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SIR WALTER ARMSTRONG

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ARS UNA : SPECIES MILLE
GENERAL HISTORY OF ART

Volumes in preparation : —

BYZANTINE ART.

THE ART OF INDIA.

EGYPTIAN ART.

FLEMISH ART.

FRENCH ART.

GERMAN ART.

THE ART OF GREECE.

ART IN HOLLAND.

THE ART OF CHINA AND JAPAN.

ART IN AMERICA.

ROMAN ART.

THE ART OF NORTHERN ITALY.

THE ART OF SOUTHERN ITALY.

SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ART.

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ARS UNA: SPECIES MILLE
GENERAL HISTORY OF ART

ART IN

GREAT BRITAIN

AND IRELAND

SIR WALTER ARMSTRONG

DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF IRELAND

Hogarth

NEW YORK

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
MCMIX

ff£i£&-

This volume is published simultaneously in
America by Charles Scribner's Sons, New
York; in Eiiglnnd by William Heinemann,
London; also in Frettch by Hachette et Cie,
Paris; in German by Julius Hoffmann,
Stuttgart; in Italian by the Istituto Italiano
D'Arti Grafiche, Bergamo; in Spanish by the
Libreria Gutenberg de Jose Ruiii, Madrid.

PREFACE

The history of art in the British Isles — which still remains to be
written — will be the history of a frequently arrested and frequently
diverted development. The remains which have come down to us
contradict the assumption, too often made, that the unequally mixed
race inhabiting England, Scotland, and Ireland is essentially inartistic,
and that, if left to itself, it would have produced little or nothing
with which the historian of art need have been greatly concerned.
It is true that the Celtic and Latin elements in our population
deserve the credit of most that is good in our aesthetic produc-
tion, but, after all, those Celtic and Latin elements are an integral
part of our race, and we have as much right to take pride in their
achievements as in the political virtues which may perhaps spring
chiefly from the Teutonic strain in our blood. It is impossible to
deny the aesthetic gifts of a people which has left behind it such
remains as those of early Christian art in Ireland, as the exquisite
churcl|es which stud the whole of Britain, from Chichester to Elgin,
as the manuscripts of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuriies
and the needlework of about the same period, as the perpendicular
style of Gothic architecture, as the miniature portraits turned out in

205572

PREFACE

such countless numbers between the days of HilHard and those of
Cosway, as the renaissance architecture of Inigo Jones and Wren
and their disciples, as the works of the great portrait painters of the
eighteenth century and the landscape painters who followed them.
To all these instances we may even add many of the results of the
Gothic revival in the nineteenth century. That movement may have
been a mistaken one, founded rather upon archaeological than artistic
ambitions, but it led, at least, to the erection of a vast number of
buildings in which the forms of Gothic architecture were used to
produce harmonious creations, and to a few grandiose piles, such as
the Palace of Westminster, which are marvels, considering the
period of their conception and the rapidity of their construction.
We might even point to later developments still, as proof of the
artistic capacity of our race. Has any people ever drawn itself
more rapidly out of a non-artistic morass than the younger English
and Scottish architects out of the chaos of nonsense building which
prevailed here twenty — or even ten — years ago } Far from com-
plete as this process still is, it has gone far enough to show that,
when properly treated, British architects still have in them much of
the spirit of Jones and Wren, and to suggest that, given opportunity
and freedom, they might approach the triumphs of those two great
builders.

For each of our happy periods and categories, we islanders can
point to things of first-rate merit. Nothing, in their own way, can
be set before those remains of Celtic art which are chiefly to be
found in Ireland. The two centuries and a half which saw the
birth, development, and decay of Gothic architecture produced
nothing more perfect than the interior of Westminster Abbey, or the
northeastern aspect of Salisbury, or Lincoln as a whole, or more
superbly original than the chapels of Henry VI. and Henry VII.
Renaissance architecture produced nothing liner than Inigo Jones's
first design for Whitehall and Christopher Wren's St. Paul's. We
need scarcely allude to the painters of the eighteenth century, or

PREFACE

even to the long line of miniaturists, from the reign of Henry VIII.
to that of George 111., for these are already accepted ; but we must
remember that among the debris of the minor arts of the Gothic
ages, a sufficient number of English things exist to show that the
metal worker, the illuminator, the glass painter, the needleworker,
even the statue maker, practised in this country hardly less successfully
than elsewhere. Examples are few, no doubt, when compared with
those of the Continent, but their quality proves that in them we
have the remains of a wide-spread activity.

