259 thority of the Hospodars (Aug. -Sept.), under an agreement signed with the Sultan (12 June); the difficulty felt by the Allies in effectively at- tacking Russia while Austria refused to declare war ; indignation of the Tsar Nicholas and of the Allies at the conduct of Austria ; Francis Joseph kept in check by the attitude of Prussia and the Germanic Con- federation ; the Four Points demanded by the Western Powers, and accepted by Austria (8 Aug.), but rejected by Russia: (i) abandonment of Russia's protectorate over the Danubian principalities and Servia ; (2) freedom of navigation of the Danube; (3) revision of the Treaty of 13 July, 1 841, so far as it related to the neutrality of the Dardanelles ; (4) abandonment of Russia's claim to the protectorate over the Chris- tians in Turkey. The campaign in the Crimea: the Russians under Menshikov defeated in the battle of the Alma (20 Sept.); death of Saint- Arnaud, who was succeeded by Canrobert (29 Sept.); battles of Balaklava (25 Oct.), and Inkerman (5 Nov.); siege of Sevastopol ; defence of the city by Tod- leben (b. 1818, d. 1884); sufferings of the allied armies during the siege. The English and French fleets in the Baltic under Sir Charles Napier and Parseval-Deschenes : capture of Bomarsund (16 Aug.). Continued vacillation of Austria. Death of the Tsar Nicholas (2 Mar., 1855); accession of Alexander II. (b. 1818). Campaign of 1855 before Sevastopol : Menshikov succeeded by Michael Gorchakov in command of the Russian army (4 March); Canrobert succeeded by Pelissier in command of the French army (16 May); operations of the allied fleets, now commanded by Lyons and Bruat ; attack on the Redan and capture of the Mamelon (7 June) and failure to capture the Malakov (18 June); death of Raglan, who was succeeded by Simpson (28 June); Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, joined the Allies (26 Jan. ), and sent an army under LaMarmora (b. 1804, d. 1878) to the Crimea (May); battle of the Chernaia (16 Aug.); cap- ture of the Malakov (8 Sept.); surrender of Sevastopol (9 Sept.); Cod- rington in command of the English army (11 Nov.). Campaign of 1855 in the Baltic : the English and French fleets under Richard Dundas and Penaud bombard Sveaborg and Helsingfors (7-1 1 Aug.). 26o The Treaty of Paris, 1S56. Campaign of 1855 in Armenia : gallant defence of Kars under Fen- wick Williams ; its surrender (28 Nov.). Negotiations of the Tsar Alexander II. for peace ; exhaustion of Russia. Congress of Paris for the settlement of terms of peace meeting of the Congress (25 Feb., 1856) ; plenipotentiaries present were : for France, Walewski and Bourqueney ; for England, Clarendon and Cow- ley ; for Russia, Orlov and Brunnow ; for Austria, Buol and Hiibner ; for Sardinia, Cavour and Villamarina ; and for Turkey, Ali Pasha and Djemil Effendi; the Prussian representatives, Manteuffel and Hatzfeldt, were not admitted till 18 March. By the Treaty of Paris (30 March) the independence and territorial integrity of Turkey was recognized, the Black Sea neutralized, and the Danube declared a free river ; the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were given complete local self-government under their own princes, with national armies and representative institutions, guaranteed by the powers, but under the suzerainty of Turkey ; Servia received the same advantages, but Turkish garrisons were maintained in Belgrade and in three other cities. By the Declaration of Paris (16 April) privateering was forbidden ; neutral goods, when carried in the ships of belligerents, and enemies' goods on neutral ships, except contraband of war, were protected, and blockades recognized only when effective. Before the Congress broke up Cavour (b. 1809, d. 1861) brought for- ward the condition of Italy, and the proceedings of Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies, against his subjects were condemned. Evacuation of the Crimea by the French and English armies (July, 1856). The most conspicuous results of the Congress of Paris were the isolation of Austria and the favorable attitude of the other Great Powers toward Sardinia. Authorities : The best small book in English is Hamley, The War in the Crimea ; see also Engelhardt, La Turquie et le tanzimat ; histoire des rdformes depuis 1826 ; Forgade, Histoire des causes de la guerre d'Orient ; Lane-Poole, Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe ; Vitzthum von Eckstddt, St. Petersburg and London in the years 1852-64 ; Thouvenel, Nicolas I. et Napoleon III. (1852-54) ; KinglakCy Italy from 184.8 to 1858, 26X The Invasion of the Crimea, its Origin and Account of its Progress to the Death of Lord Raglan ; Hamley, The Story of the Campaign of Sebastopoi ; Russell, The British Expedition to the Crimea ; Sandwith, Narrative of the Siege of Kars ; Rousset, Histoire de la guerre de Crim^e ; Niel, Le siege de Sebastopoi ; Bazan- courty Iv'Exp^dition de Crim^e ; la marine fran^aise dans la mer Noire et la Bal- tique, and L'Expddition de Crimee jusqu'a la prise de Sdbastopol ; Todleben, La de- fense de Sebastopoi ; Brialmont, Le general Todleben, sa vie et ses travaux ; Rothan, La Prusse et son Roi pendant la guerre de Crimee ; RUstow^ Der Krieg gegen Russland, and Der Angriff auf die Krim undder Kampf um Sebastopoi, and Geffcke7iy Zur Geschichte dts Orientalischen Krieges. LECTURE 81. THE UNION OF ITALY. Condition of Italy after the revolutionary movement of 1848 ; cruel government of Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies ; reactionary government of Pope Pius IX., the Grand Duke Leopold II. of Tuscany, Duke Francis V. of Modena, and Duke Charles III. of Parma ; assassi- nation of Charles III. of Parma (26 Mar., 1854), and accession of Rob- ert I. ; arbitrary military government of the Austrians in Lombardy and Venetia. The only constitutional, parliamentary and moderate government in Italy was that of the King of Sardinia ; character of Victor Emmanuel II. (b. 1820, d. 1878); ministry ofD'Azeglio (7 May, 1849-22 Oct., 1852); Cavour, chief minister of Sardinia (4 Nov., 1852-13 July, 1859) ; his sagacious policy; Victor Emmanuel and Cavour hoped to accomplish the union of Italy under the constitutional government of the House of Savoy. Progress of the revolutionary movement in Italy: it was mainly re- publican and democratic, and looked to the formation of an Italian Republic ; opposite points of view of Cavour and Mazzini ; the former wished to accomplish the union of Italy by policy, with the countenance and assistance of Europe, the latter by means of popular insurrection ; Mazzini's attempt to raise an insurrection in Genoa (June, 1857). 262 The Policy of Cavour. The Austrians continued to occupy Parma, Modena and the Lega- tions, while the French had occupied Rome since 1849. Political advantage obtained by Cavour in joining the Anglo-French alliance against Russia in 1855, and in sending an army to the Crimea ; he thus obtained the right to be present at the Congress of Paris, and to lay the grievances of Italy before the Great Powers. Interest taken in England and in France in the cause of Italian unity ; indignation at the cruelties of King Bomba ; conspiracies formed, and money obtained ; the work of the secret societies and spread of democratic and unitary principles. Napoleon III. considered the possibility of assisting the Italian cause; his sympathy with the spirit of nationality ; the idea of creating a con- federation of the Italian Princes under the leadership of the Pope and the King of Sardinia ; attempt of Orsini on the life of Napoleon III. (14 Jan., 1858). The condition of affairs in Europe in 1858 favored the policy of Na- poleon III. and Cavour ; in Prussia Prince William had been declared regent owing to the insanity of Frederick William IV. (7 Oct., 1858); the new regent hated Austria and w^as ready to be on friendly terms with France ; the Tsar Alexander II. also friendly wath France. England, though less friendly with France than during the Crimean War, was too much occupied with the suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny in India to wish to interfere in the affairs of Europe, and English public opinion was all in favor of Italian unity and liberty; Austria, the power most opposed to Italian reform and unity, was therefore isolated. Success of the French policy in the two Danubian provinces: the idea of union ; revival of the idea of Romanian nationality ; union not for- bidden by the Treaty of Paris, though not intended by the Powers ; provisional government (1856- 1858) ; Alexander John Couza elected Prince of Moldavia (17 Jan.. 1859), and of Wallachia (5 Feb.) ; Milosch Obrenovitch replaced Alexander Karageorgevitch as Prince of Servia (12 Jan., 1859); on his death (26 Sept., i860) he was succeeded by his son, Michael. Napoleon III. and Cavour agreed at Plombieres (20 July, 1858) that Sardinia should cede Savoy and Nice to France in return for assistance against Austria in Italy. The War of i8 5g, 263 The relations between Sardinia and Austria : Austria declared war (26 Apr., 1859); Napoleon III. declared his intention of aiding Victor Emmanuel. The campaign of 1859 in Italy : the French and Sardinian armies de- feated the Austrians at^Montebello ( 20 May) and at Magenta (± Tune)! entrance of Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel into Milan (8 June); Napoleon's appeal to the Italians to unite for the freedom of their country. General insurrection in Italy : the Grand Duke Leopold driven from Florence (27 Apr.), Duke Robert I. from Parma (9 June), and Duke Francis V. from Modena (11 June) ; Francis II. succeeded as King of the Two Sicilies (22 May), and was prevented from aiding the Austrians by insurrections ; the Austrians withdrew from the Legations (12-18 June); provisional governments formed at Florence under Ricasoli (27 Apr.), at Modena (13 June) and at Bologna (12 June). The French defeated the Austrians at Solferino _(24 June) ; Napoleon III. , startled at the spread of the revolutionary movement in Italy, and afraid of the establishment of a strongly unified monarchy, instead of an Italian federation, made an armistice with Austria (8 July). By the Treaty of Villafranca (11 July) Austria made peace with France and ceded Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Napoleon III.; resig- nation of Cavour (13 July) ; both Austria and France afraid of the Prince Regent of Prussia, who had mobilized the Prussian army ( 14 June); definitive treaty signed at Zurich (10 Nov.). Progress of the movement in Italy for amalgamation with the King- dom of Sardinia; Tuscany, the Legations, the Romagna and the Duchies of Parma and Modena voted for union with Sardinia (Aug., Sept.) ; they elected the Prince of Carignano as regent (6-9 Nov.) ; he refused the office and named Boncompagni as regent (14 Nov.); Garibaldi resigned the command of their army (17 Nov.); Cavour recalled to office by Victor Emmanuel ( 16 Jan., i860). V Napoleon III. appealed for a conference of the Great Powers to settle the affairs of Italy (30 Nov., 1859) ; England formally opposed ; Pal- merston, who had become prime minister (12 June, 1859), declared for non-intervention and that the central Italian states had a right to decide on their own government, and he demanded that the French should evacuate Rome (22 Jan., i860). 