\RTIN GREAT BRirAIN 
 AND IRELAND 
 
 UC-NRLF, 
 
 $B S?"! 00"? 
 
 PECIES 
 
 ■MIlXEl 
 
 SIR WALTER ARMSTRONG 
 
^ 
 
 REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. | 
 
 Class 
 
 ra!Ri!rsri»r'a'n*nsra!n!»ra!nB?s'r3^^ 
 
 i 
 
ARS UNA : SPECIES MILLE 
 GENERAL HISTORY OF ART 
 
 Volumes in preparation : — 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 THE ART OF INDIA. 
 
 EGYPTIAN ART. 
 
 FLEMISH ART. 
 
 FRENCH ART. 
 
 GERMAN ART. 
 
 THE ART OF GREECE. 
 
 ART IN HOLLAND. 
 
 THE ART OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 
 
 ART IN AMERICA. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 THE ART OF NORTHERN ITALY. 
 
 THE ART OF SOUTHERN ITALY. 
 
 SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ART. 
 
iternet Archive 
 nding from 
 Corporation 
 
 littp://www.arcliive.org/details/artingreatbritaiOOarmsrich 
 
ARS UNA: SPECIES MILLE 
 GENERAL HISTORY OF ART 
 
 ART IN 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 AND IRELAND 
 
 BY 
 
 SIR WALTER ARMSTRONG 
 
 n 
 
 DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF IRELAND 
 
 Hogarth 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 MCMIX 
 
Ul 
 
 M 
 
 ff£i£&- 
 
 Copyright, 1909, by 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 This volume is published simultaneously in 
 America by Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
 York; in Eiiglnnd by William Heinemann, 
 London; also in Frettch by Hachette et Cie, 
 Paris; in German by Julius Hoffmann, 
 Stuttgart; in Italian by the Istituto Italiano 
 D'Arti Grafiche, Bergamo; in Spanish by the 
 Libreria Gutenberg de Jose Ruiii, Madrid. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The history of art in the British Isles — which still remains to be 
 written — will be the history of a frequently arrested and frequently 
 diverted development. The remains which have come down to us 
 contradict the assumption, too often made, that the unequally mixed 
 race inhabiting England, Scotland, and Ireland is essentially inartistic, 
 and that, if left to itself, it would have produced little or nothing 
 with which the historian of art need have been greatly concerned. 
 It is true that the Celtic and Latin elements in our population 
 deserve the credit of most that is good in our aesthetic produc- 
 tion, but, after all, those Celtic and Latin elements are an integral 
 part of our race, and we have as much right to take pride in their 
 achievements as in the political virtues which may perhaps spring 
 chiefly from the Teutonic strain in our blood. It is impossible to 
 deny the aesthetic gifts of a people which has left behind it such 
 remains as those of early Christian art in Ireland, as the exquisite 
 churcl|es which stud the whole of Britain, from Chichester to Elgin, 
 as the manuscripts of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuriies 
 and the needlework of about the same period, as the perpendicular 
 style of Gothic architecture, as the miniature portraits turned out in 
 
 205572 
 
PREFACE 
 
 such countless numbers between the days of HilHard and those of 
 Cosway, as the renaissance architecture of Inigo Jones and Wren 
 and their disciples, as the works of the great portrait painters of the 
 eighteenth century and the landscape painters who followed them. 
 To all these instances we may even add many of the results of the 
 Gothic revival in the nineteenth century. That movement may have 
 been a mistaken one, founded rather upon archaeological than artistic 
 ambitions, but it led, at least, to the erection of a vast number of 
 buildings in which the forms of Gothic architecture were used to 
 produce harmonious creations, and to a few grandiose piles, such as 
 the Palace of Westminster, which are marvels, considering the 
 period of their conception and the rapidity of their construction. 
 We might even point to later developments still, as proof of the 
 artistic capacity of our race. Has any people ever drawn itself 
 more rapidly out of a non-artistic morass than the younger English 
 and Scottish architects out of the chaos of nonsense building which 
 prevailed here twenty — or even ten — years ago } Far from com- 
 plete as this process still is, it has gone far enough to show that, 
 when properly treated, British architects still have in them much of 
 the spirit of Jones and Wren, and to suggest that, given opportunity 
 and freedom, they might approach the triumphs of those two great 
 builders. 
 
 For each of our happy periods and categories, we islanders can 
 point to things of first-rate merit. Nothing, in their own way, can 
 be set before those remains of Celtic art which are chiefly to be 
 found in Ireland. The two centuries and a half which saw the 
 birth, development, and decay of Gothic architecture produced 
 nothing more perfect than the interior of Westminster Abbey, or the 
 northeastern aspect of Salisbury, or Lincoln as a whole, or more 
 superbly original than the chapels of Henry VI. and Henry VII. 
 Renaissance architecture produced nothing liner than Inigo Jones's 
 first design for Whitehall and Christopher Wren's St. Paul's. We 
 need scarcely allude to the painters of the eighteenth century, or 
 
PREFACE 
 
 even to the long line of miniaturists, from the reign of Henry VIII. 
 to that of George 111., for these are already accepted ; but we must 
 remember that among the debris of the minor arts of the Gothic 
 ages, a sufficient number of English things exist to show that the 
 metal worker, the illuminator, the glass painter, the needleworker, 
 even the statue maker, practised in this country hardly less successfully 
 than elsewhere. Examples are few, no doubt, when compared with 
 those of the Continent, but their quality proves that in them we 
 have the remains of a wide-spread activity. 
 
 How is it, then, that our specimens are scanty, and their affiliation 
 often so difficult to trace ? This may be referred to three causes, 
 which acted and reacted on each other. The first was our insular 
 position, the second our insular character — "every Englishman is 
 an island," — the third, the coincidence of political and religious 
 upheavals with critical moments in our artistic development. It is 
 likely enough that a searching analysis would fuse these three into a 
 single cause, and come near to proving that all the peculiarities of 
 our artistic, as of our political history were due to the existence of 
 the English Channel. But my immediate purpose will be sufficiently 
 served by beginning later, and attempting to show how these three 
 conditions, severally, affected both the progress of British art and the 
 preservation of its results. 
 
 Our insular position hardly requires to be insisted on. To it we 
 owe the nationality which marks our art from the dark ages onward. 
 If there had been no Channel, we should have been a province of 
 France, or France of us, and artistic forms would have radiated from 
 their points of origin with no more than those slight and gradual 
 changes en route by which only the expert can distinguish between 
 one section of a single school and another. Some writers contend 
 that, even with the Channel, we were nothing but a French province, 
 at least in architecture. In a sense, that is partly true, but only 
 so far as all movements become provincial as soon as they leave their 
 initial matrix. Even this acknowledgment should be made, however. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 with reserves, for much English Gothic has no French root at all, 
 while the earliest complete example of the purely pointed style is not 
 in France, but in England; is inspired by English ideas, not by 
 French ; is carried out in English details, not in those elaborated by 
 the builders of St. Denis, Paris, Sens, and Chartres. 
 
 The fairest way to put the whole matter is to say that what we 
 know as Gothic art was the form of expression which grew naturally 
 from the needs, opportunities, and aspirations of the races which 
 inhabited northwestern Europe, toward the close of the Middle 
 Ages. Steps in advance were sometimes taken in one place, some- 
 times in another. Then, as now, the northern French were more 
 ambitious than their neighbors, were readier to make sacrifices, had 
 a finer sense of structure and logic, and a more generous supply of 
 excellent materials. So they contributed more than the rest to the 
 common adventure. But that by no means justifies the statement 
 that in France alone the style was alive, that there alone men were 
 united in working out an idea, while the rest of the world hung on 
 what they did, and produced bad imitations. Had that been so, a 
 survey of mediaeval building would have been a simple matter 
 indeed. We should merely have had to follow the creation of 
 forms in the He de France and their gradual degradation as they 
 travelled away from that centre. English Gothic would have been 
 merely the pale shadow of French, with no character of its own 
 at all. ' 
 
 But it has a decided character. Apart from the general principles 
 of the style and the more or less inevitable forms to which they led, 
 English Gothic differs from French as much as Venetian painting 
 does from Florentine. Its aims are so different that, nine times out 
 of ten, we find the beauties of an English church corresponding to 
 the defects of a French one, and vice versa. Its methods are so 
 
 ' The history of modern female costume provides a good illustration of an art which really spreads 
 from a centre. Its birth-place is Paris, where it is the natural expression of the people. The 
 farther it goes from the Rue de la Paix, the more lifeless and imitative it becomes ; but it clings 
 to its French forms. 
 
 viii 
 
PREFACE 
 
 distinct that there is hardly a detail by which one cannot decide at a 
 glance the nationality of the building on which it occurs. In short, we 
 have all the evidence we can ask that Gothic art was here no less 
 legitimate a birth of conditions than in France. It was no stolen child. 
 It was inferior for exactly the same reason that the English drama is 
 inferior to the French. Our sense of structure is not equal to theirs. 
 We do not feel the necessity as deeply as they do of fusing method 
 and result into unity. English architects attempted no such com- 
 binations of structural audacity and aesthetic expression as the 
 clerestory of Amiens ; but neither did they leave to posterity any 
 such record of the ambition that overleaps itself as the choir of 
 Beauvais ! 
 
 In short, mediaeval architecture in England has its own character, 
 its own beauties and defects, its own masterpieces and failures, which 
 prove, like other debris from the centuries, that the people of our 
 islands did not greatly differ from those of the Continent, so far as 
 their innate cesthetic gifts and aspirations were concerned. The 
 country swarmed with builders, who knew the style they worked in 
 as they knew the language they talked. Now and then hints 
 reached them from without. Now and then a strolling craftsman 
 would wander in among them from some country of the sun, while 
 their own employers, bishops and nobles, would stimulate their 
 ambitions by accounts of what was being done abroad. But their 
 dialect was their own, and in rearing the sacred and secular monu- 
 ments with which they covered the whole face of the country, they 
 followed those racial instincts which have marked the Briton from 
 their day to ours. 
 
 And so it was with the subsidiary arts. Cathedrals remain — at 
 least in countries where the forces of destruction were less 
 outrageously energetic than they were beyond the Tweed. But 
 smaller things were easily put out of existence. The value of our 
 Cathedral treasures before the Reformation was gigantic, but 
 scarcely anything remains. Judging from what may still be found 
 
PREFACE 
 
 in sacristies abroad, our cope chests alone must have held 
 convincing proofs of the flourishing condition of our minor arts. 
 Such a development as that of the famous Opus Anglicanum does 
 not occur in a country which owes the best part of its achievements 
 to imported aliens. No one can study the English vestments in 
 Italian and Spanish churches, or in the Victoria and Albert 
 Museum, and believe the country which produced them was a 
 hopeless laggard in the arts. 
 
 I might go on and multiply examples, but the proper place for 
 that will be the chapters which follow. All that need be insisted 
 on for the moment is that British artistry deserves to be studied for 
 its own sake, to be accepted as a distinct national development, 
 just as much as that of Italy or France. That its importance is 
 comparatively slight is no reason for denying its sincerity and 
 historical value, or for approaching it in a sceptical and grudging 
 spirit. Its insular position gave it its national character. Without 
 the Channel a single form of art would have spread from the 
 Pyrenees to the Tay. Britain would then have been truly pro- 
 vincial ; unless, indeed — which is quite within the bounds of possi- 
 bility — the centre of gravity had shifted from the Seine to the 
 Thames. 
 
 The nationality of our art, then, is to be credited to the sea 
 v/hich circumscribes us. What is the cause of our individualism? 
 That we are individualistic, intolerant of discipline, inapt for 
 combination, impatient of tradition, cannot, I think, be denied. 
 Our reputation for conservatism springs from our individuality. An 
 Englishman prefers his own way to that of other people. He likes 
 to work out his* own salvation in commerce and the arts, as well as 
 in religion. With him the process of evolution is far from being 
 the steady march it is with a truly conservative race, like the 
 French, who confine their experiments to politics. The one 
 European community which appears to share our rampant 
 individuality is that which inhabits the delta of the Rhine, and, 
 
PREFACE 
 
 perhaps, the causes are much the same in both cases. Holland 
 could never have come into existence at all unless her people had 
 been strenuously self-assertive. The modern Dutch are descended 
 Jrom the sturdy Celtic race which nature and Julius Caesar drove 
 into that fight with the Rhine and the North Sea which has 
 persisted for nearly two thousand years. The ancestors of the 
 modern Briton were the picked men from various races who had 
 the energy to invade these inhospitable islands in the Atlantic and 
 to maintain their ground when there. If our history had been free 
 from the untimely catastrophes — again largely due to our individ- 
 ualism — which broke the sequence, and destroyed the creations, of 
 our art, this energy of character might have led to results equal, in 
 their different way, to those won by the Italians and the French. 
 
 The Black Death, the Wars of the Roses, the Reformation, the 
 Great Rebellion and the consequent incubus of the Puritans, each 
 came at a critical moment and took a course which ensured the 
 largest possible amount of destruction and dislocation. Had it not 
 been for the Wars of the Roses, art would have progressed on the 
 lines shown by such remains as we possess from the Gothic centuries, 
 while the dissolution of the monasteries and destruction of the force 
 which had chiefly made for artistic wealth and the safeguarding of 
 tradition, prevented the renewal of life from native seed, and led 
 to unhappy because non-national importations. Then a brighter 
 era opened under Charles I., only to be spoilt again by that 
 King's political incapacity, and the disastrous reactions to which it 
 led. To our insular position it was due that all these catastrophes 
 were so complete. Their destructive power was great enough to 
 reach the sea on every hand, so that when a chance came tor the 
 renewal of life, the germ had to be sought elsewhere. 
 
 But through it all the national spirit and character can be tracqjd. 
 In painting, even the foreigners who came here to show us the way 
 were affected by their English milieu. Holbein alone was sturdy 
 enough to resist the influence. He worked in Blackfriars exactly 
 
PREFACE 
 
 as he would have done in Basle, had he never left his home. Van 
 Dyck in London was not the Van Dyck of Antwerp or Genoa. 
 He caught, at once, the English spirit, the spirit which may be 
 recognized in English art throughout the Middle Ages, and in that 
 art of miniature painting which alone had kept its activity unbroken. 
 It is to this sympathetic strain in his character that he owes his 
 influence over the course taken by English painting. Both before 
 and after his time our native painters aimed at a certain elegance 
 and simplicity of conception, avoiding irrelevance and making as 
 much as they could of the distinction which marked the society they 
 served. The passport to success of the foreign painter settling in 
 the country was ability to fall in with this scheme. 
 
 W. A. 
 
 The Author and the Publisher desire to express their gratitude 
 to the following owners of works of art and copyrights without 
 whose generous permission many of the six hundred illustrations 
 could not have been laid before the reader : The Royal Academy 
 of Arts, Sir William Quiller Orchardson, Sir Francis Seymour 
 Haden, Mr. George Salting, Mrs. Seeker, Mrs. Joseph, Mr. J. C. 
 Alexander, the Misses Percy, Mr. M. H. Spielmann, Mr. 
 Reginald Blomfield, Mr. E. S. Prior, Mr. R. H. Benson, the 
 Messrs. Hook, Mrs. Charles Furse, Col. Hutcheson Poe, C.B., 
 Mr. John Murray, Mr. C. J. Longman, the Director of the 
 Cambridge University Press, Messrs. Cassell and Co., Thos. 
 Agnew and Sons, Dowdeswell and Dowdeswell, Sulley and 
 Co., P. and D. Colnaghi, Durlacher Bros., the Fine Arts Society, 
 the Directors of the various public collections which have been 
 drawn upon for examples, and practically all of the living 
 Painters and Sculptors whose works are reproduced in the later 
 chapters. 
 
 A certain number of illustrations, especially in the chapter 
 dealing with modern art, have been left to tell their own story 
 
PREFACE 
 
 without mention in the text. In a small 8vo containing more than 
 600 typographic blocks to 3 1 2 pages of text, this could only have 
 been avoided either by unduly compressing the more important 
 parts of the text, or by ignoring minor artists altogether, neither of 
 which courses seemed advisable. 
 
 PANEL OF WHALE IVORY : 
 ADORATION OF THE MAGI. 
 
 Twelfth Century. 
 (Victoria and Albert Museum.) 
 
The Publisher acknowledges his indebtedness to the following 
 photographers for the use of prints and negatives in the preparation 
 of the following illustrations : 
 
 Messrs. Frith & C.^.. Ltd., Reigate : Nos. 22, 26, 31. 43, 44, 45. 47. 54. 56. 
 57. 59. 60, 61, 62, 65. 69, 70. 71, 72, 73, 74. 81. 83. 84. 85, 88, 89, 90. 92. 93, 
 94, 97. 98. 100, 101. 103. 104, 105. 1 14. 1 16, 120, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 131. 
 132. 133. 135. 138, 146, 148. 151. 154. 162, 163, 167, 177, 180. 186, 196, 197. 
 203, 516, 545. Messrs. William M. Spooner Co., London: Nos. 38. 41. 46. 
 50,76.82,91, 102. 103. 108. 115. 117-118-119. 130. 134. 140. 141. 150. 152. 
 157. 158. 168.200. 211. 213. Mr. W. Lawrence. Dublin: Nos. 4. 8. 49. 52, 
 77. 78. 79. 166. 193. 264. Messrs. Valentine & Sons. Ltd., Dundee: Nos. 21. 
 165, 227. Messrs. Fredk. Hollyer. London: Nos. 418. 421. 422. 451. 499. 
 564. 565. J. Caswell Smith. Londoi: No. 426. Albert Hester, Clapton: 
 No. 214. A. R. Hogg. Belfast: No. 224. Arthur Pitcher: No. 540. Emery 
 Walker : No. 398. G. W. Wilson & Co.. Aberdeen : No. 222. Sir Cuthbert 
 Quilter. Bart. : No. 434. Fine Arts Society, publishers of the large plate No. 
 443, and Messrs. Dowdeswell & Dowdeswell. owners of the copyright and 
 publishers of the large plate, No. 436. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES— THE IBERIANS-THE 
 CELTS -CHARACTERISTICS OF CELTIC ART — THEIR PER- 
 SISTENCE 1 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 ANGLO-SAXON ART 16 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE, OR ROUND ARCHED GOTHIC . 25 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 EARLY ENGLISH. OR FIRST POINTED. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE . 36 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 DECORATED. OR SECOND POINTED. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE . 50 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 PERPENDICULAR, OR THIRD POINTED. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE . 59 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 THE TUDOR CHAOS ............ 73 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE— INIGO JONES AND SIR CHRISTOPHER 
 
 WREN 87 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN . . . „ . , « . . 97 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 105 
 
 XV 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 MODERN RENAISSANCE ,,5 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 CERTAIN MINOR ARTS ,25 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 PAINTING IN THE BRITISH ISLES FROM ITS ORIGIN TO THE BIRTH 
 
 OF HOGARTH ,59 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 PAINTING— MIDDLE PERIOD 1 79 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 MODERN PAINTING— TURNER TO WATTS 209 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PAINTING— FROM THE PRE-RAPHAELITE REVOLT ' TO THE 
 
 PRESENT DAY 229 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 PORTRAIT-MINIATURES 249 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS— DRAWINGS 260 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 SCULPTURE— FIRST PERIOD-GOTHIC SCULPTURE 274 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 288 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 SCULPTURE— PRESENT DAY 299 
 
 INDEX .........,,, 313 
 
 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS .328 
 
 xvi 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 AND IRELAND 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES— THE 
 IBERIANS — THE CELTS — CHARACTERISTICS 
 OF CELTIC ART— THEIR PERSISTENCE 
 
 The earliest monument to which we can point in these islands as 
 showing any trace of aesthetic ambition is Stonehenge. No remains 
 have been found here comparable to those of the reindeer hunters 
 of Southern France, or the decorations of the cave of Altamira, in 
 Northern Spain. Countless objects, indeed, betraying that love for, 
 or at least interest in, symmetry, which seems to be the first of the 
 artistic propensities to declare itself, have been found in the deposits 
 from both the Stone Ages. But as yet we can point to little which 
 indicates the desire to imitate, or to decorate, or to wed one form 
 to another harmoniously, which can be traced in the remains from 
 the period of the reindeer hunters. In a handbook which professes 
 to confine itself to the fine arts it is permissible, then, to begin at 
 a comparatively recent date. The polished stone period was 
 the period of the Swiss lake dwellings, of dolmens,^ menhirs^ 
 and cromlechs.^ The only remaining example of this primitive 
 architecture which has any kind of artistic character is, as I have 
 said, Stonehenge. But that may date from a period almost as late 
 as the beginning of the Bronze Age: i.e., from about 2000 B.C. to 
 1500 B.C. Its huge blocks are not rough, but hewn, and their 
 disposition shows a feeling for symmetry and artistic subordination 
 which may almost be called cultivated. 
 
 * Tombs of undressed stones, piled one upon another, in the manner of jambs and lintels. 
 2 Obelisks. ^ Circles and avenues of rough monoliths. 
 
 1 B 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 After Stonehenge a long stride has to be taken before we reach 
 another monument of architecture. In Britain, as all over Western 
 
 Europe, defensive walls 
 
 FIG. 2. — STONEHENGE, RESTORED. 
 
 were the only stone struc- 
 tures erected during many 
 centuries; all other build- 
 ings, religious and domes- 
 tic, appear to have been 
 of wood. The art, then, 
 of the Bronze Age, which 
 succeeded that of polished 
 stone, has to be studied in 
 remains of a less important 
 kind. According to the latest authorities this age lasted in Britain 
 from about 1 500 B.C. to about 300 B.C. 
 
 Bronze is a composite metal consisting of about nine parts of 
 copper to one of tin. It was the chief material basis of civilization 
 all over Europe and parts of Asia and Africa, for a time variously 
 calculated by different archaeologists. The civilization of ancient 
 Egypt belongs mainly to the Bronze Age. The copper mines of 
 the Isthmus of Suez were worked as early as 4000 B.C., and iron 
 had not come into general use as late as 1 500 B.C. Bronze was the 
 Greek metal as late as 800 B.C. The Bronze Age in that part of 
 Europe which stretches, like the mount of a fan, from the Caucasus 
 round by the north to Britain and Western France, did not come to 
 an end till between the sixth and the fourth century B.C. 
 
 Although existing evidence points to the Caucasus as the 
 original home of the bronze in- 
 dustry, new discoveries are so 
 continually revolutionizing our 
 ideas as to the chronology of 
 early civilization, that no positive 
 statement on that point can be 
 hazarded. T^rima facie, it 
 seems likely that the distribu- 
 tion of copper and tin deposits 
 would have much to do with 
 priority in their use. It is not 
 unreasonable to suppose that 
 wherever the two metals were 
 
 found in abundance, a source of distribution existed, coming into activity 
 as the psychological moment in the surrounding civilization arrived. 
 
 fig. 3. — stonehenge. 
 (constable.) 
 
PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 The similarity between the forms taken by early bronze objects, 
 wherever found, is to be explained by the characteristics of the material, 
 more often, perhaps, than we are apt to suppose. In our desire 
 to simplify origins and round off theories, we may be too ready 
 to ignore the forces which make for coincidence in human 
 activities. No one who is engaged in any form of invention or 
 mental production can deny the frequency with which a new idea 
 will crop up simultaneously in several different quarters. This is not 
 necessarily due to borrowing, nor to pure accident. It is brought 
 about by some inscrutable generative force in the existing situation. 
 The movement of art from a centre has been likened to the circles on a. 
 pond made by throwing a stone into the water. A fairer com- 
 parison would be with the countless circles made by a shower 
 of rain. Where the shower is heaviest, the circles are thickest, 
 but wherever a drop falls, it starts a ring, which threads its way 
 through the others and makes its own impression on the whole 
 surface. This simile applies better, no doubt, to advanced civiliza- 
 tions, in which communication is easy and rapid, than to those of 
 primitive times; but even for the bronze and earlier ages, it has its 
 application. 
 
 In no country in the world were the early bronze industries 
 carried to greater perfection than in our own. The deposits of 
 copper and tin, especially of the latter, were rich and accessible, 
 and with the first invasion of the Celts, if not before, they fell into 
 the hands of a race which exploited them to the best advantage. 
 
 Who were the Celts ? 
 
 The Celts were a warlike race of tall, powerful men, with fair 
 skins, blue eyes, and fair hair tending toward red. They were 
 variously called, by Greek and Roman writers, Celtae (k€Xt6i), 
 Galatae (yaXdrai), and Galli (ydWoi). These names were originally 
 given to all the races of Western Europe, north of the Alps, who 
 were not Iberian or Ligurian. It was not until the time of Julius Caesar 
 that the name Celtae, or Galli, was restricted to the peoples inhabit- 
 ing the country between the Rhine and the Pyrenees. Their original 
 home — using the adjective with its necessary limitations — appears to 
 have been the upper valley of the Danube and that of the Rhone, 
 and the district between the two. In the fourth century B.C. these 
 Celts, Galli, or Gauls, temporarily conquered much of Italy and 
 captured Rome itself, under Brennus. A century later they sacked 
 the temples of Delphi. They colonized and gave their name 
 to Galatia, in Asia Minor, and they overran the greater part of 
 what we now call France. In their progress westward and north- 
 
 3 B 2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 ward, they partly drove the earher Iberian populations before them, 
 partly mixed with them, losing to some slight extent the saliency of 
 their own characteristics in the process. 
 
 The first mention of the Celts in history is by Hecataeus of Miletus 
 (circa 500 B.C.), who incidentally alludes to Marseilles as a Ligurian 
 city in their neighborhood.^ They are mentioned too by various 
 other early writers, but only in a vague and unsatisfactory way, and 
 it is not until we come down to Polybius (204 B.C.- 122) that we 
 get much definite information about them. From him, who appears 
 to have been one of the first to use the name Galati, we learn that 
 the Italian Celts, the inhabitants of Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul, 
 came from the valley of the Danube; that the Cisalpine Celts 
 
 were an agricultural race, 
 living in considerable ease 
 and luxury; and that 
 their Transalpine cousins 
 were migratory, warlike, 
 and ready to settle on any 
 promising lands their 
 swords could win. 
 
 According to the now 
 accepted theory, the aborig- 
 inal inhabitants of Britain, 
 partly displaced, partly ab- 
 sorbed, by the Celts, be- 
 longed to the widespread 
 Iberian race, now represented, more or less in its purity, by the 
 Basques, the South- Western Irish, the non-Celtic Welsh, and other 
 small, dark races of Western Europe. The Celts came in two 
 waves. The earlier invaders, the Goidels, are now represented 
 by the Scottish Highlanders, the Celtic Irish, and the inhabitants of 
 the Isle of Man. The second wave, of so-called Brythonic Celts, 
 came much later, and overran most of England. These Brythonic 
 Celts are now represented by the Celtic Welsh, the Cornishmen, 
 and the Bretons. 
 
 These two families are sometimes distinguished as the P and 
 the Q Celts from a difference in equivalent words in their languages 
 corresponding to those two consonants. The Welsh use ** ap," for 
 instance, to mean " son of," while the Gael uses ** mac." A broader 
 distinction exists in the fact that the earlier invaders, the Goidels, 
 
 FIG. 4. — GALLERUS ORATORY, CO. KERRY. 
 
 -^ (C. and T. Muellerus, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, Paris, 1841, 
 No. 22.) 
 
 4 
 
 i'ol. 
 
PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 were in the Bronze Age of civilization, while their successors, the 
 Brythons, were in the Iron Age. 
 
 The first three stages, then, of any British civilization concerned 
 with art, even in its most elementary form, sprang from the Iberian 
 
 aborigines in their late neolithic or 
 early Bronze period, illustrated 
 by Stonehenge ; from the Goidelic 
 Celts in their Bronze stage ; and 
 from the Brythonic Celts, in their 
 age of Iron. 
 
 Art, in the Bronze Age, found 
 an outlet in the beautiful forms 
 of such utilitarian objects as did 
 not by their very nature repel 
 the aesthetic impulse. Swords, 
 spears, shields, bracelets, helmets, 
 brooches, neck ornaments, etc., 
 were decorated by various combinations of lines and curves, some- 
 times engraved, sometimes beaten up from behind. Many objects 
 so ornamented are so exquisite in proportion and in the rhythm 
 of their lines that they may fairly be said to have carried their 
 own system of decoration to a point beyond which it could not go. 
 During the last twenty years we have seen the artistic principles 
 which governed the Celtic metal-workers re-adopted by some of the 
 most gifted of living artists, with all the resources of modern civiliza- 
 tion at their command. But nothing they have done excels in beauty 
 or artistic judgment the better things left 
 by the earliest of our Celtic forefathers. 
 As an example, the gold torque, so long 
 disputed between the British Museum 
 and the Museum at Dublin, may be 
 named. It is, however, only one among 
 a mass of objects in which similar motives 
 are used with the finest judgment and 
 skill. Provincial museums all over the 
 United Kingdom possess fragments in 
 which these simple elements of decoration 
 are employed with extraordinary felicity. 
 Archaeologists have expressed their 
 surprise that so consummate an art 
 could be so widespread, and exist so long, without develop- 
 ing into something higher, or at least more ambitious. The 
 
 ^ OF THE '^K 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 FIG. 6.- 
 
 -GOLD TORQUE FROM 
 LIMAVADY. 
 
 (Dublin Museum.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 absence of any attempt to reproduce natural objects, or imitate the 
 appearance of men and animals, has sometimes been held to prove 
 that the early Celtic artist was only half awake, that he was waiting 
 to be stirred to a fuller ambition by example from without. M. 
 Reinach says ** the decoration is invariably and exclusively linear, as 
 
 if some religious law, some fear of 
 maleficent sorcery, had forbidden the 
 representation of men and animals."^ 
 It is impossible to say that this was not 
 so. We know how great an effect 
 such a taboo had on the not entirely 
 dissimilar art of the Saracens, many 
 centuries later. But a possibility sug- 
 gested by the differential quality of 
 Celtic art, from the earliest times 
 down to this present moment, must also 
 be taken into consideration. And that 
 brings me to one of the ideas on which 
 the views expressed in the following 
 chapters will be found to depend. 
 
 The Celtic, or Gallic, note in 
 art is form: not the imitation or 
 idealization of external forms, but 
 the form of the work of art itself. 
 The simplest constituent of form is line, and on that foundation the 
 Celt works, making it the essential element of his conceptions. He 
 alone, among European races, has developed the expressive value 
 of line to the uttermost, sometimes even to the exclusion of all 
 other vehicles for aesthetic emotion. In painting, a sense of line 
 leads to the qualities we call design, composition, rhythm. In 
 sculpture it is the foundation of all harmony, although, in the 
 narrowest sense, it scarcely exists in a statue at all. In architecture 
 as an art, its place is more important still, for there its absence 
 cannot be so readily masked by the presence of other virtues. Now, 
 in a race endowed with a propensity toward creation in line, we 
 should not expect to find much interest in natural forms, as artistic 
 material, until a comparatively late period of development. The 
 simple aspects of line, and those combinations of their simple aspects 
 ^vhich can be so very far from simple, would be exhausted before 
 ihe Celtic artist would feel any inducement to go farther, and 
 complicate his task by the introduction of realistic imitations of 
 
 FIG. 7.— KILCRONEY, IRELAND. 
 
 Apollo 
 
 English Eldition, p. 1 I . Heinemann, 1 907. 
 
 6 
 
PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 external objects. The Celt, Gaul or Gael, felt, and feels to this day, 
 comparatively little interest in the objective imitation of things out- 
 side himself. His blood was not in the veins of the reindeer 
 hunters ! Men, animals, vegetables, were treated by him as mere 
 sources of suggestion for his linear patterns, until his skill became so 
 advanced that he could combine objective truth with that subjective 
 expression which was his real motive. It is, in short, by this sense of 
 line and all its derivatives, that the Celtic spirit in art can be traced 
 from its birth down to the present day, setting the architecture, 
 sculpture, painting, even literature, of the Celts apart from those of 
 other races: apart, even, from those of the Greeks, to whom the 
 approach is nearest. 
 
 The remains of Celtic art during the Bronze Age, discovered 
 in these islands, are of the same nature as the debris of early civiliza- 
 tions found elsewhere. They consist of carved stones and rocks, 
 tomb furniture, debris from inhabited sites, hoards, and isolated 
 objects lost by their owners. They are decorated in combinations of 
 straight and curved lines, which have been 
 grouped under various heads, such as the 
 chevron, the spiral, the swastika, the loop, 
 the winding band, and concentric circles.^ 
 A large number of the best examples have 
 been found in Ireland, which country was 
 at one time thought to be the birthplace of 
 some of their most characteristic motives. 
 This is now understood to be an ill-founded 
 belief, for earlier examples of these sup- 
 posed-to-be Irish forms have been dis- 
 covered elsewhere. Ireland, however, can 
 show the most important surviving speci- 
 mens in not a few classes of Celtic Art ; 
 among them that of sculptured stones. 
 The tumuli of County Meath, at New 
 Grange, near Drogheda, and at Sliath na 
 Calliaghe, near Oldcastle, contain the most 
 remarkable specimens yet discovered. But 
 it is not improbable that these structures 
 are the outcome of a mingling of blood and ideas between the 
 Bronze Age Celts and the neolithic Iberians whom they conquered. 
 
 The prevailing motives in the decoration of these tumuli are, 
 at New Grange, the spiral, complicated by dots, diagonal lines, and 
 
 FIG. 8. — HIGH CROSS, MONAS- 
 TERBOICE, IRELAND. 
 
 1 See Romilly Allen, Celtic Art 
 
 Pagan and Christian Times (Methuen, 1904). 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. Q. — CELTIC SHIELD. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 various combinations of the chevron ; at Old- 
 castle, similar motives combined with star and 
 wheel-shaped patterns. 
 
 The spiral, which does not occur in this 
 country on the implements and portable ob- 
 jects of the Bronze Age, seems to have had 
 its birth in Egypt, whence it travelled by way 
 of North-Eastern Europe, through Scandinavia, 
 to Scotland, North England, and Ireland. It 
 is, however, such an obvious way of decorating 
 a surface that too much stress must not be laid 
 on any theory of its affiliation. It was a favorite 
 motive with the Maoris, who can hardly have 
 borrowed it either from Egypt, from Mycenae, 
 or from the ancient Celts. 
 
 The decorative motives of Celtic art in 
 the Bronze Age may, then, be catalogued as 
 
 follows : diagonal lines, leading to various combinations of the 
 
 chevron ; punched dots ; the loop and its combinations (swastika) ; 
 
 and the spiral. 
 
 The civilization of the Iron Age was probably brought into 
 
 this country by the Brythonic Celts in the third century B.C. The 
 
 objects on which our knowledge of its character depends may be 
 
 classified similarly to the remains of the previous civilization. 
 
 They consist of grave goods, as they have been called, remains 
 
 found on village or town sites, hoards, and 
 
 objects casually lost. 
 
 The burial customs of this late Celtic 
 
 period differ from those of the Bronze Age ; 
 
 they also show considerable change as the age 
 
 progressed. Among the earliest tombs, prob- 
 ably, yet discovered are the mounds on the 
 
 Yorkshire Wolds, near Arras. One of these, 
 
 when opened, was found to contain a female 
 
 skeleton, with a number of glass beads, two 
 
 bracelets, gold and amber rings, and a pair of 
 
 tweezers. In another was found the body of 
 
 a man, lying on his back, with his chariot, the 
 
 remains of two horses completely harnessed, and 
 
 of two wild boars, beside him. A third barrow 
 
 yielded the skeleton of a warrior, with parts 
 
 of a shield, of a chariot, and of the furniture 
 
 8 
 
 FIG. lO. — CELTIC FIBULA. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 FIG. II. — BRONZE COLLAR 
 FROM WRAXALL. 
 
 (Bristol Museum.) 
 
 ot a pair of horses, as well as the tusks of a wild boar. The 
 wild boar is alluded to in many ways on the remains of this 
 period. Canon Greenwell's Yorkshire ex- 
 cavations have also been prolific in illustra- 
 tions of this age. In one barrow, at Arras, 
 he found a female skeleton buried with two 
 pigs, an iron mirror, and the remains of a 
 chariot. But perhaps the most valuable dis- 
 covery, from the point of view of art, has 
 been that made in 1879, on the Cotswolds, 
 some seven miles from Gloucester. During 
 repairs to a road near Birdlip, three skeletons, 
 two male and one female, were found in 
 graves constructed of thin slabs of stone 
 arranged coffin-wise. With the woman 
 
 were found a bronze bowl, a silver brooch plated with gold, 
 a bead necklace, a hollow brass armlet and key handle, a bronze 
 knife handle with the head of a horned animal as ornament, and 
 the beautiful bronze mirror here illustrated. An equally beautiful 
 mirror, of exactly the same kind, has recently (September, 1 908) been 
 found during some excavations at Desborough, Northamptonshire. 
 Similar though less important finds have taken place in Derbyshire, 
 Staffordshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, and, in the east, in Kent. But 
 the number of tombs from the early Iron or Late-Celtic Age is small 
 compared with those from the Bronze and Stone Ages, which seems to 
 show that only a short period elapsed between the introduction of iron 
 by the Brythonic Celts and the first appearance of 
 the Romans in Britain. 
 
 An important series of discoveries was made 
 in 1886, in the neighborhood of Aylesford, 
 in Kent. Here many urns and other objects 
 were dug up, which showed the connection 
 between the art of Britain at the beginning 
 of the Iron Age and that of the Continent, and 
 proved the intercourse between this country 
 and Southern Europe, in pre-Roman times, to 
 have been closer than had previously been 
 suspected. 
 
 From remains found on the sites of villages 
 
 or towns, we know the late Celtic inhabitants to 
 
 have been well versed in the arts of peace. 
 
 Among the objects found have been sword 
 
 9 
 
 FIG. 12. — HANDLE OF 
 CELTIC TANKARD. 
 
 (Mayer Museum, 
 Liverpool.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 13. — MIRROR, FROM BIRDLIP, 
 GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 
 
 (Photo lent by Mr. Dugdale.) 
 
 sheaths, fibulae, saws, knives, quern- 
 stones, spindle-whorls, weaving-combs, 
 bill-hooks, pottery, and coins. The 
 earliest British coinage belongs to the 
 Iron Age, and dates from about 
 200-150 B.C. Its use is believed to 
 have been confined to that part of 
 England which lies south of the Tyne 
 and east of the Severn. 
 
 It will be well to conclude this 
 short summary of the nature of late 
 Celtic art by saying a few words on 
 the best specimens in each class. 
 
 The finest bronze shield yet dis- 
 covered is one that came out of the 
 Thames, at Battersea ; it is now in 
 the British Museum. The dagger, 
 with bronze hilt and sheath, found in 
 the river Witham, near Lincoln, is probably the best specimen 
 of its class. As for helmets, which are rare, the British Museum 
 has a fine specimen, rescued from the Thames, and another is at 
 Abbotsford. The latter came from Torrs, Kirkcudbrightshire. 
 Among the very numerous finds of horse furniture, four bridle-bits 
 with elaborate ornamentation belong to the British, the Edinburgh, 
 and the Dublin Museums. 
 
 Among personal ornaments, which play such an important part 
 in our materials for the study of Celtic art, the most important 
 are fibulae, torques or collars, and 
 armlets. The number of such ob- 
 jects in our museums is very great, 
 and, within their own clearly de- 
 fined limits, they show an astonish- 
 ing variety of form. The finest 
 thing of the kind is the gold collar, 
 already mentioned, in the Dublin 
 Museum. In simple beauty and 
 in the skill of its execution it could 
 scarcely be excelled. Other fine 
 collars, of somewhat different char- 
 acter, are the bronze one from 
 Wraxall, in the Bristol Museum, 
 and, a third, also of bronze, in the 
 
 10 
 
 FIG. 14. — CELTIC DISK. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 British Museum. This last was found in Lochar Moss, Dum- 
 friesshire. A good specimen of the bronze armlets is one found 
 in the neighborhood of Forres, now at 
 Altyre. The fibulae are very numerous. 
 
 Objects of domestic use from the 
 same period are often ornamented, but 
 the ornament is of the same character 
 as that already illustrated, and need 
 not be referred to in detail. 
 
 There is, however, one form of 
 Celtic art from this middle period 
 which must be referred to here, namely 
 that of enamelling. This was practised 
 by the Celts of the Iron Age before 
 the advent of the Romans, and carried 
 to such a pitch of perfection that 
 nothing quite equal to its products has 
 yet been encountered on Continenta 
 
 FIG. 15. — FOOT OF THE 
 ARDAGH CHALICE. 
 
 (Dublin Museum.) 
 
 Sir 
 the 
 
 Europe. The late 
 Augustus Franks gave the name of Opus Britannicum to 
 enamels of the British Celts, and believed them to be the first 
 west-European enamels. The fragment reproduced in Chapter 
 XII is thoroughly characteristic. To these early Celtic enamellers 
 belongs the credit once given to the Irish Scribes of a later age, 
 of having invented the famous pattern of the divergent spiral. 
 
 In all this activity the general characteristics never vary. 
 From first to last Celtic art depended 
 on line for its unit, on the nature 
 of the material for its determinant, 
 and on free invention for its expressive 
 value. The Celt was not inquisitive. 
 His desire was not for knowledge, but 
 for creation. He wished to produce 
 rather than to reproduce. In a word, he 
 was synthetic rather than analytic. The 
 possibility has often been suggested, or 
 rather it inevitably suggests itself, that 
 the character of the Iberian races, partly 
 dispossessed and partly absorbed by the 
 Celt, counted for something in the form 
 taken by his art. In view, however, of 
 the homogeneity of the Celtic idea wher- 
 ever we find it, from its first mutterings 
 II 
 
 FIG. 16. CROZIER. 
 
 (Dublin Museum.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 to its last and most ambitious achievements, we cannot believe that 
 the example of an inferior race had very much effect upon it. 
 
 While Celtic art was being lost in Great Britain under the stress 
 of the Roman Conquest, it was holding the even tenor of its way in 
 Ireland, and piling up those accumulations which, in their ruin, have 
 left that island so much richer in the debris of early Celtic civilization 
 than the rest of the world. So far as these belong to the pre- 
 Christian Era, however, they do not call for any more detailed 
 notice than has already been given. They show that the motives 
 common in the neighboring island during the late Bronze and pre- 
 Roman Iron Age held the field in Ireland too. There, however, 
 owing to the longer survival of the Celtic 
 
 t monopoly, they developed a boldness 
 and self-confidence hardly equalled else- 
 where. Of this boldness — not always 
 leading to beauty — a Bronze Disk, 
 British Museum (Fig. 14), and a crowd 
 of objects in the Dublin Museum are 
 examples. 
 Christianity was brought to these 
 islands about the end of the fourth cen- 
 tury or beginning of the fifth. It made 
 its way from Western Gaul into Corn- 
 wall, Wales, and the South -Western 
 corner of Scotland. From Wigtown- 
 shire it crossed into Ireland about 430 
 , I A.D In Ireland it prospered so ex- 
 ceedingly that, before many generations 
 had elapsed, that island was sending 
 " return waves of Celtic Christianity " 
 at lona, and the East of England, at 
 Lindisfarne. But the new religion endured for centuries before it 
 began to create any form of art which could be called distinctively 
 Christian. And in Ireland, when these forms came, they did not 
 supersede Pagan ideals, they were grafted upon them. Hence we 
 have a continuity in Irish decorative art down to the beginning of 
 the thirteenth century which does not exist elsewhere to anything 
 like the same extent. 
 
 The arts in which the Celtic Christians of Ireland excelled were 
 stonecutting, metal-work, the writing and illumination of manuscripts, 
 and architecture. The most important things left to us by the Irish 
 stonecutters, or sculptors, are the so-called High Crosses, of which 
 
 12 
 
 FIG. 17.— CROSS OF CONG. 
 
 (Dublin Museum.) 
 
 to the West of Scotland, 
 
PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 two at Monasterboice, two at Clonmacnoise, and one each at 
 Durrow and Tuam, are the most important. The art of these 
 crosses corresponds exactly, taking the 
 difference of material into account, with 
 that of the metal-workers. The motives 
 are essentially Celtic, depending always on 
 line and a devoted search into all its pos- 
 sibilities. Down to the very end the spirit 
 of representation is never found except 
 under the strictest control. Figure sculp- 
 ture exists, of course, and in some in- 
 stances, as on the Cross of Muirdach at 
 Monasterboice, and on the Tuam cross, it 
 is even fairly advanced. But it is always 
 ornament, and the scenes are treated in 
 such a way as to remain complementary 
 to the purely decorative panels, and are 
 
 not allowed to become extraneous and ^^^ ,8._shrine of st. Patricks 
 self-contained. bell. 
 
 It is the same with works in metal: (Dublin Museum.) 
 
 The early motives are gradually enriched 
 
 and added to by importations from without 
 as well as by the developed ingenuity of 
 the native artist. But down to the end, 
 down to that Cross of Cong which is the 
 supreme expression of the school, the 
 essential character of Celtic ornament re- 
 mains the same. The Celtic artist under- 
 stands, or rather feels, that form and the 
 play of line supply him with a language 
 suited not only to his ideas but to the 
 materials in which those ideas have to be 
 expressed. When he uses figures he 
 makes them the vehicle for linear patterns 
 and is never tempted to let them be 
 dramatic externally. 
 
 Again the same story has to be 
 
 told when we come to the manuscripts. 
 
 No Celtic manuscript with illuminations 
 
 or ornaments of any kind can be ascribed 
 
 to a date earlier than about 630 A.D. The book of Kells, the 
 
 most famous of them all, is distinguished by the ambition of its 
 
 13 
 
 riG. 10. — INTFRLACED ORNAMENT 
 FROM THE BOOK OF DURROW. 
 
 (Trinity College, Dublin.) 
 (Photo by Lawrence.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 20. — FIGURES ON THE SHRINE OF 
 ST. MAGWE. 
 
 designer as well as by his extraordinary skill in execution. But its 
 motives form a resume of all that Celtic art had accomplished 
 
 down to that moment, rather than a 
 step in advance. Natural objects 
 are, indeed, introduced, but always in 
 a form so conventionalized that they 
 become linear motives like the rest. 
 Another manuscript, the Book of 
 Durrow, shows a more restrained 
 taste than its more famous rival. A 
 third, ** The Book of Armagh," is 
 still finer in a quiet way. It dates 
 from about 840 A.D. 
 
 In architecture the Irish Celt 
 showed the same qualities as in the 
 other arts. His structures are by no 
 means ambitious, but his designs never 
 fail to have that appropriateness to 
 material and purpose which betrays 
 an essentially artistic race. The 
 earliest buildings of which remains exist are the stone forts, or 
 duns, which are to be found in considerable numbers in the 
 counties of Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Donegal and 
 Antrim. These are stone enclosures, in which the Cyclopean 
 masonry is often of remarkable excellence. They contain chambers 
 in their walls, as well as small domical, beehive, or boat-shaped 
 huts in the space these walls enclose. The earliest Christian 
 monasteries and oratories are but slight developments from these 
 forts and huts. The most remarkable specimen of the former 
 is the monastery on Skellig Michael, an isolated rock in the 
 Atlantic, twelve miles off the coast of Kerry. The monastery 
 occupies a plateau, some seven hundred feet above the sea, 
 approached by many hundreds of steps cut in the rock. The 
 plateau is about 180 feet long by about 100 feet wide. Upon it 
 are the remains of three oratories, six bee-hive cells, two wells, live 
 burial grounds, and many rude stone crosses. 
 
 The best isolated specimen of the early Irish oratory is that of 
 Gallerus (Fig. 4). It stands, in strangely perfect preservation, on 
 the north side of Dingle Bay, co. Kerry. 
 
 Between the sixth and eighth centuries building in un-dressed 
 stones with dry joints was gradually superseded by the use of mortar 
 and dressed stone, and this naturally brought in its train forms which 
 
 14 
 
PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 may be fairly called architectural. During the period under discus- 
 sion these forms were confined chiefly to doorways, although occa- 
 sionally a window shows the beginnings of 
 aesthetic ambition. Two characteristic door- 
 ways are figured here. The buildings in 
 which these occur are almost invariably 
 distinguished by good proportions, in the 
 relations of parts to the whole. 
 
 Among the latest examples of the early 
 period of Irish architecture must be included 
 the first of those round towers which are 
 such a characteristic feature, although they 
 are by no means so exclusively Irish as we 
 are apt to believe. The early specimens 
 are built of un-dressed stones, roughly 
 coursed, the joints filled in with small stones 
 and coarse mortar. The only architectural 
 leaven they show is that of general propor- 
 tion. Any discussion of their purpose is 
 outside the scope of this handbook; but it 
 may be remarked, in passing, that those 
 who see in them towers of refuge against 
 the attacks of the Norse pirates seem to 
 have established their case. At the begin- •- 
 
 ning of the nineteenth century the remains of 1 1 8 of these towers 
 still existed in Ireland. Outside Ireland 22 have been catalogued, of 
 which the best known, perhaps, is that at Brechin, in Scotland 
 
 (Fig. 21). 
 
 r 
 
 ■■BMBiy 
 
 FIG. 21. — ROUND TOWER, 
 BRECHIN, 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY TO CHAPTER I. 
 
 Cartailhac and Breuil, Altamira (rAnthropologie, 1904, p. 625). Montelius, O., Chronologic 
 der Aeltesten Bronzezeit, Brunswick, 1900. Hoemes, M., Urgeschichte der Bildenden Kunst 
 in Europa, Vienna, 1898. Romilly Allen, J., Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times, 
 London, 1904; Early Christian S])mbolism in Great Britain and Ireland ; Early Christian 
 Monuments in Scotland; Celtic Illuminatrve Art (reproductions), Dublin. Stokes, Margaret, 
 Early Christian Art in Ireland, 1887. To be used with caution. It is twenty years old. 
 Smith, Reginald A., and Read, Charles H., Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age 
 in the British Museum, 1903. Read, Charles H., Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age in 
 the British Museum, 1904. Anderson J., Scotland in Pagan and Early Christian Times. 
 Westwood, Paloeographia Pictorica Sacra; Miniatures of the Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. 
 Middleton, J. H., Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times, Cambridge, 
 1892. Hill, A., Ancient Irish Architecture, 1870. Petrie, G., Ecclesiastical Architecture of 
 Ireland, 1845. Stokes, Margaret, The High Crosses of Castledermot and Durrow, 1898. 
 Wilde, Sir W. R. W., Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities of Gold in the Museum of the 
 R, Irish Academy, 1862, 
 
 15 
 
riG. 22. — CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL, OXFORD. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON ART 
 
 The direct influence of the Roman invaders on the course of art in 
 the British Isles was so evanescent, and its resuhs so essentially 
 outside any true racial movement, that we need here only note 
 its existence and pass on. British art may be divided into three parts: 
 Celtic, Saxon, and the art which sprang from the blending of these 
 two races and their union with the new blood from Northern France. 
 Celtic art has been already dealt with: the present chapter will be 
 devoted to those Saxon forms which followed it in Britain and co- 
 existed with its later glory in Ireland. 
 
 Our chief authorities for Saxon art are architectural remains. At 
 one time it was believed that the Saxons built almost entirely in wood 
 and, consequently, that stone witnesses to their ambition as builders 
 were few and unimportant. Recent and more careful research has 
 led to a somewhat drastic revision of that belief. Evidence of a 
 Saxon origin has been discovered in many buildings which used to be 
 classed as Romano-British and Norman, and sufficient material has 
 now been gathered to enable a trustworthy opinion to be formed of 
 the powers and peculiarities of the Saxon architect. If we took our 
 courage in both hands and applied to Anglo-Saxon art the principles 
 we assert in connection with Continental art, we might even venture 
 
 16 
 
ANGLO-SAXON ART 
 
 to surmise that the special features of Norman Round Arched Gothic 
 were, in many cases, the resuhs of contact between romanesque 
 forms from the South and East with the Enghsh civiHzation of the 
 North-West. 
 
 The remains of Saxon architecture are almost entirely ecclesias- 
 tical. Their distribution shows little of that affiliation with the 
 previous Roman organization which we find in Gaul. In Gaul the 
 Christian dioceses correspond with the ancient Roman civitates, and 
 the cathedral cities with the chief centres of each civitas. It was 
 not so in Britain. There the distribution of the primitive churches 
 was in great part disregarded by the Teutonic invaders, who often 
 established their sees at unimportant centres of population, such as 
 Crediton, Ramsbury, St. Germans, Wells, and Lichfield. " What- 
 ever the Saxons did or did not do," says Professor Baldwin Brown, 
 " to the Roman towns, they put them out of relation to the ecclesias- 
 tical system." This fact supplies an additional reason for accepting 
 the foundation of the Saxon church as a new starting-point in 
 tracing the history of British Art. 
 
 The earliest Teutonic invaders found Romano-British Christianity 
 established in the country. They destroyed it over the whole of 
 the territory they occupied, pushing it into the west and north. 
 There it came into closer contact than before with the Celtic 
 Christianity of Cornwall, Ireland, and Scotland, and was gradually 
 solidified into a Christian system which finally had its centre at a 
 point as far removed as possible from the shadow of Saxon invasion. 
 
 Meanwhile, toward the end of the sixth century, the Saxons 
 themselves began to adopt Christianity, and to follow its customs. 
 Their early churches, which have now to be studied chiefly in their 
 foundations, show, as might have been expected, strong though pass- 
 ing evidence of being simply modifications of Roman buildings. 
 At Silchester the foundations have been traced of a small Basilican 
 structure which was probably a Christian church. Saxon building 
 was, then, affected for a short time by Roman example as well as 
 by Celtic tradition. It cannot, however, be denied that it soon 
 developed a character of its own, which marked almost the whole 
 of the period of nearly five centuries over which it extended. 
 
 The space at my command is insufficient for a detailed notice of 
 the various stages of Saxon architecture. I must be content with a 
 general description of its character, and a short account of its most 
 important monuments. 
 
 When compared with the Celt, the Saxon was poor in aesthetic 
 gifts and inclinations. He had little sense of the congruity into which 
 
 17 c 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 the material, form, decoration, and use of an object should be 
 brought. His sense of proportion, too, of the mathematical element 
 in art, was rudimentary; and he was almost entirely devoid of that 
 power to play happily with line which made the Celt an artist 
 almost from the earliest moment to which we can trace his 
 existence. Lasdy, he was no engineer. He gives no sign of being 
 alive to that play of forces which goes on in every built-up 
 structure. He is without the Gallic instinct for concentrating power 
 where it is required, on the one hand, and economizing material 
 where it has nothing to do but enclose, on the other. His buildings 
 are like boxes, and the relation between their shape, solidity, and 
 purpose, is seldom happy. 
 
 The earliest Saxon structures were rough - combinations of ideas, 
 partly their own, partly Romano-British. From this they gradually 
 
 passed to a style made up of 
 British traditions, German 
 traditions, and echoes from 
 what was being done on the 
 nearest part of the European 
 Continent. They ended by 
 building in a fashion which 
 makes their latest structures 
 difficult, in these days, to dis- 
 entangle from the early works 
 of their Norman conquerors. 
 How much that similarity was 
 due to the influence of Saxon 
 over Norman, and how much to that of Norman over Saxon, it is 
 not so easy to decide as once was supposed. Professor Baldwin 
 Brown, the latest and most thorough of writers on this subject, 
 gives a list of about 1 73 English churches which " exhibit 
 remains of Saxon building." The list would afford an opportunity 
 for a good deal of discussion were we primarily concerned with 
 archaeology, but our business being with art, we need only notice 
 those more important monuments which have a definite artistic char- 
 acter of their own. 
 
 It used to be asserted that Saxon stone architecture took much of 
 its inspiration from a previous timber architecture which it super- 
 seded. A careful examination of the facts throws more than doubt 
 upon such a theory. It may be allowed that the Saxons made great 
 use of timber, which was plentiful in their time, for domestic pur- 
 poses and even for buildings of a higher character. But it cannot be 
 
 r""'''l' '^rj ;/• -^.r^'^ >» 
 
 — -», 
 
 C7^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 ^""W^J 
 
 ■^^'^p^ 
 
 
 FIG. 23. — BARTON-ON-HUMBER CHURCH. 
 
ANGLO-SAXON ART 
 
 FIG. 24. — TOWER OF EARLS 
 BARTON CHURCH, NORTH- 
 AMPTONSHIRE. 
 
 ignored that stone had been used for many centuries in these islands 
 before the Saxon inroads, and had left its own traditions and examples. 
 In a country commencing civilization, timber 
 building may hold a monopoly for ages, and 
 may hand on its forms to the next develop- 
 ment. But v^^here a stone architecture has 
 once flourished, its tradition remains. The 
 Saxon churches usually quoted as show^ing 
 the influence of timber construction are not 
 the earliest, but belong to quite a late period 
 in the style. The towers of Earls Barton 
 and Barnack, in Northamptonshire, and of 
 Barton-on-Humber, in Lincolnshire, are ex- 
 amples. They seem obviously inspired by 
 some form of half-timber construction, but 
 behind them lies a long period of building 
 activity in which no such relation can be 
 traced. Curiously enough, the one relic we 
 possess of timber building in Saxon times, 
 does not belong to the only system which could have inspired the 
 designs quoted in support of the theory that the Saxon builders 
 took their ideas from timber construction. The wooden church at 
 Greenstead, Essex, is not a frame, or half-timber building, but a 
 
 ** block-house." It is constructed of 
 the split trunks of oaks, set upright 
 and close together on un oak sill.^ 
 
 The chronology of Saxon churches 
 can be determined only roughly. 
 Professor Baldwin Brown divides 
 those which remain after a drastic 
 process of elimination into five 
 periods. For our purposes, however, 
 two will be enough. The earlier 
 was distinguished by modesty of 
 plan, by monotony in the wall faces, 
 by a tendency to the box-like in 
 general construction, and by the use 
 of Romano-British forms, or actual 
 structures, in the ornamental parts. 
 During the later period a tendency to more elegance can be perceived. 
 
 ^ It appears pretty certain that this Greenstead church is identical with a timber chapel erected 
 near Aungre" (Chipping Ongar), for the reception of St. Edmund's body during its transference 
 from London to Bury St. Edmunds, in 1013 (Dugdale's Monasticon. Ill, 139). 
 
 19 c2 
 
 riG. 25. — GREENSTEAD CHURCH, ESSEX. 
 
 debris from Romano-British 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 The solids and the voids have a better relation to each other, and the 
 proportions of height to w^idth are more agreeable. On the other 
 hand, the earlier buildings often show a 
 Roman respect for solidity in the dangerous 
 parts, w^hich is not so well marked in the 
 later. 
 
 One of the earliest churches to show 
 Saxon characteristics is that of St. Pancras, 
 at Canterbury, the foundations of which 
 have recently been laid bare. So far as 
 recovered, it consists of an oblong nave 
 about forty-three feet by twenty-seven, two 
 porches, at the west end and on the south, 
 and two small fragments of wall suggesting 
 that it ended to the east in a semi-circular 
 
 FIG. 26. — FONT, ST. MARTIN'S, 
 CANTERBURY. 
 
 apse. 
 
 Still more interesting are the remains of 
 what Professor Brown calls "quite the most famous parish church in 
 the whole of England," viz., that of St. Martin, at Canterbury. 
 This church now consists of a very large, square ended, Saxon 
 chancel, of a nave partly Saxon, and of a later western tower. Its 
 technique, like that of St. Pancras, is largely Roman and much 
 of its material Roman brick re-used. Among other early examples 
 may be named the churches of Stone, near Faversham; of Cor- 
 bridge, Northumberland; and of Escomb, Jarrow, and Monk- 
 wearmouth, Durham ; the fragments at Lyminge, Rochester, and 
 Reculver, Kent ; the crypts of Ripon and Hexham, and the 
 
 remarkable church of Brix- 
 
 worth, Northamptonshire. 
 
 Brixworth is one of the 
 most imposing of our Saxon 
 monuments, although it has 
 been considerably mutilated 
 in the course of time. Its side 
 aisles, or possibly chapels, have 
 disappeared, and many win- 
 dows have been introduced. 
 On the other hand, it gives 
 evidence of developments fig. 27.— st. martin's church, canterbury. 
 during its own Saxon period 
 
 which turn it into a more than usually valuable document. It was 
 built in the last quarter of the seventh century by the Abbot of 
 
 20 
 
ANGLO-SAXON ART 
 
 ! \ 
 
 '11%%:^ 
 
 Peterborough, who used a great deal of Roman brick in its erection. 
 It originally consisted of an apsidal sanctuary opening into a choir 
 of thirty feet square, which, 
 again, communicated by an 
 arch of about twenty-eight 
 feet span with a nave about 
 fifty-six feet long by thirty 
 broad. Westward of the nave 
 was built, in later, perhaps, 
 but still Saxon times, a square 
 tower with a curious attach- 
 ment on its western side, in a 
 large circular stair-turret rising 
 nearly to a level with the roof- 
 
 ridge or the fig. 28. — brixworth church. 
 
 church. 
 
 The monuments from the later period of Saxon 
 architecture, which lasted from about 800 to the 
 Norman Conquest, are so numerous that not even 
 a list can be given here. They range, in time, 
 from the churches of Avebury (Wilts), Bishopstone 
 (Sussex), Bardsey (Yorks), and Lydd (Kent), to those 
 of Bradford-on-Avon (Wilts), Barton-on-Humber 
 (Lincolnshire), Earls Barton and Barnack (Northamp- 
 tonshire), and the church of Branston (Lincolnshire), 
 in which last Saxon and Norman features are combined 
 with unusual 
 intimacy. 
 The churches of Earls 
 Barton, Barnack, and Barton- 
 on-Humber afford the best 
 remaining examples of that 
 use of stone strips as surface 
 decoration which has been 
 quoted as proof that the forms 
 taken by Saxon stone architec- 
 ture were determined by ex- 
 perience with timber. This 
 particular invention — a most 
 unhappy one, and one that 
 
 never would have occurred to a Celtic people — may have been so 
 inspired, but it has little to do with the general development of 
 
 21 
 
 FIG. 29. — TOWER 
 
 ARCH, MARKET 
 
 OVERTON. 
 
 FIG. 30. — SAXON CHURCH, BRADFORD-ON AVON. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 31. — CHURCH IN DOVER CASTLE. 
 
 Saxon building ; and it came 
 near the end of its course. 
 
 A happier method of deco- 
 rating a wall is that employed 
 on the little church of Brad- 
 ford-on-Avon. Here a shal- 
 low arcade of semicircular 
 arches is carried, like an ex- 
 ternal quasi-triforium, round 
 the whole of the church. 
 It is supported by flat pi- 
 lasters, without capitals or 
 bases, which divide the lower 
 
 part of the walls into well-proportioned 
 panels. 
 
 More interesting, even, than this Brad- 
 ford church is the cathedral of Oxford and 
 its connection with pre-Norman architecture. 
 After his massacre of the Danes in 1002, 
 Ethelred the Unready made a vow that he 
 would rebuild the church of St. Frideswide, 
 in Oxford. He kept his vow, and some 
 archaeologists contend that a .large part of 
 his structure is extant to this day, in the 
 existing cathedral of Christ Church. The 
 substructures of the apse of the older church 
 of St. Frideswide have been discovered 
 within recent years, to the north of the pres- 
 ent choir. Those who uphold the Saxon 
 
 FIG. 32. — LITTLE SAXHAM 
 CHURCH TOWER ARCH. 
 
 FIG. 35. — BRANSTON CHURCH, LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 22 
 
 theory believe that Ethelred 
 respected the previous shrine 
 and built his church to the 
 south of it. They contend 
 that the arcade and walls of 
 the present choir and certain 
 analogous parts of the nave 
 and transepts are substan- 
 tially Saxon, modified, muti- 
 lated, and overlaid in later 
 times with Norman and 
 pointed Gothic. The ques- 
 tion is too large and too 
 
ANGLO-SAXON ART 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 u., 
 
 
 
 HUh 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 |B 
 
 ll 
 
 i 
 
 w4^ 
 
 
 9B'^<f> 
 
 FIG. 34. — CLAPHAM CHURCH, 
 BEDFORDSHIRE. 
 
 technical for discussion here, but those who beHeve the cathedral of 
 Christ Church to be identical in some of its parts with Ethelred's 
 church of St. Frideswide seem to 
 have put forward a plausible case. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of 
 Saxon architecture it will be con- 
 venient to enumerate once more its 
 broad characteristics, and to note 
 those features on which some re- 
 liance may be placed as tests of a 
 Saxon origin. 
 
 Saxon builders had little or no 
 feeling for the structural significance 
 of forms. They were satisfied to 
 make their buildings stand. They 
 did not feel the desirability of 
 making them declare, by their forms, 
 that they meant to stand. No race 
 with an instinct for expressive build- 
 ing would have dabbled in such 
 forms as ** long and short work," or the vertical dominoes of Earls 
 
 Barton, Barnack, Barton-on-Humber, 
 
 and other churches of the late period, or 
 that infelicitous arrangement by which, 
 in Saxon tower-windows, a stumpy 
 turned column or baluster is set to hold 
 up a long through-stone by its middle. 
 
 Saxon walls often look too thin for 
 their work, and it is extremely rare to 
 encounter any sign that their builders 
 were alive to the varying strains they 
 would have to resist. Buttresses very 
 seldom occur, even at quoins. 
 
 The feeling for general proportions 
 was poor. Buildings are too high and 
 narrow for their superficial extent ; 
 tapering or pyramidal forms of any kind 
 are rare. The proportion of voids to 
 solids is seldom pleasing, and orna- 
 mental details are often unrelated, 
 aesthetically, both to each other and to their situation. 
 
 On the other hand, Saxon technique roughly as it began, 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 ^■M^'iSRlft 
 
 FIG. 35. — CHURCH OF ST. REGULUS, 
 
 ST. Andrew's. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 shows a stronger tendency toward refine- 
 ment than that of the Normans. It 
 betrays, perhaps, the first sign of that 
 affectionate, though not always well di- 
 rected, solicitude which was to be 
 a permanent characteristic of our national 
 art. As examples of this we may name the 
 scanty remains of the Saxon Church at 
 Westminster Abbey, the pillars of the Saxon 
 crypt at Repton, and the upper stage of 
 St. Benet's tower, Cambridge, which must 
 have been a most happy design before it 
 lost its " German helm." 
 
 A masterpiece of architecture may be 
 compared to the human body. Just as 
 the latter has its supporting skeleton, 
 (Restoration by the Author.) its vital organs Conveniently disposed, 
 and an outer skin which both protects 
 
 the whole and welds it 
 
 into unity and beauty, so a 
 
 perfect building is one in 
 
 which three similar elements 
 
 are happily allied. The Saxon 
 
 architects failed to grasp the 
 
 logical connection between 
 
 these three elements, with 
 
 the result that such charm 
 
 as their structures possess 
 
 is invariably due to the 
 
 interest of the parts, never 
 
 to the high organization of 
 
 the whole 
 
 FIG. 37. — repton: SAXON CRYPT. 
 
 FIG. 36. — TOWER OF ST. 
 benet's, CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY TO CHAPTER II 
 
 G. Baldwin Brown, M.A., The Arts in Early England (vol. i, The Life of Saxon England 
 in its Relation to the Arts ; vol. ii, Ecclesiastical Architecture in England from the Conversion of 
 the Saxons to the Norman Conquest), London, 1903. J. Fergusson, History of Architecture, 
 vol. ii, London, 1874. Sir G. G. Scott, Lectures on the Rise and Development of Med i cecal 
 Architecture, 2 vols., London, 1879. King, Handbooks to the English Cathedrals, Murray. 
 London. Bell's Series of Handbooks to the English Cathedrals. T. Hudson Turner, Some 
 Account of Domestic Architecture in England from the Conquest to the End of the Thirteenth 
 Century, Oxford and London, 1877. J. Park Harrison, The pre-Norman Date of the Design 
 and some of the Stone-work of Oxford Cathedral ; Discovery of the Remains of Three Apses at 
 Oxford Cathedral : A pre-Norman Window in Oxford CathedraliLondoa 1894). Brown, R., 
 Notes on the Earlier History of Barton-on-H umber, n.d. 
 
 24 
 
FIG. 38. — ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S THE GREAT, LONDON. (PARTLY RESTORED.) 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 
 ARCHED GOTHIC 
 
 OR ROUND 
 
 The connection between early Norman architecture and that of 
 the Saxons was probably less slight than is usually supposed. We 
 can, in fact, recognize an adumbration of Norman forms in many 
 buildings which unmistakably betray a Saxon origin, such as the 
 church at Branston, Lincolnshire (Fig. 33), which would certainly 
 have been classed as Norman but for the presence of Saxon technique 
 in its execution. There can, however, be no doubt that both the 
 Saxon natives and their Norman conquerors believed the new style 
 to embody a fresh departure, to be a novum genus compositionis, 
 to use the phrase of Matthew Paris. How far it was strictly 
 Norman does not concern us here. It is enough for our purpose to 
 know that it was a style elaborated by the race which sprang 
 from the conquest of Neustria and its Celtic population by the 
 Norse invaders. Its form may have been influenced, to some 
 extent, by the example set by the late Saxon builders on the north 
 side of the Channel, and its development was stimulated, no doubt, 
 by the sudden increase of artistic activity which took place all over 
 Christendom as soon as the dreaded year, 1000, had been safely 
 passed. 
 
 25 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 39. — ST. JOHN'S CHAPEL, 
 TOWER OF LONDON. 
 
 In the eleventh century, and for long after it, a narrow sea was 
 no such barrier between one country and another as it is now. In 
 the days when roads scarcely existed, and 
 means of land locomotion were at once bad 
 and confined to the rich, a sea, if not too 
 wide, made possible an intercourse which 
 could not have been carried on over any 
 i ^HL| 9 li^l serious distance by land. Normandy was 
 I A ^■■■H^H practically nearer to England than to Paris. 
 r Al^H^V^^H The Normans had more in common with 
 the English than with the French. Even 
 to this day habits that we recognize as 
 English have persisted in the Duchy, many 
 parts of which are not to be distinguished, 
 even by the keenest eye, from the southern 
 counties of England. In tracing the origin 
 of Norman Gothic, then, it is only fair to 
 postulate a reciprocal action between the two countries, the late, 
 refined Saxon builders having their influence over the younger, 
 ruder, and more vigorous Normans, and vice Versa. 
 
 Norman architecture ran its early course on almost parallel lines 
 in Normandy and England. It was a 
 comparatively new thing with the in- 
 vaders themselves when they followed 
 their Duke to this country. Lanfranc, 
 Abbot of St. Stephen's, Caen, whom 
 William appointed to the See of 
 Canterbury in 1070, began the re- 
 building of the English cathedral on 
 lines which exactly followed those of 
 the Norman Abbey, then recently com- 
 menced. Canterbury was finished first. 
 Its still existing parts may be taken as 
 the oldest survivals of the new style 
 of any importance, but it had a pred- 
 ecessor in the church built by Edward 
 the Confessor on the site at West- 
 minster which has since become so 
 famous. This church was apsidal. It 
 had a triforium, which appears to have 
 
 been vaulted, like the aisle below. It had a central and two western 
 towers, the choir being in the crossing. It contained numerous 
 
 26 
 
 /?%. 
 
 
 r 4 ^::-% 
 
 
 F " ^rM 
 
 
 L m W::^ 
 
 J 
 
 if . m m:-M 
 
 10 5 p iPFFrT 
 
 FIG. 40. — PLAN : ST. John's chapel, 
 
 TOWER OF LONDON. 
 
ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 chapels, in the triforium as 
 
 well as on the floor of the 
 
 church. Such evidence as we 
 
 possess goes to prove that the 
 
 ground covered by it coincided 
 
 pretty well with that on which 
 
 the present Abbey stands. An 
 
 interesting feature of the scanty 
 
 remains of the Confessor's 
 
 buildings is the comparative 
 
 delicacy of the workmanship, 
 
 hinting at the junction of an 
 
 old tradition — that of Saxon 
 
 building — with the rude vigor 
 
 of the new style. 
 
 A characteristic of Early 
 
 Norman cathedral planning 
 
 was the laying out of eastern 
 
 ends in numerous apses — Bury 
 
 St. Edmunds and Norwich 
 
 had three, St. Alban's seven 
 
 (Fig. 42). Few traces of this 
 
 arrangement are now to be 
 
 found above ground. 
 
 Norman Gothic breathed almost from the beginning a spirit which led 
 
 naturally to the pointed style by which it was succeeded. Its character- 
 istics may 
 be thus enu- 
 merated : — 
 1. Great 
 thickness 
 and weight 
 of walls, 
 to secure 
 stability 
 among the 
 numerous 
 thrusts of 
 FIG. 42. — PLAN OF ST. alban's in lOQo. vaults and 
 
 arches. 
 
 2. The employment of the semicircular and segmental arch. 
 
 3. Variation in the proportions of piers and columns according to 
 
 27 
 
 FIG. 41. — TOWER OF ST. ALBAN S CATHEDRAL. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 43. — NORWICH CATHEDRAL : 
 NAVE. 
 
 the load to be carried, and not to their 
 height. 
 
 4. Subdivision of arches into two or 
 more orders, and of piers to meet that 
 subdivision. 
 
 5. The use of ornamental motives 
 appropriate to subdivided arches and 
 piers. 
 
 Among all these features the two 
 which prepared the way for the forms 
 of pointed architecture were the sub- 
 division of piers and arches and the 
 use of the semicircular or segmental 
 arch. The one led naturally to that 
 system of economizing material and 
 accenting ossature which was carried 
 in time to its logical conclusion by the 
 architects of the thirteenth century ; the other opened a path to the 
 idea of cutting a vertical slice out of the centre of a semicircular 
 arch when its span had to be narrowed, 
 an expedient which would be more 
 grateful to eyes accustomed to seg- 
 mental forms than any modification of 
 the curve itself. 
 
 The earliest complete example of 
 very early Norman Gothic which still 
 exists in this country is the Chapel of 
 St. John, in the Tower of London 
 (Figs. 39 and 40). Granted Norman 
 principles, a better design could scarcely 
 be produced. It is, of course, unreason- 
 ably solid and heavy, and the stilted 
 arches in the apse are ugly, but the 
 decoration of the capitals, the sub- 
 division of the wall pilasters, and the 
 combination of a plain wagon vault 
 over the nave with the groining of the 
 aisles, all show conscious skill on the 
 part of the architect. 
 
 A more ambitious monument of 
 early Norman is the Abbey — now cathedral — of St. Alban's 
 (Figs. 41 and 42). Its erection was begun by the monk Paul, 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Hfti 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 44. — NORWICH CATHEDRAL : 
 CHOIR. 
 
ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. 45.— DURHAM NAVE. 
 
 of St. Stephen's, Caen, soon after his relative, Lanfranc, had com- 
 menced operations at Canterbury. Paul was ambitious, and 
 designed a church to cover nearly twice 
 as much ground as the site with which 
 Lanfranc was contented. St. Alban's 
 was 465 feet long, 210 wide across the 
 transept and, probably, 1 55 wide across 
 the west front. It was built entirely of 
 Roman brick and other materials from 
 the neighboring ruins of Verulamium. 
 It was covered, within and without, with 
 white plaster. Before his death. Abbot 
 Paul had caused the semi-dome of the 
 apse behind the high altar to be enriched 
 with painting, an example followed by 
 his successors throughout the church. 
 The inside roofs were flat timber ceil- 
 ings, painted. For internal decorative 
 effect, St. Alban's depended on painting and on the due subordina- 
 tion of its piers and arches, as, indeed, it was bound to do by the 
 intractable nature of its materials. 
 
 At the same time as St. Alban's, a great Norman cathedral was 
 being erected at York. It was begun between 1070 and 1080, 
 but only the slightest indications of its plan now remain. Win- 
 chester Cathedral was begun somewhat later, probably in 1080, on 
 a still vaster scale. It was 530 feet in extreme length and 225 in 
 
 width across the transepts. 
 The transepts and the crypt 
 under the east end are all that 
 we can now see of this Norman 
 church, although much of its 
 fabric still exists inside the 
 later Gothic (Fig. 48). Being 
 carried out in stone, it was 
 more thoroughly developed 
 and more satisfactory alto- 
 gether than the church at 
 St. Alban's. Another cathe- 
 dral dating from the same 
 period is that of Ely, begun 
 by Abbot Symeon when he was not far short of a hundred years 
 old. Here the plan, while similar to those of Winchester and 
 
 29 
 
 FIG. 46. — DURHAM CATHEDRAL. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 47. — TEWKESBURY ABBEY. 
 
 St. Alban's in some parts, had a touch of originaHty in a splendid 
 western transept, of which some of the features were immediately 
 
 afterward reproduced in the 
 abbey church of Bury St. 
 Edmunds. 
 
 Next, perhaps, after that 
 of Ely, came the rebuilding 
 of St. Paul's. This was 
 begun in 1083, by Bishop 
 Maurice, on the great scale 
 which remained a distinction 
 of the cathedral of London 
 down to the fire of 1666. 
 Its architecture resembled 
 that of Winchester, but was 
 more ornate. Its proportions, 
 too, were loftier. About the 
 same time as St. Paul's, the Norman cathedral of Rochester was 
 begun by Bishop Gundulph, a great builder. He founded Rochester 
 Castle, built the White Tower in the Tower of London, and one 
 or two smaller buildings besides. In 1096 was begun what is, on 
 the whole, the most complete monument of Norman architecture 
 now remaining in the country. This is the cathedral of Norwich, 
 commenced by Bishop Herbert de 
 Losinga, who had purchased the see 
 from William II for the sum of £1,900 
 (Figs. 43 and 44). The cathedral is 
 made up of a very long nave of fourteen 
 bays, a transept 192 feet long and an 
 apsidal choir, or rather sanctuary. 
 Among other foundations dating from 
 this period of unexampled energy in 
 building are the cathedrals of Worcester, 
 Chichester, Gloucester, and Durham, 
 and the abbeys and churches of Tewkes- 
 bury (Fig. 47), Waltham, Christchurch 
 (Hants), and Bury St. Edmunds. 
 
 The early phase of Norman touches 
 its apogee at Durham (Fig. 45). The 
 design has a vitality we do not always 
 
 find in the style. The nave is no monotonous repetition of one 
 motive, as at St. Alban's, and, although in a less degree, at 
 
 30 
 
 .^- 
 
 li \i. 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 48. — WINCHESTER, TRANS- 
 FORMATION OF NAVE. 
 
ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. 4g. — KOCK OF CASHEL. 
 
 Norwich. It is divided into symmetrical sections, each comprising 
 two bays, and supplying a happily proportioned constituent to the 
 general scheme (Fig. 
 46). The Norman 
 nave of Durham is a 
 book in well-balanced 
 chapters ; that of Nor- 
 man St. Alban's, an 
 unbroken, rather long- 
 winded narrative. 
 Externally, Durham 
 suffers from the 
 spaciousness of its tri- 
 forium. This is lofty 
 enough to embrace, 
 under its roof, the but- 
 tresses which take the 
 thrust of the nave 
 
 vault, and so to deprive the exterior of a valuable source of variety 
 and shadow.^ On the other hand, Durham has been less un- 
 happy in its disasters than some other cathedrals. Even WyattV 
 meagre rose window has a good effect, at a distance. And Durham 
 is distinguished among Norman churches as being vaulted through- 
 out, although, indeed, it may 
 be said that the vaulting of 
 the transepts was not origi- 
 nally intended. 
 
 It must be remembered 
 that the century immediately 
 following the Norman con- 
 quest was the great century 
 of architectural ambition in 
 England. The Norman 
 clergy had no sooner settled 
 into their share of the spoil, 
 than they began to build. 
 Their ideas grew so rapidly 
 that, before a generation had 
 passed, they had covered the country with Norman Gothic, and 
 were erecting cathedrals on a scale almost unknown in Europe. 
 
 1 As originally built, the aisles had gabled roofs, which were less monotonous than the present 
 mangement. See Sir G. G. Scott's Mediaeval Architecture, vol, ii, p. 129. 
 
 31 
 
 FIG. 50. — FOUNTAINS ABBEY, SOUTH TRANSEPT 
 AND TOWER. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 51.— LITTLE SAXHAM CHURCH. 
 
 indications to be found in illuminated manu- 
 scripts, partly by reasoning from monumental 
 buildings. 
 
 The English house of the Saxon and 
 early Norman period was a lineal descend- 
 ant of the Roman villa. In Italy the Roman 
 house, outside Rome, consisted, roughly 
 speaking, of an open atrium surrounded 
 by small rooms in which sleeping, eating 
 and cooking took place. In England the 
 atrium became, by force of weather, the 
 hall. This hall was for long the only large 
 room in the building. It was originally used 
 
 in common by 
 
 They discounted our thirteenth century 
 and the chances of our Early Pointed. 
 In France the great expansion took 
 place later. It had to await the partial 
 removal of the foreign incubus and the 
 apparition of a great king in Philip 
 Augustus, before it could gather way. 
 The result was that it coincided with 
 the finest moment of Gothic art, and the 
 fullest advantage could be taken of the 
 opportunities given. 
 
 The Domestic architecture of this 
 Early Norman period has to be divined 
 partly from the 
 
 w^- 
 
 ':*^^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 m 
 
 tt 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 ^H| 
 
 H 
 
 V ^ m 
 
 BSP * 
 
 ''I 
 
 f ; ^fl 
 
 "'^ 
 
 
 u. y^H 
 
 ^^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 FIG. 52. — CORMACK S 
 CHAPEL, CASHEL. 
 
 FIG. S3. — DOORWAY OF CHAPTER- 
 HOUSE, DURHAM .CATHEDRAL. 
 
 the master and his family and all his 
 retainers. Gradually subordinate cham- 
 bers were added, and became more and 
 more numerous and important. But 
 there is no reason to believe that, 
 during the Norman period, the concep- 
 tion of a house as a hall with a few 
 special chambers attached was ever 
 superseded. These halls were often of 
 very noble proportions as well as of 
 elegant architecture. But such speci- 
 mens belong to a later date than we 
 have yet reached. At first the hall 
 had, as a rule, but one room of any 
 32 
 
FIG. 54. 
 
 -GLASTONBURY ABBEY, ST. JOSEPH'S 
 CHAPEL. 
 
 ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 size attached to it. This was the private room, with beds, of the 
 master and his family, and was known as the *' solar." Gradually 
 other rooms and " hovels " [the 
 latter usually without windows] 
 were added. The kitchen was 
 separate, when it existed at all, 
 but cooking was often done in 
 the open air. In short, the house 
 developed slowly and steadily, 
 from the single room for all pur- 
 poses to the complex arrange- 
 ments of a matured civilization, by 
 a process similar to that known in 
 biology as fissiparous generation. 
 Having now referred to the 
 most characteristic productions 
 of the Norman period in Eng- 
 land, it may be well to give a 
 resume' of its distinctive features. 
 
 Relative height was lower than in Saxon buildings. The narrow 
 and high naves which were so common in Saxon churches, sug- 
 gesting that the architect was afraid of a wide span for his roofs, 
 are superseded by others of lower, shorter and wider proportions.' 
 Saxon walls, with their careful execution on vicious lines, are 
 
 succeeded by walls roughly 
 carried out on sounder prin- 
 ciples. Norman walls are 
 very thick, with large joints 
 and bad mortar. In monu- 
 mental buildings, a core of 
 rough stones, scarcely held 
 together by an apology for 
 mortar, was faced and sup- 
 ported by a comparatively 
 thin skin of ashlar, or dressed 
 stones. Things improved as 
 time went on, but the Nor- 
 mans never became really 
 ;ood builders. If their cathe- 
 rals had been constructed 
 
 FIG. 55.— LEUCHARS CHURCH, FIFE. 
 
 . , , ,, ,, uiaia ndu ucen construciea 
 
 with the solidity of our modern public buildings, they would 
 scarcely be showing a sign of age even at this day. 
 
 33 D 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 56. — NAVE, ELY CATHEDRAL. 
 
 The skeleton of a Norman church is but gently suggested. 
 Buttresses are wide, but very shallow. Walls terminate above 
 
 in a parapet of slight projection, 
 carried often by a corbel table 
 reminiscent of a military machi- 
 colation. Windows, as a rule, 
 are simple round-headed open- 
 ings with little ornament (Figs. 
 39, 47, etc.). Wheel windows 
 are often used, in gables. Walls 
 are ornamented by blind ar- 
 cades, sometimes of two orders, 
 sometimes interlaced, uncomfort- 
 ably, like the edges of a basket. 
 Doorways are the chief centres 
 of ornament. Orders here are 
 often greatly multiplied and 
 worked with as much ornament 
 as they will bear (Figs. 52 and 
 53). Norman capitals show an 
 almost unbroken evolution from 
 a form which may be compared 
 to the Doric capital of Greece to the delicate, plant-suggested forms 
 of early Pointed. Norman vaults, which are comparatively rare, 
 are of all types from plain barrel, or 
 wagon, to groined and ribbed, vaults 
 (Fig. 39, 45). Churches often have their 
 aisles vaulted and their naves covered 
 with a wooden ceiling (Fig. 56). It is 
 doubtful, however, whether any Norman 
 roof of timber has survived to our time. 
 Throughout the first half of the 
 twelfth century the Norman forms 
 underwent a continual process of re- 
 finement, on the one hand, and enrich- 
 ment on the other. Walls become 
 thinner, joints closer and more carefully 
 worked, columns less thick, carving 
 more delicate and more undercut, but- 
 tresses more salient. Speaking gener- 
 ally, buildings become more enriched with shadow, and more 
 inclined to confess their ossature. The ruling spirit changed fronr 
 
 34 
 
 FIG. 57- 
 
 CHICHESTER CATHEDRAL ! 
 