How is it, then, that our specimens are scanty, and their affiliation
often so difficult to trace ? This may be referred to three causes,
which acted and reacted on each other. The first was our insular
position, the second our insular character — "every Englishman is
an island," — the third, the coincidence of political and religious
upheavals with critical moments in our artistic development. It is
likely enough that a searching analysis would fuse these three into a
single cause, and come near to proving that all the peculiarities of
our artistic, as of our political history were due to the existence of
the English Channel. But my immediate purpose will be sufficiently
served by beginning later, and attempting to show how these three
conditions, severally, affected both the progress of British art and the
preservation of its results.

Our insular position hardly requires to be insisted on. To it we
owe the nationality which marks our art from the dark ages onward.
If there had been no Channel, we should have been a province of
France, or France of us, and artistic forms would have radiated from
their points of origin with no more than those slight and gradual
changes en route by which only the expert can distinguish between
one section of a single school and another. Some writers contend
that, even with the Channel, we were nothing but a French province,
at least in architecture. In a sense, that is partly true, but only
so far as all movements become provincial as soon as they leave their
initial matrix. Even this acknowledgment should be made, however.

PREFACE

with reserves, for much English Gothic has no French root at all,
while the earliest complete example of the purely pointed style is not
in France, but in England; is inspired by English ideas, not by
French ; is carried out in English details, not in those elaborated by
the builders of St. Denis, Paris, Sens, and Chartres.

The fairest way to put the whole matter is to say that what we
know as Gothic art was the form of expression which grew naturally
from the needs, opportunities, and aspirations of the races which
inhabited northwestern Europe, toward the close of the Middle
Ages. Steps in advance were sometimes taken in one place, some-
times in another. Then, as now, the northern French were more
ambitious than their neighbors, were readier to make sacrifices, had
a finer sense of structure and logic, and a more generous supply of
excellent materials. So they contributed more than the rest to the
common adventure. But that by no means justifies the statement
that in France alone the style was alive, that there alone men were
united in working out an idea, while the rest of the world hung on
what they did, and produced bad imitations. Had that been so, a
survey of mediaeval building would have been a simple matter
indeed. We should merely have had to follow the creation of
forms in the He de France and their gradual degradation as they
travelled away from that centre. English Gothic would have been
merely the pale shadow of French, with no character of its own
at all. '

But it has a decided character. Apart from the general principles
of the style and the more or less inevitable forms to which they led,
English Gothic differs from French as much as Venetian painting
does from Florentine. Its aims are so different that, nine times out
of ten, we find the beauties of an English church corresponding to
the defects of a French one, and vice versa. Its methods are so

' The history of modern female costume provides a good illustration of an art which really spreads
from a centre. Its birth-place is Paris, where it is the natural expression of the people. The
farther it goes from the Rue de la Paix, the more lifeless and imitative it becomes ; but it clings
to its French forms.

viii

PREFACE

distinct that there is hardly a detail by which one cannot decide at a
glance the nationality of the building on which it occurs. In short, we
have all the evidence we can ask that Gothic art was here no less
legitimate a birth of conditions than in France. It was no stolen child.
It was inferior for exactly the same reason that the English drama is
inferior to the French. Our sense of structure is not equal to theirs.
We do not feel the necessity as deeply as they do of fusing method
and result into unity. English architects attempted no such com-
binations of structural audacity and aesthetic expression as the
clerestory of Amiens ; but neither did they leave to posterity any
such record of the ambition that overleaps itself as the choir of
Beauvais !

In short, mediaeval architecture in England has its own character,
its own beauties and defects, its own masterpieces and failures, which
prove, like other debris from the centuries, that the people of our
islands did not greatly differ from those of the Continent, so far as
their innate cesthetic gifts and aspirations were concerned. The
country swarmed with builders, who knew the style they worked in
as they knew the language they talked. Now and then hints
reached them from without. Now and then a strolling craftsman
would wander in among them from some country of the sun, while
their own employers, bishops and nobles, would stimulate their
ambitions by accounts of what was being done abroad. But their
dialect was their own, and in rearing the sacred and secular monu-
ments with which they covered the whole face of the country, they
followed those racial instincts which have marked the Briton from
their day to ours.