264 The Union of Italy, Victor Emmanuel accepted the union, with the Kingdom of Sardinia, of Parma, Modena and the Romagna (18 Mar.), and of Tuscany (22 March). Napoleon III. ceded lyombardy to Victor Emmanuel in exchange for Savoy and Nice (24 March). Garibaldi landed in Sicily with a body of followers (11 May, i860) ; his movement entirely independent ; he disliked Cavour, and was an ad- herent of republicanism rather than of the House of Savoy; Garibaldi conquered all Sicily by the end of July ; Francis II., King of the Two Sicilies, re-issued the constitution which his father had granted in 1848 and afterwards had withdrawn (2 July) ; Garibaldi crossed to the main- land (19 Aug.), conquered Calabria and occupied Naples (7 Sept.) ; : Francis II. escaped to Gaeta (6 Sept.) ; Mazzini joined Garibaldi (17 \ Sept.), and projected the establishment of an Italian Republic. Action of Victor Emmanuel and Cavour at this juncture : they rep- resented themselves as forced by circumstances to intervene in the af- fairs of southern Italy ; encouraged by England : wrath of the Pope, who excommunicated Victor Emmanuel ; Cialdini, with a Sardinian army, defeated the Papal troops at Castelfidardo (18 Sept.), occupied Umbria and the March, avoided the Patrimony of St. Peter, and entered Neapolitan territory (23 Sept.) ; capture of Ancona (29 Sept.). I The Parliament of Turin, consisting of deputies from all northern I and central Italy, authorized Victor Emmanuel to unite the March, Naples and Sicily with the Sardinian dominions (11-16 Oct.) ; Victor Emmanuel proceeded to Naples ; patriotic conduct of Garibaldi ; Um- bria, the March, Naples and Sicily voted for union with northern and central Italy (21 Oct.). Surrender of Gaeta (13 Feb., 1861). Meeting of the first Italian Parliament at Turin (18 Feb., 1861); the King of Sardinia declared King of Italy as Victor Emmanuel 1.(17 Mar.). Italy thus formed into a united kingdom within eighteen months from the outbreak of war with Austria, the only provinces not ruled by the House of Savoy being Venetia, occupied by the Austrians, and Rome, with the Patrimou}^ of St. Peter, garrisoned by French troops. Causes of this startling success : the ability of Cavour; organization of Italy as a limited monarchy under the House of Savoy. Death of Cavour (6 June, 1861). The Creation of Romania. 265 Authorities : The best small book in English is Slillman, The Union of Italy; see also Martinengo Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy* Tivaroni, Storia critica del Risorgiinento Italiano; Reuchlin, Geschichte Italiens ; Mistrali^ Da No- vara a Roma ; Crozals, ly'Unitc italienne ; Giacometti, L'Unit^ italienne ; Cantti, Delia Indipendenza Italiana; Idevil/e, Journal d'un Diplomate eu Italie, 1859-1862 ; Bianc/ii, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia ; Jiatiazzi, Rat- tazzi et son temps ; Zeller, Pie IX. et Victor Emmanuel ; Battalia^ Histoirc de la revolution de i860 en Sicile ; Garibaldiy Memoirs ; Mazzini, Scritti, editi ed in- editi; Massari, Vita di Vittorio Emanuele II., and Vita di Cavour; Godkin, Life of Victor Emmanuel ; MazadCy Le comte de Cavour ; Nigra, Correspondence of Ca- vour with Madame de Circourt, translated by Butler ; Cavour, II conte di Cavour in parlamento; discorsi, ed. Artom and Blanc; Lettere edite ed inedite, ed. Chiala; and Nouvelles Lettres, ed. Bert; Bianchi, La politique du Comte Camille de Ca- vour de 1852 a 1861, lettres inedites ; Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi Tempi ; D'Aze- glio, I miei ricordi ; L'ltalie de 1847 a 1865 ; Correspondance.ed. Rendu ; Scritti politici e letterari, ed. Tabarrini; and Scritti postumi, ed. Ricd; Della Rocca, Au- tobiography of a Veteran ; Duquet, Histoire de la guerre d'ltalie ; Rustow, Der italienische Krieg, 1859, and Erinnerungen aus dem italienischen Feldzuge von i860, and Bazancourt, La campagne d'ltalie de 1859. LECTURE 82. THE OVERTHROW OF AUSTRIA. Position of the Great Powers toward each other after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy. The restless policy of Napoleon III. : continuance of the alliance with England, but on less cordial terms ; the joint expedition to China ( i860); French interference in Syria (i860) ; the French expedition to Mexico (1862); election of the Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico (10 July, 1863); disastrous result of French interference in Mexico (1866); Maximilian shot (19 June. 1867). Development of the Eastern Question : friendship between Napoleon III. and Alexander II.; union of the provinces of Moldavia and Walla- chia into the Principality of Romania (23 Dec, 1861); death of Sultan Abdul Medjid and accession of Abdul Aziz (25 June, 1861); overthrow of Prince Alexander Couza C23 Feb., 1866); election of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as Prince of Romania (20 Apr., 1866). 266 TTie Policy of Bismarck, Revolution in Greece : overthrow of King Otho (Oct., 1862); election of Prince George of Denmark as King of the Hellenes (30 Mar., 1863); representative institutions established; cession by England of the Ionian Islands to Greece (28 May, 1864). The position in Italy: the ministries of Ricasoli (12 June, 1861 — 2 March, 1862); Rattazzi (3 March, 1862— i Dec, i862),andFarini(9Dec., 1862 — 23 Sept., 1864); longing of the Italians for Rome and Venice ; negotiations with France for the withdrawal of the French garrison from Rome ; Garibaldi's attempt on Rome defeated at Aspromonte (29 Aug., 1862); ministry of La Marmora (23 Sept., 1864 — 20 June, 1866); his negotiations with Prussia. The policy of Tsar Alexander II.: emancipation of the Russian serfs (18 Mar., 1861); outbreak of insurrection in Russian Poland (22 Jan., 1863); offer of Prussia to assist Russia in suppressing the in- surrection (8 Feb.); gratitude of Alexander ; joint representations of England, Austria and France in favor of the Poles (17 Apr.); indigna- tion of the Tsar. The internal policy of Austria : Rechberg, minister of foreign affairs (17 May, 1859 — 27 Oct., 1864); the Emperor Francis Joseph promulgated a unitary constitution (20 Oct., i860); refusal of the Hungarians and Venetians to send deputies to the new parliament. Growing strength of Prussia: accession of William I. (2 Jan., 1861); his character and previous career ; his military instincts ; reorganiza- tion of the Prussian army by Von Roon (b. 1803, d. 1879), and of the general staff by Von Moltke (b. 1800, d. 1891); King William's belief in the unity of Germany and in the mission of Prussia to dominate Germany. Position of parties in the Prussian Landtag : Bismarck appointed chief minister (23 Sept., 1862); he was unable to obtain a parliamentary majority, but raised taxes and governed without it ; character of Bis- marck's policy ; he worked for the isolation of Austria and the destruc- tion of her influence in Germany as the first step towards German unity. The weakness of the Bundestag, or Federal Diet ; the schemes of the middle states, headed by Saxony, Hanover and Bavaria, for preventing the predominance of either Austria or Prussia. The Schleswig'Holstein Question, 267 The Schleswig-Holstein question : its position at the death of Fred- erick Vil. of Denmark (15 Nov., 1863); the Duke of Augustenburg put forward his claim to the duchies ; at the request of the Bundestag, Hanover and Saxony occupied Holstein and Lauenburg (23 Dec, 1863), and Prussia and Austria occupied Schleswig (i Feb., 1864); resistance of the Danes ; battles of Duppel ; England's futile protests ; Christian IX. of Denmark forced to yield ; by the treaty of i August, confirmed 30 October, 1864, he surrendered the duchies to Prussia and Austria. The Bundestag, led by Bavaria and Saxony, demanded that the duchies should be given up to the Duke of Augustenburg ; Bismarck scornfully refused; by the Convention of Gastein (14 Aug, 1865) Prussia and Austria agreed to a ** condominium " in the duchies; Aus- tria occupied Holstein, while Prussia occupied Schleswig and pur- chased Lauenburg. Bismarck's preparations for war with Austria ; the friendliness of Russia towards the Prussian schemes ; Bismarck's negotiations with Na- poleon III., to whom he offered Belgium and Luxemburg in return for neutrality. Bismarck signed an offensive and defensive treaty with Italy (8 Apr., 1866), and promised to attack Austria within three months. Bismarck proposed to the Bundestag that a German parliament be elected by universal suffrage, that Austria be excluded from Germany, and that the forces of Germany be divided into two armies, of which the northern should be commanded by the King of Prussia and the south- ern by the King of Bavaria (9 Apr.). Bismarck attacked Austria's administration of Holstein as favoring the pretensions of the Duke of Augustenburg, and finally refused to submit the question of the duchies to the Bundestag (4 May). ' Outbreak of the Seven Weeks' War : a Prussian army under Man- teuffel (b. 1809, d. 1885) entered Holstein (7 June); diplomatic relations between Prussia and Austria broken off (12 June). Bismarck declared the Pact of Federation broken (14 June"); Prussian troops occupied Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse- Cassel ; fruitless success of the Hanoverians at Langensalza (27 June); Manteuffel invaded Bavaria and prevented the South German states from lending effective aid to Austria. 