 NAVE. 
 
ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 being one interested in the refined execution and decoration of a 
 whole conceived simply as an enclosure, into one curious about 
 structure, articulation, development ; into one which saw something 
 akin to the architecture of a tree in that of a great cathedral, and 
 wished to give to each part a relation to that which immediately 
 preceded it, not unlike the relation of leaf to twig, of twig to bough, 
 of bough to trunk, and of trunk to root. That this relation was 
 more strongly insisted upon south of the Channel than in England 
 was due to the fact that Norseman and Celt was an alloy more 
 favorable to a structural unity in art than that of Norseman and 
 Anglo-Saxon. But even here it had its effect. The final traces of 
 Saxon flatness and boxiness disappeared, and at last everything was 
 ready for that apparition of the pointed arch and its consequences 
 which was to mark the second half of the twelfth century. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 G. Baldwin Brown, The Arts in Early England, 1903. Sir G. Gilbert Scott, Lectures on ihe 
 Rise and Development of Mediaeval Architecture, London, 1879. J. H. Parker, Glossary of 
 Terms used in Grecian, Roman, Italian, and Gothic Architecture, Oxford, 1850. R. J. King, 
 Handbooks to the English Cathedrals (Murray) ; ditto, by various authors (Bell) : Britton, J., 
 Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 1807-1835; Hill, A., Monograph of Cormac's 
 Chapel, Cashel, Cork, 1874; Ancient Irish Architecture, Cork, 1870. W. Longman, The 
 Three Cathedrals Dedicated to St. Paul, London, 1873. J. Neale, The Abbey Church of 
 St. Alban, Herts, 1878. G. Petrie, Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland, Dublin, 1845. 
 V. M. C. Ruprich-Robert, L' Architecture Normande au XL' et XII' Siecles, Paris, 1884, 
 et seq. Archceologia, 1 773-1908. B. Winkles, Cathedrals of England and Wales. 1836-1842. 
 Spanton.J.. When Was My Parish Church Built? 1900. 
 
 RG. 58. — CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL : CRYPT. 
 
 35 
 
 d2 
 
FIG. 59. — LINXOLN CATHEDRAL, FROM THE SOUTH. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH, OR FIRST POINTED, GOTHIC 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 A GREAT deal of inconclusive discussion has gone on over the 
 origin of the pointed arch and the structural system to which it led. 
 No very profound study of Romanesque and Norman buildings is 
 required to show that problems frequently arose for which one 
 obvious solution was to cut, in the mind, a vertical slice from the centre 
 
 of a semicircular arch. The 
 play of the diagonals of a 
 groined vault also helped to 
 draw attention to the pointed 
 form. Used at first in special 
 situations, to overcome inci- 
 dental difficulties, and some- 
 times for mere decoration, the 
 pointed arch soon began to 
 proclaim its own flexibility and 
 FIG. 60. — CLOISTERS, FOUNTAINS ABBEY. to mvite tile arciiitect to a 
 
 fuller exploration of its powers. 
 In the hands of builders who had carried the subordination of 
 arches to the development reached in late Norman work, the 
 
 36 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. 6 1. — EASTERN TRAN- 
 SEPT, LINCOLN. 
 
 additional facilities for getting rid of superfluous material and light- 
 ening a whole structure by clothing its skeleton as thinly as possible, 
 afforded by the pointed form, were sure to 
 lead rapidly to their logical conclusion in 
 France, and as near to it in England as we 
 English ever get. 
 
 The essential distinction which gradually 
 established itself between pointed Gothic and 
 other forms of architecture was its system- 
 atic reduction of the ratio of material em- 
 ployed to space enclosed. Its structural 
 forms are a consequence of this process 
 and of the necessity for using small units. 
 The great stones of trabeated building were 
 not to be had in Western Europe. 
 
 The earliest systematic users of the pointed 
 arch in this country appear to have been 
 the Cistercians. By them it was employed 
 in its simplest and least decorative form, 
 indeed, but with rare intelligence. It 
 
 would be difficult to name any buildings in which the essential 
 elements of any style of architecture are used with more simplicity 
 and success than are those of First Pointed in the Cistercian abbeys. 
 The ** Cloisters," or cellarium, of Fountains 
 Abbey (Fig. 60) may be given as an example. 
 In the church at Fountains a further proof that 
 Cistercian architects were curious about struct- 
 ural principles is afforded by the nave aisles. 
 Here each bay is covered with its own 
 transverse vault, carried upon arches springing 
 from the main piers of the nave, on the one 
 hand, and from corbels on the outer wall on 
 the other. By this arrangement the more 
 dangerous thrusts are minimized ; but it does 
 not lead to beauty. 
 
 The written history of early pointed architect- 
 ure has been disfigured by a somewhat absurd 
 partisanship. We have had, on the one hand, 
 English writers who have treated the Gothic 
 style as essentially English, even going so far 
 as to call it " the English Style " ; and, on the other, French, 
 English, and now American critics who have flown to the opposite 
 
 37 
 
 FIG. 62. — CHOIR, WEST- 
 MINSTER ABBEY, LONDON. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 extreme, and asserted that the only true Gothic is that of France, 
 all others being its more or less unintelligent imitations. Ihe 
 English chauvinism was the result of pure ignorance, Gothic France 
 having been scarcely studied at all when Rickman began to write. 
 
 The opposite contention is 
 
 f '^: • • " t t I f 1 1 T T t j|4| 
 
 
 FIG. 63. — WESTMINSTER ABBEY : PLAN. 
 
 more deliberately partisan, 
 for we often find it sup- 
 ported by arbitrary defini- 
 tions carefully adapted to 
 French Gothic. Some 
 
 justification might, possibly, 
 have been given for the 
 statement that only French 
 Gothic is genume if English 
 examples had been echoes 
 
 of French, if, for instance, Westminster Abbey had stood in the 
 
 same relation to some French church as the old Norman Cathedral of 
 
 Canterbury did to St. Stephen's, Caen. But no such relation existed. 
 
 English Gothic and French 
 
 were separate and divergent 
 
 growths from one root, each 
 
 pursuing its own ideals and 
 
 developing its own vernacu- 
 lar, and soon reaching a 
 
 point at which borrowing, 
 
 the one from the other, was 
 
 perforce restricted to general 
 
 ideas. In an artistic sense, 
 
 England and Northern 
 
 France were scarcely two 
 
 nations in Plantagenet times. 
 
 They had much more in 
 
 common, for instance, than 
 
 the North of France had 
 
 with the South. Their in- 
 tercourse was intimate and 
 
 frequent. Ideas could not 
 
 be adopted in the one country 
 
 without becoming known in 
 
 the other. But in each these 
 
 ideas were used in obedience to the diversity of character ethno- 
 
 logically set up. No better instance of the biased criticism which 
 
 38 
 
 FIG. 64. — WESTMINSTER ABBEY: NAVE. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 has been directed against English Gothic could be given than the 
 way in which Westminster Abbey has been treated. It is obviously 
 eclectic in conception. Parts, but 
 only parts, of the plan,^ the propor- 
 tions of height to width of the nave 
 and aisles, and the treatment of the 
 transept ends and east end, are more 
 French than English. But there the 
 foreign influence stops. The propor- 
 tion of height to length, the minor 
 proportions, the designs of arches 
 and windows, the mouldings, the 
 caps and abaci, the treatment of wall 
 surfaces, are all in the English ver- 
 nacular. It may, in fact, be com- 
 pared to a novel conceived partly on 
 French lines but written in English, 
 which would certainly be an English 
 novel. It is the work of some un- 
 known English architect of genius, 
 who, by the exercise of a conscious 
 
 faculty for selection which was rare in the middle ages, obeyed the 
 wish of Henry III, and achieved what is, perhaps, the most faultless 
 design in the whole range of Gothic architecture, French or English. 
 
 But this is anticipating. The 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL, WEST 
 FRONT. 
 
 FIG. 66. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL : PLAN. 
 
 transition from round arched to 
 pointed Gothic requires to be 
 treated a little more at length 
 before plunging into a discussion 
 of the latter in its full develop- 
 ment. 
 
 New features and enlightened 
 aims began to declare them- 
 selves very early in the twelfth 
 century. The blind force of 
 Norman building gave way to a new elegance and lightness, to an 
 awakened sense of proportion between work to be done and effort 
 put forth. Walls grew thinner, openings larger, ** orders " more 
 numerous, decorative features richer and more complex. The 
 pointed arch appeared and soon began to talk to the more intelligent 
 
 1 Scott seems to have forgotten the length of the transept and the shortness of the sanctuary 
 when he said that the plan of the Abbey was "purely French." 
 
 39 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 of those who used it, suggesting its own fitness for the solution of 
 many problems, especially in the matter of vaults, which had puzzled 
 the Norman builder. 
 
 FIG. 67. — SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
 The best example, for our 
 purpose, of the transition 
 between round arched and 
 pointed Gothic is afforded, 
 perhaps, by Chichester Cathe- 
 dral (Fig. 57), where the nave 
 is Norman, while, in a single 
 bay of the choir, the two 
 forms are combined with ex- 
 traordinary felicity. This 
 choir, however, is by no 
 means one of the earliest in- 
 stances, for its approximate 
 date is 1 1 86 ; it was begun 
 immediately after the fire which consumed much of the Cathedral 
 in that year. The transition from the round to the pointed basis 
 of style was not continuous. Builders vacillated for a time between 
 the two, just as they did or did not perceive the full significance of 
 the new invention. With their never failing genius for construction 
 and articulation, the French developed the invention more rapidly 
 and more systemati- 
 cally than the English, 
 but nevertheless the 
 oldest structure in 
 which the new style 
 exists without any 
 echo from the old is 
 in England, and not 
 in France. 
 
 Those writers on 
 architecture who ap- 
 pear to take for their 
 first principle that noth- 
 ing is good unless it 
 comes out of France, 
 assert that the choir 
 and eastern transept 
 
 of Lincoln are French, in spite of the fact that all the details are 
 English and that no similar work of the kind can be pointed to 
 
 40 
 
 FIG. 68. — SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. 69. — YORK MINSTER, SOUTH 
 TRANSEPT AND CENTRAL TOWER. 
 
 south of the channel. The following 
 
 opinion from Viollet-le-Duc, whose 
 
 knowledge of Gothic detail was, and 
 
 still remains, unrivalled in France, 
 
 has been often quoted but may here 
 
 be given once more, as the com- 
 
 pletest answer to those who would 
 
 deprive England of the credit of 
 
 Lincoln choir : " After the most 
 
 careful examination I cannot find, in 
 
 any part of the Cathedral of Lincoln, 
 
 neither in the general design, nor in 
 
 any part of the system of architect- 
 ure adopted, nor in the details of 
 
 ornament, any trace of the French 
 
 school of the twelfth century (the 
 
 Lay school, from 1 ) 70 to 1 220), so 
 
 plainly characteristic of the Cathe- 
 drals of Paris, Noyon, Senlis, Char- 
 
 tres. Sens, and even Rouen The construction is English, the 
 
 profiles of the mouldings are English, the ornaments are English, the 
 
 execution of the work belongs to the English school of workmen of 
 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century." So convinced was Viollet 
 of the English origin of Lincoln choir that he 
 refused to accept the date given for its con- 
 struction, thinking it impossible that our archi- 
 tects could so have anticipated those of his own 
 nationality. But the evidence as to date 
 seems beyond dispute. It may be allowed 
 that the structural principles of Gothic archi- 
 tecture were grasped more firmly, and fol- 
 lowed more strictly, by the French than by 
 their northern contemporaries (as, indeed, 
 structural principles, in every form of art, 
 always have been), but that does not justify 
 the conclusion that never, at any time or 
 place, did they receive, a lead from the rival 
 centre. The disputed part of Lincoln Cathe- 
 dral is conspicuous only by its date. In 
 character it fits absolutely into the English 
 
 pattern. There is nothing about it to excite the feeling, with which 
 
 Canterbury inspires us so strongly, that we are in the outskirts of 
 
 41 
 
 70. — THE FIVE SISTERS, 
 YORK. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 71. — WEST PORCH, ELY 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 the French Royal Domain. The eastern transept at Lincoln is a 
 bold stride forward from anything which had previously been done 
 
 in England, but the stride is toward 
 the English ideal, and not toward 
 the French. 
 
 English Gothic and French were 
 two dialects of one language, and 
 the disciples of the one could no 
 more express themselves in the other 
 than a Berkshire peasant can talk 
 Aberdeen. Whenever we have 
 external proof that Frenchmen were 
 employed on an English building, 
 we find the work they did was 
 French too. The choir of Canter- 
 bury, for instance, is French work 
 down to its most intimate details. 
 If the choir of Ljncoln had been 
 created by men trained in the traditions of the He de France, it 
 would have been the obvious sister of those great French cathedrals 
 which were its predecessors or contemporaries in date, and that no 
 one has ventured 
 to call it. 
 
 The whole 
 question of the 
 relation between 
 French and Eng- 
 lish Gothic re- 
 quires to be more 
 frankly discussed 
 than it has usually 
 been hitherto. 
 We have no room 
 for such a discus- 
 sion, but even 
 such a sketch as 
 this demands that fig. 72. -wells, west front. 
 
 some attempt 
 
 should be made to point out where mistaken or at least contestable 
 ideas have crept in.^ 
 
 I See E. S. Prior's Gothic Architecture in Great Britain (Bell. 1900) for a just and temperate 
 statement of the English case. 
 
 42 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. 73. — CHAPTER HOUSE, CHRIST 
 CHURCH CATHEDRAL, OXFORD. 
 
 Speaking generally, what we have in England is a great architect- 
 ural development commencing with the Norman invasion and 
 the tremendous supply of new energy 
 brought into the country by the con- 
 querors. The first structures raised by 
 these men were entirely similar to those 
 they left behind in Normandy, which 
 may, indeed, have owed some part of 
 their character to intercourse with their 
 Anglo-Saxon neighbors. As time went 
 on, however, the genius loci began to 
 exert itself, the Norman blood to mix 
 with the Anglo-Saxon, and the Anglo- 
 Saxon way of confronting aesthetic 
 problems to modify the Norman. A 
 slow divergence between contmental and 
 insular conceptions set in, until by the 
 time that the round arch was giving way 
 to the pointed, English plans, elevations, and details of execution 
 could be distinguished at a glance from 
 French. This process never ceased. 
 From the day which saw the laying of 
 the first stone of Lanfranc's Cathedral 
 at Canterbury, to the completion of 
 Henry VII's chapel at Westminster, 
 those Gothic principles which were 
 common to all north-western Europe 
 gradually clothed themselves, in this 
 country, in an English garment. In 
 France, the structural skeleton was 
 made the most of and developed to its 
 logical conclusion, which often led to 
 sublimity, but sometimes to ugliness and 
 even absurdity. In England, the archi- 
 tect was over-ready to hide structure 
 with an irrelevant skin, leading some- 
 times to beauty with character, sometimes 
 to beauty without it, sometimes, alas ! to 
 the loss of both. 
 
 The choir and eastern transept of 
 Lincoln Cathedral (not the presbytery or " angel choir ") date from 
 about 1 1 90. They were begun in the episcopate of Bishop Hugh. 
 
 43 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 FIG. 74.— CHRIST CHURCH SPIRE, 
 OXFORD. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 It has not only been asserted that the architect was a Frenchman, 
 but one French writer declares that he reproduced the design of a 
 church commenced at Blois in 
 1138! Such a statement refutes 
 itself ; and, moreover, it has now 
 been ascertained that the architect 
 was English, and came of a family 
 long settled in Lincolnshire. The 
 rebuilding was continued systemat- 
 ically by the two immediate suc- 
 cessors of Bishop Hugh, until the 
 completion of the nave in or about 
 1240, by Bishop Grostete. On 
 the whole Lincoln Cathedral may 
 be regarded as the most important 
 specimen of the English form of 
 the first period of pointed Gothic. 
 The nave is less effective than it 
 might have been, chiefly through 
 the too great width of the bays 
 and the failure to bring the vaulting 
 
 shafts down to the ground. The west front, also, imposing as it 
 is, must be given up as a mistake. It has no congruity with the 
 Cathedral behind it. But the great central tower (Fig. 93) has few 
 rivals in England and none elsewhere. 
 
 In the quality most deliberately sought after by English architects, 
 Lincoln, however, is excelled by Salisbury, which shows happier ex- 
 ternal proportions, perhaps. 
 
 FIG. 75. 
 
 -PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL, 
 WEST FRONT. 
 
 than any other Gothic Cathe- 
 dral, either in England or 
 abroad. Nowhere else do 
 we find the same harmony 
 of lines and masses, the 
 same gradual development 
 of beautiful forms from the 
 ground up to the apex of the 
 spire. The design is typically 
 English, with its unimportant 
 west front, its north porch, its 
 long double transepts, its square east end, and the great spire rising 
 from the crossing. Up to the tower-base the work is all of one 
 period, between 1 220 and 1 250. The spire belongs to the fourteenth 
 
 44 
 
 FIG. 76. CHOIR AND CHAPTER HOUSE, 
 
 ELGIN CATHEDRAL. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 century. It is 20 feet lower than the fleche at Amiens, being only 
 404 feet high against the 424 of the other: *' yet the SaHsbury spire 
 is one of the most imposing objects of which Gothic architecture can 
 boast, the other an insignificant pinnacle that hardly suffices to relieve 
 
 the monotony of the roof on 
 which it is placed " (Fergus- 
 son). An American writer 
 puts it very well when she 
 says : " No better church than 
 Salisbury could be fancied as 
 a base for one of the greatest 
 spires in the world. Its suc- 
 cessive portions so build them- 
 selves up toward the centre 
 that we feel it would be in- 
 complete did a less imposing 
 pinnacle surmount it " (Mrs. 
 FIG. 77. — CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL, DUBLIN. Van Renssclacr). But Salis- 
 
 bury was begun at least 20 
 years later than the early pointed work at Lincoln. 
 
 Although Lincoln and Salisbury are its two great full-dress 
 examples, our First Pointed Style is to be seen, perhaps, with a 
 more intimate charm in many works, and parts of works, of a less 
 ambitious kind. Lack of ambition, perhaps, cannot be predicated 
 of the north transept of York, with its famous row of lancets ; 
 for nothing more imposing than these Five Sisters, as they rise far 
 off, like majestic ghosts, 
 before a visitor entering 
 by the south door, is to 
 be found in the whole 
 range of Gothic architect- 
 ure. Between the design 
 of this transept end, and 
 the chapel of the Nine 
 Altars at the not very 
 distant Fountains, there is 
 much in common. They 
 were built at about the 
 same time (1205-1245), 
 as also was the more 
 famous, although not, I think, more beautiful. Nine Altars at 
 Durham. Still more exquisite, perhaps, was the now ruined East 
 
 45 
 
 FIG. 78. — ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, DUBLIN. 
 
 1 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 end of Tynemouth Abbey, with its graceful lancets, and a vault 
 in which ingenuity and art are happily combined. The South- 
 western Porch of St. Alban's still exists in a drawing made for. 
 Sir G. Gilbert Scott {Mediceval Architecture, Vol. I, p. 167) to 
 show what we have lost through the lack of worldly wisdom in 
 Abbot John de Cella and the energetic business habits of Lord 
 Grimthorpe ! 
 
 Finest, perhaps, of all these parerga of the Early English Style 
 is the great Western Porch of Ely Cathedral (Fig. 71). It is almost 
 too important to be called a Porch, for it has two stories, the upper 
 
 one containing a room as large as a 
 small church. The Porch itself, be- 
 tween an outer and inner doorway, 
 measures about 40 feet by 30. Both 
 doorways are beautifully proportioned 
 and exquisite in detail, as are the four 
 ranges of decorative arcading and the 
 angle pinnacles by which the exterior is 
 enriched. Another beautiful, though 
 less elaborate, porch of about the same 
 date is that which forms the north 
 entrance to the contemporary cathedral 
 of Wells. 
 
 Wells, perhaps, is more trying to 
 one's feelings than any other English 
 cathedral. It has narrowly escaped 
 being the most beautiful of them all. 
 Even as it is, few things can bring 
 more delight to the lover of architect- 
 ure than a pilgrimage to this small 
 cathedral, hidden away, with its de- 
 pendencies, in a fold of the Mendips. But three blots are upon 
 it. The nave design is one of the least happy ever conceived 
 by a Gothic architect ; the engineer's device by which the central 
 tower is balked of its wish to fall is hideous and destructive, 
 while the cafe au lait color of the Doulting stone fails to charm. 
 Add to all these, a modern disfigurement in the foisting of a 
 series of what have been called gigantic slate pencils into the 
 West Front, and it will be seen that Wells has its disappointing 
 features. The West Front (Fig. 72) has been extravagantly praised 
 and unreasonably abused. As a design on its own account it is one 
 of the best left us by the thirteenth century, the towers being 
 
 46 
 
 J. 
 
 j[& ^ -^J^B^fe-T 1, 
 
 El 
 
 FIG. 79. — ST. DOLOUGH S CHURCH 
 CO. DUBLIN. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. So. CLOISTER, KILCONNKL ABBEY, 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 especially fine. Its faults are a certain crowding together of the 
 
 central parts, and the weakening of the buttresses by cutting into 
 
 their angles to insert quatrefoil niches 
 
 for statues. Freeman falls foul of it 
 
 as a West Front, calling it a sham. 
 
 It is difficult to see why. So far 
 
 from being a sham it is one of the 
 
 comparatively few west fronts, either 
 
 in England or elsewhere, which tell 
 
 the literal truth! But then it must 
 
 be read with candor and without 
 
 prejudice. What, in fact, does it 
 
 say? The towers are sitting securely 
 
 on terra firma, not bestriding an aisle, 
 
 and they say so. The central division confesses itself the finish to 
 
 the nave behind ; the compartments between this central division and 
 
 the towers obviously close the aisles ; the three doorways are clearly 
 
 meant to give access to human beings, not to giants. The whole 
 
 conception is at once beautiful and logical, much more logical than 
 
 Notre Dame, or the cathedrals of Rheims and Amiens. The real 
 
 fault is one shared with those French examples, or at least with 
 
 the two latter : its richness is too strongly contrasted with the 
 
 comparative sobriety of the church to which it acts as preface. 
 
 As an ensemble, the Cathedral of Wells with its dependencies is 
 unrivalled, being even more complete than Durham. The little 
 town of ecclesiastical buildings includes the great church itself, with 
 
 its Chapter House, cloisters, 
 and library, the Bishop's 
 Palace, with its wall, moat, 
 and gatehouse, the Deanery, 
 Archdeaconry, and Vicar's 
 Close with its own hall, 
 chapel and library, all lying 
 round a green and timbered 
 close into which we still make 
 our way through beautiful 
 and ancient gates. 
 
 According to tradition, a 
 
 very large number of English 
 
 castles and early domestic buildings date from the troubled reign of 
 
 John (1 199-1216), overshadowed as it was by its Papal interdict. 
 
 St. Briavel's Castle, Monmouthshire, the residence of one of the Lords 
 
 47 
 
 )I. — GLASGOW CATHEDRAL. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 of the Welsh Marches, belongs to this period. Its remains are pure 
 Early English. The Priory of Haverfordwest, with its fine church, 
 was founded in 1200. The rebuilding 
 of the choir of Worcester, after a fire, 
 was begun in 1 202. The Abbey of Beau- 
 lieu, Hampshire, was founded by John 
 in 1204. The Abbey of Halesowen, 
 Shropshire, founded by John, was begun 
 about 1215. 
 
 With the accession of Henry III, in 
 1216, came a great revival. The Inter- 
 dict by which the faithful had been 
 oppressed in the previous reign was re- 
 moved, and the building of cathedrals and 
 other ecclesiastical monuments went on 
 as merrily as in the early days of the 
 Norman supremacy. The king himself, 
 though feeble enough as a king, took a 
 more personal interest in the work of 
 his architects than any previous monarch 
 had done since the Norman Conquest. The charm and dignity of 
 the greatest architectural monument of his reign is known to be due, 
 in great part, to his own action. For Westminster Abbey would 
 
 FIG. 82. CHAPEL OF THE NINE 
 
 ALTARS, FOUNTAINS ABBEY. 
 
 FIG. 83. — BEVERLEY MINSTER. 
 
 never have been exactly as we see it had he not insisted on his 
 own views as to its style and scope. The chief relic from the 
 
 48 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 early part of his reign is Salisbury Cathedral, but the years which 
 saw its erection also witnessed the building of the cathedral at 
 Wells (1225-1240), the western transept of York with the famous 
 Five Sisters (1227-1260), the choir of Southwell Minster (1233), 
 the Abbey at Netley, Hants (1239); the Chapel of the Nine 
 Altars, and the vault of the nave at Durham (1242) ; Elgin 
 Cathedral (1224); the early-English parts of Beverley Minster 
 (Fig. 83); and Glasgow Cathedral (1240-1270). With the 
 building of the choir, transepts, and Chapter House of Westminster 
 Abbey (1245-1270), the Presbytery of Lincoln (1256-1280), and 
 St. Mary's Abbey, York (1270-1290), the First Pointed, or Early 
 English, begins to glide into the Second Pointed, or Decorated, 
 
 manner. 
 
 For Bibliography, see Bibliography to Chapter VI. 
 
 «^4 i.J:Xii i irBH l.'.U i 'iL ^iul^ 
 
 FIG. 84. — CHAPTER HOUSE, 
 SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
 49 
 
FIG. 85. — EXETER CATHEDRAL, LOWER PART OF WEST FRONT. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 DECORATED, OR SECOND-POINTED, GOTHIC 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 f 
 
 There is, of course, no line of de- 
 marcation between the first and 
 second period of English pointed 
 architecture. The one develops 
 imperceptibly into the other, and 
 it is only by looking backward or 
 forward, in sharp perspective, that 
 a change in character can be de- 
 scribed. The most important devel- 
 opment is in windows. Toward 
 the end of the Early English 
 period, lancets had been grouped 
 into pairs, under a single hood 
 moulding. The tympanum thus 
 established had been pierced, pro- 
 ducing what is known as plate 
 tracery. The next step was grad- 
 ually to reduce the strips of stone 
 left between these openings to the slightest scantling consistent 
 with safety and a safe appearance, producing what is known as 
 
 30 
 
 FIG. 86. — CHAPTER HOUSE, WEST- 
 MINSTER ABBEY. 
 
DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 bar-tracery. Another change was the intro- 
 duction of more freedom in the general 
 
 design of windows. These were sometimes 
 
 square headed, and of various proportions 
 
 of height to width. As time went on the 
 
 geometrical forms to which bar-tracery was 
 
 at first restricted were changed for more 
 
 flowing lines, approximating sometimes to 
 
 the later flamboyant of France. Purely 
 
 ornamental details become richer. Vaults 
 
 become more complicated, additional ribs 
 
 being introduced, and finally the Heme vault, 
 
 with its wandering tracery of ribs, makes its 
 
 appearance. Apart from these more or 
 
 less organic changes, the Decorated period 
 
 shows a general development of all orna- 
 mental motives, until the unsurpassed richness of such conceptions 
 
 as the nave and west front 
 of Exeter Cathedral, St. 
 Stephen's Chapel, at West- 
 minster, and the Lady 
 Chapel, at Ely, is reached. 
 With the full development 
 
 FIG. 87. — ST. ETHELBERT'i 
 GATE, NORWICH. 
 
 FIG. 88. — CRYPT, GLASGOW CATHEDRAL. 
 
 of the second-pointed style, Gothic 
 architecture in England reached its 
 apogee. Structural and decorative forms 
 came into a fuller and happier relation 
 to each other than they had ever done 
 before, and motives were perfected 
 which would have led to a complete 
 fusion between aesthetic and scientific 
 requirements had English architects 
 united the French sense of logic to 
 their other good qualities. 
 Each of the three phases into which 
 
 51 
 
 FIG. 89. — DOORWAY, CHAPTER 
 HOUSE, ROCHESTER. 
 
 e2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 90. — LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL, 
 CHOIR. 
 
 our Pointed architecture has been divided has its peculiar fitness. The 
 Early English period, especially in its later developments when large 
 
 w^indows with geometrical tracery were 
 employed, was better adapted than 
 either of its successors to take charge of 
 a great structure as a whole. The 
 Decorated phase lent itself, as its 
 title suggests, to the elaboration of 
 what I may call architectural jewelry 
 — " purple patches," some purists 
 might call them! — enriched vaults, 
 doorways, windows, tombs, and other 
 matters on which decoration might 
 be lavished without impropriety. 
 As for Perpendicular, it found a 
 task thoroughly suited to it in the 
 provision of those comparatively 
 small, but gorgeous, interiors which 
 form its chief glory. For Royal 
 chapels nothing better has ever been 
 devised. 
 
 Among the larger achievements of 
 the Second-Pointed, or Decorated, style, the nave of York and 
 the nave and choir of Exeter are perhaps the most important. 
 The proportions of the former are not, however, quite happy, its 
 
 width being too great for the other ele- 
 ments in the design. Exeter, on the 
 other hand, produces an excellent effect, 
 although, mathematically, its ratio of 
 width to height differs but little from 
 that of York. A peculiarity of Exeter 
 is the large share usurped by the vault 
 in the total effect. A still more com- 
 plete illustration of the style is afforded 
 by Lichfield Cathedral, which is almost 
 entirely Second Pointed. From the 
 logical point of view, the design of its 
 beautiful nave and choir is scarcely 
 equalled in England. A few feet 
 more of height would have made it 
 perfect. 
 The central octagon at Ely belongs 
 52 
 
 FIG. 91. — ANGEL TOWER, CANTER- 
 BURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. 92. — TOMB OF EDWARD II, 
 GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL. 
 
 to this period, and affords a curious 
 example of wliat seems at first a 
 very happy thought turning out a 
 disappointment. The weak point in 
 the usual scheme of a cruciform 
 Gothic church is the crossing, with 
 the tall, well-Hke space it involves. 
 To cut off its corners and turn 
 this square into an octagon, lighted 
 from four points, must have seemed 
 an ideal solution to the architect 
 who hit upon it. But in effect 
 it is not so. The resulting propor- 
 tion between octagon, on the one 
 hand, and nave, choir, and aisles, on 
 the other, is not quite agreeable, 
 and on the whole it is not surprising 
 that, for six centuries, no one repeated 
 Alan of Walsingham's invention. 
 
 The Chapels of Merton College, 
 Oxford, and of St. Etheldreda, in 
 
 Ely Place, Holborn, the Lady Chapel in Ely Cathedral, and 
 
 St. Stephen's Chapel, at Westminster, show the Decorated style 
 
 in its application to buildings smaller 
 
 than cathedrals. The most refined 
 
 in its beauty, of these four chapels, 
 
 is St. Etheldreda's, which might 
 
 almost be referred to the Transition 
 
 from First Pointed. The two great 
 
 windows, East and West, show 
 
 the latest phase of geometrical 
 
 tracery at its very best, while the 
 
 side windows, with their connect- 
 ing wall arcades, or rather canopies, 
 
 are scarcely less beautiful. The 
 
 Chapel of Merton College has 
 
 much in common with St. Ethel- 
 dreda's, which, however, it greatly 
 
 excels in size. The Lady Chapel 
 
 at Ely has some of the most 
 
 exquisite detail ever carried out by 
 
 Gothic carvers, but its proportions 
 
 53 
 
 FIG. 93. — CENTRAL TOWER, LINCOLN 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 
 FIG. 94. — WELLS CATHEDRAL AND CHAPTER 
 HOUSE, FROM THE NORTH EAST. 
 
 are too wide and low. 
 With a few feet less 
 width and more height, it 
 would have been a gem. 
 St. Stephen's, Westminster, 
 so far as we may judge 
 from the illustrations in 
 which alone it exists, was 
 one of the most perfect 
 works of the fourteenth 
 century. It united a rich- 
 ness equal to that of the 
 richest Perpendicular to 
 
 beauty of proportion, and its loss is greatly to be deplored. 
 But, perhaps, the most perfect 
 
 objects created by the Gothic 
 
 architects of this, or of any ether, 
 
 period, were the polygonal 
 
 chapter houses which glorify so 
 
 many English cathedrals. These 
 
 ecclesiastical halls had existed 
 
 in England from very early in 
 
 the Norman activity. At first 
 
 they were rectangular chambers, 
 
 from 25 to 35 feet wide and 40 
 
 to 60 feet long. In 1133 a 
 
 chapter house was begun at 
 
 Durham, with one apsidal end. 
 
 The next change was at Worcester, where a circular, vaulted 
 
 chamber was built with a 
 central support. This appears 
 to have been immediately ac- 
 cepted as the definite form, 
 the only further advance 
 being the suppression of the 
 central column, which was 
 achieved at York in the 
 last chapter house built in 
 Gothic times. The principles 
 of Gothic construction were 
 never more happily applied 
 than in these adjuncts to 
 
 
 .fm. ^^' \ 
 
 A**^* 
 
 11 ^1 A 
 
 i<.i ijis III 
 
 
 •■ 
 
 FIG. 95. — ST. ETHELDREDA S CHAPEL, 
 ELY PLACE, HOLBORN. 
 
 FIG. 96. — MERTON COLLEGE CHAPEL, 
 OXFORD. 
 
 54 
 
DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 an English capitular church. They 
 are the replique to the clearstories of 
 France, with the additional merit of 
 being as indispensable as they are 
 beautiful. The two earliest which 
 belong to the transition period, Salis- 
 bury and Westminster,' are practically 
 identical. Their window tracery is of 
 the latest geometrical stamp. The later 
 chapter house at Wells, though less 
 perfect in its proportions and less 
 scientific in structural expression, is more 
 *' felt," with human touches which may 
 be surplusage, but are decidedly agree- 
 able. York 
 just falls 
 short of per- 
 
 FIG. 97. — LADY CHAPEL, ELY. fcCtlOn. ItS 
 
 general pro- 
 portions are fine, its windows magnificent. 
 
 But the 
 
 cone in 
 
 which t h e 
 
 vault cul- 
 minates i s 
 
 not a happy 
 
 device, 
 
 while t h e 
 
 richness of 
 
 t h e stall 
 
 canopies is 
 
 affected for 
 
 t h e worse 
 
 by their 
 
 plain gables. 
 
 Like other 
 
 buildings of 
 
 t h e same 
 class, it has its charm diminished by the mistaken treatment of 
 
 1 The Chapter House of Westminster was the Parliament House of the kingdom from shortly 
 after its erection until the Reformation, when the Commons migrated to St. Stephen's Chapel. 
 The Chapter House then became the storeroom of the national archives, which it remained until 
 its restoration by Sir G. G. Scott. 
 
 55 
 
 FIG. 98. — CHAPTER HOUSE, 
 WELLS. 
 
 FIG. 99. — WALTHAM CROSS 
 RESTORATION. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. lOO. — CHAPTER HOUSE, YORK 
 MINSTER. 
 
 the one un-windowed bay. Had the device of opening this bay 
 and filling the tracery, which is identical with that of the windows, 
 
 with shadow instead of with solid 
 wall, been adopted, all these polyg- 
 onal chapter houses would have 
 been greatly improved. It would 
 have lessened the sense of confine- 
 ment, introduced just the right touch 
 of variety, and obviated the use 
 of expedients which are in no 
 single instance 
 happy. 
 
 The Eleanor 
 Crosses ( 1 29 1 - 
 1293) belong to 
 the Decorated 
 period, but none 
 are now in a 
 condition to 
 show their full beauty. The Martyr's Memorial, 
 at Oxford, by Sir Gilbert Scott; Charing 
 
 Cross, in the fore- 
 court of the South 
 Eastern Railway 
 Station, by E. M. 
 Barry ; and the 
 restoration of Wal- 
 tham Cross itself, 
 bad as it is, give 
 some idea of their 
 general aspect. The 
 tombs of Edward II, 
 in Gloucester Cathe- 
 dral, of Aymer de Valence, Earl of 
 Pembroke, with its enamelled decora- 
 tion, in Westminster Abbey, and the 
 Percy Shrine, in Beverley Minster, are 
 all sumptuous and well preserved 
 examples of the sepulchral work of 
 tomb is particularly magnificent, and 
 of the exuberant decorative carver. 
 Edward III, at Westminster, belongs 
 
 56 
 
 FIG. lOI. — PERCY 
 SHRINE, BEVERLEY 
 MINSTER. 
 
 I 
 
 FIG. I02. — CHOIR, CARLISLE 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 the time. The Percy 
 utters the last word 
 The superb tomb of 
 
DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 to the first years of Third 
 
 rather than to Second 
 
 Pointed. 
 
 Many other proofs of the 
 
 pecuHar suitability of the 
 
 Decorated phase for the 
 
 enrichment of passages in 
 
 the greater designs of the 
 
 mediaeval architects might be 
 
 quoted, such as porches and 
 
 doorways, of which those 
 
 of St. Mary's, Beverley, 
 
 and the Chapter House at 
 
 Rochester (Fig. 89), are 
 
 beautiful examples ; rood- 
 screens and retables, like 
 
 those of Beverley Minster 
 
 and Durham Cathedral ; 
 
 windo vs, the finest, perhaps, 
 
 being ihe great east window 
 
 of Carlisle Cathedral (Fig. 
 
 1 02) ; and spires, such as those 
 
 of Grantham, Newark, and 
 
 Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire. The Bloxham tower and spire 
 
 are among the most perfectly balanced 
 designs carried out in the style. 
 
 Other important monuments of the 
 Earlier Decorated period, in their ap- 
 proximately chronological order, are: 
 St. Ethelbert's Gateway, Norwich 
 (1273-1278), the choir and transept 
 of Exeter Cathedral (1279-1292), the 
 hall of the Bishop's palace. Wells 
 (1280-1292), Dorchester Abbey, 
 Oxfordshire (1280-1300), the east 
 end of Carlisle Cathedral (1292-1340), 
 the south porch of St. Mary Redclyffe, 
 Bristol (1292), the tomb of Arch- 
 bishop Peckham, at Canterbury (1292), 
 the cloisters and part of south transept 
 with rose window, at Lincoln (1296- 
 1306), and the central tower of Wells 
 
 FIG. 103. — LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL, WEST 
 FRONT. 
 
 FIG. 104. — CHAPTER HOUSE, 
 YORK MINSTER. 
 
 57 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 1320-1337). Of the later period, parts of Melrose Abbey 
 1327-1390), the spire of Salisbury Cathedral (1331), the great 
 east window of York Minster (1338), the Hall at Penshurst 
 (1341), the destroyed St. Stephen's Chapel at Westminster (1350- 
 1365), parts of Windsor Castle (1360-1375), with its crypt, and 
 the choir of Selby Abbey (1375), are, or once were, among the 
 best examples. The great east window of York affords the chief 
 example of an arrangement in the glass walls of Gothic cathedrals, 
 which might, with advantage, have been carried farther than it was. 
 For halt its height the tracery is double, the inner and outer skins 
 being connected and mutually stiffened by horizontal cross-pieces. 
 Such a contrivance not only increases the actual strength, it has aesthetic 
 value also, and if skilfully used would remove that appearance of 
 weakness which is, for instance, a defect in such beautiful things as the 
 soaring clearstories of France. At York it has the additional and 
 not unimportant advantage of allowing the triforium passage to be 
 carried across the window. 
 
 For Bibliography, see Bibliography to Chapter VI. 
 
 I 
 
 FIG. 105. — PENSHURST PLACE, KENT. 
 
 58 
 
FIG. io6. — ST. George's chapel, Windsor: partly a restoration. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 PERPENDICULAR. OR THIRD POINTED. GOTHIC 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 107. — TOMB OF EDWARD III, 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 The Third Pointed, or Perpendicu- 
 lar, variety of English Gothic is easily 
 distinguished. It first declared itself 
 by the somewhat timid intrusion of 
 vertical lines among the curves of 
 decorated tracery. These vertical 
 lines gradually increased in number 
 and assertiveness, until they became 
 the obvious characteristic of an age. 
 Other features are the nearly uni- 
 versal use of square hood-mouldings 
 over doorways, the four-centred 
 arch, the finmg down of mouldings 
 until they become little more than 
 reeds, the stiltmg of the bases of 
 columns and shafts, and the almost 
 total abandonment of foliage motives 
 in the carving of capitals, corbels, etc. 
 59 
 
 ^^ OF THE ^y 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 Io8. — WINCHESTER CATHE- 
 DRAL, NAVE. 
 
 terior, which shall overlie the inner struct- 
 ure and withdraw it from our knowledge. 
 The form of continental art to which it 
 may most fairly be compared is the Belgian 
 Gothic of the fifteenth century, which is, 
 however, more akin to second pointed in 
 detail. The spirit of Perpendicular was 
 
 The Perpendicular style is essentially 
 English. It embodies a complete break- 
 ing away from continental traditions and 
 answers to predilections which have 
 been characteristic of English art ever 
 since it began to have a character of its 
 own at all. Perpendicular does not 
 produce its effect by confessing, or rather 
 declaring, its 
 
 own inner con- ' 
 
 stitution, and 
 showing how 
 well that is 
 adapted to the 
 work in hand, 
 as does the best 
 French work of 
 t h e thirteenth 
 century. It aims 
 at a rich and 
 picturesque ex- 
 
 f ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^K 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 t_ 
 
 
 C'k^ 
 
 109. — WINCHESTER: 
 PLAN. 
 
 FIG. no. — DIVINITY SCHOOL, OXFORD. 
 
 60 
 
 antagonistic to plain 
 surfaces. It particularly dis- 
 liked the spandrils left by 
 the pointed arch when it cut 
 through a wall, and got rid 
 of them partly by flattening 
 the arch and so diminishing 
 their extent, partly by filling 
 them with elaborate panelling. 
 It next attacked the vault, 
 and by successive devices 
 transformed the pyramidal 
 severeys of the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries into those 
 inverted cones covered with 
 
PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 stone lace, which make up what is known as fan vaulting. And 
 here it may incidentally be remarked that the attitude of the 
 
 FIG. III. — KING S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 FIG. 112. — HENRY VII S CHAPEL, 
 WESTMINSTER (eXTERIOR). 
 
 13. — HENRY VII S CHAPEL, WEST- 
 MINSTER (interior). 
 
 French and English architects toward vaults is, perhaps, more 
 characteristic than anything else they did. The French architect 
 was so impressed by the fitness of the vault for its immediate 
 
 61 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 114. — MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD: 
 CLOISTER QUAD. 
 
 the architecture below. The most 
 daring French vauhs, such as that 
 of Amiens, look mean, their great 
 height notwithstanding, beside a 
 comparatively modest performance 
 like the vault of Exeter, to say 
 nothing of such a miracle in stone as 
 the vault of King's College Chapel, 
 at Cambridge (Fig. 1 20). 
 
 Important examples of the Per- 
 pendicular period abound, although 
 no building of the first magnitude 
 was erected wholly in the style. 
 Among the earlier specimens, be- 
 tween 1377, the year of the acces- 
 sion of Richard II, and 1422, when 
 Henry VI came to the throne, the 
 most important are (in chronological 
 
 purpose that he confined 
 himself to its structural de- 
 velopment, carrying that to 
 completion and there stay- 
 ing his hand. His English 
 rival was less thorough in 
 his appreciation of the vault 
 as an engineering contriv- 
 ance, but, on the other 
 hand, he made more use of 
 it as an aesthetic climax to 
 
 -THE BEAUCHAMP CHAPEL, 
 WARWICK. 
 
 FIG. 116. — CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
 62 
 
 order), the tomb of Edward 
 III (1377), in Westminster 
 Abbey, the nave and west- 
 ern transepts of Canterbury 
 Cathedral (1378-1411), the 
 ruined Chapter House of 
 Howden, Yorks (1380- 
 1400); New College, Ox- 
 ford (1380-1390); the 
 Church of St. Mary's, War- 
 wick (1380-1390); the 
 Cloisters of Gloucester Ca- 
 thedral (1381-1412) (the 
 
PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 FIG. 117, — MAGDALEN COLLEGE 
 CHAPEL, OXFORD. 
 
 earliest fine example of fan vault- 
 ing) ; Thornton Abbey, Lincoln- 
 shire (1382-1390); the tombs of 
 Richard 11 and his queen, Anne, 
 in Westminster Abbey (1394), 
 erected by Richard himself on 
 Anne's death ; the tower of How- 
 den Church (1405) ; the nave of 
 Winchester Cathedral (1394- 
 1410) ; parts of Canterbury Cathe- 
 dral (1410-1430) ; the upper part 
 of the walls and the great timber 
 roof of Westminster Hall (1400); 
 and the great east window of York 
 Minster (1405-1408). 
 
 Between the accession of Henry 
 VI in 1422 and the death of 
 Henry VII in 1509, and even for 
 the first thirty years of the reign 
 of Henry VIII, the Perpendicular 
 style persisted without showing many 
 
 63 
 
 FIG. 118. — NEW COLLEGE CHAPEL, 
 OXFORD (restoration). 
 
 fig. 119.— all souls chapel, oxford 
 (restoration). 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 signs of the coming transformation. 
 The chief buildings wholly or partly 
 erected during this century and more 
 are : the transepts and tower of 
 Merton College Chapel (1424); the 
 Cloisters at Norwich (1430) ; South 
 Wingfield Manor House, Derbyshire 
 (1433-1455); Tattershall Castle, 
 Lincolnshire (1433-1455) ; Fother- 
 ingay Church, Northants (1440); 
 part of St. John's College, Oxford 
 (1437) ; the Beauchamp Chapel, 
 Warwick (1440); King's College 
 Chapel, Cambridge (1440); St. 
 
 FIG. I20.— KING S COLLEGE CHAPEL, 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 Mary's Church choir, Oxford 
 (1443-1450); Sherborne Abbey 
 Church, Dorsetshire (1445-1450); 
 The Divinity School, Oxford (1445- 
 1455) ; Bishop Beckington's build- 
 ings at Wells (1450-1465); the 
 Central Tower of Gloucester Cathe- 
 dral (1454- 
 
 FIG. 121. — TOMB OF THE EARL OF 
 WARWICK, WARWICK. 
 
 FIG. 122. — MERTON COLLEGE 
 CHAPEL, OXFORD. 
 
 1460) ; the North-western Tower of Croy- 
 land Abbey (1470); Crosby Hall, London 
 (1470); the Choir Screen in York Min- 
 ster (1475?); Magdalen College, Oxford 
 (1478-1492); the Reredos, St. Alban's 
 Cathedral (1480?); and St. George's 
 Chapel, Wmdsor (1481-1508). For the 
 reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII, 
 we may add to this list: the nave and 
 aisles of St. Mary's Church, Oxford 
 (1488); the central, or Angel, tower of 
 Canterbury Cathedral (1490-1525); the 
 tower of Magdalen College, Oxford 
 (1492-1505); Bath Abbey Church (1500- 
 1540); Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster 
 64 
 
 I 
 
PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 (1503-1520); the nave of Melrose Abbey (1505); the Vault of 
 St. George's, Windsor, and of King's College Chapel, Cambridge 
 (1508-1515); Thornbury Castle, Gloucestershire (1510-1522); 
 
 
 
 PW»T3i'" 1 
 
 IHIHI^T , i^*^^i^3 
 
 
 FIG. 123. — SOUTH PORCH, 
 GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL. 
 
 FIG. 124. — WALLINGFORD SCREEN, 
 ST. ALBAN'S. 
 
 Earts of Brasenose and Corpus Christi Colleges, Oxford (1512-1517) 
 .ayer Marney Hall, Essex (about 1520); Compton Winyates 
 Warwickshire (about 1520); and the 
 Hall of Christ Church, Oxford (1524- 
 1 529), and much of Hampton Court. 
 
 The finest, perhaps, of the earlier 
 examples of developed Perpendicular 
 is the nave of Winchester Cathedral 
 (1390-1410). The transformation of 
 die old Norman nave into the present 
 one has been often illustrated in books 
 on architecture (Fig. 108). The pro- 
 portions of the three original Norman 
 stories do not account for what is un- 
 doubtedly the chief fault of the Per- 
 pendicular design, the too great height 
 of the main arches and the abolition of 
 the triforium. The interior of King's fig. 125 
 College Chapel, Cambridge (Fig. 120) 
 may be fairly compared to a cathedra 
 nave, few of which approach it in scenic effect. As a free 
 aesthetic conception and example of pure skill in construction, it 
 
 65 F 
 
 ST. FRIDESWIDE S SHRINE, 
 CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL, OX- 
 FORD. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 125. — DURHAM: CENTRAL 
 TOWER. 
 
 can hold its own with any building ever raised ; but if we look 
 at it from a French standpoint, and demand that neither skill 
 
 nor aesthetic designing shall hide the 
 scheme of structure, it is more open 
 to fault-finding. And yet, after all, it 
 is not easy to establish a sound logical 
 basis for rejecting the one system and 
 accepting the other. If we insist that 
 the actual method of construction shall 
 be visible to any intelligent eye survey- 
 ing the interior of a Gothic cathedral, 
 we are at once met by the difficulty 
 of accounting for the stability of vault 
 and clear-story. If, on the other hand, 
 we allow a detailed examination of 
 the whole building before demanding 
 a verdict, the vault of Henry VII's 
 Chapel may justify itself as easily as 
 that of Amiens. We cannot well lay 
 it down that the intelligent eye may go outside and reassure itself 
 with the sight of the flying but- 
 tresses, at Amiens, and may not 
 visit the roof to constater — why 
 have we no convenient word for 
 that in English? — the part played 
 by the great transverse ribs at 
 Westminster ! 
 
 The strictly architectural parts 
 of St. George's, Windsor (Fig. 1 06), 
 are inferior to the same things at 
 King's College and at Westminster. 
 The nave and choir arcades are 
 thin and poor, and the vault monot- 
 onous. These faults have been 
 avoided by the architect of Henry 
 VII's Chapel, who has produced 
 what is, on the whole, the most 
 successful example of thorough- 
 going Perpendicular in its latest 
 phase (Fig. 113). The interior 
 
 of his chapel only wants two things to be a perfect gem in its 
 way, viz.: Stained glass in the windows of the apse, and the 
 
 66 
 
 FIG. 127. — BEVERLEY MINSTER, 
 WEST FRONT. 
 
 I 
 
PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 absence of the bronze screen round the King's tomb. This screen, 
 fine in itself, goes far to destroy the proportions of the chapel, 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ ^ J ITlill " -- ^ 
 
 
 -:ia -l^wris >..■.. 
 
 
 FIG. 128. — YORK MINSTER. SOUTH SIDE. 
 
 while it hides Torrigiano's beautiful monument. Outside, the chapel 
 is hardly so successful (Fig. 112). The clear-story and flying 
 buttresses are finely conceived, but 
 the panelling of the lower story, 
 with its apparent attempt to de- 
 ceive the spectator as to how much 
 is wall and how much window, is 
 less satisfactory. In the Divinity 
 School at Oxford (Fig. 110), the 
 quantitative relation between the 
 interior, as a whole, and its parts 
 — especially in the number and 
 scantling of the vaulting ribs — is 
 unusually happy ; but the eye 
 would have been better pleased 
 had the trace of the main arches 
 supporting the vault — they are 
 more than ribs — been less angular 
 at the imposts, a remark which 
 also applies to the blind arches at 
 the ends of the hall. 
 
 The fan vaulting, which exists 
 in greater or less development in all 
 these buildings, is the most famous and typically English feature of 
 
 67 F 2 
 
 FIG. 129. YORK minster: CHOIR, 
 
 LOOKING EAST. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 130. — COMPTON WINYATES, WARWICKSHIRE. 
 
 the style. It first appeared 
 in its full perfection in the 
 cloisters of Gloucester Cathe- 
 dral. Its origin was simple. 
 It occurred to some architect 
 or builder that the inverted 
 pyramids, of which the 
 severeys of a groined vaylt 
 had previously consisted, 
 could be lightened by cutting 
 off their angles. This readily 
 suggested the substitution of a cone for a pyramid, while the 
 absorption of the groins al- 
 lowed the ribs to be freely 
 used as decorative media. 
 The Gloucester vault is not 
 only the earliest, it is one of 
 the best examples of the 
 method. Others (besides 
 those in the chapels already 
 described) are to be found 
 in St. Lawrence's, Eve- 
 sham, in Bath Abbey, in 
 the retrochoir at Peter- 
 borough, in the choir of 
 Oxford Cathedral (Fig. 22), 
 and the neighboring staircase of the college hall, in the remark- 
 able Perpendicular church 
 at Fotheringay, and in a 
 large number of other build- 
 
 Many tine towers were 
 carried out in " Third 
 Pointed." Among the best 
 may be named the towers 
 of Howden Church, Yorks, 
 of Merton (Fig. 122), 
 and Magdalen Colleges, 
 Oxford, of Fountains 
 Abbey (Fig. 50), of St. 
 Mary's, Taunton, and All 
 Saints, Derby; of the churches at Boston, Wrexham (Fig. 134), 
 
 68 
 
 FIG. 131. — WESTMINSTER HALL. 
 
 FIG. 132. GATEHOUSE, THORNTON ABBEY. 
 
PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 \4^^' 
 
 3 1 y » 
 
 FIG. 133. — ILMINSTER CHURCH. 
 
 and Gresford (near Chester), 
 and the central towers of 
 Canterbury (Fig. 91), Glouces- 
 ter (Fig. 137), York, and 
 Durham Cathedrals (Figs. 
 128 and 126). Fine spires 
 are hardly so numerous. 
 The best, perhaps, are those 
 of St. Michael's, Coventry, 
 and St. Mary's, Oxford, 
 restored as they are, while 
 the " crowns " of St. Nicho- 
 las's, at Newcastle, and St. 
 Giles's, Edinburgh, are the best 
 examples of a motive which 
 occurs elsewhere, in steeples, 
 market crosses (Fig. 132), 
 etc. 
 
 The customary East End 
 of an English church lends 
 itself to the presence of a fine background for the High Altar. 
 Consequently we find many of our cathedrals and chapels closed at 
 the East by a magnificent rere- 
 dos, in which sculpture and 
 decorative architecture unite 
 to produce a gorgeous effect. 
 Unhappily the statues in the 
 great majority of cases are 
 modern restorations, the various 
 furies which have swept over 
 English religion having made a 
 clean sweep of the original 
 figures. Perpendicular lent it- 
 self to the enrichment of such 
 screens. The finest now re- 
 maining are the two very similar 
 ones at Winchester and St. 
 Albans (Fig. 1 24, the Walling- 
 ford screen, lately spoilt by the 
 introduction of figures in a yellow 
 stone which accords but ill with 
 the white architecture), and the 
 
 69 
 
 FIG. 134. — ST. GILES S CHURCH, WREXHAM. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 splendid East Ends of three 
 college chapels at Oxford, New 
 College, Magdalen, and All 
 Souls' (Figs. 117, 118, and 
 119). Besides these Eastern 
 glories, the choir of an Eng- 
 lish cathedral is sometimes shut 
 off from the nave by a sump- 
 tuous barrier, which carried the 
 Rood, the best remaining ex- 
 ample being in York Minster. 
 
 The style has also left many, 
 splendid tombs. The exquisite 
 resting-place of Edward III in 
 Westminster Abbey dates from 
 the very beginning of the Per- 
 pendicular period (Fig. 1 07) ; 
 that of Richard II and his 
 Queen from somewhat later; 
 the tombs of Gower, the poet, 
 in Southwark Cathedral, of 
 Henry IV and Archbishop 
 Warham, at Canterbury, of 
 Thomas Fitzalan, Earl of Arun- 
 del, at Arundel, of Rich- 
 ard, Earl of Warwick, at Warwick (Fig. 121), of Humphrey, 
 
 Duke of Gloucester, at St. Albans, the 
 
 shrines of St. Frideswide, at Oxford 
 
 (Fig. 125), and William of Wykeham, 
 
 at Winchester, and the very late semi- 
 Renaissance Salisbury Chantry, in 
 
 Christchurch, Hampshire, may also be 
 
 particularized. 
 
 Before leaving Perpendicular, and 
 
 with it Gothic architecture, a word 
 
 must be said about a feature no less 
 
 English than the fan vaults. I mean 
 
 those magnificent timber roofs in which 
 
 our carpenters of pre-Reformation days 
 
 expressed their courage and skill. The 
 
 finest is the roof of Westminster Hall, 
 
 which may fairly be called the greatest 
 
 70 
 
 FIG. 135. — GATEWAY, CANTERBURY. 
 
 FIG. 136. — LAYER MARNEV 
 TOWERS. 
 
PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 creation of the carpenter the world 
 has to show (Fig. 131). Here the 
 principles (the main transverse mem- 
 bers) become trefoil arches, enriched 
 with carved angels at their cusps, 
 and filled in and connected above by 
 open timber tracery. Slight varia- 
 tions of the same construction were 
 used for the roofs of Hampton Court 
 Hall, and the Hall of Cardinal Col- 
 lege, now Christ Church, at Oxford. 
 At Hampton Court, however, 
 much of the ornamental detail is 
 pure Renaissance, some of it, as will 
 
 FIG. 137. — CENTRAL TOWER, GLOUCESTER 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 be found noticed elsewhere, 
 bearing marks of Holbein's in- 
 tervention. Many other fine 
 timber roofs date from this 
 period, such as those of Trunch 
 Church, Norfolk, and St. 
 Peter's Mancroft, Norwich. 
 Akin to these magnificent 
 timber roofs are the great 
 screens which exist in so many 
 many cases, however, these are 
 both in spirit and detail. They 
 
 FIG. 138. — CLOISTERS OF GLOUCESTER 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 English Halls and Chapels. In 
 rather Renaissance than Gothic, 
 are very numerous, and often of 
 
 FIG, 139. — HAMPTON COURT PALACE, WEST FRONT, 
 
 71 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 a richness which recalls the exuberance of similar things beyond the 
 Pyrenees, rather than anything nearer home. 
 
 Some of the finest examples are in the churches of Holbeton, Har- 
 berton, Dunster, Atherington, Bovey Tracey, Cartmel, Kenton, 
 Croscombe, Staverton, Llananno, Strensham, and in King's College 
 Chapel, Cambridge, the Middle Temple Hall, and Wadham College, 
 Oxford. This list includes screens of all periods, down to the com- 
 mencement of the full Renaissance. 
 
 BIBUOGRAPHY TO CHAPTERS IV, V, and VI 
 
 Scott, Sir G. G., Lectures on the Rise and Development of MeJiceval Architecture, 1879. 
 Moore, C. H., Development and Character of Gothic Architecture, 1890. Prior, E. S., History 
 of Gothic Art in England, 1900; King, R. J., Handbooks to the English Cathedrals (Murray). 
 Winkles, B., Cathedrals of England and Wales, 1836-1842. Dollman, F. T., and Jobbins. J. R.. 
 Ancient Domestic Architecture in Great Britain. Freeman, E. A., History of the Cathedral 
 Church of IVells, 1870. Billings, R. W., Architectural Antiquities of the County of Durham, 
 1846. Billings, R. W., Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland. Britten, J., Cathe- 
 drals, 1821-1835. Britton, J., Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 1807-1814. Brayley, 
 E. W., and Britton, J., History of the Ancient Palace . . . at Westminster, 1836. Gough, R., 
 Sepulchral Monuments in Great Britain, 1 796. Longman, W., The Three Cathedrals Dedicated 
 to St. Paul, London, 1873. Scott, Sir G. G., Gleanings from Westminster Abbey, 1863. Wickes, 
 C., Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of England, 1853—1859. Bond, Francis, 
 Screens and Galleries in English Churches, 1908. Henfrey, H. W., and Watney, H., East 
 Anglian Rood Screens. Strange, E. F., Painted Rood Screens in East Anglia. Ditchfield, P. A., 
 The Cathedrals of Great Britain, \902. Fergusson, ]., History of Architecture, 1874; Archceolo- 
 gia, 1773, el seq. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Transactions, 1852, et seq. Paley, F. A., 
 Manual of Gothic Mouldings, London, 1 891 . BloAram, M. H., The Principles of Gothic Archi- 
 /ec/ure, London, 1882. Morris, William, Gothic Architecture, i^ondon, 1893. Scott, Sir G. G., 
 An Essay on the History of English Church Architecture, London, 1881 . Willis, R., The Archi- 
 tectural History of Cambridge, 1886. Fallow, P. M., Cathedral Churches of Ireland, 1894. 
 MacGibbon, Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland, Exlinburgh, 1887; ditto. Ecclesi- 
 astical Architecture of Scotland, E<Jinburgh, 1895. 
 
 I 
 
 FIG. 140. — MARKET CROSS, 
 SALISBURY. 
 
 72 
 
FIG. 141. — LONGLEAT, WILTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 THE TUDOR CHAOS 
 
 The last song of Gothic in England gradually died away between 
 the accession of Henry VIII in 1309 and the final creation of the 
 English variety of Renaissance architecture by Inigo Jones rather 
 more than a century later. Between the latest achievements of 
 
 Perpendicular, as an organized sys- 
 tem, and the earliest works of Jones, 
 lay a sort of architectural whirlpool, 
 in which fragments of Italian and 
 German Renaissance shouldered the 
 wreckage of English Gothic and 
 threw up that peculiar mixed style 
 which has again been so effectively 
 used during the last quarter of a 
 century. 
 
 Between the last building in which 
 Gothic ideas, as understood in 
 England, governed the whole, say 
 between the erection of Wolsey's 
 Hall at Christ Church and the com- 
 plete surrender to new principles 
 from Southern Europe under the 
 lead of Inigo Jones, England was covered with buildings in what is 
 called the Tudor Style, about which it is very difficult to write 
 
 73 
 
 FIG. 142. — HALL, HAMPTON COURT. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 1-43. — CEILING OF BISHOP WEST S CHAPEL, ELY. 
 
 systematically. The characteristic of the period, speaking broadly, 
 was the use of motives, from both the Gothic and the Latin 
 
 traditions, in a merely 
 picturesque fashion, with 
 little or no regard to their 
 structural origin. Tempted 
 by the renewal of national 
 comfort and prosperity, 
 after the destructive period 
 beginning with the Wars 
 of the Roses and ending 
 with the tyranny of Henry 
 VIII, had passed away, 
 Italian, Flemish, and Ger- 
 man artisans came to Eng- 
 land in large numbers. 
 Under such conflicting in- 
 fluences architecture be- 
 came chaotic. The period was scarcely one of transition in the true 
 sense. Forms did not slowly develop from each other; they were 
 mixed up with new forms, the mixture sometimes ending in a super- 
 ficial harmony, sometimes in mere eccentricity, but never in a real 
 organic unity. Things were not to be straightened out until 
 
 a man of genius arose to do it. 
 
 Inigo Jones was to do for 
 English art after the Tudor con- 
 fusion what Napoleon did for 
 French society after the turmoil 
 of the early Revolution. 
 
 The earliest monument of im- 
 portance in which the Gothic 
 influence meets the Latin is 
 Wolsey's palace at Hampton 
 Court. The Cardinal began 
 work in 1515. His architects 
 and artisans were mostly Eng- 
 lish, but Italians were employed 
 on some of the ornament. It is 
 known that Giovanni da Majano 
 made the terra-cotta roundels 
 
 with busts of Roman Emperors, which appear on the two outer 
 towers. Giovanni found terra-cotta in use in England — at Layer 
 
 74 
 
 [44. — CEILINO OF WOLSEY S CLOSET, 
 HAMPTON COURT. 
 
THE lUDOR CHAOS 
 
 
 
 FIG. 145. — AUDLEY END, ESSEX. 
 
 Marney, Sutton Place, and elsewhere — but his work shows no sign 
 
 of native influence. And this we almost 
 
 invariably find to be the case. Wherever 
 we have documentary evidence of the 
 employment of foreigners on an English 
 building, we find the work they did was 
 foreign also. They did not come here to 
 accept English notions, but to carry out 
 their own. We have reason to believe 
 that other Italians besides Giovanni da 
 Majano worked at Hampton Court, but the 
 ceiling (Fig. 144) of the room known as 
 Wolsey's closet, which has been usually 
 accepted as Italian, seems rather to belong 
 to that type of Renaissance ornament which 
 Holbein used with such felicity. Unless I 
 am much mistaken, this ceiling is not the 
 only place in which the effect of his example, at least, is to be 
 
 FIG. 146. — GATE TOWER, 
 TRINITY COLLEGE. 
 
 FIG. 147. — HATFIELD HOUSE. 
 
 75 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 148. — HARDWICKE HALL, DERBYSHIRE. 
 
 traced in Wolsey's palace. Torrigiano's tomb of Henry VII at 
 Westminster, within the elaborate but destructive English grille, 
 
 is entirely Italian. Imported 
 Italians were responsible for 
 many other fine creations, 
 among them the magnificent 
 tomb destined first for Car- 
 dinal Wolsey and secondly 
 for Henry VIII, but used — 
 what survived of it — for the 
 sepulture of Nelson nearly 
 three centuries later ; this 
 was the work of Benedetto 
 da Rovezzano. Such things 
 do not belong to the history 
 of English art, however, and need not be discussed at any length. 
 The whole movement, indeed, can scarcely be considered as belong- 
 ing to our true national development, but in such a manual as this 
 its chief productions will have to be noted, nevertheless. 
 
 Many conditions helped to make the period incoherent. The 
 
 foreign immigrants came as 
 artisans, or at most as what we 
 should now call sub-contractors, 
 not as masters. In no single 
 case has proof been found that 
 a foreign architect was intrusted 
 with the chief control of an 
 important work. The instance 
 usually given is that of Longleat 
 (Fig. 141) and John of Padua. 
 But even there we have no evi- 
 dence but tradition, and on this 
 doubt is cast by the aspect of 
 the work itself ; for Long- 
 leat is an English house, with 
 a certain Latin purity in the 
 design of its details. The archi- 
 tect may have been either John 
 Shute, or, possibly, though not 
 probably, Robert Smithson, who 
 appears on the accounts as clerk of the works. Immediately on 
 the completion of Longleat, Smithson was intrusted with the 
 
 76 
 
 -HARDWICKE HALL, PRESENCE 
 CHAMBER. 
 
 i 
 
THE TUDOR CHAOS 
 
 erection of Wollaton Hall, Notts, which resembles Longleat but 
 slightly. Decisive differences are the greater exuberance of detail 
 
 FIG. 150. — MONTACUTE, SOMERSETSHIRE. 
 
 in the latter, and the comparative inferiority of its proportions, both 
 as a whole and in parts. But if we suppose that John of Padua 
 acted as adviser either to Shute or Smithson, we shall account for 
 both the appearance of Longleat and the tradition as to its architect. 
 Mr. Reginald Blomfield (who believes Shute to have built Longleat) 
 suggests the Salisbury Chantry, in Christ Church, Hants, as a 
 good example of the way in which work was divided between 
 English builders and foreign ornemanistes. There the structural 
 parts are ordinary late Perpendicular in design and workmanship, 
 while the vertical bands on the engaged shafts, the horizontal bands 
 on the architraves, and the spandrils above the niches, are enriched 
 with Renaissance ornament of the finest Italian design and execution. 
 Foreign influences in England during this century vary locally. 
 The number of French im- 
 migrants was small. Scarcely 
 any work bearing signs of a 
 French origin can be pointed 
 to, the chief exceptions being 
 the Oxenbrigge Monument 
 in Bride Church, Sussex, 
 and some capitals in the old 
 church at Chelsea (Blom- 
 field). The Italian, German, 
 and Flemish immigrants, on 
 the other hand, spread them- 
 selves over the country, al- 
 though in a partial and tentative way, the Italians clinging to the 
 districts easily reached from the Channel ports, the Flemings and 
 
 77 
 
 FIG. 151. — LONG GALLERY, CHIRK CASTLE. 
 
 (Partly Restoration.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 152. — GALLERY, HADDON HALL. 
 
 The 
 
 most important, and one of the earhest, of 
 the Germans, was Holbein, who left a few 
 casual finger-prints on English building as he 
 passed to his painting room. Most of the 
 odds and ends of architecture ascribed to him, 
 however, offer no recognizable proofs of his 
 authorship. The Northern Gate at White- 
 hall, which stood opposite to where Gwydyr 
 House now stands, and has figured so often 
 in books as " Holbein's Gate," was a 
 thoroughly English, late Gothic design, 
 similar to the towers at Hampton Court, 
 the Gates of Trinity and St. John's, at 
 Cambridge, and many other contemporary 
 structures. The Southern, or King Street, 
 Gate, which stood where Downing Street at 
 
 pres- 
 
 Germans showing their pref- 
 erence for the eastern coun- 
 ties and the midlands. 
 
 Throughout the latter part 
 of Henry's reign the Italians 
 in England steadily dimin- 
 ished, while the Flemings 
 and Germans grew in num- 
 ber. This adjustment was 
 in harmony with the politico- 
 ecclesiastical situation, and 
 partly resulted from it. 
 
 FIG. 153. — HERTFORD TOMB, 
 SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
 FIG. 154. — LONGFORD CASTLE, WILTS. 
 
 78- 
 
 ent debouches on White- 
 hall, was probably the one 
 designed by Holbein. No 
 quite satisfactory reproduc- 
 tion has survived, but Ver- 
 tue's engraving of 1 725, made 
 from a drawing of his own 
 and published two years 
 after the site was cleared, 
 shows that the King Street 
 Gate was entirely chatacter- 
 istic of the Augsburger, both 
 
THE TUDOR CHAOS 
 
 in detail and in general de- 
 sign. Another trace of his 
 activity, hitherto unrecog- 
 nized, is to be found, I think, 
 in the beautiful pendants to 
 the timber roof of the great 
 hall at Hampton Court. 
 These were supplied by one 
 " Richard Rydge, Kerver," 
 of London, (Law), but in 
 their design the griffe du 
 lion is unmistakable. 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth 
 saw a great influx of Ger- 
 nftans and Flemings, whose 
 influence — that of the Ger- 
 mans at least — was not for 
 our good. To their ex- 
 ample may be traced the 
 nonsensical ornament and 
 defective proportion which 
 were characteristic of Eliza- 
 bethan building. Their in- 
 fluence was predominant 
 throughout the reign. 'The 
 screens and mantel-pieces 
 of old Charter House, of 
 Longleat, and of Hatfield, 
 the ponderous entrance 
 porch of Audley End, the 
 strapwork gables ... of 
 Wollaton, the barbarous 
 notion of using Tuscan and 
 other columns as chimneys, 
 the shapes of men and 
 women ending in balusters, 
 all show the heavy hand, 
 the merely mechanical in- 
 stinct of the German work- 
 man ; and architectural de- 
 sign being at a low ebb at 
 this period, or being rather. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 159.-CHAPEL, KNOLE. 
 
 one should say, in an undeveloped state, people who built houses 
 had recourse to that last refuge of the destitute, the pattern book, 
 
 that is, folio pages of design done 
 into space, designs not made in 
 relation to specific conditions, but 
 made as merely academical or 
 commercial exercises by some facile 
 designer of tailpieces and title 
 pages. ... It was unfortunate 
 that the treatises most in use in 
 England at this time were German 
 rather than Italian. ... It is evi- 
 dent, in fact, that the English 
 builder-architect of the time of 
 Elizabeth was a somewhat ignorant 
 and ill-educated person, and did 
 not follow better models simply be- 
 cause he was ignorant of their existence " (Reginald Blomfield). 
 
 The Germans and Flemings, like the Italians before them, 
 were employed in more or less subordinate capacities. No 
 building of importance was left entirely in their hands, except, 
 perhaps, Sir Thomas Gresham's Exchange. For this the design 
 came obviously from the Low Countries. Both in detail and in 
 general conception it breathes 
 Antwerp, and is distinguished 
 by a restraint and grace which 
 are not to be found in more 
 Teutonic creations. The Ger- 
 man invaders are mainly respon- 
 sible for the frequently pictu- 
 resque but still oftener barbarous 
 designs of mantel-pieces, chim- 
 neys, tombs, and other objects 
 giving a purchase to ill-re- 
 strained invention, which have 
 come down to us in such 
 numbers from the reigns of 
 Elizabeth and her immediate 
 successor. A good example 
 of the characteristic designs 
 
 to which this Anglo-Teutonic art gave birth is that for the 
 Hertford monument in Salisbury Cathedral, in which details often 
 
 80 
 
 FIG. 160. GALLERY, POWIS CASTLE. 
 
 J 
 
THE TUDOR CHAOS 
 
 FIG. l6l. — ROOM FROM SIZERGH CASTLE. 
 
 (Victoria and Albert Museum.) 
 
 absurd in themselves are coordinated into a not unpleasing 
 whole (Fig. 1 53). 
 
 Englishmen in the position of what we should now call architects 
 are not to be certainly 
 identified for any one of 
 the great Elizabethan build- 
 ings. The identification of 
 Robert Smithson as the 
 master mind at Wollaton is 
 perhaps the least problem- 
 atical. Many works have 
 been ascribed to John 
 Thorpe, who was most likely 
 only a surveyor. Thomas 
 Holt, who is credited with 
 much work at Oxford, 
 including the Tower of the 
 Five Orders, in the old 
 Schools, was an excellent carpenter. On the other hand. Sir 
 Thomas Tresham was probably the architect, in our sense, of several 
 charming buildings erected at his expense. John Abel was a pictu- 
 resque if somewhat coarse worker in the half-timber method popular 
 in the richly wooded shires of the West. 
 Thomas and Robert Grumbol, and John 
 Westley, of Cambridge, close the list of not- 
 able master builders who worked in methods 
 popular before Inigo Jones (Blomfield). 
 
 The Tudor chaos, as was to be ex- 
 pected, produced no ecclesiastical buildings 
 of importance. After the sequestration of 
 the monasteries (1534-9), church building 
 in England was in practical abeyance until 
 the destruction of eighty-nine London 
 churches by the Great Fire ( 1 666) opened 
 a field to the genius of Wren. 
 
 The chief monuments are country 
 houses ; they include Longleat (Fig. 141); 
 Montacute (Figs. 1 50, 1 68) ; Chadcote ; 
 Burghley ; parts of Longford Casde 
 (Fig. 154), Wilts; Wollaton House, Notts; 
 Holland House ; Audley End (Fig. 1 45) ; Kirby House ; Aston 
 Hall, Birmingham; Apethorpe Knole (Figs. 155-9); Buckhurst; 
 
 81 G 
 
 illtllll tAfc 
 
 iHiiiu'ismi 
 
 FIG. 162. — OLD HOUSE, 
 CHESTER. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 163. — MORETON OLD HALL, LANCASHIRE. 
 
 Holdenby; Kirkby Hall (Fig. 204); Loseley; Littlecote; Hard- 
 wicke (Fig. 1 48) ; Hatfield (Fig. 1 47) ; and Ampthill. Among 
 
 destroyed monuments the 
 most important, perhaps, 
 were Nonsuch Palace, which 
 only survives, however, in 
 some more or less incom- 
 prehensible engravings, the 
 first Royal Exchange already 
 mentioned, and Old Somer- 
 set House. In all these 
 buildings, more or less, con- 
 tending influences can be 
 traced, the German making, 
 on the whole, for confusion and meaningless enrichment, the 
 Flemish and Italian for reticence, the apropos, and general good 
 taste. 
 
 With a very few exceptions the earliest timber and half-timber 
 buildings still extant in the country date from the day of the Tudor 
 monarchs. In several half-timber houses domestic Perpendicular 
 may be found in such purity as it possessed, but the great majority 
 belong to the Tudor style as well as dynasty. The most ambitious 
 examples are to be found in Lancashire, where Samlesbury, Speke 
 Hall, Moreton Old Hall (Fig. 163), and other fine manor houses 
 show what could be done with the method. Some beautiful work 
 
 is to be seen in Agecroft Hall, 
 in the same county. The 
 western counties are full of 
 good half-timber work, the best 
 specimens being in Chester, 
 Shrewsbury, Dunster, and other 
 towns. Lyemore (Fig. 164), 
 Montgomeryshire, once the home 
 of Lord Herbert of Cher- 
 bury, is a fine manor house. 
 Ockwells Manor House, Berk- 
 shire, is an exquisite specimen, 
 very beautiful in detail, dating 
 from the reign of Henry VII. 
 The eastern and south-eastern 
 counties are rich in similar work, which is to be found at Ightham, 
 Harrietsham, Wingham, Bury St. Edmund's, Lavenham, Saffron- 
 
 ' 82 
 
 FIG. 164. — LYEMORE, MONTGOMERYSHIRE. 
 
THE TUDOR CHAOS 
 
 
 ^* 
 
 ii\ 
 
 KTiHi 
 
 1^1 
 
 11 
 
 FIG. 165. GLAMIS CASTLE, FORFARSHIRE. 
 
 Walden, Newark, etc. Scraps of finely carved timber work — 
 corner-posts, doors, windows — frequently crop up through later 
 construction, adding their 
 modest contribution to the 
 fragmentary evidence on 
 which our belief in the 
 artistic capacity of our for- 
 bears has to depend in so 
 many directions. 
 
 In spite of their bastard 
 birth, the creations of this 
 chaotic period have a de- 
 cidedly English stamp. Ex- 
 travagant in detail as they 
 often are, they betray little of that passion for detail for its own sake 
 which marks the Teuton ; while the Latin readiness to make almost 
 any sacrifice for the sake of symmetry finds little more than an 
 enfeebled echo. 
 
 Domestic architecture both in Scotland and in Ireland was semi- 
 military, and, so far, mediaeval, much later than in England. Its 
 remains in Scotland are remarkably interesting. They show strong 
 signs of that French influence which was so long an important factor 
 north of the Tweed, but in spite of this they have a decided 
 character of their own. It is difficult to find a mediaeval building in 
 Scotland in which there is no evidence of aesthetic ambitions. 
 Even in the rudest border pele, the mouldings of a doorway or a 
 chimney-piece, the cor- 
 belled support of a 
 pepper-box turret, will 
 show that the man who 
 built it had a corner in 
 his mind for art. And 
 even where, by rare ex- 
 ception, no such details 
 are present, some dignity 
 of proportion — as in Both- 
 well Castle, for instance 
 — will preclude the de- 
 duction that the claim of 
 art was unknown and 
 
 ignored. A true instinct is betrayed, too, by the use of the sky- 
 line. The main seat of effect in a building is its upper part, and 
 
 FIG. 166. HOWTH CASTLE, COUNTY DUBLIN. 
 
 83 
 
 G 2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 167. CHIRK CASTLE, OSWESTRY. 
 
 this the Scottish architects understood as well as those of the New 
 York sky-scrapers. The exact dates of Scottish castles are often 
 difficult to fix. A large proportion are still inhabited, and have been 
 continuously added to and modified for centuries. But their type is well 
 known and is a variation — sometimes more effective than its models 
 
 — of the chateaux 
 built in France while 
 security was still the 
 main objective. As 
 dwellings, the Scottish 
 mediaeval castles were 
 by no means so rude 
 as is often asserted. 
 Of this we may con- 
 vince ourselves by those 
 arrangements for the 
 convenience of their 
 occupants which can still be traced. *' Garderobes," for instance, are 
 at least as numerous and well placed as in a modern house. Warmth 
 was well provided for, fire-places and chimneys being plentiful. A 
 favorite method of construction was to divide the total height into 
 two or three stories by tunnel or groined vaults, and to sub-divide 
 these again into four or six by timber floors. Good examples of 
 Scottish castles of various types — some ruined, some still alive 
 
 and active — are 
 Borthwick, Both- 
 well, Crichton, 
 Castle Campbell, 
 Caerl averock, 
 Cawdor, Craig- 
 millar, Crosra- 
 guel, Linlithgow 
 Palace, Dirleton, 
 Glamis (Fig. 
 165), Fyvie, and 
 those North- 
 western Towers 
 of Holyrood in 
 which occurred 
 the few romantic 
 and tragic events in the life of the famous old Palace. 
 
 In Ireland the signs of art in mediaeval domestic architecture I 
 
 84 
 
 FIG. 168. — MONTACUTE, SOMERSETSHIRE. 
 
THE TUDOR CHAOS 
 
 chiefly consist of a characteristic sky line and pleasant general pro- 
 portion (Howth Castle, Fig. 166). The countless castles are, as a 
 rule, mere ruins, or so embraced and hidden by later accretions 
 that their arrangements are impossible to follow. A considerable 
 number of modern houses in Ireland have an ancient castle for their 
 core. It is not uncommon to find two modern drawing rooms sep- 
 rated from each other by a wall eight, ten, or even fifteen feet thick, 
 the explanation being that some ancient stronghold of the O'Conors 
 or O'Tooles forms a concealed backbone to the modern house. In 
 comfort they were little inferior, as a rule, to those of Scotland, 
 but are much poorer in those slight but unmistakable traces of an 
 aesthetic bent which surprise and please the eye in the northern 
 country ; which is curious, seeing how the Irish excelled in their 
 early ecclesiastical architecture and in many other walks of art. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Taylor, H., Old Halls of Lancashire and Cheshire. 1884. Clayton, J., Ancient Half-timber 
 Edifices of England, 1846. Nash, J., Mansions of England. 1839-49. Shaw. H., Details of 
 Elizabethan Architecture. 1839. Archaeologia, 1773, etc. Transactions of the Society of 
 Antiquaries of Scotland, 1852, etc. Blomfield, Reginald, A.R.A., A History of Renaissance 
 Architecture in England. 1500-1800, 1897. Gotch, J. A., Early Renaissance Architecture in 
 England. 1901. Gotch, J. A., Renaissance Architecture in England, folio, 2 vols. Gamer, T., 
 The Domestic Architecture of England during the Tudor Period, 1908. Davie, W. G., and 
 Green, W. C., Old Cottages and Farmhouses in Surrey, 1908. Law, Ernest, History of Hamp- 
 ton Court Palace, 1885-91. 
 
 riG. 169. — MAPPERTON, FROM BLOMFIELD. 
 
 85 
 
FIG. 170. — ST. PAUL S, FROM LUDCATE HILL. 
 
 (Picturesque view, to show the fitness of the design for the site.) 
 
 86 
 
FIG. 171. — WHITEHALL. CENTRAL BLOCK OF NORTH FRONT, AS DESIGNED BY INIGO JONES. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE-INIGO JONES 
 AND SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN 
 
 I 
 
 The beginning of Renaissance architecture in England as a definite, 
 reasoned-out method of design dates from the first works of Inigo 
 Jones. Jones was born in 1 5 73 and spent much of his time in early 
 manhood on the Continent. His English career began in 1 604, but 
 
 it was not until 1615 that he 
 became Surveyor-General of the 
 Works, and not until 1619 that 
 he made his first scheme for the 
 rebuilding of the Palace of White- 
 hall. This first project was the 
 comparatively modest Palace de- 
 signed for James I, to be elabo- 
 rated many years later into the 
 magnificent conception completed 
 for Charles I, which has been a 
 mine of architectural ideas ever 
 since.' Of these plans the only 
 part ever carried out was the Banqueting House, which is, 
 perhaps, as satisfactory a solution of an artistic problem as we 
 can point to. Internally, it was to be a state dining room, 
 with a provision for spectators: externally, a link between build- 
 ings of more complex purpose, more elaborate design, and much 
 
 ' There is a conflict of evidence as to which of the two designs was the earlier, but on the whole the 
 probabilities seem to favor the conclusion that the more splendid design was the later. 
 
 Q7 
 
 FIG. 172. — ST. PAUL S, COVENT GARDEN 
 (INIGO JONES.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 greater elevation. It is scarcely too much to say that, given 
 the conditions, Jones's second Whitehall is the most astonishing 
 creation by a single mind that the history of architecture has to 
 show. It was the work of a man who went to Italy, learnt the 
 grammar of his art there, and returned to this country to throw 
 off a scheme for a palace larger than any other in the world ; at 
 once more varied and m.ore homogeneous ; inspired with a national 
 
 W 
 
 TIT 
 
 iJ °i. 
 
 ffi 
 
 j(=:)-:r i 
 
 
 
 FIG. 173. — GROUND FLOOR PLAN OF INIGO JONES'S WHITEHALL. 
 
 (Scale: about 300 feet to the inch.) 
 
 feeling in spite of the fact that no national tradition existed to help 
 him ; and grandly monumental in its total effect. 
 
 Confining our attention to the more ambitious of the two projects : 
 the Palace of Whitehall was designed to cover a site about 1200 
 feet long by 900 feet wide, that is, rather more than four times the 
 ground occupied by the existing Houses of Parliament. It was 
 to contain seven inner courts, of which the great central quadrangle, 
 running through the whole from North to South, was to be nearly 
 800 feet long by about 380 feet wide — this court, surrounded by 
 magnificent and happily varied pavilions measuring from 80 to 110 
 feet in height, would have had no rival in the world. West of it 
 there were to be three courts, the central one being circular and 
 extremely rich in its details. Eastward, too, there was to be a trio 
 
 S8 
 
INIGO JONES AND WREN 
 
 },*^^M\)/I : 
 
 *•[""" I I'*' ,-|(>««ii irt I ;i 1 1 I 1,1 4 1, 1 1 I I I ,|,, 
 
 FIG. 174. — INIGO JONES'S WHITEHALL, FROM MIILLER S ENGRAVING. 
 
 of courts, all quadrangular. The only detail in tlie whole design 
 which has ever been subjected to much adverse criticism was the 
 proposed completion of the sky line with a pair of pepper-box 
 turrets in the centre of each 
 
 facade. But Jones, like Wren, 
 and Alfred Stevens, and other 
 great artists, always improved his 
 designs in the execution, and no 
 doubt anything which weakened 
 the project of Whitehall would 
 have been weeded out before 
 the last stone was laid. Had 
 Charles I only contrived to keep 
 his head on his shoulders, London 
 would have possessed in White- 
 hall a secular pendant to St. 
 Paul's which would have sufficed, 
 in itself, to remove the reproach 
 of architectural poverty so long 
 brought against it. And the 
 project was no dream, no " Castle 
 in Spain." It was an under- 
 taking determined on and ac- 
 tually begun, which only mis- 
 carried through events unconnected with itself. I have called 
 the plans for Whitehall a mine of architectural ideas. Those who 
 
 89 
 
 FIG. 175. — ASHBURNHAM HOUSE (STAIRCASE). 
 INIGO JONES. 
 