And so it was with the subsidiary arts. Cathedrals remain — at
least in countries where the forces of destruction were less
outrageously energetic than they were beyond the Tweed. But
smaller things were easily put out of existence. The value of our
Cathedral treasures before the Reformation was gigantic, but
scarcely anything remains. Judging from what may still be found

PREFACE

in sacristies abroad, our cope chests alone must have held
convincing proofs of the flourishing condition of our minor arts.
Such a development as that of the famous Opus Anglicanum does
not occur in a country which owes the best part of its achievements
to imported aliens. No one can study the English vestments in
Italian and Spanish churches, or in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, and believe the country which produced them was a
hopeless laggard in the arts.

I might go on and multiply examples, but the proper place for
that will be the chapters which follow. All that need be insisted
on for the moment is that British artistry deserves to be studied for
its own sake, to be accepted as a distinct national development,
just as much as that of Italy or France. That its importance is
comparatively slight is no reason for denying its sincerity and
historical value, or for approaching it in a sceptical and grudging
spirit. Its insular position gave it its national character. Without
the Channel a single form of art would have spread from the
Pyrenees to the Tay. Britain would then have been truly pro-
vincial ; unless, indeed — which is quite within the bounds of possi-
bility — the centre of gravity had shifted from the Seine to the
Thames.

The nationality of our art, then, is to be credited to the sea
v/hich circumscribes us. What is the cause of our individualism?
That we are individualistic, intolerant of discipline, inapt for
combination, impatient of tradition, cannot, I think, be denied.
Our reputation for conservatism springs from our individuality. An
Englishman prefers his own way to that of other people. He likes
to work out his* own salvation in commerce and the arts, as well as
in religion. With him the process of evolution is far from being
the steady march it is with a truly conservative race, like the
French, who confine their experiments to politics. The one
European community which appears to share our rampant
individuality is that which inhabits the delta of the Rhine, and,

PREFACE

perhaps, the causes are much the same in both cases. Holland
could never have come into existence at all unless her people had
been strenuously self-assertive. The modern Dutch are descended
Jrom the sturdy Celtic race which nature and Julius Caesar drove
into that fight with the Rhine and the North Sea which has
persisted for nearly two thousand years. The ancestors of the
modern Briton were the picked men from various races who had
the energy to invade these inhospitable islands in the Atlantic and
to maintain their ground when there. If our history had been free
from the untimely catastrophes — again largely due to our individ-
ualism — which broke the sequence, and destroyed the creations, of
our art, this energy of character might have led to results equal, in
their different way, to those won by the Italians and the French.

The Black Death, the Wars of the Roses, the Reformation, the
Great Rebellion and the consequent incubus of the Puritans, each
came at a critical moment and took a course which ensured the
largest possible amount of destruction and dislocation. Had it not
been for the Wars of the Roses, art would have progressed on the
lines shown by such remains as we possess from the Gothic centuries,
while the dissolution of the monasteries and destruction of the force
which had chiefly made for artistic wealth and the safeguarding of
tradition, prevented the renewal of life from native seed, and led
to unhappy because non-national importations. Then a brighter
era opened under Charles I., only to be spoilt again by that
King's political incapacity, and the disastrous reactions to which it
led. To our insular position it was due that all these catastrophes
were so complete. Their destructive power was great enough to
reach the sea on every hand, so that when a chance came tor the
renewal of life, the germ had to be sought elsewhere.

But through it all the national spirit and character can be tracqjd.
In painting, even the foreigners who came here to show us the way
were affected by their English milieu. Holbein alone was sturdy
enough to resist the influence. He worked in Blackfriars exactly

PREFACE

as he would have done in Basle, had he never left his home. Van
Dyck in London was not the Van Dyck of Antwerp or Genoa.
He caught, at once, the English spirit, the spirit which may be
recognized in English art throughout the Middle Ages, and in that
art of miniature painting which alone had kept its activity unbroken.
It is to this sympathetic strain in his character that he owes his
influence over the course taken by English painting. Both before
and after his time our native painters aimed at a certain elegance
and simplicity of conception, avoiding irrelevance and making as
much as they could of the distinction which marked the society they
served. The passport to success of the foreign painter settling in
the country was ability to fall in with this scheme.