268 rhe Seven Weeks' War, 1866. The campaign of 1866 in Italy : Italy declared war against Austria (20 June); the Italian army invaded Venetia and was defeated by the Archduke Albert at Custozza (24 June); the Italian fleet defeated by Tegetthoff at Lissa (20 July) ; an armistice signed between Austria and Italy (12 Aug.), and by a treaty (24 Aug.) Austria ceded Venetia to Napoleon III. for transference, after a plebiscite, to the Kingdom of Italy. The campaign of 1866 in Bohemia: Von Moltke's strategical combi- nations ; junction of the armies of the Crown Prince Frederick of Prussia (b. 1831, d. 1888) and Prince Frederick Charles (b. 1828, d. 1885); the Austrians under Benedek utterly defeated at Sadowa, or Koniggratz (3 July); armistice signed (22 July), followed by the Prelim- inaries of Nikolsburg (26 July), and the Treaty of Prague (23 Aug.). By this treaty Austria lost no territory, but agreed to the dissolution of the Germanic Confederation, and promised to make no opposition to a new organization of Germany, in which she should have no part. Prussia's chief advantages from the war were not gained from Aus- tria, but by the annexation of the following states : Hesse-Homburg (3 Sept.), Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, the free city of Frankfort (20 Sept.), and Schleswig-Holstein (24 Dec), which gave her an uncon- tested superiority in Germany ; favorable treaties of peace made with Wiirtemberg (13 Aug.), Baden (17 Aug.), Bavaria (22 Aug.), Hesse- Darmstadt ^3 Sept.), and Saxony (21 Oct.). When the great blew had been struck and it was too late for him to interfere effectively. Napoleon III., by his ambassador, Benedetti, asked for Rhenish Bavaria and Rhenish Hesse, as his reward for non-inter- ference (6 Aug.); William I. and Bismarck refused (7 Aug.), and by making known the request aroused German feeling against France. Results of the Seven Wrecks' War on the position of European politics. Authorities : Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de I'Burope, 1814-78 ; Lejlvre^ Histoire de rinterventiop fraii^aise au Mexique ; Masseras, Un essai d'empire au Mexique ; Gaulot, L'Empire de Maximilien ; Monicault, La question d'Orieut, le traite de Paris et ses suites (1856-71); Bergner, Rumanien ; Petrescu and Stourdza, Actes et documents relatifs a I'histoire de la regeneration de la Rou- manie ; Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Geschichte Griechenlands ; Hertzberg, Ge- schichte Griechenlands; Thouvenel, Trois ann^es de la question d' Orient (1856-59), La Grece.duroiOthon, and Le Secret dePEmpereurC 1860-63); Zeller, PielX. etVic- The Overthrow of Austria. 269 tor Emmanuel; Ricasoli, Lettereedocumenti;^^rs^2'/V?, II regno di Vittorio Eman- uele; Garibaldi, Memoirs; Martin, Pologne et Muscovie; Batach, La question polon> aise dans la Russie occidentale; Arami?iski, Histoire de la revolution polonaise ; LiS' icki^ L,e marquis Wielopolski ; Leroy-Beaulieu, Un homme d'etat russc, Nicolas Milutine; Sybel, Die Bcgriiudung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I. ; Witliam /., MilitarischeSchriftcn; Rocn, Denkwurdigkeiten;i^(9//^^, Gesammelte Schriften und Denkwiirdigkeiten, and his Militarische Werke ; Miiller, Graf Moltke ; Hahn, Furst Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Busch, Our Chancellor ; Lowe, Life of Bismarck ; Simon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck ; Poschinger, Fiirst Bismarck und der Bundesrath ; Bismarck, Gesammelte Werke, Briefe, Politische Briefe, and Politischen Reden, and Gedenkschriften und Erinnerungen, translated by Butler; Beust, Memoirs ; Vitzthum von Eckstddt, St. Petersburg and London, 1852-64, and London, Gastein und Sadowa, 1864-66; Giehne,Zwe\ Jahre CEsterreichischer Politik ; Malet, The Overthrow of the Germanic Confederation by Prussia in 1866; Loftus, Diplomatic Reminiscences ; Hansen, A travers la diplomatic, 1864-67 ; Renouf, Les coulisses de la diplomatic; Rothan, La politique fran9aise en 1866; Benedetti, Ma mission en Prusse, and Essais diplomatiques ; Klaczko, Les prelimi- naires de Sadowa, and Two Chancellors, Bismarck and Gortchakoflf ; Viel-Castel, Memoirs; Gz5/(?//a«^, Journal ; Gramont [pseud. Memor), L'Allemagne nouvelle; La Marmora, Un pen plus de lumiere sur les dv^nements militaires et politiques de I'ann^e 1866 ; Chiala, Dal congresso di Plombieres al congresso di Berlino, and Le g^n^ral La Marmora et I'alliance prussienne; Bonghi, L'allianza prussiana e I'acquisto del Veneto ; Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyn de Lhuys ; Hahn, Zwei Jahre preussich-deutscher Politik, 1866-67 ; Treitschke, Zehn Jahre deutscher Kampfe, 1865-74; Dicey, The Schleswig-Holstein War; Riistow, Der deutsch-danische Krieg, 1864; Hozier, The Seven Weeks' War; Lecomte, Guerre de la Prusse et de I'ltalie contre I'Autriche et la Confederation germanique ; Borb^ stddt, Preussens Feldziige gegen CEsterreich ; Riistow, Der Krieg von 1866 im Deutschland und Italien ; Fontane, Der deutsche Krieg von 1866 ; Knorr, Der Feldzug des Jahr 1866 in West- und Sud-Deutschland, and the official accounts of the wars of 1864 and 1866 by the German, Danish and Austrian general sta£fs. LECTURE 83. THE RE-CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. After the signature of the Treaty of Prague, Prussia propounded a new organization for northern Germany ; the victories of her armies and the great preponderance she had obtained over the other states by 270 The North German Confederation, the annexation of Hanover, etc., caused Bismarck's plan to be promptly accepted by the northern states {7 Feb., 1867). Germany north of the Main was formed into the North German Confederation, which consisted of the two kingdoms of Prussia and Saxony, the four grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklen- burg-Strelitz, Saxe- Weimar, and Oldenburg, five duchies, seven princi- palities, and the three free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck. The federal power extending over foreign affairs, the army, coinage, and all matters not strictly provincial, was entrusted to the King of Prussia as President of the Confederation, whose executive minister was the Chancellor, appointed by himself; the King of Prussia was also commander-in-chief of the army and navy ; Bismarck appointed chan- cellor (14 July). The federal legislative authority was to be administered by the Fed- eral Parliament, or Reichstag, elected by universal suffrage in proportion to population. Between the President and the Reichstag was established the Federal Council, or Bundesrath, consisting of forty-three members appointed by the governments of the different states, Prussia nominating seventeen. The constitution was accepted by the Constituent Reichstag (16 Apr., 1867), which voted taxes for the maintenance of the army for four years. Von Roon applied the military organization of Prussia to the whole of the North German Confederation. The South German states, Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden and Hesse- Darmstadt, maintained their independence, but the Zollverein, or Cus- toms-Union, was renewed between them and the North German Con- federation (8 July), its affairs being regulated by a " Zollparlament." The condition of the Austrian Empire after the Treaty of Prague : failure of the unitary constitution granted in i860, owing to the absten- tion of Hungarian deputies ; the struggle between the federalists and the dualists ; the Emperor Francis Joseph resolved on a dual constitu- tion ; Beust (b. 1809. d. 1886) appointed Austrian Chancellor (23 June, 1867). The dual agreement of 8 February, 1867 : the Empire split into two parts, Austria and Hungary, each having separate parliaments, minis- The Dual Constiiuiion of Austro- Hungary . 271 tries, budgets and complete internal autonomy ; foreign policy, imperial finance and military administration carried on by ministers responsible to a Reichstag, consisting of delegations from the Austrian and Hunga- rian parliaments; these arrangements embodied in a Constitution, which received the sanction of Francis Joseph ^22 Dec, 1867). Delight of the Magyars at the Dual Constitution, which was mainly the work of Deak; their attitude towards subject populations, and com- promise with Croatia. Wrath of the Slavonic populations at the Dual Constitution ; the Slavs of the north, headed by the Czechs, being thus separated from the Slovaks, Slavonians, Croats and Servians in the south. The condition of Russia ; liberal policy of the Tsar Alexander II. and his ministers, except with regard to Poland. Russia's advance in Central Asia: wars in Turkestan; the conquered tefritories formed into the Governor- Generalship of Turkestan (23 July, 1867) ; Bokhara became a tributary state (1868). Condition of the Eastern Question : growth of Romanian claims for independence under Prince Charles of Hohenzollern ; the Turks with- drew their garrisons from Belgrade and the other Servian fortresses ( 1 8 Apr., 1867); assassination of Michael Obrenovitch (10 June, 1868), and accession of Milan, as Prince of Servia ; insurrections in the Her- zegovina (1861-62) and in Crete (1866-69). Italian aflfairs after the Treaty of Prague : the Italians demanded the evacuation of Rome by the French garrison ; the garrison withdrawn (11 Dec, 1866) ; Garibaldi's attack on Rome (25 Oct, 1867) ; a French army under De Failly arrived in Rome to defend the Pope (30 Oct.) ; defeat of Garibaldi at Mentana (3 Nov.) ; withdrawal of the French troops to Civita Vecchia. Negotiations of Napoleon III. with Bismarck : his schemes on Bel- gium; his schemes on Luxemburg, which had been ruled hy the King of the Netherlands as a German state, but had not joined the North German Confederation; equivocal position of Luxemburg, which was garrisoned by Prussia ; William III. of the Netherlands ready to sell Luxemburg to France, but unwilling to do so without the consent of Prussia. Napoleon III. appealed