 (From Blomfield.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 are familiar with its details may recognize the source of many little 
 passages of design about the streets of English cities. One of the 
 
 most flagrant instances is afforded 
 
 FIG. I7O. — GREENWICH HOSPITAL. 
 (INIGO JONES.) 
 
 by Sir George Gilbert Scott's 
 forced essay in Renaissance at 
 Westminster. In the Home 
 Office block much of his archi- 
 tecture consists of slices con- 
 veyed from the facades of White- 
 hall, and spoilt by atrocious 
 detail. The difference between 
 the masculine power of Jones 
 and the weakness of Scott, 
 working blindly in a style he 
 had never assimilated, is shown 
 in startling fashion by comparing 
 
 their basements ; — that of Whitehall is superb in the combined 
 
 beauty and vigor of its rusticated arcade, which was born to 
 
 support the great wall above it and to do it with grace. Scott's 
 
 panelled lower story is deplorably weak and crushed. 
 
 Over the other works of Inigo Jones there has been much dispute. 
 
 A large number of buildings — Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, St. 
 
 Mary's Porch (Fig. 177) and the Inner 
 
 Quadrangle of St. John's College, Ox- 
 ford, the Exchange at Copenhagen, 
 
 among others — have been ascribed to 
 
 him without evidence and against the 
 
 probabilities. But parts of Greenwich 
 
 Hospital, of Wilton House, Salisbury 
 
 (including the two splendid rooms known 
 
 as the Double and Single Cubes), Rayn- 
 
 ham Park, Norfolk, part of Cobham 
 
 Hall, Kent (Fig. 186), the church of 
 
 St. Paul, Co vent Garden, Ashburnham 
 
 House, Westminster, with its beautiful 
 
 staircase (Fig. 175), and the Watergate 
 
 to York House, in the Strand, which 
 
 still stands, half buried, at the foot of 
 
 Buckingham Street, are from his designs. 
 
 " His extraordinary capacity is shown 
 
 by the success with which he freed English architecture from 
 
 the imbecilities of the German designers, and started it on a line 
 
 90 
 
 FIG. 177. — PORCH OF ST. MARY S, 
 
 OXFORD. 
 
 (? INIGO JONES.) 
 
INIGO JONES AND WREN 
 
 FIG. 178. — ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. (WREN.) 
 
 of fresh development, borrowed, it is true, from Italy, yet so 
 
 successfully adapted to English traditions, that it was at once 
 
 accepted and followed by 
 
 the best intelligence of the 
 
 country for the next 
 
 hundred and fifty years. 
 
 His especial strength lay 
 
 in his thorough mastery 
 
 of proportion, his contempt 
 
 for mere prettiness, and 
 
 the rare distinction of his 
 
 style. His own theory of 
 
 architecture was that, in 
 
 his own words, it should 
 
 be 'solid, proportional ac- 
 cording to the rules, mas- 
 culine and unaffected.' 
 
 No man has ever more 
 
 completely realized his own 
 
 ideal of his art " (Blomfield). To this I must add that Jones 
 
 had that final and most decisive mark of all great artists, that he 
 
 could pour his own personality into every detail of his work ; so 
 
 that, apart from all objective tests, it recommends itself by an 
 
 individual unity of character which raises every project of his into 
 
 the rank of a creation. 
 
 The years immediately succeeding Jones's death are poor in 
 
 architectural monuments. His pupil and assistant, John Webb, 
 
 did a great deal of work, 
 but most of it has little dis- 
 tinction. At one time he 
 was engaged in superintend- 
 ing the execution of his 
 master's designs at Wilton 
 House, at Amesbury, at Ash- 
 burnham House in Dean's 
 Yard, Westminster, and prob- 
 ably at Gunnersbury and 
 Greenwich. The best per- 
 haps of his own designs is 
 that for Thorpe Hall, near 
 
 Peterborough, built for Oliver St. John. It has much of Jones's 
 
 dignity and felicity of proportion. 
 
 91 
 
 [79. — EASTERN QUADRANGLE, HAMPTON 
 COURT. (WREN.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. l8o. — TRINITY COLLEGE 
 CHAPEL, OXFORD. (WREN.) 
 
 But English Renaissance architecture made no move which 
 
 need be chronicled here between the death of Jones and the 
 first activities of Wren. 
 
 Christopher Wren was born in 1632. 
 His father was Dean of Windsor and his 
 uncle, Matthew Wren, Bishop of Ely. He 
 himself was a pupil of Busby, at West- 
 minster, a fellow commoner of Wadham 
 College, Oxford, and a fellow of All 
 Souls' by the time he was twenty-one. In 
 youth his interests were aroused by all 
 those forms of science in which mathe- 
 matics, and mechanical ingenuity, and skill 
 in adapting abstract knowledge to practical 
 ends, could be made to play a part. It 
 was not until 1 66 1 , when he was twenty- 
 nine years of age, that he was brought 
 into practical contact with architecture. In 
 
 that year he was appointed assistant to Sir John Denham, the 
 
 Surveyor-General of Works. Soon afterward he built the Chapel 
 
 of Pembroke College, Cambridge, and the Sheldonian Theatre, 
 
 Oxford. The Ashmolean Museum has also been ascribed to him, 
 
 but there is reason to believe it was the work of a forgotten architect 
 
 called Wood. His best design in Oxford is the interior of Trinity 
 
 College Chapel (Fig. 180). Wren's great 
 
 opportunity, the greatest ever afforded to 
 
 an architect, came with the fire of London 
 
 in the autumn of 1666. He drew up 
 
 a magnificent plan for the laying out of 
 
 the city on new lines, which was defeated 
 
 by English conservatism and other forces. 
 
 He rebuilt the Cathedral and no fewer than 
 
 fifty-four churches within the sound of its 
 
 bells. The most famous of his churches is St. 
 
 Stephen's, Walbrook (Fig. 181), in which 
 
 extraordinary dignity of effect has been 
 
 reached by simple though ingenious methods. 
 
 It has been suggested that certain Eastern 
 
 domes gave Wren a hint for that of St. 
 
 Stephen's. This is improbable, especially 
 
 as a church existed nearer home, viz., the Church of St. Anne, at 
 
 Haarlem, which embodied exactly the same idea. If St. Stephen's 
 
 . 92 
 
 FIG. l8l. — ST. STEPHEN'S, 
 WALBROOK. (wren.) 
 
INIGO JONES AND WREN 
 
 be the best of Wren's small churches, his 
 best steeple is certainly that of Bow Church 
 (Fig. 182), Cheapside, in which the problem 
 of adapting quasi-classical detail to a vertical 
 general conception is solved with unique 
 success. The domes and colonnades of 
 Greenwich Hospital (Fig. 184), forming one 
 of the most effective conceptions Renais- 
 sance architecture has produced, the Monu- 
 ment of London, St. Bride's, Fleet Street 
 (Fig. 183), the eastern block of Hampton 
 Court Palace (Figs. 179, 185), the library 
 of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Temple 
 Bar — barbarously carted away in 1878 
 — are also among the triumphs of Wren. 
 But his name will always be more 
 loudly connected with St. Paul's than 
 with any other of his works, albeit the 
 Cathedral of London is by no means so 
 faultless as some of the designs just men- 
 tioned. St. Paul's was actually begun 
 1672. The design carried out was 
 
 m 
 
 FIG. 182. — BOW CHURCH, 
 CHEAPSIDE. (wren.) 
 
 not the first prepared by the architect. 
 
 Two others require to be mentioned. One is 
 
 P embodied in a wooden model now lodged in an 
 upper chamber of the Cathedral, the other in 
 a paper scheme sealed by the King and known 
 as the "warrant" design. The model shows a 
 church far inferior to the existing one in its 
 _ external elevations, but superior to it in plan 
 
 and internal arrangements generally. It was re- 
 jected through the influence of the Duke of 
 York, helped, perhaps, by the secret inclinations 
 of the King, as ill adapted to the ritual of the 
 Roman Church. The second, or " warrant " 
 design, could not have been seriously put for- 
 ward. No architect in his sober senses could 
 have proposed to carry it out. It was possibly 
 intended to amuse the Court while Wren was 
 elaborating the conception with which the world 
 is now so familiar. But the secret history of 
 these designs is unknown, and we may suspect that the intelligence 
 
 93 
 
 FIG. 183. — ST. bride's, 
 fleet STREET. (WREN.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 and humor of Charles II, who found himself between Rome and 
 London, between his brother and the French Court, on the one 
 hand, and the English people on the other, had a good deal to do 
 with the comedy of the " warrant " design. 
 
 St. Paul's, as it is, has a more than plausible claim to be considered 
 the most successful great church built in Europe during the Renais- 
 sance. St. Peter's at Rome excels it in size and in the dignity of 
 its internal arrangements, while Michelangelo's dome would rival 
 Sir Christopher's if only we could see it. But the external design 
 of St. Paul's, as a whole, is infinitely finer than that of St. Peter's, 
 
 FIG. 184. — GREENWICH HOSPITAL. (WKEN.) 
 
 while the other churches which might be quoted in the same 
 connection — the Pantheon and the Church of the Invalides, in 
 Paris, St. Isaac's at Petersburg — are comparatively unimportant and 
 lack the imaginative touch which makes the mass of St. Paul's so 
 imposing. 
 
 Besides his fifty-five churches. Wren built eight colleges, thirty- 
 five halls (City companies, etc.), four palaces, and over forty other 
 important buildings. 
 
 After St. Paul's the most important of Wren's achievements was 
 the rebuilding of the eastern part of Hampton Court. To do this 
 he had to destroy a considerable part of the Tudor palace, which 
 is matter for lamentation ; but he almost reconciles us to the loss 
 
 94 
 
INIGO JONES AND WREN 
 
 by the beauty of the buildings he reared on the site. And not 
 only are they beautiful, they are convenient also to a degree then 
 quite unknown in a palace, as all those who have had the oppor- 
 tunity for a thorough exploration will agree. Nowhere else have 
 the chosen materials, red brick with stone dressings, been endowed 
 with such dignity. He also designed a magnificent approach, with 
 a semicircular forecourt, for the northern side, between the 
 existing palace and the gates of Bushey Park. This was never 
 carried out. His additions to Trinity College, Cambridge, may 
 almost be classed as a palace. The design for the library is one 
 of the cleverest he made, although it cannot be denied that the 
 contrivance by which he reconciled a high external basement story 
 with a low internal one cannot be accepted without a qualm. 
 
 FIG. 185. — S.E. ANGLE, HAMPTON COURT PALACE. (WREN.) 
 
 Certain achievements of Wren were eccentric. He designed the 
 existing towers of Westminster Abbey, a few " Gothic " churches 
 in the City, and the curiously happy upper stage of Tom Tower, 
 Oxford. Interesting as these productions may be to a student of 
 Wren's personality, they need not be discussed in a sketch of a 
 nation's artistic evolution. 
 
 It was not only as artists that Jones and Wren deserved well of 
 their country, they also confirmed the tradition which has made 
 English architects the best planners in the world. In arranging 
 their buildings, and providing for the easy access of light, air, and 
 people to every part, they showed a freedom and common-sense 
 which have, on the whole, governed English architecture ever since. 
 In judging of this we are not confined to their finished works. Both 
 men left behind them a large number of plans, designs, and sketches, 
 which illustrate the extent of their powers. The chief collections of 
 
 95 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 these are in Worcester and all Souls' Colleges, Oxford, at Chats- 
 worth, and in the Soane Museum. 
 
 It is scarcely too much to say that, as the word architect is now 
 understood, Jones and Wren were the two greatest of whom we 
 have any full knowledge. Their achievements do not rank with the 
 creation of Greek or of Gothic architecture, but no other individual 
 architect can be named whose genius and activity led to such results 
 as theirs. Jones is most easily compared with Palladio ; Wren, 
 perhaps, with such a man as the elder Mansard. But Palladio's 
 genius was less masculine, less broad in its grip than that of Jones. 
 Great as his success was when the problem before him was simple, 
 we have no reason to suppose that he could have designed White- 
 hall. And Mansard's gifts cannot stand for a moment beside the 
 immense variety, the taste, the sense of proportion, the judgment 
 and ingenuity, the copious imagination, and the unrivalled skill in 
 adapting a design to its destined surroundings, of Wren. 
 
 BIBUOGRAPHY ' 
 
 Loftie, W. J. Inigo Jones and Wren, or the Rise and Decline of Renaissance Architecture 
 in England, 1893. Triggs, H. Inigo and Tanner, Henry, Some Architectural IVorks of Inigo 
 Jones. Folio. Blomfield, Reginald, A.R.A., A History of Renaissance Architecture in 
 England, 8vo, 2 vols., 189/. Britton and Pugin, Public Buildings of London, 1825. 
 Cunningham, Peter, Inigo Jones, 1848. Elmes, James, Life and Works of Sir C. Wren, 1823. 
 ditto, 5/r C. Wren and His Times, 1852. Campbell, Colin, Vitruvius Britannicus, 1715-1725. 
 Kent, W., Architecture of Inigo Jones, 1727. Leoni, translated by Ware, I., Architecture 
 of Palladio, 1715. Vardy, John, Some Designs of Inigo Jones, 1744. Ware, Isaac, A Complete 
 Body of Architecture, 1756; Designs of Inigo Jones, 1757. Phillimore, Lucy, Sir Christopher 
 Wren, elc, 1881. Wren, Christopher (jun.), Parentalia, 1750. Mackmurdo. A. H., Wren's 
 City Churches, Orpington, 1883. 
 
 FIG. l86.— COBHAM H.-^LL, KENT, SHOWING BLOCK ASCRIBED TO INIGO JONES. 
 % 
 
no. 187. — SOMERSET HOUSE. (SIR WILLIAM CHAMBERS.) 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN 
 
 Jones created a new dialect in Renaissance architecture, Wren gave 
 
 it flexibility and completed its adaptation to English wants. But 
 
 in one respect Wren was happier than Jones. 
 
 He "both founded a school and lived to see 
 
 it flourish. Though he had practically retired 
 
 many years before his death in 1723, he could 
 
 see around him many architects well able to 
 
 take up and carry on his tradition." (Loftie.) 
 
 They were : Edward Garman, or German, 
 
 the architect of the second Royal Exchange 
 
 (which went up in smoke in 1838) and of 
 
 several other City buildings ; Captain Winde, 
 
 or Wynne, possibly a Dutchman, who built 
 
 Newcastle House in Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
 
 and old Buckingham House in St. James's 
 
 Park ; Henry Bell, of King's Lynn, where 
 
 much excellent work by him is to be found ; 
 
 Talman, builder of Chatsworth, Thoresby 
 
 (destroyed) and Swallowfield, now chiefly 
 
 remembered as one of those who harassed 
 
 the later years of Sir Christopher Wren.* 
 
 1 "Talman," says Blomfield, "seems to have been the true type 
 of the official architect. His work has the technical ability found 
 
 in the work of nearly every known English architect of the Restora- , . , . ■ r ■ t 
 
 ticn. and onward till the latter part of the eighteenth century ; that is to say, his design is fairly correct, 
 according to the accepted canons of classical architecture, and his construction is sound though by 
 no means dexterous." Renaissance Architecture in England vol. ii, p. 196. 
 
 97 H 
 
 FIG. l88. — ST. MARY-LE- 
 
 STRAND, LONDON. 
 
 (GIBBS.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 189. — HORSE GUARDS, WHITEHALL. (KENT.) 
 
 Slightly later were the Earl of Burlington, Hawksmoor, Gibbs, 
 Archer, James, Vanbrugh, Kent, Colin Campbell, Vardy, and 
 the elder of the Bath Woods. Of these men he who has most 
 interested posterity was undoubtedly Vanbrugh, who had the 
 advertising gift during his lifetime and has not lost it since. He 
 talked well and wrote good plays, and as an architect was full 
 of courage and vigor. Unfortunately, his detail, like that of 
 Michelangelo, is apt to be vulgar, and many of his buildings are 
 spoilt by windows even worse in design than those of the top story of 
 the Palazzo Farnese. His chief works are Blenheim Palace (Figs. 
 201, 202), Castle Howard, Seaton Delaval (Fig. 200), Grimsthorpe, 
 and the ugly part of Greenwich Hospital. Of these, Castle Howard 
 is the most agreeable, but it can hardly be called a good design. 
 The best feature is the basement on the garden front, which is 
 happy both in proportions and detail. Blenheim is strong enough, 
 but very ugly. Its architect shows himself deficient in that in- 
 definable quality, so indispensable in domestic architecture, which 
 we know as taste. His accents are badly distributed. He is 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 FIG. 190. — HOLKHAM HOUSE, NORFOLK. (KENT.) 
 
 98 
 
FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN 
 
 riG. 191.— KEDLESTON HALL, DERBYSHIRE. (PAINE AND R. ADAM.) 
 
 robust where he should be playful, decorative where he should be 
 severe, simple where a little elaboration was clearly invited. The 
 other men named above were more timid than Vanbrugh, but most 
 of them had much better taste. Lord Burlington produced several 
 excellent designs, the best being his own house in Piccadilly, which 
 is now divided between the Royal Academy and the children in 
 Battersea Park. Hardly less excellent is the design he made for the 
 great dormitory of Westminster School. By Kent, his intimate friend 
 and perpetual guest, the best things are Holkham House (Fig. 190), the 
 Horse Guards (Fig. 189), and the unfinished Treasury building on 
 the south side of the Horse Guards parade. The western front of 
 the Horse Guards is an excellent design. The front toward Whitehall 
 is less successful, because the architect has failed to provide any 
 eesthetical bond of union be- 
 tween its parts. There is a 
 happy mean between the 
 total concealment and the 
 brazen display of structure, 
 which Kent has missed in 
 Whitehall, although he had 
 hit it off exacdy in St. 
 James's Park. Hawksmoor, 
 the direct pupil of Wren, 
 produced two original de- 
 signs in St. George's, Blooms- 
 bury, and St. Mary Wool- 
 noth, at the end of Lombard 
 Street, and a not ineffective 
 piece of eccentricity in the towers of All Souls at Oxford. The 
 best, and best known, works of Gibbs are two London churches, St. 
 Mary-Ie-Strand (Fig. 188) and St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, and the 
 
 99 H2 
 
 FIG. 192. — MANSION HOUSE, LONDON. 
 (GEORGE DANCE, THE ELDER.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 193.— CUSTOMS HOUSE, DUBLIN. (gANDON.) 
 
 surroundings the design stand 
 apart from the routine conceptions which too 
 often mark the style. The Radcliffe Library 
 shows the same taste and intelligence. The 
 imagination refuses to conceive any other sort 
 of building in this position and entourage. 
 Gibbs's design for the Senate House at Cam- 
 bridge was never completely carried out. 
 The existing block is only one-third of what 
 was originally intended. The principal works 
 of Colin Campbell are Mereworth, Kent ; 
 Houghton, Norfolk ; and Wanstead, in 
 Essex, now destroyed. By Archer we have 
 Cliveden House and St. John's Church, 
 Westminster — " the kitchen table on its 
 back "; by James, St. George's, Hanover 
 Square ; and by Vardy the excellent park 
 front of Spencer House, St. James's (Fig. 1 99). 
 By the two Dances, father and son, are the 
 
 Radcliffe Library at Oxford (Fig. 
 196). Of all Wren's successors, 
 Gibbs shows the largest share of 
 that gift for adapting art to condi- 
 tions in which Sir Christopher 
 was unrivalled. The Church of 
 St. Mary-le-Strand, with her 
 skirts gathered about her like a 
 lady in a crowd, has now lost 
 some of the significance derived 
 from the former conditions of the 
 site, but even in its changed 
 far enough 
 
 FIG. 194. — ST. CLEMENT 
 
 DANES, LONDON. 
 
 (wren and GIBBS.) 
 
 FIG. 195. — BANK OF IRELAND. (CASTELL.) 
 
 100 
 
 Mansion House (Fig. 192) and 
 the late Newgate Prison respec- 
 tively. The latter was a really 
 fine design, and its disappear- 
 ance is a disaster for London, in 
 spite of its ungentle associations. 
 Wren and his immediate 
 successors had, for the time, 
 so completely supplied English 
 wants in grandiose architecture, 
 that the generation which began 
 
FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN 
 
 to come into the world with the arrival 
 of the Hanoverian Kings found com- 
 paratively little to do. Between the 
 death of Queen Anne and the end of 
 the eighteenth century a large number 
 of fine country houses and metropoli- 
 tan churches were erected, indeed, but 
 the rebuilding of Somerset House was 
 the only national work of any great 
 importance. To this statement, how- 
 ever, the creation of Bath by the two 
 Woods, father and son, provides a 
 collective exception. Without contain- 
 ing any design of conspicuous merit, the 
 
 city is full of 
 
 FIG. 196. — OXFORD, RADCLIFFE 
 LIBRARY. (GIBBS.) 
 
 FIG. 197. — TOWN HALL, ABINGDON. 
 
 century came with the re- 
 building of Somerset House 
 at the beginning of its last 
 quarter. The work of 
 Chambers has been much 
 criticised, chiefly because it 
 fails to make the most of 
 the conditions. The block 
 which lies between the great 
 court and the Strand de- 
 serves nothing but praise ; 
 but the long front on the 
 
 happy ar- 
 rangement 
 
 and pleasant architecture. The best 
 single design, perhaps, is that of the 
 Guildhall, by Baldwin, the Woods's 
 successor. This building was added 
 to, by the late James Brydon, with 
 excellent taste. The erection of Blen- 
 heim Palace, too, by Sir John Van- 
 brugh, may perhaps be called a 
 national undertaking, although the be- 
 lief that it was a free gift from the 
 nation to the great Duke is not so well 
 founded as we might wish it to be. 
 The great national opportunity of the 
 
 FIG. 198. — CASINO, NEAR DUBLIN. 
 (sir WILLIAM CHAMBERS.) 
 
 101 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 river (Fig. 1 87), good as it is, might have been so much more effective, 
 that our gratituae to the architect is far from unalloyed. The 
 
 terrace before it is too wide. 
 
 and reduces its height, the 
 sky line is bad, and the flat 
 dome, though good in propor- 
 tion, proclaims the meanness 
 of its materials. An exquisite 
 and little known design by 
 Chambers is the Casino, near 
 Dublin (Fig. 1 93), built for the 
 first Earl of Charlemont. 
 Dublin itself is full of good 
 work which owed much to 
 his inspiration. The Customs 
 House, by his pupil Gandon, 
 is a charming composition. 
 The " Four Courts," which 
 owes its existing form to Gandon, is severely dignified, and the 
 parts he added to the Parliament House, now the Bank of Ireland, 
 are worthy of the rest. The main quadrangle of Trinity College 
 was carried out by Mayer from sketches by Chambers. 
 
 Much good work in Dublin, and in Ireland generally, is to be 
 traced to the pupils of the brothers Adam, who embodied the last 
 living force in the English Renaissance before the archeeological 
 period set in. In London, the Adams, of whom Robert was 
 the ruling spirit, built the Adelphi, two sides of Fitzroy Square, 
 
 1 most of Portland 
 
 FIG. IQQ. 
 
 -SPENCER HOUSE, ST. JAMES S, LONDON. 
 (VARDY.) 
 
 Place, and many 
 isolated houses of 
 merit, such as 
 Mrs. Montagu's 
 in P o r t m a n 
 Square. A curi- 
 ous want of in- 
 ternal peace 
 marks the art of 
 these d5A0oi. As 
 ornemanistes they 
 were refined to a 
 fault, seeing in decoration a surface beauty comparable to the 
 gold lace of a sergeant-major. As architects, on the other hand, they 
 
 102 
 
 FIG. 200. — SEATON DELAVAL. (VANBRUGH.) 
 
FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN 
 
 FIG. 20I. — ELEVATION OF BLENHEIM. (VANBRUGH.) 
 
 are frequently over-bold, exercising a mistaken ingenuity in forcing a 
 monumental gloss upon a frivolous structure, and driving half a 
 dozen little features under some great mask with which they are 
 not in sympathy. From this it results that their most satisfactory 
 productions are monumental designs on which little or no orna- 
 ment occurs. Much good work in Edinburgh is theirs, the best 
 things, perhaps, being Charlotte Square, the Register House, and 
 
 KITCHEN COURT 
 
 ^:3« 
 
 SALOON 20 ,^ " liSHE »t*< 
 
 DINING ROOM 22 27 53 1 J • STARlFrnuRT * Afi 
 
 DRESSING ROOM 24 26 55 | ^ _. STABLE COURT j, ♦« j 
 
 COURT 26 29 ^2 tl3K Kit) 
 
 GREAT HALL 28 [ " %»Mlkm I**J 
 
 CORRIDOR 30 31 32 34 "^ 113 f-~1 
 
 PORTICO 33 I SI 1 11 I T*T% 
 
 5REAT GAUERY 35 I '' I " i , , T*H 
 THE«,EATGATE 39^ J J_ LH*t"*'"'^'^fH 
 
 CARRIAGE HOtlSES 45 47^^,^^ ! dT " ^ *^ \ *« J 
 
 44 50 5152 
 56 
 ) Of GREAT GAUERY 58 
 
 THE GREAT COURT 
 
 
 no. 202'. — BLENHEIM, PLAN. (vANBRUGH.) Scale : about 230 feet to an inch. 
 
 the " College " (Fig. 203), to which an excellent finish has been given 
 within recent years by the addition of Sir Rowand Anderson's 
 dome. In the south, the best examples, perhaps, are Kenwood, 
 Luton House, and the old Mansion — now, however, removed, 
 
 103 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 I believe — at Bryanston Park, Dorset. In most of these we have 
 to lament a want of congruity between the scale and simplicity 
 of the architecture as a whole, and the complicated smallness of its 
 
 decorative system. Kedle- 
 ston Hall, Derbyshire, has 
 to be divided between three 
 architects, of whom J. Paine, 
 whose portrait by Sir Joshua 
 hangs at Oxford, probably 
 deserves most credit. But 
 Robert Adam carried the 
 house to completion. Robert 
 Adam and his brothers were 
 more than architects. They 
 were the authors of a move- 
 ment in design which effected 
 every object of domestic use 
 that was not purely and 
 exclusively utilitarian. It is scarcely too much to say that their 
 ideas controlled the domestic arts of these islands from about I 775 
 to the beginning of the long peace, in 1815. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 All the Works quoted in Bibliography to Chapter VIII, and the following: — 
 Adam, Robert and James: JVorks, 1778. Adam, Robert: Ruins of the Palace of the 
 Emperor Diocletian at Spalateo, 1764. Adams, M. B. : Old English Houses, ]8&6. Aldrich, 
 Henry: Elementa Architecturoe Cioilis, 1789. Belcher, J., and Macartney, M. : Later Renais- 
 sance Architecture in England, 1897. Birch, G. H. : London Churches of the Seventeenth and 
 Eighteenth Centuries, 1896. Bulmer, G. : Architectural Studies in Yorkshire, 1887. Chambers, 
 Sir William, R. A. : Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture, 1791. Evelyn, John: 
 The Whole Body of Ancient and Modern Architecture, 1680. [Trans, from Freart, Roland]. 
 Gibbs, James: Bibliotheca Radcliviana, 1747; ditto: A Book of Architecture, 1728. Gotch, 
 J. A.: Buildings erected by Sir Thomas Tresham, 1883. Gwilt, Joseph: Encyclopaedia of 
 /4rc/»7ec/ure (W. Papwood's Edition, 1876). Mulvaney, Thomas : Life of Gandon, 1846. 
 
 FIG. 203. — THE "college," EDINBURGH. 
 (r. ADAM AND SIR ROWAND ANDERSON.) 
 
 FIG. 204. — KIRKBY HALL, NORTHANTS. 
 
 104 
 
FIG. 205. — THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. (SIR CHARLES BARRY.) 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 
 
 The wave of devotion to all things classic which passed over the 
 continent of Europe at the end of the eighteenth century destroyed 
 Enghsh architecture with its backwash. The inheritors of the 
 traditions of Jones and Wren died out, and were succeeded by 
 scholars and archseologists. The classic movement had, perhaps, 
 begun in this country, with the researches of James Stuart and 
 Nicholas Revett and the publication of their A ntiquities of A thens 
 in 1 762. Stuart built a house in St. James's Square, which was 
 probably the first concrete result of the movement. But without 
 the fillip given by the French 
 
 Revolution and the vogue it 
 brought to everything which could 
 be called classical, the eclipse of 
 old models and traditional ideas 
 would never have become so com- 
 plete and disastrous as it did. 
 
 It was disastrous in many ways. 
 It brought into fashion a style of 
 building unsuited to the habits of 
 the English people and the climate 
 of their country. It created a pro- 
 pensity toward revivals. It de- 
 based taste and substituted the archaeologist for the artist — and, 
 finally, it spoilt building, for when men copy they are apt to do so 
 
 105 
 
 FIG. 206. — ST. GEORGE'S HALL, LIVER- 
 POOL, (elmes.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 in inferior materials.* The last 
 evil, however, may have been a 
 blessing in disguise, for the brick 
 and stucco in which so much 
 pseudo-classical building of the 
 early nineteenth century was 
 carried out is making our task 
 easier in clearing it away and 
 replacing it with something better. 
 During the whole of the long 
 period which elapsed between the 
 building of Somerset House and 
 that return to the Jones-Wren 
 tradition which marked the end 
 of the nineteenth century, English 
 architecture was in a non-natural 
 and insincere condition. Build- 
 ings were designed by men who 
 had to keep one eye on artificial conditions and the other on the 
 nature of the case. In the first half of the century they were 
 contriving the best churches, houses, railway stations, compatible 
 with obedience to Doric or Ionic rules ; in the second half, their 
 incubus was the precedent set by the cathedral-builders of the 
 thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, modified and com- 
 plicated by examples taken from various architectural centres on 
 
 -great hall, penrhyn castle, 
 (hopper.) 
 
 FIG. 208. — ST. George's, doncaster. 
 
 (sir G. G. SCOTT.) 
 
 FIG. 209. — MANCHESTER TOWN HALL. 
 (WATERHOUSE.) 
 
 * It was gravely proposed, in the flood of the classical revival, to transform the Gothic of Oxford 
 into Greek, by means of stucco columns, pediments, and pilasters ! 
 
 106 
 
THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 
 
 FIG. 2IO. — THE LAW COURTS, CENTRAL 
 HALL. (street.) 
 
 the continent of Europe. As time 
 went on, they did much better under 
 the latter tyranny than under the 
 former. The better results of the 
 Gothic revival are probably the best 
 things to which an antiquarian spirit 
 has ever led in art, and far excel the 
 most successful achievements of the 
 pseudo-classicist. So good are they, 
 indeed, that they are often criticised 
 as too good, and likely to seduce the 
 learned New Zealander of a distant 
 future into accepting them as genuine 
 relics from the Gothic centuries. 
 
 To treat all these galvanizings of 
 the dead as part of the live stem 
 of British art would be absurd. 
 They are divagations from it and 
 impediments to its growth. The whole period in which they 
 occurred has been branded by a distinguished professor as " Chaos." 
 All that need be said is to note their occurrence, mentioning 
 some of the real artists who contrived to show their mettle in 
 spite of the conditions, and a few of the best works they produced. 
 
 Among the chief buildings of the 
 classical revival are St. Pancras 
 Church, which would be a good 
 imitation of a Greek temple ex- 
 ternally were it not for the steeple ; 
 the Bank of England ; the British 
 Museum ; the entrance to Euston 
 Station; the Athenaeum Club; the 
 arches at Hyde Park Corner ; the 
 Fitzwilliam Museum, at Cambridge ; 
 various public buildings in Edinburgh 
 and Glasgow ; and St. George's Hall, 
 at Liverpool. The last named, the 
 work of a young architect named 
 Elmes, is perhaps the most success- 
 ful adaptation of classical models to 
 modern uses yet made in Europe. 
 If its lot had been cast in a sunny 
 climate and a smokeless city it would 
 
 107 
 
 
 f 
 1 A A > ' '^ 
 
 i } |\ ."ir. ' 
 
 ■l \ 
 
 J i"^ i : 3 
 
 <il 
 
 
 FIG. 211. — EXETER COLLEGE CHAPEL. 
 (sir G. G. SCOTT.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 have been world-famous by now. 
 But Greek architecture requires an 
 ever-blazing sun to justify its spirit. 
 The classical revival was followed by 
 one based on the Italian Renaissance, 
 which differed from the movement 
 inaugurated by Inigo Jones in that 
 it was a literal translation instead of 
 a rendering into idiomatic English. 
 It aimed at setting down in the 
 streets of London a series of build- 
 ings which would have been at home 
 in those of Rome or Florence, or 
 even on the banks of the Venetian 
 canals. It is exemplified chiefly in the works of Sir Charles 
 Barry (Bridgewater House, 
 Reform Club, Travellers' 
 Club, Halifax Town Hall, 
 10 Kensington Palace Gar- 
 dens) ; C. R. Cockerell (Uni- 
 versity Galleries, Oxford ; 
 Sun Fire Office, Thread- 
 needle Street) ; Sir James 
 Pennethorne; the two 
 Smirkes, and others. 
 
 FIG. 212. — THE LAW COURTS, STRAND 
 ENTRANCE. (STREET.) 
 
 The original begetter of 
 the Gothic revival in England 
 was, no doubt, Horace Wal- 
 
 FIG. 213. 
 
 -keble college chapel, oxford, 
 (butterfield.) 
 
 FIG. 214. — CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE 
 
 EVANGELIST, RED LION SQUARE. 
 
 (PEARSON.) 
 
 pole, whose toy of Strawberry Hill 
 was slowly elaborated between 1 760 
 and 1 770. He had, of course, been 
 preceded by Wren, whose quasi- 
 Gothic, however, was inspired by 
 anything rather than by a desire 
 to breathe life into a vanished 
 form of art. Strawberry Hill set a 
 fashion which slowly made its way 
 toward the status of a serious 
 movement. The country was sprinkled 
 over with churches and mansions 
 on which some supposed -to-be - 
 108 
 
THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 
 
 FIG. 215. — DESIGN FOR BELFRY, CHRIST 
 CHURCH, OXFORD. (BODLEY.) 
 
 Gothic badge — pointed windows, 
 spiky pinnacles, crenellations — had 
 been hung. But meanwhile the 
 young men had been learning, and 
 by the time the movement was just 
 one century old, they had mastered 
 their business and were at last ready 
 to break a lance with the real old 
 Gothic architects. 
 
 During the period of apprentice- 
 ship a certain number of works had 
 been carried out which should not be 
 ignored. The Church of St. Luke, 
 Chelsea, had been built, and was 
 considered, at the time, a wonderful 
 exercise in Perpendicular ; Windsor 
 Castle had been remodelled, almost 
 rebuilt, by Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, 
 who on the whole acquitted him- 
 self of his very difficult task with 
 more success than might have been expected. The old Palace 
 of Westminster had been burnt down and a gorgeous successor 
 erected on its site. Thanks to the organ- 
 izing power of Barry, the archeeological 
 knowledge of Pugin, and the taste of both, 
 this last enterprise ended in the greatest 
 success ever scored under similar condi- 
 tions. Looked at with the eye of the 
 archaeological purist the Houses of Par- 
 liament were designed at least a quarter 
 of a century too soon. They are without 
 Gothic frankness, and variety. But 
 they are extraordinarily well arranged ; 
 they are grandiose ; and their details — 
 even to such magnificent details as the two 
 great towers — are full of beauty. Per- 
 haps the one great fault committed by 
 Barry, from his own point of view, was 
 the failure to bring the central block of the 
 river-front out to the edge of the terrace, 
 and to connect it with the water by a 
 noble flight of steps. A palace standing 
 
 109 
 
 FIG. 216. SCOTT MONUMENT, 
 
 EDINBURGH. (kEMP.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 fig. 217. — westminster cathedral, porch, 
 (bentley.) 
 
 on a river's edge and yet cut 
 off from it by a wall is like a 
 bather who fears to wet her 
 feet ! 
 
 By the time the Houses 
 of Parliament were finished, 
 the Gothic revival had pro- 
 ceeded so far that the style 
 in which they were de- 
 signed had already become 
 anathema with the younger 
 Gothic architects. These 
 had re-surveyed the whole 
 field of pointed architecture, 
 and had determined that 
 the true principles were only to be found in the buildings of 
 the fourteenth century. For a time this belief governed the 
 situation, although a certain number of practitioners wandered after 
 strange gods, in the Gothic of Germany, Venice, and Spain. 
 Putting aside Pugin, the forerunner, the men who first attracted 
 attention about the time when the last stone was being set on 
 the Victoria Tower (1860-61) were those to whom the successful 
 imitation of Gothic architecture in this country will in future be 
 credited. They were Raphael Brandon, the architect of the 
 Irvingite church in Gordon Square ; G. E. Street, that demon of 
 energy to whom we owe the Law Courts (Fig. 210-1 2), the additions 
 to Bristol Cathedral, and a Gothic design for a National Gallery ; 
 
 Butterfield, the creator of 
 
 All Saints', Margaret 
 Street, and of Keble Col- 
 lege, Oxford (Fig. 213); 
 Pearson, the architect of 
 Truro Cathedral, of the 
 Church of St. John the 
 Evangelist in Red Lion 
 Square (Fig. 2 r4), and of 
 the north porch of West- 
 minster Abbey ; Burges, 
 whose most important 
 works are the Cathedral 
 of St. Finn Bar, at Cork, 
 
 FIG. 2l8. — trinity CHURCH, SLOANE STREET. (SEDDING.) ^HCl V^ardlll V^aStlC; OIF 
 
 110 
 
 V 
 
UNlVERsn T 
 
 LASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 
 
 Gilbert Scott, the most active 
 of them all, who is at his best 
 in the interior of Exeter Col- 
 lege Chapel (Fig. 211), in 
 Doncaster Parish Church 
 (Fig. 208), in St. Michael's, 
 Hamburg, and in St. Mary's 
 Cathedral, Edinburgh; 
 Brooks, who is well repre- 
 sented by the Church of St. 
 Columba, N. London ; Bod- 
 ley, the architect of Eccleston 
 Church and the most sym- 
 pathetic and justly inspired of 
 them all, whose fine project 
 for the bell tower of Christ 
 Church, Oxford, is not yet 
 completely carried out (Fig. 
 215); Goldie, the architect of 
 St. Vincent's, Cork ; Sir 
 Arthur Blomlield, who built 
 the existing nave of St. 
 Saviour's, Southwark, and 
 many churches ; and a great 
 number of others. 
 
 Beside these men, certain 
 architects were at work who 
 used Gothic forms in a freer 
 and more arbitrary fashion, 
 generally with a plentiful 
 want of success. The most 
 conspicuous of these was 
 Alfred Waterhouse, who 
 reached through energy and 
 business capacity a vogue to 
 which his purely artistic 
 gifts scarcely entitled him. 
 Oxford, Edinburgh, Man- 
 chester (Fig. 209), and 
 London have suffered greatly 
 from his activity. 
 
 The last phase of the 
 
 FIG. 219.- 
 
 -westminster cathedral, nave, 
 (bentley.) 
 
 Ill 
 
 -WESTMINSTER CATHEDRAL, BRAMPTON 
 CHAPEL. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 HHJHJJHH 
 
 III 
 
 FIG. 221. RYLAND S LIBRARY, 
 
 MANCHESTER. 
 
 (basil CHAMPNEYS.) 
 
 Gothic Revival is an echo from 
 the Tudor chaos. In it Gothic detail 
 is used in a masterful, arbitrary 
 fashion, and too often with a 
 complete disregard for beauty and 
 for that logical articulation w^hich 
 makes one form the natural outcome 
 of another. Anything uglier, for 
 instance, than the window tracery, 
 or more unreasonable than the 
 filling in of the spandrils to the 
 nave arches, in the much admired 
 Church of the Holy Trinity, Chelsea 
 (Fig. 218), by Sedding, it would be 
 difficult to name. Freedoms as great 
 have been taken by Mr. Mackenzie 
 in his Marischall College, Aberdeen 
 (Fig. 222), but there a sense of 
 beauty governs the whole — as it does 
 the interior of the Rylands Library, at Manchester (Fig. 221), by 
 Mr. Basil Champneys, and the design for the exterior of the Scottish 
 National Portrait Gallery, by Sir Rowand Anderson. 
 
 The fashion-curve in the Gothic revival is curious. It began 
 with Perpendicular, sank — or rose — steadily to the earliest forms of 
 Pointed, and then as steadily reversed the process, until now it is 
 back at the mixture of Perpendicular with Renaissance in which the 
 first death of Gothic occurred. On the whole, perhaps, the modern 
 architect who has been most successful in the free, one might almost 
 say the irresponsible, use of those mixed forms which first prevailed in 
 England in Elizabethan and Jacobaean times, is Mr. T. G. Jackson, 
 whose genius is gifted with a quite remarkable flexibility. His work 
 at Oxford — and elsewhere — is a singularly happy continuation of 
 local traditions. 
 
 The Classical revival, like the Gothic, survives to-day in a certain 
 number of buildings in which its forms are used with as much 
 freedom as is compatible with their genesis, and with a flexibility 
 which is quite new. One of the best examples is the new building 
 for the Glasgow Assurance Company (Fig. 223), in Euston Square, 
 by Professor Beresford Pite, in which a Greek severity is relieved 
 by touches of free design skilfully grafted on the main conception. 
 
 Here, perhaps, is the place to note the fact that all these 
 revivals were carried on to an accompaniment of protest from those 
 
 112 
 
I 
 
 THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 
 
 who insisted that architecture, like other arts, but perhaps in even 
 greater degree, should express the living ideas of its ow^n time. 
 Such a contention is so indefeasible as to be a truism, for no 
 architecture, seriously intended, can fail to be the expression of 
 its age. When classical scholarship and archaeology are the leading 
 intellectual preoccupations of a generation, they are bound to find 
 expression in its art, and to become, in their way, valuable documents 
 for the future. It is the same with restoration. In a restoring age 
 we must restore : only, let us be very curious as to the rights of each 
 case before proceeding to action. If an example of architecture 
 be famous for qualities which cannot be restored — for its associations 
 or the glory placed upon it by time — let us leave it alone. But if 
 it be famous for the beauty of its design — like the Angel Tower of 
 Canterbury — or for the part it plays in a group — like the Venetian 
 Campanile — the best restoration to be compassed is clearly demanded. 
 Our failure or success in the task will be judged by posterity, and 
 will form part of the permanent badge of our age. The moral 
 of all this is that it is of little use to try to enforce upon 
 any art principles which are not in sympathy with the intel- 
 lectual character of the time. The nineteenth centurv as a whole, 
 was a fine, critical and 
 
 inquiring century, much 
 more addicted to finding 
 out causes than to pro- 
 ducing new results, and 
 much of its art, especially 
 in those branches which 
 are most easily touched by 
 scholarship, was scientific 
 rather than aesthetic in its 
 inspiration. In an attempt 
 to follow the internal de- 
 velopment, natural uncon- 
 scious growth of British 
 archtecture, it is of assist- 
 ance only through the light 
 it casts on English charac- 
 ter and habits of thought. One of the most salient features it betrays 
 is, unhappily, a fault : that of instability. The French instinct, or 
 perhaps reasoned-out determination, is to cling to all the fertile 
 strains in their own tradition. That instinct has been and still is 
 one of the chief causes of their general supremacy in art life as a 
 
 113 
 
 FIG. 222. — MARISCHALL COLLEGE, ABERDEEN. 
 (MARSHALL-MACKENZIE.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 whole. A French architect with a problem to solve is content with 
 what has become the national vernacular. He introduces only such 
 modifications as are required by the special conditions. Hence there 
 is a natural continuity and affiliation in his forms which is not, and 
 never has been, so marked in English building. That we have the 
 qualities of our defects is only a partial consolation, and the posses- 
 sion of a certain number of structures in which an eclectic method 
 has been used with extraordinary skill, scarcely makes up for the 
 absence of such a body of homogeneous art as French Renaissance 
 architecture. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Barry, Rev. A.: Life and Worko of Sir Charles Barry, London, 1867. Hittorf : Notice 
 Historique ei Biographique sur la vie et les ceuvres de Sir Charles Barry, Paris, 1 860. Pugin, 
 E. W.: Who was the Art Architect of the Houses of Parliament, London, 1867. Barry, Rev. 
 A. : The Architect of the New Palace of Westminster, London, 1868. Pugin, A. W. N. : An 
 Apology for the Revival of Gothic Architecture in England, London, 1843. Ditto: State of 
 Ecclesiastical Architecture in England, hondon, 1843. Ditto: The True Principles of Pointed, 
 or Christian, A rchitecture, London, 1 84 1 . Ferrey : Recollections of A . W. Pugin. Water- 
 house, Paul: Life and Works of Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, in the Architectural Re- 
 view for 1897. The Ecclesiologist for 1852. Scott, Sir G. G. : Pergonal and Professional 
 Recollections, i^ondon, 1879. Street, A. E. : Memoir of G. E. Street, London, 1888. East- 
 lake, C. : The History of the Gothic Revival, l^ondon, 1872. Cooper and Wilson : The Works 
 of John Sedding, in the Architectural Review for 1897. Newberry, J. E. : The Works of J. L. 
 Pearson, R.A., in the Architectural Review for 1896. Sedille, C. : Architecture Contemporaine 
 en Angleterre, n.d. The Architectural Review, passim, vols. I to XVIII. 
 
 FIG. 223. — GLASGOW ASSURANCE BUILDING, EUSTON SQUARE. 
 ^ , (BERESFORD PITE.) 
 
 114 
 
i- 
 
 i 
 
 
 _. 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 ifiri 
 
 IBM. 
 
 
 4 
 
 ij 
 
 @ 
 
 Inlllll 
 
 mM ' M. 
 
 mth\'%'\ 
 
 rfilB 
 
 |'pii^'?5V?f.-: - 
 
 ' 'mm 
 
 liU 
 
 FIG. 224. — TOWN HALL, BELFAST. (siR E. BRUMWELL-THOMAS.) 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 MODERN RENAISSANCE 
 
 Roughly speaking, the full Gothic revival prevailed for about a 
 generation. It w^as then challenged by what was called " Queen 
 Anne," a style compounded of various features taken from Jones 
 and Wren, their followers, and the 
 architects of Belgium and Holland. 
 The first building in the new manner 
 to attract much attention was New Zea- 
 land Chambers, in Leadenhall Street 
 (Fig. 225). It was the work of Richard 
 Norman Shaw, an architect of genius, 
 who has, ever since, been accepted as 
 the chief leader in the movement. 
 His next important work in London 
 was the insurance office at the junction 
 of St. James's Street and Pall Mall, in 
 which the Flemish influence is very 
 strong. At a long interval this was 
 followed by the clumsily named New 
 Scotland Yard, a robuster exercise in 
 a more English dialect ; and that again, 
 after several years, by those designs for 
 remodelling whole districts of London, 
 of which the chief results, at present, are the Gaiety Theatre (Fig. 
 230) and the Piccadilly Hotel (Fig. 226). Meanwhile Mr. Shaw 
 
 115 l2 
 
 FIG. 225. — NEW ZEALAND CHAMBERS, 
 LEADENHALL STREET. 
 
 (norm AN SHAW.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 226. — THE PICCADILLY HOTEL. 
 (nORMAN SHAW.) 
 
 has been extremely active in the 
 country, building a large number of 
 country houses, in which ideas taken 
 from French chateaux, Belgian 
 hotels-de-ville, and the earlier Eng- 
 lish Renaissance have been used 
 with great skill, vigor, and origi- 
 nality. The general movement of 
 his art has been from the pictu- 
 resque eclecticism with which he be- 
 gan to something more in harmony 
 with the genius of Inigo Jones. 
 
 And in this he has carried Eng- 
 lish architecture as a whole with 
 him. For at last our best architects, 
 who are, in great part, his disciples, 
 appear to have settled down to the 
 conviction that their true 
 course is to return to the 
 path pointed out by Jones 
 and Wren, and to develop 
 that form of Palladian which 
 was shown by the works of 
 those two men to be suited 
 to our wants, character, and 
 climate. During the last 
 ten or fifteen years many 
 important buildings have 
 been erected, in London and 
 the provinces, in a style which may be fairly called the legitimate 
 
 offspring of our two great 
 architects. Within our limits 
 it is impossible to give even a 
 bare list of them all, and I 
 must be content with naming 
 a few of the most successful. 
 Mr. Belcher, who is con- 
 spicuous for the flexibility of 
 his designing power, is re- 
 sponsible for the Institute of 
 Chartered Accountants (Fig. 
 (sir ASTON WEBB.) 23 1 ) and Electra House 
 
 FIG. 227. — KINMEL PARK. (nESFIELD.) 
 
 FIG. 228. 
 
 -NEW COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, SOUTH 
 KENSINGTON. 
 
 116 
 
MODERN RENAISSANCE 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^P^ 
 
 m 
 
 Mis: 
 
 
 mi.^^ 
 
 
 -^m^d*- " 
 
 FIG. 229. — THE WALDORF HOTF.L. 
 (MARSHALL-MACKENZIE.) 
 
 (Fig. 233) both in the City, as well 
 as for a number of buildings in 
 which something that approaches 
 a new style — begotten, appar- 
 ently, of a sneaking kindness 
 for the new art of Germany — 
 is employed. ' Of this the 
 newest examples are Mappin's 
 shop in Oxford Street, the Medi- 
 cal Association building in the 
 Strand, and the Office at the 
 North-Western corner of St. 
 James's Street, which devotes 
 the last corner of that " celebrated 
 eminence " to insurance. The 
 chief objection to these designs 
 is one based on the practical 
 limitations of the human mind ! 
 If an architect could invent a whole style, from initial principles 
 to the last decorative detail, he would be free to design as he 
 pleased. But so far no such man has appeared in this world. 
 The most daring innovator has 
 found himself admitting parts of 
 the old language, twisting them 
 away from their significance, and, 
 generally, substituting his own sic 
 Volo for a comprehensible relation 
 between form and purpose. Here 
 and there in London streets signs 
 are to be found that this later 
 style has drawn followers after 
 it. The more traditional method 
 governs the late Mr. Mountford's 
 Central Criminal Court, Mr. 
 Marshall-Mackenzie's Waldorf 
 Hotel (Fig. 229), and a large 
 number of other buildings by 
 which our streets are being rapidly 
 transformed. 
 
 An important group of designs 
 are those connected with that 
 outburst of official activity in 
 
 117 
 
 FIG. 230. — THE GAIETV THEATRE. 
 (NORMAN SHAW.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 231. — INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED 
 ACCOUNTANTS. (bELCHER.) 
 
 building which may possibly, in the future, come to be looked 
 upon as the chief claim to our gratitude of the governments 
 
 between 1895 and 1906. 
 Mr. William Young be- 
 came known through the 
 work he did at Gosford, 
 Midlothian, at Culford, Suf- 
 folk, and at Glasgow. His 
 Town Hall (Fig. 232) in the 
 latter city is not entirely sat- 
 isfactory, mainly because the 
 chief front compares un- 
 favorably with the sides. 
 But on the whole the build- 
 ing is magnificent, inside and 
 out, without being vulgar or 
 overcharged. When it was 
 resolved that the disgraceful 
 rookery in Pall Mall, which 
 had so long done duty as a War Office, should disappear and be 
 succeeded by a palace in Whitehall, the resolution to entrust a proved 
 architect with the commission was not surprising. The Admiralty had 
 been the result of a competition, and had given London a most con- 
 venient office, but had saddled it with some very bad architecture. So 
 Young was entrusted with the War Office, and J. C. Brydon, another 
 
 Scot, was commissioned to 
 provide the group of offices 
 for the Board of Trade, 
 Local Government Board, 
 etc., at the corner of Parlia- 
 ment Street and Parliament 
 Square. Young's War Of- 
 fice (Fig. 234) is open to 
 criticism for a certain want 
 of congruity between design 
 and purpose, but on the 
 whole it has largeness and 
 dignity and is free from that 
 pattern-book character which 
 degrades so much London 
 architecture. B r y d o n ' s 
 palace strikes a different 
 
 fig. 232. — glasgow town hall, 
 (young.) 
 
 118 
 
MODERN RENAISSANCE 
 
 "electra" building, 
 (belcher.) 
 
 note. Commonplace enough 
 in general conception, it wins 
 respect by the refinement of 
 its details and their happy 
 distribution. The circular 
 court may have been inspired 
 by Inigo Jones, but is far 
 inferior to the corresponding 
 feature in that great artist's 
 Whitehall. A third struct- 
 ure, undertaken at about the 
 same time as these two, is 
 the new College of Science at 
 South Kensington, in which 
 Sir Aston Webb, continuing 
 his progress away from the 
 paralysing influence of 
 Waterhouse, produced a 
 building in which little but 
 true Renaissance feeling is to 
 be detected (Fig. 228). A still further step in the same direction may 
 be traced in his design for the very ingenious structure now being 
 erected at the end of the Mall, which is to house the First Lord 
 and First Naval Lord of the Admiralty, and to disguise the break 
 of axis in the avenue from Queen Victoria's statue to that of Charles 
 the Martyr. The more private buildings which have been erected 
 at the same time as all these public structures are distinguished, 
 for the most part, by respect for the tradition of English renaissance. 
 Experiments in styles 
 drawn from climates very 
 different from ours are 
 much less frequent than 
 they were, and Gothic 
 has practically disap- 
 peared from the secular 
 field. Among the better 
 designs which have been 
 carried out since the new 
 spurt began, we may name 
 Mr. Reginald Blomfield's 
 club house at the corner 
 
 of Suffolk Street and Pall hg. 234.— the war office, (young.) 
 
 119 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 fig. 235. united kingdom 
 
 provident institution, 
 (h. t. hare.) 
 
 be erected on the south side of the river from the 
 designs of Mr. Ralph Knott. It will have a touch 
 of the right kind of originality in its design, the 
 want of which is the chief defect of Sir E. Brum- 
 well Thomas's rather splendid Town Hall at 
 Belfast (Fig. 224). Here the reliance on Wren 
 is carried, perhaps, just a shade too far. It can- 
 not be 
 
 Mall (Fig. 237), Mr. F. E. Wimams;s 
 blocks in Regent Street and St. James's 
 Street, Mr. Atkinson's great red and 
 white shop in Oxford Street, and Mr. 
 Keen's Baptist Church House, in Hol- 
 born. A large number of other build- 
 ings have been put up in London, Edin- 
 burgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere, during 
 the last decade, which give evidence of 
 good training, skill, and readiness to think. 
 Examples of this will be found among 
 the illustrations to this chapter. Within 
 the next few years 
 we are promised 
 another serious 
 addition to our 
 public monu- 
 ments in the 
 County Hall, to 
 
 fIG. 23').- 
 
 —SHOP, WIGMORE 
 STREET. 
 
 (WALLACE AND GIBSON.) 
 
 237. united university club. 
 
 Creg. blomfield.) 
 
 denied, 
 howev- 
 er, that 
 its Town Hall does as much 
 for Belfast as St. Paul's for 
 London. 
 
 While these men and many 
 others have been helping to 
 reestablish the English tra- 
 dition, a good deal of mistaken 
 skill has been lavished on struc- 
 tures of a very debatable charac- 
 ter, such as the Imperial Institute, 
 the new Victoria and Albert 
 Museum, and the new Cathe- 
 
 120 
 
MODERN RENAISSANCE 
 
 dral of Westminster — of these, the two last 
 give evidence of great abihty on the part of 
 their creators, but the designs of both suffer 
 from the same radical defect. There is not 
 enough congruity betv^^een their scope and 
 purpose as a whole, and the style and distinc- 
 tion of their external architecture. A 
 museum consisting of a few enormous halls 
 has no business with domes, minarets, and 
 pagodas on its roof. These falsify its dec- 
 laration of purpose and interfere with that 
 even distribution of light which is one of the 
 first requirements of exhibition rooms. Still 
 less should a church, consisting of a single 
 imposing hall, be packed externally with a 
 crowd of small annexes, inorganic in arrange- 
 ment, and over-delicate in detail. The ex- 
 quisite taste, 
 however, of 
 
 
 ^3ii 1 
 
 
 l^ffi 
 
 
 «■ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 lii 
 
 } 
 
 FIG. 238. — DOORWAY, NEW- 
 GATE STREET. 
 
 FIG. 239. — INSURANCE BUILDING, 
 EDINBURGH. (j. M. DICK-PEDDIE.) 
 
 the late Mr. 
 
 Bentley's detail, goes far toward 
 justifying the erection of a Byzanto- 
 Italian Cathedral almost in the 
 shadow of Westminster Abbey. 
 
 But perhaps the most important, 
 and cer- 
 tainly the 
 most suc- 
 cessf ul. 
 
 movement 
 in the latest phase of British architecture, 
 has been that illustrated by the countless 
 country houses, large and small, erected 
 during the last quarter of a century. Good 
 planning has been a virtue oi English 
 house-building for many generations, and 
 now to that virtue thoughtfully significant 
 architecture has been added. The styles 
 most commonly used are a playful form 
 of English Palladian and a development 
 from the late Tudor, by which it was 
 immediately preceded. We may give as 
 
 121 
 
 FIG. 240. — DOORWAY. 
 (lanchester and RICKARDS.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 241. — CHAMBERS IN ST. JAMES S STREET. 
 (nORMAN SHAW.) 
 
 ago as little thought as possible was spent on such 
 
 erections, which 
 were turned o u t 
 on much the same 
 principle as quar- 
 tern loaves ! A 
 great change has 
 now taken place — 
 all over the country 
 these modest un- 
 dertakings are be- 
 ing carried out in 
 a spirit which at 
 least makes for art 
 — o f t e n , indeed, 
 we find their 
 creators falling into 
 an almost excus- 
 able mistake, and 
 make some village 
 
 examples of the two styles 
 the new house at Bryanston 
 Park built for Lord Port- 
 man by Mr. Norman Shaw 
 and the house in Kensington 
 Palace Gardens designed for 
 Lord Cadisle by Mr. Philip 
 Webb. 
 
 A development which 
 makes less figure in t h e 
 world, but can by no means 
 be passed over in silence, is 
 that which is connected with 
 the designing of small houses, 
 small churches, small public 
 buildings, in villages and 
 country towns. A generation 
 
 r 
 i 
 
 
 FIG. 242. — SHOP, 
 EDINBURGH. 
 
 FIG. 243. — COMMERCIAL BANK OF 
 SCOTLAND, GLASGOW. 
 (SIDNEY MITCHEL.) 
 
 attemptmg to 
 church or hall 
 carry more design than it will bear. 
 But the old indifference is dead, or 
 at least moribund, and hundreds of 
 illustrations might now be quoted of 
 modest opportunities happily used. 
 
 122 
 
MODERN RENAISSANCE 
 
 In this respect the palm of priority must be awarded to Scotland. 
 There — perhaps as a result of the " feuing " system, so much more 
 favorable to the tenant than that of ** building-leases "—evidence 
 of thought in design and care in execution has been visible much 
 longer than in England. Scottish architects, how^ever, are much 
 less eclectic than English ; they have an almost French respect for 
 tradition, and variety is vastly more conspicuous south of the 
 Tv/eed than north. The result is that Scotland, as a whole, is 
 singularly free from those excursions into exotic forms of building 
 which disfigure all the greater English cities. Practically, the only 
 vagary of which she has to repent is the endeavor which followed 
 on the christening of Edinburgh as the Northern Athens, to 
 naturalize Grecian architecture in that city and — of all places — in 
 smoky Glasgow. That this attempt was made with no little skill 
 must be allowed, but its results, especially in the commercial capital, 
 are not a little depressing. 
 
 FIG. 244. — CHIMNEY PIECE, 
 (nORMAN SHAW.) 
 
 BIBUOGRAPHY 
 
 For further information on the subjects of this chapter, reference can only be made to current 
 periodicals. The Architectural Review, The Builder, The Architect, Mons. C. Sedille's Architec- 
 ture contemporaine en Angleterre (n.d.). 
 
 123 
 
KG. 245.— ARUNDEL MANUSCRIPT NO. 83: FOLIO I31B. (British MuSCUm.) 
 
 124 
 
FIG. 246. — PSALTER, COTTON MS. 
 
 NERO c. XIV. (British Museum.) 
 
 FIG. 247. — ARUNDEL MANUSCRIPT, 
 
 83: FOLIO 132. (British Museum.) 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 CERTAIN MINOR ARTS 
 
 Ironwork 
 
 In a handbook professing to deal with the Fine Arts, no great 
 space can be afforded for those minor activities which, at their best, 
 cannot shake themselves free from utilitarian conditions. And yet, 
 in the case of the British Islands, they cannot be passed over in 
 silence, for they help to fill the gap which has already been so 
 often alluded to. 
 
 Much has been said of the artistic industries of these islands 
 during the long periods which elapsed before the higher forms 
 of art began to develop at all. Some account has now to be 
 given of certain activities practised in later times, side by side 
 with the greater arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting. 
 
 Few industries are more fascinating than that based on iron. The 
 most widely distributed of metals, iron is the most adaptable of all 
 to man's various wants. On the other hand, it is remarkably perish- 
 able if not carefully nursed. It is chiefly in consequence of this latter 
 defect that archaeologists are still able to differ so profoundly on the 
 questions of how long it has been used, and how widely its use 
 
 123 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 248. TOMB OF 
 
 QUEEN ELEANOR. 
 
 (Westminster Abbey.) 
 
 was distributed at various epochs. It appears to be fairly certain that 
 the Egyptians were acquainted with it at least as early as 2000 B.C.* 
 According to their own statements, which, 
 however, are not to be implicitly relied on, 
 the Chinese knew it at least as soon. In 
 Mesopotamia its use cannot be surely traced 
 beyond about 1000 B.C. In Syria it was 
 known somewhat earlier, in Greece perhaps 
 earlier still, and in India at least as early as 
 in Greece. How soon iron working entered 
 into the metallurgy of Western Europe is still 
 uncertain, our damper climates being more 
 destructive of evidence than those of the East. 
 The Phocasans of Marseilles worked iron 
 mines in Spain as early as between 600 
 and 500 B.C. The excavations at Bibracte 
 have revealed an ancient Sheffield, where 
 iron and even steel were manufactured. The Gauls were famous 
 for their skill in working iron long before the days of Ceesar, and 
 the Britons were probably but little their inferiors. In both 
 countries iron was used as a medium of exchange in the form 
 of rings. The climate of these islands is such that very few objects 
 have survived from those Roman days which have yielded rich 
 harvests further south. A folding chair with bronze enrichments, 
 a few andirons, candelabra, and hinges complete our catalogue. 
 Coming down to later centuries, when varying influences from 
 without — Scandinavian, Danish, Saxon — had their effects, we find 
 that the progress of iron-working is still to be chiefly traced 
 in hinges. These were more easily preserved than other objects. 
 They were securely fixed to timber, and were often protected from 
 rust. They seem to have taken on an elaborate form sooner in 
 these islands than elsewhere, and as a natural consequence preserved 
 the utilitarian basis of their ornament longer. Their elementary 
 form was that of an iron strap embracing the door on both 
 sides and folded near its centre round the pivot let into the 
 jamb. To this were added side-pieces, often in the form of 
 a crescent, which gave a stronger hold on the timber. The junc- 
 tion of these straps with the socket itself was protected, in the 
 case of English doors, by the overlapping of the jamb, which put the 
 
 1 The contention that as they were able to carve diorite, syenite, porphyry, and other hard rocks 
 many centuries before 2000 B.C., they must have known and used iron, is quite inconclusive ; for 
 given unlimited time and patience, which we know the Egyptians were always ready to put into 
 dieir work, the hardest rocks can be shaped without iron. 
 
 126 
 
IRONWORK 
 
 weakest part of the combination well out of reach of violence. An 
 interesting early example of this arrangement is to be seen on the 
 door of Stillingfleet Church, Yorkshire, where the working parts 
 are combined with the representation of a viking ship and other 
 signs meant to act as charms. Another ancient specimen is the 
 hinging of a door in the church of Willingale-Spain, in Essex, with 
 which that of a door at Eastwood, near Rockford, in the same county, 
 may be associated. Other well-known examples are at Erith, 
 Maxstoke, Weston-Barton, Margaret Roding, Compton-Norton, 
 Leicester, Kingston-Lisle, Sparsholt, Haddiscoe, Kenilworth! 
 Raveningham, and the Cathedrals of Gloucester, Hereford, Peter- 
 borough, and Chichester. Some fine hinges from St. Alban's are 
 in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 All these are examples of pure smithery, in which the iron is 
 worked with hammer alone. They were succeeded by more 
 complex performances in which stamps were used, the white-hot 
 iron being driven into metal dies. This second style was carried to 
 great perfection, or at least to great elaboration, in France, where 
 the hmges of the great doors of Notre Dame remind us of the 
 Roman scroll. Stamped work in England was never so ambitious. 
 One of the finest examples is the south door leading to the cloisters, 
 in Durham Cathedral. But this appears to 
 be of French origin, although more English 
 than French in design. Here the hinges still 
 supply the chief motive, but as time went on 
 they were frequently ignored and ironwork put 
 on doors as mere surface decoration and re- 
 enforcement. Of this perhaps the most 
 beautiful English example is supplied by the 
 doorway of Worksop Priory. Here the door 
 is double, the design resting on the vertical 
 lines of the central opening, and ignoring the 
 hinges. This specimen dates from about the 
 end of the twelfth century, and gave motives 
 to many other works of the same class in Ox- 
 fordshire, Herefordshire, Somersetshire, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Less consecutive than hinges in their illustration of progress, 
 but more important in themselves, are the grilles which formerly 
 existed in such vast numbers in our churches and cathedrals. A 
 peculiar viciousness seems to have been shown, at various times, 
 in their destruction, and comparatively few have come down to our 
 
 127 
 
 FIG. 249. — GATES OF 
 ALL SOULS, OXFORD. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 day. Most of those which remain are built up of iron straps turned 
 into spirals, loops, quatrefoils, and other simple forms, held together 
 by collars and set in rectangular iron frames protected by spikes at 
 the top, and sometimes strengthened by flat bands of pierced iron. 
 Good specimens are the choir grille in Lincoln Cathedral, a tomb 
 grille at St. Albans, a grille from Chichester Cathedral in the 
 South Kensington Museum, and the fine grille of St. Swithin, 
 at Winchester, which is the oldest as well as the finest work of 
 its own class now extant. It dates from the last years of the 
 eleventh century. The most important of all remaining grilles, 
 however, is the " herse " over Queen Eleanor's tomb in West- 
 minster Abbey (Fig. 248). It belongs to the class of stamped 
 work, and is the only early specimen either in England or the 
 
 royal domain in France 
 (to which for a long 
 period the method was 
 practically confined) the 
 date of which is known. 
 It was made in 1294 
 by Thomas de Legh- 
 tone (Thomas of Leigh- 
 ton Buzzard) for the 
 sum of £13. A con- 
 sideration of dates and 
 other matters makes it 
 likely that this kind of 
 work originated i n 
 England, that French 
 promptness, carried it to 
 hinges, and then 
 
 250. — SCREEN I ROM ST. JOHN'S, FROME. 
 
 (Victoria and Albert Museum.) 
 
 smiths seized upon it with their usual 
 
 the extravagant richness of the Notre Dame 
 
 dropped it in default of patrons for anything so costly. 
 
 The thirteenth was the blacksmith's great century. His aesthetic 
 ambitions were then fully developed, and progress had not 3'et pro- 
 vided him with a royal road to any of his effects. All the 
 operations which intervened between the delivery at his forge of 
 rough bars of iron and the production of such a work as the St. 
 Swithin's grille, had to be performed with his own hand, under the 
 control of his own fallible but masterful eye. Putting aside stamped 
 work, his material and his way of using it were as expressive as the 
 painter's, and so, to the modern student, his productions have an ever- 
 growing charm. To quote Mr. Starkie Gardiner :^ "The quick and 
 
 ^Ironwork: South Kensington Handbook, 1907. 
 
 128 
 
IRONWORK 
 
 FIG. 251.— CANADA GATES, BUCKINGHAM PALACE. 
 
 decisive treatment of iron while it is transiently in a plastic condition 
 must be regarded as the true art of the blacksmith, and of necessity leads 
 to vigorous and masculine effects. The tools of the smithy proper 
 consist of forge and bellows, hammer and anvil, tongs and chisels." 
 
 With the fourteenth century new methods and new tools came to 
 complicate his practice, and to deprive it of not a little of its 
 spontaneity and individuality. The use of iron as a decorative 
 feature began, probably, in this country, whence it spread south- 
 ward and westward. But English ironworkers lost their supremacy, 
 partly through the general failure of art in the early fifteenth 
 century, partly through the more active ambition of their Continental 
 rivals. In the use of iron for purposes which exactly fitted it, 
 they were equalled only by the French. In forcing the powers 
 of iron, and employing it in ways better suited to wood or to more 
 ductile materials, they were left far behind. The history of metal- 
 working in England, as a spontaneous expression of cesthetic ideas, 
 comes to a temporary end with the commencement of the two 
 centuries of political and religious trouble which intervened between 
 1450 and 1650. In later times it was re-inspired from abroad and 
 produced much fine work, in which the restraint and propriety 
 of English taste is again conspicuous ; but it could no longer boast 
 any strong, native character, while it fell short of its rivals in that 
 magnificence which in some degree atones for impropriety. In our 
 own day ironwork, like other arts, has sprung into new and energetic 
 life, and is producing results which are often quite admirable. The 
 revival has much to contend with ; especially in the damage done to 
 the public taste by the presence of so many bad and ambitious 
 designs in cast iron in conspicuous places (the Coalbrookdale gates 
 near the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, those in the Marble Arch 
 and the arch at the top of Constitution Hill, for instance). But 
 
 129 K 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 252. LEAD URN, 
 
 PARHAM (BLOMFIELD). 
 
 such iron work as the new grilles between choir ond choir aisle in 
 St. Paul's, the Canada gates (Fig. 251) at Buckingham Palace and 
 those in the new Government Offices in 
 Whitehall, and Bentley's beautiful bronze 
 screen to one of the side chapels in West- 
 minster Cathedral, are distinctly encouraging 
 for the future. 
 
 Enamels. 
 
 Little if any light is thrown upon the 
 course of the Fine Arts in this country by 
 what is left of our native enamels. Docu- 
 ments, indeed, seem to prove that the trade 
 of the enameller flourished here throughout 
 the Middle Ages, but his work never ap- 
 pears to have risen to the confines of the 
 Fine Arts, as it did in Italy, France, and 
 Germany. As industrial arts, the Celtic 
 enamellers (Figs. 253-5) occupy a high 
 place, and in later centuries the method was effectually used for the 
 decoration of utilitarian objects. The enamelled brasses (candle- 
 sticks, andirons, etc.) of the Tudor and Jacobaean periods are often 
 effective, and the Battersea enamellers of the eighteenth century 
 show a pleasing fancy allied to much skill at their metier, but 
 only by the production of portrait minia- 
 tures, after the Petitots had shown the 
 way, can English enamelling claim a place 
 among the Fine Arts. During the last 
 five and twenty or thirty years it has, of 
 course, shared in the general revival of 
 all forms of art, but has so far been 
 practically restricted to decoration. 
 
 Stained Glass. 
 
 Perhaps the most attractive of all the 
 subsidiary arts is that of producing in stained 
 and painted glass a crown and complement 
 to architecture. Those who have wandered 
 for hours or days in the great cathedrals 
 which still wear their crown of color, in 
 York, or Chartres, or Le Mans, or the comparatively humble fane 
 at Gouda, look back, I think, on the glass as the vitalizing feature 
 
 130 
 
 FIG. 253. — TARA BROOCH. 
 
 (Dublin Museum.) 
 
STAINED GLASS 
 
 I 
 
 FIG. 254. — CELTIC ENAMEL, FROM POLDEN HILL 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 of the whole. It is to a church what the eye is to the human face. 
 And yet it is, or ought to be, strictly subordinate. The architect 
 should strike the note and the 
 glazier dance to his pipe. 
 Those ensembles are the most 
 satisfactory in which this prin- 
 ciple has been most intelli- 
 gently followed. 
 
 Endeavors have been 
 made to refer the art of stained- 
 glass window-making to the 
 East, like so many arts. Links 
 are missing, however, in the 
 chain of proof. The glass mosaics set in plaster tracery of Saracenic 
 buildings are, no doubt, the offspring of an old tradition, but the 
 desire to bring the large openings necessary in European climates 
 into the scheme of decoration was a force unknown in the blaze 
 of Eastern light. 
 
 The fashion in Western Europe seems to have started somewhat 
 abruptly, and may, perhaps, be traced as much to a sudden 
 perception that architecture might be illuminated as well as the 
 mass books, as to a slow evolution like that of architecture itself. 
 The earliest glass we can point to is by no means the work of men 
 feeling their way. It has been asserted that the art was first 
 practised in France, as early as the reign of Charlemagne. But of 
 that there is no real evidence. The earliest glass now in existence 
 dates from the twelfth century,' but very little, if any, of that date can 
 be identified in England. The 
 thirteenth century, however, has 
 left us a rich legacy in glass — at 
 Canterbury, York, Lincoln, Salis- 
 bury, etc. — and in the fourteenth, 
 the art was more active here than 
 elsewhere, French activity being for 
 a time more or less arrested. It was 
 not until the end of the thirteenth 
 century and beginning of the four- 
 teenth that Germany took the art 
 seriously. 
 
 During the Perpendicular period an immense amount of glass was 
 
 ' The Germans claim a date as early as the eleventh century for certain un-beautiful windows 
 ia Augsburg Cathedral, but the claim has not yet been generally acknowledged. 
 
 131 K 2 
 
 255. — ARDAGH CHALICE. 
 
 (Dublin Museum.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 produced in England, especially after the accession of Henry IV. 
 This activity continued down to the Renaissance period, during 
 which, however, much of the best glass now in this country appears 
 to have been imported from abroad, from France and Belgium. 
 The magnificent windows of King's College, Cambridge, were 
 probably Flemish in their origin, although of native manufacture.^ 
 Contracts for them still exist. From the middle of the sixteenth 
 century down to the middle of the nineteenth, the art was in the 
 slough of despond. Wrong ideas prevailed for two centuries and 
 a half, and when at last the right conception again struggled to the 
 surface, it took a whole generation to purify itself and learn to make 
 a window which could be looked at without horror by those 
 familiar with ancient glass. 
 
 The art divides itself, historically, into periods corresponding to 
 those of pointed architecture itself. As a matter of fact, its whole 
 
 course, like that of the architec- 
 ture to which it formed a crown, 
 is one continuous transition, so 
 that if life were long enough and 
 patience inexhaustible, all the 
 glass in the country might be 
 arranged into an unbroken table 
 of chronological precedence. 
 
 Speaking more or less roughly, 
 however, Gothic glass may be 
 thus divided : — 
 Decorated, 1300 to 1380: 
 
 FiG. 256. — SYON COPE. 
 
 (Victoria and Albert Museum.) 
 
 Early Pointed, 1180 to 1300 
 Perpendicular, 1380 to 1520. 
 
 A few fragments of a date earlier than about 1 1 80 have been 
 called Byzantine, while Renaissance feeling becomes so strong after 
 1 520 that the epithet Gothic has to drop out. 
 
 The First Pointed window was a mosaic of colors, of small 
 pieces of pot-metal glass set in strips of lead, the latter following and 
 making out the design. The glass was also painted, but the paint 
 was restricted to the work of helping out the forms suggested 
 by leading and color, and was never used as a substitute for care 
 in the management of these latter elements. The purely decorative 
 parts of early windows were usually in grisaille, with little admixture 
 of positive color. On the other hand, their pictorial parts — figures 
 
 - The cartoons for these windows have lately been ascribed, with some show of justification, to the 
 Antwerp glass-p>ainter, Dirick Jacopssone Vellert, who was identical with the engraver known as 
 Dirk van Staren from his monogram. (See Burlington Magazine for October, 1907.) 
 
 132 
 
STAINED GLASS 
 
 and backgrounds — were as deep, rich, and positive in color as 
 was consistent with transparency. 
 
 The general design of First Pointed windows falls into four 
 classes : — 
 
 1 . Windows entirely in grisaille. 
 
 2. Medallion windows, in which pictures of medallion form 
 and character were set in a decorative framework. 
 
 3. Figure windows, with sacred personages standing under 
 feigned canopies and in feigned architectural settings. 
 
 4. Jesse windows, in which the genealogy of Christ was set out 
 more or less in the form of a heraldic tree. 
 
 Besides the indications given by these definitions, First Pointed 
 glass may be distinguished by the conventional character of the 
 detail, especially of the foliations, and by the use of hatched 
 backgrounds, which, while lowering the general tone and pulling 
 the design together, not only did not interfere with the brilliancy of 
 the glass, but actually enhanced it. 
 
 The second, or Decorated, period is to be distinguished from the 
 first by various developments. 
 
 1 . Windows become more pictorial in general conception, the 
 design being often so schemed as to embrace several " lights." 
 
 2. The colors are brighter and gayer, admitting more daylight. 
 
 3. Figures are better drawn and more naturally posed. 
 
 4. The ornamental foliage is more imitative of real plants. 
 
 5. The leading becomes actually lighter, although, in consequence 
 of increased delicacy in the painting and the more transparent glass, 
 it asserts itself more than before. 
 
 In England the finest Decorated glass is to be found in Merton 
 Chapel, Oxford ; in the Chapter House, nave, and presbytery of 
 York Minster ; at Tewkesbury, Wells, Salisbury, Gloucester, and 
 Bristol. 
 
 The third, or Perpendicular, period is more national in its 
 characteristics than its predecessors. An English Perpendicular 
 window is much more easily distinguished from a contemporary 
 French or German one than an example from the first or second 
 period. The distinctive features are : — 
 
 1. The diminished significance of the leads, which are divorced 
 from the design more than ever before. 
 
 2. The increased pictorial quality of the conception as a whole. 
 
 3. The presence, in the feigned architecture, of those Perpen- 
 dicular elements which prevail in the real stone architecture of the 
 same period. 
 
 133 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 257. — COPE or ST. SILVESTER, ST. JOHN LATERAN, ROME. 
 
 The typical Perpendicular window represents, or suggests, a collec- 
 tion of niches, or screen, of silvery-white tabernacle work, filled with 
 richly colored figures against colored backgrounds. A great window 
 of this style is, in short, a translucent picture of one of the great archi- 
 tectural screens of the period, such as the Wallingford Screen at St. 
 Albans, or the screens of Magdalen, All Souls', and New Colleges 
 at Oxford. The combination of almost white tabernacle work with 
 colored figures fulfils both practical and artistic requirements, for the 
 architectonic frame lets in plenty of light, while the color decorates 
 magnificently. 
 
 England is rich in fine glass from this third period. The 
 city of York is a perfect museum of it ; not only the Cathedral, 
 but many other churches, especially that of All Saints, North 
 Street, being rich in Perpendicular glass. The old windows in the 
 ante-chapel of New College, Oxford, among which the Reynolds 
 ** Nativity " looks such an unhappy intruder, are fine specimens of 
 the style in its early years. All Souls also has some good glass of 
 this period ; so have the Abbey Church of Great Malvern, the 
 Cathedral at Winchester, and a very large number of other churches. 
 
 With the close of their true architectonic evolution, storied 
 windows lost their decorative character and began a disastrous 
 rivalry with the freest of the fine arts. Those characteristics which 
 bound them to the architecture in which they were set were system- 
 atically suppressed. Leads were avoided as far as possible and 
 finally discdnnected from design. Pot-metal* was superseded by 
 
 * Glass of which the coloring matter has been introduced among the original ingredients before 
 fusion. 
 
 134 
 
NEEDLEWORK 
 
 enameHed glass, with a consequent loss both of translucence and safety. 
 Painted detail was elaborated for its own sake, and realism intro- 
 duced into elements from which it should have been carefully ex- 
 cluded. In England the best examples of Renaissance glass are either 
 wholly or partially of foreign origin. Lichfield Cathedral possesses 
 some fine Flemish windows. There are many at Oxford and Coven- 
 try. King's College Chapel, Cambridge, is a museum of Transition 
 and Renaissance glass, dating from 1516-30. 
 
 From the end of the Perpendicular period down to late in the 
 nineteenth century, the true architectonic art of stained-glass window- 
 making was held down in this country by all sorts of false ideals. 
 During the Renaissance period and the long years of unhappy 
 experiment by which it was followed, nothing was produced with 
 any national cachet. It was not until half the nineteenth century 
 had rolled away that glimmerings of the right spirit began to show 
 over the horizon, and foundations were laid for that evolution which 
 has at last enabled us both to appreciate the work of our fore- 
 bears and to produce something not entirely alien to it in principle. 
 
 Needlework and Tapestry. 
 
 It is doubtful, perhaps, whether any full justification can be 
 produced for including tapestry and needlework in a manual of the 
 fine arts. In treating British art, however, it is peculiarly de- 
 sirable that they should not be passed over in silence, for they afford 
 the best support to our contention that these islands were by 
 
 FIG. 258. — ASCOLI COPE. 
 
 no means such laggards in aesthetic activity as some of our critics, 
 and not least our native ones, contend. They may be taken, together 
 
 135 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 with the production of illuminated manuscripts, to show that during 
 the ages of the untroubled Christian Church, artists were as active 
 and numerous, proportionately, on this side of the English Channel as 
 on the other. The works of the needle and of the illuminator's 
 brush survive when more self-assertive things perish. Shrines, 
 statues, stained-glass windows, are at the mercy of the fanatic's 
 club. They can neither escape nor resist. A cope or a manuscript 
 can do both ; it can take a blow without much damage, or it can 
 hide. As a result we have copes and manuscripts in sufficient quan- 
 tity to prove that the sap of art rose vigorously in the English tree, 
 and that if we cannot rival our nearest neighbors in the volume of 
 our contribution to the world's treasure of mediaeval art, it is less 
 because we failed as artists, than because we had our turmoils 
 at unlucky moments and our wealth too soon. 
 
 Spinning, weaving, and the use of the needle were known in 
 these islands in very remote times. Perforated spindle whorls and 
 heavy combs for driving the weft close on the warp have been 
 found among the neolithic deposits, while discoveries made in 
 Switzerland have proved that flaxen thread was known to the lake- 
 dwellers. Once the knowledge of weaving established, art came as 
 a matter of course. The use of thread could not persist very long 
 without suggesting the first experiments in pattern, and these experi- 
 ments would presently be enriched in the light of what older 
 civilizations were doing in the same direction. The characteristic 
 design of our earliest historical civilization appears to have been 
 tartan, which has come down to us in a developed condition 
 in the clan tartans of Scotland. Boadicea wore a tartan robe 
 on the day of her disaster, as — according to Dion Cassius — did 
 the bulk of her people. Industries like spinning, weaving, em- 
 broidering, and the making-up of stuffs so provided into garments, 
 involved art, so long as the work was done by individuals, without 
 machinery. Art did not require to be introduced. It sprang up 
 of itself, as soon as human beings found materials between their fingers 
 to which variety could easily be given, according to their own 
 tastes and predilections. 
 
 One of the earliest needleworkers of whom we have any real 
 knowledge is the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, and 
 a British princess. She embroidered a figure of the Virgin which 
 still exists in the Church of Vercelli (Bock, Liturgische GeWdnder). 
 Helena died in the fourth century a.D. It is probable that the 
 women of Britain were skilled weavers and embroiderers by that time, 
 as we know they were three centuries later. Even in the sixth century 
 
 136 
 
NEEDLEWORK 
 
 classes were formed for the execution of embroideries for the Church, 
 and long before the Norman Conquest the work of the English 
 ladies was famous all over the Continent. The Danish inroads 
 helped, no doubt, to confine artistic industries more closely to convents 
 and monasteries, than in Continental countries. The most celebrated 
 relic of ancient English needlework is the so-called Bayeux Tapestry, 
 which is, of course, not tapestry at all. Its artistic merit is far inferior 
 to that of other English works of about the same period, and even 
 earlier. The beautiful Anglo-Saxon stole and maniple of St. 
 Cuthbert, at Durham, dates from about the year 910. We know 
 from the chronicles that the English ladies, from the highest to 
 the lowest, were 
 patiently piling up a 
 great wealth of 
 needlework all 
 through the Gothic 
 centuries. The names 
 of many survive. 
 Among them were 
 /Elfled. Queen of 
 Edward the Elder, 
 whose name appears 
 on the s t o 1 e of St. 
 Cuthbert. Another 
 y^lfled (or /Ethel- 
 fleda) gave a pictured 
 hanging to Ely Ca- 
 thedral, St. Dunstan 
 is said to have de- 
 signed embroideries to be executed by /Edelwyrme, a noble lady 
 of his acquaintance ; Emma, wife of Ethelred, and afterward 
 of Cnut, and /Elgitha, Cnut's first Queen, were generous donors of 
 embroideries to the Church; Editha, the Confessor's wife, em- 
 broidered his coronation robe. It is on record that the Con- 
 queror and his companions were astonished by the splendid em- 
 broideries they found worn by the Saxon nobles. These the 
 Normans and their ladies began at once to collect and imitate. It is 
 scarcely too much to say that needlework of every kind was to the 
 gentlewomen of Britain in the Gothic centuries what sport is in 
 these days of progress. The wealth of the English cathedrals in all 
 sorts of embroidery was amazing. The Lincoln catalogue shows 
 that at the Reformation the Cathedral owned between six and seven 
 
 137 
 
 FIG. 259. — OPUS ANGLICANUM. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 hundred figured vestments, richly wrought of the finest materials, and 
 other cathedrals were scarcely less rich. 
 