W. A.

The Author and the Publisher desire to express their gratitude
to the following owners of works of art and copyrights without
whose generous permission many of the six hundred illustrations
could not have been laid before the reader : The Royal Academy
of Arts, Sir William Quiller Orchardson, Sir Francis Seymour
Haden, Mr. George Salting, Mrs. Seeker, Mrs. Joseph, Mr. J. C.
Alexander, the Misses Percy, Mr. M. H. Spielmann, Mr.
Reginald Blomfield, Mr. E. S. Prior, Mr. R. H. Benson, the
Messrs. Hook, Mrs. Charles Furse, Col. Hutcheson Poe, C.B.,
Mr. John Murray, Mr. C. J. Longman, the Director of the
Cambridge University Press, Messrs. Cassell and Co., Thos.
Agnew and Sons, Dowdeswell and Dowdeswell, Sulley and
Co., P. and D. Colnaghi, Durlacher Bros., the Fine Arts Society,
the Directors of the various public collections which have been
drawn upon for examples, and practically all of the living
Painters and Sculptors whose works are reproduced in the later
chapters.

A certain number of illustrations, especially in the chapter
dealing with modern art, have been left to tell their own story

PREFACE

without mention in the text. In a small 8vo containing more than
600 typographic blocks to 3 1 2 pages of text, this could only have
been avoided either by unduly compressing the more important
parts of the text, or by ignoring minor artists altogether, neither of
which courses seemed advisable.

PANEL OF WHALE IVORY :
ADORATION OF THE MAGI.

Twelfth Century.
(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

The Publisher acknowledges his indebtedness to the following
photographers for the use of prints and negatives in the preparation
of the following illustrations :

Messrs. Frith & C.^.. Ltd., Reigate : Nos. 22, 26, 31. 43, 44, 45. 47. 54. 56.
57. 59. 60, 61, 62, 65. 69, 70. 71, 72, 73, 74. 81. 83. 84. 85, 88, 89, 90. 92. 93,
94, 97. 98. 100, 101. 103. 104, 105. 1 14. 1 16, 120, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 131.
132. 133. 135. 138, 146, 148. 151. 154. 162, 163, 167, 177, 180. 186, 196, 197.
203, 516, 545. Messrs. William M. Spooner Co., London: Nos. 38. 41. 46.
50,76.82,91, 102. 103. 108. 115. 117-118-119. 130. 134. 140. 141. 150. 152.
157. 158. 168.200. 211. 213. Mr. W. Lawrence. Dublin: Nos. 4. 8. 49. 52,
77. 78. 79. 166. 193. 264. Messrs. Valentine & Sons. Ltd., Dundee: Nos. 21.
165, 227. Messrs. Fredk. Hollyer. London: Nos. 418. 421. 422. 451. 499.
564. 565. J. Caswell Smith. Londoi: No. 426. Albert Hester, Clapton:
No. 214. A. R. Hogg. Belfast: No. 224. Arthur Pitcher: No. 540. Emery
Walker : No. 398. G. W. Wilson & Co.. Aberdeen : No. 222. Sir Cuthbert
Quilter. Bart. : No. 434. Fine Arts Society, publishers of the large plate No.
443, and Messrs. Dowdeswell & Dowdeswell. owners of the copyright and
publishers of the large plate, No. 436.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES— THE IBERIANS-THE
CELTS -CHARACTERISTICS OF CELTIC ART — THEIR PER-
SISTENCE 1

CHAPTER II
ANGLO-SAXON ART 16

CHAPTER III
ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE, OR ROUND ARCHED GOTHIC . 25

CHAPTER IV
EARLY ENGLISH. OR FIRST POINTED. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE . 36

CHAPTER V
DECORATED. OR SECOND POINTED. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE . 50

CHAPTER VI
PERPENDICULAR, OR THIRD POINTED. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE . 59

CHAPTER VII
THE TUDOR CHAOS ............ 73

CHAPTER VIII

THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE— INIGO JONES AND SIR CHRISTOPHER

WREN 87

CHAPTER IX
FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN . . . „ . , « . . 97

CHAPTER X
THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 105

CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER XI
MODERN RENAISSANCE ,,5

CHAPTER XII
CERTAIN MINOR ARTS ,25

CHAPTER XIII

PAINTING IN THE BRITISH ISLES FROM ITS ORIGIN TO THE BIRTH

OF HOGARTH ,59

CHAPTER XIV
PAINTING— MIDDLE PERIOD 1 79

CHAPTER XV
MODERN PAINTING— TURNER TO WATTS 209

CHAPTER XVI

PAINTING— FROM THE PRE-RAPHAELITE REVOLT ' TO THE

PRESENT DAY 229

CHAPTER XVII
PORTRAIT-MINIATURES 249

CHAPTER XVIII
WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS— DRAWINGS 260