to Europe on the question of Luxemburg ; a 272 The Policy of Napoleon III. conference of the Great Powers, by the Treaty of I,ondon (11 May, 1867), directed that the grand duchy be evacuated by Prussia, that the fortress be dismantled, and that its neutrality be guaranteed by Europe. Growing weakness and unpopularity of the Second Empire in France ; effect of the final failure of the Mexican expedition (1867); strength of the parliamentary opposition under Thiers ; resolution of Napoleon III. to rule more in harmony with popular feeling ; he granted a measure of liberty to the press (10 May, 1868), and the right of public meeting (6 June, 1868), and eventually established real parliamentary govern- ment (8 Sept., 1869). Napoleon's concessions taken as a confession of weakness ; general hatred and contempt expressed for the Empire in France ; the repub- lican party grew in strength and threatened revolution ; prominence of Gambetta (b. 1838, d. 1882), elected deputy for Paris in 1869; vigor of republican journalism; Henri Rochefort (b. 1830), editor of La Lanterne; influence of the "International," founded 28 Sept., 1864, a democratic society of workingmen, directed by Mazzini, Kossuth, Ledru-Rollin, Karl Marx and George Odger. Napoleon regarded a successful war as the only means practicable for lestoring the authority of the Empire ; he was falsely told that the army was efficient ; he resolved on war with Prussia, because Bismarck had foiled his designs on Luxemburg and he could promise the French people a restoration of the " natural limits " of France ; his endeavors to obtain allies ; Austria afraid to join him from fear of Russia, and Italy declined, because of the French occupation of Civita Vecchia. William I. and Bismarck also desired war with France ; they wished to incorporate the South German states and to complete German unity by a great national triumph. Napoleon III. formed liberal ministry under fimile Ollivier (3 Jan., 1870); he appealed to a plebiscite and by 7,336,434 votes to 1,560,709 France declared herself satisfied with the Empire (8 May, 1870). The pretext for war derived from the situation in Spain. Recent history of Spain : unpopularity of Queen Isabella II. ; domi- nation of the army and frequency of military pronunciamentos. Repeated changes of ministry and alternation of power between Es- partero, Narvaez and O'Donnell; war with Morocco (1859-60), with War Declared by France agaiy^f Prussia^ i8yo. 273 Peru (1864-66), with San Domingo (1864-65); chronic state of insur- rection in Cuba. After the death of Narvaez and O'Donnell, Isabella was abandoned ; insurrection of September, 1868 ; flight of Isabella to France (30 Sept.); formation of a provisional government (8 Oct.) under Serrano (b. 1810, d. 1885), Prim (b. 1814, d. 1870), and Topete (b. 1820, d. 1885). Meeting of a constituent assembly at Madrid (11 Feb. 1869); it elected Serrano regent and declared in favor of limited monarchy ; candidates for the throne of Spain, Don Carlos, the Due de Montpensier, and Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; Prim suggested the candidature of a prince of the House of Hohenzollern; King William I. of Prussia gave permission for the candidature of his relative, Prince Leopold of Hohen- zollern-Sigmaringen (28 June). Napoleon III. resolved to make out of this candidature a casus belli with Prussia ; Benedetti sent to Ems to demand an explanation of King William; his interviews with the King (9-1 1 July); candidature of Prince I^eopold for the throne of Spain withdrawn (12 July); Benedetti's instructions to demand yet more from the King of Prussia ; the King left Ems (15 July); Bismarck ready for war ; mobilization of the Ger- man armies. Excitement in Germany at the behavior of France ; the South Ger- man states prepared to assist the North German Confederation ; enthu- siasm felt at the prospect of war with France. England endeavored to mediate, but Napoleon and Bismarck were bent upon war; France declared war (19 July); European public opinion regarded the war as wanton and sympathized with Prussia. Authorities : Von Sybel, Die Begrundung des deutschen Reiches durch Wil- helm I.; Maurenbrecher, Griindung des deutschen Reiches ; Oncken, Das Zeitaltcr des Kaisers Wilhelm ; W^//A(?/;w /., Politische Correspondenz ; Treilschke, Zehn Jahre deutscher Kiimpfe, and Deutsche Geschichte im 19**° Jahrhundert ; Binding^ Die Griindung des Norddeutschen Bundes; Biille, Geschichte des zweiten Kaiser- reiches und des Konigreiches Italien ; Viron, Histoire de TAllemagne depuis la bataille de Sadowa ; Ernest, Duke of Saxe-CoburgGotha, Memoirs ; Rogge^ CEs- terreich (1848-73); Stillman, The Cretan Insurrection of 1866: Delord, Histoire du Second Empire ; Rothan, La politique frangaise en 1S66, L'Affaire de Luxem- bourg, and La France et sa politique ext^rieure en 1867 ; Thiers, Discours parle- mentaires ; Gramont (pseud. Mentor), La France et la Prusse avant la guerre; 274 "^^^^ Frayico-German War, iSjo-yi. Ollivier, Memoires, and Le 19 Janvier ; papiers et correspondance de la famille im- periale ; Rochefort, Memoires ; Gambetta, Discours et plaidoyers choisis, ed. Reinach; Beust, Memoirs ; Benedetti, Ma Mission en Prusse, and EJssais diplo- matiques ; Hahn, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich und die Griindung des deutschen Kaiserreichs ; Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre franco-alle- mande ; Poujade, La diplomatie du Second Empire et celle du quatre Septembie, 1870; Strobel, The Spanish Revolution, 1868-1875 ; Hubbard, Histoire contempo- raine d'Espagne ; Mazade, Les revolutions de I'Espagne contemporaine ; Cherbu- liez, Iv'Espagne politique (1868-73); Lauser, Geschichte Spaniens von dem Sturz Isabellas ; Pirala, Historia contemporanea (1843-75) ; Laveleye, I,a Prusse et I'Au- triche depuis Sadowa ; Loftus, Diplomatic Reminiscences, and many of the books cited under I^ecture 80, including those on Bismarck. LECTURE 84. THE FRANCO-aER MAN WAR. Attitude of the Powers of Europe at the outbreak of the Franco- German War; England declared neutrality (19 July, 1870), and Eng- lish public opinion was aroused against France by the publication of Napoleon III.'s propositions to Bismarck for seizing Belgium ; Russia declared neutrality (23 July; and threatened to attack Austria, if that power should join France ; Austria, therefore, remained neutral ; Italy refused to join France because of the French occupation of Civita Vecchia ; Denmark alone prepared to aid Napoleon, if the French armies won some immediate success ; formation of the League of Neutrals (Aug. -Sept.). Enthusiasm for the war in Germany ; the Crown Prince of Prussia took command of the contingents of the South German states. Excitement in Paris ; the Emperor Napoleon III. left Paris to take command of the army (28 July). Rapid mobilization of the German army ; Moltke's plan of campaign ; inferiority of the French military administration ; change in the French plan of campaign owing to the adhesion of the South German states to Prussia. First campaign of 1870 : the skirmish at Saarbriick (2 Aug.); battle The Frayico- Germayi War^ iSjo-yi. 275 of Wissembourg (4 Aug.); the Crown Prince of Prussia utterly defeated MacMahon (b. 1808, d. 1893), at Worth, or Froschwiller, and Prince Frederick Charles defeated Frossard at Spicheren, or Forbach (6 Aug.); Moltke, having thus broken the French line, formed the siege of Stras- burg and advanced against the main French army under Bazaine ; Bazaine defeated at Borny (14 Aug.), at Mars-la-Tour, or Vionville (16 Aug.), and at Gravelotte, or Saint- Pri vat (18 Aug.); Bazaine's army shut up in Metz and besieged by Prince Frederick Charles. Excitement caused in Paris by the news of the French defeats ; the Empress Eugenie, who had been appointed regent, dismissed Ollivier and appointed a new ministry under Montauban, Comte de Palikao (10 Aug.). The campaign of Sedan : the Army of Chalons under MacMahon, and accompanied by the Emperor, marched to relieve Metz ; it was utterly defeated by the main German army at Sedan (i Sept.); surren- der of the French army (2 Sept.), and the Emperor Napoleon III. sent a prisoner into Germany. Revolution of 4 September in Paris : the Imperial Government over- thrown ; the deputies for Paris in the Legislative Body, with the excep- tion of Thiers, declared themselves the Government of National Defence, with General Trochu, commandant of Paris, as President ; this provis- ional government formed a ministry consisting of Jules Favre (b. 1809, d. i88o\ Minister of Foreign Affairs; Gambetta, Minister of the In- terior ; General Le Flo, Admiral Fourichon, Cremieux, Ernest Picard, Jules Simon. Dorian and Magnin ; the other members of the Govern- ment of JQational Defence were Emmanuel Arago, Jules Ferry (b. 1832, d. 1893), Gamier- Pages, Eugene Pelletan, Glas-Bizoin and Henri Rochefort; iStienne Arago made Mayor of Paris. The first measures of the new French government : its mistakes ; it did not immediately summon a constituent assembly ; it persisted in remaining in Paris ; it sent Thiers to endeavor to obtain allies. Thiers' journey : his reception in England, Russia, Austria and Italy ; the French garrison had been withdrawn from Civita Vecchia (3 Aug.): Rome was captured by the Italians (20 Sept.), and declared the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Continued success of the German armies in France ; the siege of Paris 276 The Franco- German War, iSyo-yr. formed (19 Sept.^; surrender of Toul (23 Sept.), and of Strasburg (28 Sept.); the Germans advanced south and took Orlea'ns (11 Oct.); Bis- marck's negotiations with Bazaine ; his attitude towards the Govern- ment of National Defence; surrender of Bazaine and of Metz (27 Oct.). Gambetta left Paris (8 Oct.), and organized a branch government at Tours ; his extraordinary energy and success in calling France to arms; he advocated war a outrance, and organized the Army of the I^oire ; the Germans forced to evacuate Orleans, and defeated at Coulmiers (9 Nov.); advance of the Army of the Loire to the relief of Paris ; critical position of the German besieging army ; sortie of Trochu from Paris and battle of Villiers-Champigny (30 N0V.