 A certain number of English embroideries have survived, mostly 
 in cathedrals and other storehouses 
 abroad, which go to prove by their 
 exquisite beauty that English art was 
 no less flourishing a tree than that of 
 any Continental country. The cope of 
 St. Silvester in S. Giovanni Laterano, 
 the cope in the Bologna Town Museum, 
 the Daroca cope at Madrid, the Syon 
 Monastery cope in the Victoria and 
 Albert Museum, to which I would add 
 the famous Ascoli cope, which has seen 
 so many curious vicissitudes, and the 
 Toledo cope — all these and a number 
 of less important relics show a form of 
 art, at once national and elaborately 
 developed, which could never have 
 sprung up in any country but one rich 
 in artistic industries. 
 
 " Opus Anglicanum " began to be 
 famous in the twelfth century ; at least 
 its fame then began to be so great as 
 to win mention in the chronicles. Its vogue continued throughout 
 the Middle Ages, and its productions were eagerly sought after 
 all over Europe. Its characteristics were the union of fine taste 
 in design with a quite unprecedented audacity in the plastic use 
 of stitchcry. 
 
 A fine and wonderfully well-preserved fragment (Fig. 259), 
 dating from the fourteenth century, was given to the British Museum 
 by the late Sir Augustus Franks, but the finest pieces are mostly in 
 foreign treasuries. The glory of English needlework disappeared, 
 like that of so many other artistic industries, in the first half of the 
 fifteenth century, to be revived, indeed, under the Tudors, but 
 then no longer in its purely national condition. 
 
 The history of tapestry in England is in the same condition as 
 that of too many other artistic industries. 
 
 We know from documentary evidence that English looms were at 
 work all through the Middle Ages. In 1344 a law was passed for 
 their regulation. Fifty years later the Earl of Arundel disposed by 
 will of a set of hangings which had been woven for him in London. 
 
 138 
 
 FIG. 260. — DUTAlh, COPE OF ST. 
 
 SILVESTER, ST. JOHN LATERAN, 
 
 ROME. 
 
IVORIES 
 
 In 1495 a hanging was made for Canterbury Choir, which is now 
 at Aix, in Provence. Early in the sixteenth century a manufactory 
 was set up at B arches ton, in Warwickshire, and in the reign of 
 James I the famous manufactory was estabUshed at Mortlake, where 
 hangings second to none for firmness of execution and the beauty of 
 their borders were made. Here were woven sets from the cartoons 
 of Raphael, acquired from the Brussels weaver who had woven the 
 set for the Sistine Chapel at Rome. These were commissioned by 
 Charles I, who had bought the cartoons, it is said, on the advice of 
 Rubens. Many of the tapestries themselves are now in the Garde 
 Meuhle at Paris. A fine suit of Mortlake tapestries is at Hard- 
 wicke Hall. One or two attempts have been made since the 
 Mortlake enterprise came to an end to revive the art in England. 
 The most serious of these was the founding of a low-warp manu- 
 factory at Old Windsor, some thirty years ago, with the help of 
 workmen from Beauvais and Aubusson. Its products were good 
 in execution, but poor in design, and its life was short. 
 
 Ivories 
 
 Until quite recently it was the almost invariable custom to refer 
 every northern mediaeval ivory the origin of which was not documente 
 to either the French or the Flemings ; and yet there is abundant 
 proof that Gothic England possessed numbers of ivory carvers and 
 that their productions were 
 highly popular. The vicissi- 
 tudes of the Church in this 
 country led, of course, to the 
 destruction of vast numbers 
 of ecclesiastical objects, such 
 as pastoral staves and crosiers, 
 pixes and paxes, private 
 shrines and altars. But enough 
 have survived to prove that, 
 during the great period, from 
 about 1280 to about 1420, 
 our native artists were not 
 inferior to their Continental 
 rivals in skill. During t h e 
 
 last decade or two the characteristics of our native production 
 have been gradually recognized. English ivories are distinguished 
 
 139 
 
 FIG. 261. — TAPESTRY AT HATFIELD. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 f^.^^f 
 
 h 
 
 FIG. 262. — IVORY TRIPTYCH. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 by more sobriety of conception and earnest simplicity of expression 
 than French, Flemish, and German examples, while the archi- 
 tectural details introduced supply another test of origin. 
 
 The objects to which the mediaeval 
 ivory carver devoted himself were the 
 same in England as elsewhere : the 
 smaller items of church furniture ; 
 horns, to which the form of a tusk 
 lent itself so kindly ; statuettes ; combs ; 
 book-covers ; mirror-cases ; small boxes, 
 caskets, or pixes ; chessmen, etc. 
 
 The most interesting specimen of 
 very early carving at present known 
 is a casket presented to the British 
 Museum by the late Sir Augustus 
 Franks. It is not of ivory, however, 
 but of the bone of the whale. It has 
 panels with scenes, probably from the 
 Saga of Odoacer, fitted with fine decorative effect into boldly carved 
 runic inscriptions (Imelmann). A magnificent early carving in 
 whale's bone is the Saxon Adoration of the Magi, of about 1000, 
 in the Victoria and Albert Museum (see title-page). 
 
 An interesting and somewhat mysterious find of ivories was the 
 discovery, about ninety years ago, in the Lewis 
 (Hebrides), of a large number of chessmen 
 carved in walrus ivory. The find consisted of 
 six kings, five queens, thirteen bishops, fourteen 
 knights, nineteen pawns, and ten warders, the 
 forerunners of the modern rook or castle. 
 One would say it was the stock of some carver, 
 who profited by the frequent opportunities of 
 acquiring his material which occurred in that 
 northern latitude. One of the finest examples 
 of early English ivory carving is a fragment 
 which appears to have been the arm of a chair, 
 formerly in the great Meyrick collection at 
 Goodrich Court. It is of walrus ivory and 
 exquisite both in design and workmanship. 
 Pastoral staves and crosiers of ivory were prob- 
 ably not uncommon in the Gothic centuries, 
 but very few have survived. The Victoria and Albert Museum, 
 however, possesses one which is closely related to the bronze 
 
 140 
 
 %^>l 
 
 ^' 
 
 r--^^^. 
 
 j^^ 
 
 -r 
 
 FIG. 263. DEXTER LEAF 
 
 OF A DIPTYCH. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 crosiers of various degrees of elabora- 
 tion which have come dow^n to us 
 from the same period. It also pos- 
 sesses a wonderful diptych in open 
 tabernacle work, in which skill and 
 design go hand in hand. 
 
 Fine examples of the English 
 school of the fourteenth century are 
 in the Victoria and Albert Museum 
 (Fig. 294) and the British Museum 
 (Figs. 262, 263) — a triptych and 
 one leaf of a diptych, both carved 
 for Bishop Grandison, of Exeter. 
 The Gothic ivories in the Ashmolean, 
 at Oxford, appear to be nearly all 
 English ; and good examples are 
 now frequently being separated (as ^^°- '^^(■frintt^^CoUe'^e 
 a chemist would say) from their non- 
 English companions. A splendid diptych, ajoure, in the Salting 
 collection, in an Italian frame, may be claimed as English. 
 
 BOOK OF KELLS. 
 
 Dublin.) 
 
 Illuminated Manuscripts. 
 
 In a comprehensive history of 
 invention of printing, the chapter 
 progress of that art in these Islands 
 would be the most homogeneous 
 and, perhaps, the most interesting 
 of all. It would begin with the 
 wonderful Celtic school of monastic 
 art, which arose in the fifth century 
 and came to long persisting perfection 
 some two centuries later, and it would 
 end with the first quarter of the 
 fifteenth century, when the series 
 of political earthquakes began which 
 were to destroy for centuries so 
 much of the national character of 
 British Art. Between those two 
 extreme dates the production of 
 Illuminated Manuscripts went on 
 in a line of more or less steady de- 
 
 141 
 
 book production before the 
 dealing with the birth and 
 
 FIG. 265. — PAGE FROM LINDISFARNE 
 
 GOSPELS. (British Museum.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 266. — PAGE FROM A 
 CELTIC GOSPELS. 
 
 (Lambeth Palace.) 
 
 velopment, and during a great part of the time our scribes and 
 decorators were doing better work than any of their rivals. We have 
 seen that the first wave of Christianity 
 which reached us had its most permanent 
 effect in Ireland, where it was in some 
 degree protected from the raiding tribes of 
 Northern Europe, so that after a time it 
 gathered strength enough to reevangelize 
 the nearer coasts of Britain. With Chris- 
 tianity it introduced its art, and the monas- 
 teries founded in Scotland and England 
 became centres for the distribution of those 
 Celtic conceptions which had been devel- 
 oped in peace beyond the protecting sea. 
 The Irish Celts "had learned to produce 
 goldsmiths' work and manuscript illumina- 
 tions with such marvellous taste and skill 
 as has never been surpassed by any age or 
 country in the world " (Middleton). The 
 illuminators based their designs on those of the goldsmiths. In 
 many cases, indeed, the same individual both decorated a manu- 
 script and bound it in metal. So that a 
 page from such a work as the Bool^ of 
 Kells is really a translation into terms of 
 paint of notions suggested by the idiosyn- 
 crasies of metal, enamel, and precious stones. 
 On this fact both its virtues and its short- 
 comings depend, its miraculous delicacy, 
 intricacy, and yet freedom from confusion, 
 as well as its occasional want of propriety. 
 The Book of Kells was probably written 
 between 680 and 700. Its extraordinary 
 elaboration defies description in words — can 
 only be appreciated, indeed, by ordinary 
 eyesight with the help of a microscope and 
 a great deal of patience. It has been said 
 that the natural forms introduced show an 
 absolute incapacity on the part of the Celtic 
 artist to represent the human figure. I 
 have already explained (pp. 5-7) why such 
 incapacity should not be too readily assumed. The monastic painter 
 was a Celt, with an eye for unity and the value of line, and was 
 
 142 
 
 FIG. 267. — ROYAL MS. I D. X 
 FOLIO 6. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 
 FIG. 268.— INITIAL FROM A LATE 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY MISSAL. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 not easily tempted to introduce disturbing elements into his designs. 
 He did not wish to imitate the human figure, he wished merely to 
 use it so far as it submitted to his 
 arbitrary but rightly decorative in- 
 tentions. The human figure is so 
 interesting in itself that, once it was 
 made use of in art, it gradually in- 
 sisted on taking an ever more and 
 more important place, but with men 
 in whom Celtic blood predominates 
 it continues, even to this day, essen- 
 tially an element in pattern. 
 
 I have already had occasion to 
 allude to the finest examples of Celtic 
 illumination. They are the Book of 
 Kells (Fig. 264), the perhaps earlier 
 Book of Durrow (Fi^. 19), the later 
 Book of Armagh, the Book of the 
 Gospels of St. Cuthbert, or Lindis- 
 farne MS. (Fig. 265), the Commen- 
 tary ofCassiodorus on the Psalms, in 
 Durham Cathedral, and a splendid Gospels in the Imperial Library of 
 St. Petersburg. The last three are examples of the English school 
 founded on the teaching of the Irish monks. They are more gorgeous 
 
 than the earlier MSS., chiefly through 
 the introduction of gold and silver leaf, 
 which the purely Irish illuminators never 
 used. Illuminated manuscripts continued 
 to be produced in Ireland down to the 
 tenth century, but the later school is by 
 no means equal to that which gave us 
 the Book of Kells. The influence of 
 the Irish illuminators was chiefly active 
 in Scotland and in Northumbria, but it 
 extended not only to Canterbury and 
 other centres in Southern England, but 
 to many places on the continent of 
 Europe, whither it was carried by the 
 ubiquitous Irish missionaries. The library 
 of St. Gall owns a number of finely 
 illuminated books of the later Irish type. Irish influence also 
 penetrated to the Scandinavian peninsula, where typically Celtic 
 
 143 
 
 FIG. 269. — PAGE FROM APOCA- 
 LYPSE, ROYAL MS. 19 B. XV. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 forms are to be identified in the ornament of those timber churches 
 of the eleventh and twelfth centuries which are the earliest Christian 
 monuments in the country. 
 
 A change in the character of Anglo-Celtic illumination naturally 
 followed the closer connection with Rome brought about by the 
 Synod of Whitby in 664 and its logical consequences. Italian ideas 
 modified the old Celtic conceptions, and the combination gave birth 
 to a style which characterized English illumination during those 
 
 generations which saw it the 
 leading school of Europe. This 
 is noticeable in a gentle but pro- 
 gressive infusion of classical feel- 
 ing into the treatment of figures 
 and their draperies. The purely 
 ornamental parts of the work 
 retain their Celtic air for a long 
 time, and by the time it has dis- 
 appeared the classical touch has 
 gone too, and both figures and 
 ornament have combined to form 
 a style in strict unity with the 
 Gothic movement as a whole. 
 From the end of the tenth 
 century to the early years of the 
 fifteenth, excepting a short eclipse 
 after the middle of the fourteenth 
 century, the English school of 
 illumination was the most influen- 
 tial in Europe. 
 
 It was with the help of a 
 famous English scribe and 
 scholar, Alcuin of York, that Charlemagne created what has been called 
 the Anglo Carolingian school of manuscript writing and decoration. 
 Alcuin controlled the production of a large number of manuscripts 
 in the Benedictine monasteries of France — at Tours, Soissons, Metz, 
 etc. He revised the Vulgate, and a magnificently written and 
 illuminated copy in the British Museum is believed to be the 
 actual copy prepared for Charlemagne. '* The figure subjects are 
 mainly classical, with fine architectural backgrounds of Roman 
 style, drawn with unusual elaboration and accuracy, and even 
 with fairly correct perspective. The initial letters and all the 
 conventional ornaments show the northern artistic strain which 
 
 144 
 
 FIG. 270.- 
 
 -PAGE FROM HARLEY MS. 7026. 
 FOLIO 4 B. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 FIG. 271. — THE POPE AND THE 
 GOLDSMITH. (SIR DAVID 
 
 WILKIE.) 
 
 Alcuin himself introduced from York. Delicate and complicated 
 interfaced patterns, as were first used in the wonderful manuscripts 
 of the Celtic monks, are freely in- 
 troduced into the borders and large capi- 
 tals " (Middleton). 
 
 As Northumbria had given Alcuin 
 to Charlemagne to help in the creation 
 of a French school of illumination, so, 
 after the practical destruction of North- 
 umbrian civilization in the ninth century 
 by the Danish ruffians, the movement 
 established by Alcuin reacted on North- 
 umbria and re-kindled the quenched 
 fires. And not only on Northumbria. 
 Alfred the Great was as enthusiastic as 
 Charles the Great in the cause of litera- 
 ture and art. A new school arose in 
 his capital of Winchester and in the 
 great Benedictine monasteries through- 
 out the country. The Carolingian influence is to be traced in the 
 earlier results of the new movement. The famous Chatsworth 
 Benedidional, written by Godeman, chaplain to /Ethelwold, Bishop 
 of Winchester, is an instance of this. In its thirty full page minia- 
 tures it combines features of the Carolingian and more exclusively 
 English schools. Its date is about 965. 
 
 Another centre of illumination was the Benedictine Abbey of 
 Glastonbury under St. Dunstan, himself a good artist. The Bodleian 
 possesses a drawing of Christ with a prostrate saint at His feet, 
 said by a twelfth century annotator to be 
 Dunstan, by himself. 
 
 Side by side with the Anglo-Carolingian 
 School of Winchester, a completely native 
 school of Anglo-Saxon illuminators was at 
 work. By the eleventh century this had 
 reached great excellence, especially in the 
 production of designs depending almost 
 entirely on line for their effect. By the 
 twelfth century these competing schools 
 had led to a great development in the 
 production of decorated manuscripts. All 
 through the century the art rapidly pro- 
 gressed until it culminated in the splendid English illuminations of 
 
 145 L 
 
 FIG. 272. — artist's mother. 
 
 (a. geddes.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 273. — ST. JACQUES, LISIEUX, 
 (C. J. WATSON.) 
 
 the thirteenth century, which were long 
 without rivals in any European country. 
 A close analysis of the best work of 
 this century shows that Celtic, Anglo- 
 Saxon and Norman traditions all con- 
 tributed to its final excellence, although 
 the influence of the last named strain 
 was probably the strongest. It affected 
 art, indeed, over the whole of the An- 
 gevin Empire, down to the Pyrenees. 
 
 Down to a quite recent date it was 
 assumed by historians of art that the 
 French, the Parisian, school of illumi- 
 nation was not only preeminent in 
 Europe at the end of the thirteenth and 
 beginning of the fourteenth centuries, 
 but was also the nursery of excellence 
 elsewhere. This opinion was contested by English students, and it 
 is now in a fair way to be acknowledged that to England belongs, 
 almost entirely, the credit of being the leader. Without England the 
 style of illumination which prevailed in the French Royal Domaine, 
 from the time of St. Louis onward, would be unexplainable. The 
 breach of continuity with the past would be too great. It was 
 from the English hearth that the French illuminators took the fire 
 which they blew into so great a flame 
 in the fourteenth century. 
 
 ^P^' (^^'Mii*'! ''"' ^^^' ^^^ through the fourteenth century 
 
 i .i.rc V j£».,e.^ ^j^j j^j. jj^^ ^j.gj t-^enty or thirty years 
 
 of the fifteenth, the illumination of 
 manuscripts in England became grad- 
 ually more national — more different 
 from similar work on the continent — 
 in style. It also fluctuated greatly in 
 excellence. The years of the Black 
 Death almost stifled the art, and it was 
 not until nearly the close of the four- 
 teenth century that good work was again 
 produced in any quantity. Down to 
 the commencement of the Wars of the 
 Roses, however, fine work was still done, 
 and many splendid manuscripts date from 
 the years between about 1 380 and 1 430. 
 
 146 
 
 FIG. 274. — ST. MERY, PARIS. 
 (hedley FITTON.) 
 
ETCHING 
 
 Etching 
 
 The art of etching has had a curious 
 career in this country. After its in- 
 vention — as a pure and separate art^ 
 by Rembrandt, it lay unnoticed for 
 more than a century and a half by 
 English artists, and then, like a forgotten 
 seed, it suddenly germinated in the 
 minds of two Scottish painters, coming 
 up almost as sound and whole as Rem- 
 brandt had left it. David Wilkie and 
 Andrew Geddes have left but a few 
 plates behind them, but those few are 
 enough to show how completely alive 
 they were to the idiosyncrasy of the 
 medium. Their attempt — if we can call it one — to revive a dormant 
 art was frustrated by one of nature's little ironies in the foundation 
 of the Etching Club, a loose confederacy of painters who had 
 neither the qualities nor the aims of the true artist in line. 
 They thought in anecdote, and other men's anecdotes at that ! 
 Their plates, speaking broadly, have no touch of the right character, 
 and are now practically forgotten. The example of Wilkie and 
 Geddes was not fruitless, however. Two etchers arose soon after 
 the middle of the century who will take their places in the future 
 among the great masters. One of these was James McNeill 
 Whistler ; the other, his brother-in-law, Francis Seymour Haden. 
 During most of his career Whistler posed as anti-English, although 
 his art was mainly British, in spite of his American birth and French 
 training. It was essentially an art of emotional selection. He 
 
 -miss seymour haden. 
 (whistler.) 
 
 thought he was painting with his 
 nated, almost as much as those of 
 Meryon, by his passion. As a 
 painter. Whistler had another 
 British trait ; he was an island, 
 an individualist, a man almost 
 completely disconnected from sur- 
 rounding or traditional influences. 
 As an etcher, however, he was the 
 legitimate offspring of the best 
 talkers in line by whom he was pre- 
 ceded. His brother - in - law, Sir 
 
 147 
 
 brains, but these were domi- 
 
 FIG. 276. — APRIL IN KENT. (f. SHORT.) 
 
 L 2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 277. — THE AGAMEMNON. (SIR F. SEYMOUR HADEN.) 
 
 Francis Seymour Haden, was newer and more detached than 
 he, also colder, more conscious, more scientific. Whistler's powers 
 as an etcher first became generally known in 1871, when a series 
 of " Sixteen etchings of scenes on the Thames and other subjects '* 
 was published. From that time to his death he was accepted as, 
 perhaps, the most consummate master of the art since Rembrandt, 
 his only rivals in modern times being the two men already 
 named, Sir Francis Seymour Haden and Charles Me'ryon. 
 
 Me'ryon's art may almost be claimed as 
 English. His father was English, 
 and his inspiration came from a n 
 English imagination, determined by the 
 face of Paris and heated by a touch of 
 insanity. 
 
 The interest excited by the plates 
 of Whistler and Seymour Haden led 
 first to a feverish hunt after other 
 etchers, by which the fame of Me'ryon 
 was established, and secondly to the 
 investigation of the powers of the 
 etching point by many of our younger 
 artists. During the last twenty years 
 or so, the class of painter-etchers — as 
 we now call etchers who etch their own 
 ideas — has greatly increased, or rather 
 has been created, and not a few among its members have shown powers 
 which will give them a permanent place among the masters of the art. 
 
 148 
 
 FIG. 278. — MILL IN WIRRAL. 
 (f. BURRIDGE.) 
 
ENGRAVING 
 
 FIG. 279. — WOODCUT, FROM THE 
 "fall of PRINCIS." 
 
 Reproductive etching, the use of etching for purposes formerly 
 confined to engraving, has been carried farther on the Continent 
 than here, ahhough these islands have supphed the chief market for 
 its resuhs. One of the best of all 
 reproducers in the method, however, 
 is an Englishman, W. E. Hole, 
 R.S.A., who is responsible for 
 some remarkable plates after 
 Rembrandt and the masters of the 
 so-called Romanticist school in 
 France. 
 
 Engraving 
 
 Engraving, in the purest sense of 
 the word, the use of the burin or 
 graver to plough or punch hollows 
 in the copper, has never enlisted 
 a large class of votaries in this 
 
 country. It demands qualities of patience and exactness with 
 which we, as a nation, are not so richly endowed as some of our 
 rivals. Engraving is, in fact, a form of criticism. Its excellence 
 depends on a frame of mind not dissimilar from that which leads 
 a man to devote his life to the examination — word by word, 
 syllable by syllable, letter by letter — of, say, Shakespeare. The 
 Englishman's eye loves results, but does not always delight in 
 means. Short cuts and royal roads appeal to him, and so he has 
 distinguished himself as a wood engraver, 
 and has, in recent times, invented what is 
 known as the mixed method of repro- 
 ducing pictures in black and white : a 
 method in which etching, engraving, and 
 mezzotint all bear their parts. The bril- 
 liant prints obtained by these means are 
 not satisfactory to those who combine a 
 respect for unity with their other aesthetic 
 proclivities.^ 
 
 The art of wood engraving may almost 
 be claimed as an English invention — as 
 practised in Italy and Germany it was a 
 delicate mechanical process, at the service 
 
 FIG. 280. — WOODCUT INITIAL 
 LETTER TO FOXE'S "MAR- 
 TYRS." 
 
 ^ A few very great line engravers have been British, or at least members of the British school. 
 William Faithorne (1616-1691) owkI a good deal of the beautiful style <rf his later worb to the 
 
 149 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 of an art, the art of drawing. It was not until Thomas Bewick 
 (born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1 753) reversed the usual method 
 and started the system of the white line, that the woodcutter 
 became an artist, working freely from drawings, pictures, or 
 Nature herself. The old process involved great mechanical 
 
 labor and skill, but 
 no art ; the new one 
 required compara- 
 tively little labor or 
 skill, but could only 
 be used with effect 
 by an artist. Holbein 
 and Diirer's work as 
 artists was finished 
 when they had made 
 their designs. The 
 rest was a strictly 
 mechanical process of 
 removing from their 
 blocks all those parts 
 of the surface which 
 corresponded to 
 blank paper in the 
 design. Bewick be- 
 gan with a block 
 blacked all over — on 
 that he drew his 
 subject in white line, 
 exactly as the dry- 
 point engraver draws 
 upon copper. I n 
 doing so he was 
 obliged to interpret 
 his model, just as any other user of a process incapable of direct 
 
 example of Nanteuil, under whom he worked for a time in 1649. His son, William Faithorne, 
 junior ( 1 656— 1 70 1 ?), would, perhaps, have rivalled his father, had his mode of life been steadier. 
 Sir Robert Strange (1721-1792) was a Scot, of a Fife family settled in Orkney; "William 
 Woollett (1735-1785), a Kentish man by birth, was of Dutch extraction. Strange's method of 
 engraving shows a purity, breadth, and vigor which has never been excelled, while Woollett treated 
 landscape with extraordinary taste, flexibility, and refinement of sty'e. Strange was too fond of 
 the seventeenth-century Italians, but he has also left plates after Titian, holbein, and Vandyck. 
 WooUett's best work was done after Richard Wilson. William Sharp ( 1 749- 1 824) was but little 
 inferior to Woollett. A fine and complete collection of his works is in the Bntish Museum. John 
 Keyse Sherwin (1751-1790) has left some excellent plates, one of the best being the Banquet of 
 the Knights of St. Patrick, in Dublin Castle. Throughout the nineteenth century the pure art of 
 line engraving was slowly dying, and may be said to have now become extinct. 
 
 150 
 
 -PLATE FROM HARRINGTONS ARIOSTO. 
 
MEZZOTINTS 
 
 fig. 282. — duke of monmouth, 
 (abm. blooteling after sir 
 peter lely.) 
 
 imitation has to interpret. The consequence was that a print from a 
 block cut by him contained his own individuaHty, showed his own 
 grip of the subject and his own ideas of 
 how to do it justice, which was only 
 possible with the old process when 
 designer and engraver were one and 
 the same person. Ruskin called him a 
 reformer *' as stout as Holbein, or 
 Botticelli, or Luther, or Savonarola." 
 Incidentally, Bewick's method was 
 peculiarly adapted to the English 
 genius, in that it was not entirely ob- 
 jective, or destructive of individuality. 
 Bewick's chief works were his English 
 Quadrupeds, published in 1790, and 
 his two series of English Birds, pub- 
 lished in 1 797 and 1804 respectively. 
 His example inspired many followers, of 
 whom the best, perhaps, were Charlton 
 Nesbitt and Luke Clennell, but the white line never entirely ousted 
 its rival. One cause of this, perhaps the chief cause, was that 
 many wood engravers had begun life as 
 engravers on copper, and followed the 
 second occupation without giving up 
 the first. Such men were Robert 
 Branston, John Orrin Smith, William 
 Harvey, and others who produced great 
 numbers of book illustrations in the 
 days before photography had bred its 
 large family of mechanical processes. 
 
 Mezzotints 
 
 If those methods of engraving which 
 depend upon line made but a weak 
 appeal to the English genius, it was not 
 so with mezzotint, in which the quality 
 of paint is approached more closely 
 than in any other method of artistic 
 reproduction. The art of mezzotint 
 was invented by one Ludwig von Siegen, an officer of mingled Dutch 
 and German blood in the Service of the Landgraf of Hesse- 
 Cassel. By him the invention was communicated to Prince Rupert, 
 
 .151 . 
 
 FIG. 283. — ELIZABETH AND EMMA 
 CREWE. (jOHN DIXON AFTER 
 SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 284. — MRS. ABINGTON AS 
 THE COMIC MUSE. (jOHN 
 WATSON AFTER SIR JOSHUA 
 REYNOLDS.) 
 
 Who was the first to use it with vigor and breadth. From Prince 
 Rupert, Sir Christopher Wren, who was at one time credited with the 
 invention, may haye learned the process. 
 Two small mezzotints of negroes' heads are 
 ascribed to him. The first man to grasp 
 the full possibilities of the method was a 
 Dutchman, Abraham Blooteling (1634- 
 1 700 ?), who was domiciled in London 
 from 1 672 to his death (Fig. 282). Put- 
 ting aside the works of Prince Rupert, of 
 which the Great Executioner is the best, the 
 earliest English mezzotint, so far as we 
 know, is a portrait of Charles II, by 
 William Sherwin, which is dated 1669. 
 At about the same time plates were 
 being published in London bearing the 
 names of Richard Tompson and Alexander 
 Browne, but whether these men were 
 engravers or only publishers seems to be 
 uncertain. Edward Lutterell^ (or Luttrell), 
 an Irishman by birth (1630 ?-l 710 ?), 
 Francis Place (1647-1728), R. Williams (flourished 1680-1700), 
 and Isaac Beckett (1653-?) all helped to prepare the great develop- 
 ment of the eighteenth century, which 
 may be said finally to have been set 
 afoot by John Smith (1652 ?-l 742). 
 Smith had the good fortune to find at 
 once a generous patron and an artist 
 well fitted for reproduction by the 
 scraper, in Sir Godfrey Kneller, after 
 whom he mezzotinted no fewer than 
 1 38 plates. Kneller was not faithful to 
 Smith, however, and also employed 
 Jean Simon (1675-1755?), a French- 
 man and pupil of Smith's, to translate 
 several of his pictures into black and 
 white. Simon may be claimed for the 
 English School of Mezzotint, as it was 
 not until he came to London that he 
 abandoned the burin for the scraper, and devoted himself to the 
 
 * The Irish National Gallery possesses a pastel portrait by Lutterell executed on the rocked 
 surface of a copper-plate prepared for mezzotinting. 
 
 152 
 
 FIG. 285. — LADY CHAMBERS. 
 
 (j. MACARDELL AFTER SIR JOSHUA 
 
 REYNOLDS.) 
 
MEZZOTINTS 
 
 FIO. 286. — HOPE NURSING LOVE. 
 (EDWARD FISHER AFTER SIR 
 JOSHUA REYNOLDS.) 
 
 *' black art." William Faithorne the younger, already mentioned 
 
 as a line engraver, also scraped mezzotints. George White 
 
 (flourished 1714-1731) is believed 
 
 to have been the first to etch his 
 
 outline on the copper before laying 
 
 the mezzotint ground. Two of the 
 
 most industrious mezzotinters in the 
 
 first half of the eighteenth century 
 
 were the John Fabers, father and son, 
 
 who came here from The Hague when 
 
 the latter was three years old. Young 
 
 Faber is best known by his plates after 
 
 the Kneller portraits of the members 
 
 of the Kit-Cat Club. 
 
 At the end of the first quarter of 
 the eighteenth century, mezzotint 
 scraping was falling into neglect in 
 England. The practitioners were 
 dying out, and those who survived 
 were doing inferior work. Among 
 the latter, however, was one Thomas Beard, who, without ever 
 becoming a distinguished engraver himself, played a not unim- 
 portant part in the history of mezzotint. He migrated to Dublin, 
 where he scraped the first Irish plate, and helped to sow the seed 
 of what was to be a great movement in the art. John Brooks, the 
 first native Irish mezzotinter, had his curiosity excited. He came 
 to London, learned to scrape, re- 
 turned to Ireland, and practised 
 the art there for a time. With 
 him travelled to Ireland one 
 Andrew Miller, a pupil of Faber 
 junior. These three men, Beard, 
 Brooks, and Miller, kept mezzo- 
 tint alive during the dead years of 
 the eighteenth century, and, by 
 means of a school established by 
 Brooks, prepared the great de- 
 velopment which marked its second 
 half. 
 
 This development was due in the 
 beginning entirely to Irish-bom workers. The greatest of these 
 was James MacArdell, a pupil of Brooks, whose best plates have 
 
 133 
 
 FIG. 287. THE LADIKS WALDEGRAVE. 
 
 (valentine GREEN AFTER SIR 
 JOSHUA REYNOLDS.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 seldom been rivalled and never surpassed. MacArdell's life was 
 short. He died at thirty-seven, having produced more than two 
 hundred plates. On a series of thirty-seven after Reynolds his 
 fame chiefly rests, but many of his plates after other painters, 
 from Van Dyck to Hudson, are as fine as those after Sir 
 Joshua. 
 
 Contemporary with MacArdell was his fellow countryman, 
 Richard Houston, who might have become an even greater engraver 
 
 had he kept clear of that stumbling 
 block to so many Irishmen of genius, 
 intemperance. Houston left about 
 160 plates behind him, besides a great 
 deal of insignificant hack work to which 
 he was reduced by his own improv- 
 idence. Richard Purcell and Charles 
 Spooner repeated Houston's follies 
 but did not rival his ability. Other 
 Irishmen were Michael Ford, Michael 
 Jackson, Edward Fisher, John Dixon, 
 James Watson, and Thomas Frye. 
 Thomas Frye was more of an original 
 artist than most engravers. His extant 
 drawings are good, and his best known 
 plates are life-size heads, portraits done 
 from life with no intermediary but his 
 own drawings. The last of the Irish mezzotinters to quit this 
 world was James Watson, who died in 1790, leaving a daughter, 
 Caroline, who won a great reputation for herself as an engraver in 
 stipple. 
 
 The art founded by Ludwig von Siegen in 1 642 rose to its highest 
 level in the last thirty years of the eighteenth century. Isolated 
 plates had touched the summit of excellence long before — for 
 instance, Blooteling's Monmouth (Fig. 282), the best of John Smith's 
 plates, MacArdell's Lad^ Chambers (Fig. 285), etc. — but it was not 
 until the English engravers had been fired by the example of the Irish 
 pupils of James Brooks that the art became a great and flourish- 
 ing tree showering its fruit broadcast over an admiring country. 
 
 The earliest master of this great period was John Finlayson, 
 whose most refined plate, Elizabeth, Duchess of Argyll, was pub- 
 lished in 1 770. Immediately after Finlayson came William Pether, 
 famous for his plates after Rembrandt and after the candle-lighted 
 scenes of Wright of Derby ; John Watts, a vigorous scraper, who 
 
 134 
 
 FIG. 288. — LADY CAROLINE PRICE. 
 (JOHN JONES AFTER SIR JOSHUA 
 REYNOLDS.) 
 
MEZZOTINTS 
 
 FIG. 289. — SIR HARBORD HAR- 
 BORD. (j. R. SMITH AFTER 
 GAINSBOROUGH.) 
 
 followed the pursuit more or less as an amateur ; Philip Dawe, 
 who, like Pether, was fond of reproducing candle-light pictures; 
 Jonathan Spilsbury; Giuseppe Marchi, the 
 pupil of Reynolds ; and two men of 
 higher powers than any of these in 
 Valentine Green and John Jones. 
 
 Green was born in 1739, came to 
 London in 1765, was elected A.R.A. in 
 1775, and died in 1813. The chief merit 
 of his plates lies in the delicacy both of 
 his texture and of his interpretation of his 
 originals. Among his best plates are the 
 Ladies Waldegrave (Fig. 287), Lady^Bett^ 
 De/me, and the Countess of Ay^lesford ^her 
 Reynolds, and Ozias Humphry^, after 
 Romney. John Jones was born about 
 1 745 and died in 1 797. He was among 
 the more versatile of the scrapers of 
 mezzotint, his plates showing very great 
 variety, in manner as well as in merit. 
 Among the best are Lad}) Caroline Price (Fig. 288), and Charles 
 James Fox, after Reynolds ; and Dulce Domum, after W. R. Bigg. 
 Earlom (1743-1822) was a man of 
 enterprise as well as of extraordinary 
 dexterity, for he scraped such diffi- 
 cult subjects as the flower pieces 
 of Van Huysum and the land- 
 scapes of Hobbema. But John 
 Raphael Smith (1752-1812) may, 
 on the whole, be considered the 
 most conspicuous figure in the 
 long procession of the mezzotinters. 
 His numerous plates yield to none 
 in brilliance and in every di- 
 rection his accomplishment was 
 complete. His earliest plate, a 
 portrait of Pascal Paoli, is dated 1769; he left off work about 
 1809.^ 
 
 » Other mezzotinters of this period of fullest achievement were Thomas ^Yatson (|7437 ?) 
 William Dickinson (1746-1823). Robert Dunkarton (1744-1811) John Murphy (flounshed 
 1780-1809). Charles Townley (1746-1800?). James Walker ( 1 748- 18 1 9) William Doughty 
 (active 1775-1782). Henry Hudson (active 1782-1793). Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Josiah 
 Boydell (1750-1817), John Dean (d. 1793), Thomas Park (b. 1760; left off engravmg m 
 1 797). Joseph Grozer ( 1 755 ?- 1 799 ?), and Charles Howard Hodges ( 1 764- 1 837). Those mne- 
 
 FIG. 290. — SALISBURY FROM THE 
 MEADOWS. (DAVID LUCAS AFTER 
 CONSTABLE.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 2QI. MRS. CARWARDINE AND 
 
 CHILD. (j. R. SMITH AFTER 
 ROMNEY.) 
 
 The skill of the engravers persisted far into the nineteenth 
 century, but opportunities were not then what they had been. The 
 
 methods of English painters were no 
 longer so apt for reproduction in mezzo- 
 tint as in the days of Reynolds and 
 Romney, and costume, under the con- 
 tinually increasing pressure from the 
 bad example of France, became steadily 
 more and more unpicturesque. It is 
 hardly to be wondered at that the 
 art practically disappeared before the 
 century was fifty years old, and that, 
 when it did revive, its attention was 
 still mainly given to the great painters 
 of the Georgian era. During the 
 nineteenth century two innovations were 
 made in the practice of mezzotint. 
 In the first place attempts were made 
 to scrape steel, instead of copper, with 
 great loss of charm; secondly, the process of " steeling " the 
 copper — covering it electrically with a deposit of steel — was 
 invented, and is now generally used, although a plate so treated 
 fails to give the softly rich impressions yielded by the naked copper. 
 
 The purity of mezzotint became 
 more and more adulterated with 
 etching, until in the work of 
 Samuel Cousins the two are so 
 combined as to be equal contribu- 
 tors to the final result. Such a 
 plate as the Midsummer Night's 
 Dream of Cousins may be com- 
 pared to the wash drawings of the 
 eighteenth century, the linear skele- 
 ton answering to the etched work 
 and the wash to the scraped. 
 The nature of mezzotint made it inevitable that it should be 
 chiefly used for the reproduction of figure pictures, and among 
 
 teenth century scrapers who belonged to the end of the great period rather than to the modem 
 revival were John Young (1755-1825) ; William Say (1768-1834), the first man to experiment 
 with steel ; George Townley Stubbs (1756-1815). William ( 1 766- 1816) and James ( 1 769- 1 859) 
 Ward. George Dawe (1781-1829), George Clint (1790-1835). S. W. Reynolds (1773-1835). 
 William Whiston Barney (d. 1800), Charles Turner (1773-1857). Henry Meyer (1782-1847). 
 Thomas Lupton (1791-1873). John Richardson Jackson (1819-1877). John Charles (1795-1835) 
 and James (1800-1838) Bromley. David Lucas (1802-1881), and Samuel Cousins (1801-1887). 
 
 156 
 
 FIG. 292. — RAGLAN CASTLE. (j. M. W 
 TURNER. LIBER STUDIORUM.) 
 
MEZZOTINTS 
 
 figure pictures, of portraits, and among portraits, of those in 
 which modelhng was broad, both in heads and draperies. Ideal 
 subjects for the mezzotint scraper are the portraits of Lely, Hogarth, 
 Reynolds (especially those in which the draperies are the work of 
 Peter Toms), Raeburn, and Romney ; many of Hoppner's portraits 
 and a few of Lawrence's call for such interpretation. But Gains- 
 borough does not lend himself so kindly to the method ; his chiar- 
 oscuro has less play, and his brush less breadth, than the scraper 
 invites. The delicious color and unrivalled lightness of execution 
 which set him on a pedestal of his 
 own are not to be fully suggested by 
 any form of black and white. In our 
 own day, Mr. Sargent's portraits 
 would make ideal subjects for the 
 scraper. 
 
 Landscape is a bad subject for 
 the scraper. Earlom, indeed, showed 
 great ability in his work after Hobbema, 
 Turner and his engravers did wonders 
 with their mixed methods in the Liber 
 Studiorum, and David Lucas set one 
 aspect of the genius of Constable before 
 us with extraordinary vigor. But even 
 the best of these things fail to give us 
 that feeling that here we have some- 
 thing put to its proper use with consummate taste and consummate 
 skill, which is inspired by the best mezzotints after Sir Joshua 
 and Romney. 
 
 The revivalist mezzotinters have followed, in the main, the older 
 and purer methods. The steeling of copper plates has made it 
 feasible to print large editions without much sign of wear, so that 
 steel plates and conspicuous etching have been practically abandoned, 
 and the best modern mezzotints do not fall so very far below those 
 of the great period in charm. 
 
 FIG. 203. LADY PEEL. (SAMUEL 
 
 COUSINS AFTER LAWRENCE.) 
 
 BIBUOGRAPHY 
 
 Gardner, J. Starkie, Ironwork. Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook, 1893 and 1907. 
 Burlington Fine Arts Club, Catalogue of an Exhibition of Chased and Embossed Steel and Iron- 
 work. 1900. Stuhlfauth, G., Die altchristliche Elfenbein Plastik. 1896. Victoria and Albert 
 MuEcum, Handbook (.Ivories); ditto. Reproductions of Carved Ivories, 1890. Imelmann, Rudolf, 
 Wanderer und Seefahrer in Rahmen der Altenglischer Odoaker Dichtung, Berlin, 1 908. 
 
 Burlington Fine Arts Club, Catalogue of European Enamels, London, 1897. Victoria and 
 Albert Museum, Catalogue of English Enamels (Schreiber Collection), London, 1885. Gardner, 
 J. S., English Enamels, 1894. Hermann, P., On Glass and Enamel Painting. 1897. Brown, 
 k. M., The Art of Enamelling on Metal, 1900. 
 
 137 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 Day, Lewis F., Windows, a Book about Stained and Painted Glass, 1897; ditto, Victoria 
 and Albert Museum Handbook- Stained Glass Windows. James, M. R., The Windows of 
 King's College, Cambridge. 1899. Burlington Magazine for October, 1907. 
 
 Alford, Lady Marian, Needlework as Art, . Caulfield, S, F. A., and Saward, B. C, 
 
 Dictionary of Needlework, London, 1881. 
 
 Middleton, J. H., Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediceval Times, 1892. Molinier, 
 E., Les Manuscrits et Les Miniatures, Paris, 1892. Thompson, Sir E. Maunde, English Illus- 
 trated Manuscripts, 1895. Warner, G. F., Illuminated Manuscripts in the British Museum, 
 1899. Vitzthum, Georg, Graf, Die Pariser Miniatur-Malerei von der Zeit der hi. Ludwig bis 
 zu Philipp von Valois, Leipzig, 1907. Burlington Fine Arts Club, Catalogue of Illuminated 
 MSS., 1908. 
 
 Short, Frank, The Making of Etchings, 1888. Herkomer, Sir Hubert von. Etching and 
 Mezzotint Engraving, 1892. Wedmore, F., Etching in England, 1895; ditto, Whistler's 
 Etchings, 1899. Whitman, A. C., The Masters of Mezzotint, 1898. Davenport, Cyril J., 
 Mezzotints, 1904. Woodberry, G. E., History of Wood Engraving. Chatto, W. A., A 
 Treatise on Wood Engraving, London, 1839. Hamerton, P. G., The Graphic Arts, London, 
 1882. Gleeson-White, J. W., English Illustration, 1897. Wedmore, F., Fine Prints, 1897. 
 Frankau, Julia, Eighteenth-Century Colored Prints, 1900. Fagan, L. A., History of Engraving 
 in England, 1 893 ; ditto. Catalogue of Engraved Work of W. Woollett, 1 885 ; ditto. Catalogue 
 of Engraved Work of W. Faithorne, 1887. Bryan, Michael, Dictionary of Painters and En- 
 gravers, ed. of 1898, etc. Dobson, H. A., Bewick and his Pupils; Cundall, J., A Brief History 
 of Wood Engraving, 1895. 
 
 294. — ENGLISH ivory: FOURTEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 (Victoria and Albert Museum.) 
 
 158 
 
FIG. 295. — PANEL FROM ST. STEPHEN'S, WESTMINSTER. (British MuSCUm.) 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 PAINTING IN THE BRITISH ISLES FROM ITS ORIGIN 
 TO THE BIRTH OF HOGARTH 
 
 The remains of early painting in the British Isles are few, although 
 by no means so few as current talk about our arts would suggest. 
 Wherever conditions have been favorable, relics of ancient painting 
 exist to show that here, as elsewhere, the arts were complete, and 
 the cortege of trades marching under the banner of Apollo without 
 any serious gap. Given a country church, dating back to the early 
 days of Gothic architecture, disposing of no dangerous depth of 
 purse, but covered with ancient whitewash : you are pretty sure, 
 on carefully lifting the whitewash, to come upon traces of pictured 
 decorations : Crucifixions, Last Judgments, figures of Saints or 
 Bishops. These islands were not open to the" multitudinous 
 influences by which the southern nations of the Continent were 
 surrounded, and so they cannot boast of so much variety in their 
 remains of early painting. Anything that reached them from 
 the East or South had to travel so far, and pass through so many 
 modifying forces on the way, that our telics are more homogeneous 
 than similar things elsewhere. Among examples of wall painting 
 of which any vestiges remain are such decorations as those of the 
 Galilee at Durham and the nave at St. Albans's. Only one bay of 
 a decoration which at least filled three bays, is now extant at 
 
 159 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 Durham. It includes feigned hangings, strongly reminiscent in 
 style of the illuminations of the thirteenth century, and two nobly 
 conceived figures of bishops. The crucifixion is the chief subject 
 at St. Albans's. 
 
 We have seen that the decoration of English MSS. was on the 
 whole superior to what was being done in foreign countries down 
 to the early years of the fifteenth century. It was characterized 
 by boldness in conception, by vivacity, and taste in execution. It 
 was carried on with almost unbroken industry from the early 
 
 days of the Celtic monasteries to 
 the beginning of the Wars of the 
 Roses, so that, in spite of all 
 the destruction of the Reformation 
 and of the Puritan wrath which 
 followed, its remains are still rich 
 and numerous. These illuminations 
 are sufficient in themselves to 
 prove that painting had a normal 
 career in the British Isles during 
 the middle ages. And they by no 
 means stand alone. Apart from 
 the ruder wall paintings alluded 
 to above, there still exists a cer- 
 tain number of paintings which are 
 at once distinct from contemporary 
 work on the continent of Europe 
 and of very high merit for their 
 time. Three of the chief examples 
 are figured here (Figs. 295, 297, 
 298). The portrait of Richard II, 
 in Westminster Abbey, taking its 
 date, scale, and excellence into 
 account, is the most important thing 
 of its kind in Europe (Fig. 298). 
 The Wilton portrait of the same king, with its accompaniments, is 
 still more intimate in its charm. In style these are quite distinct 
 from anything then being produced on the Continent, while they 
 are akin to other English work of the time. The third example 
 (Fig. 293) is a fragment from a series of paintings removed from 
 St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, ^ to the British Museum. It 
 
 FIG. 2g6. — RICHARD II. WEST- 
 MINSTER. (Painter unknown.) 
 
 'A portrait of Eldward 
 of 1834. 
 
 kneeling, also existed in St. Stephen's Chai^el previous to the fire 
 
 160 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 FIG. 297. — RICHARD II. AND SAINTS. 
 
 (Wilton House.) 
 
 dates, apparendy, from about the 
 middle of the fourteenth century, 
 and has strongly distinctive features 
 of its own which bring it into closer 
 relationship with English Illumina- 
 tion miniatures than with anything 
 in Italy or France. The action of the 
 figures is varied, perhaps too highly 
 varied, and dramatic. The model- 
 ling is fused, the rendering of 
 draperies elaborate, the coloring 
 both brilliant and rich. These 
 latter characteristics are to be 
 found in all three of these paint- 
 ings, although their dates are prob- 
 ably half a century apart. Exactly 
 similar qualities are to be found 
 in a fourteenth century retable 
 in Norwich Cathedral. The con- 
 tinental work which comes nearest 
 is that of certain later French- 
 men, such as Jean Malouel, who may well have been influenced 
 by English painters, just as French and Flemish illuminators were 
 
 influenced by the decorators of 
 English manuscripts. The distinc- 
 tive features, speaking broadly, of 
 English Gothic painting are energy 
 of movement and fine color, a rare 
 combination, which is not to be found 
 in Tuscan Art of the time to the same 
 degree. 
 
 Little substance or continuity, how- 
 ever, can as yet be given to the his- 
 tory of painting in England before 
 the advent of Holbein, about the 
 middle of Henry VIIFs reign. 
 Great destruction of things portable 
 had taken place during the Wars 
 of the Roses, and the fate which 
 threatened the religious houses for 
 some years before their dissolution 
 had its effect in discouraging their 
 161 M 
 
 FIG. 298. — MARGARET BEAUFORT. 
 
 (Painter unknown.) 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 artistic activity. So that the German painter arrived in the nick of 
 time to supply a needed stimulus. The earliest English works, except 
 the Wilton and Westminster portraits, that we should now call pic- 
 tures date from the years of his activity and confess his influence 
 very clearly indeed. They belong to two classes : miniatures, or 
 " limnings," as they were called, and portraits life-size or of a size 
 approaching that of life. Our immediate business is with the latter. 
 
 As the great school of English portrait miniaturists had one, 
 at least, of its roots in Holbein, so has the still greater school of 
 our portrait painters in large. Before the days of the Augsburger 
 
 there were portrait painters in the 
 country. Indeed, it seems likely 
 that this particular branch of 
 art flourished exceptionally in 
 these islands from very early 
 days. National propensities do 
 not readily change, and among 
 the few important pictures which 
 have come down from our 
 Gothic centuries we find several 
 portraits — (e.g., those of James 
 III of Scotland and his Queen, 
 Margaret of Denmark, ^^^ Sir 
 Edward Boncle, on the panels 
 at Holyrood now ascribed to 
 Hugo Van der Goes, as well as 
 the Richard II in Westminster 
 Abbey (Fig. 296) — on a scale 
 hardly known elsewhere at the 
 same period. All previous 
 fashions in portraiture dissolved, however, before the sun of Holbein. 
 In those days the facilities for advertisement were slight enough. A 
 portrait would be painted and sent home, and only the sitter's friends 
 would have much chance of enjoying it. But the work of the Augs- 
 burger had the merit of appealing to all kinds of people, to those 
 who saw nothing in a picture beyond a more or less successful attempt 
 to imitate some object outside it, as well as to those who understood 
 art. Such a panel as the Duchess of Milan, in the National Gallery, 
 would delight the ignorant by its truth of imitation as much as it 
 would the man of knowledge and taste by its combination of objective 
 veracity with the sincere expression of emotion. 
 
 Holbein's example dominated English painting for nearly a 
 
 162 
 
 HG. 299. — PORTRAIT OF EDMUND BUTTS. 
 
 (JOHN BETTES.) National Gallery. 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 FIG. 300. — ENGLISH PORTRAIT, BY 
 SOME FOLLOWER OF HOLBEIN. 
 
 century, until the apparition of 
 Samuel Cooper and Van Dyck. 
 A very large number of pictures 
 exist which would never have put 
 on the form in which we see them 
 had he never come to England. 
 But few, if any, men can be traced 
 to his studio, and yet fewer pictures 
 assigned to any particular disciple. 
 His own work, of course, does not 
 belong to the aesthetic stem it is 
 our present business to trace, but 
 its effect was so great that a short 
 sketch of his career must be given. 
 He was born at Augsburg in 1497 
 and died in London in 1543, having 
 spent the years 1526 to 1528 and 
 1 532 to 1 543 in the English capital. 
 Here he painted a large number of portraits, most of his sitters 
 being drawn either from the entourage of the Court, or from the 
 German colony. He is supposed to have painted all the wives 
 of Henry VIII, as well as the King 
 himself. He went abroad more than 
 once to paint ladies on whom the 
 King thought of bestowing the danger- 
 ous prize of his hand. On the 7th of 
 October, 1543, he made his will, to 
 which an administrator was appointed 
 on the 29th of the following month; 
 so his death occurred between those 
 two dates. 
 
 The life-work of Holbein is, per- 
 haps, more homogeneous and more 
 level in excellence than that of any 
 other painter. His pictures vary 
 greatly in importance, but scarcely at 
 all in the success with which they 
 carry out their aim. He is never 
 careless, empty, or perfunctory. His 
 miniatures of the two small sons of 
 Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, are as complete in their way 
 as the Darmstadt Madonna, or The Ambassadors, or the Georg 
 
 163 M 2 
 
 FIG. 301. — UNIDENTIFIED PORTRAIT. 
 
 (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 302. — PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM 
 STOCKE (?). 
 
 (Worcester College, Oxford.) 
 
 Ghisze, The art of Holbein united Teutonic to Latin character- 
 istics. No portrait painter has been more objective, and yet few 
 
 have had a finer sense of design or 
 of color pattern. Indeed, in one 
 respect he is unequalled as a color- 
 ist. No man has succeeded so com- 
 pletely as he in uniting frankness of 
 individual tint to harmony in the 
 final result. His genius is like the 
 daylight coming through a stained- 
 glass w^indow : it reconciles tints 
 apparently the most irreconcilable. 
 I may be allow^ed to name what 
 seem to me his masterpieces : — 
 The Meyer Madonna (Darm- 
 stadt), The Ambassadors, and 
 Christina, Duchess of Milan, 
 (London), Georg Ghisze, Berlin, Duke of Norfolk, Windsor, 
 Portrait of a Young Man, Vienna, Thomas Morrett, Dresden,' 
 Sir Bryan Tuke, Munich, and Sir Thomas More in the collection 
 of Mr. Edward Huth. It is probable that the best of all his works 
 
 was the group of the two Henrys, 
 VII and Vlll, with their wives, 
 which was destroyed with White- 
 hall. A partial cartoon survives 
 to give a hint of what has been 
 lost : it belongs to the Duke of 
 Devonshire. 
 
 Woltmann says that ** in Eng- 
 land Holbein seems to have stood 
 quite alone, and to have worked 
 in general without pupils or assist- 
 ants : his artistic style here found 
 no imitators." This too sweeping 
 statement seems to be founded on 
 nothing more than the fact that no 
 immediate pupil of the master made 
 a European name. England swarms 
 with pictures painted in a style founded on his, most of them, 
 
 1 Doubts have been thrown on the tradition which identifies this portrait as that of Morett, 
 Henry VIII's jeweller. But the attempts to identify him with a French Morette or an Italian 
 Moretta appear to me to rest on evidence weaker than that of his face, which claims him for 
 England. 
 
 164 
 
 FIG. 303. — PORTRAIT OF A NAVIGATOR. 
 
 (Oxford University Gallery.) 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 indeed, of slight merit, but a few showing that some men of real 
 gifts were numbered among the great man's scholars or disciples. 
 To only two of these, among those who painted in large, can 
 particular pictures at present be assigned with any approach to confi- 
 dence. A male portrait in the National Gallery, by John Bettes, 
 who painted with his brother Thomas in the reigns of Edward 
 VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, is excellent (Fig. 299). It has been 
 asserted that Gwillim Strete, or Stretes, was a Fleming, mainly on 
 the strength of his name. It is probable that he was the direct 
 pupil of Holbein, and that we have examples of his work in the 
 full lengths of the Earl of Surrey (at Hampton Court and 
 at Arundel Castle), in that of 
 Edward VI, which was at the 
 Old Masters in 1902; and in 
 the copy of Holbein's Jane Sey- 
 mour, which hangs in The Hague 
 Museum. It is possible, however, 
 that none of these are by Strete, 
 and that his real hand is to be rec- 
 ognized in a portrait signed with 
 the monogram G. S., in the col- 
 lection of Lord Yarborough. Many 
 other English artists flourished, or 
 at least existed and painted, during 
 these reigns. Their names and 
 many of their works have survived, 
 but evidence to connect the one with 
 the other is very scanty. Pictures 
 are known by Sir Robert Peake 
 (1590?- 1 667), by Richard Lyne (F. 1572), by Richard Stevens 
 (F. 1590) (who was by extraction Dutch), and a few others, but 
 the names only of John Bossam, of Edward Courtenay, Earl of 
 Devon, of Peter Cole, of John Shute, of Nicholas Lockie or 
 Lockey, and many more, have survived. It is curious that only 
 by rare exception do English pictures earlier than the nineteenth 
 century bear their authors* signatures. If each painter had signed 
 but a single picture, we should have had something to go upon 
 in sorting out their works, and the historian's task would have been 
 enormously simplified. An able painter who flourished in the last 
 half of the sixteenth century was George Gower, who was made 
 Sergeant Painter to Queen Elizabeth in 1584. A signed and 
 dated portrait of himself, enriched with biographical facts, belongs 
 
 165 
 
 FIG. 304. — UNIDENTIFIED PORTRAIT. 
 
 (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 to Mr. George Fitzwilliam, at Milton, Northants. His hand is 
 also to be recognized in a double portrait, back and front of panel, 
 in the collection of Lord Strathmore. It represents the ninth Baron 
 Glamis and his secretary, George Boswell, both as boys. These 
 portraits show that Gower was a very good artist indeed. 
 
 Another painter of considerable ability who belonged to the last 
 years of Elizabeth, and to the reigns of James I and Charles I, 
 was Sir Nathaniel Bacon, K.B., of Culford, Suffolk. He was the 
 son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the first of the baronets, and was con- 
 sequently the nephew of the great Sir Francis. He was born in or 
 about 1583 and died in 1627. At least three excellent pictures by 
 
 him are known : his own portrait 
 and a kitchen piece, called The 
 Cook Maid, in the possession of 
 Lord Verulam, at Gorhambury, 
 and another portrait of himself in 
 the possession of Mr. Nicholas 
 Bacon, of Raveningham Hall, Nor- 
 wich.^ Still better are the series 
 of Tradescant portraits, in the 
 Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It 
 appears probable that most of these 
 are the work of one de Critz, or 
 de Crats, of a family which held 
 official positions at the courts of 
 Elizabeth, James I, and Charles I. 
 Meres, in the Wits Common- 
 Wealth, published in London in 
 1 398, speaks of " John de Cretz " 
 as very famous for his painting. This same John was employed on 
 the tomb of Elizabeth, in Westminster Abbey. He had a brother, 
 Thomas, as good or better than himself ; an Oliver and an Emanuel 
 are also known : a fine portrait of the former is in the Ash-, 
 molean Museum. Both John and Emanuel seem to have been 
 Sergeant Painters to Charles I. At the dispersal of the King's 
 pictures they were buyers, says Walpole, to the amount of £4,999. 
 If one of them was really the author of the Tradescant pictures, he 
 was the best native painter in large of his time, as Robert Walker, 
 Cromwell's favorite painter, asserted him to be. A de Critz 
 is credited with the painting of the ceiling in the " Double Cube," 
 at Wilton. He is also mentioned by Pepys as the painter of 
 
 ^See article by Prince Frederick Duleep Singh, Burlington Magazine for July, 1907. 
 
 166 
 
 FIG. 305. — PORTRAIT OF JOHN BULL. 
 
 (The Schools, Oxford.) 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 a portrait of the first Lord Sand- 
 wich, which cost £3 10s., in- 
 cluding the frame. De Critz is 
 hardly an Enghsh name, but the 
 absence of any mention of it in 
 French or Flemish archives sug- 
 gests that the family in question 
 was, at least, English born. 
 
 The only other painter of any 
 great merit, who flourished be- 
 fore the days of Van Dyck and 
 can be claimed as in any degree 
 English, was Cornelius Jonson, 
 or Janssen van Ceulen. He was 
 born in London in 1593, and is 
 believed to have died in Holland 
 in 1664. Had he been a better 
 colorist, he would have taken a 
 very high place indeed among 
 the painters of his time. His 
 charm, in spite of his cold and 
 
 G. 306. — EARL OF PORTLAND. 
 (C. JONSON.) 
 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 portraits often have a wonderful 
 timid ways with color. The best 
 
 (onsons I know of in this country are a head of the Earl of Port- 
 and, in the National Portrait Gallery, a head in the same manner 
 in the Irish National Gallery, and a lady's portrait in Mrs. Joseph's 
 collection. The two male portraits show a strong affinity with the style 
 of Dobson, a likeness which disap- 
 pears in Jonson's later work. It has 
 often been said that Jonson was 
 driven from England by the com- 
 petition of Van Dyck, but he was 
 here for at least seven years after 
 Van Dyck's death. The Rijks- 
 museum, Amsterdam, has a picture 
 signed Corns. Jonson Londini fecit, 
 1648, and in that same year he re- 
 ceived the Speaker's warrant to 
 enable him to leave England and 
 take his chattels with him. 
 
 Van Dyck (1599-1641) came 
 to England for the first time in 
 1621, but only on a flying visit. 
 About 1630 he came again and 
 
 167 
 
 FIG. 307. — PORTRAIT OF A LADY. 
 
 (c. JONSON.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 308. — ENDYMION PORTER. 
 
 (dobson.) National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 then, in 1632, he setded here, on the invitation of Charles I. He 
 was lodged in Blackfriars, where, for nine years, he lived richly, 
 
 worked hard, and directed a 
 large staff of scholars and as- 
 sistants. Being, perhaps, the 
 most impressionable of all great 
 painters, he rapidly threw off 
 the manner he had contracted 
 under the influence of the great 
 Venetians, and adopted one sug- 
 gested, possibly, by the work of 
 Samuel Cooper. His best Eng- 
 lish pictures are worthy to hang 
 beside the finest of his Genoese 
 period, but many things he did 
 in this country are perfunctory, 
 and inferior to studio repetitions 
 of his good things by his better 
 pupils. The truth of that state- 
 ment became quite evident when 
 129 pictures ascribed to him 
 were brought together at Bur- 
 lington House in 1900. The best and the worst things in that 
 collection betrayed his own hand. All three of his manners 
 are now finely illustrated in the National Gallery : the early 
 Flemish period by the half length of Cornelis Van der Gheest ; 
 the Genoese, by the portraits of the Marchese and Marchesa (?) 
 Cataneo, lately acquired ; and the English by the superb equestrian 
 portrait of Charles I from Blenheim Palace. 
 
 So far as a national school of painting can be rooted in a single 
 man, and him a foreigner, the modern English school is rooted in 
 Van Dyck. Holbein had a great effect in his day, but artist as he 
 was, he had too much Teutonic objectivity and curiosity in his com- 
 position to become the permanent head and creator of anything 
 British. A great contrast was presented by Van Dyck. Affected 
 at once by the genius loci, if not by the work of the native artists, 
 the Fleming built up a style in complete accord with English 
 predilections, a style which could readily impose ilself on the majority 
 of those painters of mixed Celtic and Teutonic blood by whom he 
 was to be followed. 
 
 Most of Van Dyck's own immediate scholars were of foreign 
 birth. The best, probably was Jean de Reyn, who came so near 
 
 168 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 his master that his works are mostly catalogued as Van Dyck's ; 
 except in Dunkirk, where he passed the last thirty years of his life 
 and left many pictures in the churches. Another clever pupil 
 was David Beek, a Dutchman, whose facility has been celebrated 
 by a saying of Charles I's, chronicled by Descamps: '' Parhleu, 
 Beek, je crois que Vous peindriez a cheval et en courant la poste!" 
 
 Besides his pupils. Van Dyck employed in his studio several 
 painters who had learnt elsewhere: Adriaan Hanneman, a pupil of 
 A. Van Ravesteyn and Daniel Mijtens, senr., Peter Lely, who 
 was under his influence for some months before his death, and 
 two Englishmen, William Dobson and Henry Stone (known as 
 " Old Stone "). 
 
 Dobson was a pupil of Sir Robert Peake, but seems also to have 
 been strongly affected by the example of Cornelius Jonson. He 
 was set upon his feet by Van Dyck, who had discovered him in 
 a state bordering on destitution. He acted for a time as the 
 Fleming's assistant, although his style was quite distinct from Van 
 Dyck's when independently exercised. On the death of his patron 
 he was appointed Sergeant Painter 
 to the King, but died poor five years 
 later. His best works, such as the 
 portrait of Endymion Porter (Fig. 
 308), in the National Portrait Gal- 
 lery, touch a very high level. 
 Dobson's pictures are fairly numer- 
 ous, but a great deal of disen- 
 tangling of the true from the false 
 yet remains to be done. 
 
 Henry Stone was a son of 
 Nicholas Stone, a good sculptor, and 
 master mason to James I. He copied 
 many pictures of Van Dyck and 
 others, and was a painstaking, dull 
 artist. He died in London in 1653. 
 Edward Bower is remembered by 
 one remarkable picture, a portrait 
 of Charles I as he appeared at his trial, belonging to the Duke of 
 Rutland. A good portrait in the Schools, at Oxford, represents 
 Nicholas Lanier, who seems to have followed Van Dyck. 
 
 A painter whose ability earns him a place between Dobson and 
 " Old Stone " was George Jamesone, or Jamisone, called, absurdly 
 enough, the Scottish Van Dyck. He was born in Aberdeen late in 
 
 169 
 
 FIG, 309. LADY BELLASYS. (siR PETER 
 
 LELY.) Hampton Court. 
 
 ^ OF THE 
 
 ^NiVERsiTV 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 the sixteenth century. He was apprenticed in Edinburgh in 1612, 
 and it has been asserted that he also studied under Rubens, in Ant- 
 werp. Of that, however, there are no signs in his work. Tradition 
 says that the family of Rubens's second wife, Helena Fourment, was 
 an offshoot from a well-known Aberdeen stock, the Formans. The 
 possibility suggests itself that the master's friendship with the Fourments 
 and Jamesone's sojourn at Antwerp — otherwise improbable enough 
 — may have had some connection with each other. Jamesone's works 
 are fairly numerous in Scotland. They are distinguished by careful 
 
 execution in a thin, luminous 
 impasto, but are monotonous in 
 color and lack vigor. Jame- 
 sone died in 1646, and was 
 buried in the famous church- 
 yard of the Grey Friars in 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 From the end of the first 
 half of the seventeenth century 
 onward, painters of native 
 origin begin to increase rapidly 
 in numbers. We are still far 
 from anyone who rose to the 
 level of the following century, 
 but after the example of Van 
 Dyck had had time to produce 
 its effect, art began to attract 
 men of some gifts to its pursuit. 
 During the Commonwealth it 
 
 FIG. 310. — MISS JANE KELLEWAY. i • 1 J • 1 1 1 
 
 (sir peter lely.) Hampton Court. languished, as might have been 
 
 expected, but Lely found pa- 
 tronage ; asdid Robert Walker and Samuel Cooper, who each painted 
 Cromwell more than once. But the line of British painters, which 
 has continued to the present day, began with certain scholars of Lely. 
 Sir Peter Lely was born at Soest,' near Utrecht, in 1618. His 
 father, a military captain named Van der Faes, had changed the 
 family name. The son studied in Haarlem under Pieter de 
 Grebber, but came to England in 1641, shortly before the death of 
 Van Dyck. Here, like Van Dyck himself, he rapidly built up 
 a style which suited his new milieu, and was rewarded by a vogue 
 which lasted till his death in 1680. He became an agreeable 
 
 ^ Lely has often been catalogued with the German School, in spite of his utterly non-German art, in 
 the belief that the Soest of his birth was the Westphalianltown of that name. 
 
 170 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 colorist, he cultivated elegance in design and breadth in execution, 
 and he took manners as he found them. His best work is as 
 good as work without intensity can ever hope to be. He began by 
 painting in brown tones, with little positive color, which latter 
 he allowed to creep into his conceptions rather gradually. Internal 
 evidence proves that he made great use of assistants. The pictures 
 ascribed to him are very numerous, and have not yet been 
 completely studied. But so far as my own experience goes, I 
 should say that Lely's own work is characterized by generally 
 excellent, sometimes masterly, 
 design, by a strong tendency to 
 brown, which became gradually 
 less marked, however, as time 
 went on, and by more careful mod- 
 elling than that of his scholars. 
 The pictures on which we find 
 his monogram all have this char- 
 acter. One of the best is a large 
 family piece of Charles Dormer, 
 Earl of Carnarvon, with his wife 
 and two children, in the possession 
 of Sir Algernon Coote, of Ballyfin, 
 Queen's County. This Earl of 
 Carnarvon was the third of the 
 creation, and son of the Robert 
 Earl, who fell at the first battle of 
 Newbury. A fine group of three 
 male sitters is at Christ Church, 
 Oxford. Of the many pictures ascribed to Lely in the National 
 Portrait Gallery, the following seem to me to be his: Duke of 
 A Ihemarle, Duke of Buckingham, Charles II, Mary Davis, Nell 
 Gwyn, Countess of Shrewsbury, Wycherley, Duchess of York, and 
 himself The Windsor Beauties at Hampton Court show, per- 
 haps, a closer study of Van Dyck than anything else he did. The 
 Lady Bellasys, with its floating cherubs, reminds one of the Fleming's 
 excursions into mythology : but in design it is finer than most Van 
 Dycks. Had it been carried out with the older man's patience, it 
 would have been a masterpiece of courtly portraiture. But Lely had 
 little patience. Toward the end of his career his draperies, especially, 
 become mere scaffoldings for drapery, all deep shadow and high 
 light. And his dealings with character are on a far lower plane than 
 those of Van Dyck. But he could, when he chose, rise to an 
 
 171 
 
 FIG. 311. — COMTESSE DE GRAMMONT. 
 
 (sir p. lely.) Hampton Court. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 312. MRS. JANE MIDDLETON. 
 
 (? JOHN GREENHILL.) 
 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 occasion. Walpole mentions a good many Lelys which are now 
 difficult to trace, especially as his name has been attached to innu- 
 merable works he never touched 
 or even saw. His drawings and 
 pastels are good, though slight. 
 He shares with Rembrandt, 
 Lawrence, Bonnat, and a few 
 other busy artists, the honor de- 
 served by the fine connoisseur. 
 After his death his collections 
 brought the enormous amount, 
 for the time, of some £26,000. 
 
 The best pupils of Lely were 
 John Greenhill and Mary Beale. 
 John Greenhill was born at 
 Salisbury in 1649 and died in 
 1676, so that he had not much 
 time in which to make a name. 
 His life was shortened by dis- 
 sipation. Two or three of his 
 pictures are at Dulwich College, 
 one signed with his initials, J. G. 
 They are distinguished by refinement of drawing and by an agree- 
 able silver tonality, which help us to recognize his share in works 
 ascribed to his master. The portrait of Mrs. Jane Middleton (Fig. 
 3 1 2), in the National Portrait Gallery, seems to be his ; if so, it is 
 probably his masterpiece. 
 
 Mary Beale had a longer life than her fellow scholar and employed 
 it better. She worked hard at her profession, as is shown by her 
 husband's diary, quoted by Walpole from Vertue's papers. She was 
 born in 1 632 and died in 1 697. Her portraits are numerous, but many 
 have been given to her master, Lely. She had a stronger inclination 
 toward positive color than either Lely or Greenhill: her handling 
 is broader and less fused, her composition and modelling flatter, and 
 her painting of flesh more interested in accident, than Lely's. 
 
 The names of several other disciples of Lely have come down to 
 us, but in most cases it is impossible to attach any picture to the name. 
 To this, however, Pepys's " painter in ordinary," John Hayls, is an 
 exception. His portrait of Pepys himself is in the National Portrait 
 Gallery (Fig. 3 1 3), and several of the Russell family are at Woburn. 
 Other English painters of this period were William Reader, or 
 Rieder, by whom there is a good picture in the Ashmolean ; Anne 
 
 172 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 Killigrew, celebrated by Dryden ; Edward Hawker, who succeeded 
 to Lely's house and studio on that painter's death ; Sir John Gawdie, 
 who was deaf and dumb ; and WilHam Shepherd. The last-named, 
 however, belonged to a somewhat earlier generation. He was the 
 master of the versatile Francis Barlow (died 1 702), a native of Lin- 
 colnshire, who painted animals, especially birds, with considerable 
 felicity. • He was also an engraver, and Hollar engraved after him. His 
 edition of i'^Esop, with plates from his own designs, is well known. 
 
 Another '* strain " among the painters of the seventeenth century 
 is represented by the scholars of Isaac Fuller, whom I shall have to 
 mention presently. His best pupil was John Riley, born in 1646, 
 who would probably have become a painter of real importance 
 under favorable conditions (Fig. 315). A good and interesting 
 picture, The Scullion, by him is at Christ Church. The names 
 should also be mentioned of Thomas Manby, a landscape painter ; 
 of the two Joseph Michael Wrights, uncle and nephew, the elder 
 a pupil of Jamesone and the master of Edmund Ashfield, by whom 
 there are some fairly good portraits at Burghley House. 
 
 Hitherto we have found the influence of foreigners who had won 
 a real vogue in England working generally for good. Holbein 
 might have founded a great school in England, had his genius been 
 more in harmony with that of 
 the mixed race among whom he 
 settled. The sympathetic Van 
 Dyck adopted a style which was 
 in complete accord with the Eng- 
 lish character and would almost 
 certainly have produced the effect 
 in the seventeenth century it did 
 in the eighteenth, if puritanism and 
 the civil troubles had not dis- 
 couraged enterprise in the arts. 
 Lely again, although he was 
 content not to probe too deeply 
 into his own reserve of power, 
 was a real if superficial artist 
 whose example could teach noth- 
 ing that required to be unlearnt. 
 His presence had at least done 
 something to prevent the fifth- 
 rate foreigners — the Hoogstratens, Gascars, Verelsts, Huysmans, 
 Soests, Wissings, &c. — from doing all the harm they might other- 
 
 173 
 
 FIG. 313. — S. PEPYS. (JOHN HAYLS.) 
 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 wise have done. But on Lely's death, and even before it, fashion 
 threw itself at the feet of perhaps the least interesting painter who 
 ever monopolized the patronage of any society. Kneller had 
 facility — he could pose a sitter as well as most modern photographers ! 
 and he could draw. But his portraits, with scarcely an exception, 
 proclaim so frankly that his chief, if not his only preoccupation, was 
 with the satisfaction of his patrons at the least possible outlay of 
 thought and muscle, that we can neither look at nor remember them 
 for more than a few minutes at a time. His success was fatal to 
 English painting during his life. It set a measure to which others 
 had to dance, on pain of starvation. Among those Englishmen who 
 worked between the death of Lely and the advent of Hogarth we can 
 descry, now and then, signs of a gift which might have developed 
 richly had the Kneller tyranny been removed. With Kneller himself 
 these pages are hardly concerned. His pictures vary in merit from 
 examples of what may be called vigorous facility to performances 
 without even facility to recommend them. Among the best may be 
 named two portraits at Oxford, Bishop A tterhury and Sir Jonathan 
 Trelawney, Bart, both at Christ Church; and Godert de Ginkel, 
 Earl of Athlone, in the Irish National Gallery. Much of the Ginkel, 
 however, is calmly appropriated from a Charles I of Van Dyck! 
 The contemporaries of Kneller were so faithful to his example that 
 their work need hardly be mentioned separately. In Michael Dahl, 
 the Swede, still more in the Scot, Jeremiah Davison, and the 
 Englishman, Jonathan Richardson, we divine powers which might 
 have led to better things had the Lubecker stayed in his own 
 country. Lord Morton owns a large picture by Davison, at 
 Dalmahoy, near Edinburgh, which implies very considerable ability ; 
 another belongs to Mr. Stopford Sackville, at Drayton House, 
 Northamptonshire. Both of these are signed. Jonathan Richard- 
 son shows both courage in the attack and skill in the solution of a 
 difficult problem in his whole length of Sir Hans Sloane, in the 
 Bodleian. The last painter of this stem who need here be noticed 
 was Thomas Hudson, the pupil of Richardson and the master of 
 Reynolds. He seems to have been of an amiable character on the 
 whole, and not so incapable a painter as used to be supposed. It is 
 difficult to form a trustworthy idea of his powers, however, as 
 he painted little but the heads and hands, leaving all the rest to 
 his drapery men, who varied greatly in capacity. The portrait of 
 Samuel Scott, in the National Gallery, is warm and luminous, but 
 others are mechanical and cold to the last degree. 
 
 Here I must hark back for a moment to record the beginnings of 
 
 174 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 a form of art which has never, in modern times, been popular in 
 England : I mean the painting of walls and ceilings in secular build- 
 ings. The oldest and the best example we can point to is the 
 Rubens ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall, which has 
 recently been restored for at least the fourth time. The master 
 took immense pains with this composition. A large number of 
 preparatory sketches and studies are in existence, which make it 
 probable that when the ceiling was in its pristine glory it was one 
 of his best things of the kind. The subject, the History of James I, 
 is divided into nine compartments, each painted on canvas and 
 attached afterward. They were fixed in their places between 
 the end of 1635 and the middle 
 of 1 636. The price paid to 
 Rubens was £3 ,000, equal to 
 about £ 1 0,000 at the present day. 
 
 The first English work of the 
 kind still extant is the ceiling of 
 the Sheldonian Theatre. This 
 was painted in 1 669 by Robert 
 Streater, Sergeant Painter to King 
 Charles II. He also painted a 
 reredos for All Souls' College, 
 which was removed about 1872, 
 when the remains of the magnifi- 
 cent Gothic reredos (Fig. 119), since 
 restored, were brought to light. 
 The chief characteristic of the fig.3I4.-godertdeginkel. (kneller.) 
 
 CiiJ' •!• 'V li National Gallery, Dublin. 
 
 bheldonian ceilmg is its complete 
 
 lack of decorative value. Another painter employed on somewhat 
 similar work at Oxford was Isaac Fuller, already mentioned as 
 the master of John Riley. Fuller was born in 1606, and received 
 a certain amount of training in Paris, under Francois Perrier. 
 His own portrait, a work of much character, is at Queen's College. 
 The fame of these works — for they were all famous in their day 
 — brought the usual irruption of second-rate foreigners into the 
 country. England was full of buildings in which blank walls cried 
 out for decoration, and these, instead of being used to encourage 
 and educate our own painters, were handed over light-heartedly to 
 first one and then another alleged artist who would have been better 
 employed in blacking shoes. Verrio and Laguerre both had ability 
 of a kind, but it was ability entirely divorced from any perception of 
 what was fitting in the decoration of an architectural monument. 
 
 175 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 Verrio was the greater offender of the two. He had much neo- 
 Italian vulgarity ; while Laguerre had a redeeming touch of what 
 
 the Goncourts call the mauvais 
 hon-gout of the Frenchman. 
 Verrio's least offensive perform- 
 ance is probably the great saloon 
 at Burghley, while Laguerre 
 never did better than in his 
 work for Sir Godfrey Kneller, 
 at Whitton Hall, now called 
 Kneller Hall, near Twicken- 
 ham. One of the worst ex- 
 amples of Verrio's particular 
 form of vulgarity is the decora- 
 tion of the ** King's Great Stair- 
 case " at Hampton Court, where 
 he carried out his tasteless 
 trick of abolishing real coves, 
 cornices, and pilasters for the 
 sake of showing how well he 
 could imitate them in paint. 
 
 It was probably the success of 
 these men in winning commis- 
 sions that led young James Thornhill, a cadet of an old but im- 
 poverished family ** of that ilk," to turn his attention to the same 
 form of art. He is distinguished from his foreign rivals by greater 
 reticence, and a better sense of what the occasion required, if not by 
 power. His paintings in the dome of St. Paul's show that with 
 more experience he might have become an acceptable decorator. 
 They are conceived, at least, in the right spirit, of dependence on 
 the architecture. His son-in-law, Hogarth, painted wall pictures 
 also. The Good Samaritan and The Pool of Bethesda, in St. 
 Bartholomew's Hospital. 
 
 A Scotsman, Alexander Runciman (1736-1785), showed more 
 power in this same class of art. He decorated the great saloon of 
 Penicuik House, near Edinburgh, with scenes from Ossian, and a 
 cupola in the same house with scenes from the life of St. Margaret 
 of Scotland. The Ossian decorations were destroyed by fire in 
 1899, but not before the writer had seen them. They were too 
 low in tone for their purpose, but otherwise showed great ability. 
 John Runciman (1744-1768), Alexander's younger brother, 
 showed high promise in the same direction during his short life. 
 
 176 
 
 FIG. 315. — CHIFFINCH. (jOHN RILEY.) 
 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 \ 
 
EARLY PAINTING 
 
 The last achievements of this Rubens-born movement were the 
 decoration of the great room of the Society of Arts by James 
 Barry, which was carried out between the years 1777 and 1780, 
 and the painting of the grand staircase at Burghley, Northampton- 
 shire, by Thomas Stothard, between 1780 and 1783 (Fig. 372). 
 Such work of the same class as England has produced in later years 
 has had a different inspiration. 
 
 The chief cause of the English failure to do much in the way of 
 monumental painting has been our habit of putting amateurs — at the 
 best — in positions of control over such matters, and making them 
 responsible for success or failure. The best road to success is through 
 the want of it, but then you must be in a position to form a right 
 judgment as to the causes of failure. Instead of being frightened by 
 an initial catastrophe, the man who knows clears away its results 
 and tries again. This is too much to expect of amateurs, and less 
 than amateurs — Bishops, Generals, Speakers, Black Rods, Junior 
 Lords of the Treasury, etc. They cannot profit by failure, for they 
 cannot really grasp its causes, and are forced to believe that the 
 only safe proceeding is to abandon operations. In all our attempts 
 at monumental decoration in the Houses of Parliament, for 
 instance, the causes of positive failure are obvious to those who have 
 trained their faculties to see them. If our rulers would only brace 
 their nerves to a new beginning, and start by putting the manage- 
 ment of the whole business into the hands of some individual who 
 had proved his capacity by his own work, they would almost 
 certainly endow their country with a palace as dignified internally 
 as it is externally. What has been done in the City, in the Royal 
 Exchange, shows both the competence of many of our painters and 
 the absurdity of our lay methods. There you may find not a few 
 well-conceived wall pictures — those, for instance, of Mr. Abbey and 
 Mr. Macbeth — but the enterprise, as a whole, is totally ruined by 
 the remarkable procedure of allowing independent commissions to 
 be given, and every artist to play his own tune. How could 
 harmony be even hoped for from such a way of going to work ? 
 
 For Bibliography see end of Chapter XVI. 
 
 P 
 
 yy^ir] 
 
 177 N 
 
FIG. 316. — MARRIAGE A LA MODE. BREAKFAST SCENE. (HOGARTH.) National Gallery. 
 
 FJG. 317.— MARRIAGE A LA MODE. TOILET SCENE. (HOGARTH.) National Gallery. 
 
 .178 
 
FIG. 318. — REYNOLDS. (BY HIMSELF.) 
 
 Royal Academy. 
 
 FIG. 319. — RAEBURN. (bY HIMSELF.) 
 
 National Gallery, Edinburgh. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 The history of English painting, from the destruction of its 
 ancient nurseries, the monasteries, down to the second quarter of the 
 eighteenth century, is, then, the history of a struggle against foreign 
 invasion. On two occasions the invaders were both capable and 
 benign, capable of setting a great 
 example and willing to let the 
 native profit by it. But as a 
 rule, they were men who either 
 were or ought to have been fail- 
 ures at home, coming here to 
 draw upon the deeper and more 
 facile purses of the north-western 
 barbarian. It was not a healthy 
 struggle. It was between men 
 patronized for their foreign birth 
 — as artists, of all kinds, ever have 
 been in modern England — and 
 men who thought their only 
 chance of success lay in imitating the methods of their rivals. Thus we 
 always had mediocrity on the one hand, and insincerity on the other. 
 
 179 n2 
 
 FIG. 320.- 
 
 -HIS OWN SERVANTS. 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 (HOGARTH.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 At the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, however, fortune sent a deUverer. 
 
 WilHam Hogarth was exactly the 
 type of man required by Enghsh art 
 at the time of his birth. He was not 
 only a great artist, he was an organizer 
 of resistance. He rallied the forces 
 of English painting, which had been 
 dispersed in the overthrow of the old 
 religion, and, by tongue and pen as 
 well as example, prepared people's 
 minds for the notion that art was not 
 an exotic. His own early portraits 
 
 FIG. 321. SHRIMP GIRL. (HOGARTH.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 were a declaration of war 
 against the empty conventions 
 which had ruled between the 
 death of Lely and that of 
 Kneller. They encouraged 
 those of his fellow-countrymen 
 who had art in them to be true 
 to their own feelings, instead of 
 seeking out and adopting half 
 
 FIG. 323. — ^DR. JOHNSON. (REYNOLDS.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 FIG. 322. — GARRICK between TRAGEDY AND 
 COMEDY. (REYNOLDS.) 
 