CHAPTER XIX
SCULPTURE— FIRST PERIOD-GOTHIC SCULPTURE 274

CHAPTER XX
SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD 288

CHAPTER XXI
SCULPTURE— PRESENT DAY 299

INDEX .........,,, 313

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS .328

xvi

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN
AND IRELAND

CHAPTER I

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES— THE
IBERIANS — THE CELTS — CHARACTERISTICS
OF CELTIC ART— THEIR PERSISTENCE

The earliest monument to which we can point in these islands as
showing any trace of aesthetic ambition is Stonehenge. No remains
have been found here comparable to those of the reindeer hunters
of Southern France, or the decorations of the cave of Altamira, in
Northern Spain. Countless objects, indeed, betraying that love for,
or at least interest in, symmetry, which seems to be the first of the
artistic propensities to declare itself, have been found in the deposits
from both the Stone Ages. But as yet we can point to little which
indicates the desire to imitate, or to decorate, or to wed one form
to another harmoniously, which can be traced in the remains from
the period of the reindeer hunters. In a handbook which professes
to confine itself to the fine arts it is permissible, then, to begin at
a comparatively recent date. The polished stone period was
the period of the Swiss lake dwellings, of dolmens,^ menhirs^
and cromlechs.^ The only remaining example of this primitive
architecture which has any kind of artistic character is, as I have
said, Stonehenge. But that may date from a period almost as late
as the beginning of the Bronze Age: i.e., from about 2000 B.C. to
1500 B.C. Its huge blocks are not rough, but hewn, and their
disposition shows a feeling for symmetry and artistic subordination
which may almost be called cultivated.

* Tombs of undressed stones, piled one upon another, in the manner of jambs and lintels.
2 Obelisks. ^ Circles and avenues of rough monoliths.

1 B

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

After Stonehenge a long stride has to be taken before we reach
another monument of architecture. In Britain, as all over Western

Europe, defensive walls

FIG. 2. — STONEHENGE, RESTORED.

were the only stone struc-
tures erected during many
centuries; all other build-
ings, religious and domes-
tic, appear to have been
of wood. The art, then,
of the Bronze Age, which
succeeded that of polished
stone, has to be studied in
remains of a less important
kind. According to the latest authorities this age lasted in Britain
from about 1 500 B.C. to about 300 B.C.

Bronze is a composite metal consisting of about nine parts of
copper to one of tin. It was the chief material basis of civilization
all over Europe and parts of Asia and Africa, for a time variously
calculated by different archaeologists. The civilization of ancient
Egypt belongs mainly to the Bronze Age. The copper mines of
the Isthmus of Suez were worked as early as 4000 B.C., and iron
had not come into general use as late as 1 500 B.C. Bronze was the
Greek metal as late as 800 B.C. The Bronze Age in that part of
Europe which stretches, like the mount of a fan, from the Caucasus
round by the north to Britain and Western France, did not come to
an end till between the sixth and the fourth century B.C.

Although existing evidence points to the Caucasus as the
original home of the bronze in-
dustry, new discoveries are so
continually revolutionizing our
ideas as to the chronology of
early civilization, that no positive
statement on that point can be
hazarded. T^rima facie, it
seems likely that the distribu-
tion of copper and tin deposits
would have much to do with
priority in their use. It is not
unreasonable to suppose that
wherever the two metals were

found in abundance, a source of distribution existed, coming into activity
as the psychological moment in the surrounding civilization arrived.

fig. 3. — stonehenge.
(constable.)

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES

The similarity between the forms taken by early bronze objects,
wherever found, is to be explained by the characteristics of the material,
more often, perhaps, than we are apt to suppose. In our desire
to simplify origins and round off theories, we may be too ready
to ignore the forces which make for coincidence in human
activities. No one who is engaged in any form of invention or
mental production can deny the frequency with which a new idea
will crop up simultaneously in several different quarters. This is not
necessarily due to borrowing, nor to pure accident. It is brought
about by some inscrutable generative force in the existing situation.
The movement of art from a centre has been likened to the circles on a.
pond made by throwing a stone into the water. A fairer com-
parison would be with the countless circles made by a shower
of rain. Where the shower is heaviest, the circles are thickest,
but wherever a drop falls, it starts a ring, which threads its way
through the others and makes its own impression on the whole
surface. This simile applies better, no doubt, to advanced civiliza-
tions, in which communication is easy and rapid, than to those of
primitive times; but even for the bronze and earlier ages, it has its
application.

In no country in the world were the early bronze industries
carried to greater perfection than in our own. The deposits of
copper and tin, especially of the latter, were rich and accessible,
and with the first invasion of the Celts, if not before, they fell into
the hands of a race which exploited them to the best advantage.