-2 Dec). Prince Frederick Charles broke the Army of the Loire in two, and reoccupied Orleans (5 Dec); the branch government retired from Tours to Bordeaux (10 Dec); surrender of Verdun (8 Nov.), of Thionville (24 Nov. ) and of Montmedy (14 Dec); brilliant defence of Belfort (2 Nov.- 18 Feb.). Effect of German victories upon German popular opinion ; the South German states entered the North German Confederation (15-25 Nov.); the Reichstag offered the King of Prussia the title of Emperor (10 Dec); he declined to accept it until it was offered to him by the German Prin- ces ; this was done and William I. of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles (18 Jan., 187 1). Russia took advantage of the war and of the existence of Gladstone's ministry in England to declare the abrogation of the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 C31 Oct., 1870); conference of the powers upon this sub- ject at London (17 Jan.); the Treaty of Paris modified so as to permit Russia to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea (13 Mar.); causes of France not being represented at the conference ; the policy of Bismarck with regard to the Government of National Defence. Final campaign ot 1871 ; the Germans commenced the bombardment of Paris (5 Jan.); operations of the Army of the North under Faid- herbe ; battle of Pont-Noyelles (23 Dec, 1870); Faidherbe's success at Bapaume (3 Jan., 187 1); surrender of Mezieres (2 Jan.) and of Pe- ronne (9 Jan.); Faidherbe utterly defeated by Von Goben at Saint- Quentin (19 Jan.); operations of the Second Army of the Loire under Chanzy (b. 1823, d. 1883); he was defeated by Prince Frederick Charles The Commune of Paris, i8yi. 277 at Le Mans (11 Jan.); operations of the Army of the East under Bour- baki ; he was defeated at H6ricourt (17 Jan.), and driven into Switzer- land ; last sortie from Paris under Ducrot ; battle of Buzenval (19 Jan.); Paris forced to surrender (28 Jan.). The armistice of 28 Jan., 1871 ; its terms ; its blunders ; conduct of Jules Favre ; mistakes of the Government of National Defence ; resig- nation by Gambetta of his authority in the provinces (6 Feb.); elections held for a Constituent Assembly (8 Feb.). Meeting of the Constituent Assembly at Bordeaux (12 Feb.); Thiers elected "chief of the executive power "; signature of preliminaries of peace with Germany (26 Feb.); the treaty accepted by the Assembly (i Mar.); by it France ceded Alsace and part of Lorraine, including Metz, to Germany, and promised to pay a war indemnity of five mil- liards of francs ; definitive treaty signed at Frankfort (10 May, 1871). The Constituent Assembly declared the overthrow of the Empire; the proclamation of the Third French Republic (i March, 1871)0 Formation at Paris of the Government of the Commune (18 March, 187 1); its leaders and their doctrines ; Thiers concentrated an army at Versailles against the Commune ; resistance of the government of the Commune ; the Archbishop of Paris and other hostages shot; the war with the Commune ; MacMahon conquered the Commune and occupied Paris (21-28 May); burning of the Tuileries and of the H6tel de Ville. The most important results of the Franco- German War were the completion of the unity of Germany and the overthrow of the Second Empire in France ; but the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, more than the result of the war, raised inextinguishable hatred between the two nations. Authorities : Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre Franco- Allemande ; Angehergy Recueil des trait^s, conventions, etc., concernant la guerre Franco-Al- lemande ; Hahn, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Fraukreich und die Griindung des deutschen Kaiserreichs ; Meding, De Sadowa k Sedan ; IVashburne, Corre- . spondence relating to the Franco-German War, and Recollections of a Minister to France (1869-77) ; Daily News, War Correspondence ; Forbes, My Experience of the Franco-German War; Russell, My Diary during the last great War; RustoWy The War for the Rhine Frontier in 1870; Borbstddt, The Franco-German War; Hooper, The Campaign of Sedan ; Labouchere, Diary of the Besieged Resident in 278 The German Empire. Paris; Bingham^ Journal of the Siege of Paris; Duquet, La Guerre 1870-71; Chu- quetf Le general Chanzy (1823-1883), and La Guerre 1870-71; Bazaine, L'Armee duRhin, and Episodes de la guerre de 1870 etle blocus de ^^X.z\Jarras, Souvenirs ; Mazade, La guerre de France, and Monsieur Thiers ; Trochu, L'Empire ct la de- fense de Paris, and CEuvres posthumes ; Chanzy , M^moires ; Villefranche, His- toire du gien^ral Chanzy ; Ducroty La defense de Paris ; Lehautcourt, Le siege de Paris ; D'Heylli, Journal du siege de Paris; Rothan^ L'AUemagne et I'ltalie, 1870- 71 ; HippeaUy Histoire diplomatique de la troisieme republique fran9aise; Andlau, Metz; D' AbranteSy Essai sur la regence dc 1870 ; Palikao, Un ministere de la guerre de vingt-quatre jours ; Jules Favre, Le gouvernement de la Defense nationale ; ClaretiCy Histoire de la revolution de iS'jo-'ji', Jules Simon, M^moires, Souvenirs du 4 Septembre, and Le gouvernement de M. Thiers ; Glas-Bizoin, Dictature de cinq mois ; Valjrey, Histoire de la diplomatic du gouvernement de la Defense nationale ; Maquest, La France et 1' Europe pendant le siege de Paris ; Buret, Histoire de quatre ans ; Busch, Our Chancellor, and Bismarck in the Franco-German War ; Mollke, Geschichte des deutsch-franzosischen Krieges von 1870-71, and Militar- ische Correspondenz; Hanneken, Bazaine un die Kapitulation von Metz ; Blume, Operations of the German armies in France; Sybel, Der Frieden von 1871 ; March, History of the Paris Commune of 187 1 ; Du Camp, Les convulsions de Paris ; Ar- nould, Histoire de la Commune; and Lissagaray, Histoire de la Commune, trans- lated by Aveling. A full bibliography is contained in Palat, Bibliographie gendrale de la guerre de 1870-71. LECTURE 85. EUROPE AFTER THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR : THE DREIKAISERBUND. Condition of Germany after the successful conclusion of the Franco- Prussian War ; enthusiasm felt for a union achieved on the field of battle , economic effect of the war indemnity paid by France ; creation of a national German coinage ; the reconstitution of the North German Confederation as the German Empire ; the Bundesrath increased by six voices for Bavaria, four for Wiirtemberg, two for Baden, and two for Hesse-Darmstadt ; the Reichstag increased by additional represent- atives from the South German states, chosen in the ratio of one deputy to each one hundred thousand of population. The Third French Republic. 279 In spite of the triumph of national unity, particularism made itself felt in the Reichstag ; though the German princes remained true to the Empire, the Polish, Schleswig, and Hanoverian deputies formed sepa- rate and irreconcilable parties, while Alsace-Lorraine refused to elect any deputies until 1874. The administration of Alsace-Lorraine (Elsass-Lothringen); its or- ganization as a Reichsland, or territory of the Empire (1879); its gover- nors, ManteufFel (1879-85) and Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst (1885-94). The reorganization of France ; by the policy of Thiers and the finan- cial skill of Pouyer-Quertier, the war indemnity was paid ; France finally evacuated by the German army (16 Sept., 1873). The Constituent Assembly at Versailles : the position of parties ; the majority consisted of monarchists and ultramontanes ; deliberate tardi- ness shown in drawing up a new constitution for France ; pending its adoption, the presidency of Thiers was renewed (31 Aug., 1871). The majority of the Assembly, which favored monarchy, divided into Legitimist, Orleanist, and Bonapartist parties, and therefore unable to agree upon a king or emperor ; increasing influence of the republican minority, led by Gambetta, in France. The monarchical majority in the Assembly forced Thiers to resign (24 May, 1873), a^^ elected MacMahon to the temporary presidency of the Republic; the administration of the Due de Broglie (b. 1821); he prepared the way for the restoration of monarchy by appointing anti- republican prefets and officials; fusion of the Legitimist and Orleanist parties; the Comte de Paris (b. 1838, d. 1894), grandson of Louis Philippe, recognized the Comte de Chambord (b. 1820, d. 1883), grand- son of Charles X., as the legitimate king, regarding himself as next heir to the throne as the representative of hereditary, not of parliamen- tary, monarchy (5 Aug., 1873); the impracticable character of the Comte de Chambord ; his refusal to abandon the white flag or to make any recognition of parliamentary institutions (27 Oct.); the cause of the Comte de Chambord abandoned by the Due de Broglie and the parlia- mentary monarchists; election of MacMahon as President of the French Republic for seven years (19 Nov.). Completion of the French Constitution (25 Feb., 1875): its con- servative nature; the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; the presi- 28o Spain and Italy ^ i8yo-y6. dency to be held for seven years and the President to be elected not by popular vote, but by a joint ballot of the two Chambers; the working of parliamentary government in France; frequent changes of ministry, the result of the existence of parliamentary groups instead of well-defined parties. Condition of Spain: election of Amadeus (b. 1845, d. 1890), second son of Victor Emmanuel, to be King of Spain (16 Nov., 1870); assas- sination of Marshal Prim (30 Dec); Amadeus commenced his reign (2 Jan., 1 871); Don Carlos (b. 1848), grandson of the first Don Carlos, raised a rebellion in the northern provinces (1872); the Carlist War not discouraged in the southern provinces of France, owing to the mon- archical character of the Constituent Assembly and its desire to please the Comte de Chambord; difficult position of Amadeus; his resignation of the throne of Spain (11 Feb., 1873). Proclamation of a Spanish Republic (11 Feb., 1873) ; Emilio Caste- lar (b. 1832, d. 1899) elected President (9 Sept.) ; General Pavia dis- solved the Cortes by armed force (3 Jan., 1874) ; Serrano assumed the presidency (3 Jan.) ; the ** intransigente " insurrection suppressed at Cartagena (12 Jan.). Pronunciamento of Martinez Campos (29 Dec, 1874); overthrow of Serrano ; Alfonso XII., only son of Queen Isabella, recognized as King of Spain (31 Dec.) ; suppression of the Carlist rebellion completed (March, 1876). The political situation in Italy: the government transferred from Florence to Rome (1871); the difficulties in the way of building up a national government based upon parliamentary institutions ; particu- larism ; hostility of the Papacy ; the Right, or conservative party, in power under Lanza (1869-73) ^^^ Minghetti (1873-76); the Left, or rad- ical party, admitted to office under Depretis (Feb., 1876); the influence of Victor Emmanuel. The attitude of the Papacy towards European politics since the for- mation of the Kingdom of Italy : Pius IX. and Cardinal Antonelli, his Secretary of State, refused to recognize the new order of things ; their religious policy; meeting of an (Ecumenical Council, the first since the Council of Trent, held at Rome (Dec, 1869-Oct., 1870) ; efiect on the papacy of the conquest of Rome and its recognition as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy (1870). The Policy of Bismarck. 