 Lord Rothschild. 
 
 understood formulae from third rate 
 Continental studios. In spite of 
 the extreme contrast between their 
 works, one is tempted to compare 
 Hogarth with Watteau. Both men 
 understood that their fellow-country- 
 men had got into an impasse, 
 and both — Hogarth deliberately, 
 Watteau in obedience to a less 
 conscious impulse — set themselves 
 to lay a new foundation on ideas 
 of their own, which they felt to be 
 racial. 
 
 Hogarth was born in Bartholo- 
 180 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 324. — TWO GENTLEMEN. (REYNOLDS.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 FIG. 325. NELLY o'bRIEN. (REYNOLDS.) 
 
 Wallace Collection. 
 
 mew Close, on the 10th of November, 1697. He began active 
 life as apprentice to a silversmith ; but at the age of tw^enty-one 
 forsook the engraving of ornaments and coats of arms on silver 
 for copper-plate engraving for the booksellers. In 1 730 he married 
 the daughter of Sir James Thornhill and began to paint portraits 
 and those " moralities " on which his fame now mainly rests. In 
 1 753 he added authorship to his other accomplishments, publishing 
 that " Analysis of Beauty " which deserves so much more respect 
 than it has ever won. In 1757 he was appointed Sergeant 
 Painter to the King, and in 1764 
 he died. 
 
 Antaeus has seen himself re- 
 peated again and again in art history. 
 When painting has fallen to be a 
 mere conventional habit, it has been 
 revived by seeking earth. Some 
 man, or group of men, has insisted 
 on returning to the primitive found- 
 ations of nature, to gather new 
 strength, and prepare for a new 
 bloom. Hogarth was the pre- 
 Raphaelite movement of the eigh- 
 teenth century. He turned his back 
 on the empty, weak-kneed graces 
 of Kneller and his following, and 
 
 181 
 
 FIG. 326. — GIBBON. (REYNOLDS.) 
 
 From Print. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 327. DUCHESS OF DEVONSHIRE AND BABY. 
 
 (REYNOLDS.) Duke of Devonshire. 
 
 shouted to English art to turn its face to realities with him. His 
 invitation was not consciously accepted, but it had its effect. It shook 
 
 the belief in formulae and 
 made painters think, with 
 the result that before the 
 middle of the century Eng- 
 lish painting had entirely 
 changed its complexion, 
 and from being the most 
 feebly conventional, had 
 become, of all European 
 schools, the most robust 
 and most promising for the 
 future. 
 
 It is only within the last 
 decade or two that we 
 have begun to understand 
 Hogarth. It used to be 
 the fashion to speak of him as a sort of showman in paint. His 
 pictures were discussed as if their only claims to admiration lay in 
 the stories they told. The truth is that Hogarth combined the 
 
 powers of a consummate technical 
 painter, of a true artist, and of a 
 story-teller, more completely than 
 any other man had ever done 
 before. His " morahties " not 
 only wed good design to dramatic 
 force, they make each depend on 
 the other, so that we can scarcely 
 tell whether we admire a passage 
 for its pictorial or its dramatic 
 qualities. Fortunately, our public 
 and semi-public collections are 
 rich in his works. The National 
 Gallery possesses sixteen, includ- 
 ing the Marriage a la Mode, 
 the Shrimp Girl, the portraits of 
 himself with his dog, of his sister, 
 and of Quin, the actor, the Calais 
 Gate, and the wonderful group 
 of his servants' heads. The National Portrait Gallery has a 
 fascinating little picture of himself at his easel. In the Soane 
 
 182 
 
 FIG. 32». — AGE OF INNOCENCE. 
 
 (REYNOLDS.) National Gallery. 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 Museum are the Rakes Progress, and the Election Series; in 
 the Foundling Hospital the full length of Captain Coram, the March 
 
 FIG. 329. — MISS MONCKTON. (REYNOLDS.) 
 
 From Print. 
 
 of the Guards to Finchley, and 
 the appropriate Finding of Moses; 
 St. Bartholomew's has the two wall 
 pictures, The Good Samaritan and 
 the Pool of ^ethesda, which can- 
 not be numbered among his suc- 
 cesses ; while good examples are to 
 be found in the National Gallery 
 of Ireland ; the Royal Academy ; 
 the British Museum ; the Fitz- 
 william Museum, at Cambridge ; 
 and the Royal Collections. Among 
 private collections, that of Lord 
 Ilchester is the richest, chiefly 
 through the presence there of the 
 Scene from the "Indian Emperor; 
 or, Conquest of Mexico," one of the 
 best of all Hogarth's pictures from 
 the executive standpoint. 
 
 Hogarth delayed the recognition 
 
 183 
 
 FIG. 330. — MRS. STONE NORTON. 
 (GAINSBOROUGH.) 
 
 Mr. A. de Rothschild. 
 
 FIG. 331. — HON. MRS. GRAHAM. 
 (GAINSBOROUGH.) 
 
 National Gallery, Edinburgh. 
 
 of his own genius by his 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 332. — GAINSBOROUGH. 
 
 (by himself.) Royal Academy. 
 
 chauvinistic pen. His diatribes 
 against foreigners, against the 
 collection of " old masters," 
 against traditional likes and dis- 
 likes generally, may have been 
 required by the state of opinion ; 
 but he suffered through being 
 their author. They isolated him, 
 and made the very men who 
 profited by his ideas shrink from 
 accepting their propounder as a 
 leader. The new independence 
 was his creation, but more than 
 a century had to pass before the 
 fact was acknowledged. His 
 example and expressed opinions 
 had a great effect upon the next 
 innovator — the second founder, 
 we may call him, of the modern school of painting — Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds. In Sir Joshua's published writings, however, scarcely 
 an allusion to Hogarth is to be found. 
 
 Sir Joshua was Hogarth's junior by nearly a generation. He 
 was born in Devonshire in 1723. At the age of eighteen he 
 entered the studio of Thomas Hudson, having already acquired 
 
 some little degree of skill at 
 home. Two years later, having 
 had one of those quarrels with 
 his master which seem de rigueur 
 with gifted artists, he returned to 
 Devonshire, and established him- 
 self as a portrait painter at 
 Plymouth Dock, as Devonport 
 was then called. In 1 746 he 
 came to London, and then, 
 in 1 749, he started on a voyage 
 to the Mediterranean, with Com- 
 modore Keppel, which was 
 to end in a three years* 
 stay in Italy, passed mostly in 
 Rome. In 1752 he returned 
 „„, ,,„^„ ,^ to ^ London, where he spent 
 
 FIG. 333-— MRS. SIDDONS. , f 1 * VC I 1 7AQ 
 
 (GAINSBOROUGH.) National Gallery. the rest ot hlS lite. In I /DO 
 
 184 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 he became first President of the 
 Royal Academy, and in 1 792 he 
 died. 
 
 If the leading quaHties of 
 Hogarth were the perfectly 
 coherent ones of disrespect, in- 
 dependence, and a determina- 
 tion to build his monument on 
 foundations of his own, those of 
 Reynolds were the apparently 
 inconsistent ones of respect for 
 established reputations and a 
 strong bent toward thinking for 
 himself. Much of his intellect- 
 ual activity was directed toward 
 discovering good reasons for 
 allowing fifth-rate artists to enjoy 
 first-rate reputations, and yet in 
 his own practice, he was one of the most thoughtful and various 
 of painters, and one of the least tolerant of all that was stereo- 
 typed and perfunctory. 
 
 The great distinction of Sir Joshua's art, the characteristic which 
 
 FIG. 334. — LADY MULGRAVE. 
 
 (GAINSBOROUGH.) Groult Collection. 
 
 FIG. 335. MISS HAVERPIELD. 
 
 (GAINSBOROUGH.) Wallace Collection. 
 
 185 
 
 . FIG. 336. — BLUE BOY. 
 
 (GAINSBOROUGH.) Duke of Westminster. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 337- 
 
 -WATERINO PLACE. (GAINSBOROUGH.; 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 sets it apart from that of anyone else, is its variety. In other mat- 
 ters he had his superiors. But in the variety which comes 
 
 naturally from a mind 
 always active, always 
 interested, always taking 
 a new initiative, no 
 painter of his age 
 approached him. Every 
 picture he painted, even 
 when it was only a head, 
 represented a conscious 
 exertion of the mind. 
 And he was moved by 
 beauty ; he was preoccu- 
 pied with color, with 
 the texture of paint, even 
 with the melody of line, 
 which last has not always 
 appealed to the English- 
 man. His early pictures — those painted before his establishment 
 in London in 1 732 — betray the influence of Hogarth, Gandy of 
 Exeter, and Rembrandt. Some caricatures painted in Rome are 
 especially Hogarthian in their excellent technique. Four of these 
 (the most important a parody on Raphael's School of Athens, in 
 which the men who formed the English coterie in Rome are 
 substituted for the Greek philosophers) are in the Irish National 
 Collection. But the second half of the eighteenth century was not 
 far advanced before Reynolds had shaken down into a style 
 which can be recognized as his own at a glance. During the 
 last thirty years of his activity he talked Michael Angeio and the 
 Bolognese ; but while he talked he kept his eye on Venice, and 
 made many dangerous experiments in the attempt to capture her 
 charm. It is probable that in their early freshness, as they appeared 
 on the walls of Somerset House, many of his pictures had a splendor 
 of color unsurpassed even by Titian. 
 
 Reynolds is not well represented in our public galleries. Pictures 
 by him exist in private hands which give a higher idea of his 
 powers than anything to be found in the national collections. Such 
 pictures are the Lady Crosbie, in Sir Edward Tennant's collec- 
 tion, the Duchess of Devonshire with her Daughter (Fig. 327), 
 in the Duke of Devonshire's possession, Garrick between Tragedy 
 and Comedy (Fig. 322), which belongs to Lord Rothschild, several of 
 
 186 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 338. — THE MORNING WALK ; PORTRAITS OF SQUIRE AND MRS. HALLETT. 
 
 (GAINSBOROUGH.) Lord Rothschild. 
 
 187 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 the pictures at Althorp, Lord Leicester's Charles James Fox, Master 
 Crewe, at Crewe Hall, and the great family picture at Blenheim 
 
 of the Duke of Marlborough 
 
 339. LANDSCAPE. (GAINSBOROUGH.) 
 
 Mrs. Joseph. 
 
 I- 
 
 with his wife and children. 
 But the Lord Heathfield, 
 the Lady Cockhurn and 
 her Children, the Angels' 
 Heads, the Age of Inno- 
 cence (Fig. 328), and the 
 three Montgomeries as The 
 Graces, in the National Gal- 
 lery, with the Nelly O'Brien, 
 the Mrs. Carnac, and others 
 in the Wallace Collection, 
 make a better show for Rey- 
 nolds than we can point to for 
 his great rival Gainsborough. 
 In many ways Gainsborough was the antithesis of Sir Joshua, 
 which makes it difficult to avoid a comparison when writing of their 
 art. Gainsborough was the younger by four years. He was 
 
 born in Suffolk in 1727. With 
 the exception of the years be- 
 tween 1741 and 1746, which 
 he spent in London as the 
 pupil, successively, of Gravelot, 
 the French illustrator and en- 
 graver, and Francis Hayman, 
 his whole active career divides 
 itself into three periods of four- 
 teen years each : from 1746 to 
 1 760 at Ipswich ; from 1 760 to 
 1774 at Bath; from 1774 to 
 his death in 1788 in London. 
 He never left his own country, 
 and within it his travelling was 
 confined to one or two excursions 
 into Wales and the north of 
 England. His development was 
 quite normal. He began by 
 painting with extreme care and 
 
 riG.340.-MRS. ROBINSON. (GAINSBOROUGH.) ^^^^\ ^^ ^ ^^y^ ^bvioUsly baScd 
 
 Wallace Collection. 
 
 on 
 
 188 
 
 the Dutch pictures which 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 were at that time present in considerable numbers in East Anglia. 
 His early landscapes remind one of Wynants, his early figures of 
 Metsu or Terborch. In Bath his design became broader and 
 more highly organized, his brushing freer and more personal, 
 and his color warmer. In London all these developments became 
 more assured, but there is no such breach of continuity between 
 his Bath and his London manner as used to be asserted. Between 
 Ipswich and Bath there is such a breach. In Suffolk his masters 
 were the Dutchmen. At Bath and in its neighborhood he was 
 brought face to face with Van Dyck, and soon drew himself out of 
 
 the prim, collected manner of 
 
 Ipswich, to put on some, at least, 
 of the swing and freedom of the great 
 cosmopolitan. 
 
 It is impossible to reach a com- 
 plete idea of Gainsborough's powers 
 from our public collections. In Lon- 
 don, the National Gallery has one 
 first-rate portrait in the Mrs. Siddons 
 (Fig. 333), and one fine land- 
 scape in The Watering Place (Fig. 
 337). The Wallace Collection owns 
 the Mary Robinson (Fig. 340) and 
 Miss Haverfield (Fig. 335). The 
 famous Mrs. Graham (Fig. 331) 
 hangs in the Scottish Gallery. 
 Against each of these, however, 
 some slight objection can be urged. 
 The red curtain behind the head of 
 Siddons is not all it should be, the 
 Perdita Robinson is hardly a design, 
 the Mrs. Graham has not yet com- 
 pletely thrown off the effects of her fifty years in the dark, and The 
 Watering Place is very low in tone. The value of a fine Gains- 
 borough is now so enormous that the nation is never likely to get 
 another, so the student who wishes to know what he could do at his 
 happiest moment must see The Morning Walk ^^^ Mrs. Sheridan, 
 at Lord Rothschild's ; the Miss Linley and her Brother, at Knole ; 
 the Mall, in Sir Audley Neeld's collection at Grittleton; the three 
 portraits of ladies in Mr. Alfred de Rothschild's dining-room in 
 Seamore Place; the Blue Boy at Grosvenor House; the Lady 
 Muhravcy in the collection of the late M. Groult ; and as many 
 
 189 
 
 FIG. 341. — LADY BEAUCHAMP PROCTOR. 
 
 (romney.) Mr. L. Raphael. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 as possible ot the wonderful 
 drawings which earn a place 
 for Gainsborough among the 
 great masters of the point. 
 
 For if Reynolds was vari- 
 ous in one way, his rival was 
 
 various in another. ** D 
 
 him ! how various he is ! " 
 Gainsborough is said to have 
 exclaimed before the Presi- 
 dent's pictures in the ex- 
 hibition. But he himself had 
 his own variety, for he 
 excelled in portraits, in land- 
 scape, as an animalier, and 
 as a maker of drawings. 
 He beat Reynolds, too, in technique, for his pictures stand like 
 rocks, when not violently interfered with, and his manner — ** all 
 those odd scratches and marks . . . this chaos, this uncouth and 
 shapeless appearance," to use Sir Joshua's own words — leads 
 through freedom up to unity with an unerring directness rivalled 
 only by the greatest executants, by men like Franz Hals, Rubens, 
 Velazquez, Raeburn, Manet, and Sargent. 
 
 The third member of the triumvirate by whom the ground floor 
 
 of the edifice of English paintin 
 
 FIG. 342. CHILDREN OF EARL COWER. 
 
 (romney.) Duke of Sutherland. 
 
 FIG. 343. — LADY ARABELLA WARD. 
 
 (romney.) Viscount Bangor. 
 
 was raised on the foundations lai< 
 by Hogarth was Gainsborough's 
 junior by seven years and Sir 
 Joshua's by eleven. George 
 Romney was born at Dalton, 
 in Lancashire, at the end of 
 1 734. He contrived to educate 
 himself as a painter with no better 
 help than that of one Steele, a 
 strolling artist who pervaded the 
 northern counties at the time. 
 This was a great achievement, 
 for Romney became an excellent 
 draughtsman and a master of 
 technique in its wider sense very 
 early in his career. In 1 756 he 
 married, and settled in Kendal as 
 190 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 a portrait painter. In 1 762 he came to London, leaving his wife 
 
 and two children in the North. In 1 773 he went to Italy, where 
 
 he stayed two years. Returning to London in 1 775, he settled in 
 
 Cavendish Square, and there 
 
 divided the patronage of the town 
 
 with Reynolds and Gainsborough. 
 
 About 1 795 he moved to Hamp- 
 
 stead, where he built himself a 
 
 studio which now forms part of 
 
 the local Conservative club. In 
 
 1799 he went back to Kendal, 
 
 dying three years later in the 
 
 presence of a wife and son whom 
 
 he had only seen at very long 
 
 intervals since he had left home 
 
 nearly forty years before. 
 
 Romney's popularity has fluctu- 
 ated more than that of any other 
 English painter of importance. 
 Forty years ago his pictures were 
 entirely neglected. Their market value was trifling, and his name 
 was never mentioned except as that of an artist who had sunk 
 beneath the surface. This state of things was due partly, if not 
 wholly to the mere fact that his works were out of sight. The 
 
 FIG. 344. — EUPHROSYNE. (rOMNEY.) 
 From Print. 
 
 FIG. 345. — MRS. CURRIE. 
 
 (romney.) National Gallery. 
 
 191 
 
 FIG. 346. — MRS. JORDAN. (ROMNEY.) 
 
 From Print. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 I'IG. 347. LADY LOUISA CONNOLLY. 
 
 (ALLAN RAMSAY.) Holland House. 
 
 national collections contained none 
 of any importance and the country 
 houses were not public. Another 
 cause, however, was the character 
 of his genius. In one respect Rom- 
 ney appeals to the crowd : he is 
 the painter, par excellence, of the 
 pretty Englishwoman. No one has 
 succeeded so well as he in putting 
 on canvas the sort of head an 
 English novelist selects for his 
 heroine. But, artistically, Romney 
 was somewhat of an exotic. His 
 gift was more Latin than that of any 
 other important English painter. 
 He thought in line, and is, in his 
 best work, more akin to French 
 masters of black and white, and — 
 to make a very long stride — to the 
 Greek sculptors, than to his own 
 British contemporaries. It would be 
 difficult to name a picture, in any school, which unites modernity 
 with genuine classical feeling as happily as the Children of Earl 
 Gower — who " dansent en rond " (Fig. 342). It is a delicious pict- 
 ure, conceived on lines which have led to boredom in other hands. 
 
 It is essentially a design. Its color 
 is used in the spirit of the map- 
 maker, to distinguish between one 
 province and another. And yet it 
 is good color in its way. Romney 's 
 workmanship was so clean — his 
 brushing so prompt and free from 
 confusion or repetition — that his 
 color has remained transparent and 
 luminous, and therefore not too un- 
 pleasant even when slightly hot. 
 But perhaps the most surprising 
 thing about Romney is the early 
 mastery of academic virtues which 
 he won. So far as we know, he 
 had nothing that would now be 
 called a training, and yet his first 
 192 
 
 FIG. 348. — PAUL SANDY. 
 
 . (cotes.) National Gallery. 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 London portraits are notable for ex- 
 cellent drawing, and for a skill and 
 taste in the disposition of drapery 
 which no one has surpassed. They 
 hold their own with the deliberate 
 classicisms of Louis David and other 
 French painters of the Revolution. 
 
 Romney has been still less for- 
 tunate than Reynolds and Gains- 
 borough in his fight for publicity. 
 Scarcely any picture showing him 
 quite at his best has won its way 
 into a national collection. The 
 London Portrait Gallery, indeed, 
 has a head of himself, one of the 
 best self-portraits left by any 
 painter, and the Wallace Collec- 
 of " Perdita " Robinson; but the 
 Gallery include nothing in the first 
 and examples are almost entirely absent from the provincial 
 His finest works are in the collections of the Duke of 
 
 FIG. 349. — HORACE WALPOLE. 
 (NATHANIEL HONE.) 
 
 tion a fine and famous head 
 seven pictures in the National 
 flight, 
 
 museums, nis nnest worKs are 
 Sutherland (Gower Children, Fig. 342, and Lord Stafford in a 
 Van Dyck Dress), Sir George Russell (Mrs. Russell and Child), 
 Lord Powis (Hon. Charlotte Clive), Lord Iveagh (Lady Hamilton 
 Spinning), Lord Bangor (Lady Arabella Ward, Fig. 343), 
 Lord Warwick (Lady Warwick cmd her Children and Miss Vernon 
 as Hebe), Sir Edward Ten- 
 nant (Mrs. Jordan, Fig. 
 346, and Countess of 
 Derby), Lord Cathcart 
 (Countess of Mansfield), Mr. 
 Leopold Hirsch (Mrs. 
 Raikes), Mr. C. Wertheimer 
 (Ladies Caroline and Eliza- 
 beth Spencer and Mrs. John- 
 son), Sir Hugh Cholmeley 
 (Catherine and Sarah Chol- 
 meley), Mr. L. Raphael 
 (Lady Beauchamp Proctor, 
 Fig. 341, and Lady Prescott 
 
 and Family), Mr. Tankerville ^^^ 350.-CAROLINE lady Holland. 
 
 Chamberlain (Lady Hamilton (allan ramsay.) Holland House. 
 
 193 O 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 FIG. 351. — MRS. MARGARET CROWE. (OPIE.) 
 
 as a Bacchante), and Mr. Ralph 
 Bankes (Miss Woodley, after- 
 ward Mrs. Bankes). 
 
 Side by side with these three 
 men Richard Wilson was doing 
 for landscape painting what they 
 were doing for portraits. Born in 
 1713, he was senior to them all, 
 but it was not until his return to 
 London from Italy, in 1 753, that 
 he renounced portraiture, in which 
 he had won a certain measure of 
 success. The credit of the change 
 has been put down to Zuccarelli, 
 who saw some of the Englishman's 
 sketches in Rome and strongly 
 advised him to devote his powers 
 to the painting of landscape. It is probable enough that his advice 
 would not have been so readily taken had not the appearance of Sir 
 Joshua, Gainsborough, and Romney narrowed existing opportunities 
 in the other genre. Wilson, like the three portrait painters, had 
 his roots in tradition, but his head was in the sun. In his methods, 
 and even in his ideals, we can trace the influence of Claude, of 
 Lucatelli, of Panini, of Zuccarelli ; but this debt he supplements 
 with his own gift of design and sense of beauty, his own poet's 
 
 imagination and freshness of inter- 
 est in the power of art to suggest 
 romance and Italy. At his best 
 he has a distinction not again to 
 be reached before the flowering of 
 Corot. He has depth, repose, 
 and essential humanity. Unfor- 
 tunately he is not always, or often, 
 at his best. His life was a strug- 
 gle and he painted too much, so 
 that many canvases which quite 
 correctly bear his name represent 
 him at moments when interest and 
 inspiration were asleep. As a 
 whole, however, he was a true, 
 ife-giving painter, and so has had 
 
 FIG.352.—GARRICK. (R.E.PINE.) From Print, a following. In his own time, 
 
 194 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 353- — LADY. (hOPPNER.) FIG. 354. — LADY. (hOPPNER.) 
 
 Mrs. Trevor Martin. 
 
 however, the only artist of any power who was much affected 
 by his example was the Irishman, George Barret, whose later 
 works betray a close study of Wilson and are sometimes cata- 
 logued under his name. Other disciples, such as Farrington and 
 William Hodges, were comparatively powerless. Wilson's death 
 occurred in 1 782. 
 
 Wilson's best pictures are, as a rule, comparatively small, simple 
 compositions, broad in handling, finely balanced in design, luminous 
 in color. Two little Scenes in 
 Italy in Jthe National Gallery are 
 of delightful quality, reminding us 
 of Guardi by their freedom and of 
 Chardin by their crumby paste. 
 His more ambitious efforts, such ^is 
 the Niohe in the National Gallery, 
 of which Sir Joshua made rather 
 tasteless fun in his fourteenth dis- 
 course, are less satisfactory. In his 
 preoccupation with gods and god- 
 desses he loses the transparent 
 color and the unity of design on 
 which his charm depends. 
 
 The spirit of modern painting — 
 for through it all runs a thread of ^^^ 355._portrait of a lady. 
 
 unity— sprmgs from the example (hoppner.) Mrs. Fieischmann. 
 
 195 O 2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 of these five Englishmen : 
 Hogarth, Reynolds, Gains- 
 borough, Romney, and Wilson : 
 supplemented by that of one 
 later man of genius, in Con- 
 stable. Their activity covered 
 the years between 1 735 and 
 1 795, and it breathed a new 
 vitality into an art which was 
 practically moribund. Good 
 painters existed elsewhere, of 
 course : Antonio Canale and 
 Giambattista Tiepolo in Italy, 
 Watteau and Chardin in France, 
 were no mean successors to the 
 best who had gone before. But 
 they were successors. Their art 
 was in the sunset rather than 
 the sunrise. And delightful as we find it, it was rather a solace 
 than a stimulus. Some might say the same of Wilson. But so far 
 as his art was retrospective it deserved and won little attention. 
 His influence rested upon his development of the natural capacities 
 of landscape, in color and atmosphere. 
 
 Side by side with these originators a number of men were 
 
 FIG. 356. — PORTRAIT OF A LADY. (HOPPNER.) 
 
 Mrs. Trevor Martin. 
 
 FIG. 357. — SISTERS FRANKLAND. 
 
 (HOPPNER.) From Print. 
 
 196 
 
 FIG. 358. — DOUGLAS CHILDREN. 
 
 (HOPPNER.) From Print. 
 
 f 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 359. — LADY STEUART OF COLTNESS. 
 
 (raeburn.) Mrs. Fleischmann. 
 
 producing pictures of sufficient 
 merit to give them a right to places 
 in a biographical dictionary. The 
 most attractive, both as an artist 
 and as a man, was the Scotsman, 
 Allan Ramsay. He was born in 
 Edinburgh, in 1713, the son of 
 Allan Ramsay, the poet and book- 
 seller. At the age of sixteen he 
 became a foundation member of 
 the short-lived Academy of St. 
 Luke in Edinburgh. About 1 734 
 he came to London for a time, 
 went on, two years later, to Italy, 
 returned to Edinburgh in 1 739, 
 and finally established himself in 
 London in 1 752. In 1 767 he 
 became Painter in Ordinary to 
 George III, and in 1 784 he died. 
 
 Ramsay has hitherto been robbed of his deserts by the foisting of 
 bad pictures with which he had nothing to do into his ceuvre, by 
 the failure of any good example of his powers to win entrance 
 to a metropolitan gallery, and by his unfitness for the post of 
 portrait-maker to the King. The Scottish national collection has a 
 delicious half-length of his wife, a 
 niece of the great Lord Mansfield. 
 A fine male portrait is in the 
 National Gallery of Ireland ; and 
 the collections of Lord Lothian, 
 Lord Stair, Sir Thomas Gibson 
 Carmichael, and Mr. Thomas Bar- 
 ing have good examples. Holland 
 House is rich in his works (Figs. 
 347, ^A&y. With more self-confi- 
 dence Ramsay would have been 
 one of the best painters of the 
 eighteenth century. The pictures 
 he carried out with his own hand 
 are distinguished by an exquisite 
 sensibility, by a reserve and light- 
 ness of execution which occasion- 
 ally border on timidity. In color 
 
 197 
 
 FIG. 360. — LORD NEWTON. (rAEBURN.) 
 
 National Gallery, Edinburgh. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 3C1. — MRS. JAMES CAMPBELL. 
 
 (raeburn.) Mr. Lionel Muirhead. 
 
 they show a pink suffusion which 
 is characteristic. 
 
 To certain other painters whose 
 careers coincided, more or less, 
 with those of the epoch-making 
 five, allusion must be brief. 
 Francis Hayman (1708-1776) is 
 now remembered chiefly because 
 Gainsborough was his pupil. 
 Arthur Pond (1 705-1 758, Fig. 
 375), Joseph Highmore (1692- 
 1780), George Knapton (1698- 
 1778), Arthur Devis the elder 
 (1711-1787), Nathaniel Hone 
 (1 7 18- 1784), Tilly Kettle (1740- 
 1786), Henry Walton (1720?- 
 1 790 ?), Charles Brooking (1 723- 
 1 753) the sea painter (Fig. 376) ; 
 all these were able to turn out good pictures on occasion, and it 
 is much to be regretted that no provision now exists for collecting 
 examples of their work for the nation. They had one great quality 
 in common : they could all paint. The meagre, starved impasto, 
 the paint rubbed into the canvas rather than laid upon it, of, which 
 
 we have seen too much since, 
 looks wretched indeed beside the 
 fat, frank, and free handling of 
 the old English school. 
 
 The effect of good example on 
 those who immediately followed 
 Sir Joshua, Gainsborough and 
 Romney, was like that of warm 
 rain on a parched garden. The 
 dryness disappeared, and even 
 when no high degree of merit 
 was reached, art with life in its 
 veins shot up all over the coun- 
 try. The second-rate men who 
 worked between the middle of 
 the eighteenth century and the 
 early years of the nineteenth were 
 no longer mere repeaters of a pat- 
 tern, depending on journeymen 
 
 198 
 
 FIG. 362. — MRS. FERGUSSCN. (rAEBURN.) 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 363. — NATHANIEL SPENS. (raeburn.) Archer's Hall, Edinburgh. 
 
 199 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 364. — SIR JOHN SINCLAIR OF 
 ULBSTER. (RAEBURN.) 
 
 for the minor details of their work. 
 They were modest artists, trying, at 
 least, to say something in their selected 
 medium. They included one man 
 of genius, in Hoppner, and many 
 painters of ability : Francis Wheatley 
 (1747-1801), Thomas Beach (1738- 
 1806), Nathaniel Dance (1735- 
 1811). John Opie (1761-1807), 
 Wright of Derby (1734-1797), 
 Robert Edge Pine (1730-1788), 
 Hugh D. Hamilton (1 734 ?- 1805), 
 John Downman (1750-1824), whose 
 stained drawings now enjoy such a 
 vogue, and Francis Cotes (1725- 
 1 770). Cotes, whom I have named 
 last, really belonged to the same gen- 
 eration as Sir Joshua, for he is sup- 
 posed to have been born in 1725, 
 and he died in 1 770. But as an oil painter he was so severely in- 
 fluenced by Reynolds, that he must take a place among his disciples. 
 At the end of his comparatively short life his pictures became so 
 like those of the President, that several have since been sold as 
 Sir Joshua's, and even exhibited at the " Old Masters " as such 
 without exciting much protest. 
 
 Hoppner himself, fine painter as he 
 was, would never have produced the 
 works for which the world competes so 
 eagerly to-day, had not Sir Joshua lived 
 before him. Hoppner was of German 
 extraction, but nothing could be less 
 Teutonic than his art : unless, indeed, 
 his tendency to heat, as a colorist, was 
 due to his blood. He was born in 
 1 759, and began life as a chorister in 
 the Chapel Royal. When his voice 
 broke he took to another form of art, 
 and became a Royal Academy stu- 
 dent. Through the patronage of the 
 Prince of Wales he soon conquered 
 the town, sharing its favors with 
 Lawrence for nearly twenty years. 
 200 
 
 ( 
 
 fig. 365. — major clunes. 
 
 (raeburn.) 
 
 National Gallery, Edinburgh. 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 366. — J. J. ANGERSTEIN. 
 
 (LAWRENCE.) National Gallery. 
 
 He died, not quite sane, in 
 1810. 
 
 Hoppner has been even more 
 unlucky than Ramsay in failing to 
 make his proper entry into the 
 nation's collections. No idea of 
 his powers can be formed from the 
 National or the Portrait Gallery, 
 and he is almost entirely absent 
 from the provincial museums. His 
 best pictures have been changing 
 hands frequently of late years, 
 under the stress of enormous prices. 
 The fine group of the four Douglas 
 children (Fig. 358), which used to 
 be in Lord Morton's collection at 
 Dalmahoy, is now the property of 
 Lord Rothschild. The famous 
 Sisters Frankland (Fig. 357) has 
 passed into the collection of Sir Edward Tennant. A lovely por- 
 trait of some beautiful unknown was sold for a great price at Christie's 
 in 1905, and now belongs to Mr. C. Wertheimer. The Lady Louisa 
 Manners, the group of Hoppner's own children — Children Bathing 
 —Lord Darnley's Countess of Darnley and Child, Lord Rosebery s 
 William Pitt, and a series of 
 three beautiful portraits of beauti- 
 ful women, now in the possession 
 of Mrs. Trevor Martin, of Port- 
 land Place, for whose husband's 
 family they were painted, are all 
 among his best productions (Figs. 
 353, 354, 356). 
 
 Contemporary with Hoppner, 
 and belonging like him to the 
 second generation of our national 
 portrait painters, were two men 
 of great originality, in Raeburn 
 and Lawrence. Raeburn was the 
 elder. He was born in 1 756, 
 in Edinburgh, worked under 
 David Martin, painted minia- 
 tures, and then, at the age of 
 
 201 
 
 367. — MRS. WOLFF. (LAWRENCE.) 
 
 From Print. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 368. — PRINCESS CHARLOTTE. 
 
 (LAWRENCE.) Earl of Ilchester. 
 
 twenty-two, married a wife with 
 means, who enabled him to visit 
 Italy. After a stay there of about 
 two years he established himself in 
 Edinburgh, where he was undis- 
 puted head of the native school for 
 more than a generation, and painted 
 every one of "light and leadmg" in 
 the Scottish capital with the one 
 important exception of Robert 
 Burns. 
 
 Raeburn holds a place in the 
 small company of men who have 
 been real pioneers. He was born 
 into a country swarming with workers 
 in the particular form of art he chose, 
 and dominated by at least three men 
 of genius ; and yet he built up a style 
 which was at once obviously sincere, quite different from what he 
 saw about him, and so truly begotten of the metier that it has since 
 grown into an European ideal. So far as we can now guess, his 
 school was the portrait of Pope Innocent X, by Velazquez, in the 
 Doria-Pamfili palace. At least, that is the only masterpiece, in the 
 manner which appealed to him, with 
 which we know him to have been 
 familiar. There is nothing to show 
 that he ever met a Frans Hals. But 
 a single spark is enough to set genius 
 alight. Van Dyck became the English 
 Van Dyck at the sight of a few minia- 
 tures by Samuel Cooper, and the 
 Spaniard's pope was more than ca- 
 pable of firing the ambitions of a 
 man like Raeburn. 
 
 Raeburn's art improved steadily from 
 his definite, settlement in Edinburgh to 
 the end of his life. But, unlike most 
 painters who have not stood still, he 
 developed from a perhaps excessive 
 breadth of touch and simplification of 
 the planes, to a rounder modelling and 
 a more united impasto. All his stages 
 
 202 
 
 FIG. 369. — LADY DOVER AND 
 CHILD. (LAWRENCE.) 
 
 From Print. 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 370. MISS FARREN (lADY DERBY). 
 
 (LAWRENCE.) From Print. 
 
 can be traced, in good examples, 
 in the two chief Scottish collec- 
 tions — the Edinburgh National 
 Gallery and the Glasgow Museum 
 — but no other public institution 
 has so far obtained any of his finest 
 works. The Louvre has been 
 especially unlucky ; for of three 
 pictures there ascribed to him, not 
 one has any claim to be considered 
 his ! The following list is confined 
 to what seem to me his best works : 
 — Edinburgh National Gallery : 
 Mrs. Campbell of Balliemore, 
 Lord Newton (Fig. 360), Glen- 
 garry (on loan), John Wauchope, 
 Major Clune (Fig. 365), and 
 His Own Portrait (Fig. 319). 
 Archer's Hall : Nathaniel Spens 
 (Fig. 363). Trinity House, Leith : 
 Viscount Duncan. Glasgow 
 Museum : Mrs. W. Urquhart and Sir John Sinclair of Ulhster, 
 Bart (Fig. 364) on loan. Private collections : Sir George Douglas 
 Clerk, Sir John and Lady Clerk ; Sir Robert Dundas, Lord Presi- 
 dent Dundas; Mr. Munro Ferguson, William Ferguson of 
 
 Kilrie, General Sir Ronald Ferguson, 
 G.C.B., Ronald and Robert Ferguson, 
 and Robert Ferguson of Raith; Mrs. 
 Fleischmann, Lady Steuart of Colt- 
 ness (Fig. 359) ; Lord Tweedmouth, 
 Lady Raeburn; Mrs. Pitman, John 
 Tait of Harvieston and his Grandson ; 
 Mrs. Ernest Hills, The Macdonalds 
 of Clanranald ; Mr. Arthur Sander- 
 son, Mrs. Cruikshank; Mr. Lionel 
 Muirhead, Mrs. James Campbell 
 (Fig. 361); Lord Moncrieff, Rev. Sir 
 H. Moncrieff Wellwood; Hon. Mrs. 
 Baillie Hamilton, The Mac Nab; 
 Mr. J. C. Wardrop, James Wardrop 
 of TorbanhiU; and Mrs. Joseph, 
 Male Portrait. 
 203 
 
 FIG. 371. POPE PIUS VII. 
 
 (LAWRENCE.) From Print. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 372. — INTEMPERANCE. (sTOTHARD.) National Gallery. 
 
 Raeburn's example had its effect, of course, on his Scottish con- 
 temporaries, but only one of these rose to any great excellence, and 
 
 he too often found 
 the early Victo- 
 rian atmosphere 
 stifling to his pow- 
 ers : I allude to 
 Sir John Watson 
 Gordon, whose 
 best works are re- 
 spectable echoes 
 of Raeburn. 
 
 The originality 
 of Lawrence was 
 very different from 
 that of Raeburn, 
 but originality it 
 was, nevertheless. It set up a new ideal in portraiture, and 
 had a character of its own. It will always fail to rank with the 
 other originalities — those of Sir Joshua, Gainsborough, Romney, 
 and Raeburn — because, in the first place, it was less essentially 
 pictorial, and, in the second, it represented a far less admirable type 
 of thought. But Lawrence went his own way, through the am- 
 bitions and ideas of the great time in which he lived, with a single- 
 mindedness and belief in what he was doing which one cannot help 
 
 admiring. His art was based 
 on the superficial aspects of 
 things ; it was nourished by 
 glances at outsides rather than 
 by sympathetic divinations ; 
 it appeals to us as women do 
 at a ball, not in talks by the 
 fireside ; and it has unhappy 
 faults of technique. For he 
 was no colorist, and had 
 wrong ideas about how paint 
 should be " left " — to use Sir 
 Joshua's phrase. But his art 
 has that about it which makes 
 it an insuppressible feature in 
 during the waning of the 
 
 FIG. 373- — DEATH OF MAJOR PIERSON. 
 
 (COPLEY.) National Gallery. 
 
 our mental visions 
 Georges. 
 
 of English society 
 204 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 374- 
 
 -WHITE HORSE AND GROOM. 
 (STUBBS.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 Lawrence was born in 1 769, in the same year as Wellington and 
 perhaps Napoleon. He was a precocious genius, becoming the 
 bread-winner of his family before he was into his teens. At the 
 age of ten he set up as a por- 
 trait painter at Oxford, moved 
 soon afterward to Bath, and, 
 in his eighteenth year, estab- 
 lished himself in London. His 
 success was unbroken through- 
 out life. In 1791 he was 
 elected an A.R.A. although 
 under the statutory age ; in 
 1794 he became an R.A., 
 and in 1820 P.R.A., having 
 received the accolade five 
 years previously. He died in 
 1830. 
 
 With regard to the national collections, the same unhappy story 
 has to be told about him as about so many other English masters. 
 He is quite inadequately represented in our public museums. The 
 National Gallery has one good specimen in the half length of John 
 Julius Angerstein (Fig. 366), whose collection formed the nucleus of 
 the gallery. The Portrait Gallery is richer ; there, among some 
 two dozen examples, you will find three or four — Warren Hastings, 
 Thomas Campbell, Sir James Mackintosh, Wilherforce — showing 
 his power of head-painting at its best. But we have to go to 
 Windsor and to private collections to learn the full extent of his 
 powers. The following are some of his best performances :— 
 Windsor Castle: Pope Pius VII (Fig. 371), Cardinal Consalvi ; 
 Duke of Abercorn's collection : Four Portraits of Children, in 
 ovals; Mrs. Maguire and Arthur Fitzjames ; Eaiil of Durham: 
 Master Lambton ; Duke of Sutherland : Countess Gower and 
 Child and Lady Elizabeth BelgraVe; Earl Grey's collection : 
 Countess Grey and Daughters ; Sir Thomas Dyke Acland's : 
 Lady Acland and Two Sons; J. Pierpont Morgan, Esq.: Miss 
 Farren (Fig. 370 ; the full length picture, formerly in the possession 
 of Lord Wilton) ; Lord Annaly : Lady Dover and Child (Fig. 369) ; 
 Mr. Moulton Barrett : Miss Mary Moulton Barrett (" Pinkie ") ; 
 Earl of Jersey : The Duke of Wellington (half length, at Middleton 
 Park, Oxfordshire) ; and Marquess of Londonderry : Viscount 
 Castlereagh, Viscountess Castlereagh, and Charles, Third Marquess 
 of Londonderry, in Hussar Uniform (Londonderry House). 
 
 205 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 375. PEG WOFFINGTON. (POND.) 
 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 Lawrence was the connecting link between the splendor of Eng- 
 lish portraiture in the second half of the eighteenth century and 
 
 its devitalization in the first half of 
 the nineteenth. It is difficult to 
 decide how far he was cause as 
 well as illustration. But perhaps 
 we shall be doing him no injustice 
 if we say that his example, like 
 that of greater men before him, 
 worked nothing but harm. His 
 gift, such as it was, was un-English, 
 and in the average English imitator 
 could lead to little but affectation. 
 Certain it is that, by the time he 
 was nearing the end of his career, 
 all freshness and vitality had died out of portrait painting in the 
 English capital, not to be revived again until the movement 
 of 1 850 came to make a change. 
 
 Side by side with the portrait painters, two other sets of artists 
 pursued their ideals, with very different success. The first of 
 these, and the nobler, according to most theorizings about art, 
 were the " history " painters. In noticing the strain of activity 
 which sprang from Rubens and his Whitehall ceiling, I mentioned 
 several attempts at monumental decoration which ended in some- 
 thing short of complete failure, such as Barry's decoration in the 
 Society of Arts, and Runci- 
 man's work at Penicuik. In 
 1 773 a proposal was made 
 which might have led to 
 something very curious 
 indeed, had it been accepted. 
 This was an offer on the part 
 of the members of the infant 
 Royal Academy to decorate 
 the interior of St. Paul's : to 
 carry on, in fact, the work 
 begun by Sir James Thorn- 
 hill. This offer, although 
 made in very generous terms, 
 was refused. And we can hardly regret the refusal. St. Paul's 
 was scarcely a corpus vile on which to make a hazardous experi- 
 ment. It was much safer to let the artists try their hands on under- 
 
 206 
 
 FIG. 376. SEAPIECE. (BROOKING.) 
 
 Col. Hutcheson Poc, C.B. 
 
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 takings such as those of the pubUsher, Boydell. For him many of 
 the best known painters of the time painted a series of pictures from 
 Shakespeare, which were exhibited. Reynolds, Romney, West, 
 Opie, Northcote, Stothard, Fuseli, Smirke, Hamihon, Westall, and 
 Barry were among the contributors. Boydell's *' Shakespeare" was 
 followed by Macklin's " Bible " and Fuseli's " Milton." But all 
 these adventures ended in artistic failure and did not even 
 encourage further experiments in the same direction. Another 
 influence which worked for evil in English " history " painting was 
 the teaching of Sir Joshua. In his own hands the historical spirit 
 often led to fine results, but the chief effect the "Discourses " would 
 have on a young painter who wished to venture on the grand 
 style would be to destroy his individuality and deprive his art of 
 character. 
 
 Almost the only man to stand up 
 against the mistaken spirit of the time, 
 (and to paint history with an accept- 
 able combination of veracity and 
 style, was John Singleton Copley, 
 whose Death of Chatham and 
 Death of Major Pierson (National 
 Gallery, Fig. 373) are very good 
 works in their way. Copley was 
 born in 1737, in Boston, U. S. A., 
 of an English father and Irish 
 mother. He came to England in 
 1775, and here passed the rest of 
 his life, dying in 1815 at the age of 
 78. He was the father of Lord 
 Lyndhurst. Opie, too, occasion- 
 ally did fairly well in the same 
 genre. His Murder of Riccio, in the Guildhall, London, has 
 at least vigor. 
 
 The only painter of religious pictures at this time who need be 
 alluded to was Benjamin West. Beginning, like Romney, with a 
 picture in which the Death of Wolfe was represented in a 
 common-sense way, with English soldiers dressed in modern uniforms 
 instead of Roman togas, West rapidly won the admiration and 
 patronage of George III. This sufficed him for the remainder 
 of his life, but he supplemented his earnings from the Royal purse by 
 painting portraits and occasionally decorative panels for private 
 individuals. Some of these latter works are more pleasing than the 
 
 207 
 
 FIG. 377. — J. p. CURRAN. (HUGH 
 
 HAMILTON.) National Gallery, 
 Dublin. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 ambitious canvases painted for the King. West was born in 
 Pennsylvania in 1 738. He came to England in 1 763 and spent 
 the rest of his hfe in London. He was an original member of the 
 Royal Academy and became President at Sir Joshua's death in 
 1792. He died in 1820. 
 
 The one man who endeavored to walk in the footsteps of Benjamin 
 West was Benjamin Robert Haydon (1 786-1846). He attempted, to 
 his own hurt, to put in action some of the theories of Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds, those theories with which the President had tried to justify his 
 own praise of what he called the Great Style in art. Haydon failed 
 egregiously, and yet he was a man of ability in his own way. His 
 journals and autobiography are of poignant interest. But he was 
 without the special gifts required for success in his chosen walk, and 
 so his life moved through one disappointment after another to a 
 tragic close. One of his best pictures hangs in a restaurant under 
 Charing Cross Station. 
 
 For Bibliography see end of Chapter XVI. 
 
 FIG. 378. — PANEL FOR CEILING. (WEST.) 
 
 Burlington House. 
 
 208 
 
HHHiOL 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 ■rii 
 
 L' 
 
 1 / 
 
 ^J 
 
 ^^H 
 
 1 
 
 HP^" 
 
 jhI 
 
 ^^^E 
 
 m 
 
 FIG. 379. — ULYSSES AND POLYPHEMUS. (TURNER.) National Gallery. 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 MODERN PAINTING- TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 The only form of landscape painting which was really encouraged 
 in the eighteenth century was the topographical. Portraits of 
 houses and parks were produced in great numbers and fill the 
 country houses to this day. This form of art was followed by 
 one painter of capacity, whose works show that under more 
 favorable conditions he might have conquered a respectable place in 
 our school. This was John Wootton, a pupil of Jan Wyck. He is 
 said to have been born in 
 1668; he died in 1765. 
 He painted animals, chiefly 
 race-horses, and topographical 
 landscapes in a style recalling 
 Caspar Poussin and his fol- 
 lowers. Wootton's best works 
 are excellent. Among the 
 best are a series in the outer 
 hall at Althorp. Many other 
 respectable delineators of fact ^^^ 38o.-chapel fields, Norwich, (crome.) 
 
 flourished durmg the century, National Gallery. 
 
 209 . P 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 U^^ 
 
 FIG. 381. — PORINGLAND OAK. (CROME.) 
 
 Rev. C. J. Steward. 
 
 the most satisfactory, perhaps, 
 being the Malton family, who 
 enriched architectural perspec- 
 tives with pictorial quality, with 
 no little success. But land- 
 scape in the more orthodox 
 sense was utterly neglected. 
 Wilson contrived to make the 
 income of a bricklayer by 
 hawking his pictures about like 
 boot-laces ; but Gainsborough 
 scarcely ever sold a landscape, 
 although they covered every 
 wall in his house, and his 
 patrons passed them daily on 
 their way to his sitters' chair. 
 But a fashion arose in the 
 country which came to the 
 rescue of the landscape painters. 
 This was the custom, which has persisted ever since, of including 
 drawing lessons in the curriculum of a polite education. Our 
 national school of water-color painters sprang entirely from this 
 custom, and not a few of our oil painters owed their " take off " to 
 it also : among the latter, one of the most gifted of them all. 
 
 The second generation of English landscape painters, the 
 generation which corresponded to that of Raeburn, Hoppner, and 
 Lawrence, among her portrait painters, began with the birth, at the 
 end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century, of three men of 
 
 genius. The first to ap- 
 pear was John Crome, 
 commonly called 1 d 
 Crome, who was born at 
 Norwich in 1769. He 
 began life as a coach- 
 painter, but soon forsook 
 that metier to become a 
 drawing master and land- 
 scape painter. He died 
 at Norwich in 182L 
 His work united three 
 invaluable characteristics : 
 it was based on excellent 
 
 FIG. 382 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 models, it was refreshed and 
 purified by continual reference 
 to nature, it was inspired by 
 sincere personal emotions and 
 affections. The influence of 
 Hobbema and other Dutchmen 
 of the seventeenth century is 
 as obvious as that of Wilson 
 and Gainsborough, but nature 
 breathes through all that Crome 
 did, and his pictures have ^^'^'- 383— garden of the hesperides. (turner.) 
 
 . • r • 1 1-. IT National Gallery. 
 
 great mdividuality. He was 
 
 various for a landscape painter. Some of his works are as broad 
 and " large " as those of Philip de Koninck, others carry what Ruskin 
 called the niggling of Hobbema to an extreme. He is fairly well 
 represented in the national collections. Slate Quarries and Mouse- 
 hold Heath, in the National Gallery ; Mousehold Heath, in the 
 Victoria and Albert Museum, and a Landscape, in the Tate Gallery, 
 show different sides of his art. Another fine picture is The Poring- 
 land Oak (f^^S* ^^0> ^^ the Rev. C. J. Steward's collection, and a 
 magnificent Moonlight was lent to the Franco-British exhibition by 
 Mr. Darell Brown. Crome was the founder of the Norwich School of 
 Painting, which will, presently, have to be noticed at greater length. 
 Six years later than Crome, Joseph Mallord William Turner, 
 the son of a barber, was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden. 
 \ His birth took place on the 23rd of April, St. George's day, a fact 
 in which Ruskin used to take peculiar pleasure. His boyhood was 
 passed in various home employments connected more or less closely 
 with art, and in 1 789 he 
 'intered as student of the 
 Royal Academy. Ten 
 years later he became an 
 associate of the same 
 body, and in 1802 a 
 full member. He trav- 
 elled over a large part 
 of Western Europe in 
 the course of his career. 
 He painted in water 
 color and in oil, he 
 etched and mezzotinted, 
 and, in short, led a nriore 
 
 FIG. 384. — SPITHEAD. 
 
 211 
 
 (turner.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 P 2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 385. — STORM, (turner.) Tate Gallery, 
 
 Strenuous and universal art 
 life than any other English 
 painter : and he died rich. 
 
 The career of Turner was 
 on such a scale that it is 
 difficult to fit it into a hand- 
 book at all. He left a greater 
 mass of work behind him 
 than any other artist, before 
 or since, for everything he 
 did was done with his own 
 hand, without help and al- 
 most in secrecy. So entire 
 was his devotion to his own imaginative, and yet objective, form 
 of aesthetic activity, that in time it became his only vehicle of 
 expression, and practically his 
 one link with the world. His 
 career has been divided, 
 not unreasonably, into three 
 periods: a period of literal, 
 almost topographical, work 
 from nature ; a period of ex- 
 periment with the styles of 
 other men ; and a period of 
 free self-expression, ending 
 with a few years of chaos 
 through which splendid gleams 
 of imagination strike now and 
 then like lightning through a cloud. All these periods, but espe- 
 cially the two latter, may be well studied in the collection he left 
 
 to the nation. This collec- 
 tion consists of about one 
 hundred finished oil pictures 
 and many in various stages 
 of incompleteness. Among 
 these latter are the splendid 
 dreamlike landscapes, carried 
 as far as the palette knife 
 would take them, which 
 now hang in the Tate Gal- 
 lery. Besides work in oil, 
 the bequest enriched the 
 
 FIG. 386. — SOL DI VENEZIA. (TURNER.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 FIG. 387. — GIUDECCA. (TURNER.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 212 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 nation with some nineteen thousand drawings, varying from water 
 color pictures, in which all the resources of that medium are 
 brought into play, to the slightest and most rapid sketches. From 
 such a mass of work it is difficult to select a few examples to 
 
 FIG. 388. — THE VALLEY FARM. (CONSTABLE.) National Gallery. 
 
 stand for the whole, but perhaps the following may be considered 
 fairly representative : — Kilgarran Castle (Lord Armstrong), Con- 
 Way Castle (Duke of Westminster), Fishermen on a Lee Shore 
 (Lord Iveagh), Walton Bridges (Lady Wantage), Crossing 
 
 213 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 389. SKETCH FOR THE LEAPING HORSE. 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 (constable.) 
 
 the Brook 
 (National Gal- 
 1 e r y ), Spit- 
 head: boat's 
 crew recover- 
 ing an anchor 
 (ditto), Mer- 
 cury and 
 Herse (Lord 
 Swaythling), 
 A Fro s t y 
 Morning 
 (National 
 Gallery), 
 Th e Deluge 
 (Mr. Darell 
 Brown), Rock- 
 ets and Blue Lights (Yerkes Collection), Burial of Wilkie (National 
 Gallery), The Fighting Temeraire (ditto), Ulysses deriding Poly- 
 phemus (ditto). The "Sun of Venice" going to Sea (ditto), and 
 Rain, Steam, and Speed: the Great Western Railway (ditto). 
 We shall have to return to Turner in future sections. 
 John Constable, who, with Crome and Turner, completes our 
 
 triumvirate, was born at East Berg- 
 holt, Suffolk, in 1776. His father 
 was a wind-miller, and Constable 
 himself began life in the same em- 
 ployment. But he soon quitted it 
 and, at the comparatively late age 
 of twenty-four, became a student at 
 the Royal Academy. In 1816 he 
 married a wife with " prospects," 
 which were fulfilled. He became 
 an A.R.A. in 1819, an R.A. in 
 1829, and died in 1837. 
 
 The personal character of Con- 
 stable counts for more, perhaps, in 
 the history of modern painting than 
 any other single force which could be 
 named. It showed a combination at 
 once rare, and yet necessary for the time in which he lived. In 
 him the instinctive, irrepressible, and yet only half-conscious desire 
 
 214 
 
 fig. 390. — cottage in cornfield. 
 
 (constable.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 FIG. 391. — SKETCH FOR THE HAY WAIN. (CONSTABLE.) Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 for aesthetic expression was combined with an intense love for the 
 simple forms of nature to which he was accustomed, and with 
 a self-reliant stubbornness of will which made him unpopular as a 
 man, but saved him from disaster as an artist. He " loved every 
 stump, and stile, and lane in the village," but he could not paint 
 without exercising the finest gift of objective selection landscape painter 
 ever had, and he never felt the slightest temptation to bow to idols 
 which were not his own. "I 
 imagine myself to be driving 
 a nail," he said ; " I have 
 driven it some way, and 
 by persevering I may drive 
 it home ; by quitting it to 
 attack others, though I may 
 be amusing myself, I do not 
 advance . . . while my par- 
 ticular nail stands still." His 
 career was not adventurous. 
 He sold a certain percent- 
 age of his landscapes ; he 
 occasionally painted portraits ; he had a few understanding clients 
 who not only enabled him to add to the income derived from his 
 
 215 
 
 FIG. 392. — VALLEY OF THE YARE. (STARK.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 393. — LANDSCAPE WITH WINDMILL. 
 
 (stark.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
 own and his wife's modest fortunes, but also encouraged him with 
 their sympathy. One of these, the Rev. John Fisher, archdeacon 
 
 of Salisbury, may fairly be called 
 his earliest appreciator. Perhaps 
 the most gratifying incident in his 
 life was the admiration excited 
 by certain pictures of his when 
 exhibited in France, at the Salon 
 in 1824, and at Lille in 1825. 
 To these opportunities for seeing 
 his work much of the character 
 of modern French landscape has 
 been justly traced. 
 
 Constable's art has always been 
 the subject of violent, even 
 acrimonious, discussion. Some 
 have brought against it the absurd 
 accusation of being too literal and 
 imitative. Such a picture as the 
 Cornfield, in the National Gal- 
 lery, with its marvellous combina- 
 tion of objective truth and aesthetic unity, requires a finer instinct for 
 selection, for seizing upon the things which tell, and neglecting 
 those which do not, and for design, both at large and in detail, than 
 anything carried out on more idealistic lines. The assertion, which 
 was also made, that he could 
 not draw, was equally ab- 
 surd. To make out form, 
 in detail, was no part of his 
 object in his pictures. To 
 form, at large, they are mar- 
 vellously true, giving the 
 shape, modelling, and extent 
 of the ground and the objects 
 it bears with unfailing truth. 
 Even in the smallest kind of 
 drawing. Constable was a 
 master, as those who are 
 familiar with his pencil 
 drawings and his few por- 
 traits know. In short, he was a very great artist, even when 
 divorced from his context, while as a figure in the vision of nine- 
 
 216 
 
 FIG. 394. — GREENWICH. (viNCENT.) 
 
 Sir Cuthbert Quilter, Bart. 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 FIG. 395. — SHIPPING AT MOUTH OF THAMES. 
 
 (coTMAN.) Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 teenth century painting he stands out as the greatest liberator, 
 inventor, and creator of them all. 
 
 Like Turner, but unlike most of the better English painters. 
 Constable is well represented in our public collections. The 
 National Gallery has three fine 
 pictures of his maturity in the 
 Cornfield, The Hay Wain, 
 and The Valley Farm (Fig. 
 388), besides a crowd of less 
 important things. The Diploma 
 Gallery at Burlington House 
 has the Jumping Horse, of 
 which a superb palette knife 
 sketch is at South Kensington 
 (Fig. 389), together with an- 
 other, equally fine, of the Hay 
 Wain (Fig. 391). Besides 
 these the Museum owns a 
 
 collection of about 500 pictures and sketches in oil, water color, 
 and " black and white," nearly all bequeathed by the painter's 
 daughter, Miss Isabel Constable. 
 
 With the flowering of Turner and Constable the fountain of 
 vital sap which began to rush up the stem of British art in the 
 fourth or fifth decade of the eighteenth century lost its vigor, 
 and painting, for a time, became a matter of routine, expressing 
 shallow emotions and appealing to shallow admirations. There 
 were exceptions, of course, over and above those afforded by 
 Turner and Constable themselves ; but in a general way the 
 spirit of English painting, 
 between the Peace of 
 1815 and the 1851 
 Exhibition, was utterly pa- 
 rochial. 
 
 The chief exceptions 
 to this generalization were 
 supplied by the Norwich 
 School, by the School 
 of Water-Color Painters, 
 and by one individual 
 artist. 
 
 The Norwich School fig. 396.-chatkau of the duchesse de berri. 
 
 , , . ' (bonington.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
 gives the best instance to 
 
 217 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 397. — THE STABLE. (mORLAND.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 be found in English art, until quite recent years, of a body 
 of men working on common lines and in the tradition of a 
 
 common master. The Eng- 
 lish character does not readily 
 adapt itself to such a system. 
 It is at once too individualistic 
 — "every Englishman is an 
 island!" — and too eager to 
 reach results. The effect of 
 the latter characteristic is that 
 English artists have been less 
 thoroughly grounded in their 
 metier than their continental 
 rivals, and therefore both less 
 able and less ready to teach. 
 Within the last twenty years 
 a change has taken place. 
 We have learnt from the ex- 
 ample of the French. Our 
 painters have shown a new 
 tendency to fall into groups 
 round a central figure: and 
 they have certainly become 
 much better workmen. The 
 Norwich School was distin- 
 guished by a common prac- 
 tice, rather than by anythim 
 that could fairly be calle 
 a principle. It was a 
 school exclusively of land- 
 scape, accepting the 
 nature to which it was 
 most accustomed as its 
 subject, painting simply 
 and solidly, composing 
 with care and some arti- 
 ficiality, never forgetting 
 that a picture, to be 
 framed and hung up in 
 an English middle-class 
 home, was the thing in 
 making. The more 
 
 FIG. 398. AI.DERNEY CATTLE. 
 
 Tate Gallery. 
 
 (ward.) 
 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 399. — SUSPENSE. (lANDSEER.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 218 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 FIG. 400. — WAR. (lANDSEER.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 important members, after Old Crome himself, were the Ladbrookes : 
 Robert Ladbrooke (1770-1842), the father, Henry (1800-1870), 
 and John Bernay (1803- 
 1879), the two sons; John 
 Bernay Crome, " Young 
 Crome "(1793-1842), whose 
 best works are much better 
 than his reputation would lead 
 one to expect ; James Stark 
 (1794-1859); Joseph Stan- 
 nard (1797-1830); George 
 Vincent (1 796-? 1830); and 
 a man of real genius, John Sell 
 Cotman(? 1782-1842). Few 
 of the better works of these 
 men have made their way into our public collections. Stark, alone, 
 is represented in the National Gallery by a picture showing him 
 nearly at his best. George Vincent's best work is a famous Green- 
 wich Hospital, from the Thames (Fig. 394), which he painted more 
 than once. As for Cotman, his oil pictures present great difficulties to 
 the connoisseur. His works — or those ascribed to him — vary greatly 
 in style and manner, and offer a promising arena to the scientific picture 
 sorter. His water colors and designs in black and white are more 
 homogeneous. The latter, especially, 
 show a pictorial imagination of the 
 highest kind. To the present writer 
 it seems not too much to say that such 
 designs as Turning the Sod (Fig. 
 5 10) and The Centaur (Fig. 51 l)in 
 the British Museum Print Room have 
 more imagination and a finer aesthetic 
 unity than anything in Turner's Liber 
 Studiorum. Cotman was also a re- 
 markable etcher and draughtsman of 
 architecture. In spite of the enhanced 
 reputation he has lately begun to 
 enjoy, his name is still below the 
 place it ought to hold in the history 
 of modern art. 
 
 A small category of painters who 
 do not fit into any of the groups al- 
 ready discussed must now be noticed. 
 
 219 
 
 —CRUCIFIXION. (ETTY.) 
 
 Mr. F. Sidney. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 402. — BATHER. (eTTY.) 
 
 Tate Gallery. 
 
 I mean the animal painters. They 
 do not come readily under other 
 heads, because they had, as a 
 class, a quite distinct origin. The 
 English love of country pursuits 
 led early to the existence of a 
 set of men whose business it was 
 to illustrate sports, paint the por- 
 traits of foxhounds, racehorses, 
 and so on. Now and again one 
 of these men would develop more 
 talent than the rest and earn the 
 right to be considered an artist. 
 Wootton, already mentioned as a 
 landscape painter (see p. 209), 
 was one of these ; another was 
 the excellent George Stubbs 
 (1724-1806), who painted his 
 own type of horse with remark- 
 able skill and soundness ; a third was the great George Morland 
 (1763-1803), who became at once a delightful artist and one of 
 the most consummate painters of modern times. Morland's breeding 
 was essentially artistic. His grandfather, George Henry Morland 
 (d. 1789), was not a bad painter, if the small picture ascribed to 
 him in the Glasgow Gallery {The Oyster Seller) is really by him ; 
 his father, Henry Robert Modand (1 730 (?)-l 797), was a very 
 good artist indeed ; while his 
 mother, Maria, at least exhibited 
 at the R.A. George was an 
 improvement on his father both as 
 a painter and as a citizen, much 
 as he left to be desired in the 
 latter respect. For Henry Mor- 
 land prostituted his talent to 
 some undignified uses, a tempta- 
 tion resisted by the son even when 
 things were at their worst. And 
 things were bad with him nearly 
 all through his career. His dis- 
 sipations were probably less severe 
 than has been asserted, but he 
 always spent more than he had, 
 
 220 
 
 IIG. 403. THE REFUSAL. (WILKIE.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 FIG. 404. THE SONNET. (mULREADY.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 and so was never free from the 
 stress of his creditors and of those 
 who knew how to find a harvest 
 in his difficulties. He painted a 
 large number of pictures, for he 
 had extraordinary facihty of in- 
 vention and execution. Techni- 
 cally, his work has seldom been 
 surpassed, and it also shows that 
 he was endowed with an extraor- 
 dinary feeling for beauty and 
 artistic unity. It is difficult to say 
 whether he excelled most as a 
 genre or as an animal painter. 
 Masterpieces in the former class 
 are the Lavinia series, the Visit 
 to the Child at Nurse, and Black 
 Monday: in the latter, the Interior of a Stable (National Gallery), 
 and A Stable (Fig. 397 ; V. and A. Museum). 
 
 Morland's brother-in-law, James Ward (1769-1859), was a fine 
 artist in the same genre, although in a very different style. His 
 manner is personal to an extreme degree, and only becomes quite 
 acceptable in his larger pictures. Harlech Castle, in the National 
 collection ; two huge canvases in the Tate Gallery, A Iderney Bull, 
 Cow, and Calf in a Landscape (Fig. 398) and Gordale Scar, 
 Yorkshire; and 5/. Donat's Castle, with Bulls Fishtins, in the V. 
 and A. Museum, show him at his best. To James Ward belongs the 
 honor, such as it is, of having influenced the first steps in animal 
 
 painting of Sir Edwin Land- 
 seer. Landseer (1802-1873) 
 was for many years the prime 
 favorite of those English 
 people who were fond of 
 pictures but ignorant of art. 
 His humanization of animals 
 appealed to them, his shallow- 
 ness did not shock them, while 
 they were unable to appreciate 
 the poverty of his color and 
 the emptiness of his facility. 
 So during his lifetime he en- 
 joyed a popularity reached by 
 
 FIG. 405. — COTTAGE IN HYfcE PARK. 
 
 (nasmyth.) Tate Gallery. 
 
 221 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 406. TAMING OF A SHREW. (LESLIE.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 few. His best pictures, perhaps, are still in private hands, the Death 
 of the Otter, for instance. But he is more than sufficiently well 
 
 represented in the National 
 Gallery and in the Victoria 
 and Albert Museum. 
 
 The early years of the 
 nineteenth century saw the 
 activity of a considerable 
 number of painters of more 
 or less agreeable talent and 
 of real sincerity in David 
 Wilkie( 1785- 1841), Patrick 
 Nasmyth (1786-1831), 
 William Dyce( 1806- 1864). 
 and John Phillip (1817- 
 1867), all Scots; the Irish- 
 man, William Mulready (1 786-1863), the Anglo-Americans, Charles 
 Robert Leslie (1794-1859), and Gilbert Stuart Newton (1795- 
 1835); and the Englishmen, Augustus Wall Callcott (1 779-1844), 
 Wiiliam Etty (1787-1849), and George Lance (1802-1864). 
 
 Etty, in a sense, may be called the most unlucky of artists ; for he 
 was endowed by nature with two gifts : one for painting the nude 
 
 human animal, the other for that 
 larger domesticity which means love 
 for one's own surroundings and place 
 of origin ; and the two had the worst 
 effect on each other. If Etty could 
 have transferred himself in youth to 
 some centre where his own particular 
 genius could have developed fully and 
 been warmly welcomed, he might have 
 become a leader in art. As it was, 
 he had to pass his life in shadow, to 
 see his work and himself misunder- 
 stood, and to be almost forgotten when 
 he died. His pictures are most un- 
 equal, ranging from chalky, cold, and 
 even meaningless combinations of gaudy 
 color to renderings of human beauty, 
 in which realism and style are united 
 with extraordinary felicity. Titian, Rubens, Rembrandt, had mag- 
 nificent conventions for flesh ; Etty, at his best, gives you the real, 
 
 222 
 
 FIG. 407. UNCLE TOBY AND 
 
 WIDOW WADMAN. (LESLIE.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 FIG. 408.— I.ES TEMMES SAVANTES. 
 (LESLIE.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 glowing, palpable thing itself. He is fairly well seen in our public 
 collections : Youth at the Prow and Pleasure at the Helm, and 
 The Bather (Fig. 402), in the National 
 Gallery ; Cupid and Psyche, at South 
 Kensington ; The Storm, in the Man- 
 chester Gallery, and a series of heroic 
 subjects in the Edinburgh National 
 Gallery, are among his better things. 
 But the best examples I know in the 
 ownership of any public body are a 
 triple study of the nude, in the Metro- 
 politan Museum, New York, and a 
 quasi-copy after a Titian Venus in the 
 Royal Scottish Academy. 
 
 The men of talent were infinitely 
 more successful m a worldly sense. 
 Wilkie was a child of fortune all his 
 life. His first mishap was the loss of 
 health from which, eventually, he died. 
 His best things show a rare faculty 
 
 for building works of real, though modest, originality on the example of 
 an alien school and different age. The best pictures by him accessible 
 to the public are The Blind Fiddler and The Village Fair, in the 
 National Gallery, the sketch for Blind Man's Buff, in the Tate 
 Gallery, Boys digging for Rats, in the Diploma Gallery, Burling- 
 ton House, and The Refusal (Fig. 403), at South Kensington; 
 but the unfinished, indeed the scarcely commenced, Knox dis- 
 pensing the Sacrament at Calder 
 House, in the National Gallery of 
 Scotland, has great charm, promis- 
 ing more, perhaps, than the finished 
 picture would have performed. A 
 Bathsheha, owned by Mrs. Naylor, 
 of Leigh ton Hall, Welshpool, is 
 perhaps the best of his efforts out- 
 side his own proper field. The 
 Reading of a Will, at Munich, 
 has been entirely destroyed by re- 
 painting. Patrick Nasmyth's land- 
 scapes, in a manner based on Hob- 
 bema, have always been popular with the lovers of minute finish. 
 Several good examples are in the National Gallery. William Dyce 
 
 223 
 
 riG. 409. — FRUIT. (lance.) 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 410. — THE READER. (t. S. GOOD.) 
 
 Tate Gallery. 
 
 has earned fame by his wall 
 pictures in the King's Robing 
 Room at Westminster, which 
 are very good indeed in view 
 of the conditions of his time. 
 John Phillip was a native of 
 Aberdeen. He received his art 
 education in the R.A., and began 
 his career by painting scenes of 
 humble Scottish life. In 1846 
 he went to Spain, was at once 
 captivated by Velazquez, and 
 began that long series of illustra- 
 tions of Spanish life, painted often 
 with great vivacity and breadth, 
 and in fine color, which earned 
 him the sobriquet of " Phillip of 
 Spain." His best picture is prob- 
 ably the Spanish IVake or "La Gloria, " in the Edinburgh Gallery. 
 Another excellent painter who, at times, treated Spanish life, was 
 F. Y. Hurlstone (1880-1869), by whom there is a fine picture in 
 the Tate Gallery. It is fat and rich in impasto, and the work of a 
 true colorist. 
 
 William Mulready was born at Ennis, Co. Clare, in 1 786, but 
 came to London while still a boy and entered the Academy 
 
 Schools in 1800. He became 
 both A.R.A. and R.A. in the 
 interval between the exhibitions of 
 1815 and 1816. He was a slow 
 and most painstaking worker, so 
 his pictures are scarce outside the 
 Victoria and Albert Museum, 
 which owns no less than thirty- 
 three. The two best, perhaps, are 
 The Sonnet (Fig. 404) and Choos- 
 ing the Wedding Gown. His art is 
 spoilt by his hot and gaudy color. 
 More agreeable, on the whole, 
 is the gentle, almost feminine art 
 of C. R. Leslie, who might have 
 been a very acceptable painter 
 even now, if he had not embar- 
 224 
 
 FIG. 411. — BYRON. (PHILLIPS.) 
 
 From Print. 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 FIG. 412. — HASTINGS. (CHALON.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 rassed himself with a text. 
 His subjects are nearly all 
 taken from writers — Shake- 
 speare, Moliere, Cervantes, 
 Sterne, Le Sage, &c. — whose 
 visions are seldom on all fours 
 with those of pictorial art. 
 Leslie, like Mulready, is too 
 well represented at South 
 Kensington, where twenty- 
 four of his pictures have found 
 a home. Gilbert Stuart New- 
 ton was a rarer spirit, but his mind gave way at a comparatively 
 early age, and his works are scarce. Ahelard is in the Diploma 
 Gallery at the Royal Academy; Yorick and the Grisette in the Tate 
 Gallery ; Captain Macheath in the possession of Lord Lansdowne. 
 
 To the same class as the two last belongs Augustus Leopold Egg, 
 whose works, however, betray a kind of ability which is not effective 
 in paint. Well drawn and intelligently arranged, they have no 
 enveloppe and no pictorial motive. Pretty much the same verdict may 
 be passed on William Collins, with whom landscape plays as large 
 a part as incident. He was a better colorist than some, but was 
 excelled in his turn by the still-life painter, George Lance, several 
 of whose pictures are in our London galleries (Fig. 409). 
 
 Callcott, to whom the foolish name of "the English Claude" was 
 sometimes given, was born in 1 779, 
 and, like Hoppner, under whom 
 he afterward studied, began public 
 life as a chorister. His landscapes, 
 which are much better as a rule 
 than his subject pictures, betray the 
 study of Cuyp as well as Claude. 
 He is not well represented in the 
 national collections; his master- 
 piece, probably, is the Mouth of 
 the Tyne, in the collection of 
 Lord Ridley. 
 
 Paul Falconer Poole, a native 
 of Bristol, had no regular educa- 
 tion in art. But he early won 
 a certam measure of success, and / s 
 
 « V.V.11U111 iiiv,«ouiv, vyi ouv,v-v-oc., uiiva ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ PORTRAIT. (jACKSON.) 
 
 tor many years was the chief Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 225 Q 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 English painter of imaginative subjects, after Watts. He is repre- 
 sented both in the Tate Gallery and at South Kensington. 
 
 Contemporary with these men 
 were a number of portrait 
 painters to whom it is scarcely 
 necessary to allude. For some 
 reason not easy to trace, the 
 pictorial treatment of portraiture 
 almost entirely disappeared be- 
 tween the death of Lawrence 
 and the sudden turning of Millais 
 to that form of art. Practically 
 the only exception to the uni- 
 versal dulness was supplied by 
 Watts, who contrived to unite 
 largeness of style and a true 
 no. 414.-COLLEONE STATUE, VENICE. pictorial imagination to the more 
 
 (J. HOLLAND.) Mrs. Joseph. objective requirements of por- 
 
 trait. Millais thought it necessary 
 to make excuses when he took to portraiture, so low had its reputation 
 sunk. Even Watts, who contrived to give it so much dignity, did 
 his best to avoid it during the first half of his life. 
 
 George Frederick Watts (1817-1904) was of Welsh extraction; 
 and both in art and character showed many Celtic traits. His 
 education was desultory. He worked for a short time in the 
 Academy schools, and haunted the studio of William Behnes, the 
 sculptor ; but he used to say his real master was Phidias, and his 
 real school the Parthenon marbles. He had a genius for friendship, 
 and painted generation after generation of single families. In 
 one case the succession ran to six generations ! He sent in a picture, 
 The First Naval Victory of the English, to the Westminster Hall 
 competition of 1847. It won a prize of £500, was bought by the 
 Government, and now hangs in a committee room of the House of 
 Lords. A fresco painted in the same building has disappeared, but 
 another, in the great hall at Lincoln's Inn, being painted on a more 
 seasoned wall, has had better fortune, and may fairly be called 
 the finest modern wall picture in this country. About the same 
 time he began the great series of allegorical pictures by which, 
 perhaps, he is likely to be best remembered; for they have the 
 almost unique merit, among allegories, of being easily understood 
 as well as fine in art. A few years later his other series, that of 
 portraits of famous people, was commenced. These are very 
 
 226 
 
 \ 
 
MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS 
 
 unequal, but among them are some of the finest heads painted by 
 any modern master. Lord Stratford de Redclyffe (National Por- 
 trait Gallery), Russell Gurney (Fig. 418), IValter Crane (Fig. 
 451), and William Morris (National Portrait Gallery) may be 
 named among the best. Some of his time was given to sculpture, 
 in which he might have greatly excelled had he concentrated his 
 powers on that form of art (see Chapter XX). Watts died in Little 
 Holland House, Kensington, in 1904. The nation is rich in 
 his pictures. During his lifetime he gave many to provincial gal- 
 leries, the finest presented in that way, perhaps, being the Fata Mor- 
 gana, at Leicester. One of his best pictures. Time, Death, and 
 Judgment, hangs in St. Paul's Cathedral. To the National Por- 
 trait Gallery he gave a series of thirty-one portraits of celebrated 
 people, and to the Tate Gallery twenty-three pictures. By the 
 Cosmopolitan Club, a society established for many years in Charles 
 Street, Mayfair, in what was at one time the painter's studio, the 
 Tate Gallery has also been enriched by one of the most effective of 
 his decorative pictures, a huge canvas, dealing with the Story of 
 Nostagio degli Onesti, from the Decameron. A large collection of 
 his works is open to the public in his house, Limnerslease, near 
 Compton, in Surrey. 
 
 For Bibliography, see end of Chapter XVI. 
 
 FIG. 415. CALISTO. (rOTHWELL.) 
 
 National Gallery, Dublin. 
 
 227 
 
 Q2 
 
FIG. 4l6.r— MISS ALEXANDER. (WHISTLER.) 
 
 Mr. Alexander. 
 
 228 
 
FIG. 417. — HEARTS ARE TRUMPS. (SIR JOHN MILLAIS, BART.) 
 
 Mrs. J. H. Seeker. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PAINTING-FROM THE PRE-RAPHAELITE 
 REVOLT TO THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 With the culmination of Watts, the history of British art, before 
 the outbreak of those movements which affected it so profoundly 
 during the second half of last century, comes to an end. Watts 
 lived on, indeed, until the twentieth century was three years old, 
 but his art was curiously homogeneous, and in all its ups and 
 downs was scarcely affected by the various kinds of modernism, 
 whether in revivals or new experiments, which broke out around 
 him. 
 
 In 1848 seven young men bound themselves together in a society 
 to which they gave the name of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. 
 They were Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Holman Hunt, John 
 Everett Millais, James Collinson, and Frederick George Stephens, 
 
 229 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 418.- 
 (WATTS.) 
 
 -RUSSELL GURNEY . 
 
 National Gallery. 
 
 painters ; Thomas Woolner, 
 sculptor; and William Michael 
 Rossetti, writer. Their object 
 was to break with the empty 
 conventionality which had grad- 
 ually dominated English art, 
 substituting for it real, even if 
 primitive, ideas, and the sincere 
 study of nature down to her 
 most intimate details. The 
 movement was at first received 
 with ridicule and violent abuse, 
 but a 
 for- 
 mid- 
 ab le 
 d e - 
 fen- 
 der 
 
 arose in the person of John Ruskin, 
 whose eloquence did much gradually to 
 win respect for the new principles. These 
 were carried to an extreme at first, but 
 were softened as time went on, and 
 
 t h e 
 final 
 effect 
 of the 
 move- 
 ment 
 was 
 entirely 
 painting. 
 
 FIG. 419. — ELIJAH AND WIDOW'S 
 
 SON. (madox brown.) 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 beneficial to English 
 
 Gabriel Rossetti, 
 spirit, had, perhaps. 
 
 FIG. 420. HOPE. 
 
 (watts.) Tate Gallery. 
 
 its ruling 
 been in- 
 fluenced more than can now be 
 traced by his friend. Ford Madox 
 Brown, in whose work a fore- 
 shadowing of the P.R.B. prin- 
 ciples can be recognized. Brown 
 (1821-1893) was educated, as 
 an artist, at Bruges, Ghent, and 
 230 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 FIG. 421. — MRS. MORRIS. (ROSSETTI.) 
 
 FIG. 422. — LILITH. (ROSSETTI.) 
 
 Antwerp, and did not establish himself in England until 1847. 
 He took part in the Westminster Hall competitions (1845- 
 1848), and was commissioned thirty years later to execute a 
 series of twelve wall paintings in the Manchester Town Hall, 
 which remains his chief work. He is represented by two 
 important pictures at the Tate Gallery, Christ Washing St. Peter's 
 Feet and Chaucer at the Court of Edward III.; and by an 
 extraordinary page of elaborate perversity, called Work,, in the 
 Manchester Gallery. Two of his 
 better designs are Elijah and the 
 Widow's Son (V. and A. Museum) 
 and Romeo and Juliet (Leathart 
 Collection). Madox Brown's gift 
 was essentially Teutonic. He either 
 did not feel, or set himself to spurn, 
 certain artistic conditions which men 
 of Latin and Celtic blood instinc- 
 tively obey. He stuffed his nar- 
 rative till he killed it, he forced his 
 drama till he caricatured it, he too 
 often confused passion with gri- 
 mace; and his art remained the art 
 of a young man all his life. He 
 never was an actual member of the 
 P.R.B., and some doubt remains as 
 
 231 
 
 FIG. 423. — REGINA CORDIUM. (roSSETTI.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 to whether he was invited to 
 become one or not. His in- 
 fluence, nevertheless, was far- 
 reaching and profound. 
 
 Gabriel Rossetti (1828- 
 1882), the real founder and 
 ruling spirit of the P.R.B., 
 was in a sense Madox 
 Brown's pupil, but he painted 
 his first picture, The Girlhood 
 
 4^4- — CHANT d'aMOUR. (sIR E. BUkNE-JONES.) 
 
 Mr. James Ismay. 
 
 of Mar^ Virgin, with the help of Holman 
 Hunt. He had been for a short time a 
 student at the Royal Academy, and there 
 can be no doubt that his art would have 
 profited by a longer stay. He never passed 
 out of "the antique" into "the life," and 
 throughout his career he was handicapped 
 by his consequent inability to do what he 
 wished with his palette and brush. In 
 spite of this he contrived to win a great 
 reputaUon among his friends as a painter 
 both in water color and in oil. His sub- 
 jects were, 
 as a rule, 
 legendary, 
 mystical, 
 and poetical 
 rather than 
 strictly pic- 
 torial: and 
 it is not un- 
 just to say 
 that his gifts 
 
 FIG. 425. — DEPTHS OF THE SEA. 
 (sir E. BURNE-JONES.) 
 
 Mr. R. H. Benson. 
 
 FIG. 426. — BURD ELLEN. 
 
 (wind US.) 
 
 as a painter are chiefly 
 shown in his water colors. Together 
 with Burne-Jones, William Morris, 
 and others, he painted the walls of 
 the old debating room in the Oxford 
 Union, but the pictures are now 
 232 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 fig. 427. — the annunciation, 
 (g. a. storey.) 
 
 almost invisible. Among the best 
 of his oil pictures are The Blue 
 Bower, The Beloved, and the 
 LaclyLilithoi\864. T\ie Dante's 
 Dream, now in the Liverpool 
 Gallery, is an ambitious failure, 
 considering that it was painted in 
 the nineteenth century. Rossetti 
 avoided publicity while he lived, 
 and it was not until after his death 
 that any considerable section of 
 the public became acquainted with 
 his art. Two of his pictures, Beata 
 Beatrix and an early work, Ecce 
 Ancilla Domini (Behold the 
 Handmaid of the Lord), are in 
 the National Collection at Mill- 
 bank. Rossetti 's personal influence 
 over those with whom he came in 
 contact was enormous, and to him 
 
 chiefly must be imputed that plunge downward in the technique 
 of painting which occurred in England more or less simultaneously 
 with the successful attempt to raise its intellectual level. Among 
 the numerous 
 painters who 
 may be called 
 his followers, 
 few show any 
 real compre- 
 hension of the 
 expressive 
 value of their 
 material. 
 
 Of all his 
 followers by 
 far the most 
 important 
 was Sir Ed- 
 ward Burne- fig. 428. — mercy and truth. (MRS. DE MORGAN.) 
 
 Jones (1833- 
 
 1898), who was, like Watts, of Celtic extraction. He was educated 
 
 for the Church, but at the age of twenty-two made the acquaintance 
 
 233 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 of Rossetti, by whom he was induced to leave Exeter College, 
 Oxford, and commence painter. He produced a large number of 
 
 designs for stained glass, he col- 
 laborated with Rossetti and Morris 
 in decorating the Oxford Union, 
 he travelled with Ruskin in Italy 
 and copied the Venetian Masters ; 
 he decorated rooms for Lord Car- 
 lisle, William Morris, and Birket 
 Foster; he made cartoons for 
 tapestry and for mosaic; and he 
 painted many pictures. His art 
 was unknown to the public until 
 the opening of the Grosvenor Gal- 
 lery in 1877, when he made a 
 great sensation with The Da^s 
 of Creation, The Beguiling of 
 Merlin and The Mirror of Venus. 
 These were followed a year later 
 by Laus Veneris and the Chant 
 d' Amour, perhaps his two best 
 works. Other things in which his full power is seen are : King 
 Cophetua and the Beggar Maid (National Collection), Wheel 
 of Fortune (Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour), The Golden Stairs 
 (Lady Battersea), The Depths of the Sea (R. H. Benson, 
 Esq.), The Brazen Tower and The Briar Rose. He was 
 
 elected an A.R.A. in 1885; 
 
 FIG. 429. — SHADOW OF DEATH. 
 
 (holman hunt.) Manchester Gallery 
 By permission of Messrs. Agnew &r= Sons. 
 
 exhibited a pictorial hint 
 to the Academy the fol- 
 lowing year; and resigned 
 in 1893. He was created a 
 baronet in 1894. Burne- 
 Jones would deserve to be 
 set on one of the highest 
 pedestals in the temple of 
 art were it not for certain 
 peculiarities, which were his 
 own, and faults of tech- 
 nique, which he probably 
 owed to the influence of 
 Rossetti. His imagination was effeminate, and his self-criticism 
 weak. As a draughtsman, he had little sense of structure and 
 
 234 
 
 ITG. 430. — LORENZO AND ISABELLA. 
 