Who were the Celts ?

The Celts were a warlike race of tall, powerful men, with fair
skins, blue eyes, and fair hair tending toward red. They were
variously called, by Greek and Roman writers, Celtae (k€Xt6i),
Galatae (yaXdrai), and Galli (ydWoi). These names were originally
given to all the races of Western Europe, north of the Alps, who
were not Iberian or Ligurian. It was not until the time of Julius Caesar
that the name Celtae, or Galli, was restricted to the peoples inhabit-
ing the country between the Rhine and the Pyrenees. Their original
home — using the adjective with its necessary limitations — appears to
have been the upper valley of the Danube and that of the Rhone,
and the district between the two. In the fourth century B.C. these
Celts, Galli, or Gauls, temporarily conquered much of Italy and
captured Rome itself, under Brennus. A century later they sacked
the temples of Delphi. They colonized and gave their name
to Galatia, in Asia Minor, and they overran the greater part of
what we now call France. In their progress westward and north-

3 B 2

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

ward, they partly drove the earher Iberian populations before them,
partly mixed with them, losing to some slight extent the saliency of
their own characteristics in the process.

The first mention of the Celts in history is by Hecataeus of Miletus
(circa 500 B.C.), who incidentally alludes to Marseilles as a Ligurian
city in their neighborhood.^ They are mentioned too by various
other early writers, but only in a vague and unsatisfactory way, and
it is not until we come down to Polybius (204 B.C.- 122) that we
get much definite information about them. From him, who appears
to have been one of the first to use the name Galati, we learn that
the Italian Celts, the inhabitants of Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul,
came from the valley of the Danube; that the Cisalpine Celts

were an agricultural race,
living in considerable ease
and luxury; and that
their Transalpine cousins
were migratory, warlike,
and ready to settle on any
promising lands their
swords could win.

According to the now
accepted theory, the aborig-
inal inhabitants of Britain,
partly displaced, partly ab-
sorbed, by the Celts, be-
longed to the widespread
Iberian race, now represented, more or less in its purity, by the
Basques, the South- Western Irish, the non-Celtic Welsh, and other
small, dark races of Western Europe. The Celts came in two
waves. The earlier invaders, the Goidels, are now represented
by the Scottish Highlanders, the Celtic Irish, and the inhabitants of
the Isle of Man. The second wave, of so-called Brythonic Celts,
came much later, and overran most of England. These Brythonic
Celts are now represented by the Celtic Welsh, the Cornishmen,
and the Bretons.

These two families are sometimes distinguished as the P and
the Q Celts from a difference in equivalent words in their languages
corresponding to those two consonants. The Welsh use ** ap," for
instance, to mean " son of," while the Gael uses ** mac." A broader
distinction exists in the fact that the earlier invaders, the Goidels,

FIG. 4. — GALLERUS ORATORY, CO. KERRY.

-^ (C. and T. Muellerus, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, Paris, 1841,
No. 22.)

i'ol.

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES

were in the Bronze Age of civilization, while their successors, the
Brythons, were in the Iron Age.

The first three stages, then, of any British civilization concerned
with art, even in its most elementary form, sprang from the Iberian

aborigines in their late neolithic or
early Bronze period, illustrated
by Stonehenge ; from the Goidelic
Celts in their Bronze stage ; and
from the Brythonic Celts, in their
age of Iron.

Art, in the Bronze Age, found
an outlet in the beautiful forms
of such utilitarian objects as did
not by their very nature repel
the aesthetic impulse. Swords,
spears, shields, bracelets, helmets,
brooches, neck ornaments, etc.,
were decorated by various combinations of lines and curves, some-
times engraved, sometimes beaten up from behind. Many objects
so ornamented are so exquisite in proportion and in the rhythm
of their lines that they may fairly be said to have carried their
own system of decoration to a point beyond which it could not go.
During the last twenty years we have seen the artistic principles
which governed the Celtic metal-workers re-adopted by some of the
most gifted of living artists, with all the resources of modern civiliza-
tion at their command. But nothing they have done excels in beauty
or artistic judgment the better things left
by the earliest of our Celtic forefathers.
As an example, the gold torque, so long
disputed between the British Museum
and the Museum at Dublin, may be
named. It is, however, only one among
a mass of objects in which similar motives
are used with the finest judgment and
skill. Provincial museums all over the
United Kingdom possess fragments in
which these simple elements of decoration
are employed with extraordinary felicity.
Archaeologists have expressed their
surprise that so consummate an art
could be so widespread, and exist so long, without develop-
ing into something higher, or at least more ambitious. The

^ OF THE '^K

UNIVERSITY

FIG. 6.-

-GOLD TORQUE FROM
LIMAVADY.