281 Increased power given to the Catholic Church in Germany by the absorption of the South German states into the Empire ; Bismarck's dislike of Ultramontanism, which he regarded as impairing the spirit of national unity ; owing to the strength of the Ultramontane party in the Reichstag, Bismarck attacked the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia only, where the Protestants had a majority in the Landtag ; the Kulturkampf ; laws passed, restraining the power of the Catholic Church (1872-1876), especially the May Laws (11-14 May 1873) ; ex- pulsion of the Jesuits from Prussia (4 July, 1872; ; attitude of Pope Pius IX. ; protests of the South German states, and especially of Bavaria, against Bismarck's anti- Catholic policy. The foreign policy of Bismarck : his aim to prevent France from ob- taining any allies in Europe ; he remained on friendly terms with Rus- sia, whose Tsar, Alexander II., was the nephew and friend of the Em- peror William, but suspected the Russian Chancellor, Gorchdkov ; being unwilling to trust entirely to Russia, he looked for other allies ; England under Gladstone (1868-74) refused to interfere in Continental politics ; Bismarck therefore entered into close relations with Austria. The position of Austria : discontent of the Slavs with the Dual Con- stitution ; Russia encouraged the Pan-Slavic idea, and, therefore, in spite of the memory of Sadowa, the Emperor Francis Joseph was ready to enter into alliance with the Emperor William ; dismissal of the Austrian Chancellor Beust, the enemy of Prussia (8 Nov., 1871) ; he was succeeded as Minister of Foreign AiFairs by Andrassy (b. 1823, d. 1890). Formation of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three Emperors, of Germany, Russia, and Austria (Sept., 1872); comparison between the Dreikaiserbund and the Holy Alliance ; its aims : (i) to maintain the status quo in Europe ; (2) to act in harmony on the Eastern Ques- tion; (3) to oppose the progress of revolutionary, Socialist, and Nihilist movements. Triumphant position of Bismarck ; he became the dictator of Europe, as Metternich formerly had been ; characteristics of his diplomacy. Authorities : Mailer, Kaiser Wilhclm ; Hahtiy Wilhelm, der erste Kaiser des neuen deutschen Reichs ; Oncken, Das Zeitalter des Kaisers Wilhelm ; Simony L'Empereur Guillaume et son rdgue ; Forbes, William of Germany ; Heigel, 282 The Eastern Question, Kdnig Ludwig II. von Bayern ; Lowe, Life of Bismarck ; Busch, Our Chancellor ; Hahn, Furst Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Miiller, Reichskanzler Ftirst Bis- marck ; Shnon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck ; Klaczko, The Two Chancellors ; Mohl, Das deutsche Staatsrecht ; Whitman, Germany ; Blum, Das deutsche Reich 2ur zeit Bismarck's ; Hahn, Geschichte des Kulturkampfes im Preussen ; Schulte, Geschichte des Kulturkampfes in Preussen ; Wiermann, Geschichte des Kultur- kampfes ; Lefebvre de Bihaine, Leon XIII. et le prince de Bismarck ; Pressenst, La politique religieuse de la Prusse ; Veron, Histoire de I'Allemagne depuis Sa- dowa ; Zevort, Histoire de la troisieme republique ; Jules Simon, Le gouverne- ment de M. Thiers ; Doniol, M. Thiers (1871-1873) ; Chesnelong, La campagne monarchique d'Octobre 1873 ; Daudet, La v^rite sur I'essai de restauration en 1873 ; ^^ Barail, Mes souvenirs ; Broglie, La mission de M. de Gontaut-Biron a Berlin (1872-78) ; Stche, Jules Simon, sa vie, son temps, son ceuvre (1814-96); Hippeau, Histoire diplomatique de la troisieme republique ; Chaudordy, La France et la suite de la guerre de 1870-71 ; Gambetta, Discours ; Rogge, CE-^ter- reich von Vildgos bis zur Gegenwart (1849-73); Beust, Memoirs; Houghton, Origin of the Restoration of the Bourbons in Spain ; Valras, Don Carlos VII. et PEspagne Carliste, and Gallenga, Iberian Reminiscences. LECTURE 86. THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, 1877-78. Condition of the Turkish Empire during the latter years of the Sultan Abdul Aziz: increasing weakness of the civil and financial admin- istration ; the pledges given after the Crimean War for the more tolerant government of the Christians broken; relying on the protection of the Western Powers, all reforms were refused. Attitude of the Sultan towards Egypt: increased importance of that country to England after the completion of the Suez Canal (17 Nov., 1869); the title of Khedive made hereditar5^ by primogeniture in the family of Mehemet Ali (27 May, 1866); the power of the Khedive in local affairs increased (June, 1867); the two previous grants confirmed and the Khedive allowed to make treaties with foreign powers and to maintain an army (June, 1873). Continued interest taken by Russia in the Eastern Question: the Tsar Alexander II., having freed himself from the restrictions of the Russia and the Eastern Question. 283 Treaty of Paris (1871), desired to intervene on behalf of the Christian subjects of the Sultan ; by pursuing vigorously the classic policy of Russia he hoped to counteract the growth of Nihilism. The progress of Russia in Central Asia : the Khan of Khiva forced to cede a large part of his territories and to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Tsar (24 Aug., 1873) ; Khokand annexed (14 Mar., 1876); Russian intrigues in Afghanistan; gradual advance towards the fron- tiers of British India. Growth of the Pan-Slavic idea in Russia : the writings of Katkov (b. 1818, d. 1887). Character and policy of Alexander Gorchakov (b. 1798, d. 1883), Minister of Foreign Affairs (29 Apr., 1856-3 Apr., 1882). Attitude of Europe towards the Eastern Question: England, where Disraeli (b. 1804, d. 1881) succeeded Gladstone (1874), was appre- hensive of the Russian advance on India and Constantinople; purchase of the Khedive's Suez Canal shares (25 Nov., 1875); Austrian jealousy of Russian interference in southeastern Europe, and dislike of the Pan- Slavic propaganda; France too much occupied with internal disputes to interfere; Bismarck's declaration that the Eastern Question "is not worth the bones of a Pomeranian grenadier. ' ' Outbreak of insurrection among the Christians of Bosnia and Herze- govina (July, 1875); encouraged by Prince Milan of Servia and Prince Nicholas of Montenegro; the condition of Servia ; adoption of a repre- sentative constitution (1869) ; the position in Montenegro ; Daniel, the founder of the dynasty, succeeded by his nephew, Nicholas (i860), who fomented disturbances against the Turkish government in the neigh- boring provinces. The Great Powers presented a joint note to the Sultan (31 Jan., 1876), demanding reforms and religious liberty for the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina ; the Tsar Alexander forbade the Turks to attack Ser^'ia or Montenegro; the Dreikaiserbund threatened the Turks with pun- ishment, if reforms were not granted (12 May); refusal of England to act with the other powers (19 May). Excitement among the Muhammadan population in the Turkish dominions; policy of Midhat Pasha; palace revohition (30 May, 1876); overthrow and subsequent murder of Abdul Aziz ; Murad V. pro- claimed Sultan. 284 The Russo-Turkish War^ iSyy-yS. Prince Milan of Servia declared war against the Turks (30 June, 1876); the Servian army organized and commanded by Russian officers under Chernaiev; Prince Nicholas of Montenegro declared war against the Turks (2 July); the insurgents in Bosnia and Herzegovina declared those provinces annexed to Servia and Montenegro. Excitement in Turkey; defeat of the Servians (July-Sept.); ''the Bulgarian massacres " ; intervention of the Great Powers in the name of humanity (i Sept., 1876). Deposition of Murad V. and accession of Abdul Hamid II. (31 Aug., 1876); the Porte promised reform, and the creation of a Turkish par- liament; illusory nature of this step; Ignatiev, the Russian ambassador, presented an ultimatum to the Sultan demanding the effective protec- tion of the Christians in Turkey (31 Oct.). Conference of the Great Powers at Constantinople (12 Dec, 1876-20 Jan., 1877); the Sultan refused to grant the demands made of him (18 Jan.); overthrow of Midhat Pasha (5 Feb.). Russia and the Turks prepared for war; military enthusiasm in both countries; peace signed betw^een Servia and the Sultan (28 Feb.). \ The Tsar declared war against the Turks (24 Apr., 1877). The campaign of 1877: lyoris Melikov (b. 1826, d. 1888) advanced into Armenia, and the main Russian army under the Tsar traversed Romania, crossed the Danube and invaded Bulgaria; the Balkans reached and the Shipka Pass seized by Gurko ; successes of the Turks; retreat of Loris Melikov and check of the main Russian army by Os- man Pasha (b. 1832) at Plevna; reinforcement of the Russian armies; assistance rendered by the Romanians ; I^oris Melikov took Kars (18 Nov.), and Todleben stormed Plevna (10 Dec); the Russian advance on Constantinople ; passage of the Balkans (Jan., 1878) ; defeat of the Turkish armies ; achievements of Gurko (b. 1828), and of Skobelev (b. 1843, d. 1882); occupation of Adrianople (20 Jan.); an English