 (millais.) Liverpool Gallery. 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 solidity; as a painter, he entirely failed to give his material the 
 rich body which is its right. Splendid in color though his finer 
 works certainly are, the poverty of their substance deprives them of 
 a place beside the great Venetians by whom they were inspired. 
 This defect, and the structural ignorance which spoils the beauty 
 of his drawing, correspond so closely to similar defects in Rossetti 
 that we are doing the latter no injustice in laying them at his door. 
 
 Other painters whose work sets them in the same group with 
 Rossetti and Burne- Jones are James Collinson, member of the P.R.B., 
 Charles Allston Collins, 
 Arthur Hughes, Mat- 
 thew James Lawless, and 
 W. L. Windus, all of 
 whom did good work 
 which has never won 
 appreciation. Coming 
 down later still, in the 
 same succession, we 
 reach the names of J. M. 
 Strudwick, Spencer Stan- 
 hope, Fairfax Murray, 
 Evelyn Pickering (Mrs. 
 de Morgan), T. M. 
 Rooke, Marie Spartali 
 (Mrs. Stillman), Archi- 
 bald Macgregor, Byam 
 Shaw, Reginald Framp- 
 ton, Graham Robertson, 
 Cayley Robinson, T. C. 
 Gotch, etc. 
 
 Returning to the 
 P.R.B., one member 
 requires a paragraph to himself, so lonely has been the furrow he 
 has ploughed for the last half-century. Mr. William Holman Hunt, 
 O.M., born in 1826, was the oldest of the active pre-Raphaelites. 
 He is one of those painters, more numerous, perhaps, in this country 
 than elsewhere, who unite considerable aesthetic gifts with perverse 
 theories as to their use: the result being a series of works before 
 which it is quite impossible to feel that sense of active repose which 
 the finest art inspires. A picture which excites controversy is not 
 necessarily a good picture : and nearly all Mr. Hunt's pictures do this. 
 His best works, perhaps — as works of art — are Strayed Sheep y The 
 
 FIG. 431- 
 
 -YEOMAN OF THE GUARD. (MILLAIS.) 
 
 Tate Gallery. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 432. — SOUVENIR OF VELAZQUEZ. 
 
 (millais.) R. Academy. 
 
 Hireling Shepherd, the Shadow 
 of Death, and the Finding of 
 Christ in the Temple. But every 
 picture with an interesting per- 
 sonality behind it is interesting: 
 and the personaHty betrayed in 
 Mr. Hunt's work is very interest- 
 ing indeed, but, like the person- 
 ality of Mantegna, it is not es- 
 pecially that of a painter. Among 
 those who should be catalogued 
 in his suite, although some among 
 them would not confess, per- 
 haps, to being his disciples, are 
 W. S. Burton, R. B. Martineau, 
 and Frederick Sandys. 
 
 The only other member of the 
 Brotherhood who requires de- 
 tailed notice is Millais. Sir John 
 Everett Millais, Bart. (1829- 
 
 1896), was a Jerseyman. He came to London at the age of nine, 
 
 was one of the most brilliant of Academy students at the age of 
 
 seventeen, an A.R.A. at twenty-four, an R.A. at thirty-four, and 
 
 P.R.A. a few months before his 
 
 death. He began life as a painter 
 
 by accepting the conventional 
 
 methods in vogue before 1848, 
 
 but on the foundation of the P.R.B. 
 
 he adopted its principles in all their 
 
 rigidity, sending pictures to the 
 
 exhibition which raised a storm of 
 
 abuse and ridicule. Among these 
 
 were Ferdinand and Ariel, The 
 
 Carpenter's Shop, the Woodman's 
 
 Daughter, Lorenzo and Isabella 
 
 (Liverpool Gallery), The Return 
 
 of the Dove to the Ark (Oxford 
 
 Gallery), Mariana in the Moated 
 
 Grange, and The Death of Ophelia 
 
 (Tate Gallery). The first picture 
 
 to win the suffrages of the crowd 
 
 as well as of the more open-minded 
 
 236 
 
 fig. 433. — portrait of j. c. hook, 
 (millais.) 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 
 P 
 
 N 
 
 i/'i 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 ll^^ 
 
 >'L-i 
 
 »/« 
 
 ' ^ 
 
 
 #f 
 
 mm 
 
 r / 
 
 m im'' ^ 
 
 
 
 TIG. 434. — LILIUM AURATUM. 
 (j. F. LEWIS.) 
 
 critics, was The Husuenot (Miller Col- 
 lection), which was folio wed by The Order 
 of Release (Tate), the Proscribed Royal- 
 ist, The Rescue, the Black Brunsioicker, 
 the Vale of Rest, Sir Isumhras at the 
 Ford (Mr. R. H. Benson), and, above 
 all. The Eve of St. Agnes (Mrs. Prinsep), 
 in which poetry of general conception 
 was united to a literal and non-selective 
 execution. Toward 1870 a change 
 came over his ideas. He painted more 
 richly and with a better sense of decora- 
 tion, turning out such fine pages of color 
 as Stella, Vanessa, a Souvenir of Velaz- 
 quez (R. Academy), the Gambler's Wife, 
 and The Boyhood of Raleigh (Tate). 
 About the same time he began the regu- 
 lar painting of portraits, the earliest to attract any great attention 
 being Sisters (three of his own daughters), Miss Nina Lehmann, 
 Hearts are Trumps (Mrs. J. H. Seeker and her sisters ; three young 
 gids at dummy whist), and Mrs. Bischoffsheim. Among his later 
 portraits are Mrs. F. H. Myers, The Earl of Shaftesbury, K. G. 
 (British and Foreign Bible Society), Mrs. Jopling, ^ree Gladstones 
 (National Gallery; Christ Church, 
 Oxford; Earl of Rosebery, 
 K.G.), Mrs. Perugini, John 
 Bright, Cardinal Newman, Lord 
 Tennyson, Sir Gilbert Greenall, 
 Lord Beaconsfield, J. C. Hook, 
 R.A., Dorothy Thorpe, Lady 
 P^SSy Primrose, and Simon 
 Eraser. 
 
 If art be "nature seen through 
 a temperament," Millais as a 
 landscape painter was not an 
 artist at all, for his pictures are 
 so entirely objective that a pho- 
 tograph from, say. Chill Octo- 
 ber, is hardly to be distinguished 
 from one after the place itself. 
 And so with all his more ambi- 
 tious landscapes. They are por- 
 
 
 jL 1 
 
 
 mm 
 
 fi 
 
 wk 
 
 237 
 
 FIG. 435. — PICCADILLV. (E. J. GREGORY.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 436. — HER FIRST DANCE. (siR W. Q. ORCHARDSON.) 
 
 By permission of Messrs. Dowdeswell. 
 
 traits of sitters with whom he ventured to take no sort of liberty: 
 they had become his friends too late in life. If he had held out 
 
 his hand twenty years 
 
 sooner, he might have 
 had time to work through 
 his over-respectful ap- 
 proaches, and to give us 
 landscapes worthy to hang 
 beside the Eve of St. 
 Agnes, or the portraits 
 of Gladstone, Tenny^son, 
 and Hook- 
 
 The place of Millais 
 in our history is difficult 
 to fix. At present he is 
 being judged mainly by 
 ^ his faults, and his fame 
 
 stands lower than it did while he was alive. But the time will come 
 to him, as to others, when his weak productions will be forgotten, and 
 he will be remembered only as the painter of such things as those 
 enumerated above. The danger to his reputation may then lie in a 
 certain lack of individuality, in a variety which appears to spring 
 rather from vacillation than from breadth of sympathy. The man 
 who could paint both Christ in the house of his Parents and 
 Bubbles may seem too vague in outline for worship, and the power 
 evident in his best things may be insufficient to keep him in the front 
 rank. Everything, however, is forgiven to a colorist, and in color 
 
 most of his pictures are fine, 
 while the years will soften 
 crudeness in the rest. 
 
 To find pre-Raphaelite 
 principles carried to their 
 logical conclusion we have 
 to turn to two painters who 
 had nothing to do with the 
 brotherhood, or with each 
 other. These two were J. F. 
 Lewis. R.A. (1805-1876), 
 andJohnBrett(l832-1902). 
 Lewis was called by Ruskin 
 one of the leaders of pre-Raphaelism, while of a picture by Brett 
 the' same critic declared it was "after John Lewis, simply the most 
 
 238 
 
 FIG. 437. — MASTER BABY. (ORCHARDSON.) 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 FIG. 438. — EARL SPENCER. 
 
 (frank HOLL.) 
 
 perfect piece of painting, with respect to touch, in the Academy 
 this year; in some points of precision it goes beyond anything the 
 re-RaphaeUtes have done yet." 
 oth Lewis and Brett are well 
 represented in the Tate Gallery. 
 To me their art seems without 
 serious interest. 
 
 Without going so far as those 
 who would derive every touch of 
 poetry and of love for beauty in 
 modern English painting from the 
 pre-Raphaelites, it must yet be con- 
 fessed that their influence was great 
 and is by no means exhausted even 
 now. How far this was due to 
 their own example and how far to 
 that of the real pre-Raphaelites, 
 the Italians of the fifteenth century, 
 it would take a volume to 
 determine. It may be said that the 
 study of these latter men's works was a result of the movement of 
 1848. At that rate, the general revival of interest in primitive art, 
 and the total neglect of the Italians of the seventeenth century, may 
 be credited to Madox Brown, 
 who thus becomes a very im- 
 portant person indeed. For 
 there can be no doubt whatever 
 that his example was the torch set 
 to the pre-Raphaelite bale-fire. 
 
 The following list includes 
 most of the better painters, not 
 yet mentioned, who have shown 
 obvious sympathy with pre- 
 Raphaelite ideas : G. P. Boyce, 
 Walter Crane, W. H. Deverell, 
 Arthur Hughes, Frederick 
 Shields, Simeon Solomon, J. E. 
 Southall, Henry Wallis, Mat- 
 thew J. Lawless, Gerald Moira, 
 and E. J. Gregory. 
 
 The pre-Raphaelite revolt is 
 the last great movement which fig 439 
 
 239 
 
 COUSINS, (frank HOLL.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 really belongs to the history of British Art. Those developments 
 which have taken place since are more cosmopolitan than British. 
 They have been moves toward assimilating our insular ideas to those 
 of the Continent, which, in painting, mean the ideas of France and 
 Holland. Being all moves in one direction, they have had con- 
 siderable similarity, one with another, and it is scarcely worth while 
 to dwell much on the differences which separate the neo-Scots 
 school from that of Newlyn, or both from those franker disciples of 
 
 Paris who have been so greatly 
 encouraged by the genius of the 
 two Americans, Whistler and 
 Sargent(Figs.416, 449, 450). 
 
 The Scottish School which 
 became so conspicuous in the 
 sixties, was mainly the creation 
 of Robert Scott Lauder, whose 
 teaching had a great effect on the 
 painters who were beginning their 
 careers just after the completion 
 of the first half of the nineteenth 
 century. The two ablest members 
 of the school were John Pettie, 
 who died comparatively young, 
 and Sir William Quiller Orchard- 
 son, who has gradually conquered 
 a place in the front rank of Euro- 
 pean painters, and that in spite of 
 the extreme individuality of his 
 style. His best pictures are divid- 
 FiG. 440.— SPRING, (j. LAVERY.) cQ bctwccn portraiture and the 
 
 Musee du Liixembourg, Paris. i*i r f*ii..- T.i 
 
 higher lorm or illustration. In the 
 former class, Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart, is perhaps his finest work; 
 in the latter, Voltaire (Hamburg Kunsthalle), Napoleon on the 
 Bellerophon (Tate Gallery), and A Tender Chord (Humphrey 
 Roberts Collection), show him at his best. 
 
 The younger Scottish school originated in Glasgow, whither, during 
 the last thirty years, a very large number of fine pictures by the 
 French romanticists have found their way. How far the existence 
 of these pictures, and others of good quality in the local collections, 
 may have been the cause, and how far the result, of the local interest 
 in art it is difficult to say. Certain it is that for many years past 
 an ever-increasing number of young Glaswegians have attracted 
 
 240 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 general attention by their pict- 
 ures. The first Glasgow 
 painter to develop a new 
 and personal feeling toward 
 nature was John Milne 
 Donald (1819-1866). He 
 was the true artistio progenitor 
 of Colin Hunter, whose best 
 works, such as the Herring 
 Market at Sea (Manchester 
 Gallery) and Lobster Fishers, 
 show 
 
 FIG. 441. — WHARFDALE. (CECIL LAWSON.) 
 
 FIG. 442. — AN EARLY 
 
 VICTORIAN. 
 
 (W. LOGSDAIL.) 
 
 both fidelity to nature and a brilliant gift of 
 artistic selection. By far the strongest im- 
 pression was made, however, on the Glasgow 
 School, by the example of Whistler and by 
 the work of a native impressionist of great 
 ability, Mr. William McTaggart. The more 
 distinguished of the younger men are Sir 
 James Guthrie, now P.R.S.A., John La very 
 (Fig. 440), George Henry, Edward Hornell, 
 Alexander Roche, James Paterson, E. A. 
 Walton, T. Austen Brown, Joseph Crawhall, 
 Harrington Mann, D. Y. Cameron. 
 
 The Newlyn school was not a local develop- 
 ment, like that of Glasgow, but merely consisted 
 of a number of young artists who held similar 
 ideas, and 
 thought it 
 wise and 
 
 pleasant to withdraw into the 
 soft quietude of the Cornish 
 coast ' for their development. 
 The leader of the exodus, if 
 such a word may be used, was 
 Stanhope Forbes, whose wife, 
 Elizabeth Forbes, is one of the 
 few women who can both con- 
 ceive an organic work of art and 
 carry it out. The main character- 
 istics of the group, as a whole, 
 are fidelity to scenes of familiar fig. 443 
 
 241 
 
 -MUSIC LESSON. 
 
 (lord LEIGHTON.) 
 
 R 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 444. MAUNDY THURSDAY. (siR J. D. LINTON.) 
 
 life for subjects, and their execution in a broad manner of brushing, 
 with scrupulous regard to the behavior of Ught. Besides the 
 
 Stanhope Forbes, the 
 group includes Frank 
 B r a m 1 e y, Norman 
 Garstin, John da 
 Costa and several 
 others. 
 
 Apart from these 
 more or less organized 
 movements, English 
 painting has had its 
 groups and tendencies 
 like other schools. To 
 us, w^ith our present 
 inclinations, the most interesting group appears to be formed by the 
 men who are nearest to nature, who obey, in fact, the principles 
 of Constable and Courbet, even although some among them would 
 rather criticise than praise those two artists' works. Most of these 
 men are landscape painters, and, as nature has many moods, they 
 show enough variety to make it appear a little venturesome to put them 
 all in one group. James Clark Hook (1819-1907) was a Londoner 
 born well within sound of Bow Bells. In his youth he received the 
 advice of Constable and won the Academy gold medal. For years 
 he painted costume pictures, but about 1854, when he was already 
 thirty-five years of age, he discovered his true line and began that 
 
 series of sea and coast subjects 
 which made him famous. His 
 works are so curiously equal in 
 style, merit, and "importance" 
 that selection is difficult. Luff 
 Bo^ ( 1 859) and four pictures 
 in the Tate Gallery represent 
 him well. 
 
 Still more realistic than 
 Hook are Henry Moore 
 (1831-1895) and. Napier 
 Hemy. Moore, especially, \ 
 built up a style of rendering the 
 sea which has never been ap- 
 proached for veracity in texture, color, and movement. His blue seas, 
 with the sun behind the spectator, almost produce illusion. Among 
 
 242 
 
 FIG. 445.— ^SUMMER MOON. (lEIGHTON.) 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 s 
 
 FIO. 446. — THE OPEN BOOK. 
 (albert MOORE.) 
 
 les sees things with more 
 
 his better things are The Newhaven 
 Packet, Clear Shining after Rain 
 which won the Grand Prix in 
 Paris Exhibition of 1889), a 
 Perfect Day for a Cruise, and A 
 June Sea. Mr. Napier Hemy has 
 more variety, but less freshness. 
 Two pictures in the Tate Gallery — 
 Pilchards and The London River — 
 represent him well. Edwin Hayes, 
 Irish by birth, worked in much 
 the same style; Mr. W. L. Wyllie 
 paints life on the water with a keen 
 sense of its scenic qualities — evi- 
 dence, Toil, Glitter, Grime, and 
 Wealth on a Flowing Tide and 
 The Battle of the Nile, both in the 
 Tate Gallery. Mr. Thomas Somerscai 
 
 breadth and simplicity, but suggests the light and movement of the 
 south with the happiest truth in Off Valparaiso (Tate Gallery). 
 
 Of the landscape painters, in the literal sense, belonging to this 
 group of independent naturalists, the most distinguished is Cecil 
 Gordon Lawson (1851-1882), who was, in all probability, only 
 prevented by his weak health from taking a higher place than any 
 other English landscape painter since the death of Turner. His 
 best work combines a poetic imagination with frank observation and 
 grandeur of style in a 
 very high degree. His 
 life was too short for a 
 great harvest. Among 
 his best pictures are 
 The Minister's Gar- 
 den (Manchester Gal- 
 lery), The August 
 Moon (Tate Gallery), 
 The Hop Gardens of 
 England, The Cloud, 
 and Burden Moor. 
 The influences we feel 
 in Cecil Lawson's art 
 are those of Watts and 
 Ruysdael, with 
 
 '. — HOME FROM THE RIDE. 
 
 Tate Gallery. 
 
 243 
 
 (CHARLES FURSE.) 
 
 r2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 ft . 
 
 
 FIG. 448. — DIANA OF THE UPLANDS. 
 
 (CH. FURSE.) Tate Gallery. 
 
 whom, too, Mr. Alfred East 
 has much in common, in spite 
 of the more decorative balance 
 of his conceptions. The influ- 
 ence of Corot is also evident 
 in his work. More directly 
 traceable to Constable is the 
 art of Mr. Mark Fisher, whose 
 best pictures are at once bril- 
 liant pages from nature and 
 thoroughly well organized crea- 
 tions. Bo^s Bathing (Dublin 
 City Gallery) and On the 
 River Stour are fine examples. 
 Mr. J. R. Reid paints in a 
 style which recalls various other 
 painters, but is still thoroughly 
 individual. 
 
 Death has been cruel to the 
 British school of painting during 
 the last quarter of a century. It has cut off our most promising land- 
 scape painter at thirty-one, our most promising painter, without any 
 qualification, at thirty-six, and one of our cleverest young men at 
 thirty-three. The allusions, of course, are to Cecil Lawson, C. W. 
 Purse, and Robert Brough. Furse (1 868-1 904) was born at Staines, 
 his father, Canon Furse, being a relation of Sir Joshua Reynolds. He 
 
 received his education in art 
 at the London Slade School 
 and at Julian's, Paris. He 
 was a slow beginner, for 
 although his early works 
 attracted much notice, they 
 scarcely promised the great 
 performance in which his art 
 culminated. For many years 
 Purse suffered from lung 
 trouble, which finally killed 
 him. Among his best works 
 are: The Return from the 
 Ride, Diana of the Uplands, 
 and Equestrian Portrait of 
 Lord Roberts, K.G., all in 
 
 FIG. 449. — painter's mother, (vvhistler.) 
 
 Mu ' " 
 
 [usee du Luxembourg, Paris. 
 
 244 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 the Tate Gallery ; The Lilac Gown (portrait of Miss Mabel Terry 
 Lewis) and Cubbing with the York and Ainsty (a family portrait). 
 
 The talent of Robert Brough (1872-1903) was of a different kind. 
 It lay too much, perhaps, in mental and manual dexterity, and in a 
 faculty for seizing upon telling points. It was showing signs, how- 
 ever, of leaving this behind and acquiring breadth and dignity when 
 a railway accident put an end to his career. His Saint Anne of 
 Brittany and Twixt Sun and Moon 
 are in the Modern Gallery at Venice ; 
 his Fantaisie en Folie in the Tate 
 Gallery. 
 
 The mention of Venice suggests the 
 names of two painters who should not 
 be passed over in silence: Mr. Henry 
 Woods and Mr. William Logsdail. 
 They have both painted the Lagoon 
 City with great ability, and the former 
 has practically devoted his whole career 
 to illustrating Venetian life, and, inci- 
 dentally, to the painting of daylight. 
 In this he has occasionally found a com- 
 panion in his brother-in-law, Mr. Luke 
 rildes, who will be remembered, how- 
 ever, chiefly by his scenes from modern 
 English life, such as The Village Wed- 
 
 One of the quaint perversities to 
 which artists are prone is the belief 
 that good archaeology makes good art. 
 England is seldom without a group of 
 painters working in what they hope are 
 classical traditions, and producing what 
 they believe to be plausible restorations 
 
 of the life of Greece and Rome. Lord Leighton was the head and 
 leader of the more decorative section, just as Sir Laurence Alma 
 Tadema is of the more historically minded. Other members of the 
 group are, or were. Sir Edward Poynter, Val Prinsep, C. E. 
 Perugini, and Albert Moore. i 
 
 With Albert Moore, however, classicism was merely a vehicle ; a 
 vehicle driven with great ability, for our critical fancy could almost 
 agree that thus and not otherwise the Greeks must have painted: 
 but still a vehicle, for he had a true pictorial reason for his art in his 
 
 245 
 
 FIG. 4SO. — DUCHESS OF PORT- 
 LAND, (j. S. SARGENT.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 rhythm of line and the decorative beauty of his color. Among 
 his best pictures are The Quartet, Midsummer, A Summer Night, 
 Silver, and The Open Book (Fig- 446). 
 
 A group of English painters of which a good deal used to be 
 heard was the St. John's Wood School, in which the bond of union 
 was a common devotion to "costume" subjects. Among the chief 
 members were P. H. Calderon, H. S. Marks, John Pettie, W. F. 
 Yeames, and several other painters who carry on the tradition 
 with as much success, perhaps, as it deserves. Among the ablest 
 of these are Mr. J. Seymour Lucas, who contrives to prove himself 
 an artist in spite of his archaeology, and Mr. A. C. Gow, whose 
 drawings of soldiers and other picturesquely clothed individuals are 
 as complete and precise as those of Meissonier. A very large 
 number of other painters would have to be noticed in any exhaustive 
 work on English art. In a hand-book such as this it is enough to 
 mention a few of the more conspicuous among those who have 
 worked with acceptance without being part and parcel of any 
 particular movement or group. 
 
 Frank Holl (1845-1888) had two careers. He began as a 
 powerful but sombre painter in the genre of Israels, delighting in the 
 blackest woe, whether for the sake of the black or the woe has never 
 been determined fNo Tidings from the Sea, The Lord gave and 
 the Lord hath taken away. Hushed, &c.). In 1878 he sent to the 
 R.A. a portrait of Cousins, the engraver, which was so much ad- 
 mired that for the rest of his life Holl's studio was crowded with 
 sitters. Among his best portraits are the Duke of Cleveland, Earl 
 Spencer, Lord Overstone, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Lord Wolseley, 
 and John Bright. He sometimes failed to catch a likeness, but his 
 work is always full of strength and decision, and may be compared 
 to that of the distinguished Frenchman, M. Leon Bonnat. 
 
 Mr. John Macallan Swan (B. 1847) is of Scottish extraction. 
 His art education was obtained at Worcester, in London, and in 
 Paris. He is chiefly famous for his animals, which he paints and 
 models with unrivalled knowledge of movement and structure. But 
 his pictures and sculptures in which the human figure is treated are 
 no less admirable. His drawings, too, are among the best of modern 
 times. He is represented in the Tate Gallery by a good picture, 
 The Prodigal Son. 
 
 Mr. Briton Riviere (B. 1 840) paints animals from a different stand- 
 point. A less profound glance into their anatomy is sufficient for 
 him, for he is concerned more with their picturesque exteriors 
 and with their dramatic capabilities than with their structure, 
 
 246 
 
PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 One of his better works is the Herd of Swine running "violently 
 down a steep place into the sea," in the Tate Gallery. 
 
 Sir Hubert von Herkomer's most conspicuous quality, or defect, 
 is his versatility. He is painter, engraver, enameller, modeller, 
 musician, actor, architect, &c., and has consequently never carried 
 any one of his pursuits to the perfection it might otherwise have 
 reached. Versatility alone does not 
 make a Leonardo. Among his 
 better pictures are two portraits of 
 ladies, one in white and one in 
 black; The Last Muster; the 
 Town Council of Landsherg, 
 Bavaria, and the Council of the 
 Royal Academy, 1908. 
 
 Mr. J. W. Waterhouse ought, 
 perhaps, to be classed with the 
 archaeologists, but he contrives to 
 be so essentially modern in his 
 archaeology that we prefer to look 
 upon him simply as a decorative 
 painter. His best works — St. 
 Cecilia, Hylas and the Nymphs — 
 would make excellent tapestry. His 
 earlier and more dramatic pictures 
 ^Mariamne, St. Eulalia, The Magic Circle— aire less attractive. I 
 must be content to name Mr. Bacon, Mr. Campbell Tayler, Mr. 
 Charles Sims, Mr. Cadogan Cowper, Mr. Greiffenhagen, Mr. 
 Mouat Loudan, Mr. E. J. Gregory, the late James Charles ( 1 85 1 - 
 1896), and Mr. La Thangue, as all producing work with a 
 character and individuality of its own. Mr. Sims, especially, has 
 attracted notice during the last few years by works in which extraor- 
 dinary technical dexterity is at the service of a strange and moving 
 imagination. At first, he was content with suggesting more 
 thoroughly than any other English painter the quality and behavior 
 of unmitigated sunlight, as we see it in places like Brighton beach. 
 For the last two years he has been much more ambitious, and has 
 sent to the Academy a series of painted poems which excite the 
 greatest curiosity and hopes for his future. ^ They are painted 
 poems of the right kind, not in the least degree literary, but depending 
 entirely on pictorial qualities for their power to move our sympathies. 
 One of these. The Fountain, has already found its way into the national 
 collections. 
 
 247 
 
 FIG. 451 
 
 -WALTER CRANE. 
 F. WATTS.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 Among the latest movements in English art is the foundation of 
 the Society dubbed with some clumsiness and want of resource The 
 New English Art Club. It was founded some twenty years ago by 
 a number of young artists whose bond of union was a Paris training, 
 the leading spirits at the time being W. J. Laidlay, T. C. Gotch, 
 T. Stirling Lee, Frederic Brown, S. J. Solomon, T. B. Kennington, 
 J. Havard Thomas, P. W. Steer, and one or two more, nearly all 
 of whom have since won a certain measure of distinction. At the 
 present moment the club includes several men of great ability, 
 the most promising for the future being, perhaps, Mr. William 
 Orpen, whose early work — he is still very young — recalls that of 
 some of the greatest names in art. Another member, Mr. Augustus 
 John, has given proof of executive ability of the first class. 
 
 It will be noticed that nothing has been said about the Impres- 
 sionists as a separate school. Their principle, that a picture should 
 make the same kind of impression on the eye as that made by nature, 
 plus selection for the sake of beauty, has affected the whole of art 
 in its modernest development. It is really a more intelligent form 
 of the principle for which the P.R.B.'s contended, substituting things 
 as seen for things as they exist. Its inventor and preacher was James 
 Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834-1903), an Anglo-Celt by race, 
 an American by nationality, a Frenchman by early training. His 
 example has so widely affected the theories and practice of art in 
 our own time that any attempt to shepherd his followers into a group 
 would be misleading. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY TO CHAPTERS XIII— XVI 
 
 Vertue, George: MS. Collections in the Print Room of the British Museum. Walpole, 
 Horace, Earl of Orford : Anecdotes of Painting, Dallaway and Womum's Edition. Redgrave, 
 G. and R. : A Century of Painters, 1 866. Bryan, M. : Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, 
 ELdition of 1898 (Williamson). Chesneau, E. : La Peinture Anglaise, n.d. Bouchot, H. : La 
 Femme Anglaise el des peintres, 1903. Dobson, Austin, and Armstrong, Sir W. : William 
 Hogarth, 1902. Armstrong, Sir Walter: Sir foshua Reynolds, 1901; Thomas Gainsborough, 
 1899; Turner, 1902. Wherry, O. : Turner. 1903. Ward, T. H., and Roberts, W. : Romney, 
 1904. Phillips, Claude: John Opie {Gazette des Beaux Arts), 1892. Leslie, C. R., and 
 Taylor, Tom: Letters of John Constable, 1876. Gower, Lord R. Sutherland; Sir Thomas 
 Lawrence, 1900. McColl, D. S., and Carmichael, Sir T. D. G. : Nineteenth Century Art, Glas- 
 gow, 1902, Muther, R.: History of Modem Painting, 1899. Sizeranne, R. de la: Histoire de 
 la Peinture Anglaise Contemporaire, 1895. Sizeranne, R. de la: Whistler, Ruskin, et 
 d'Impressionisme (Revue de I'Arl), 1893. Hunt, W. Holman: The Pre-Raphaelite Brother- 
 hood {Contemporary Review), 1886. Monkhouse, Cosmo: British Contemporary Artists, 
 1899. Meier-Graefe, J.: Entwickelungsgeschichte der Modemen Kunst, 1904. (Translation 
 by Miss F. Simmonds now in the press.) Burne-Jones, Lady : Life of Sir Edward Burne-Jones, 
 Bart., 1906. Millais, J. G. : Life of Sir John Everett Millais. Bart. Way, T. R., and Dennis, 
 I. R.: The Art of James McNeill Whistler, 1903. Duret, Theodore: Whistler, 1904. 
 Meypell, Mrs.: The Works of John Singer Sargent, 1903. Baldwin-Brown, G. : The Glas- 
 gow School of Painters, 1908. Armstrong, W. ; Scottish Painters, 1888. Dictionary of 
 National Biography, 
 
 248 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 f^^^^i'^ ''^V^^^^ 
 
 
 ft J^l^i fl 
 
 I2i^ 
 
 
 (unknown 
 
 FIG. 452.— CHILD. 
 
 (Mr. G 
 
 FOLLOWER OF HOLBEIN.) 
 
 FIG. 453- — CHILD. 
 
 Salting's Collection.) 
 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 PORTRAIT-MINIATURES 
 
 During the century which elapsed between the disappearance of 
 EngHsh supremacy in the art of decorating manuscripts and the 
 arrival of Holbein at the Court of Henry VIII., the traditions of 
 the miniaturists had faded away, 
 until they retained only just enough 
 vitality to afford a hint to the Augs- 
 burg master. He was not slow in 
 showing the native limners what 
 their art could do, and from his ex- 
 ample dates a fashion and a succes- 
 sion which persisted until the inven- 
 tion of photography. The first of 
 his followers (he was no pupil) to 
 reach any respectable proficiency 
 was Nicholas Hilliard, who has left 
 on record the often-quoted saying: 
 "Holbein's manner of limning I have «<=• "ferriaitogTcofiecS""™' 
 ever imitated, and hold it for the 
 
 best." Not that Hilliard's miniatures are very like Holbein's. There 
 is no danger of confusing them, as those of other painters practising 
 at the same time in England have been confused, with the German 
 
 , 249 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 455. — N. HILLIARD, P^RE. 
 
 (hilliard, fils.) Salting Collection. 
 
 master's work. Hilliard had a 
 finer sense of elegance than Hol- 
 bein. His sitters have a grace of 
 carriage and a suavity of contour 
 which Holbein lacks. But they 
 exist with far less vigor, their 
 drawing is less unerring, and their 
 color far inferior to Holbein's in 
 that combination of frankness and 
 harmony which was the most sur- 
 prising quality in the German. 
 
 Hilliard was succeeded by two 
 men of greater powers than his 
 own: Isaac Oliver, or Olivier, and 
 Peter, his 
 
 son. Although of English birth, they were 
 probably of French extraction. The date 
 of Isaac's birth is unknown, but he died in 
 Blackfriars, where Van Dyck was after- 
 ward to establish himself, in 1617. Isaac 
 Oliver's style began by very distinctly show- 
 ing its affiliation with that of his master, 
 Hilliard, but grew simpler and more broadly 
 effective as it developed. Peter, whose 
 earlier miniatures strongly resemble the 
 later ones of his father, showed himself in 
 
 time to be a 
 
 FIG. 456. — HILLIARD, NICHO- 
 LAS, (by self.) Salting 
 Collection. 
 
 FiG.457.—LADY.(j.HOSKiNS.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
 faithful admirer of Van Dyck. It is 
 known that he also painted in large, 
 in oil, and it is more than probable 
 that he was the true author of cer- 
 tain portraits now ascribed to Van 
 Dyck, which do not exactly agree 
 with the master's style or with that 
 of any of his known scholars. Peter 
 Oliver died in 1 647. Fine examples 
 of the two Olivers are owned by 
 his Majesty, by Lords Derby and 
 Exeter, by Mr. Burdett Coutts and 
 Mr. Wingfield Digby, by the Duke 
 of Buccleuch, and many other col- 
 lectors. The Victoria and Albert 
 250 
 
PORTRAIT-MINIATURES 
 
 FIG. 458.— LADY HUNSDON. (l. OLIVER.) FIG.459. — ARABELLA STUART. (n.HILLIARD.) 
 
 Mrs. Joseph's Collection. 
 
 Museum possesses, in the Jones collection, Isaac Oliver's wonder- 
 ful full-length miniature of Sackville, Earl of Dorset, here reproduced 
 (see Frontispiece). Besides the two Olivers, several other miniaturists 
 worked in England in the Holbein tradition. The two cleverest, 
 and latest, were Penelope Cleyn, the daughter of a designer at the 
 Mortlake Tapestry factory, and John Hoskins (d. 1 664 ?). Hoskins 
 was only surpassed as a miniaturist by his own nephews and pupils, 
 Alexander and Samuel Cooper, the latter of whom was not only 
 the best miniature painter, but one of the most gifted artists that 
 England can boast. 
 
 Samuel Cooper (1609-1672) was the pupil of his uncle Hoskins, 
 and also studied for a time in France and Holland. He appears 
 to have been the true originator of the style we now associate 
 exclusively with Van Dyck, for miniatures by him, executed before 
 Van Dyck came to England, anticipate the air of conscious dis- 
 tinction which the Fleming afterward saw in the English upper 
 classes. Among the finest of Cooper's works are the miniatures 
 of Cromwell, at Chatsworth ; of Monk, at Windsor ; and 
 several in the magnificent collection of the Duke of Buccleuch. "No 
 portrait by Van Dyck . . . brings us into such intimate rela- 
 tion with a personality as do Samuel Cooper's miniatures . . . 
 and how profoundly artistic they are ! Each occupies its narrow 
 surface to perfection, each is a masterpiece of design, of drawing, 
 of modelling, even of color ; and each stops exactly where 
 it should. There is no effort to tell more than the conditions 
 
 251 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 no. 460. — SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. 
 
 (i. OLIVER.) Windsor Castle. 
 
 to his Majesty, the Dut 
 land, Devonshire, and Portland, Earl Spen- 
 cer, Mrs. Joseph, and others. 
 
 After the death of Cooper, English paint- 
 ing of portrait miniatures soon came to the 
 
 will allow, no attempt to rival work 
 on a larger scale. Solicitude is con- 
 centrated on the heads, and there every 
 touch helps to add intensity to the 
 artist's record of the man before him. 
 A fine Cooper is a triumph of selec- 
 tion, of precision in the right place, 
 of suggestion in the right place, of 
 balance and harmony all over." 
 Cooper's miniatures are still numerous, 
 although a 
 large number 
 have p e r- 
 ished in one 
 way or an- 
 other. Good 
 c o 1 1 e c tions 
 also belong 
 of Suther- 
 
 riG. 462. 
 
 -DOUBLE LOCKET. (hILLIARD.) 
 
 Mr. G. Salting. 
 
 FIG. 461. PORTRAIT OF MAN 
 
 UNKNOWN. (l. OLIVER.) 
 
 V. 6* A. Museum. 
 
 end of its first period 
 of glory. Cooper was 
 followed b y three 
 men of great ability, 
 Thomas F 1 a t m a n , 
 Laurence Crosse, and 
 Nathaniel Dixon, 
 after whom the art 
 fell for a time into 
 the hands of ungifted 
 immigrants, who cap- 
 tured patronage by 
 means which have 
 too often proved 
 successful since their 
 day. 
 The second fine 
 
 252 
 
PORTRAIT-MINIATURES 
 
 FIG. 463. — JAMES I. 
 (l. OLIVER.) 
 
 FIG. 464. — ANNE OF DENMARK, 
 (l. OLIVER.) 
 
 FIG. 465. — HENRY, PRINCE OF 
 WALES. (l. OLIVER.) 
 
 FIG. 466. — PRINCE CHARLES, 
 (l. OLIVER.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 V 
 
 f 
 
 FIG. 467. — HENRY, PRINCE OF 
 WALES. (l. OLIVER.) 
 
 Mr. G. Salting's Collection 
 
 FIG. 468. — LADY. (l. OLIVER.) 
 
 253 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 469 — PORTRAIT OF RICHARD 
 CROMWELL. (S. COOPER.) 
 
 Mrs. Joseph's Collection. 
 
 FIG. 470. — PORTRAIT OF LADY 
 
 UNKNOWN. (fLATMAN.) 
 
 period began about the time of the founding of the Royal Academy, 
 in 1 769. John Smart, who exhibited in London from 1 762 
 to 1813, was the best equipped of this later generation. His 
 miniatures have never been equalled for completeness, precision, 
 and technical perfection. In modelling they equal those of Holbein, 
 and it is only in harmony of color that they occasionally fail to 
 please. Smart was a friend of Cosway, whose art, however, was 
 strangely unlike his own. Where Smart was complete, precise, 
 
 almost Teu- 
 tonic in his love 
 
 for detail and 
 
 finish, Cosway 
 
 was broad in 
 
 conception and 
 
 execution, and 
 
 dependent on 
 
 his sense of 
 
 beauty for 
 
 effect. It is 
 
 curious that both 
 
 were miniatures 
 
 FIG. 471. — PORTRAIT (FLATMAN.) £ 
 
 Mr. Salting. ot men : some 
 
 five feet high ! 
 Slightly junior to these two artists, and inferior to them in genius, 
 were the two Plimers, Andrew (1763-1837) and Nathaniel 
 
 254 
 
 FIG. 472. — PORTRAIT OF MAN 
 UNKNOWN. (FLATMAN.) 
 
 Mr. Salting. 
 
university 
 ^^4LLfor^)>Portrait-miniatures 
 
 FIG. 473. 
 
 -portrait of gentleman. 
 (bogle.) 
 
 (1 757-1 822), Ozias Humphrey 
 (1742-1810), James Nixon (1741- 
 1812), George Engleheart (1752- 
 1829), Samuel Shelley (1750?- 
 1808), Richard Crosse (1740?- 
 1810), and Horace Hone (1756- 
 1825) ; while on a lower plane still 
 were Nathaniel Hone (1718-1784), 
 Henry Edridge ( 1 769- 1 82 1 ), Samuel 
 Cotes (1734-1818), WilHam Wood 
 (1768-1809), Thomas Hazlehurst 
 (1760-1818), Luke Sullivan (Died 
 1 77 l),Richard Collins (1755- 1831), 
 William Grimaldi (1751-1830), 
 Samuel Finney (1721-1807), John 
 Bogle(l 769-1 792), Andrew Robert- 
 son (1777-1845), and many others. 
 
 The nineteenth century brought with it a decisive fall in the general 
 character of portrait miniatures. They became ambitious in the wrong 
 direction, with a tendency to increased size, elaboration, and self- 
 assertion, and a consequent loss in the unity which had been their 
 artistic charm. Andrew Robertson ( 1 777- 1 845) was a man of ability, 
 but his miniatures do not look content. They seem to breathe a 
 desire to grow into life-size pictures. And it was the same with the 
 other miniaturists who filled in the 
 time between him and the advent of 
 photography : with Mrs. Mee 
 (1770?- 1851), Newton (1785- 
 1869), Ross (1794-1876), Chalon 
 (1781-1860), and Thorburn(1818- 
 1885). 
 
 The splendor of the British 
 school of portrait miniatures is a 
 rather curious phenomenon. For it 
 depends on qualities which have not 
 distinguished British art as a whole. 
 It depends on a sense of form, on 
 power of concentration, on ability 
 to summarize fact without falling into 
 emptiness, virtues which have, more 
 often than not, been somewhat to 
 seek among our artists. None of 
 
 255 
 
 fig. 474. — PORTRAIT OF A LADY. 
 
 (j. SMART.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 the Continental miniaturists have equalled Samuel Cooper, 
 Flatman, Hoskins, Laurence Crosse, John Smart, or Cosway, or even 
 some members of the second flight, in the gift for putting no more 
 on a square inch or two of card or ivory than it was fit to bear, and 
 
 FIG. 475. — PORTRAIT OF A MAN. 
 
 (cosway.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
 FIG. 476. — PORTRAIT OF DUKE OF 
 
 WELLINGTON. (coswAY.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
 FIG. 477. — PORTRAIT OF LADY ANNE 
 
 FANE, (cosway.) Mrs. Joseph. 
 
 FIG. 478. — portrait of A LADY. 
 (ANDREW ROBERTSON.) 
 
 yet suggesting at the same time that their equipment was complete] 
 and could have played on a six-foot canvas with equal success. 
 
 A certain number of English miniaturists worked in enamel, 
 is quite certain that the art of enamelling was practised hei 
 
 256 
 
PORTRAIT-MINIATURES 
 
 throughout the Gothic ages, for docu- 
 mentary evidence exists that the art was 
 frequently the subject of regulations by the 
 Sovereign. The probability is that many 
 objects at present ascribed to Continental 
 schools were produced in England, if not 
 always by Englishmen. A country in 
 which the making of stained-glass windows 
 was carried to the perfection it reached 
 here could scarcely have failed to work 
 successfully in enamel. The fashion of 
 enamel miniatures — if it can be said ever 
 
 been a 
 
 FIG. 479. — PORTRAIT OF A 
 LADY. (S. PLIMER.) 
 
 FIG. 480. — PORTRAIT OF A 
 MAN. (bogle.) 
 
 to have 
 
 fashion — was set 
 in England by Jean Petitot the elder 
 (1607-1691) and his friend, Pierre 
 Bordier (F. 1650), both natives of 
 Geneva. After a period of study in Italy, 
 the two friends came to England, where 
 they were patronized by their country- 
 man. Sir Theodore de Mayerne, physi- 
 cian to Charles I. Mayerne, who pre- 
 sented them to the King, had long been 
 studying enamels, so that his knowledge, 
 added to 
 the tech- 
 
 nical ex- 
 perience of the two artists, led to 
 great results. Petitot had lodgings 
 in Whitehall. He "portraictured" 
 the King and other members of the 
 Royal Family, he copied several of 
 Van Dyck's pictures in enamel, and 
 was an established institution when 
 the triumph of the Parliament and 
 death of the King drove him to seek 
 new fields. He emigrated, and 
 sought the patronage in exile of 
 Charles II., who brought him to the 
 notice of Louis XIV. For the 
 French King he produced a large 
 number of enamels, in which he was 
 
 257 
 
 FIG. 481. — WARREN HASTINGS. 
 (O. HUMPHREYS.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 fig. 482. — enamel. 
 (gervase spencer.) 
 
 assisted by the faithful Bordier, and by his own son, Jean Petitot 
 the younger (after 1650?- 1695). The elder Petitot died at Geneva 
 in 1691, at the age of 84. His son settled in 
 England. He studied for a time under Samuel 
 Cooper, and was still living in London in 1695. 
 Enamels by Bordier are comparatively rare, the 
 most important being the Fairfax Jewel, pre- 
 sented by the Parliament to Sir Thomas Fair- 
 fax after the battle of Naseby. It now belongs 
 to Lord Hastings. Enamels by the Petitots 
 are numerous. Their merit lies almost entirely 
 in the excellence of their technique, which leads 
 to great brilliance and vivacity. Fine collec- 
 tions exist in the Victoria and Albert 
 Museum, the Wallace collection, the Louvre, and in many private 
 cabinets. 
 
 The first successor of the Petitots in this country was Charles 
 Boit, a Franco-Swede, who came to England as a drawing master, 
 but when here took up enamel painting. His career was stormy 
 and his works are rare. The best are in the possession of Mr. 
 Jeffrey Whitehead, Lord Spencer, Captain Holford, and in Viennese 
 
 collections. After Boit came his 
 pupil, Christian Friedrich Zincke, 
 a Saxon and a prolific artist, who 
 produced a large number of por- 
 traits. The best of these are excel- 
 lent, uniting brilliance to breadth 
 of effect with conspicuous success. 
 Good examples are to be found in 
 all the chief collections of minia- 
 tures. Zincke lived in England 
 for sixty years, dying here in 1 767. 
 Other foreigners by birth who 
 worked enamel in England, in the 
 eighteenth century, were : George 
 Michael Moser (1 704 ?-l 783) and 
 Jeremiah Meyer (1 735-1 789), both 
 foundation members of the Royal 
 Academy, Rouquet (1 702?- 1 759), 
 Groth (1650), Christian Richter (1680 ?-l 732), and the brothers 
 Hurter (1730-1790). 
 The native English enamellers were a small band. Gervase 
 
 258 
 
 FIG. 483.- 
 
 -enamel portrait of h. bone, 
 (by himself.) 
 
PORTRAIT- MINIATURES 
 
 Spencer (d. 1 763), who began life as a domestic servant, produced 
 some good miniatures in enamel as well as in water color. 
 Nathaniel Hone (1718-1784) was excelled 
 in enamel as well as in ordinary miniature- 
 painting by his son Horace (1756-1825), 
 whose best work is full of charm and 
 power. Henry Spicer, William Prewitt, 
 and several other native workers are known 
 chiefly or solely by their signatures on a 
 few pieces. A more important name is 
 that of Henry Bone (1755-1834). who 
 would have been one of the finest of all 
 workers in enamel had his eye for color 
 been better. A native of Cornwall, he 
 began life as a decorator of porcelain, at 
 Plymouth. After devoting himself to enamel, 
 he produced copies of many famous pictures 
 
 and of a whole series of Elizabethan portraits. He was elected R.A. 
 in 18 II, and died in 1834. His sons, Henry Pierce (1779-1855) 
 and Robert Trewick Bone (1790-1840), practised their father's 
 art with less success. With the death of H. P. Bone in 1855 
 the succession of workers seduced into enamel in England by the 
 fame and fashion of Petitot came to an end. Within the last few 
 years the art has been taken up anew, and practised with success 
 by Sir Hubert von Herkomer, Mr. and Mrs. Nelson Dawson, 
 and several others. So far, however, no one has again attempted 
 to make it a medium for portraiture. It is adapted neither to 
 modem fashions nor to modern hurry. 
 
 FIG. 484. — PORTRAIT. (NOAH 
 SEAMAN.) 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Propert. J. L.: A History of Miniature Art, 1887. 
 British and Foreign, 1903. Williamson. G. €.: Portrait Miniatures, 1897; Illustrated Cata- 
 
 Foster, J. J.: Miniature Painters, 
 "oreign, IVLO. Williamson, G. 
 logue of Exhibition of Miniatures, Burlington Fine Art Club, 1889; Catalogue of Exhibition of 
 Miniatures at the Royal Academy, 1879; Catalogue of Special Exhibition of Miniatures at 
 the S. K. Museum, 1865. Robertson, Andrew: Letters of, with a Treatise on the Art of 
 Miniature, 1895. 
 
 259 
 
 S2 
 
FIG. 485. — SKETCH FOR A LANDSCAPE. (GAINSBOROUGH.) 
 
 J. P. Heseltine, Esq. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 One of the three artistic activities in which England can show a 
 clean pair of heels to all her rivals is painting in water color.* This 
 art, of course, was no new discovery on the part of our eighteenth 
 century painters. It had been practised in the same form, i. e., in 
 transparent color, by the Dutch landscape painters of the previous 
 century. But they had only turned to it occasionally, and had never 
 cared to develop its special capacities. The particular individual to 
 whom the modem school should look as its originator was Paul 
 Sandby (1725-1809), a native of Nottingham, who followed 
 successively the occupations of military map-maker, topographical 
 draughtsman, picturesque draughtsman and drawing-master. He 
 was also an etcher and aquatinter. Much of his work was done in 
 body color, but he also practised the more luminous method. His 
 last employment was that of chief drawing-master at the 
 
 ' The other two being mezzotint engraving and the painting of portrait 
 
 260 
 
WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 Royal Military Academy, 
 Woolwich. Excellent examples 
 of his work are in the 
 British Museum, the Edin- 
 burgh, Dublin and Kensing- 
 ton collections. Contem- 
 porary with Sandby were 
 various half-forgotten artists 
 who occasionally, at least, 
 painted in water color : 
 Charles Brooking (1 723- 
 1 759), already mentioned 
 for his sea pieces in oil ; 
 Dominic Serres (1722-1793), 
 
 FIG. 486. — ON THE WHARFE. (gIRTIN.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 the two Gilpins, the Rev. W. 
 (1723-1804) and Sawrey, 
 R.A. (1733-1807); George 
 Barret and Gainsborough, 
 whom we need not discuss 
 further here, and Alexander 
 Cozens (died in I 786). The 
 last-named was the natural 
 son of Peter the Great by an 
 English mother, who accom- 
 panied the Czar back to 
 Russia. Peter sent him to 
 study painting in Italy, whence 
 he came to England in 1 746. 
 He soon became the fashion, 
 
 was appointed drawing-master to Eton College, and to the Prince 
 
 of Wales. He married a sister 
 
 of Robert Edge Pine, and begot 
 
 a son by whom he was to be 
 
 excelled in his own line. Alex- 
 ander Cozens is to be studied in 
 
 the Victoria and Albert and 
 
 British Museums. His drawings 
 
 are imaginative in a ghostly way, 
 
 and prepare one for the stronger 
 
 though very similar productions 
 
 of his more gifted son, John 
 
 rvobert v^ozens. j.^^^ ^gg_ — ^^jj, tholsel, dublin. (malton.) 
 
 The younger Cozens ( I 752- National Gallery, Dublin. 
 
 261 
 
 FIG. 487. — DUTCH SHIPPING. (tHOMAS HEARNE.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 fig. 489. — verona. 
 
 (bonington.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 1799), to whom Constable applied the often quoted phrase, "he 
 was the greatest genius who ever touched landscape," painted the 
 
 poetry of landscape in a method which 
 was almost monochromatic. He was the 
 first to suggest the grandeur and unap- 
 proachableness of the Alps, and so, in 
 some measure, was the forerunner of 
 Turner, who has, indeed, left us several 
 Turneresque versions of actual drawings 
 by Cozens. Unfortunately, Cozens had 
 a strain of madness in him, which de- 
 veloped into insanity before the end of his 
 life. Good collections of his drawings 
 exist in the British Museum and at South 
 Kensington. 
 
 A long stride in advance was made 
 when a certain young man, more than 
 twenty years the junior of J. R. Cozens, 
 appeared on the scene. Thomas Girtin 
 (1773-1802) was the first of our water- 
 color painters in the modern sense. He 
 used color frankly, for its own sake, giving all the depth and power 
 of which the medium was capable. He was also a consummate 
 artist, seeing his subject with fine breadth as well as an eye to 
 characteristic detail. Good examples of his work are in the British 
 Museum and at South Kensington. His drawings are always so 
 far topographical that they represent real places. Some of the best 
 
 deal with Paris, Durham, and 
 scenes in Wales and Scotland. 
 A magnificent Rue St. Denis, 
 Paris, appeared at Christie's 
 in 1908.^ 
 
 Girtin's influence on Turner 
 was great. Turner himself 
 declared : "If Tom Girtin had 
 lived, I should have starved." 
 And there was so much 
 foundation for his terrors that, 
 while their careers ran on 
 parallel lines, Girtin was al- 
 
 FIG. 490. — OXFORD. (dE WINT.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 ways ahead, 
 by drink. 
 
 He died, however, at twenty-nine, his end hastened 
 262 
 
WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 Beside the Cozens and Girtin, a 
 great number of artists, or draughts- 
 men, were putting more or less skill 
 and intelligence into the task of ex- 
 ploring the capacities of water color. 
 It will be sufficient here to name men 
 like Henry Edridge (1769-1844). 
 who distinguished himself in several 
 genres; A. W. Devis (1763-1822). 
 John Webber (1 752-1 792) and Wil- 
 liam Alexander (1767-1816), all of 
 whom worked in what were then 
 remote parts of the world ; Thomas 
 Hearne (1744-1817). John (1745- 
 1 786) and Robert Cleveley (d. 1 809). 
 Nicholas Pocock (1741-1821), 
 
 -VALE OF IRTHING. (COPLEY FIELDING.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 (see p. 208). All these were 
 eclipsed when Turner began 
 to let his imagination work on 
 the possibilities of the medium, 
 and, in drawing after drawing, 
 to lift it from a byway of art 
 into a high road along which 
 the painter could march, head 
 up, with only one misgiving. 
 Working in a material of 
 which you distrust the per- 
 manency is a little like lighting 
 with an unguarded rear. But 
 
 FIG. 491. — LINCOLN. (dE WINT.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 Michael Angelo Rooker. 
 A.R.A. (1743-1801), 
 William Marlow (1740- 
 1813). William Pars 
 (1742-1782), William 
 Payne (exhibiting from 
 1786 to 1813). Edward 
 Dayes (1763-1 804), who 
 influenced Turner con- 
 siderably ; and the three 
 Maltons, already noticed 
 
 E^^m 
 
 FIG. 493. — WINDSOR CASTLE. (dAVID COX.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 263 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 494. — CORN FIELD. (dAVID COX.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 a hundred years ago, per- 
 haps, distrust had not begun 
 to creep in, and no premoni- 
 tion of the ruin which has now 
 overtaken too many drawings 
 of the time had yet come to 
 spoil the pleasure of their 
 making. As soon as Turner's 
 halting years were over, he 
 began to extend the province 
 of water color, and this he 
 never ceased to do until his 
 creative days were past. He 
 
 widened its grasp, he enriched 
 its effects, he invented its de- 
 vices : until it was capable of 
 such productions as the Edin- 
 burgh or Battle of Fort Rock, 
 in the National Gallery, or such 
 a wonderful color dream as 
 the Doge's Palace, in the 
 National Gallery of Ireland. 
 The best way to learn the 
 whole depth and breadth of 
 
 FIG. 495. — MACBETH AND THE MURDERERS. 
 (O. CATTERMOLE.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 FIG. 496. — VENICE, (j. HOLLAND.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 Turner as a water-color painter is to 
 study three public collections : the collec- 
 tion of finished drawings in the National 
 Gallery, which is quite accessible and 
 easy of examination in spite of what 
 over-hasty criticism has said to the 
 contrary ; and the two small collections 
 left to the Scottish and Irish Galleries, 
 respectively, by the late Henry Vaughan. 
 These two latter collections have the 
 unique advantage, as collections, of being 
 entirely unfaded, an advantage they will 
 retain, as Mr. Vaughan's will requires 
 that they shall only be exposed to day- 
 
 264 
 
WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 light under certain specified 
 conditions, which completely 
 secures them against damage. 
 
 Early in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury the water-color painters 
 had so far begun to feel their 
 strength that a certain number 
 of the leading spirits among 
 them combined to form an 
 academy, or rather an Exhibit- 
 ing Society, of their own. 
 The original members included 
 
 FIG. 498. — BORGIA S' AMUSE. (rOSSETTI.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 FIG. 497. — STILL SUMMER. (f. O. FINCH.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 George Barret, junr. (died 
 1842). W. Havell (1782-1857). 
 Joshua Christall (1767-1847), 
 J. Varley (1778-]842\ Cor- 
 nelius Varley (1781-1873). and 
 eleven men of less importance. 
 Francois Louis Thomas Francia 
 (1772-1839), a native of Calais, 
 settled in London, was elected 
 shortly after the Society was 
 founded, and took a considerable 
 share in moulding the future 
 of the 
 
 s c h ool. 
 
 He also 
 had a great effect on the develop- 
 ment of the gifted Richard Parkes 
 Bonington (1801-1828), who affords 
 the most remarkable instance known, 
 perhaps, of race and nationality pre- 
 vailing over environment in the forma- 
 tion of an artist. For Bonington was 
 almost entirely French in training and 
 education, but in his art as English as 
 man could be. 
 
 The later history of English water 
 color resolves itself merely into a cata- 
 logue of famous names, and a few notes 
 on their varieties of ideal and practice. 
 
 265 
 
 FIG. 499. — KING RENE'S HONEY- 
 MOON. (ROSSETTI.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 The nature of the material 
 prevented these varieties from 
 being very great, and kept 
 the painter of famiUar Eng- 
 land on one narrow^ plat- 
 form w^ith the figure painter 
 and the illustrator of the 
 larger aspects of nature 
 abroad. 
 
 The most flourishing period 
 
 of all, the period between 
 
 FIG. 500. WARKWORTH CASTLE. , . , . ^ . . «'1J 
 
 (sir ERNEST wATERLow.) the founoation of the old 
 
 Society" and the commence- 
 ment of that doubt of the material's permanence which has made 
 
 I 
 
 FIG. 501. — PLOUGHING IN SUSSEX. (tHORNEWAITE.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 itself felt during the last five and twenty years, was illumined by the 
 
 genius of some ten or twelve 
 men. These were : George 
 Barret, junr., already men- 
 tioned, Samuel Prout ( 1 783- 
 1852), William Henry Hunt 
 (1790-1864). Peter de Wint 
 n 784-1849), Anthony Van- 
 dyke Copley Fielding ( 1 787- 
 1855), David Cox (1783- 
 1 859), George Cattermole 
 (1800-1868), WilHam James 
 Muller (1812-1845), Francis 
 
 riG.502.-HAVFIELD,AMBERLEV. (WIMPERIS.) ^^'J^'. ^'""^ O ^l^ ^ J^'/^^C^n^' 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. and JamCS Holland ( I OUU- 
 
 266 
 
WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 1870). All these were drawing- 
 masters, and in that employment 
 acquired the combination of 
 facility, vigor and richness which 
 marks the \^hole group. The 
 necessity for producing an 
 effective result in the minimum 
 of time was an excellent dis- 
 cipline. It did not permit the 
 ground to be covered twice. 
 Tones had to be laid at once 
 in their proper strength, and 
 modelling was done less by add- 
 ing than by rubbing out. The 
 results were luminous pictures, 
 with the light inside them. 
 
 George Barret was the son 
 of the Irish disciple of Wilson 
 mentioned in a previous chapter. 
 He distinguished himself chiefly 
 by his mastery of atmosphere, in which he reminds us of Albert 
 Cuyp. In design, however, he was more akin to Claude, delighting 
 in elaborately balanced compositions of a classical stamp. These he 
 
 FIG. 503. — THE DRINKER. 
 (WAINWRIGHT.) 
 
 painted in oil as well as water. 
 Kensington. F. O. Finch ex- 
 celled in the same Claudesque 
 style of art as Barret. 
 
 Samuel Prout is famous for the 
 sympathetic skill with which he 
 delineated time-worn specimens of 
 Gothic and Renaissance architect- 
 ure ; Copley Fielding for the 
 dexterity with which he treated 
 subjects requiring technical experi- 
 ence ; Peter de Wint for his con- 
 summate craftsmanship, as befitted 
 his Batavian blood ; Muller and 
 James Holland for their decorative 
 brilliance ; and David Cox, the 
 best of the whole group, for the 
 happy novelty of his most expres- 
 sive style, and for his love of every- 
 
 267 
 
 A fine example is at South 
 
 -MRS. SIDDONS. (j. DOWNMAN.) 
 
 From Print. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 505.— PASTEL PORTRAIT. (jOHN 
 RUSSELL.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 thing which makes for beauty in 
 nature. W. H. Hunt is more 
 narrowly imitative. Some would 
 deny his right to be considered 
 an artist at all, and, indeed, he is 
 so inarticulate in design that it 
 takes all his gift for color to excite 
 much interest to-day. A large 
 number of other water-color 
 painters who have distinguished 
 themselves, or at least earned their 
 fame, mainly in oil, might be 
 noticed here, but that would be 
 repetition. The list includes such 
 names as those of Madox Brown, 
 Millais, Rossetti, and Burne- Jones. 
 A small group which requires 
 to be noticed by itself is that 
 which clusters round Frederick 
 Walker (1840-1873) as its leader. Its art is aggressively 
 English, depending for inspiration on what our German friends 
 would call sentimentality ; but justifying itself to some extent by 
 the frequently exquisite quality of its execution. After Walker 
 himself, its most distinguished member was George Pinwell (1842- 
 
 1875), who, like Walker, gave more 
 than one hint that beneath the anecdotic 
 form of art, to which most of his days 
 were given, lay a robust power which 
 might have led him far had the fates 
 been more propitious. Walker and 
 Pinwell had a following in their lives, 
 and are never likely to lose it 
 entirely ; for their art appeals to a 
 continuing passion of the Anglo-Saxon 
 race. 
 
 The generation which has followed 
 these men has been notable as a whole 
 for its experiments with the medium. 
 Certain painters of ability, such as the 
 late Thomas Collier, Mr. Thornewaite, 
 Sir Ernest Waterlow, and E. M. Wim- 
 peris, have been content with the sim- 
 268 
 
 FIG. 506. — FEMALE FIGURE. 
 (GAINSBOROUGH ?) 
 
 British Museum. 
 
WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 FIG. 507. — CHALK DRAWING (ALFRED 
 
 STEVENS.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 plicity of the old ways, and have 
 carried on the traditions of Cox 
 and De Wint. But others seem 
 to have feh that new methods 
 were required to keep up pubHc 
 interest in their art ; hence many 
 technical developments, mostly con- 
 nected with body color, and a 
 much wider range of subject than 
 used to be thought sufficient. In 
 the invention of novelties a younger 
 institution than the "old Society," 
 the Institute of Painters in Water 
 Colors, has shown, perhaps, the 
 greater activity. In recent years 
 attempts have been made to widen 
 the province of water color and 
 to spur it into a mistaken rivalry 
 with oil. But these attempts have been suggested, not by artistic 
 considerations, but merely by the demand for novelty made 
 by a blase generation. Continental practice has also contrib- 
 uted to lead English water-color painting out of its ancient 
 ways, and to make it a thing 
 of ingenuity and dexterity rather 
 than of sincere art. The young 
 French aquarelUstes, especially, 
 have turned the water-color 
 artist into the Paganini of Paint- 
 ing. 
 
 Work in Pastel almost comes 
 under the head of water color, so 
 often has the latter medium been 
 called in to help out the former. 
 Pastel flourished in England during 
 the second half of the eighteenth 
 century, beginning with such men 
 as Arthur Pond (whose pastels, 
 although numerous, are generally 
 unrecognized as his), and Francis 
 Cotes, and ending with John 
 Russell and J. R. Smith. The 
 recent revival has again led to 
 
 269 
 
 FIG. 508. — CHALK DRAWING. (ALFRED 
 
 STEVENS.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 509. — STUDY FOR ISAIAH GROUP, 
 ST. PAUL'S. (ALFRED STEVENS.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 very clever work being done in tha 
 method. 
 
 Drawings 
 
 The Anglo-Norman genius never 
 having been of such a character as 
 to demand expression in line, or 
 form to use a w^ider term, drawings 
 are comparatively rare in the Eng- 
 lish school. Our painters have 
 loved to begin their work on the 
 canvas, with the smallest possible 
 antecedent labor in the way of 
 sketches, studies, investigations of 
 structure and movement. In the 
 eighteenth century very few indeed 
 made serious drawings. Those of 
 Reynolds were rough scribbles, 
 giving little more than the crudest indications of what was intended. 
 Hogarth's drawings were blocked-out maps of pictures ; Romney 
 practically did none at all ; Gainsborough alone drew in the sense 
 that the French and Italians drew. His drawings, whether of 
 figures or landscape, are among the finest ever produced and now 
 fetch enormous prices at auction. They are always studies of move- 
 ment, with its decoration of sym- 
 pathetic drapery in the case of 
 figures ; and of light and shadow 
 in the case of landscape. They 
 are never objective studies of struct- 
 ure. Hoppner made good draw- 
 ings of landscape, rather too slavishly 
 modelled on those of Gains- 
 borough. As a young man 
 Lawrence lived by making draw- 
 ings, and continued the habit, more 
 or less, throughout his life. But 
 his works in line are strangely 
 weak and empty ; the drawing in 
 his better pictures — the Angerstein 
 in the National Gallery and the 
 Warren Hastings in the National 
 270 
 
 FIG. 510. — TURNING THE SOD, 
 
 British Museum, 
 
 (COTMAN.) 
 
WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 FIG. 511. — THE CENTAUR. (COTMAN.) 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 Portrait Gallery, for instance — is 
 infinitely finer than anything he did 
 with the point. The little portraits 
 of Downman are masterpieces in 
 their own way, and may fairly be 
 classed as black and white ; for 
 their color is a mere tinting, often 
 put on from the back, and their 
 beauty lies in the sculpturesque 
 purity of their contours, combined 
 with an agreeable flow of line else- 
 where. A number of good draw- 
 ings have also been left by Raphael 
 Smith, Wilkie, Bonington, and 
 others. But the habit was seldom 
 persistent enough to lead to great 
 results, either in quality or quantity. 
 
 The landscape men make a far 
 better show than the figure painters. 
 The drawings of Turner are real 
 
 preparations for pictures, notes of all the phenomena of nature, 
 transfigured sometimes and always affected by his own feeling in 
 their presence. Those of Constable are superb, showing the happiest 
 combination of objective with subjective qualities. Crome was a 
 master of black and white, and Cotman more than a master. Some 
 of his drawings — Turning the Sod and The Centaur, both in 
 the British Museum, for instance — betray a pictorial imagination 
 of the highest rank. 
 
 On the whole, however, the painters of the first half of the 
 nineteenth century were dumb 
 as linear draughtsmen. It was 
 not until the pre-Raphaelite 
 movement came to draw atten- 
 tion to all the habits of the 
 early Italian painters that much 
 was done with the point. And 
 even then it was not in line, 
 strictly speaking, that the Eng- 
 lish painter thought. The first 
 man to do really fine work 
 was Alfred Stevens, one of the 
 greatest masters of design that 
 
 271 
 
 FIG. 512. — LANDSCAPE. (COTMAN.) 
 
 Sir Hickman Bacon, Bart. 
 
ART IN GREAT" BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 513. — TREES. (constable.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 ever lived. His best chalk drav^ings 
 have never been excelled. From 
 the time of Stevens onw^ard, 
 British painters have been much 
 readier to use the point than ever 
 before. Not that his example had 
 much, or anything, to do with it. 
 For so great an artist he has 
 remained curiously unknown, even 
 to the present day. The revival 
 of drawing is part of the general 
 movement which has breathed 
 vitality, if not always excellence, 
 into every department of art. 
 The drawings of Lord Leighton, of 
 Sir Edward Burne-Jones, of 
 Albert Moore, have qualities 
 which will preserve them from 
 oblivion,' while those of Whistler will take place, beside his etch- 
 ings and lithographs, with the finest of modern works in line. 
 When we turn to living painters it is difficult to make sure of saying 
 anything which will stand the test of time : for a painter may fail 
 to attract notice with his brush, and yet do good work, more or 
 less in secret, with the point. It is safe, however, to say that our 
 descendants will treasure the drawings of Mr. J. M. Swan, Mr. Augus- 
 tus John, Mr. Muirhead Bone, and a few others. 
 
 In drawings conceived for the sake of illustration, our English 
 school has been prolific, and distinguished, for a century or more. 
 
 But comparatively few of 
 those who have devoted them- 
 selves to this class of work 
 have made their bull's-eyes on 
 the right target. Instead of 
 depending on line, they have 
 too often hankered after 
 color, tone, and other qual- 
 ities not to be easily made 
 good with the point. This 
 is particularly true of 
 Frederick Walker and his 
 school. In recent years a 
 great improvement in this 
 272 
 
 FIG. 514. — SALISBURY. (CONSTABLE.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS 
 
 matter has taken place, and it would now be possible to compile 
 a long list of workers in black and white who are thoroughly 
 alive to the limits, as well as to the powers, of their art. Much of 
 the credit of this improvement must be given to the illustrated 
 newspapers and cheap magazines. The first of these to show the 
 way was the Illustrated London News, founded more than half a 
 century ago ; and a further long stride in advance was made by the 
 Grapnic, some twenty years later. The managers of the latter 
 periodical gathered a regular school of young workers in black and 
 white about them, and gave a stimulus to this particular branch of art 
 which is not yet exhausted. For a time such work was all entrusted 
 to the wood cutter, but a day came at last when processes founded 
 on photography enabled fac-similes to be produced at small cost and 
 with great fidelity. This brought work with the pen to the front. 
 Pen-drawing lent itself to methods which helped the draughtsman 
 to do himself rapid justice, to produce brilliant results promptly, 
 and with a certainty limited only by his own capacity. It may fairly 
 be called the characteristic art of the last quarter of a century, and has 
 had an enormous influence in spreading among people in general 
 less faulty notions on art than those which used to be commonly 
 held. Clever draughtsmen with the pen, artists in black and white, 
 are now so numerous that to name a few would be invidious, but 
 this form of drawing cannot be mentioned at all without exciting 
 memories of such men as Charles Keene and Phil May. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Roget, J. L.: History of the Old Water Color Society, 1891. Monkhouse, Cosmo: The 
 Earlier English Painters in Water Color, 1 898. Redgrave, R. and S. : A Century of Painters, 
 1866. Armstrong, Sir W. : Turner, 1902; ditto, Alfred Stevens, 1881. Stannus. H.: Alfred 
 Stevens, 1891. Rossetti, W. M.: Some Reminiscences, 1906. Sharp, W. : Dante Gabriel 
 Rossetti, 1882. Phillips, Claude: Frederick Walker and his ff^ori^s. Portfolio, 1894. Hamerton. 
 P. G. : Landscape, 1885. Orrock, J. : On the English Art of Water Color Painting, 1891 ; 
 Report to the Committee of the Council of Education on the Action of Light on Water Colors, 
 1888. Hamerton, P. G. : Drawing and Engraving, 1892. Gleeson White, J. G. : Modem 
 Illustration, 1895. Pennell, J.: Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen, 3rd Ed., 1897. 
 Pennell, J. and E. R. : Lithography and Lithographers, 1 898. Dictionary of National 
 Biography. 
 
 273 
 
riG. 515.— SLEEPING SOLDIERS ON THE EASTER SEPULCHRE. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD-GOTHIC 
 SCULPTURE 
 
 The history of Early Sculpture in the British Isles shows the same 
 peculiarities as that of our other arts. In the first place, it is full of 
 gaps ; the image-breakers have swept away links wholesale, which 
 we are left to divine from what went before and came after. 
 Secondly, the advance from barbarism to cultivation was very 
 
 far from continuous, and, more 
 frequently than in other coun- 
 tries, we are shifted from one 
 racial development to another. 
 These latter changes correspond 
 with the modifications in the 
 English population, and illustrate 
 what was said in our first chapter 
 of the racial characteristics of 
 European Art. The oldest re- 
 mains in Great Britain which 
 can be brought under the head 
 of Sculpture in any developed 
 sense, are a number of crosses 
 which have been called Anglian 
 but which are undeniably Celtic 
 in inspiration. The finest is the 
 cross at Bewcastle, in Cumber- 
 land, with a figure of Christ on 
 one face and characteristic Celtic 
 ornament on the other three. 
 
 FIG. 516. — SOUTH DOOR OF ANGEL CHOIR. 
 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. 
 
 274 
 
SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD 
 
 ■p 
 
 
 1^9 
 
 1 
 
 
 i«^ 
 
 ^w 
 
 
 ii^iiSili 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 FIG. 517. — SAXON BAS-RELIEF : CHRIST COMING 
 
 TO THE HOUSE OF MARTHA AND MARY. 
 
 CHICHESTER CATHEDRAL. 
 
 The inscriptions it bears allow 
 
 this monument to be ascribed 
 
 to the middle of the second 
 
 half of the seventh century^ 
 
 It is a first-rate example of 
 
 the early Celtic instinct for 
 
 expression in line, and the 
 
 control of a pattern into unity. 
 
 Contemporary with this, or 
 
 but little later, are several 
 
 other crosses and fragments 
 
 in the neighborhood of the 
 
 Border. These all belong to 
 
 an epoch of fine inspiration, 
 
 depending, probably, for the 
 
 excellence of their technique 
 
 on the presence of craftsmen 
 
 from Eastern Europe among 
 
 the native sculptors. But the Eastern influence has, perhaps, 
 
 been exaggerated, or rather misunderstood. It is there, no doubt, 
 
 but only as affecting craftsmanship. Its effect upon the controlling 
 
 Celtic spirit is hardly perceptible. 
 
 In the south of England, with Winchester for its centre, a different 
 ideal assumed control after the Saxon Conquest. A school with 
 a Teutonic rather than a Celtic character gradually established 
 itself. Technically, its ideal 
 was one of research, rather 
 than of unity and breadth, 
 while its conceptions were 
 complex, crowded, and dra- 
 matic, rather than simple, 
 coherent, and sculpturesque. 
 Fine examples of this Saxon 
 school at a fully developed 
 moment are the famous re- 
 liefs in Chichester Cathe- 
 dral dealing with the story 
 of Lazarus (Figs. 517 and 
 518), Christ coming to 
 the House of Martha and 
 Mary and The Raising of 
 
 - "^ rj-., . =» -^ FIG. 518. — SAXON BAS-RELIEF : THE RAISING OF 
 
 Lazarus. 1 tiere is a sense lazarus. chichester cathedral. 
 
 275 t2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 519. — DETAIL 
 
 FROM SOUTH DOOR- 
 
 WAY. LINCOLN 
 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 of striving after refinement in the execution, and 
 not a little technical ambition. Such difficult 
 matters as three-quarter profiles are attempted. 
 Besides these Chichester reliefs, other important 
 relics of the school exist in certain large roods, 
 of which Bradford-on-Avon and Romsey possess 
 the best specimens. These were sometimes ac- 
 companied by attendant angels, of which also a 
 few examples still exist. 
 
 The Norman Conquest brought another change. 
 The conquerors were a vigorous race, lately from 
 the North, stirred by aesthetic ambitions derived 
 from the Celts they had subdued. They at once 
 set about covering their latest acquisition with 
 monuments of architecture, but it was long before 
 they made any serious attempt to add the glory of 
 free sculpture to their other activities. Their 
 great cathedrals, Winchester, St. Albans, probably 
 London and Canterbury, were left bare of any 
 figure decoration but that of the painter. At Lincoln, indeed, 
 certain reliefs stand on the west front which would be early and 
 important examples of Norman figure work, could they be accepted 
 as contemporary with the architecture in which they appear. 
 For this front was in building, by Bishop Remigius, as early as 
 1075. But these reliefs are of such a character that the choice 
 
 seems to lie between assign- 
 ing them to the Saxon era 
 and the first half of the twelfth 
 century. In a sketch of our 
 national sculpture, as an art by 
 itself, no place need be found 
 for such carving as was done 
 in the days of round arched 
 Gothic. Even in its most 
 developed form, as in the 
 West Portal of Rochester 
 Cathedral, it is narrowly archi- 
 tectonic. 
 
 Gothic sculpture, in any free 
 sense, may be said to have 
 begun with the fashion of intro- 
 ducing carved heads at certain 
 
 FIG. 520.- 
 
 -CIRCULAR BOSS. 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 276 
 
SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 521. 
 
 -CENSING ANGEL, LINCOLN 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 
 points in First Pointed structures. 
 These heads were, of course, 
 decorations, but the corbels, label- 
 ends, and string-stops, which 
 supplied their raisons d'etre were 
 so exactly adapted to their forms, 
 that the carver could work as 
 freely, slnd express himself as 
 sincerely, as if he were under no 
 conditions but those of tools and 
 material. It was not so with 
 capitals, string courses, spandrels. 
 There the structural forms modi- 
 fied the decorative, and the sculp- 
 tor's work is often meaningless 
 — as expressive art — without the 
 surrounding architecture. 
 
 The justifying cause of the slowness with which free sculpture 
 developed in pointed Gothic Architecture has been well put ; 
 "Gothic Art, having found its theme in the vertebrate expres- 
 sion of stone building, refused to admit any discordant phrase."^ 
 Figure sculpture was scarcely ac- 
 cepted as part of their scheme 
 by first pointed builders at all. 
 At Canterbury, at Chichester, in 
 the great buildings of the north, 
 it does not exist. Scarcely a 
 trace of it is to be found north 
 of the Humber before the middle 
 of the thirteenth century. It was 
 in the south that ambition awoke, 
 and that the future greatness of 
 English Gothic Sculpture gave 
 its first sign in those splendid 
 carved heads in which we are 
 still so rich. "Destructions, de- 
 termined and continuous, have 
 been defacing them for six hun- 
 dred years, but they still remain 
 to us by the thousand, and the fine quality, vivacity, and variety 
 
 ^ Prior, E. S. and Gardner, A.; "English Mediaeval Sculpture** (.Architectural Review, 
 
 VokXIItoXVll). 
 
 27.7 
 
 FIG. 522. — THE BROTHERS OF JOSEPH, 
 SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 523. — FIGURES, WEST 
 FRONT, WELLS CATHEDRAL. 
 
 of their treatment are astonishing." (Prior 
 and Gardner.) In the great majority of 
 cases they were carved in situ, the stones 
 being already buih into the walls. But in 
 certain districts a good many occur which 
 were supplied to the masons ready-made, 
 having been carved at some central atelier 
 out of the local stone. By the ihiddle of 
 the thirteenth century the ability of the 
 English carver was thoroughly developed, 
 and excellent work was being done all 
 over the country, proving that English 
 builders had a plentiful supply of native 
 skill and knowledge at their command. 
 By this time the head-carving had fully 
 developed its national characteristics of 
 refinement of execution and delicacy of 
 sentiment, and had been supplemented by a growing ability to treat 
 the figure as a whole. Figure sculpture was first strictly confined 
 to those points where it was demanded by the architecture : the 
 corbels, &c., already referred to, bosses (Fig. 520), capitals, where 
 
 it lived in some discomfort, and 
 those triangular spaces above 
 the shoulders of an arch which 
 call so loudly for occupation 
 (Figs. 521-22). After the 
 heads, the next specimens of 
 figure sculpture we can point to 
 are in these same spandrels, the 
 finest examples being at Lin- 
 coln, Salisbury, and Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. At Lincoln and 
 Westminster the spandrel shape 
 has determined the character 
 of the figures. These are prac- 
 tically restricted to angels, whose 
 wings help them to be happy 
 at their posts. The finer angels 
 at Lincoln are equal to any- 
 thing of their date in Europe, 
 or for long after ; while the best 
 of those at Westminster, such 
 
 FIG. 524. — FIGURES ON THE GATEWAY TO 
 THE CLOSE, PETERBOROUGH. 
 
 278 
 
SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD 
 
 as the two in the angles of the north tran- 
 sept, are scarcely inferior. The figures of 
 soldiers on the Easter Sepulchre at Lincoln 
 are examples of the same style at its happiest 
 and most developed moment (Fig. 515). 
 At Salisbury the subjects are less closely 
 governed by the architecture, and are, in- 
 deed, sometimes quite independently con- 
 ceived, e.g.^ the group of "Lot and his 
 Daughters," and the much restored but 
 extraordinarily fine group of "Joseph's 
 Brethren" (Fig. 522). The central dates 
 of all these are for Lincoln, about 1240, 
 for Westminster, about 1250, and for Salis- 
 bury, about 1270. 
 
 So far as quantity goes, the greatest 
 display of English mediaeval sculpture is 
 at Wells. Here we have everything : 
 corbel and label heads, capitals, panels in 
 relief, sunk panels with heads and parts of 
 figures in the round, and full length statues, 
 standing free. Statue carving in southern 
 England began somewhat abruptly, but in 
 that there is nothing difficult to explain. 
 The sculptors who had so far been em- 
 ployed on decorative work had acquired 
 Quite enough skill to enable them to supply 
 the new demand the moment it arose. On 
 the assumption that a sudden demand must 
 have been externally met, the Wells statues 
 have been ascribed to French, Italian, and 
 even Greek sculptors, in defiance of the 
 fact that no similar work can be pointed 
 to on any part of the European continent. 
 No evidence, indeed, of any kind has been 
 discovered to suggest that the work is 
 foreign, unless, indeed, the fact that a 
 certain number of figures high up on the 
 West Front bear Arabic numerals on their 
 backs, can be called so. In these some 
 writers would see Italian masons' marks. 
 But Arabic numerals had come into occa- 
 
 279 
 
 FIG. 525. — MADONNA, 
 CHAPTER HOUSE, YORK. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 526. — TOMB OF ARCHBISHOP 
 GRAY, YORK 
 
 (Purbeck figure.) 
 
 have the serene 
 simpHcity which 
 distinguishes the 
 early sculpture of 
 all schools, and, 
 freely conceived 
 as they are, they 
 fit into and carry 
 on the spirit of 
 the architecture 
 which enframes them. They are carved from 
 the Doulting stone of which the cathedral is 
 built. Originally their total number seems to 
 have been about 255, of which 183 remain^; 
 those which are well out of reach being, on 
 the whole, in fairly good condition. In type 
 they vary decisively from the figures at Lincoln 
 and Salisbury, but a certain affinity can be 
 traced with the two figures over the door of 
 
 sional use in this country as early 
 as the middle of the thirteenth 
 century, which is not too late for 
 these figures, and other explana- 
 tions of their presence might be 
 given. ^ The absence of anything 
 elsewhere to which these statues 
 can fairly be compared is evidence 
 of their English and local origin 
 which cannot easily be refuted. In 
 character, they 
 
 FIG. 527. — FIGURE IN 
 HENRY V.'S CHANTRY, 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 FIG. 528.— TOMB OF ARCHBISHOP PECKHAM, CANTERBURY. 
 
 (Wooden figure.) 
 
 280 
 
 the Westminster 
 Chapter House, which 
 illustrate the subject of 
 the Annunciation. 
 
 ' Prior and Gardner suggest, 
 for instance, that these statues 
 were moved out of harm's way 
 while the towers were being 
 built, in 1380-1430, and num- 
 bered in order to secure their 
 return to their right places. 
 
 ^ Archaeologia, vol. Hx, p. 
 147. 
 
SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD 
 
 After Wells, Exeter has the richest 
 display of sculpture to be found on 
 any English Cathedral (Fig. 85). 
 Here again the statues are carved 
 from a local stone, which has 
 weathered very differently from that 
 of Wells. At Wells the statues are 
 mutilated, but sharp, the Doulting 
 stone breaking more readily than it 
 dissolves. At Exeter the reverse is 
 the case, 
 with the 
 result that 
 
 FIG. 529. — TOMB OF EARL AND 
 COUNTESS OF ARUNDEL. 
 
 FIG. 530. — PIETA. BREAD- 
 SALL, DERBYSHIRE. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
 those tech- 
 nical details which are so useful in deter- 
 mining dates and origins are mostly illegible. 
 The spirit of the Exeter work is quite dis- 
 tinct from the earlier sculpture at Wells. 
 It is mouvemente and dramatic in concep- 
 tion, and must be referred to some artist or 
 school of artists who were less profoundly 
 sympathetic with 
 architecture than 
 those of Wells. In 
 addition to these 
 great cathedral- 
 families of statues, 
 numerous English 
 churches bear wit- 
 
 ness to the existence of a widespread school 
 of sculpture throughout the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries, although, like all other 
 activities, it shrank and cowered for a time 
 after the murderous visitation of the Black 
 Death. Good sculpture cannot be produced 
 sporadically, and a single fragment is enough 
 to prove that where it was carried out there 
 must once have been much more. Such 
 statues, to take instances at random, as the 
 Madonna on the central pillar of the door- 
 way to the Chapter House at York 
 Minster (Fig. 525), the figures on Henry 
 
 281 
 
 FIG. S3I. — BISHOP FOUND 
 AT FLAWFORD, NOTTS. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 532. — THE ANNUNCIA- 
 TION. 
 
 British Museum. 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
 ducts came into such demand — partly, no 
 doubt, through royal insistence — that a 
 regular school grew up around them. Be- 
 ginning early in the 
 second half of the 
 twelfth century, 
 orders were received 
 from many parts of 
 England for shafts, 
 capitals, and other 
 decorative members, 
 as well as for statues, 
 both for niches and 
 
 V.'s chantry (Fig. 527) at Westminster, and 
 those over the main doorway of Burford 
 Church, Oxfordshire, imply a wide and long 
 continued development. 
 
 A most important phase in English Gothic 
 sculpture was that brought about by the 
 existence in the so-called Island of Purbeck, 
 in Dorsetshire, of quarries supplying a line, 
 hard, warmly colored shell-limestone, capa- 
 ble of polish, and as 
 decorative as a good 
 marble. These quar- 
 ries belonged to the 
 King, and were in 
 convenient proximity 
 to the royal Castle of 
 Corfe. The result 
 was that their pro- 
 
 ne. 533. — FIGURE WITH 
 
 MODEL OF A CHURCH, 
 
 FLAWFORD, NOTTS. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
 FIG. 534. — MADONNA, 
 FLAWFORD, NOTTS. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
 tombs. Purbeck developed a style of its 
 own, so that for a century and a half, from 
 II 75 to 1325, the marbler, with his attend- 
 ant polisher, was the chief nurse of our native 
 Gothic sculpture, Westminster Abbey and 
 the Temple Church are rich in the work 
 of the Purbeck marblers, the effigies in the 
 Temple including both early and late ex- 
 amples. Peterborough has the tombs of 
 five abbots ; Worcester the tomb of King 
 John (Fig. 545) with its fine recumbent 
 282 
 
SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 535. — TOMB AT HOLME-PIERREPOINT, NOTTS. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
 figure, and York that of 
 Archbishop Gray (Fig. 
 526). 
 