(Dublin Museum.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

absence of any attempt to reproduce natural objects, or imitate the
appearance of men and animals, has sometimes been held to prove
that the early Celtic artist was only half awake, that he was waiting
to be stirred to a fuller ambition by example from without. M.
Reinach says ** the decoration is invariably and exclusively linear, as

if some religious law, some fear of
maleficent sorcery, had forbidden the
representation of men and animals."^
It is impossible to say that this was not
so. We know how great an effect
such a taboo had on the not entirely
dissimilar art of the Saracens, many
centuries later. But a possibility sug-
gested by the differential quality of
Celtic art, from the earliest times
down to this present moment, must also
be taken into consideration. And that
brings me to one of the ideas on which
the views expressed in the following
chapters will be found to depend.

The Celtic, or Gallic, note in
art is form: not the imitation or
idealization of external forms, but
the form of the work of art itself.
The simplest constituent of form is line, and on that foundation the
Celt works, making it the essential element of his conceptions. He
alone, among European races, has developed the expressive value
of line to the uttermost, sometimes even to the exclusion of all
other vehicles for aesthetic emotion. In painting, a sense of line
leads to the qualities we call design, composition, rhythm. In
sculpture it is the foundation of all harmony, although, in the
narrowest sense, it scarcely exists in a statue at all. In architecture
as an art, its place is more important still, for there its absence
cannot be so readily masked by the presence of other virtues. Now,
in a race endowed with a propensity toward creation in line, we
should not expect to find much interest in natural forms, as artistic
material, until a comparatively late period of development. The
simple aspects of line, and those combinations of their simple aspects
^vhich can be so very far from simple, would be exhausted before
ihe Celtic artist would feel any inducement to go farther, and
complicate his task by the introduction of realistic imitations of

FIG. 7.— KILCRONEY, IRELAND.

Apollo

English Eldition, p. 1 I . Heinemann, 1 907.

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES

external objects. The Celt, Gaul or Gael, felt, and feels to this day,
comparatively little interest in the objective imitation of things out-
side himself. His blood was not in the veins of the reindeer
hunters ! Men, animals, vegetables, were treated by him as mere
sources of suggestion for his linear patterns, until his skill became so
advanced that he could combine objective truth with that subjective
expression which was his real motive. It is, in short, by this sense of
line and all its derivatives, that the Celtic spirit in art can be traced
from its birth down to the present day, setting the architecture,
sculpture, painting, even literature, of the Celts apart from those of
other races: apart, even, from those of the Greeks, to whom the
approach is nearest.

The remains of Celtic art during the Bronze Age, discovered
in these islands, are of the same nature as the debris of early civiliza-
tions found elsewhere. They consist of carved stones and rocks,
tomb furniture, debris from inhabited sites, hoards, and isolated
objects lost by their owners. They are decorated in combinations of
straight and curved lines, which have been
grouped under various heads, such as the
chevron, the spiral, the swastika, the loop,
the winding band, and concentric circles.^
A large number of the best examples have
been found in Ireland, which country was
at one time thought to be the birthplace of
some of their most characteristic motives.
This is now understood to be an ill-founded
belief, for earlier examples of these sup-
posed-to-be Irish forms have been dis-
covered elsewhere. Ireland, however, can
show the most important surviving speci-
mens in not a few classes of Celtic Art ;
among them that of sculptured stones.
The tumuli of County Meath, at New
Grange, near Drogheda, and at Sliath na
Calliaghe, near Oldcastle, contain the most
remarkable specimens yet discovered. But
it is not improbable that these structures
are the outcome of a mingling of blood and ideas between the
Bronze Age Celts and the neolithic Iberians whom they conquered.

The prevailing motives in the decoration of these tumuli are,
at New Grange, the spiral, complicated by dots, diagonal lines, and

FIG. 8. — HIGH CROSS, MONAS-
TERBOICE, IRELAND.

1 See Romilly Allen, Celtic Art

Pagan and Christian Times (Methuen, 1904).

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. Q. — CELTIC SHIELD.

(British Museum.)

various combinations of the chevron ; at Old-
castle, similar motives combined with star and
wheel-shaped patterns.