fleet en- tered the Dardanelles; Convention of Adrianople (31 Jan., 1878); con- clusion of an armistice; the English fleet anchored before Constanti- nople (13 Feb.). Treaty of San Stefano (3 Mar., 1878) between Russia and Turkey: the Turks agreed to the entire independence of Romania, Servia and Montenegro with some extension of their territories*; to the creation of The Congress of Berlin, 285 a principality of Bulgaria, and to the grant to Bosnia and Herzegovina of the reforms demanded by the Conference of Constantinople, with autonomy ; E.u:::sla received Kars and Batum and the retrocession of Bessarabia from Romania in exchange for the territory ceded to Romania by Turkey; by this treaty the power of the Turks in Europe would have been practically destroyed. General alarm in Europe: protest of Austria against the increase of the power of Russia; demand of England, where Salisbury (b. 1830) succeeded Derby as Foreign Minister (2 Apr., 1878), that the Treaty of San Stefano be submitted to a Congress of the Powers ; England made a secret convention with the Turks (4 June), by which she received Cyprus and the charge of defending the dominions of Turkey in Asia; Bismarck declared himself " an honest broker ". The Congress of Berlin (13 June-13 July, 1878): the representatives present were: for Germany, Bismarck, Biilow and Hohenlohe-Schillings- fiirst ; for Austria, Andrassy, Karolyi and Haymerle ; for Russia, Gorchakov, Shuvalov and Oubril ; for England, Beaconsfield, Salisbury and Odo Russell; for France, Waddington, Saint- Vallier and Desprez ; for Italy, Corti and De Launay ; and for Turkey, Caratheodori Pasha, Sadullah Bey and Mehemet Ali Pasha. By the Congress of Berlin the Treaty of San Stefano was modified: .Russia retained the accessions of territory she had then received; Servia, Montenegro and Romania were recognized as independent states and received small additions of territory; Austria was entrusted with the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina; the large principality of Bul- garia, as defined by the Treaty of San Stefano, was replaced by a small principality of Bulgaria, under Turkish suzerainty, and a semi-inde- pendent Turkish province of Eastern Roumelia, while Macedonia re- mained part of the Turkish Empire ; Greece received an extension of frontier in Thessaly and Epirus. Disgust of Alexander II. and Gorchakov at the proceedings of the Congress of Berlin, but Russia was too exhausted by the war to under- take active opposition: particular resentment felt by Alexander and Gorchdkov towards Bismarck, whom they declared wanting in grati- tude for the services Russia had rendered to Prussia in 1866 and 1870; practical dissolution of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three Emperors. 286 The Triple Alliajice. Authorities : Most of the books cited under Lecture 83 deal also with the period of the Russo-Turkish War; but see also Leouzon-Leduc, L'Bnipereur Aler- andre II.; Bamberg, Geschichte der orientalische Frage; Gallenga, Two Years of the Eastern Question ; Vambiry, Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian Frontier Question, and The Coming Struggle for India ; Hellwald, The Russians in Cen- tral Asia; Rawlinson, England and Russia in the East; Popowski, Rival Powers in Central Asia ; Liwof, Michel Katkof et son dpoque ; Leroy-Beaulieu, I^a France, la Russie et I'Europe ; Wyrouboff, La Question d' Orient et le Traits de Berlin; Rogge, O^sterreich seit der Katastrophe Hohenwart-Beust, (1873-78) ; Rustow, Der orientalische Krieg in den Jahren 1877 und 1878; Le Faure, Histoire de la guerre d'Orient, 1877-78 ; Farcy, La guerre sur le Danube, 1877-78 ; Greene, The Russo-Turkish War ; Hozier, The Russo-Turkish War ; Baker, The War in Bul- garia ; Williams, The Armenian Campaign ; Daily News, War Correspondence. 1877-78; Gay, Plevna, the Sultan and the Porte ; Bacarescu, Rumanien's Antheil am Kriege, 1877-78, and Brunswick, Le Traite de Berlin. LECTURE 8: EUROPE TO 1890: THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. In his fear of the resentment of Russia for his attitude at the Congress of Berlin, Bismarck drew closer to Austria and signed an offensive and defensive alliance with the Emperor Francis Joseph (7 Oct., 1879); this alliance, when joined in 1882 by Italy, became the Triple Alliance, which agreed to check the desire of France to recover Alsace and Lorraine, and the attempts of Russia to reopen the Eastern Question ; from the acces- sion of the Tsar Alexander III. (1881) until the end of the administra- tion of Bismarck (1890), the Triple Alliance was on more or less friendly terms with Russia, dominated Europe, and maintained peace ; frequent interchange of royal visits. Germany : internal policy of Bismarck ; after the death of Pope Pius IX. and the election of Pope I^eo XIII. (1878), Bismarck softened the application of the May Laws (1880-87), and entered into negotiations with the Papacy ; end of the Kulturkampf (1887) ; Bismarck and So- cialism ; his legislation against the Socialists ; relations between Prus- sia and the other German states ; Bismarck's colonial policy ; death of the Emperor William I. (9 Mar., 1888) ; death of his successor, the Em- The Great Powers to i8go. 287 peror Frederick (15 June) ; accession of the Emperor William IL fb. i859)«» his character and policy. Russia: assassination of the Tsar Alexander II. (13 Mar., 1881) ; the reign of the Tsar Alexander III. (1881-94); his character and policy ; Gorchakov succeeded by De Giers (3 Apr., 1882) as Minister of Foreign Affairs ; relations with Turkey and the Balkan States; pro- gress of Russia in Central Asia ; annexation of Merv (11 Feb., 1884) ; the affair of Penjdeh (30 Mar., 1885) ; war with England averted ; the Trans-Caspian and Trans Siberian railroads; Russian finance; De Witte (b. 1849) ; internal affairs ; Nihilism. France: MacMahon, President of the French Republic (i 873-79 \ Jules Gr^vy (1879-87), and Sadi Carnot (1887-94) ; desire to recover Alsace and I^orraine ; the second ministry of the Due de Broglie ' 17 May-20 Nov., 1877) ; he made another fruitless effort to restore the monarchy ; since his overwhelming defeat at the elections of 14 Oct , 1877, the government of France has been frankly republican ; the in- fluence of Gambetta ; struggle with the Catholic Church similar to Bismarck's Kulturkampf (1879-81) ; death of Gambetta (31 Dec, 1882) ; banishment of the Orleanist and Bonapartist princes (22 June, 1S86) ; the Panama Canal scandal ; Boulanger (b. 1837, ^- 1891) ; the Centenary of 1789 and Paris Exposition (1889) ; material prosperity of France, but increasing discredit of parliamentary government ; fre- quent c ianges of ministry ; France in Africa, Madagascar and the Farther Bast. Italy: death of Victor Emmanuel and accession of Humbert (9 Jan., 1878) ; death of Pope Pius IX. (7 Feb., 1878) and election of Leo XIII. — Pecci — (20 Feb.) ; death of Garibaldi (2 June, 1882) ; relations be- tween Tie Italian kingdom and the Papacy; "Italia irredenta"; colonial policy ; attempt to occupy the Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea ; finan- cial distress of Italy ; the ministries of Depretis (b. 1813, d. 1887) and Crispi (b. 1819; , Italy as a member of the Triple Alliance. Austro-Hungary : the dual monarchy ; its failure to promote a national patriotism ; the selfish policy of the Mag3'ars ; discontent of the Czechs and Slavs ; wise policy of the Emperor Francis Joseph, whose personality has held the Empire together; his share in the Triple Alliance; Andrassy, State Chancellor (187 1-79\ Haymeri^ (1879-81) 288 The Lesser Powers to i8po. and Kalnoky .(1881-95) J relations with Turkey and the Balkan States ; the Austrian administration of Bosnia ; the ministries of Taaffe (b. 1833, d. 1895) in Austria, and of Tisza (b. 1830) in Hungary. Sweden and Norway : reigns of Marshal Bernadotte under the title of Charles John XIV. (1818-44), of Oscar I. (1844-59), of Charles XV. (1859-72) and of Oscar II. (1872- ) ; opposition in Norway to the dual monarchy ; democratic and republican ideas of the Norwegians ; since 18 15 Sweden has ceased to play a prominent part in European politics. Denmark: reign of Christian IX. (1863- ); constitutional struggles; his relations with Russia and England. The Netherlands: death of William III. (23 Nov., 1890); succeeded in the Netherlands by his daughter, Wilhelmina (b. 1880), and in Luxemburg by Adolphus, Duke of Nassau. Belgium : character and policy of Leopold II. (1865- ); his interest in the Congo Free State. Spain: death of Alfonso XII. (25 Nov., 1885); succeeded by his son, Alfonso XIII. (b. 17 May, 1886), under the regency of his widow, Maria Christina ; the ministries of Canovas del Castillo (b. 1828, d. 1897) ^^d of Sagasta (b. 1827). Portugal: reigns of Pedro V. (1853-61), Luis I. (1861-89) and Charles I. (1889- ); the career of Saldanha (b. 1791, d. 1876); growing spirit of nationality; financial troubles. Switzerland: growth of republican and democratic ideas. The Eastern Question after the Russo-Turkish War : attitude of Russia, England and the Triple Alliance ; danger of European war arising out of the situation in Bulgaria. Turkey: the Sultan Abdul Hamid II.; his personal government; introduction of Western ideas; clever foreign policy. Greece : reign of George I. ; action of Greece during the Russo- Turkish War ; Thessaly given to Greece by the Congress of Berlin and occupied (1881); desire to annex Crete and Macedonia. Romania declared an independent kingdom and Prince Charles pro- claimed king (26 Mar., 1881); development of parliamentary govern- ment ; John Brateano (b. 1822, d. 1891) ; " Romania irredenta." Montenegro: Prince Nicholas; his close relations with Russia; the addi- Bulgaria and Egypt. 