 Early in the fourteenth 
 century the P u r b e c k 
 fashion died out, and was 
 succeeded by figures in 
 stone, bronze, alabaster, 
 or wood. The marblers 
 seem to have brought 
 about their own super- 
 cession by the common 
 error of not knowing 
 where to stop. Not 
 content with the polished 
 Purbeck, they elaborated 
 it with painting and gilding, until at last their fine material was 
 entirely overlaid and hidden. This left them at the mercy of the 
 stone workers, whose figures, when similarly decorated, looked as 
 well as their Purbeck rivals and were far less costly. (Prior and 
 Gardner.) 
 
 The completion of the Wells sculpture and the decaying vogue 
 of the Purbeck ateliers threw a large number of statue makers on 
 the country at large. These men dispersed to various centres, and 
 the greater homogeneity which marks English Gothic sculpture after 
 about 1300 may have been due in some degree to their influence. 
 
 The eclipse of the Purbeck marblers, then, was brought about by 
 the ability of workers in 
 cheaper substances to rival 
 their effects. The super- 
 seding materials were free- 
 stone and wood, and the 
 chief centre at which these 
 were employed appears to 
 have been London. From 
 the middle of the thirteenth 
 century onward the capital 
 supplied much of the sculpt- 
 ure required and more or 
 less controlled its character. 
 Varieties of style can, of 
 course, be traced, from the 
 
 283 
 
 FIG. 536. — TOMB OF SIR RALPH GREEN, 
 LOWICK, NORTHANTS. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 537. HOLME-PIERREPOINT, NOTTS. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
 reposeful attitudes and sharply 
 cut plaited draperies of the Wells 
 school to the free action and 
 billowy folds of some northern 
 and eastern centres. But a 
 London parallel for any provin- 
 cial accent can nearly always be 
 found. Among the freestone 
 statues, either made in London or 
 under its influence, may be named 
 the figures of the Eleanor Cross 
 at Northampton, which were 
 carved in London by one William 
 of Ireland in 1290, a recumbent 
 and much damaged knight at Aldworth, Berks, which curiously 
 echoes Michelangelo's conception of Adonis ; the statues of the 
 Lady Aveline, of her husband, Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, and 
 of Aymer de Valence, at Westminster ; of Lady Fitzalan at 
 Chichester, and the Burghersh tomb, at Lincoln. 
 
 Among the many scores of wooden figures which still exist, 
 scattered all over England, the finest, probably, is that of Archbishop 
 Peckham, at Canterbury (Fig. 528). Westminster Abbey has the 
 figure of William de Valence (in which a wooden core supports a 
 copper skin) and the rude core of what was once, probably, a 
 magnificent effigy of Henry V. 
 
 The fashion of alabaster figures was a later development, but lasted 
 longer and spread more widely than any of the others. More than 
 
 500 specimens have been 
 catalogued. It had its 
 origin in the existence of 
 rich deposits of the mate- 
 rial known as English 
 alabaster all across the 
 country, from southern 
 Lincolnshire to Stafford- 
 shire. These appear to 
 have been often drawn 
 upon for the sculptor be- 
 fore the great develop- 
 ment of the tomb-figure 
 
 536.— ruMB IN SOUTHWELL CATHEDRAL. mduStry b C g a tt . A 
 
 (Alabaster.) c u r i o u s Mantegnesque 
 
 284 
 
SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 539. — TOMB. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
 Pieta (Fig. 530), a series of figurines (Figs. 531, 533-34) and 
 reliefs (Fig. 532) have come down to us, some of which are 
 beautiful. The docile material 
 put no difficulty in the sculp- 
 tor's way, which was not 
 entirely an advantage. A 
 great school of what were 
 called " Alablasters " sprang 
 up, and for several genera- 
 tions met a large part of the 
 demand for sepulchral effigies, 
 not only in England, but also 
 on the Continent, and, in 
 another direction, as far as 
 Iceland. Its results were but 
 little above the industrial level, 
 as a rule. A few are real 
 works of art, but the majority are so designed as to awake a suspicion 
 that the ateliers charged for their products according to weight ! 
 The list of ** alablasters " seems never to have included a sculptor 
 of any really free imagination. To be sure, no worse school of 
 design in the round could be suggested, perhaps, than one which 
 involved the constant manufacture of recumbent figures of men in 
 armor. Among the best which have come down to us may 
 be named the effigy of John of 
 Eltham, in Westminster Abbey, 
 the figure of William Fettiplace, 
 in Swinbrook Church, Oxford- 
 shire, and the various works figured 
 in these pages (Figs. 535-540), 
 especially the fine and really 
 artistic statue of Edward II. 
 at Gloucester (Fig. 540), and the 
 figure of a knight at Holme Pierre- 
 point (Fig. 535). 
 
 Metal working of all kinds flour- 
 ished in Gothic England, as the 
 records prove, although so few of its 
 results can now be pointed to. Eng- 
 lish goldsmiths, like those of other 
 
 countries, extended their operations to the production of bronze 
 statues and figurines, to the casing of those in wood, and the 
 
 283 
 
 FIG. 540. — HEAD OF EDW.4RD II. 
 GLOUCESTER. 
 
 (Alabaster.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 541. — HEAD OF RICHARD II. 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 (Bronze: from a cast.) 
 
 ary in modelling, while 
 even the Richard II. (Figs. 
 54 1 , 543) and his queen, 
 Anne of Bohemia, are in- 
 ferior to the Eleanor and 
 the Henry. The small 
 figurines which used to 
 form a complete cortege of 
 weepers round these Gothic 
 tombs are often freer in 
 
 decoration, by various devices, of those 
 in stone and marble. And, unlike 
 the workers in these latter materials, 
 their names have not been entirely 
 forgotten. The fame of one English 
 family of bronze workers, at least, 
 has persisted. These were the Torels, 
 who worked In London as goldsmiths 
 for the better part of a century. In 
 the year 1291 "William Torel, 
 aurifaber," was paid the sum of 
 £113. 6. 8. for three bronze figures, 
 including those of Queen Eleanor (Fig. 
 542) and of Henry III. in Westminster 
 Abbey. These are the finest of the 
 Abbey bronzes. The later Edward III. 
 (Fig. 544) is curiously stiff and element- 
 
 FIG. 542. — FitSURE OF QUEEN ELEANOR. 
 (WILLIAM TOREL.) WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 (Bronze: from a cast.) 
 
 FIG. 543. — FIGURES OF RICHARD II. AND HIS QUEEN, 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 (Bronze.) 
 
 286 
 
 conception than the 
 main effigies. 
 
 The later phases 
 of Gothic architect- 
 ure were nearly as 
 bare of free sculpt- 
 ure as the earliest. 
 The ** alablasters," 
 whose productions 
 held the field until 
 the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, superseded the 
 local and London 
 imagers, while the 
 
SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD 
 
 countless niches provided by 
 the workers in perpendic- 
 ular Gothic seem, in many 
 cases, to have been left 
 unfilled, and, in others, to 
 have been occupied by 
 figures scarcely higher in the 
 artistic scale than those sup- 
 plied by the modern purveyors of fonts, pulpits, lecterns, and other 
 church furniture. 
 
 FIG. 544. — FIGURE OF EDWARD ITI, 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (BfOnze.) 
 
 For Bibliography, see end of Chapter XXI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 545. — TOMB OF KING JOHN, WORCESTER. 
 
 (Purbeck marble.) 
 
 287 
 
FIG. 546. — CENOTAPH OF WELLINGTON. (ALFRED STEVENS.) ST. PAUL'S. 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 The practice of sculpture as a Fine Art ceased in England for 
 several generations after the final extinction of our Gothic 
 School. The active demand for sepulchral effigies, which has been 
 as continuous a feature of our national life as that for painted 
 portraits, was met by the alablasters. Although some of these showed 
 considerable artistic power, their activity on the whole was organized 
 on commercial rather than aesthetic lines, and tended to discourage 
 rather than to promote the re-birth of sculpture in its highest form. 
 The first man to show much individuality, and to bring back some 
 small modicum of vitality to the art, was Nicholas Stone ( 1 586- 
 1647), who would, however, have described himself as a mason 
 rather than as a sculptor. He studied for a time at Amsterdam, 
 under the son of Hendrik de Keyser, the famous sculptor, whose 
 granddaughter he married. Returning to England, he did much 
 work at the Royal Palaces, in London and Edinburgh, and as 
 a mason executed several of Inigo Jones's designs. The porch 
 of St. Mary's, Oxford, usually ascribed to Jones (Fig. 1 77), 
 was almost certainly both designed and carried out by Stone, to 
 whom, also, must be credited the beautiful gates of the Physic, or 
 Botanical Garden, in the same University. Several tombs in 
 Westminster Abbey are by him, also the statue of Dr. Donne in 
 
 288 
 
SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 547. — JAMES II. (gRINLING 
 GIBBONS.) ST. J.AMES'S PARK. 
 
 his winding sheet in St. Paul's. One 
 of his best monuments is that of Sir 
 Julius Ccesar, in great Saint Helen's. 
 Stone is one of the few early artists 
 who have left documents : his ac- 
 count book is in the Soane Museum. 
 His eldest son, Henry, was the 
 painter known as " Old Stone " (see 
 page 169). Stone left a pupil or 
 assistant who must be noticed. This 
 was Caius Gabriel Gibber (1630- 
 1 700), a native of Flensborg, in 
 Holstein, who is best known as the 
 maker of the two figures in " Bed- 
 lam," Me/anc/io/t/ and Ravins Mad- 
 ness (Fig. 348). He was also em- 
 ployed at Ghatsworth, and made the 
 Phoenix over the south door of St. 
 Paul's, as well as the panel in relief on the west side of Wren's 
 Monument of London. Gibber married one Jane Golley, and by 
 her became father of Golley Gibber. 
 
 The first English sculptor to work freely and expressively in the 
 Renaissance spirit was Grinling Gibbons, to whose merit Fame, 
 even now, has done but scanty justice. He was born in Holland of 
 English parents. As an artist he showed a combination of designing 
 power with patience and technical skill which would have carried 
 him far with better opportunities. As a decorator his best perform- 
 ances are to be found at Ghatsworth, Petworth, Burghley, in St. 
 Paul's, London, and in Trinity Gollege, Oxford (Fig. 180). His 
 statue of James II., 
 which has been moved 
 within the last few 
 years from its original 
 site behind the Ban- 
 queting House into 
 St. James's Park, is 
 one of the finest 
 bronzes in Europe 
 (Fig. 547). Gibbons 
 designed and executed 
 the pedestal for the 
 
 f y^l 1 TT FIG. 548. — "melancholy and RAVING MADNESS.' 
 
 statue ot v^naries 11. (gibber.) bethlehem hospital. 
 
 289 U 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 in the great quadrangle of Windsor 
 Castle, and may possibly have sup- 
 plied sketches for the beautiful pedestal 
 of Le Sueur's Charles I., at Charing 
 Cross, which was carried out, however, 
 by one Marshall (Cust). A great deal of 
 wood carving is ascribed to him without 
 evidence and against the probabilities. 
 
 Cibber and Gibbons were both more 
 or less responsible for Francis Bird 
 (1667-1731), a native of London, who, 
 after a boyhood spent abroad, set him- 
 self to profit by the example of the 
 two older artists. 
 
 FIU. 549. COLLEif CIBBER. 
 
 (Unknown.) Colored terra cotta. 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 Bird's produc- 
 tions have been 
 the victims of 
 indiscriminate 
 abuse. His statue of Queen Anne in front of 
 St. Paul's was a butt for nearly two centuries, 
 and yet Belt's copy shows that it was by no 
 means destitute of artistic balance and unity. 
 His great relief in the pediment over the 
 west door shows errors of taste, in its stone 
 rays of sunlight and over-picturesque treat- 
 ment gener- 
 ally, but the 
 single figures 
 on the same 
 front are very 
 good, as, also. 
 
 FIG. 550. — DR. JOHNSON. 
 (bacon.) ST. PAUL'S. 
 
 FIG. SSI.— GEORGE III. (WYATT.) 
 COCKSPUR STREET. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 is his Dr. Busby in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 All these men were more or less 
 inspired by the decorative impulse 
 characteristic of the Renaissance. 
 Their draperies were vehicles for 
 much play of light and shadow ; the 
 movement of their figures was rather 
 complex than simple, and oppor- 
 tunities for the introduction of orna- 
 ment were sought after rather than 
 290 
 
SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 552. — SAMUEL WILBERFORCE. 
 (S. JOSEPH.) WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 avoided. This tendency was now to 
 be abandoned for one in the opposite 
 direction, and EngUsh sculpture was to 
 strip itself deliberately of all those aids 
 which might, if properly used, have 
 enabled it to rise to a level not unworthy 
 of English painting. A classical severity 
 is admirable in a Greek climate and a 
 Greek society where constant familiarity 
 with the naked human figure at its best 
 breeds a sense of structure, form and 
 texture which is not to be learnt from 
 a few tame specimens in a studio. For 
 artists working under the conditions of 
 England in the eighteenth century, classic 
 ideas were fatal. They meant giving up 
 everything on which the sculptor had relied as vehicles for self-ex- 
 pression, and receiving in return the mere shadow of a knowledge 
 which is useless until it is complete. 
 
 Four sculptors may be chosen as typical of the whole during this 
 period of what was fondly believed to be classical purity and 
 restraint. They were Thomas Banks, Joseph Nollekens, John 
 Bacon, and John Flaxman. Banks (1735-1805) was the first 
 English sculptor to depend on a Grecian elegance to give charm 
 to his art. Nollekens (1737-1823), a Low-Countryman by 
 extraction, had the same predilections, but a happy fate compelled 
 him to spend most of his time in making busts. Into these he 
 contrived to pour no little vitality in spite of his neglect of detail. 
 By John Bacon (1 740-1 799)— the first Academy student to 
 receive a gold medal for sculpt- 
 ure from the first of the P.R.A.'s 
 — the best work extant is, prob- 
 ably, the statue of Johnson (Fig. 
 550) in St. Paul's. The move- 
 ment is appropriate and coherent, 
 the drapery well cast and near 
 enough to the Roman spirit. 
 Bacon had also some facility as 
 a purely decorative sculptor, as 
 his monument of Lord Halifax, 
 
 in Westminster Abbey shows, ^^^ ^^.-o^tram. (folev.) Calcutta 
 
 Flaxman (1755-1826), fol- Bronze. 
 
 291 u 2 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 fig. 554. — athlete and python. 
 
 (leighton.) 
 
 Tate Gallery. Bronze. 
 
 lowing the law which appears to govern 
 revivals, went farther back for his 
 ideals, and took the Greek spirit for 
 his inspiration. His art, although often 
 playful in conception, was too severe 
 in form for popularity, or, indeed, for 
 use, and the commissions he won were 
 not in proportion to his fame. He is 
 now remembered chiefly for his outline 
 illustrations to Homer, /Eschylus, Dante, 
 &c., which are based on the art of the 
 Greek vase-painters. A good example 
 of his sculpture is the monument to 
 Lord Mansfield in Westminster Abbey. 
 The mourning youth at the back shows 
 his technique at its best. But Flax- 
 man, like the rest of the Classicizers, 
 did not realize that for the sculptor, 
 above all men, the motto should be " thorough." The simplicity 
 of the Greek satisfies because it barely veils profound knowl- 
 edge, that of his imitator leaves us cold because we have a 
 sense of emptiness behind. I may illustrate this by a comparison 
 which, I hope, will not seem frivolous. Such a statue as the 
 kneeling boy of Subiaco (Thermae, Rome) compares with the 
 
 best productions of Flaxman 
 as a miniature by Cooper, or 
 Smart, compares with the best 
 to be found in a modern ex- 
 hibition. The old miniaturists 
 learnt to be artists; they learnt 
 to draw and paint the human 
 figure no less thoroughly than 
 the picture painters ; with the 
 result that, when they simplified 
 and generalized, they did not 
 become empty and " cheap." 
 Their modern successors learn 
 merely to paint miniatures, and 
 a glance is sufficient to show 
 that knowledge does not breathe 
 through their masks. Nothing 
 could be simpler, freer from 
 
 FIG. 555. — BISHOP PHILPOT. (BROCK.) 
 WORCESTER. 
 
 292 
 
SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 556. — CENOTAPH OF LORD LEIGHTON. 
 
 (brock.) ST. Paul's. Bronze and marble. 
 
 accent or detail, than the Subiaco 
 boy, and yet nothing is more 
 certain than that the mind which 
 created it knew all there was to 
 be known about the texture and 
 artistic anatomy of the human 
 body. From Flaxman and all 
 the other English Classicizers 
 from Banks to Gibson — and, for 
 that matter, from those of Italy, 
 France, Germany, and Denmark 
 — we get no such impression. 
 We see they have been captured by the outward beauty of Greek 
 sculpture, and have set out to imitate it without first mastering 
 the knowledge from which it sprang. Of all the fine arts sculpture 
 is that which requires the completest and profoundest knowledge 
 of its bases. The sculptor's means of expression are so restricted, 
 when compared to those of the painter, that he can afford to 
 dispense with nothing which is at 
 once within the legitimate boun- 
 daries of his metier and capable 
 of enforcing his idea. It is sig- 
 nificant that the only bearable 
 sketch in sculpture is one based 
 on movement and structure. The 
 mind accepts such a sketch, know- 
 ing instinctively that its successful 
 achievement implies the power to 
 bring the whole adventure to a 
 happy conclusion. 
 
 The first of the nineteenth 
 century in England saw many 
 sculptors at work, and, on the 
 whole, not a little patronage ex- 
 tended to them. But their pro- 
 ductions were characterized, with 
 hardly an exception, by neglect of 
 the more expressive qualities of 
 their art and the cultivation of an 
 artificial simplicity which meant 
 nothing at all. Good conceptions 
 were left, as it were, buried in 
 
 293 
 
 FIG. 557. — THE BLACK PRINCE. 
 (brock.) LEEDS. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 the marble, for the want of modelling. Such 
 statues as the two Eves by E. H. Baily, or 
 the so-called Tinted Venus, by John Gibson, 
 would have been respectable works of art if 
 their modelling had been carried far enough. 
 That they were left as we see them was not 
 so much the result of incapacity as of a 
 mistaken theory as to the limits of sculpture 
 and a misreading of Greek simplicity. The 
 best known sculptors of this unhappy period 
 were Sir Francis Chan trey (1781-1842), 
 whose busts are often excellent ; Sir Richard 
 Westmacott (1775-1856), Samuel Joseph 
 (Died in 1850), who has left two fine statues, 
 Wilkie, in the National Gallery, and Samuel 
 
 FIG. 558. — GAINSBOROUGH. 1Xr.11 £ /C CCO\ * \Y/ i ' ^ 
 
 (BROCK) Wdherforce (rig. DDZ) m Westmmster 
 
 Tate Gallery. Abbey; Patrick Macdowell (1799-1870), 
 
 James Wyatt (1795-1850), E. H. Baily 
 (1788-1866), and John Gibson (1790-1866). Better, when 
 at his best, than any of these was John Henry Foley (1818-1874), 
 whose Outram, at Calcutta (Fig. 553), Goldsmith, Burke, and 
 Grattan, in Dublin, and the often un- 
 fairly abused Prince Consort in Hyde 
 Park, are good if not exactly inspired 
 works. 
 
 Foley's influence persisted after his 
 death in the work of Lord Leighton 
 and Mr. Thomas Brock. By the former 
 we have two statues, both in the Tate 
 Gallery, An Athlete struggling with a 
 Python (Fig. 554), and The Slug^ 
 gard; by the latter, a number of groups 
 and statues, in which a high standard is 
 reached with singular precision. The 
 Black Prince (Fig. 557) at Leeds, the 
 Moment of Peril, Eve and Gains- 
 borough (Fig. 558), in the Tate Gallery, 
 the Bishop Philpot, at Worcester (Fig. 
 555), the cenotaph of Lord Leighton in 
 St. Paul's (Fig. 556), the Robert Raikes 
 on the Victoria Embankment, and the 
 Queen Victoria on the last coinage of 
 
 294 
 
 
 V 
 
 fig. ssq. wellington monu- 
 ment, (alfred stevens.) st. 
 Paul's. 
 Bronze and marble. 
 
SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 FIG. 560. — TRUTH. 
 (ALFRED STEVENS.) 
 
 (From the model for the Wellington 
 Monument.) 
 
 her reign, are all good sculpture and 
 show a versatility which is rare. Two 
 other sculptors of some capacity who 
 may be classed with these were the pre- 
 Raphaelite Thomas Woolner (1825- 
 1892) and George Armstead. (1828- 
 1905). Armstead's best things, perhaps, 
 are his tomb of Lord Winmarleish and 
 the inner doorway of the Holborn 
 Restaurant, in London. 
 
 The greatest English artist of the 
 nineteenth century was a sculptor, and 
 a sculptor whose early training was ob- 
 tained in the very sanctuary of those 
 barren principles which led to nullity in 
 all but the strongest hands. Alfred 
 Stevens (1818-1875) was a pupil of 
 Thorwaldsen, into whose studio in Rome 
 he was admitted at a very early age. 
 His genius, happily, was so robust, and his curiosity about every- 
 thing connected with art so unsleeping, that he was in no danger of 
 being run into the moulds of other men. He really educated 
 himself as sculptor, as painter, as 
 architect, as ornemaniste. Returning 
 to England while still young he ac- 
 cepted any task which involved the 
 use of his knowledge, teaching in art 
 schools, designing fire irons, decorating 
 houses. His opportunity came with 
 the death of the Duke of Wellington, 
 when, after all the usual vicissitudes 
 which attend a competition, he was 
 commissioned to execute his monument. 
 Up to that moment he was practically 
 unknown, but the fame of what he 
 was doing in his retired studio soon 
 brought him a small coterie of friends 
 and a few commissions to give variety 
 to his labors. He died in 1875, 
 leaving his great work still incomplete. 
 The general conception of the Welling- 
 ton monument is based on the canopy 
 
 295 
 
 FIG. 561. — VALOUR. 
 (ALFRED STEVENS.) 
 
 (From the model for the Wellington 
 Monument.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 562. — PROPOSED MEMORIAL 
 
 TO THE 1851 EXHIBITION. 
 
 (ALFRED STEVENS.) 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum. 
 
 tombs of the Italian Renaissance and, 
 more immediately, on Mary Stuart's tomb 
 in Westminster Abbey. But Stevens has 
 far excelled his models in the coherence 
 and unity of his general scheme as well 
 as in the grand design of his groups and 
 figures. To find anything better than his 
 Fa/our (Fig. 56 1 ), and Truth (Fig. 560), 
 we must turn to the greatest of all 
 imaginative sculptors, to Michelangelo 
 himself, while in its union of dignity with 
 decorative value the effigy of Welling- 
 ton with its supporting sarcophagus 
 (Fig. 559) is quite unsurpassed. The 
 other works of Stevens include a 
 splendid sketch (Fig. 562) for a 
 memorial to the 1851 Exhibition, to 
 which Durham's commonplace pro- 
 duction, now hidden away behind the 
 Albert Hall, was preferred ; designs 
 for the decoration of the domes of 
 St. Paul's and the British Museum 
 Reading Room ; the sculptural decorations of Dorchester House, 
 including two beautiful Caryatid figures (Fig. 563) ; and numerous 
 designs for metal-workers and other 
 industrials. Stevens was one of the 
 small band of artists whose every 
 scribble is of value. The Tate Gallery 
 possesses a good collection of what may 
 be called his remains, including his car- 
 toon for the mosaic of Isaiah in St. 
 Paul's, five other oil pictures, and a 
 number of drawings and sketches. In 
 one respect, too, he was an innovator, 
 for to him belongs the credit of having 
 invented that peculiar form of design, 
 depending on a system of abstract curves 
 (" squirms "), which has since been carried 
 so far by Mr. Alfred Gilbert and others, 
 and is really the foundation of what is 
 now called Vart nouveau. 
 
 The last sculptor to be mentioned 
 296 
 
 FIG. 563. CARYATID IN DOR- 
 CHESTER HOUSE. 
 (ALFRED STEVENS.) 
 
SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 
 
 in this chapter belongs in some ways to a later development. 
 For although G. F. Watts had reached a patriarchal age at 
 the time of his death, his work in the round is distinguished 
 by the almost picturesque freedom inaugurated by Carpeaux 
 
 riG. 564. VITAL ENERGY. (o. F. WATTS.) KENSINGTON GARDENS. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 and his followers, .rather than by the comparatively " tight " 
 methods of his own English contemporaries). As a sculptor he 
 studied, indeed, under Behnes, but his real master was 
 Phidias, and his school the pediments of the Parthenon. 
 His best works as a sculptor are the Clutie, of which the Tate 
 
 297 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 Gallery has a bronze, the Vital Energy, in Kensington Gardens, 
 the magnificent equestrian group of Hugh Lupus, at Eaton Hall, 
 and the monument to Lord Lothian. 
 
 It is greatly to be wished that a replica of the Eaton Hall group 
 might be set up in London, Fortune has been unkind to the 
 metropolis in dealing out to her the inferior works of her own 
 sculptors, and in banishing their successes to the provinces and 
 the colonies. The reason, perhaps, is to be sought in the fact that 
 artists have their hands freer when working for provincial or colonial 
 employers than when a committee of taste is waiting round the 
 corner to watch what they do and to pull them up if they set foot 
 outside the boundaries of the commonplace. 
 
 FIG. 565. — HUGH LUPUS, EARL OF CHESTER. (WATTS.) 
 
 From the model. 
 
 For Bibliography, see end of Chapter XXI. 
 
 298 
 
jimiiiMiwi 
 
 fl^gi^^^^^^^ 
 
 m^^- ill 
 
 . *i»s«*. 
 
 rr*rr-.. 1 
 
 ^Kj^^^^^^^^^/^^Jm'' 
 
 ill' MiF ill 1/ I^^^^^^^jSIe^vi ' -*^^^^ * ^ 
 
 
 FIG. 566. — RETABLE, ST. ALBANS' CATHEDRAL. (ALFRED GILBERT.) 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY 
 
 Few things, as a rule, are more difficult to trace than the real origin 
 of any movement in the Fine Arts. The usual method is to be satis- 
 fied with the working hypothesis of post hoc, propter hoc, and 
 to conclude that the earlier in date of any two similar developments 
 must have been the cause of the later. That such a line of argument 
 has often led to wrong conclusions it would not be difficult to show. 
 As our present business, however, is with an instance of its validity, 
 the point need not be insisted on. Few lines of artistic affiliation 
 are clearer than that which connects the latest phase in English 
 sculpture with our neighbors' school of a generation ago. Down 
 to the middle of the nineteenth century, French sculpture, al- 
 though much more accomplished than English, was affected by the 
 same misreading of Greek and Graeco-Roman examples. It analyzed 
 effects and reduced their causes to a body of principles, failing to 
 understand that Greek art seems objective only because it was the 
 outcome of a homogeneous society which had no temptation to be 
 insincere. The Greek sculptor was really little less subjective than 
 Rembrandt. To invert his inspiration, and make him the follower 
 of a priori laws instead of their unwitting creator, was to transform 
 him from a stimulant into an incubus. 
 
 299 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 The revolt came from the same 
 forces as the romantic movement in 
 literature, the chief originator being 
 Carpeaux, a man of genius although 
 not always a man of taste. His pupil, 
 or at least disciple, Jules Dalou, driven 
 from Paris by the consequences of the 
 war of 1870, came to England and 
 
 taught 
 for years 
 in the 
 Lon don 
 studios; 
 taught 
 and talk- 
 ed, and 
 awaken- 
 ed the 
 
 FIG. 567. — TEUCER. (hAMO 
 THORNYCROFT.) 
 
 (Tate Gallery. Bronze.) 
 
 FIG. 568. — ARTEMIS. EATON HALL. 
 (hAMO THORNYCROFT.) 
 
 with the hills and valleys of the human skin 
 they began to explore and master the 
 machinery it covered. Once the means of 
 expression thus put in their hands, they 
 were in a fair way to express their own 
 ideas, whatever their value. So that at 
 last the one serious foundation of equipment, 
 plus sincerity, was arrived at. 
 The first of the younger school to step 
 
 300 
 
 young Englishmen who came under 
 his influence to the effect of the 
 shallow training and misconstrued 
 classical tradition which had been 
 depriving their national art of all 
 vitality. He 
 offered them 
 structure and 
 movement for 
 the foundation 
 of their knowl- 
 edge. Instead 
 of acquiring a 
 superficial ac- 
 quaintance 
 
 FIG. 569. — GENERAL GORDON. 
 (hAMO THORNYCROFT.) 
 TRAFALGAR SQUARE. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY 
 
 out of the ranks was Hamo 
 Thomycroft. He was an enfant 
 de la balle, for both his father 
 and mother were sculptors be- 
 fore him. His first works to 
 attract attention were the Artemis 
 (Fig. 368) and the Teucer (Fig. 
 567). The latter was exhibited 
 in 1881, and at once made a 
 sensation. It may be said to 
 have in- 
 augura t e d 
 the new 
 moveme n t, 
 with its 
 thorough 
 modelling 
 and tense 
 vitality. It 
 
 FIG. 570. — EDWARD I. (HAMO 
 THORNYCROFT.) 
 
 Plaster. 
 
 FIG. 571. — THE MOWER. 
 (hamo THORNYCROFT.) 
 
 Liverpool Gallery. 
 Bronze. 
 
 was followed by a long procession of statues 
 in which no positive failure is numbered. 
 They include such fine 
 things as the Gordon 
 (Fig. 369), the Mower 
 (Fig. 371), the Bishop 
 Goodwin, at Carlisle, the 
 model for an Edward I. 
 (Fig. 370), never exe- 
 cuted, the absurdly placed 
 Cromwell, at Westmin- 
 in the Strand, with its 
 
 ster, the Gladstone, 
 appropriately vociferous but perhaps over-ener- 
 getic acolytes, and the Bishop Creighton (Fig. 
 372), in St. Paul's. 
 
 Next to Mr. Thomycroft, the work of the 
 late E. Onslow Ford may be mentioned. His 
 education was a little cosmopolitan. His first 
 work to attract much notice was a statue of 
 Rowland Hill; after that came the fine statue; 
 of Irving, as Hamlet (Fig. 573), the Huxley, 
 in the Natural History Museum, the Shelley 
 Memorial, at Oxford, the Gordon, at Wool- 
 
 301 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 FIG. 572. — BISHOP 
 
 CREIGHTON. 
 
 (hamo THORNYCROFT.) 
 
 ST. PAUL'S. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 wich, the memorial to Dr. Jowett, and 
 the unsuccessful Lord Strathnairn, at 
 Knightsbridge. The history of the 
 last named is one of the many trage- 
 dies of committees. Ford's first model 
 was excellent, the horse standing at the 
 edge of the pedestal and looking down 
 over his toes, while his rider peered 
 out to the front as if watching a fight. 
 The uniform was that of Colonel of 
 the First Life Guards, and the whole 
 conception had unity, both of line and 
 action. But the Committee insisted on 
 alterations 
 
 FIG. 573. — IRVING, AS HAMLET. 
 (E. ONSLOW FORD.) 
 
 Guildhall Gallery. 
 
 which near- 
 ly broke the 
 scul p tor's 
 heart and 
 give us the comparatively meaningless 
 group we now see. The imbecility of 
 English committees in these matters is 
 amazing. What would be said of a 
 patient who engaged a surgeon to cut off 
 his leg, and then insisted on directing 
 the operation ? And yet it would be no 
 more ridicu- 
 lous than for 
 
 FIG. 574. — QUEEN VICTORIA 
 
 MONUMENT, MANCHESTER. 
 
 (e. ONSLOW FORD.) 
 
 Bronze and marble. 
 
 FIG. 575. — "maternity"; back of 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA MONUMENT, 
 
 MANCHESTER. 
 
 (e. ONSLOW FORD.) 
 
 a company 
 of generals 
 and civil ser- 
 vants to in- 
 sist on designing a statue. It is a misera- 
 ble thing to have to confess, but the 
 truth is that on nearly every occasion 
 when a committee has had to select a 
 design, whether for a building or for a 
 less utilitarian work of art, in England, 
 it has passed over something good to 
 choose something bad. It has not been 
 that English architects and sculptors 
 were incapable, but that the laymen 
 with whom the decisions rested did not 
 302 
 
SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY 
 
 FIG. 576. — THE YOUTH 
 OF ORPHEUS, 
 (j. M. SWAN.) 
 
 Plaster. 
 
 FIG. 577. — THE YOUTH 
 
 OF ORPHEUS. BACK 
 
 VIEW. 
 
 (j. M. SWAN.) 
 
 know a good thing when they 
 
 saw it. During the last few 
 
 years, happily, a truer theory 
 
 on such matters has shown 
 
 signs of coming to the front, 
 
 and the twentieth century may 
 
 turn out to be less a record of 
 
 lost opportunities than the nine- 
 teenth. Before parting with 
 
 Ford, it must be noted that he 
 
 has left some excellent busts, 
 
 the best, perhaps, being those 
 
 of Sir William Orchardson 
 
 and the late Mr. Ridley Cor- 
 bet, the landscape painter. 
 From Onslow Ford it is 
 
 easy to pass to his friend and 
 
 neighbor, Mr. John McAllan 
 
 Swan, although they had little 
 enough in common in their work. Mr. Swan, like the great 
 majority of his fellow sculptors for the last forty years, gathered 
 his education in more countries than one, France having a right to 
 most of the credit. In England he studied at Worcester, and 
 in that school at Lambeth which has done so much more than its 
 share for English art. He may be classed as a diociple of Barye 
 and Fremiet, who has in some ways equalled, if he has not even 
 excelled, his models. More than any of his rivals has he worked 
 from within outward, never losing his grip on the fact that a live 
 animal is an engineering device, 
 moving only as its levers and 
 joints allow. And yet he is not 
 satisfied with structure and its 
 result in motion. He models the 
 envelope of flesh, skin, and fur 
 with greater truth of suggestion 
 than any previous animalier, not 
 excepting even his two French 
 exemplars. Mr. Swan is one of 
 the few moderns who can be 
 compared with the Italians of the 
 
 early renaissance in his way of looking at art. He is sculptor, 
 painter, ornemaniste, and a magnificent maker of drawings. Among his 
 
 303 
 
 FIG. 578. — LEOPARD AND TORTOISE, 
 (j. M. SWAN.) 
 
 ^Bronze. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 no. 579. — HOUNDS IN LEASH. (hARRY BATES.) 
 
 Tate Gallery. (Plaster.) 
 
 best things are two groups 
 of Orpheus charm- 
 ing the Beasts (Figs. 
 376-7), a Puma and 
 Macaw, Leopard and 
 Tortoise (Fig. 378), and 
 Fata Morgana. At the 
 present moment he is 
 engaged on modelUng the 
 colossal Rons for the 
 tomb of Cecil Rhodes in 
 South Africa. Between 
 Mr. 
 
 Swan's art and that of Harry Bates there is a 
 good deal in common. Bates, who, like not 
 a few of our best sculptors, began life as a 
 carver, had a gift for the play of line which 
 amounted to genius. Unhappily his life was 
 short, and he has left but little behind him. 
 His finest things, perhaps, are the reliefs of 
 /Eneas and Homer, and the Hounds in Leash 
 (Fig. 379). Other members of the same gen- 
 eration are Mr. Roscoe Mullins, whose chief 
 work so far is the pediment to the Preston 
 Museum ; Mr. George Simonds, whose statue 
 of the Northern Aurora, the goddess Gerd, is 
 excellent ; Mr. Stirling Lee, the sculptor of 
 the reliefs of the St. George's Hall, in Liver- 
 pool ; Mr. 
 Lucchesi, 
 the Anglo- 
 
 FIG. 580. — DAME ALICE 
 
 OWEN. 
 
 (GEORGE FRAMPTON.) 
 
 FIG. 581. — DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, 
 (j. GOSCOMBE JOHN.) EASTBOURNE. 
 
 304 
 
 Italian author of Destiny and a 
 Flight of Fancy; and Mr. 
 Pomeroy, who worked under 
 Dalou, at Lambeth, and is 
 responsible for the excellent 
 Burns, at Paisley, besides many 
 other statues and much archi- 
 tectonic sculpture. 
 
 Coming down to a slightly 
 later time, the most notable 
 figure among those sculptors who 
 
SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY 
 
 FIG. 582. — THE ELF. (j. GOSCOMBE JOHN.) 
 
 are still on the sunny side of 
 
 fifty is probably Mr. George 
 
 Frampton, another alumnus of 
 
 Lambeth and Paris. Commenc- 
 ing exhibitor in 1884, he has 
 
 been a faithful contributor to the 
 
 Royal Academy, sending there 
 
 The Children of the Wolf 
 
 (Romulus and Remus brought 
 
 home by the shepherd Faustu- 
 
 lus), Mysteriarch, Lamia, Dame 
 
 Alice Owen (Fig. 580), and 
 
 many other notable works. As a 
 
 sculptor he stands by himself, 
 and is di- 
 vided from 
 his contem- 
 poraries by 
 both quali- 
 ties and de- 
 fects. No one of his own generation rivals 
 his power of suggesting intellect and imagina- 
 tion actually at work in his figures. On the 
 other hand, his designs are curiously wanting 
 in that organic relation be- 
 tween the parts which, at 
 its best, works out to unity. 
 He has been responsible 
 for much good decoration, 
 and is credited with having 
 done not a little to bring 
 about a change for the 
 
 better in the aspect of English officialdom toward 
 
 artistic questions. Among his best monuments 
 
 are the memorial to Charles Mitchell, at New- 
 castle, the statue of Lord Salisbury, at Hatfield, 
 
 and that of Quintin Hogg, in Regent Street, 
 
 where the narrowness of the site and the tightly 
 
 gathered design work into each other's hands. ' 
 From Mr. Frampton it is easy to pass to Mr. 
 
 Goscombe John, yet another son of Lambeth. 
 
 Mr. John began as a carver, and won the Gold 
 
 305 
 
 PIG. 583. — FORTUNE. 
 (f. PEGRAM.) 
 
 FIG. 584.— JOSEPH 
 
 PRIESTLEY. 
 (ALFRED DRURY.) 
 
 X 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 Medal of the R.A. at a compara- 
 tively mature age. His strong point 
 is modelling, which he has carried 
 sometimes to a remarkable pitch of 
 refinement, one of the best instances 
 being the torso of his Morpheus. 
 Other good examples of his power 
 are a John the Baptist, the seated 
 Duke of Devonshire (Fig. 581), 
 at Eastbourne, and The Elf (Fig. 
 582). Mr. Pegram (Fig. 583). 
 Mr. Alfred 
 
 FIG. 585. — GROUP ON WAR OFFICE. 
 (ALFRED DRURY.) 
 
 Drury (Figs. 
 584 and 585), 
 and Mr. Albert 
 Toft(Fig.587) 
 have all shown themselves equal to those 
 opportunities which have come to them so 
 much more generously than they did to 
 English sculptors of earlier generations. Mr. 
 Drury, especially, has left his mark on our 
 cities, his most important works being the 
 
 sculpture on the 
 new War Office 
 (Fig. 585), and 
 the Joseph 
 Priestley (Fig. 
 584), at Leeds, 
 where he had 
 
 FIG. 586. — CIRCE. 
 (BERTRAM MCKENNAL.) 
 
 FIG. 587. — VICTORY. 
 (albert TOFT.) 
 
 also a chance of showing that objects 
 of the severest utility may be the 
 vehicles of good art. For Leeds 
 City Square has the best group of 
 decorative sculpture yet arranged in 
 England, a group which should bring 
 shame to the cheeks of those responsi- 
 ble for the present appearance of 
 Parliament Square, in Westminster. 
 In the centre is Mr. Brock's Black 
 Prince (Fig. 557), surrounded by 
 eight electric light standards by Mr. 
 Drury, the lamps upheld by finely 
 306 
 
SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY 
 
 FIG. 588. — THE GIRDLE. (w. R. COLTON.) 
 
 Tate Gallery. 
 
 modelled figures of nude women ; 
 
 the arrangement is completed by 
 
 four colossal statues contributed 
 
 by Mr. Drury and Mr. H. C. 
 
 Fehr. Mr. Albert Toft's best 
 
 things are probably Victory (Fig. 
 
 587) and The Spirit of Contem- 
 plation. 
 
 Coming down later still we 
 
 reach two men of unusual capacity 
 
 in Mr. Bertram McKennal and 
 
 Mr. W. R. Colton. The former 
 
 is the son of a Scots sculptor who 
 
 emigrated to Australia, where 
 
 the son was born in 1865. He 
 
 was educated in London, with 
 
 finishing touches in Paris. At the 
 
 age of twenty-four he won the 
 
 competition for decorating Gov- 
 ernment House in Melbourne, 
 
 Among his best statues are Circe (Fig. 586), For She sitteth on 
 
 a Seat in the High Places of the City, and Diana Wounded ; 
 
 this last is in the Tate Gallery, which also possesses a bibelot after 
 
 Rodin convention, in The Earth and the Elements. Mr. Colton's train- 
 ing was strictly orthodox : 
 Lambeth, Royal Acad- 
 emy, Paris. His best 
 works, so far, are the 
 Image Finder (Fig. 589), 
 The Girdle (Fig. 588), 
 and Springtime of Life, 
 the two last in the Tate 
 Gallery. To the same 
 generation belong Mr. A. 
 G. Walker, whose best 
 things, perhaps, are The 
 Thorn (Fig. 591), Sleep, 
 and a fine relief. The Last 
 Plague ; Mr. J. Wenlock 
 Rollins, Mr. Gilbert Bayes, 
 Mr. Taubman, Mr. Paul "''geo^gI"''' 
 
 Montford, and Mr. Der- (h. c. fehr.) 
 
 307 X2 
 
 fig. 589. — THE image 
 FINDER. 
 
 (W. R. COLTON.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 fig. 59 1. — the thorn. 
 (a. g. walker.) 
 
 went Wood. Mr. Wood has especially 
 distinguished himself by his power of model- 
 ling and the flexibility of his designing 
 power. He has probably a great future 
 before him. 
 
 Standing somewhat apart from other 
 English sculptors is Mr. Havard Thomas, 
 the author of a beautiful statue and a 
 wonderfully accomplished piece of model- 
 ling in The Slave, and 
 of the much discussed 
 Lyddas. We have to 
 answer the following 
 question before t h e 
 Lycidas can be accepted 
 or refused as a work of 
 art : Is modelling, of the 
 
 completes! kind imaginable, to be accepted as 
 enough to justify the making of a statue, and to 
 compensate for the total absence of an organized 
 design ? In short, is good imitation good art ? 
 
 The question an- 
 
 no. 592. — DOORWAY, 
 
 SCOTTISH PORTRAIT 
 
 GALLERY. 
 
 (BIRNIE RHIND.) 
 
 FIG. 593. — MONUMENT TO QUEEN 
 VICTORIA, DUBLIN. 
 OOHN HUGHES.) 
 
 swers itself. 
 
 In Scotland 
 and Ireland the 
 art of sculpture 
 has hitherto had 
 few chances of 
 flourishing. In 
 Scotland, espe- 
 cially, it has been 
 
 feeble and meaningless, although 
 during the last decade or two signs 
 of better things have not been en- 
 tirely wanting. Among living artists, 
 Mr. McGillivray and Mr. Birnie 
 Rhind are doing excellent work, 
 the statues by the latter on the 
 outside of the Scottish National 
 Portrait Gallery (Fig. 592) being 
 very good of their kind. Dublin 
 has been more fortunate than Edin- 
 308 
 
SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY 
 
 burgh. While the statues fringing Prince's 
 Street are comically bad, those which stand 
 in the high places of the Irish capital are 
 nearly all good. A leaden Tom Moore is, 
 indeed, a disgrace to every one concerned ; 
 but Foley, an Irishman, was at his best 
 when working for his own metropolis (see 
 page 294), and the Parnell of the late 
 Augustus St. Gaudens promises, at least, to 
 be far from commonplace. Meanwhile the 
 city has been enriched with a monument to 
 the late Queen 
 
 6::^^^ 
 
 Victoria (Fig. 
 593) by a young 
 Irish sculptor, 
 Mr. John 
 
 Hughes, which is 
 very remarkable 
 indeed. Its triangular 
 
 FIG. 504. — ICARUS. 
 (ALFRED GILBERT.) 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 FIG. 595. — ST. GEORGE, TOMB 
 
 OF DUKE OF CLARENCE, 
 
 WINDSOR. 
 
 (ALFRED GILBERT.) 
 
 managed with unprecedented 
 and the whole movement 
 originality of conception with 
 tive power in a rare degree. 
 
 So far I have 
 been writing, in ~ 
 
 this chapter, of 
 men who have 
 shown themselves 
 to be possessed of 
 more than aver- 
 
 pedestal is 
 
 jkill, 
 unites 
 execu- 
 
 age abilities and far more than the average 
 equipment which used to be at the command 
 of English sculpture. I have yet to speak of 
 an artist whose genius, like that of Stevens 
 in a previous generation, sets him apart from 
 all his contemporaries. Mr. Alfred Gilbert, 
 the son of a musician, was trained at 
 South Kensington, at the Ecole des Beaux 
 Arts, in Rome, and in the studio of Sir 
 Edgar Boehm. His first work to attract 
 much attention was a group. Mother and 
 Child; after that came Icarus (Fig. 594), 
 
 309 
 
 FIG. 596. — TRAGEDY AND 
 
 COMEDY. 
 
 (ALFRED GILBERT.) 
 
 Bronze. 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 FIG. 597. — MONUMENT TO QUEEN VICTORIA, 
 
 WINCHESTER, FRONT VIEW. 
 
 (albert GILBERT.) 
 
 one of the finest designs ever realized by a sculptor, busts oi 
 Mr. J. S. Clayton, Watts, and Baron Huddleston, the statue of 
 Queen Victoria for Winchester (Figs. 597 and 398), the memo- 
 rial to Fawcett in Westminster Abbey, the splendid Howard 
 
 statue at Bedford, the 
 Shaftesbury Memorial 
 Fountain, the monu- 
 ment to the Dul^e of 
 Clarence, at Windsor, 
 and the strange but 
 fascinating retable to 
 the High Altar of St. 
 Albans Cathedral 
 (Fig. 566). Besides 
 these more " import- 
 ant " works, Gilbert 
 has carried out a 
 large number of small 
 figurines (Figs. 594, 
 595, and 596) and 
 many decorative de- 
 signs, from the army 
 officers' gift to Queen 
 Victoria at her first 
 Jubilee to such toys as 
 seals. Of these a 
 seal for Lady de 
 Vesci may be named 
 as one of the finest. 
 
 Mr. Gilbert pos- 
 sesses a more origi- 
 nating brain than any 
 other living British 
 sculptor. When at 
 his best, every new 
 commission was for 
 him a new problem, 
 with all sorts of possibilities attached to it. In thinking it over, 
 his head began to teem with ideas, aesthetical and technical, the 
 result being too often a slowness in execution which tried the 
 patience of all concerned a little too highly. The result has been 
 that not one, probably, of his more important creations represents 
 
 310 
 
SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY 
 
 his thought exactly. As an instance of this the bust of Baron 
 Huddleston may be named. It was conceived as an attempt at 
 something Hke illusion, an enamelled bronze which should be 
 comparable in its effect to the colored terra-cotta bust of Colley 
 Gibber (Fig. 349) in 
 the Portrait Gallery. 
 To this idea he after- 
 ward returned in 
 the St. Albans rere- 
 dos, which, in turn, 
 has been left unfin- 
 ished. Mr. Gilbert's 
 technical skill and re- 
 sources are as great 
 as those of Cellini ; 
 it is only when we 
 come to what may 
 be called his external 
 judgment that we find 
 much to criticise. 
 Give him a blank to 
 fill and be will fill it, 
 in time, with a master- 
 piece. Unfortunately 
 it is not always the 
 right sort of master- 
 piece. The Shaftes- 
 bury fountain is 
 beautiful ; in silver, on 
 a circular dining table, 
 it would be beauty in 
 the right place. In 
 the unhealed scar 
 which is now called 
 Piccadilly Circus its 
 beauty is wasted, and 
 the site is only half 
 occupied. And so with the Clarence tomb at Windsor. The 
 sarcophagus is fine and the railing about it beautiful, but they 
 are mutually destructive. The grille hides the sarcophagus almost 
 as perversely as the bronze grille hides Henry VII. in his chapel 
 at Westminster, while the sarcophagus blocks the voids of 
 
 311 
 
 PIG. 598. — MONUMENT TO QUEEN VICTORIA, 
 
 WINCHESTER, BACK VIEW. 
 
 (ALFRED GILBERT.) 
 
ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 the grille, and prevents a full appreciation of its exquisite design. 
 The greatest tragedy of art is the inability of the artist fully to 
 realize his dreams. The pure artist, like pure gold, wastes too 
 rapidly in use. He requires a touch of alloy to make him fit for the 
 world's purposes, to make him content to withdraw his hand from a 
 masterpiece while yet it might be bettered. In striving for perfec- 
 tion the first inspiration too often dies down, and it is not given to 
 every one, as it was to Alfred Stevens, to be at once the unerring 
 critic of himself and the inspired creator. Those conceptions of 
 Alfred Gilbert which remain conceptions, which have never taken 
 form beyond those slight indications in which their splendor can be 
 but dimly seen, fill with an immense regret all those who have 
 followed his career. 
 
 BIBUOGRAPHY TO CHAPTERS XIX— XXI. 
 
 Prior, E. S., and Gardner, A.: English Mediaeoal Sculpture, Architectural Review, Vols. 
 XII— XVII. James, M. R.: The Sculpture in the Lady Chapel at Ely, Archaeologia, Vol, 
 LIX. The Sculpture on Wells Cathedral. Spielmann, M. H.: British Sculpture and Sculptors 
 of To-day, 1901. Colvin, Sidney: The Drawings of Flax man in the Gallery of University 
 College, London, with a notice of his life, 1876. Monkhouse, C. : The Works of J. H. FoleUt 
 1875. Raymond, A. J.: Life of Chanlrey, 1904. Armstrong. W. : Alfred Stevens, 1881. 
 Stannus, H.: /4//reJ 5/euens, 1891. Dictionary of National Biography. Art Union Journal. 
 Art Journal, Architectural Review (passim). 
 
 FIG. 599. — BASE OF LAMP-STANDARD. (ALFRED DRUHY.) 
 
 312 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abel. John. 81. 
 
 Abercorn, Duke of (collection), 
 
 205. 
 Academy. Royal, 183. 184, 
 
 206. 208. 211, 214, 225, 
 
 232, 234, 237, 247, 254, 
 
 258, 307. 
 Academy, Royal Scottish, 223. 
 Adam, Brothers, 102-104. 
 Adelphi, The, 102. 
 Admiralty Office. 118. 
 Adoration of the Magi, carving, 
 
 140. 
 /Exlelwyrme, 137. 
 /Elfleda, Queen, 137. 
 /Elgitha, Queen, 137. 
 Agecroft Hall. 82. 
 Aix (Provence). 139. 
 "Alablasters." 285. 
 Alan of Walsingham. 43. 
 Alcuin. 144. 145. 
 Aldworth. Berks. 284. 
 Alexander. William. 263. 
 Alfred the Great. 145. 
 All Saints' Church. Derby. 
 
 68. 
 All Saints* Church. Margaret 
 
 Street. 110. 
 All Saints' Church, York, 
 
 (stained glass), 134. 
 All Souls' College, 96. 175; 
 
 Chapal, reredos. 70 ; Chapel. 
 
 screen. 1 34 ; Chapel, stained 
 
 glass. 134; Chapel, tower. 
 
 99 ; Chapel. Wren's work. 92. 
 Altamira. I. 
 
 Althorp. 209 : pictures at, 188. 
 Altyre, 11. 
 Amesbury House, 9 1 . 
 Amiens Cathedral, 45. 47. 62. 
 
 66. 
 
 Ampthill. 82. 
 
 Anderson. Rowand. 103, 112. 
 
 Anne of Bohemia, bronze figure 
 
 of, 286. 
 Anne, Queen, 101. 
 "Anne, Queen, Style," 1 13. 
 Annaly, Lord (collection), 
 
 205. 
 "Antiquities of Athens," 105. 
 Archer, 98, 100. 
 Archer's Hall, Eldinburgh, 
 
 203. 
 Armstead, George, 295 ; Tomh 
 
 of Lord Winmarleigh, 29b. 
 Armstrong, Lord (collection), 
 
 213. 
 Arras, Yorks, 8. 9. 
 Arundel Castle. 165. 
 Arundel, Earl of. 138. 
 Ashburnham House. West- 
 minster. 90, 91. 
 Ashfield. Edmund. 173. 
 Ashmolean Museum. 92. 141. 
 
 166. 172. 
 Aston Hall. 81. 
 Athenaeum Club. 107. 
 Atherington Church, wooden 
 
 screen in. 72. 
 Atkinson. 120. 
 Avebury Church, 2 1 . 
 Aveline. Lady, statue of, 
 
 284. 
 Aubusson. 139. 
 AudleyEnd. 79. 81. 
 Augsburg. 163. 
 Augsburg Cathedral, 1 3 1 n. 
 Aylesford, Kent, 9. 
 
 B 
 
 Bacon, Charles, 247. 
 Bacon, Francis, 166. 
 
 313 
 
 Bacon, John, 291 ; Monument 
 
 to Lord Halifax, 29\ . 
 Bacon, John, Statue of Dr. 
 
 Johnson. 290. 
 Bacon, Nathaniel, 166; The 
 
 Cookmaid, 166. 
 Baillie-Hamihon, Hon. Mrs. 
 
 (collection), 203. 
 Baily, E. H., 294 ; Eve, 294. 
 Baldwin, 101. 
 Balfour, Rt. Hon. A. J. 
 
 (collection), 234. 
 Bangor, Lord (collection), 193. 
 Bank of England, 107. 
 Bank of Ireland, 102. 
 Bankes, Ralph (collection), 
 
 194. 
 Banks, Thomas, 291,293. 
 Baptist Church House, 120. 
 Barcheston, Warwickshire, 1 39. 
 Bardsey Church, 2 1 . 
 Baring, Thomas (collection), 
 
 197. 
 Barlow, Francis, 173. 
 Barnack Church, 19,21,23. 
 Barney, W.W., 156 n. 
 Barret, George, 195, 261, 
 
 265. 
 Barret, George, Junr., 266, 
 
 267. 
 Barry, Charles, 108, 109. 
 Barry, E. M., 56. 
 Barry, James, 1 77, 206, 207. 
 Barton - on - Humber Church, 
 
 19,21.23. 
 Barye. 303. 
 Bates. Harry. 304. 
 Bates. Harry, yEneas, 304; 
 
 Homer, 304; Hounds in 
 
 Leash, 304. 
 Bath Abbey, 64, 68, 
 Bath, architecture in, 101. 
 Bath GuildhaU. 101. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Battenea, Lady (coDection), 
 
 234. 
 Bayes. Gilbert. 307. 
 Bayeux Tapestry, 137. 
 Beach, Thomas, 200. 
 Beale. Mary, 1 72. 
 Beard, Thomas, 153. 
 Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 
 
 64. 
 Beaulieu Abbey. 48. 
 Beauvais, 139. 
 Bedford, 310. 
 Bedlam, 289. 
 Beek, David, 169. 
 Behnes, William, 226, 297. 
 Belcher, T., 116, 117; Electra 
 
 House, 116. 
 Belfast Town Hall, 120. 
 Belgium, 132. 
 Bell, Henry, 97. 
 Belt (sculptor), 290. 
 Benedictional (at Chatsworth), 
 
 145. 
 Bentley, 121, 130. 
 Benson, R. H. (collection), 
 
 234, 237. 
 Bettes, John, 1 65 ; Thomas, 
 
 165. 
 Beverley Minster, 49, 57; 
 
 Percy Shrine, 56. 
 Bewcastle Cross, 274. 
 Bewick, Thomas, 150, 151. 
 Bibracte, 126. 
 Bigg, W. R., 155. 
 Bird, Francis, 290 ; Statue of 
 
 Dr. Busbv, 290; Statue of 
 
 Queen Anne. 290. 
 Birdlip, 9. 
 
 Bishopstone Church, 2 1 . 
 Boadicea, 136. 
 Board of Trade Offices, 118. 
 Bodleian Library, 145. 
 Bodley, 111. 
 Boehm, Edgar, 309. 
 Bogle, John, 255. 
 Boit, Charles, 258. 
 Boncle, Sir Eldward, 162. 
 Bone, Henry, 259. 
 Bone, Henry Pierce, 259. 
 Bone, Muirhead, 272. 
 Bone, Robert Trewick, 259. 
 Bonington, Richard Parkes, 
 
 265,271. 
 Bonnat, Leon, 1 72, 246. 
 Book of Armagh, 14. 143. 
 Book of Durrow, 14, 143. 
 
 BookofKells, 13, 14, 143. 
 Book of the Gospels of St. 
 Cuthbert, 143. 
 
 Bordier, Pierre, 257, 258. 
 Borthwick Castle, 84. 
 Bossam, John, 165. 
 Boston Church, Tower of, 
 
 68. 
 Boswell, George, portrait of, 
 
 166. 
 Bothwell Castle, 83, 84. 
 Bovey Tracey Church, wooden 
 
 screen in, 72. 
 Bow Church, Cheapside. 93. 
 Bower. ELdward, 169; Portrait 
 
 of Charles I, 169. 
 Boyce. G. P., 239. 
 Boydell, Josiah, 155 n., 207. 
 Blenheim Palace, 98, 99, 
 
 188. 
 Blomfield, Arthur, 111. 
 Blomfield, Reginald, 77, 80, 81 , 
 
 91,97, 119. 
 Blois. 44. 
 Blooteling. Abraham. 1 52, 
 
 1 54 ; Monmouth, 1 54. 
 Bloxham Church, 57. 
 Bradford-on- Avon Church, 22 ; 
 
 rood at, 276. 
 Bramley, Frank, 242. 
 Brandon, Raphael, 1 10. 
 Branston Church, 21, 25. 
 Branston, Robert, 151. 
 Brasenose College, 65. 
 Breadsall Church, 285. 
 Brennus, 3. 
 Brett, John, 238, 239. 
 Bridgewater House, 1 08. 
 Bristol Cathedral. I 10. 
 Bristol Museum, 10. 
 British and Foreign Bible 
 
 Society, 237. 
 British Museum, 10, 11, 107, 
 
 138, 140, 144, 146, 166, 
 
 183,261,262,296. 
 Brixworth Church, 20. 
 Brock, Thomas, 294; Bishop 
 
 Philpot. 294 ; Black Prince. 
 
 294, 306; Cenotaph of 
 
 Leighton, 294; Eve, 294; 
 
 Gainsborough. 294 ; Moment 
 
 of Peril, 294; Robert 
 
 Raikes, 294; Queen Vic- 
 toria. 294. 
 Bromley, J. C, 156 n. 
 Bromley, James, 156 n. 
 Bronze Figures in Westminster 
 
 Abbey, 286. 
 Brooking, Charles, 198, 261. 
 Brooks (architect). 111. 
 Brooks, John, 153, 154. 
 Brown, Austen, 24 1 . 
 
 314 
 
 Brown, Baldwin, 17-20. 
 
 Brown, Darell (collection), 211, 
 214. 
 
 Brown, Ford Madox, 230, 
 232, 239, 268; Chaucer at 
 the Court of Edward III., 
 23 1 ; Christ Washing the 
 Disciples' Feet, 231 ; Elijah 
 and the Widow's Son. 231 ; 
 Romeo and Juliet, 231 ; 
 Work. 231. 
 
 Brown. Frederick. 248. 
 
 Browne, Alexander, 152. 
 
 Brough, Robert, 244. 245; 
 Fantaisie en Folic, 245 ; St. 
 Anne of Brittany. 245 ; 
 Twixt Sun and Moon, 
 245. 
 
 Buccleuch. Duke of (collec- 
 tion). 250, 251. 
 
 Buckhurst, 81. 
 
 Buckingham House, St. James's 
 Park, 97. 
 
 Burdett Coutts (collection), 
 250. 
 
 Barford Church, Oxon, 282. 
 
 Burges, 110. 
 
 Burghersh Tomb, Lincoln, 
 284. 
 
 Burghley House, 81, 173, 177, 
 289. 
 
 Burke, Thomas, 155 n. 
 
 Burlington, Eari of, 98, 99. 
 
 Burlington House, 99, 217, 
 223. 
 
 Bume-Jones, Edward, 232- 
 235, 268. 272; Beguiling of 
 Merlin. 234; The Brazen 
 Tower. 234 ; The Briar 
 Rose. 234; Chant d' Amour, 
 234; Days of Creation. 234; 
 Depths of the Sea, 234; 
 King Cophetua and the 
 Beggar Maid, 234; The 
 Golden Stairs, 234 ; Laus 
 Veneris, 234 ; Mirror of 
 Venus. 234; Wheel of 
 Fortune, 234. 
 
 Bums. Robert. 202. 
 
 Burton. W. S., 236. 
 
 Busby, Dr., 92. 
 
 Bushey Park. 95. 
 
 Butterfield. 110. 
 
 Bury St. Edmunds. 19 n., 27, 
 30, 82. 
 
 Bryanston Park. 104, 122. 
 
 Brydon, Jsunes, 101. 
 
 Brydon, J. C, 118. 
 
 Brythons, 8. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Caesar, Julius, 3, 1 26. 
 
 Cdsar, Sir Julius, Monument 
 
 of, 289. 5ee Stone, N. 
 Calcott, Augustus Wall, 222, 
 
 225 ; Mouth of the Tyne, 
 
 lib. 
 Calderon, P. H., 246. 
 Cambridge, Senate House, 
 
 100; Trinity CoUege, 95. 
 Cameron, D.Y., 241. 
 Campanile, Venice, 1 13. 
 Campbell, Colin, 98, 100. 
 Canada Gates, Buckingham 
 
 Palace, 130. 
 Canale, Antonio, 196. 
 Canterbury, 143. 
 Canterbury Cathedral, 26, 41- 
 
 43, 62, 63, 276, 277; Angel 
 
 Tower, 64, 113; stained 
 
 glass, 131; tower, 69 ; 
 
 tapestries for choir, 1 39. 
 Cardiff Castle, 110. 
 Cardinal College (Christ- 
 church), Oxford, 71. 
 Carlisle, 301. 
 Carlisle Cathedral, 57. 
 Carlisle, Lord, 234 ; his house, 
 
 Kensington Palace Gardens, 
 
 122. 
 Carnarvon, Elarl of, 171. 
 Carpeaux, 297, 300. 
 Cartmel Church, wooden 
 
 screen, 72. 
 Casino, near Dublin, 102. 
 CasUe Campbell, 84. 
 Castle Howard, 98. 
 Cathcart, Lord (collection), 
 
 193. 
 Cattermole, George, 266. 
 Caucasus, 2. 
 Cawdor Castle, 84. 
 Cella, Abbot John de, 46. 
 Cellini, 311. 
 Celtic art, 3-15, 140, 142, 
 
 1 43 ; enamels, 1 1 ; Gospels 
 
 page from, 1 42. 
 Celts, 3, 4, 276. 
 Central Criminal Court, 117. 
 Cervantes, 225. 
 Chalon, 255. 
 Chambers, William, 101, 
 
 102. 
 Champneys, Basil, 112. 
 Chan trey, Francis, 294. 
 Chardin, 195, 196. 
 Charlecote, 81. 
 Charlemagne. 131. 144. 145. 
 
 Charlemont. Earl of. 102. 
 Charles I.. 87. 89, 139, 166, 
 
 168,257; statue of, 290. 
 Charles II., 93, 94, 152, 175, 
 
 257 ; statue of, 290. 
 Charles, James, 247. 
 Charlotte Square, Eldinburgh, 
 
 103. 
 Charterhouse, 79. 
 Chartres Cathedral, 41 ; stained 
 
 glass at, 1 30. 
 Chatsworth, 90, 97, 251,289. 
 Chelsea Church, 77. 
 Chester, half-timber houses at, 
 
 82. 
 Chichester Cathedral, 30, 127; 
 
 iron grille in, 1 28 ; sculptures 
 
 in. 275-277. 
 Chipping Ongar, 19 n. 
 Chinese, the, 126. 
 Cholmeley, Sir H. (collection), 
 
 193. 
 Christ Church, Oxford, 22, 23. 
 
 30, 65. 73. 1 I 1 ; the hall at. 
 
 65. 
 Christall, Joshua, 265. 
 Cibber, Caius Gabriel, 289 ; 
 
 figures of Melancholy and 
 
 Madness; ibid. 
 Cibber. CoUey. 289. 290 ; bust 
 
 of, 311. 
 Cistercians, 37. 
 Claude Lorrain, 194, 225. 
 
 267. 
 Clennell. Luke. 151. 
 Clerk. Sir G. D. (collection). 
 
 203. 
 Cleveley, John, 263. 
 Cleveley, Robert, 263. 
 Cleyn, Penelope, 25 1 . 
 Clint, George, 1 56 n. 
 Cliveden House, 100. 
 Clonmacnoise, 13. 
 Cnut, King, 137. 
 Coalbrookdale Gates, Hyde 
 
 Park, 129. 
 Cobham Hall, Kent. 90. 
 Cockerell, C. R.. 108. 
 Cole. Peter. 165. 
 College of Science. S. Kensing- 
 ton. 119. 
 Colley. Jane, 289. 
 Collier, Thomas, 268. 
 Collins, Charles AUston, 235. 
 Collins, Flichard, 255. 
 Collins, William, 225. 
 CoUinson, James, 229, 235. 
 Colton, W. R., 307; The 
 
 Girdle, 307 ; The Image 
 
 315 
 
 Finder, 307 ; The Spring. 
 
 time of Life. 307. 
 Commentary of Cassiodorus. 
 
 143. 
 Compton Norton, 127. 
 Compton Winyates, 65. 
 Constable, Isabel, 217. 
 Constable, John, 157. 196, 
 
 214-217. 242. 244. 271 ; 
 
 The Cornfield, 216. 217: 
 
 The Hay wain, 217; The 
 
 Jumping Horse, 217; The 
 
 Valley Farm. 1] 7. 
 Constantine, Emperor. 136. 
 Constitution Hill Gates, 1 29. 
 Cooper, Alexander, 25 1 . 
 Cooper, Samuel, 163, 168, 
 
 170, 202, 251, 252, 256. 
 
 292; Cromwell. 261; 
 
 General Monk. 25 1 . 
 Coote. Sir Algernon, 171. 
 Cope, Ascoli, 1 38 ; Bologna, 
 
 138; Daroca, 138; of St. 
 
 Silvester, 138; Syon. 138; 
 
 Toledo, 138. 
 Copley, John Singleton, 207 ; 
 
 Death of Chatham. 207; 
 
 Death of Major Pierson, 
 
 204, 207. 
 Corbridge Church. 20. 
 Corot. 194, 244. 
 Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 
 
 65. 
 Cornwall, 12, 17. 
 Cosmopolitan Club, 227. 
 Cosway, 254, 256. 
 Cotes, Francis, 200, 269. 
 Cotes, Samuel, 255. 
 Cotman. John Sell, 219, 271; 
 
 The Centaur. 219. 271; 
 
 Turning the Sod. 1]9. 17]. 
 Cotswold Hills, 9. 
 Courbet, 242. 
 Courtenay, Exiward, 155. 
 Cousins, Samuel, 156 and n.; 
 
 Midsummer Night's Dream 
 
 (print), 156. 
 Cowper, Cadogan, 247. 
 Cox, David, 266, 267, 269. 
 Cozens, Alexander, 261 . 
 Cozens, John, 261, 262. 
 Craigmillar Castle, 84. 
 Crane, Walter, 239. 
 Crats or Crelz, see De Critz. 
 Crawhall, Joseph, 24 1 . 
 Crediton, 17. 
 Crichton, 84. 
 Critz, see De Critz. 
 Crome,John (Old). 210, 211 
 
INDEX 
 
 219. 27i : Landscape. 2]]; 
 
 Mouse hold Heath, 21 1 ; 
 
 Poringland Oak. 211; Slate 
 
 Quarries, 211. 
 Crome, John, Junr., 219. 
 Cromwell. Oliver. 170,261. 
 Crosby Hall. 64. 
 Croscombe Church, wooden 
 
 screen in, 72. 
 Crosraguel, 84. 
 Cross of Cong, 13. 
 Cross at Monasterboice, 13. 
 Crosses, High, 12. 
 Crosse, Lawrence, 252, 256 
 Cro2se, Richard, 255. 
 Croyland Abbey, 64. 
 CulfordHall, 118. 
 Cust, L., 290. 
 Custom House, Dublin, 102. 
 Cuyp. 225. 267. 
 
 D 
 
 Da Costa, John, 242. 
 
 Dahl. Michael, 1 74. 
 
 Dalou, Jules, 300. 304. 
 
 Dance (father and son), 100. 
 
 Dance, Nathaniel, 200. 
 
 Danube, 3. 
 
 David, Jean Louis, 193. 
 
 Dawe, George, 1 56 n. 
 
 Dawe, Philip, 155. 
 
 Davison, Jeremiah, 1 74. 
 
 Dawson, Nelson, 259. 
 
 Dayes, Eldward, 263. 
 
 Dean, John, 155 n. 
 
 De Critz, Emanuel, John, and 
 
 Oliver, 160, 167. 
 De Grebber, Pieter de, 1 70. 
 De Keyser, Hendrik, 288. 
 DeKoninck, Philip, 211. 
 De Losinga, Herbert, 30. 
 De Morgan, Mrs., 235. 
 Delphi, 3. 
 
 Denham, Sir John, 92. 
 Derby, Lord (collection), 250. 
 DeReyn, Jean, 163. 
 Desborough, 9. 
 Deverell, W. H.. 239. 
 Devis, Arthur, 198, 263. 
 Devonshire, Duke of, 1 64 ; 
 
 (collection of), 252. 
 De Wint, Peter, 266. 267, 
 
 269. 
 Dickinson, William, 1 55 n. 
 Digby, Wingfield (collection), 
 
 250. 
 DionCassius, 136. 
 
 Dirleton Castle, 84. 
 
 Divinity School, Oxford, 64, 
 67. 
 
 Dixon, John, 1 54. 
 
 Dixon, Nathaniel, 252. 
 
 Dobson, William, 167, 169; 
 Endymion Porter, 169. 
 
 Doncaster Parish Church, 111. 
 
 Donald, John Milne, 241. 
 
 Donne, Statue of Dr., see 
 Stone, N. 
 
 Doorway, Maghera, Ireland, 
 5. 
 
 Dorchester Abbey, Oxon, 
 57. 
 
 Dorchester House, 296. 
 
 Doughty, William, 155 n. 
 
 Downman, John, 200, 27 1 . 
 
 Drayton House, 1 74. 
 
 Drogheda, 7. 
 
 Drury, Alfred, 306, 307; 
 Joseph Priestley, 306. 
 
 Dryden, 173. 
 
 Dublin, 1 53 ; architecture in, 
 102; sculpture in, 308, 309; 
 City Gallery, 244 ; Museum, 
 10, 12; National Gallery, 
 183, 186, 197, 261, 264; 
 Trinity College, 102. 
 
 Dundas, Sir R. (collection), 
 203. 
 
 Dunkarton, Robert, 155 n. 
 
 Dunkirk, 169. 
 
 Duns (stone forts), 1 4. 
 
 Dunster, half-timber houses at, 
 82. 
 
 Dunster Church, wooden screen 
 in, 72. 
 
 Durham (sculptor). Memorial 
 of 1851 Exhibition, 296. 
 
 Durham Cathedral. 30, 31, 45, 
 47, 49, 57, 143; Chapel of 
 the Nine Altars, 49; Chap- 
 ter House, 54 ; Galilee, wall- 
 painting, 1 59, 1 60 ; ironwork, 
 127; tower, 69. 
 
 Durham, Earl of (collection), 
 205. 
 
 Dyce, William, 222, 223. 
 
 Dyke-Acland, Sir Thomas 
 (collection), 205. 
 
 Earlom, 155, 157. 
 Earl's Barton, 19,21,23. 
 East, Alfred, 244. 
 East, Bergholt, 214. 
 Elastbourne, 306. 
 
 316 
 
 Eastwood, 127. 
 Eaton Hall, 298. 
 Eccleston Church, 111. 
 Edinburgh, 120, 123, 170, 
 
 308; architecture in, 103, 
 107; College, 103; Museum. 
 
 10; National Gallery, 203, 
 
 223, 224,261,264, Portrait 
 
 Gallery ; Scott Monument, 
 109. 
 Editha, Queen, 137. 
 Edridge, Henry, 255, 263. 
 Edward the Confessor, 26. 
 Edward the Elder, 137. 
 Edward II., statue of, 285. 
 Edward III., bronze figure of, 
 
 286. 
 Edward VI., 165; portrait of, 
 
 164. 
 Edward VII., collection of, 
 
 250, 252. 
 Egg, Augustus, 225. 
 Egypt, 2, 8. 
 Egyptians, 126. 
 Eleanor, Queen, bronze figure 
 
 of, 286. 
 Eleanor Crosses, 56, 284. 
 Elgin Cathedral, 49. 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 79-81, 165, 
 
 166. 
 Ely Cathedral, 29, 46, 52, 
 
 53, 137; Udy Chapel. 51, 
 
 53. 
 Emma, Queen, 137. 
 Enamels, 256-259. 
 Engleheart, George, 255. 
 Erith. 127. 
 ELscomb Church, 20. 
 Eton College, 26 1 . 
 Etty, William, 222, 223; 
 
 Cupid and Psyche, 223 ; 
 
 Nude Study, 223; The 
 
 Storm, 223; Venus, 223; 
 
 Youth at the Prow, and 
 
 Pleasure at the Helm, 223. 
 Exchange, Copenhagen, 90. 
 Exchange, Royal, 80, 82. 
 Exeter Cathedral, 51, 52. 57, 
 
 281. 
 Exeter College Chapel, 111. 
 Exeter, Lord (collection), 250. 
 
 Faber, John (father and son), 
 
 153. 
 Faes. see Leiy. 
 Fairfax Jewel, 258. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 258. 
 Fairford Church, 135. 
 Faithorne, William (father and 
 
 son), 149 n., 150 n., 153. 
 Farrington, 195. 
 Fehr, H. C. 307. 
 Ferguson, 49. 
 Ferguson, Munro (collection), 
 
 203. 
 Fettiplace, William, figure of, 
 
 235. 
 Fielding, Copley, 266, 267. 
 Figures of Richard 11. and his 
 
 Queen, Westminster, 286. 
 Figures, Peterborough, 278. 
 Fildes, Luke. 245. 
 
 Finch, F. O., 266, 267. 
 
 Finlayson, John, 154. 
 
 Finlayson, John, Elizabeth, 
 Duchess of Argyll (print), 
 154. 
 
 Finney, Samuel, 255. 
 
 Fisher, Edward, 154. 
 
 Fisher, Rev. John, 216. 
 
 Fisher, Mark, 244; Boys 
 Bathing. 244 ; On the River 
 Stour. 244. 
 
 FItzalan, Lady, statue of, 284. 
 
 Fitzroy Square, 102. 
 
 Fitzwilliam, George, 166. 
 
 Filzwilllam Museum, 107. 
 
 Flatman, Thomas, 252, 256. 
 
 Flaxman, John, 291-293; 
 Monument to Lord Mans- 
 field, 292. 
 
 Fleischmann, Mrs. (collection), 
 203. 
 
 Foley, J. H., 294, 309: Burke. 
 294 ; Goldsmith, 294 ; 
 Qraltan. 294 ; Outram, 
 294 ; Prince Consort. 294. 
 
 Forbes, Elizabeth, 241, 242. 
 
 Forbes, Stanhope, 241, 242. 
 
 Ford. Michael, 154. 
 
 Ford. Onslow. 301. 302; Bust 
 of Ridley Corbet, 303 ; Bust 
 of Orchardson, 303 ; 
 General Gordon. 30 1 ; Hux- 
 ley, 301 ; Irving as Hamlet, 
 301 ; Lord Stra'hnairn, 
 332 ; Memorial to Jowett, 
 302 ; Shelley Memorial, 
 301 ; Rowland Hill, 3m . 
 
 Forres, 1 1 . 
 
 Foster. Birket. 234. 
 
 Fotheringay Church. 64. 68. 
 
 Foundling Hospital. 183. 
 
 Four Courts. IDublin. 102. 
 
 Fourment, Helena, 1 70. 
 
 Fountains Abbey, 37, 49; 
 tower of, 68. 
 
 Frampton. George. 305 ; 
 Charles Mitchell Memorial, 
 305 ; The Children of the 
 Wolf 305; Dame Alice 
 Owen, 305; Lamia. 305; 
 Lord Salisbury, 305 ; Mys- 
 teriarch, 305; QuintinHogg, 
 305. 
 
 Frampton. Reginald. 235. 
 
 Frarxe. 1-3. 131. 132. 
 
 Francia. Francois Louis, 265. 
 
 Franks. Sir A., 11. 
 
 Franks Casket. 138. 140. 
 
 Freeman. 47. 
 
 Fremlel. 303. 
 
 Frye. Thomas. 154. 
 
 Fuller. Isaac, 173, 155. 
 
 Fusell, 207. 
 
 Furse, C. W.. 244 ; Cubbing 
 with the York arid Ainsty, 
 245; Diana of the Up- 
 lands, 244 ; Equestrian Por- 
 trait of Lord Roberts, 244 ; 
 The Lilac Gown, 245 ; The 
 Return from the Ride, 244. 
 
 Fyvie Castle, 84. 
 
 Gainiborough, Thomas, 157, 
 188-191. 194. 196. 198. 
 211. 261. 270; Blus Boy, 
 189; Hon. Mrs. Graham, 
 189; Miss Haverfield. 189; 
 Miss Linley and Her 
 Brother, 189; The Mall. 
 189; The Morning Walk. 
 189; Ladv Mulgrave. 189; 
 Mrs. Robinson, 189; Mrs. 
 Sheridan, 189; Mrs. Sid- 
 dons, 189; The Watering 
 Place. 189. 
 
 Gaels, see Galatae. 
 
 Galatae, 3, 4. 
 
 Galatia, 3. 
 
 Gallerus, Oratory of, 1 4. 
 
 Gain, see Galatde. 
 
 Gandon. 102. 
 
 Gandy of Exeter. 1 86. 
 
 Garde-Meubles. Paris. 139. 
 
 Gardiner. Starkie. 128. 
 
 Garman. Edward, 97. 
 
 Garstin. Norman. 242. 
 
 Gascar. 173. 
 
 Gauls, 1 26 ; see also Galatae. 
 
 Gawdie. Sir John. 173. 
 
 Geddes, Andrew, 147. 
 George III.. 197. 
 German, E.: see Garman. 
 Gibbons, Grinling. 289-290; 
 
 Statue of James IL, 289. 
 Gibbs. 98. 99, 100. 
 Gib on. John, 293. 294: 
 
 Tinted Venus, 294. 
 
 Gilbert. Alfred. 296. 309-312; 
 Bust off. S. Clayton. 310; 
 Bust of Baron Huddleston, 
 310. 311; Bust of G. F. 
 Watts. 3\Q; Howard. 3\0; 
 Icarus. 309 ; Memorial to 
 Farocett. 310; Monument to 
 Duke of Clarence. 3\Q,3\\; 
 Mother and Child. 309; 
 Retable. St. Albans. 310. 
 311; Shaftesbury Memorial 
 Fountain. 310. 311 ; Seal 
 for Lady de Vesci, 3 1 0. 
 
 Gilpin. Sawrey. 261. 
 
 Gilpin. W.. 261. 
 
 Girtln. Thomas. 262. 263 ; 
 Rue St. Denis. Paris, 262. 
 
 Glamis Castle. 84. 
 
 Glamis. Lord, portrait of. 1 66. 
 
 Glasgow. 1 20. 1 23 ; architec- 
 ture in. 1 07 ; Assurance 
 Company. 112; Cathedral. 
 49 ; Museum, 203 ; Town 
 Hall. 118. 
 
 "Glasgow School." 240. 241. 
 
 Glastonbury Abbey, 145. 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral, 30, 62, 
 88, 1 27 ; tower of, 64. 69. 
 
 Goldie. 111. 
 
 Gold Torque from Limavady. 5. 
 
 Goodrich Court. 140. 
 
 Gordon. John Watson. 204. 
 
 Gosford House. 118. 
 
 Gospels. MS., at St. Petersburg. 
 143. 
 
 Gotch. T. C. 235. 248. 
 
 Gouda Cathedral, stained glass 
 at. 130. 
 
 Gow, A. C, 246. 
 
 Gower. George. 165. 
 
 Grandison. Bishop, 141. 
 
 Grantham Church, 57. 
 
 "Graphic. The," 273. 
 
 Gravelot, 188. 
 
 Greece, 126. 
 
 Green, Valentine, 155; CouH' 
 tess of Aylesford (print), 
 
 M55; Lady Betty Delm] 
 (print), 155; Ozias Hum- 
 phrey (print), 155; Ladie 
 Waldegr<n>e ipnnt), 155. 
 
 317 
 
INDEX 
 
 GreenhiU. John. 1 72. 
 Greenwell, Canon, 9. 
 Greenwich Hospital, 90. 91, 
 
 93. 98. 
 Gregory. E. J.. 239. 247. 
 GreifFenhagen, Maurice, 247. 
 Gresford Church, tower of. 68. 
 Gresham. Sir Thomas. 80. 
 Grey. Earl (collection). 205. 
 Grimaldi. William. 255. 
 Grimthorpe. Lord, 46, 98. 
 Grostete, Bishop, 44. 
 Grosvenor House, 1 89. 
 Grosvenor Gallery, 234. 
 Groth, 258. 
 
 Groult (collection). 189. 
 Grozer. Joseph. 155 n. 
 Grumbol. Robert. 81. 
 Grumbol, Thomas, 8 1 . 
 Guardi, 195. 
 Gundulph, Bishop, 30. 
 Gunnersbury House. 9 1 . 
 Guthrie, Sir James. 24 1 . 
 
 Haden. F. Seymour. 147, 148. 
 Haddiscoe. 127. 
 Hague Museum. 165. 
 Halesowen Abbey. 48. 
 Half- timber houses, 82. 
 Halifax Town Hall, 108. 
 Hals, Frans, 190,202. 
 Hamburg Kunsthalle, 240. 
 Hamilton, Hugh, 200, 207. 
 Hampton Court, 65, 71, 74, 
 
 75,93-95, 165, 171, 176. 
 Hanneman, Adriaan, 169. 
 Harberton Church, wooden 
 
 screen. 72. 
 Hardwicke. 82. 139. 
 Harrietsham. 82. 
 Harvey, William. 151. 
 Hastings, Lord, 258. 
 Hatfield, 79, 82, 305. 
 Hawker. Exlward. 173. 
 Hawksmoor. 98, 99. 
 Havell, W., 265. 
 Haverfordwest Priory, 48. 
 Haydon, B. R., 208. 
 Hayes, Eldwin, 243. 
 Hayls, John, 1 72 ; Portrait of 
 
 Pepys, 172; Portraits of 
 
 the Russell Family, 1 72. 
 Hayman, Francis, 198. 
 Hazlehurst, Thomas, 255. 
 Hearne, Thomas, 263. 
 
 Helena, Empress, 136. 
 
 Hemy. Napier, 242, 243 ; The 
 London River. 243 ; Pil- 
 chards, 243. 
 
 Henry 111., 48 ; bronze figure 
 of, 286. 
 
 Henry IV., 132. 
 
 Henry V.'s Chantry, West- 
 minster, 282 ; statue, 284. 
 
 Henry VI., 62, 63. 
 
 Henry VII., 63, 64, 164. 
 
 Henry Vll.'s Chapel. West- 
 minster. 64. 66. 67. 
 
 Henry VIII.. 64, 73, 74. 76, 
 78, 161, 164; portrait of, 
 163. 
 
 Henry, George, 24 1 . 
 
 Herbert of Cherbury, Lord, 
 82. 
 
 Hereford Cathedral, 127. 
 
 Herkomer, H. von, 247, 
 259 ; Council of the Royal 
 Academy, 247 ; The Last 
 Muster, 247 ; Town Council 
 of Landsberg, Bavaria, 247. 
 
 Heriot's Hospital, ELdinburgh, 
 90. 
 
 Hertford Monument, Salisbury 
 Cathedral, 80. 
 
 Hexham crypt. 20. 
 
 Highmore, Joseph, 198. 
 
 Hills, Mrs. E. (collection), 
 203. 
 
 HiUiard, Nicholas, 249. 250. 
 
 Hirsch. Leopold (collection), 
 193. 
 
 Hobbema, 155, 157, 211, 
 
 223. 
 
 Hodges, Charles H., 155. 
 
 Hodges, William, 195. 
 