289 tional territory, including the port of Antivari, granted by the Congress of Berlin, transferred b>^ the Turks under the pressure of the Great Powers (188 1.) Servia: proclamation of Prince Milan as king (6 Mar., 1882); war with Bulgaria (1885); abdication of Milan (6 Mar., 1889) in favor of his son, Alexander I. (b. 1876). Bulgaria: Alexander of Battenberg elected Prince of Bulgaria (29 Apr., 1879); general uprising in Eastern Roumelia (18 Sept., 1885) and declaration of its union with Bulgaria ; Servia declared war against Bulgaria (14 Nov.); victories of Prince Alexander at Slivnitza (16-19 Nov.); armistice signed (21 Dec); Prince Alexander forced to abdicate and withdraw from Bulgaria (3 Sept., 1886); power and influence of the Regent Stambulov (b. 1855, d. 1895); he secured the election of Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, as Prince of Bulgaria ( 7 July, 1887), but continued in power as Prime Minister ; disapproval by the Great Powers, especially Russia, of events in Bulgaria. Egypt: the rivalry of England and France in the Mediterranean; dual control established over the government of Egypt, which was practically bankrupt (1878); deposition of the Khedive Ismail (26 June, 1879); Arabi Pasha raised an insurrection against the new Khedive, Tewfik (1881); riot in Alexandria (11 June, 1882); England inter- vened, bombarded Alexandria (11 July), overthrew Arabi Pasha in the battle of Tel-el- Kebir (13 Sept.), and maintained a garrison in Egypt; opposition of France and protests of the Sultan; first appearance of the Mahdi in the Sudan in the summer of 1881; his destruction of two Egyptian armies under Hicks Pasha (3-6 Nov., 1883), and under Baker Pasha (4 Feb., 1884); England undertook to defend Egypt against the Mahdi; return of Gordon Pasha (b. 1834) to Khartum (Feb., 1884); expedition of Wolseley to relieve Khartum (Sept., 1884-July, 1885); fall of Khartum and murder of Gordon (26 Jan., 1885); the Mahdi complete master of the Sudan; his death (21 June); desultory warfare carried on against his successor, the Khalifa; organization of a new administrative and judicial system in Egypt under English super- vision ; the work of Sir Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer (b. 1840). Africa: France established a protectorate over Tunis (12 May» 1881) ; the Germans occupied Angra Pequena on the west coast of Africa (2 290 Dismissal of Bismarck, May, 1883); Massowah, on the Red Sea, occupied by the Italians (6 Feb., 1885) ; interest in the Congo region of Leopold, King of the Belgians, who called for a conference on Africa, which met at Berlin (15 Nov., 1884-26 Feb., 1885) ; the Conference, in the General Act of 24 Feb., 1885, decided that occupation of territory, in order to be recognized, must be effective, established a free trade zone, and required the suppression of the slave trade and slaverj^ ; another result of the Conference was the establishment of the Congo Free State under the sovereignty of Leopold II. ; rapid progress of the partition of Africa ; the Brussels Conference (18 Nov., 1889-2 July, 1890) took further measures to sup- press the slave trade and regulated the sale of fire-arms and spirituous liquors to the natives ; the work of Stanley (b. 1841). Bismarck, the dominant force in European politics of this decade ; effect upon his position of the deatli of the Emperors William I. and Frederick ; his disagreement with the Emperor William II. Attempts to form a Franco- Russian Alliance to oppose the Triple Al- liance of Germany, Austria and Italy. Dismissal of Bismarck (17 Mar., 1890) ; retrospect of his twenty years' dictatorship over Europe. Authorities : The events described in this lecture are too recent to permit of satisfactory historical treatment, but contemporary accounts of all the events may be found in the Annual Register and in Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, while general accounts are to be found in Dilke, Present Position of European Politics, published in 1887, and in Seignobos, Histoire politique de I'Europe contemporaine (1814-96). Reference may be made to a few special works, such as: Daudet, His- toire diplomatique de I'alliauce Franco-Russe (1873-1893); Leroy-Beaulieu, La France, la Russie, et I'Europe ; Lefebvre de BShaine, Leon XIII. et le prince de Bismarck ; Philippson, Friedrich IIL als Kronprinz und Kaiser ; Rodd, Frederick, Crown Prince and Emperor ; Morrison, Russia under Alexander III. ; Lowe, Alexander III. of Russia; Krausse, Russia in Asia; Zevort, Histoire de la troisieme r^publique; Lecomte, Les rallies, histoire d'un parti, 1886-1898 ; Stillman, Fran- cesco Crispi ; Smithy Memoirs of Saldanha ; King Charles of Romania, Aus dem Leben, Aufzeichnungen und Augenzeugen ; Sergeant, Greece in the Nineteenth Century ; Berard, La Turquie et I'Hell^nisme contemporaine ; Laveleye, The Bal- kan Peninsula ; Huhn, The Struggle of the Bulgarians for National Independence under Prince Alexander; Milner, England in Egypt ; Traill, Lord Cromer ; Hake, Journals of Gordon at Khartum ; and Keltie, The Partition of Africa. APPENDIX Q pa <1 O W o (4 CO O w i I H ^! If ■§- 11 ^^ o |.1 IS •c 5.2 § •-. i-i ( 294 ) si U I I § Sal •TO ►< S o .2 '"^ ^ o li s ^ ^ It* »i •** ^ •« ^ ^ ^ ^<^ 3 J ^ Q 06 O ^ t^ I e ^2. ^ xfi r^w ni'^ M M M C< N (N tc^ 1— • l*< o « 8 (295 ) Is!-? -t. > ^ ^ <; v§v t^ t^ t-^ t^ t^ t-» t^ tin <^2^ 0.2 -2 o 5 o « (U rt 2 3 1^ «r5 vo t^ 00 0000 (296) S o5 M Q ^) si § ij: ^ CO -go" Bo* SI v> -^ \, » ^ ^ m II ^a rs u ^ k ^ 8 o5 <» ooo5 00 8 N W « 00 CO 00 00 00 OOOOOOOOQO OO 00 00 CO (397) 8^ a1 •11 II ife^ rtU H O P o ^> J§ J3 k .2^ 8 • « •I OOOOQO 00 OOCOOO 1— • \->\4^ K^\^^ Tl- -rf Tt "* ri- 00 00 OO 00 CO o >-■ w lO lO lO cccooo tMOvOOO 00 00 00 00 II I 1-c CS Tj-lOV IOC 00 00 000 (298) II I Q w CL, Oh < § rt C "Jn O 0) o tn t:,2 8 b 8 •Si fit I s :<3 CHS •** > o v c (Si -co a; o a2i :a . a •3 «* «oo coco 00 I oo I- iiisi* i i^ M W « W , f5 « Oi O r"N Ph Ot) Ph n 00 ^ m ^ W r-l 1 Pi a rH kJ ? 1 w n H 51 H '^ s Catholic Netherlands. Governors under Spain. f Archduke Albert, 1 Infanta Isabella (since I599)' i Is t-H .11 Francisco de Mello. Marquis of Castel Rodrigo. Archduke I^opold Protestant Netherlands. Princes of Orange- Nassau. Philip William (since 1584), but not Stadtholder. Maurice (Stadt- holder since 1587). Frederick Henry (Stadtholder). t-t*© 11 Portugal. ( United to Spain since 1580). > t-H t 1 Muhammad III. (since I595)- Ahmad I. Mustapha I. Othman II. . . Mustapha I. (again). Murad IV. U2 1 si > 1 1 1600 Sigismund, King of Poland (since 1592). 160^ tn'O •oc i rt C tr •c ' 1 'I 'I ■ 5: • (300) 4« •ii « a ,; ^5 < a 5 b R C Q Z W Pu, Ph < « o Q .8 ^ «^-^ ^ ^ ^i. t-H M I? 2-^ ^ C VONO vC ^ vO ^O vo VO vO vO *0 "O NO "O >0 ^nO (301) •si ea... 5^ S be . bc^ > bca; 0] - be o <3 *2 •C-o X g^c^ v5vo ONO o ( 302 ) < w ^ ^ 2 '^ ^1 3 S « <0 o II s^ •v» *, S \i ^J^ a •c cd Is ^ *^ S G ^ > a 5 o o PL4ft4 (^'£ Ph.P too •d-r »t^ cooo oo do 000*0^0^ o^ ^oj) 11 1 1 is 1 i t ri 2 li l| 1 F 1 1 a as .2 .2 .2 1 1 1 1 "33 i 1 j > , III ii 1 • « • • t . i X 1 < a 1 > > C > as 1 ^1/ ^ cccc 1 ( 304 ) t-H > HH a HH X Ui Oi n Oi t-H 00 Q T—l '^ u D 'H Oh p^ Ph w < B ui ^1 ^ o '^ I 3i^ n Co.* f^ « «o 5^. 0} o i-s 5 fl O 4) Si ,03 > . "-• c > V > S.5§ 2 .X so VO u5 vS vo VO ^O vo vO \0 \C ^ NO \0 \0 NO ^ ^O No vO (305) 8.Q Q§ ^ S s a Co 8 ^ « » w. O O o . . a -j > tl o o >< o S' c 0:20 o 2 S a; rt h«^2 H ^••a 0.5-0 S f^ ^^hl i3 Sa ^ qc^ ^6 I t If o . VI P. a ^1 •3^ «i— .1-1 o ac a 4; 2 •2§> S .2 |o.S Ot-tl-l 1* i>HH- o o O a; X8 Is fO ^ t-,?. OS v2^ i ^ I: ? ( 307 ) s O CO ^ o 3^ \A>. (0 bo .2 60 h4M S TO q a O 8 yS"; •<5 k as -3^ bom Ih ■*-» fe o 5> O 2 a; »H si o o >•? .S be boOicfi v; lU rt 3 >-i t*) ^ I rO 1 "s. sS I Co .'^ •2 I" §■5 a ^ . a a ..^. I W|§« 4> -a a; I <0 I^UO' 00 00 00 «5 a5 w oSoo w woooooow (309) X n pa Pi < ^' o i-t < Pi w Q PM W S W o a < tH w O GO T— 1 PiS "^ w 1—1 w rH w t^ O 00 tH 00 1^. ^ o a w > ^ r It 55 "5 ■§ . ? ll 1 1 ^ ^ s3 1648 {Electorate restored). Charles Louis I. 1 >/ ,5 > I 5 V - 1 • 1 - 1 u 1 c % ^ 1 (3") Elector- Arch- bishops of Treves. fe 1 ii .2-5 1| Si Elector-Arch- bishops of Cologne. u ■ p i Jj P : Maximilian Frederick von Konigseck- Rothenfels. Elector- Arch- bishops of Mayence. .2 2 S 2 Francis I,ouis of Neuburg. Philip Charles von Kltz. John Frederick von Ostein. r George I., King of Great Brit- ain, 1714. ^5 bo .5 c Kpq 1^ 9 CD " :3 rt 5^ *"* '0 r • Is Electors oJ Bavaria. Charles Albert (Emp. Charles VII., 1742-45). ^ Is- F 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 a- ^ c 6 73 ^ ; 1 - 1 ■J (3") Elector- Arch- bishops of Trives. t 1 1 3 1 Elector- Arch- bishops of Cologne. Archduke Maximilian. (Electorate abolished). Elector- Arch- bishops of Mayence. i IS 1 Q to 1 — 1 1777 Charles Theodore (unites the electorates). itJU ... I i i 1 : §1 <2 •§ 1 o M c .2 1 M 1 ' 1 1 - ! ■ t — Hesse- Da rm- stadt ; Grand Dukes, iSo6. • a r (Merged in kg:m. of Westphalia). WilUam L Baden; Elec- tors, i8oj. Grand Dukes, 1S09. Charles Fred'k. Charles Louis Frederick. 1 Wtcrtemberg ; Electors, iSoj, Kings, 1806. X •a Hanover ; Kings, 1814. a; So . : i d • 5 ii 1 ■ I ac (313) 7-2 o O o 50 bog 2 3 >" rt •-> tin to o >-• lOt^O M N M W rO fO C»0OOD0O CO Si U3 o pS >-Jto COCOOO COCO (LI tn 5^ 00 00 CO CO O •-I o (314) w H o b Q o 'A w H <: H w en D w £ Q p fa O 1*^ Semi-independ- ence recognized, Si 1* • i S •-1 1 US < -d •^ 5 1 III : s o ^ ^ 3S| ftt '■ t t 1 1 i i ,§•-•3 -2 Ilii 1 ^ w ^ o till § O 1 1 < Pi rt O !- o o "■' C 11 — -^1 1 1 ■■.tti fill i a c c ) • 3 1 •e ■Mh w 3.2 s 5 £< i! •< i3 III 1 ^ sk : CO o 00 oc •r • 1/ oc ^1 ' 1 '1 ' 1 1 (3'S) p < Semi-Independ ence recognized, 1841. Ismail. . Khedives. Ismail. 1 ^ i i 1 1 ^ ^ lllfl 1 1 1 i f t-H . 1 •III a a S •i ■ ^ 1 1 ^J l^ C\l a c 0) c ^ 1 ■ 1 i ~t (316) X Q H ^ o W Ph Ph Ph 03 < § t-H H < hT W pj H O •-« H 55 W g S i O Q b '^ -^ 2 3lS j^A -^•?a R C ^ «a^ •2 1 5 s< 2-" rt .2 ^ ^-C .•;J g o rt i5 ^ rt |aw^ I* T T fe°> 41^ t! boa (U a v o^ ^ W •-4 - 3 .-^ a §1 .'3 s 5 a' 4) ►» (3>7) > Q « g w 5Zi O Pi{ H I offi ^g S§ coo w CO W w > O o CO w 55^ 5£ ir f "SO© !-! I ^ mQWO .^, OC/3W^ en CO o g O Alc/2 ^ t ^ > w o w^a; rt iS3 u ^«g *o 1 «*-.s ^ o'C a 4j ^ -* 343 fic? •S^ ''3 bo ^^ 1^ a (3t8) X Q m Pu, < a: Q < I u a to W ^ H 5 •^ u w H O » S .2 <« 5 o p» •So c.. -•3 i-Sr WO mill n i|S 'ot Q 2" §w;£ II 2^ S .2° II 11 -5^ 5 Too 5 O tooOo etf2 "C u ». CO l§sa fcCo3 22 WW ' r ■w|" (319) THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPEDBELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CFMTq WILU INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH 6 )9o^ OCT 13 isj, "'^^ 16 J933 J^.a >6t937 ^^C-^ LD 21-50w-8,.32 LM^iii