 Hogarth, 157, 174, 176, 
 180-184. 186, 196, 270; 
 Calais Gate, 1 82 ; Portrait 
 of Capt. Coram, 1 83 ; Elec- 
 tion Series, 1 83 ; Finding of 
 Moses, 181 ; The Good 
 Samaritan, 176, 183 ; Por- 
 trait of Himself, 182; The 
 March to Finchley, 183; 
 Marriage a la Mode, 1 82 ; 
 Pool of Bethesda. 176; 
 Portrait of Quin, 182; 
 Rake's Progress, 183; 
 Scene from the " Indian 
 Emperor," 183; His Ser- 
 vants, 1 82 ; Shrimp-girl, 
 182; His Sister. 182. 
 
 Hogarth's " Analysis of 
 
 Beauty," 181. 
 
 318 
 
 Holbein, 71, 75,78, 150, 161. 
 162-164, 168, 249, 250. 
 254 ; The Ambassadors, 64 ; 
 Christina. Duchess of Milan, 
 162, 164; George Ghisze, 
 1 64 ; Meyer Madonna, 
 1 64 ; Sir Thomas More, 
 164; Morrett, 164; A 
 Young Man, 1 64 ; Duke 
 of Norfolk, 120; Sir Brian 
 Tuke, 164. 
 
 "Holbein's Gate," Whitehall. 
 78. 
 
 Holborn, 120. 
 
 Holbeton Church, wooden 
 screen in, 72. 
 
 Holdenby, 82. 
 
 Hole. W. E., 149. 
 
 Holford Collection, 258. 
 
 Holkham House, 99. 
 
 Holland House, 81, 197. 
 
 Holland, James, 266, 267. 
 
 Hollar, 173. 
 
 Holme Pierrepoint, 285. 
 
 Holt, Thomzis, 8 1 . 
 
 Holyrood,84, 162. 
 
 Holy Trinity Church, Chelsea, 
 112. 
 
 Holl, Frank. 246; John 
 Bright, 246; Duke ofCleve- 
 land, 246 ; Samuel Cousins, 
 246; Hushed. 246; The 
 Lord ga\>e and the Lord hath 
 taken away, 246 ; No 
 Tidings from the Sea, 246 ; 
 Lord Overstone, 246; Sir 
 Henry Rawlinson. 246 ; 
 Earl Spencer, 246 ; Lord 
 Wolseley,. 246. 
 
 Home Office, Whitehall, 90. 
 
 Hone, Horace, 255, 259. 
 
 Hone, Nathaniel, 198, 255, 
 259. 
 
 Hoogstraaten, 173. 
 
 Hook. J. C, 242; Luff Boy! 
 242. 
 
 Hoppner, 157,200,201, 210. 
 225, 270; Children Bathing, 
 20 1 ; Countess of Darnley 
 and Child, 201; Douglas 
 Children. 201 ; The Frank- 
 land Sisters, 201 ; Lad)) 
 Louisa Manners, 201; 
 William Pitt. 20\. 
 
 Hornel, ELdward, 241. 
 
 Horseguards, 99. 
 
 Hoskins, John. 251.256. 
 
 Houghton. 100. 
 
 Houses of Parliament, 109, 1 10. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Houston, Richard, 1 54. 
 
 Howden Chapter House, 62. 
 
 Howden Church, 63 ; towers 
 of, 68. 
 
 Howth Castle. 85. 
 
 Hudson, Henry, 1 55 n. 
 
 Hudson, Thomas, 1 74. 
 
 Hugh, Bishop, 43. 44. 
 
 Hughes. Arthur. 235. 239. 
 
 Hughes. John. 309; Monu- 
 ment to Queen Victoria, 309. 
 
 Humphrey, Ozias, 255. 
 
 Hunt, W. H., 266, 268. 
 
 Hunt. Holman. 229, 232, 235, 
 236 ; The Finding of Christ 
 in the Temple, 236; The 
 Shadow of Death, 234; 
 Strayed Sheep, 235. 
 
 Hunter, Colin, 241 ; Herring 
 Market. 241 ; Lobster 
 Fishers, 241. 
 
 Hurlstone. F. Y.. 224. 
 
 Hurter, the brothers. 258. 
 
 Huth, Edward (collection). 
 164. 
 
 Huysman, 173. 
 
 Hyde Park Corner, arches at, 
 107. 
 
 Iberians, 3, 4. 7. 1 1 . 
 
 Ightham, 82. 
 
 llchester. Lord (collection), 
 183. 
 
 He de France. 42. 
 
 "Illustrated London News.** 
 273. 
 
 Imperial Institute. 1 20. 
 
 Institute of Chartered Account- 
 ants. 1 16. 
 
 Institute of Painters in Water- 
 colours. 269. 
 
 Insurance Office. St. James* 
 Street. 117. 
 
 lona, 12. 
 
 Ireland, 7, 12, 142; domestic 
 architecture in, 83, 85. 
 
 Irvingite Church. Gordon 
 Square, 1 10. 
 
 Iveagh, Lord (collection), 193. 
 
 Jackson, John R., 156 n. 
 Jackson, Michael, 154. 
 Jackson, T. G., 112. 
 
 James I., 87, 98, 100, 166, 
 
 169. 
 James III., portrait of, 162. 
 Jamesone, George, 169, 170. 
 Janssen van Ceulen, see Jonson. 
 Jarrow Church, 20. 
 Jersey, Earl of (collection), 
 
 205. 
 John. Augustus, 248, 272. 
 John. Goscombe, 305 ; Duke 
 
 of Devonshire, 306; The 
 
 Elf, 306 ; John the Baptist. 
 
 306 ; Morpheus, 306. 
 John. King. 47. 48. 
 John of Eltham. effigy of. 285. 
 John of Padua. 76. 77. 
 Jones. Inigo, 73, 74, 81, 87- 
 
 92, 95. 96. 97. 103, 106, 
 
 115, 116, 119,288. 
 Jones. John. 155; Dulce Do- 
 mum (print). 155; Charles 
 
 James Fox (print). 155; 
 
 Lady Caroline Price (print), 
 
 155. 
 Jonson, Cornelius, 167, 169. 
 Joseph, Mrs. (collection). 167, 
 
 203, 252, 294. 
 Joseph, Samuel, 294; Wilkie, 
 
 294. 
 Julian (art school), 244. 
 
 K 
 
 Keble College. Oxford. 110. 
 
 Kedleston Hall. 104. 
 
 Keen. 120. 
 
 Kemp. 109. 
 
 Keene, Charles. 273. 
 
 Kenilwcrth. 127. 
 
 Kennington. T. B.. 248. 
 
 Kensington Palace Gardens. 
 No. 10, 108. 
 
 Kent, W.. 98. 99. 
 
 Kenton Church, wooden screen. 
 72. 
 
 Kenwood, 103. 
 
 Keppel. Commodore, 184. 
 
 Kerry, 14. 
 
 Kettle. Tilly. 198. 
 
 Killigrew. Anne. 173. 
 
 King*s College Chapel, Cam- 
 bridge. 62. 64. 65. 132. 
 1 34 ; wooden screen in. 
 72. 
 
 King's Lynn. 97. 
 
 Kingston Lisle, 127. 
 
 Kirby House, 8 1 . 
 
 Kirkby Hall. 82. 
 
 Knapton. George. 198. 
 
 319 
 
 Kneller, Sir Godfrey. 152. 153, 
 174, 176, 181; Bishop 
 Aiterbury, 174; Godert de 
 Cinkel, 174. 175; Countess 
 of Shrewsbury, 171; Sir J. 
 Trelawney, 1 74 ; Windsor 
 Beauties, 171. 
 
 Kneller Hall, 176. 
 
 Knole, 81. 189. 
 
 Knott. Ralph. 120. 
 
 Koninck, see De Koninck. 
 
 Ladbroke, Henry. 219. 
 
 Ladbroke. John Bernay, 219„ 
 
 Ladbroke, Robert, 219. 
 
 Uguerre, 1 75. 1 76. 
 
 Uidlay. W. J., 248. 
 
 Lambeth Art School, 303- 
 305. 307. 
 
 Lancaster. Crouchback, Earl of, 
 statue of, 284. 
 
 Lancashire, half- timber houses 
 in. 82. 
 
 Lance, George, 222, 225. 
 
 Landseer, Eldwin, 22 1 . 
 
 Landseer. Eldwin. Death of 
 the Otter, 111. 
 
 Unfranc. 26. 29, 43. 
 
 Lanier, Nicolas, 169. 
 
 Lathangue, 247. 
 
 Uuder. Robert Scott. 240. 
 
 Lavenham, 82. 
 
 Lavery, J., 24. 
 
 Law Courts, 1 10. 
 
 Uwless, M. J., 235, 239. 
 
 Lawrence, Thomas. 157, 172, 
 201. 204-206, 210. 226. 
 270 ; Lady Acland and 
 Sons, 205 ; John Julius 
 Angerstein,105, 270; Lady 
 Elizabeth Belgraoe, 205 ; 
 Thomas Campbell, 205 ; 
 Lord and Lady Castlereagh, 
 205 ; Cardinal Consahi, 
 205 ; Lady Dover and 
 Child, 205; Miss Farren, 
 205; Arthur F itzjames, 205; 
 Four Portraits of Children, 
 205 ; Countess Cower and 
 Child, 205 ; Countess Gre]) 
 and Daughter, 10b; Warren 
 Hastings, 205. 270; Master 
 Lamhton, 205 ; Charles 3rd 
 Marquess of Londonderry, 
 205; Mrs. Maguire, 205; 
 Miss Mary Moulton-Bat' 
 
INDEX 
 
 reU, 205; Pope Pius VII., 
 205 : Wellinglon. 205 ; 
 Wilberforce. 205. 
 
 Lawson, Cecil, 243, 244; 
 A ugust Moon, 243 ; Barden 
 Moor, 243; The Cloud, 
 243 ; Hof> Gardens of Eng- 
 land, 243 ; The Minister's 
 Garden, 243. 
 
 Layer Marney Hall, Elssex, 
 65, 75. 
 
 Leathart collection, 23 1 . 
 
 Leeds City Square, 306. 
 
 Lee, T. S.. 248, 304. 
 
 Leicester, 127; Gallery, 227. 
 
 Leighton, Lord, 245, 272, 
 294 ; Athlete struggling with 
 a Python, 294 ; The Slug- 
 gard, 294. 
 
 Lely, Sir Peter, 157, 169, 
 170-174; Duke of Albe- 
 marie, 171 ; Lady Bellasvs, 
 171; Charles II., 171; 
 Charles Dormer, Earl of 
 Carnarvon, and Family, 
 171 ; Mary Davis, 171 ; 
 NellGwyn, 171; Le/y. 171; 
 Mrs. Jane Middleton, 1 72 ; 
 Wycherley, 171. 
 
 Le Mans Cathedral, stained 
 glass at, 130. 
 
 Leonardo, 247. 
 
 Leslie, C. R., 222, 224. 225. 
 
 Le Sueur, 290. 
 
 Lewis, Isle of, 140. 
 
 Lewis, J. F..238. 
 
 Uchfield, 17; Cathedral, 52; 
 stained glass in, 134. 
 
 Ligurians, 3, 4. 
 
 Ulle, 216. 
 
 Uncoln Cathedral. 40-45. 49, 
 57, 131, 276; iron grille in, 
 128; presbytery, 49; sculp- 
 tures in, 278-280; vest- 
 ments, 137. 
 
 Lincoln's Inn, 226. 
 
 Limnerslease, 227. 
 
 Lindisfarne, 12. 
 
 Undisfarne MS., 143. 
 
 Littlecole, 82. 
 
 Liverpool Gallery. 233. 236. 
 
 Llananno Church. wooden 
 screen in, 72. 
 
 Local Government Board 
 Offices, 118. 
 
 Lochar Moss, 1 1 . 
 
 Lockie, Nicholas, 165. 
 
 Loftie, 97. 
 
 Logsdail, WiUiam, 245. 
 
 London, fire of, 92. 
 Londonderry, Marquess of 
 
 (collection), 205. 
 Longford Castle, 8 1 . 
 Longleat, 76,77,79,81. 
 Losely, 82. 
 
 Losinga, Herbert de, 30. 
 Lothian. Lord (collection). 
 
 197, 
 Loudan, Mouat, 247. 
 Louis XIV.. 257. 
 Louvre, the, 203, 258. 
 Lucas, David, 156 n., 157. 
 Lucas, Seymour, 246. 
 Lucatelli, 194. 
 Lucchesi, 304 ; Destiny, 304 ; 
 
 A Flight of Fancy, 3QA. 
 Lupton, Thomas, 156 n. 
 Luton House. 103. 
 Luttrell, Edward, 152. 
 Lyndhurst, Lord. 207. 
 Lyne, Richard, 165. 
 Lydd Church, 2 1 . 
 Lyemore, 82. 
 Lyminge, Saxon remains at, 
 
 20. 
 
 M 
 
 MacArdell, James. 153. 154; 
 
 Lady Chambers (print). 1 54. 
 Macbeth. R. W.. 177. 
 Macdowell. Patrick, 294. 
 Macgregor, Archibald, 235. 
 Mackenzie, Marshall, 112, 
 
 117. 
 Macklin, 207. 
 
 Madonna, York Minster, 281 . 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, 
 
 64 ; screen at, 1 34 ; tower 
 
 of, 68. 
 Majano, Giovanni da, 74, 75. 
 Malouel, Jean, 161. 
 Maltons, the, 210, 263. 
 Malvern Abbey, stained glass 
 
 at, 134. 
 Manby, Thomas, 173. 
 Manchester Gallery 223, 231, 
 
 241,243. 
 Manet, 190. 
 Mann, Harrington, 241. 
 Mansard, 96. 
 Mansfield. 197. 
 Mansion House, 1 00. 
 Mantegna, 236. 
 Maoris, 8. 
 Mappin's Shop, Oxford Street, 
 
 117. 
 
 320 
 
 Marble Arch Gates, 129. 
 
 Marchi, Giuseppe, 155. 
 
 Margaret of Denmark, portrait 
 of, 162. 
 
 Margaret Roding, 127. 
 
 Marischal College, Aberdeen, 
 112. 
 
 Marks, H. S. 
 
 Marlow, William, 263. 
 
 Marseilles, 126. 
 
 Marshall, sculptor, 290. 
 
 Martin, David, 201. 
 
 Martin, Mrs. T. (collection), 
 201. 
 
 Martineau, R. B., 236. 
 
 Mary, Queen, 165. 
 
 Maurice, Bishop, 30. 
 
 Maxstoke, 127. 
 
 May, Phil, 273. 
 
 Mayer, 102. 
 
 Mayerne, Theodore de, 257. 
 
 McGillivray, 308. 
 
 McKennal, Bertram, 307 ; 
 Circe, 307 ; Diana Wound- 
 ed, 307 ; Earth and the 
 Elements, 307 ; For She 
 Sitieth on a Seat in the High 
 Places of the City, 307. 
 
 McTaggart, William, 241. 
 
 Meath, 7. 
 
 Medical Association Building, 
 117. 
 
 Mee, Mrs., 255. 
 
 Meissonier, 246. 
 
 Melbourne, 307. 
 
 Melrose Abbey, 58, 65. 
 
 Meres, 166. 
 
 Mereworth, Kent, 1 00. 
 
 Merton College, Oxford ; 
 Chapel, 53, 64; tower of, 
 68; stained glass, 133. 
 
 Meryon, 147, 148. 
 
 Mesopotamia, 126. 
 
 Metropolitan Museum, New 
 York, 223. 
 
 Metsu, 189. 
 
 Metz, MSS. at, 144. 
 
 Meyer, Henry, 1 56 n. 
 
 Meyer, Jeremiah, 258. 
 
 Meyrick Collection, 1 40. 
 
 Michelangelo. 98, 296. 
 
 Middleton quoted, 145. 
 
 Mijtens, Daniel, 169. 
 
 Millais, John Everett, 229, 
 236-238, 268; Lord Bea- 
 consfield, 237 ; Mrs. Bis- 
 choffsheim, 237 ; Boyhood 
 of Raleigh. 237; Black 
 Brunsmicker, 237 ; John 
 
INDEX 
 
 Bright. 237; Bubbles. 238. 
 239; The Carpenter's Shop, 
 236; Chill October. 237; 
 Christ in the House of His 
 Parents. 238; Death of 
 Ophelia. 236 : Eve of St. 
 Agnes, 237, 238; Ferdinand 
 and Ariel, 236; Simon 
 Fraser. 237 ; The Qambler's 
 Wife. 237 ; Gladstone. 237, 
 238 ; Sir Gilbert Greenall, 
 237 ; Hearts are Trumps. 
 229. 237 ; /. C. Hook, 237, 
 238 ; The Huguenot, 237 ; 
 Sir Isumbras at the Ford, 
 237; Mrs. Jopling, 237; 
 Miss Nina Lehmann, 237 ; 
 Lorenzo and Isabella, 236 ; 
 Mariana in the Moated 
 Grange, 236; Mrs. F. H. 
 Myers, 237 ; Cardinal New- 
 man. 237 ; The Order of 
 Release. 237 ; Mrs. Perugini, 
 237 ; Lady Peggy Primrose, 
 237 : The Prescribed Royal- 
 ist, 237 ; The Rescue. 237; 
 The Return of the Dove to 
 the Ark. 236 ; Lord Shaftes- 
 bun,. 237; Sisters. 237; 
 Souvenir of Velazquez. 236, 
 237; Stella. 237 ; Tennyson. 
 237, 238; Dorothy Thorpe. 
 237 ; The Vale of Rest, 
 237; Vanessa, 237; The 
 Woodman's Daughter, 236. 
 
 Miller (collection), 237. 
 
 Miller. Andrew, 153. 
 
 Milton, Northants, 166. 
 
 Modern Gallery, Venice, 245. 
 
 Moira. Gerald. 239. 
 
 Moliere, 225. 
 
 Monasterboice. 13. 
 
 Moncrieff, Lord (collection). 
 203. 
 
 Monkwearmouth, Durham. 20. 
 
 Montacute, 81 . 
 
 Montford. Paul. 307. 
 
 Monument. The. 93. 
 
 Moore. Albert. 245, 246, 272 ; 
 Midsummer, 246 ; The Open 
 Book. 246; The Quartet, 
 246 ; Silver, 246 ; A Summer 
 Night, 246. 
 
 Moore. Henry, 242, 243; 
 ■ Clear Shining after Rain. 
 243 ; June Sea. 243 ; New- 
 haven Packet. 243; A 
 Perfect Day for a Cruise, 
 243. 
 
 Moore. Thomas, statue of. 309. 
 
 Morland, George, 220; Black 
 Monday, 22 1 ; Interior of a 
 Stable, 221; Lavinia, 221; 
 A Stable, 221; Vi^t to the 
 Child at Nurse, 220. 
 
 Moreland, George Henry, 220 ; 
 The Oyster Seller. 220. 
 
 Moreland. Henry Robert. 220. 
 
 Moreland, Maria. 220. 
 
 Moreton Old Hall. 82. 
 
 Morett, 164 n. 
 
 Morgan, H. Pierpont (collec- 
 tion), 205. 
 
 Morris. William, 232. 234. 
 
 Mortlake. tapestry factory at, 
 139,251. 
 
 Morton, Lord, 174,201. 
 
 Moser, George Michael, 258. 
 
 Moulton- Barrett collection, 205. 
 
 Mountford, 117. 
 
 Muirhead, Lionel (collection), 
 203. 
 
 MiiUer, W. J., 266. 267. 
 
 Mullins. Roscoe. 304. 
 
 Mulready. William, 222. 225 ; 
 Choosing the Wedding 
 Gown. 224 ; The Sonnet, 
 224. 
 
 Munich Pinacothek, 223. 
 
 Murphy. John. 155 n. 
 
 Murray. Faixfax, 235. 
 
 Mycenae. 8. 
 
 N 
 
 Nanteuil. 1 50 n. 
 
 Napoleon. 205. 
 
 Nasmyth. Patrick, 222, 223. 
 
 National Gallery, London, 168, 
 
 174, 188, 189. 201. 207. 
 
 211. 214. 217, 221, 222. 
 
 223, 237, 264, 270; design 
 
 for, 110. 
 National Gallery of Ireland, 
 
 see under Dublin. 
 National Gallery of Scotland, 
 
 see under Eldinburgh. 
 National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 London, 167. 172. 182. 193. 
 
 201.205.227.271. 
 Natural History Museum. South 
 
 Kensington. 30 1 . 
 Naylor. Mrs. (collection). 223. 
 Neeld, Sir Audley (collection). 
 
 189. 
 Nelson. 76. 
 Nesbitt. Charlton. 151. 
 
 321 
 
 Netley. Abbey. 49. 
 
 Neustria. 25. 
 
 Newark. 83 ; Church, 57. 
 
 Newcastle, 305. 
 
 Newcastle House, Lincoln's 
 
 Inn Fields. 97. 
 New College. Oxford, 62; 
 
 Chapel, reredos in, 70; 
 
 Screen, 134. 
 New English Art Club, 
 
 248. 
 Newgate Prison, 100. 
 New Grange, 7. _ 
 Newlyn School, 241,242. 
 Newton (miniaturist), 255. 
 Newton, Gilbert Stuart, 222, 
 
 225 ; Abelard, lib ■ Capt. 
 
 Macheath, 225 ; Yorick and 
 
 the Grisette. 225. 
 New Zealand Chambers, 
 
 Leadenhall Street, 115. 
 Nixon, James. 255. 
 Nollekens. Joseph. 291. 
 Nonsuch Palace. 82. 
 Norman Conquest. 276. 
 Normandy. 26. 
 Northcote. 207. 
 Northumbria. 143, 145. 
 Norwich Cathedral, 27, 30, 
 
 161 ; Cloisters. 64. 
 Norwich School. 210. 211. 
 
 217-219. 
 Notre Dame. Paris. 41. 47; 
 
 iron hinges at. 127. 128. 
 Noyon Cathedral, 41. 
 
 Ockwells Manor, 82. 
 
 Oldcastle, 7, 8. 
 
 Oliver, Isaac, 250. 251 ; Sack- 
 ville. Earl of Dorset, 25 1 . 
 
 Oliver. Peter. 250. 251. 
 
 Opie. John. 200. 207 ; Murder 
 ofRizzio. 207. 
 
 Opus Anglicanum. 138. 
 
 Opus Britannicum, 1 1 . 
 
 Orchardson. William Quiller, 
 240; Sir Walter Qilbev. 
 240; Napoleon on Board 
 the Bellerophon, 240; A 
 Tender Chord. 240; Vol- 
 taire, 240. 
 
 O^Jen. William. 248. 
 
 Oxenbrigge Monument, Bride 
 Church. Sussex. 77. 
 
 Oxford. 81. 112. 301; Botani- 
 cal Gardens, 288 ; Cathe- 
 
INDEX 
 
 dral. 68; Gallery. 236; 
 Renaissance glass at, 135; 
 Radcliffe Ubrary. 100; Shel- 
 donian Theatre, 92 ; Uni- 
 versity Galleries, 1 08 ; Union, 
 232. 
 Oxford Street, 120. 
 
 Paine, J., 104. 
 
 Paisley, 304. 
 
 Palladio, 96. 
 
 Palazzo Farnese, 98. 
 
 Panini, 194. 
 
 Paris, Matthew, 25. 
 
 Park, Thomas, 155 n. 
 
 Pars, William, 263. 
 
 Pastel, 269. 
 
 Paterson, James, 241. 
 
 Parthenon, 297. 
 
 Paul (monk), 28, 29. 
 
 Payne. William, 263. 
 
 Peake, Robert, 165, 169. 
 
 Pearson (architect), 1 10. 
 
 Peckham, Archbishop, 284. 
 
 Pegram, F., 306. 
 
 Pembroke College Chapel, 
 
 Cambridge, 92. 
 Penicuik, 1 76, 206. 
 Pennethorne, 108. 
 Penshurst Place, 58. 
 Pepys, Samuel, 166, 177. 
 Perugini, C. E., 245. 
 Perrier, Francois, 1 75. 
 Peter the Great, 261. 
 Peterborough Cathedral, 68, 
 
 127. 
 Pether, William. 154, 155. 
 Petitots, the, 130. 
 Petitot, Jean, 257. 258. 
 Pettie, John, 246. 
 Petworth. 289. 
 Phidias, 226. 297. 
 Philip Augustus, 32. 
 Phillip. John, 222, 224; La 
 
 Gloria, 224. 
 Phoeaeans, the, 126. 
 Pickering, Evelyn, see De 
 
 Morgan, Mrs. 
 PieCa, at Breadsall. 285. 
 Pine, Robert Edge. 200. 
 Pinwell. George, 268. 
 Pite, Beresford, 112. 
 Pitman, Mrs. (collection), 203. 
 Place, Francis, 1 52. 
 Plimer, Andrew, 254. 
 Plimer, Nathaniel, 254, 
 
 Pocock. Nicolas, 263. 
 
 Pomeroy, G., 304 ; Burns, 
 304. 
 
 Pond. Arthur. 198.269. 
 
 Poole, Paul Falconer, 225. 
 
 Portman Square, Mrs. Mon- 
 tagu's house in. 102. 
 
 Portland, Duke of (collection), 
 252. 
 
 Portland, Earl of, portrait of, 
 167. 
 
 Portland Place, 102. 
 
 Poussin, Caspar, 209. 
 
 Powis, Lord (collection). 193. 
 
 Poynter. E. J., 245. 
 
 Pre - Raphaelite Brotherhood. 
 229-239, 248. 
 
 Preston Museum, 304. 
 
 Prewitt, William, 259. 
 
 Prinsep, Mrs. (collection), 237. 
 
 Prinsep. Val. 245. 
 
 Prior, E. S., 42 n. 
 
 Prior and Gardner, 277, 278, 
 280 n. 
 
 Prout, Samuel, 266, 267. 
 
 Pugin, Augustus, 109, 110. 
 
 Purbeck marbles, 282, 283. 
 
 Purcell, Richard, 154. 
 
 Pyrenees, the, 3. 
 
 Radcliffe Library, see under 
 Oxford. 
 
 Raeburn, Henry, 157. 190, 
 201-204,210; Mrs. Camp, 
 bell. 203; Mrs. James 
 Campbell, 203 ; Sir John 
 and Lady Clerk. 203; 
 Major Clunes. 203 ; Mrs. 
 Cruikshank, 203 ; Viscount 
 Duncan, 203 ; The Lord 
 President Dundas, 203 ; 
 Robert Ferguson, 203 ; 
 General Sir Ronald Fergu- 
 son. 203; William Ferguson. 
 203 ; Glengarry. 203 ; The 
 MacDonalds of Clanronald. 
 203; The MacNab. 203; 
 Male Portrait. 203; Lord 
 Newton, 203 ; Portrait of 
 Raeburn. 203 ; Lad); Rae- 
 burn, 203; Sir John Sinclair, 
 203 ; Nathaniel Spens, 203 ; 
 Ladv Steuart of Culross, 
 203 ; John Tait and his 
 Grandson. 203; Mrs. W. 
 Urquhart, 203 ; James 
 
 322 
 
 Wardrop, 203 ; John Wau- 
 chope, 203; Rev. Sir H. 
 M. IVellwood. 203. 
 Ramsay. Allan, 197; Mrs. 
 
 Allan Ramsay, 197. 
 Ramsbury, 17. 
 Raphael cartoons, 1 39. 
 Raveningham Hall, 1 66. 
 Raveningham. iron hinges at, 
 
 127. 
 Ravesteyn, see Van Rave- 
 
 steyn. 
 Raynham Park, Norfolk, 90. 
 Reader, William, 1 72. 
 Reculver, Sajron remains at, 
 
 20. 
 Regent Street, 120. 
 Register House, Edinburgh, 
 
 103. 
 Reform Club. 108. 
 Reid, J. R.. 244. 
 Reinach, S., 6. 
 Rembrandt, 147, 148, 149. 
 
 154, 172, 186,222,299. 
 Remigius, Bishop, 276. 
 Repton, crypt, 24. 
 Reyn, Jean de. see De Reyn. 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 104, 134. 
 154-157, 184, 188. 190, 
 194-196, 198. 200, 204. 
 207, 244. 270 ; The Age of 
 Innocence, 188; Angels' 
 Heads, 1 88 ; Caricatures, 
 186; Mrs. Carnac, 188; 
 Lady Cockburn and her 
 Children, 188; Master 
 Crewe, 1 88 ; Lady Crosbie, 
 1 86 ; Duchess of Devonshire 
 and Child. 186; Charles 
 James Fox. 1 88 ; Garrick 
 between Tragedy and 
 Comedy. 1 86 ; The Graces, 
 188; Lord Heathfield. 188; 
 Dr. Johnson. 180; Marl- 
 borough Family Group. 1 88 ; 
 The Nativity. 134; Nelh 
 O'Brien. 188. 
 Reynolds' "Discourses," 207. 
 Reynolds, S. W., 1 56 n. 
 Revett, Nicholas, 105. 
 Rheims Cathedral. 47. 
 Rhind. Birnie, 308. 
 Rhine, the, 3. 
 Rhone, the, 3. 
 
 Richard II.. 62 ; bronze figure 
 of, 286; portrait of, 160. 
 162. 
 Richardson, Jonathan, 174. 
 Rickman, 38. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Ridley, Lord (collection). 225. 
 
 Rieder : see Reader. 
 
 Rijk's Museum, Amsterdam, 
 167. 
 
 Riley. John. 173. 175; The 
 Scullion, 173. 
 
 Ripen, crypt. 20. 
 
 Riviere, Briton, 246 ; Herd of 
 Swine, 247. 
 
 Roberts, Humphrey (collec- 
 tion), 240. 
 
 Robertson, Andrew, 255. 
 
 Robertson, Graham, 235. 
 
 Robinson, Cayley, 235. 
 
 Roche, Alexander, 241. 
 
 Rochester Cathedral, 276 ; 
 Chapter-house, 57. 
 
 Rochester Castle, 30. 
 
 Rochester, Saxon remains at, 
 20. 
 
 Rollins, J. Wenlock, 307. 
 
 Rome, 186. 
 
 Romney, George, 155-157, 
 191-194, 196, 198, 207, 
 270 ; Lady Beauchamp 
 Proctor. 193; Mrs. Tanker- 
 ville Chamberlain, 1 93 ; 
 Catherine and Sarah Chol- 
 meley, 1 93 ; Hon. Char- 
 lotte Clive, 1 93 ; Countess of 
 Derby, 193; Children of 
 Earl Gower, 192, 193; 
 Lady Hamilton, 193; Lady 
 Hamilton Spinning, 1 93 ; 
 Mrs. Johnson, 1 93 ; Mrs. 
 Jordan, 1 93 ; Countess of 
 Mansfield, 193: Lady 
 Prescott and Family, 193; 
 Mrs. Raikes, 193; Mrs. 
 iPerdita) Robinson, 193; 
 Mrs. Russell and Child, 
 193 ; Ladies Caroline and 
 Elizabeth Spencer, 193; 
 Lord Stafford in a Van 
 Dyck Dress, 193; Miss 
 Vernon as Hebe, 193; Lady 
 Arabella Ward, 193; Lady 
 Warwick and Children, 
 193; Mrs. Woodley, 194. 
 
 Romsey, rood at, 276. 
 
 Rooke, T. M.. 235. 
 
 Rooker, Michael Angelo, 263. 
 
 Rosebery, Lord (collection), 
 201. 
 
 Ross (miniaturist), 255. 
 
 Rossetri, Dante Gabriel, 229- 
 230. 232-235. 268; Beata 
 Beatrix, 233; The Blue 
 Bower, 233 ; The Beloved, 
 
 233 ; Ecce Ancilla Domini, 
 233 ; Dante's Dream, 233 ; 
 The Girlhood of Mary 
 Virgin, 232; Lady Lilith, 
 233. 
 
 Rossetti. William Michael. 230. 
 
 Rothschild, Lord (collection), 
 186. 189.201. 
 
 Rouen Cathedral, 41. 
 
 Round Towers, 15. 
 
 Rouquet, 258. 
 
 Rovezzano, Benedetto da, 76. 
 
 Rubens, 139, 170, 175, 190, 
 206, 222. 
 
 Runciman, Alexander, 1 76, 
 206. 
 
 Runciman, John, 1 76. 
 
 Rupert, Prince, 151, 152. 
 
 Ruskin, 151, 211, 230, 234, 
 239. 
 
 Russell, Sir George (collec- 
 tion), 193. 
 
 Russell, John, 269. 
 
 Rutland. Duke of. 169. 
 
 Ruysdael, 243. 
 
 Rydge, Richard. 79. 
 
 Rylands Library, Manchester, 
 112. 
 
 St. Alban's Cathedral, 28-31, 
 46, 276; iron grille in, 128; 
 iron hinges in, 1 27 ; reredos, 
 64; retable, 310; Walling- 
 ford screen at, 69; wall- 
 painting, 159, 160. 
 
 St. Anne's Church, Haarlem, 
 92. 
 
 St. Bartholomew's Hospital, 
 176. 
 
 St. Benet's Tower, Cambridge, 
 24. 
 
 St. Briach's Castle, 47. 
 
 St. Bride's Church, Fleet 
 Street. 93. 
 
 St. Columba's Church. London, 
 111. 
 
 St. Dunstan, 137, 145. 
 
 St. Etheldreda's Chapel, Ely 
 Place, Holborn, 53. 
 
 St. Finn Bar Cathedral, Cork, 
 110. 
 
 St. Frideswide's Church, 22, 
 23 ; Shrine. 70. 
 
 St. Gall. Library of, 143. 
 
 St. Gaudens, Augustus, Par- 
 nell. 309. 
 
 323 
 
 St. George's Church, Blooms- 
 bury, 99. 
 
 St. George's Church, Hanover 
 Square, 100. 
 
 St. George's Chapel, Windsor, 
 65, 66. 
 
 St. George's Hall, Liverpool, 
 107, 304. 
 
 St. Germans. 17. 
 
 St. James's Street, 1 20. 
 
 St. John, Oliver, 91. 
 
 St. John's Church, West- 
 minster. 100. 
 
 St. John's College. Oxford. 64. 
 
 St. John's Chapel. Tower of 
 London. 28. 
 
 St. John the Evangelist's 
 Church. Red Lion Square, 
 
 .. ^'^• 
 
 "St. John's Wood School, 
 
 The," 246. _ 
 
 St. Lawrence's Church, Eve- 
 sham, 68. 
 
 St. Louis, 146. 
 
 St. Luke's Church, Chelsea, 
 109. 
 
 St. Nicholas' Church, New- 
 castle, spire of, 69. 
 
 St. Martin's Church, Canter- 
 bury, 20. 
 
 Si. Martin's in the Fields, 
 London, 99. 
 
 St. Mary Redclyffe, Bristol, 
 57. 
 
 St. Mary's Abbey, York, 49. 
 
 St. Mary's, Beverley, 57. 
 
 St. Mary's Cathedral, Edin- 
 burgh, 111. 
 
 St. Mary's Church, Oxford, 
 64 ; porch of, 288 ; tower of, 
 69. 
 
 St. Mary's Church, Taunton, 
 tower of, 68. 
 
 St. Mary's Church. Warwick, 
 62. 
 
 St. Mary Woolnoth, Lombard 
 Street, London, 99. 
 
 St. Michael's Church, Cov- 
 entry, spire of, 69. 
 
 St. Michael's Church, Ham- 
 burg, 111. 
 
 St. Pancras Church, Canter- 
 bury. 20. 
 
 St. Pancras Church. London, 
 ^107. 
 
 St. Patrick's Bell, Shrine qf, 
 13. 
 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 
 30, 89, 93, 94. 120. 176. 
 
 y2 
 
INDEX 
 
 206, 227, 289. 296; iron 
 grille in, 130; Phcenix at, 
 289. 
 
 St. Paul's Church, Covent 
 Garden, 90. 
 
 St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich, 
 timber roof of, 71. 
 
 St. Peter's Church, Rome, 
 94. 
 
 St. Saviour's Church, Soulh- 
 wark. 111. 
 
 St. Stephen's Abbey, Caen, 
 26, 29, 38.^ 
 
 St. Stephen's Chapel, see 
 under Westminster Abbey. 
 
 St. Stephen's Church, Wal- 
 brook, 92.^ 
 
 St. Swithin's Church, Win- 
 chester, iron grille at, 1 28. 
 
 St. Vincent's Church, Cork, 
 111. 
 
 Sackville, Stopford (collection), 
 174. 
 
 Saffron Walden, 82. 
 
 Salisbury, 216. 
 
 Salisbury Cathedral, 44, 45, 
 49, 58, 131 ; Chapter-house 
 of, 49, 55 ; sculptures at, 
 278-280. 
 
 Salisbury Chantry, Christ- 
 church, Hants, 70, 77. 
 
 Salon, Paris, 216. 
 
 Salting (collection), 141. 
 
 Samlesbury, 82. 
 
 Sandby, Paul, 260, 261. 
 
 Sanderson, Arthur (collection), 
 203. 
 
 Sandys, Frederick, 236. 
 
 San Giovanni Laterano, 1 38. 
 
 Sargent, John, 157, 190,240. 
 
 Say, William, 156 n. 
 
 Scotland, 12, 7, 1 43 ; archi- 
 tecture in, 83, 84, 123; 
 sculpture in, 308. 
 
 Scott, Gilbert, 31 n, 39 n, 46, 
 55,56.90, 111. 
 
 Scott Monument, Edinburgh, 
 109. 
 
 Scott, Samuel, 1 74. 
 
 Scottish National Portrait 
 Gallery.see under Edinburgh. 
 
 Seaton, Delaval, 98. 
 
 Sedding (architect), 1 12. 
 
 Selby Abbey, 58. 
 
 Senate House, Cambridge, 
 100. 
 
 Senlis Cathedral, 41. 
 
 Sens Cathedral, 4 1 . 
 
 Serres, Dominic, 26 1 . 
 
 Seymour Jane, Portrait of, 
 
 165. 
 Shakespeare, 207, 225. 
 Sharpe, W., 150. 
 Shaw, Byam, 235. 
 Shaw, Richard Norman, 115, 
 
 116, 122. 
 Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, 
 
 92, 175. 
 Shelley, Samuel, 255. 
 Shepherd, William. 173. 
 Sherborne Abbey, 69. 
 Sherwin, William, 152. 
 Sherwin, John Keyse, 1 50. 
 Shields, Frederick. 239. 
 Shrewsbury, half-timber houses 
 
 at, 82. 
 Shute, John, 76, 77, 165. 
 Siegen, Ludwig von, 151, 1 54. 
 Silchester, 17. 
 Simon, Jean, 152. 
 Simonds, George, 304 ; Gerd, 
 
 304. 
 Sims. Charles, 247 ; The 
 
 Fountain, 247. 
 Skellig-Michael. 14. 
 Slade School. 244. 
 Sliath na Calliaghe. 7. 
 Smart. John. 254. 256. 292. 
 Smirke, Robert. 108.207. 
 Smith. John, 1 52. 
 Smith, John Orrin, 151. 
 Smith, John Raphael, 1 55, 
 
 269, 271; Pascal Paoli 
 
 (print), 155. 
 Smithson, Robert, 76, 77, 
 
 81. 
 Soane Museum, 96, 183, 
 
 289. 
 Society of Arts, 206. 
 Society of Painters in Water- 
 colours, 265, 266. 
 Soest, 1 70 and n, 1 73. 
 Soissons. MSS. at, 144. 
 Solomon, Simeon, 239. 
 Solomon, S. J., 248. 
 Somerscales, Thomas, 243 ; 
 
 Off Valparaiso. 243. 
 Somerset House, 82, 101, 102, 
 
 106, 186. 
 Southall, J. E., 239. 
 Southwell Minster, 49. 
 South Wingfield Manor House, 
 
 64. 
 Sparsholt. 127. 
 Spartali, Marie. 235. 
 Spencer, Elarl (collection). 252, 
 
 258. 
 Spencer, Gervase, 259. 
 
 324 
 
 Spencer House, St. James, 
 
 London. 100. 
 Speke Hall. 82. 
 Spicer. Henry, 259. 
 Spilsbury, Jonathan, 155. 
 Spooner, Charles, 1 54. 
 Stair, Lord (collection), 197. 
 Stanhope, Spencer, 235. 
 Stannard, Joseph. 2 1 9. 
 Stark. James. 219. 
 Staverton Church, wooden 
 
 screen in, 72. 
 Steele (painter), 190. 
 Steer, P. Wilson, 248. 
 Stephens, F. G., 229. 
 Sterne, 225. 
 Stevens, Alfred, 89, 271, 272. 
 
 295.296.309.312; Cartoon 
 
 for Isaiah group, 296; 
 
 Caryatids, 296 ; Decorative 
 
 sculpture in Dorchester 
 
 House, 296 ; Design for a 
 
 Memorial of the 1851 Ex hi- 
 
 bition. 296; Truth, 296; 
 
 Valour. 296; Wellington 
 
 Monument, 295, 296. 
 Stevens. Richard. 165. 
 Stewart, Rev. C. J. (collection), 
 
 211. 
 Stillingfleet Church, Yorks, 
 
 127. 
 Stillman. see Spartali. 
 Stole and Manciple of St. 
 
 Cuthbert. 137. 
 Stone Church. 20. 
 Stonehenge. 1. 2. 5. 
 Stone. Henry (Old). 169, 289. 
 Stone. Nicholas. 169. 288; 
 
 Statue of Dr. Donne. 289 ; 
 
 Monument of Sir Julius 
 
 Caser, 289. 
 Stolhard. Thomas. 177, 207. 
 Strange, Robert, 1 50 n. 
 Strathmore. 166. 
 Strawberry Hill, 108. 
 Streater. Robert. 175. 
 Street. G.E.. 110. 
 Strensham Church, wooden 
 
 screen in. 72. 
 Strete or Streles. Gwillim, 165. 
 Strudwick. J. M.. 235. 
 Stuart, James. 105. 
 Stubbs. George, 220. 
 Stubbs. George Townley. 1 56n. 
 Subiaco, Kneeling Boy of, 292, 
 
 293. 
 Suez. 2. 
 
 Suffolk. Brandon. Duke of, 163. 
 Sullivan Luke, 255. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Sun Fire Office, Threadneedle 
 Street, 108. 
 
 Surrey, Elarl of, portrait of, 165. 
 
 Sutherland, Duke of (collec- 
 tion), 193,205,252. 
 
 Sutton Place, 75. 
 
 Swallowfield, 97. 
 
 Swan, J. M., 246, 272, 303. 
 
 304; Fata Morgana, 304; 
 
 Leopard and Tortoise, 304; 
 
 Orpheus charming the 
 
 Beasts, 304; Puma and 
 
 Macaw, 304; The Prodigal 
 
 Son, 246. 
 Swaythling, Lord (collection), 
 
 214. 
 Swinbrook Church, Oxon, 285 . 
 Symeon, Abbot, 29. 
 Syria, 126. 
 
 Tadema, Alma, 245. 
 
 Talman, 97. 
 
 Tate Gallery, 211, 212, 223, 
 225. 226, 227, 231. 233. 
 236, 237. 240, 242. 243. 
 245-247. 294, 296, 307. 
 
 Tattershall Castle, Lines, 64. 
 
 Taubman, 307. 
 
 Tayler, Campbell, 247. 
 
 Temple House, 93. 
 
 Tennant, Sir E. (collection), 
 186, 193,201. 
 
 Terborch, 189. 
 
 Tewkesbury Abbey, 30. 
 
 Thames, shield found in, 1 0. 
 
 Thomas de Leghton (Leighton 
 Buzzard). 128. 
 
 Thomas, E. Brumwell, 120. 
 
 Thomas, J. Havard, 248, 308; 
 Lycidas, 308; The Slave, 
 308. 
 
 Thorbum, 255. 
 
 Thornbury Castle, Gloucester- 
 shire. 65. 
 
 Thoresby. 97. 
 
 Thome- Waite, 268. 
 
 Thornhill, James. 176, 181. 
 206. 
 
 Thornton Abbey, Lines, 63. 
 
 Thornycroft, Hamo, 301 ; 
 Artemis, 301; Bishop 
 Creighton, 30 1 ; Cromwell, 
 301; Edward I.. 301; 
 Gladstone, 301; Bishop 
 Goodwin, 301 ; General 
 Qordon, 301; The Mower, 
 301; reucer,301. 
 
 Thorpe Hall. 91. 
 
 Thorpe. John, 81. 
 
 ThorwsJdsen, 295. 
 
 Tiepolo. G. B., 196. 
 
 Titian, 222. 
 
 Toft. Albert, 306, 307; Spirit 
 of Contemplation, 307 ; 
 Victory, 307. 
 
 Tomb of the Earl of Arundel, 
 Arundel, 70; of Edward II., 
 Gloucester Cathedral. 56; 
 of Edward III., Westminster 
 Abbey, 56, 62. 70; of 
 Queen EJeanor (iron grille), 
 Westminster. 1 28 ; of Gower, 
 Southwark Cathedral, 70 ; 
 at Holme Pierrepoint, 285; 
 of Henry IV., Canterbury 
 Cathedral, 70; of Henry 
 VII., Westminster Abbey, 
 76, 311; of Humphrey, 
 Duke of Gloucester, St. 
 Alban's Cathedral, 70; of 
 Mary, Queen of Scots, West- 
 minster Abbey, 296; of 
 Nelson, Westminster Abbey, 
 76; of Archbishop Peck- 
 ham, Canterbury Cathedral, 
 57; of Cecil Rhodes, 304; 
 of Richard II. and his Queen, 
 Westminster Abbey, 63, 70; 
 of Archbishop Warham, 
 Canterbury Cathedral, 70; 
 of the Earl of Warwick, 
 Warwick, 70; of William 
 of Wykeham, Winchester 
 Cathedral, 70. 
 
 Tompson, Richard, 1 52. 
 
 Toms, Peter, 157. 
 
 Tom Tower, Oxford, 95. 
 
 Torels, the, 286. 
 
 Torrigiano, 67, 76. 
 
 Torrs, Kirkcudbrightshire, 10. 
 
 Tours, MSS. at, 144. 
 
 Townley, Charles, 155 n. 
 
 Tower of the Five Orders, 8 1 . 
 
 Towers : see Round Towers. 
 
 Tradescant portraits, 1 66. 
 
 Travellers* Club, 108. 
 
 Tresham, Sir Thomas, 8 1 . 
 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 93,95; chapel of, 92, 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin, 102. 
 
 Trinity House, Leith, 203. 
 
 Trunch Church, Norfolk, timber 
 roof. 71. 
 
 Truro Cathedral, 1 1 0. 
 
 Tuam, 1 3. 
 
 Turner, Charles, 1 56 n. 
 
 325 
 
 Turner. J. M. W., 211-214, 
 217, 219, 243, 262-264, 
 271; Battle of Fort Rock, 
 264 ; Burial of Wilkie, 214; 
 The Deluge, 214; The 
 Doges' Palace, 264; Con- 
 woj} Castle, 213; Crossing 
 the Brook, 214; Edinburgh 
 (water colour), 264; The 
 Fighting " Temeraire," 214; 
 Fishermen on a Lee Shore, 
 213; A Frosty Morning, 
 214; Kilgarren Castle, 2\ 3; 
 Mercur]} and Herse, 214; 
 Rain, Steam, and Speed, 
 214; Rockets and Blue 
 Lights, 2] 4; Spit head, 214; 
 The Sunof Venice going to 
 Sea, 214; Ulysses Deriding 
 Polyphemus, 214; Walton 
 Bridges, l]^. 
 
 Turner's " Liber Studiorum," 
 219, 
 
 Tweedmouth, Lord (collec- 
 tion), 203. 
 
 Tynemouth Abbey, 46. 
 
 u 
 
 United University Club. 119, 
 
 120. 
 University Galleries, see under 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 VanDyck, 167-171,173, 189, 
 202, 250, 251, 257; Por- 
 traits of the Marchese and 
 the Marchesa Cataneo, 168; 
 Charles L, 174; Cornelius 
 Van der Gheest, 1 68. 
 
 Valence, Aymer de. statue of, 
 284. 
 
 Valence, William de, statue of, 
 284. 
 
 Vanbrugh, 98, 99, 101. 
 
 Van der Goes, Hugo, 1 62. 
 
 Van Huysum, 155. 
 
 Van Rensselaer, Mrs., 45. 
 
 Van Ravesteyn. 169. 
 
 Van Staren. Dirk, 1 32 n. 
 
 Vardy, 98, 100. 
 
 Varley, Cornelius, 265. 
 
 Varley, J., 265. 
 
 Vaughan, Henry, 264. 
 
 Velazquez, 190, 202, 224; 
 Pope Innocent X., 202. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Vellert. Dierick J., 132 n. 
 
 Verelst. 173. 
 
 Verrio. 175, 176. 
 
 Vertue, 78. I 72. 
 
 Verulam, Lord, 166. 
 
 Victoria and Albert Museum, 
 120. 127. 138. 140. 141. 
 211. 217, 221. 222. 223, 
 225, 226, 231, 251, 258. 
 261.262. 
 
 Victoria Tower, 1 1 0. 
 
 Vincent, George, 219; Green- 
 wich Hospital, 219. 
 
 VioUet-le-Duc, 41. 
 
 Vulgate, Alcuin's, 1 44. 
 
 w 
 
 Wadham College, Wren at, 
 
 92. 
 Waldorf Hotel. 117. 
 Wales, 12. 
 
 Wales, Prince of, 200. 261. 
 Walker. A. G.. 307 ; The Last 
 
 Plague. 307; Sleep, 307; 
 
 The Thorn, 307. 
 Walker. Frederick, 268. 272. 
 Walker, James, 1 55 n. 
 Walker, Robert. 166. 170. 
 Wallace Collection. 189. 193. 
 
 258. 
 Wallingford Screen, see under 
 
 St. Albans. 
 Wallis. Henry, 239. 
 Walpole. Horace, 108. 166, 
 
 172. 
 Waltham Abbey. 30. 
 Waltham Cross. 56. 
 Walton. E. A.. 241. 
 Walton. Henry. 198. 
 Wanstead. Essex. 100. 
 Wantage. Lady. 213. 
 War Office. Whitehall. 118; 
 
 sculptures on. 306. 
 Wars of the Roses. 146. 161. 
 Ward, James. 22 1 ; A lderne\) 
 
 Cattle, 221; Gordale Scar, 
 
 221; Harlech Castle, 22]. 
 Ward. William and James, 
 
 156n. 
 Wardrop, J. C. (collection), 
 
 203. 
 Warwick, Lord (collection), 
 
 193. 
 Waterhouse. Alfred. 111. 119. 
 Waterhouse. J. W.. 247; St. 
 
 Cecilia. 247; St. Eulalia, 
 
 L 
 
 247; Hyles and the Nymphs, 
 247 ; Mariamne, 247 ; The 
 Magic Circle, 247. 
 
 Waterlow, Ernest, 268. 
 
 Watson. Caroline. 154. 
 
 Watson. James. 154. 
 
 Watson. Thomas. 1 55 n. 
 
 Watteau. 180. 196. 
 
 Watts, G. F.. 226, 227, 229, 
 243, 297 ; Clytie, 297 ; Fata 
 Morgana, 227 ; Russell 
 Gurney, 227 ; First Naval 
 Victory of the English, 226 ; 
 Hope, 230; Hugh Lupus, 
 298; Lord Stratford de Red- 
 clyffe, 227 ; Scene from the 
 Decameron, 227 ; Time, 
 Death and Judgment, 227 ; 
 Vital Energy, 298 : IValter 
 Crane, 227; IVilliam Morris, 
 227. 
 
 Watts, John, 154. 
 
 Webb, Aston, 119. 
 
 Webb, John, 91. 
 
 Webb, Philip, 122. 
 
 Webber. John. 262. 
 
 Wellington. 205. 
 
 Wells. 17; Bishop's Palace, 
 57; Cathedral, 46, 47, 49. 
 57 ; Bishop Beckington's 
 buildings, 64 ; Chapter- 
 house, 55 ; sculptures at, 
 279-281; west front, 42. 
 
 Wertheimer, C. (collection), 
 192.201. 
 
 West. Benjamin, 207, 208; 
 Death of Wolfe, 207. 
 
 Westall, 207. 
 
 Westley, John, 81. 
 
 Westmacott, Richard, 294. 
 
 Westminster Abbey, 24, 26, 
 27,38,48,49,66,121. 160. 
 166. 284. 310; Chapter- 
 house, 55 and n.; Henry 
 VII. 's Chapel, 64; north 
 porch, 110; St. Stephen's 
 Chapel, 51-55. 58, 160; 
 sculptures, 278-80 ; tombs, 
 288; towers, 95. 
 
 Westminster Cathedral. 1 20 ; 
 bronze screen, 1 30 ; Bramp- 
 ton Chapel, 111. 
 
 Westminster, Duke of (collec- 
 tion), 213. 
 
 Westminster Hall, 63, 226; 
 timber roof, 70. 7 1 . 
 
 Westminster, King's Robing 
 Room. 224. 
 
 Westminster Palace. 109. 
 
 326 
 
 Westminster School, dormitory 
 in. 99. 
 
 Weston Barton. 127. 
 
 Wheatley. Francis, 200. 
 
 Whistler, J. McN., 147, 148. 
 240,241,272. 
 
 Whitby, Synod of, 144. 
 
 White, George, 153. 
 
 Whitehall, 130. 164. 206; iron 
 gates in. 1 64. 
 
 Whitehall Palace, 87-90; 
 Rubens' ceiling in. 1 75. 
 
 Whitehead. Jeffrey (collection), 
 258. 
 
 White Tower. 30. 
 
 Whitton Hall, see Kneller 
 Hall. 
 
 Wigtownshire, 12. 
 
 Wilkie, David, 147,222. 223, 
 271 ; Bathsheha, 223; Blind 
 Man 's Buff. 223 ; The Blind 
 Fiddler. 223; Boys digging 
 for Rats. 223 ; Knox dispens- 
 ing the Sacrament, 223; 
 Reading of a Will, 223; 
 The Refusal. 223; Village 
 Fair, 223. 
 
 Waiiam of Ireland, 284. 
 
 William II., 30. 
 
 Williams. F. E.. 120. 
 
 Williams. R.. 152. 
 
 Willingale Spain. Essex, 127. 
 
 Wilson. Richard, 194-196, 
 210.211,267; Niobe. 195; 
 
 Scene in Italy, 195. 
 WiltonHouse, 90, 91, 166. 
 Wimperis, E. M., 268. 
 Winchester, 145. 
 Winchester Cathedral. 29, 30, 
 
 63,65.69.275. 276; stained 
 
 glass at, 1 34. 
 Winde, 97. 
 Windsor, 251. 
 
 Windsor Beauties, see Kneller. 
 Windsor Castle, 58, 109, 205. 
 
 290. 
 Windus, W. L., 235. 
 Wingham, 82. 
 Wissing, 173. 
 
 Witham, dagger found in, 10. 
 " Wits' Commonwealth," 166. 
 Wollaton Hall, Notts, 77, 79. 
 
 81. 
 Wolsey. Cardinal. 73-76. 
 Woltmann, 164. 
 Wood, architect, 92. 
 Wood, Derwent, 308. 
 Wood of Bath. 98, 101. 
 Wood, William, 255. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Woods, Henry. 245. 
 WooUett, WiUiam. 1 50 n. 
 Woolner. Thomas. 230, 295. 
 Woolwich, 301 ; Academy, 
 
 261. 
 Wootton, 209. 220. 
 Worcester Cathedral. 30, 48 ; 
 
 Chapter-house, 54. 
 Worcester College, Oxford, 96. 
 Worksop Priory, 127. 
 Wraxall. 10. 
 Wren. Christopher, 81, 92-97, 
 
 100, 105. 106. 115. 116. 
 Wren. Matthew, 92. 
 Wrexham Church. Tower of, 
 
 68. 
 Wright, Joseph Michael, 1 73. 
 
 Wright of Derby. 154.200. 
 Wyatt. James, 31.294. 
 Wyatville, Jeffrey. 109. 
 Wyllie. W. L..243; Baflk of 
 
 the Nile. 243; Toil. Glitter. 
 
 Grime, and Wealth. 243. 
 Wyck. Jan. 209. 
 Wynants. 189. 
 Wynne, see Winde. 
 
 Y 
 
 Yarborough. Lord (collection), 
 
 165. 
 Yerkes (collection), 214. 
 York, Duke of. 93. 
 
 York House, Strand, the water- 
 gate. 90. 
 
 York Minster. 29. 49. 52. 58. 
 63 ; Chapter-house. 54 ; 
 choir-screen, 64; Five Sisters 
 (window). 49; stained glass 
 
 in. 130, 131. 133, 134; rood 
 
 screen at, 70; Tower of. 69. 
 Young, John, 1 56 n. 
 Young, William, 1 1 8. 
 
 Zincke. C. F., 258. 
 ZuccareUi, 194. 
 
 327 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Abingdon Town Hall, 101. 
 
 Adoration of the Magi, page xlii. 
 
 All Souls College, Chapel, Oxford, 63 ; iron 
 
 gates, 127. 
 Angel Choir, Lincoln, south door, 274. 
 Annunciation, British Museum, 282. 
 Apocalypse, page from an, British Museum, 
 
 143. 
 Ardagh Chalice, Dublin Museum, 131. 
 Ardagh Chalice, foot of. 11. 
 Arundel MS., 124 and 125. 
 Ashburnham House, Westminster, 89. 
 Audley End, Essex, 75. 
 Bacon, Statue of Dr. Johnson, 290. 
 Bank of Ireland, Dublin (Castell), 100. 
 Barton-on-Humber Church, 1 8. 
 Bates, Harry, Hounds in Leash, 304. 
 Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 62. 
 Beaufort, Margaret, portrait of, 161. 
 Belfast Town Hall (E. Brumwell Thomas), 
 
 115. 
 Bell, Shrine of St. Patrick's, 13. 
 Bettes, John, Portrait of Edmund Butts. 162. 
 Beverley Minster, 48; Percy Shrine, 56; 
 
 West Front, 66. 
 Birdlip, see under Mirror, 
 Bishop, found at Flawford, Notts, 281. 
 Blenheim, elevation, 103; plan, 103. 
 Blooteling, Abr., Duke of Monmouth, 151. 
 Bogle, Portrait of a Gentleman, 255 ; Portrait 
 
 of a Man. 257. 
 Bone, H., Portrait of Himself . 258. 
 Bonington R. P., Chateau of the Duchesse de 
 
 Berri, 2\7; Verona. 262. 
 Book of Durrow, page in the, 13. 
 Book of Kells, page in the, 141. 
 Bow Church (Wren), 93. 
 Bradford-on-Avon Church, 21. 
 Branston Church, 22. 
 Brixworth Church, 2 1 . 
 Brock, The Black Prince.293; Gainsborough, 
 
 294 ; Cenotaph of Leighton. 293 ; Bishop 
 
 Philpot. 292. 
 Bronze Collar, from Wraxall, 9. 
 Brooking, Sea-piece, 206. 
 
 Brothers of Joseph, The, Salisbury, 277. 
 Brown, Ford Madox, Elijah and the IVidow's 
 
 Son, 230. 
 Bull, Portrait of John, by an unknown painter, 
 
 166, 
 Burne-Jones, Chant d' Amour, 232; The 
 
 Depths of the Sea, 232. 
 Burridge F., Mill in Wirrall, 148. 
 Canada Gates, Buckingham Palace, 1 29. 
 Canterbury Cathedral, 62 ; Angel Tower, 52 ; 
 
 Crypt, 35 ; Gateway, 70. 
 Carlisle Cathedral Choir, 56. 
 Casino near Dublin (W. Chambers), 101. 
 Cattermole, G., Macbeth, 264. 
 Celtic Disk, 10; Enamel, British Museum, 
 
 131; Fibula. 8; Page from Gospel, 142; 
 
 Shield, 8 ; Tankard, handle of, 9. 
 Censing Angel, Lincoln Cathedral, 277. 
 Chalon, Hastings. 225. 
 Chester, old houses at, 81 . 
 Chichester Cathedral, nave, 34. 
 Chimney-piece (Norman Shaw), 123. 
 Chirk Castle, Oswestry, 84 ; Long Gallery, 77. 
 Christ Church, Dublin, 45. 
 Christ Church, Oxford, 1 6 ; Design for Belfry 
 
 by Bodley, 1 09 ; Chapter-house, 43 ; Spire, 
 
 43. 
 Cibber, C. G., Melancholy and Madness, 
 
 289. 
 Cibber, Bust of Colley, 290. 
 Circular Boss, Chester, 276. 
 Clapham Church, Beds, 23. 
 Cobham Hall, Kent. 96. 
 College of Science, South Kensington (Aston 
 
 Webb), 116. 
 Colton, W. R., The Girdle, 307 ; The Image- 
 Finder, 307. 
 Commercial Bank of Scotland (S. Mitchell), 
 
 122. 
 Compton Winyates, Warwickshire. 68. 
 Constable, Cottage in a Cornfield, 214; 
 
 Salisbury, 272; Sketch for the Leaping 
 
 Horse, 214; Sketch for the Hay Wain, 
 
 215; Trees, 272 ; The Valley Farm, 213. 
 Cooper, S., Richard Cromwell, 254. 
 
 L 
 
 328 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Cope, The AscolJ. 135. 
 
 Cope of St. Silvester, St. John Lateran, 1 34 ; 
 
 Detail of, 138. 
 Cope, Syon, V. and A., Museum, 132. 
 Copley, John Singleton, Death of Major 
 
 Pierson, 204. 
 Cormack's Chapel, Cashel, 32. 
 Cosway, Lady Anne Fane, 256; Portrait of 
 
 a Man. 256 ; Duke of Wellington, 256. 
 Cotes. F., PaulSandhy, 192. 
 Cotman, Centaur, The, 27 1 ; Landscape, 27 1 ; 
 
 Shipping at the Mouth of the Thames, 217; 
 
 Turning the Sod, 270. 
 Cotton, MS., Psalter, 125. 
 Cousins, Samuel, Lady Peel, 157. 
 Cox, David, Cornfield, 264 ; Windsor Castle, 
 
 263. 
 Crome, Chapel Fields, Norwich, 209 ; Poring- 
 
 land Oak, 210. 
 Cross of Cong, 1 2. 
 Cross, High, Monasterbolce, 7. 
 Crozier, 1 1 . 
 
 Customs House, Dublin (Gandon), 100. 
 De Morgan, Mrs., Mercy and Truth, 233. 
 De Wint, Peter, Lincoln. 263 ; Oxford, 262. 
 Dexter Leaf of a Diptych, British Museum, 
 
 140. 
 Divinity School, Oxford, 60. 
 Dixon, J., Elizabeth and Emma Crewe, 151. 
 Dobson, Portrait of Endymion Porter, 168. 
 Doorway (Lanchester and Richards), 121. 
 Dover Castle Church, 22. 
 Downman, Mrs. Siddons, 267. 
 Drury, A., Base of Lamp-standard, 312; 
 
 Joseph Priestley, 305 ; Group on War 
 
 Office, 306. 
 Durham Cathedral, 29 ; Chapter-house, 32 ; 
 
 central tower, 66 ; nave, 29. 
 Elarls Barton Church, Tower, 1 9. 
 Edinburgh College (Adam and Anderson), 
 
 104. 
 Edinburgh, A shop in, 122, 
 Edward III., Figure of, Westminster, 287 ; 
 
 Head of. Gloucester, 285. 
 Deanor, Figure of Queen, Westminster, 286. 
 EUectra House, Finsbury Pavement (Belcher), 
 
 119. 
 Elgin Cathedral, Choir and Chapter-house, 44. 
 Dy Cathedral, Ceiling of Bishop West's 
 
 Chapel, 74 ; Udy Chapel, 55 ; Nave, 34 ; 
 
 West Porch. 42. 
 Elty, The Bather, 220; Crucifixion. 2\9. 
 Exeter Cathedral, West Front, 50. 
 Exeter College Chapel (Gilbert Scott), 107. 
 Fehr. H. C. 5/. George. 307. 
 Fielding. Copley, Vale of Irihing, 263. 
 Figure with Model of a Church, Flawford, 
 
 Notts, 282. 
 Finch. F. O., Still Summer. 265. 
 
 Fisher, Eldward, Hope Nursing Love, 153. 
 
 Fitton. H., St. Miry, Paris. 146. 
 
 Flatman, Portrait, 254 ; Portrait of a Lady, 
 254 ; Portrait of a Man, 254. 
 
 Foley, J. H., Outram, 29]. 
 
 Ford. Onslow. Irving as Hamlet, 302 ; Monu- 
 ment to Queen Victoria, Manchester, 302; 
 Maternity, 302. 
 
 Fountains Abbey. 31 ; Chapel of the Nine 
 Altars, 48 ; Cloister. 36. 
 
 Frampton. G.. Dame Alice Owen, 304. 
 
 Furse. Charles, Diana of the Uplands, 244 ; 
 Home from the Ride, 243. 
 
 Gaiety Theatre. London (Norman Shaw). 1 17. 
 
 Gainsborough. Blue Boy, 185; Female Figure, 
 268; Hon. Mrs. Graham, 183; Miss 
 Haverfield, 185; Portrait of Himself 184; 
 Landscape, 188; Sketch for a Landscape, 
 260; The Morning Walk, 187; Lady 
 Mulgrave, 1 85 ; Mrs. {PerdHa) Robinson, 
 188; Mrs. Siddons, 184; Mrs. Stone 
 Norton, 183; The Watering Place, 186. 
 
 Gallerus, Oratory of. 4. 
 
 Geddes, A., The Artist's Mother, 145. 
 
 Gibbons, Grinling, James IL, 289. 
 
 Gilbert. Alfred, Icarus, 309; Retable, St. 
 Albans, 299 ; St. George, Tomb of Duke 
 of Clarence, 309 ; Tragedy and Comedy. 
 309; Memorial to Queen Victoria, Man- 
 chester, 3 1 0. 3 1 1 . 
 
 Girtin, Thomas. On the Wharf e, 26 1 . 
 
 Glamis Castle. Forfarshire. 83. 
 
 Glasgow Assurance Building. Euston Square, 
 London (Beresford Pile), 1 14. 
 
 Glasgow Cathedral, 47 ; Crypt, 5 1 ; Town 
 Hall, 118. 
 
 Glastonbury Abbey, 33. 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral, Central Tower, 71 ; 
 Cloisters, 7 1 ; South Porch, 65. 
 
 Gold Torque from Limavady. 5. 
 
 Good, T. S., The Reader, 224. 
 
 Green, Valentine, The Ladies Waldegrave, 
 153. 
 
 Greenhill, Mrs. Jane Middleton, 1 72. 
 
 Greenstead Church, 1 9. 
 
 Greenwich Hospital (Inigo Jones), 90; 
 (Wren), 94. 
 
 Gregory, E. J.. Piccadilly, 231 . 
 
 Haddon Hall, gallery. 78. 
 
 Haden. Seymour, The Agamemnon, 148. 
 
 Hamilton. Hugh, /. P. Curran, 207. 
 
 Hampton Court Palace. S.E. angle (Wren), 
 95 ; Ceiling of Wolsey's closet. 74 ; Hall, 73 ; 
 West front, 71 ; Wren's quadrangle, 91 . 
 
 Hardwicke F^all, Derbyshire, 76 ; Presence 
 Chamber, 76. 
 
 Harley MS., page from, British Museum, 144. 
 
 Harrington's Ariosto. page from, 1 50. 
 
 Hatfield House, Herts.. 75. 
 
 329 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 HayU. John, Portrait of Pepys. 173. 
 Heame, Thomas, Dutch Shipping, 261 . 
 Henry V.'s Chantry, Figure in, Westminster, 
 
 280. 
 Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster, 61 . 
 Milliard, N., Double Locket. 252; Portrait of 
 
 Himself 250; Portrait of his Father, 250; 
 
 Lady A rahella Stuart, 25 1 . 
 Hogarth, William Hogarth, title-page; His 
 
 Own Servants. 179; The Shrimp-Girl, 180; 
 
 Marriage a la Mode, 1 78. 
 
 Hogarth, Peg IVojffington (colored print), 
 
 facing page 1 80. 
 Holbein, Anne of CleOes, 249; Follower of, 
 
 A Child, 249 ; School of, Portrait. 163. 
 Holkham House. Norfolk (Kent), 98. 
 HoU, Frank, Samuel Cousins, 239; Earl 
 
 Spencer, 239. 
 Holland, J., Colleone Statue, Venice, 226; 
 
 Venice, 264. 
 Hone, Nathaniel, Horace iVolpole, 193. 
 Hoppner, The Douglas Children, 196; The 
 
 Frankland Sisters, 1 96; Portrait of a Lady, 
 
 195, 196 (four examples). 
 Horse Guards. Whitehall (Kent), 98. 
 Hoskins, A Lady, 250. 
 Houses of Parliament (C. Barry), 105. 
 Howth Castle, co. Dublin, 83. 
 Hughes. John, Monument to Queen Victoria, 
 
 Dublin. 308. 
 Humphreys, Ozias, Warren Hastings, 257. 
 Hunt, Holman, The Shadow of Death, 234. 
 Ilminster Church, 69. 
 Initial from Missal, British Museum, 143. 
 Institute of Chartered Accountants (Belcher), 
 
 118. 
 Insurance Office, Edinburgh ( J. M. Dick- 
 
 Peddie). 121. 
 Ivory, 1 4th Century. V. and A. Museum, 1 58. 
 Ivory Triptych, British Museum, 1 40. 
 Jackson, John, Portrait of Himself, 225. 
 John, Goscombe, Duke of Devonshire, 304; 
 
 The Elf 305. 
 Jones. John, Lady Caroline Price, 1 54. 
 Jonson, Cornelius, Portrait of a Lady, 167; 
 
 Portrait of the Earl of Portland. 167. 
 Joseph, Samuel. Samuel Wilberforce, 291. 
 Keble College Chapel, Oxford (Butterfield), 
 
 108. 
 Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire (Paine and R. 
 
 Adam), 99. 
 Kilconnel Abbey, Cloister, 47. 
 Kilcroney, Ireland, 6. 
 
 King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 61, 64. 
 KinmelPark (Nesfield). 116. 
 Kirkby Hall, Northants. 104. 
 Kneller, Goderl de Ginkel, 175. 
 Knole, Kent, 79; Bedroom, 79; Gallery, 
 
 79; Colonnade, 79. 
 
 Knole Chapel, 80. 
 
 Lance, George, Fruit, 223. 
 
 Landseer, E., Suspense, 218 ; War, 219. 
 
 Law Courts, central hall (G. Street), 107; 
 
 Strand entrance, 1 08. 
 Lawrence. /. /. Angerstein, 201 ; Princess 
 
 Charlotte, 202; Lady Dover and Child, 
 
 202 ; Miss Farren, 203 ; Pope Pius VIL, 
 
 203; Mrs. Wolff. 20). 
 La wson, Cecil. Wharfedale, 24] . 
 Lavery, J., Spring, 240. 
 Layer Mamey Towers, 70. 
 Lead Urn, Parham. 130. 
 Leighton, The Music Lesson. 241 ; Summer 
 
 Moon. 242 ; Athlete and Python. 292. 
 Lely, Portrait of Lady Bellasys, 169; 
 
 Comtesse de Gramont, 171; Miss Jane 
 
 Kelkway, 170. 
 Leslie, C. R., Les Femmes Savantes. 223 ; 
 
 Taming of the Shrew. 222 ; Uncle Toby 
 
 and Widow Wadham, 222. 
 Leuchars Church, Fife. 33. 
 Lewis, G. F., Lilium Auratum. 237. 
 Uchfleld Cathedral. 36; Choir. 52; West 
 
 Front, 57. 
 Lincoln Cathedral, 36 ; Central Tower. 53 ; 
 
 Detail, South Doorway, 276 ; East Transept, 
 
 37 ; West Front. 39, 
 Lindisfarne Gospels, page from, 141. 
 Linton. J. D., Maundy Thursday, 242. 
 Little Saxham Church, 32 ; Tower Arch, 
 
 22. 
 Logsdail, W.. An Earl]) Victorian. 241. 
 Longford CasUe. Wilts, 78. 
 Longleat, Wilts, 73. 
 Lucas. David. Salisbury, 155. 
 Lyemore. Montgomeryshire. 82. 
 MacArdell, J., Lady Chambers. 152. 
 McKennel. B.. Circe. 306. 
 Madonna. Chapter House, York, 279. 
 Madonna, Flawford. 282. 
 Magdalen College. Oxford. 62 ; Chapel, 63. 
 Maghera. Ireland. Doorway at, 5. 
 Malton, The Tholsel, Dublin, 261 . 
 Manchester Town Hall (Waterhouse), 106. 
 Mansion House, London (G. Dance). 99. 
 Mapperton, 85. 
 Marischal College, Aberdeen (Marshall 
 
 Mackenzie). 113. 
 Market Overton. Tower Arch. 21 . 
 Merton College Chapel. Oxford. 54. 64. 
 Millais, Hearts are Trumps, 229; Portrait of 
 
 J. C. Hook, 236; Lorenzo and Isabella, 
 
 234; Souvenir of Velazquez, 236; Yeoman 
 
 of the Guard, 235. 
 Mirror, from Birdlip. 1 0. 
 Montacute. Somersetshire, 77. 84. 
 Moore. Albert, The Open Book. 243. 
 Moreton Old Hall, Uncs., 82. 
 
 330 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Morland. G.. The Stable, 218. 
 
 Mulready, The Sonnet, 221. 
 
 Nasmyth, Cottage in Hyde Park, 221 . 
 
 Navigator, Portrait of a, by an unknown 
 painter, 164. 
 
 New College Chapel, Oxford. 63. 
 
 Newgate Street, doorway in, 121. 
 
 New Zealand Chambers, Leadenhall Street 
 (Norman Shaw), 115. 
 
 Norwich Cathedral, Choir, 28; Nave, 28. 
 
 Oliver, Isaac, Anne of Denmark. 253; 
 Prince Charles, 253; Henry, Prince of 
 IVales, 253 ; Lady Hunsdon, 25 1 ; James I., 
 253; A Lad],, 253; Portrait of a Man, 
 252; Sackville, Earl of Dorset, frontis- 
 piece; Sir Philip Sidney, 252. 
 
 Opie, John, Mrs. Margaret Crowe, 194. 
 
 Opus Anglicanum, British Museum, 137. 
 
 Orchardson, W. Q., Her first Dance, 238; 
 Master Baby, 238. 
 
 Panel from St. Stephen's, Westminster, 1 59. 
 
 Pegram, F., Fortune, 305. 
 
 Penrhyn Castle, Great Hall (Hopper) , 1 06. 
 
 Penshurst Place, Kent, 58. 
 
 Peterborough Cathedral, West Front, 44; 
 Figures on Gateway of Close, 278. 
 
 Phillips. Byron, 224. 
 
 Piccadilly Hotel (Norman Shaw), 1 16. 
 
 Picta, Breadsall. Derbyshire. 281. 
 
 Pine. R. E.. Garrick, 194. 
 
 Plimer, Portrait of a Lady, 257. 
 
 Pond, A., Peg WofUngton, 206. 
 
 Portrait, unidentified, 163. 165. 
 
 Powis Castle, Gallery, 80. 
 
 Radcliffe Library, Oxford (Gibbs), 101. 
 
 Raeburn, Mrs. James Campbell, 198; Major 
 Clunes, 200 ; Mrs. Ferguson, 198; Portrait 
 of Himself 179; Lord Newton. 197; Sir 
 John Sinclair, 200; Nathaniel Spens. 199; 
 Lady Steuart of Coltness, 197. 
 
 Ramsay, Allan, Lady Louisa Connolly, 1 92 ; 
 Caroline Lady Holland, 193. 
 
 Repton, crypt, 24. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir J., Age of Innocence, 182; 
 Duchess of Devonshire and Child, 1 82 ; 
 Garrick between Tradegy and Comedy, 
 180; Qibbon, 181 ; Portrait of Himself, 
 1 79 ; Dr. Johnson, 1 80 ; Miss Monckton, 
 183; Nelly O'Brien, 181; Two Gentle- 
 men, 181 . 
 
 Reynolds, Viscountess Crosbie (colored print), 
 facing page 206. 
 
 Richard II., Head of, Westminster, 286; 
 Portrait of, 1 60 ; and Queen. 286 ; and 
 Saints. 161. 
 
 Riley, John, Portrait of Chiffinch, 1 76. 
 
 Robertson, Andrew, Portrait of a Lady, 256. 
 
 Rochester Cathedral, Doorway, 5 1 . 
 
 Rock of Cashel, 31. 
 
 Romney, Lady Beachamp Procter, 189; 
 
 Children of Earl Gower, 190; Mrs. Currie, 
 
 191 ; Euphrosyne, 191 ; Mrs. Jordan, 191 ; 
 
 Lady Arabella Ward, 190. 
 Romney, The Seamstress (colored print), 
 
 facing page 266. 
 Rossetti, D. G., Borgia s'amuse, 265; King 
 
 Rene's Honeymoon, 265; Lilith, 231; 
 
 Mrs. Morris, 23 1 ; Regina Cordium, 23 1 . 
 Rothwell, Calisto, 221. 
 Round Tower, Brechin, 15. 
 RoyalMS., IDxFol. 6. 142. 
 Russell, John, Pastel Portrait, 268. 
 Rylands Library, Manchester, 112. 
 St. Albans, plan, 27 ; Tower, 27. 
 St. Bartholomew's Church, London, 25. 
 St. Benet's Tower. Cambridge. 24. 
 St. Bride's, neet Street (Wren), 93. 
 St. Clement Dane's, London (Wren and 
 
 Gibbs), 100. 
 St. Dolough's Church, co. Dublin, 46. 
 St. Ethelbert's Gate, Norwich, 5 1 . 
 St. Etheldreda's Chapel, Ely Place, Holborn, 
 
 54. 
 St. Frideswide's Shrine, Christ Church, 
 
 Oxford, 65. 
 St. George's Chapel, Windsor, 59. 
 St. George's Church, Doncaster (Gilbert 
 
 Scott), 106. 
 St. George's Hall, Liverpool, 105. 
 St. Giles' Church, Wrexham, 69. 
 St. James' Street, chambers in (Norman 
 
 Shaw), 122. 
 St. John's Chapel, Tower of London, 26; plan, 
 
 26. 
 St. John's Church, Frome, screen from, 
 
 128. 
 St. John the Evangelist, Red Lion Square, 
 
 108. 
 St. Magwe, Shrine of. Figures on, 14. 
 St. Martin's Church, Canterbury, 20; Font, 
 
 20. 
 St. Mary-le-Strand, London (Gibbs), 97. 
 St. Mary's Church, Oxford, Porch (Inigo 
 
 Jones), 90. 
 St. Patrick's Bell, Shrine of, 13. 
 St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin,45. 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, London (Wren), 91; 
 
 from Ludgate Hill, 86. 
 St. Paul's Church, Covent Garden (Inigo 
 
 Jones). 87. 
 St. Regulus' Church, 23. 
 St. Stephen's Church, Walbrook, London, 
 
 92. 
 Salisbury Cathedral, 40; Chapter-house, 49; 
 
 Plan, 39 ; IVIarket Cross, 72. 
 Sargent, John. Duchess of Portland, 245. 
 Saxon bas-relief, Chichester, 275. 
 Scott Monument (Kemp), Eldinburgh, 109. 
 
 331 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Doorway 
 (Birnie Rhind). 
 
 Seaman, Noah, Portrait. 259. 
 
 Seaton Delaval, 102. 
 
 Short, Frank, April in Kent, 147. 
 
 Sizergh Castle, Room in, 81 . 
 
 Sleeping Soldiers on the Easter Sepulchre, 
 Lincoln, 274. 
 
 Smart, J., Portrait of a Lady, 255. 
 
 Smith, J. R., Mrs. Carwardine and Child, 
 156; Sir Harbord Harbord, 155. 
 
 Somerset House (W. Chambers), 97, 
 
 Spencer, Gervase, Portrait, 258. 
 
 Spencer House, St. James", London (Vardy), 
 102. 
 
 Stark, James, Landscape with Wind Mill, 
 216; Valley of the Y are, 2\5. 
 
 Stevens, Alfred, Caryatid, 296; Chalk Draw- 
 ing (2), 269; Proposed Memorial of the 
 1851 Exhibition, 296; A Study, 270; 
 Truth, 295; Valour, 295; Wellington 
 Monument, 288, 294. 
 
 Stocke, Portrait of William, by an unknown 
 painter, 164. 
 
 Stonehenge, 1, 2. 
 
 Storey, G. A., The Annunciation, 233. 
 
 Stothard, T., Intemperance, 204. 
 
 Stubbs, White Horse and Groom, 205. 
 
 Swan, J. M., Leopard and Tortoise, 303; 
 Youth of Orpheus (2), 303. 
 
 Tapestry at Hatfield, 139. 
 
 Tara Brooch, Dublin Museum, 1 30. 
 
 Tewkesbury Abbey, 30. 
 
 Thornewaite. Ploughing in Sussex, 266. 
 
 Thornton Abbey, gate-house, 68. 
 
 Thornycroft, Hamo, Artemis, 300; Bishop 
 Creighton, 301 ; Edward L, 301 : General 
 Gordon, 300; r/ieMon>er,301 ; reucer,300. 
 
 Toft, Albert, Victory, 306. 
 
 Tomb, 285; of the Earl and Countess of 
 Arundel, Arundel, 281; of Edward II., 
 Gloucester Cathedral, 53; of Edward III., 
 Westminster Abbey, 59; of Queen Eleanor, 
 Westminster Abbey, 126; of Archbishop 
 Gray, York, 280; of Sir Ralph Green, 
 Lowick, Northants, 283; Hertford, Salis- 
 bury Cathedral, 78; at Holme-Pierrepoint, 
 Notts. 283, 284; of King John, Worcester, 
 287; of Archbishop Peckham, Canterbury, 
 280; in Southwark Cathedral, 284; of the 
 Earl of Warwick, Warwick, 64. 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, Gate-tower, 75. 
 Trinity CoUege, Oxford. 289; Chapel, Oxford, 
 92. 
 
 Trinity Church, Holy, Sloane Street (Sedding). 
 
 no. 
 
 Turner, J. M. W., Clapham Common; 210; 
 Qarden of the Hesperides, 211; The 
 Giudecca, 212; Raglan Castle, 156; Sol 
 di Venezia, 212; Spithead, 21 1 ; Storm, 
 212 ; Ulysses deriding Polyphemus, 209. 
 United Kingdom Provident Institution (H. T. 
 
 Hare), 120. 
 United University Club (R. Blomfield), 120. 
 Vincent, George, Greenwich, 2 1 6. 
 Wainwright, The,Drinker, 267. 
 Waldorf Hotel, London (Marshall Mackenzie), 
 
 117. 
 Walker, A. G., The Thorn, 308. 
 Wallingford Screen, St. Albans, 65. 
 Waltham Cross, restoration, 55. 
 War Office, Whitehall (Young), 1 19. 
 Ward, J., Alderney Cattle, 218. 
 Waterlow, Ernest, Warkworth Castle, 266. 
 Watson, C. J., St. Jacques, Lisieux. 146. 
 Watson, John, Mrs. Abingdon, 152. 
 Watts, G. P., Walter Crane, 247 ; Russell 
 Gurncy, 230; Hope, 230; Hugh Lupus, 
 298; Vital Energy. 297. 
 Wells Cathedral, West Front, 42; From 
 North East 54 ; Chapter-house, 55 ; 
 Figures on West Front, 278. 
 West, Benjamin, Panel for ceiling, 208. 
 Westminster Abbey, Chapter-house, 50; 
 
 Choir, 37 ; Nave, 38 ; Plan, 38. 
 Westminster Cathedral, Porch, 110; Nave, 
 
 111; Brampton Chapel, 111. 
 Westminster Hall, 68. 
 
 Whistler, J. MacN., Miss Alexander, 228; 
 Portrait of the Painter's Mother, 244 ; Miss 
 Seymour Haden, 147. 
 Whitehall, as designed by Inigo Jones, 87; 
 ground floor plan, 88 ; from Miiller's en- 
 graving, 89. 
 Wigmore Street, Shop in, 120. 
 Wilkie, D., The Pope and the Goldsmith, 
 
 145; The Refusal, 220. 
 Wimperis, Hay field. Amberley, 266. 
 Winchester Cathedral, nave, 30, 60 ; plan, 60. 
 Windus, Burt/ £://en, 232. 
 Woodcut Initial, Foxe's Martyrs, 1 49. 
 Woodcut from the " Fall of Princes," 149. 
 Wyatt, George///., 290. 
 
 York Minster, Chapter -house, 56, 57 ; Choir, 
 67 ; The Five Sisters, 4 1 ; South Side, 67 ; 
 Transept and Tower, 4 1 . 
 
■\ 
 
 :-^ 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 BERKELEY 
 
 Return to desk from which borrowed. 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 9 Apr'49AF 
 REC'D LO 
 
 NOV 11 1957 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 MAR 24 1i)59 
 
 JW 
 
 7 t96B 8 
 
 0EC1>'65-»PN 
 UOMi DEPX 
 
 UCLA 
 INTERLIBRARY LOAN 
 
 THRH WEEKS df'ER (irEipi 
 .NON-REN£WAfiLE f: 
 
 bHi-yo 
 
 ^ULsi 
 
 ^9?: 
 
 •N STACKS 
 
 "JUL 2 7 ^r. 
 
 mi 1 b 1998 
 
 LD 21-100m-9,'48XB399sl6)476 
 
 ^ 
 
VB 17502 
 
 ll 
 

 III