The spiral, which does not occur in this
country on the implements and portable ob-
jects of the Bronze Age, seems to have had
its birth in Egypt, whence it travelled by way
of North-Eastern Europe, through Scandinavia,
to Scotland, North England, and Ireland. It
is, however, such an obvious way of decorating
a surface that too much stress must not be laid
on any theory of its affiliation. It was a favorite
motive with the Maoris, who can hardly have
borrowed it either from Egypt, from Mycenae,
or from the ancient Celts.

The decorative motives of Celtic art in
the Bronze Age may, then, be catalogued as

follows : diagonal lines, leading to various combinations of the

chevron ; punched dots ; the loop and its combinations (swastika) ;

and the spiral.

The civilization of the Iron Age was probably brought into

this country by the Brythonic Celts in the third century B.C. The

objects on which our knowledge of its character depends may be

classified similarly to the remains of the previous civilization.

They consist of grave goods, as they have been called, remains

found on village or town sites, hoards, and

objects casually lost.

The burial customs of this late Celtic

period differ from those of the Bronze Age ;

they also show considerable change as the age

progressed. Among the earliest tombs, prob-
ably, yet discovered are the mounds on the

Yorkshire Wolds, near Arras. One of these,

when opened, was found to contain a female

skeleton, with a number of glass beads, two

bracelets, gold and amber rings, and a pair of

tweezers. In another was found the body of

a man, lying on his back, with his chariot, the

remains of two horses completely harnessed, and

of two wild boars, beside him. A third barrow

yielded the skeleton of a warrior, with parts

of a shield, of a chariot, and of the furniture

FIG. lO. — CELTIC FIBULA.

(British Museum.)

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES

FIG. II. — BRONZE COLLAR
FROM WRAXALL.

(Bristol Museum.)

ot a pair of horses, as well as the tusks of a wild boar. The
wild boar is alluded to in many ways on the remains of this
period. Canon Greenwell's Yorkshire ex-
cavations have also been prolific in illustra-
tions of this age. In one barrow, at Arras,
he found a female skeleton buried with two
pigs, an iron mirror, and the remains of a
chariot. But perhaps the most valuable dis-
covery, from the point of view of art, has
been that made in 1879, on the Cotswolds,
some seven miles from Gloucester. During
repairs to a road near Birdlip, three skeletons,
two male and one female, were found in
graves constructed of thin slabs of stone
arranged coffin-wise. With the woman

were found a bronze bowl, a silver brooch plated with gold,
a bead necklace, a hollow brass armlet and key handle, a bronze
knife handle with the head of a horned animal as ornament, and
the beautiful bronze mirror here illustrated. An equally beautiful
mirror, of exactly the same kind, has recently (September, 1 908) been
found during some excavations at Desborough, Northamptonshire.
Similar though less important finds have taken place in Derbyshire,
Staffordshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, and, in the east, in Kent. But
the number of tombs from the early Iron or Late-Celtic Age is small
compared with those from the Bronze and Stone Ages, which seems to
show that only a short period elapsed between the introduction of iron
by the Brythonic Celts and the first appearance of
the Romans in Britain.

An important series of discoveries was made
in 1886, in the neighborhood of Aylesford,
in Kent. Here many urns and other objects
were dug up, which showed the connection
between the art of Britain at the beginning
of the Iron Age and that of the Continent, and
proved the intercourse between this country
and Southern Europe, in pre-Roman times, to
have been closer than had previously been
suspected.

From remains found on the sites of villages

or towns, we know the late Celtic inhabitants to

have been well versed in the arts of peace.

Among the objects found have been sword

FIG. 12. — HANDLE OF
CELTIC TANKARD.

(Mayer Museum,
Liverpool.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 13. — MIRROR, FROM BIRDLIP,
GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

(Photo lent by Mr. Dugdale.)

sheaths, fibulae, saws, knives, quern-
stones, spindle-whorls, weaving-combs,
bill-hooks, pottery, and coins. The
earliest British coinage belongs to the
Iron Age, and dates from about
200-150 B.C. Its use is believed to
have been confined to that part of
England which lies south of the Tyne
and east of the Severn.

It will be well to conclude this
short summary of the nature of late
Celtic art by saying a few words on
the best specimens in each class.

The finest bronze shield yet dis-
covered is one that came out of the
Thames, at Battersea ; it is now in
the British Museum. The dagger,
with bronze hilt and sheath, found in
the river Witham, near Lincoln, is probably the best specimen
of its class. As for helmets, which are rare, the British Museum
has a fine specimen, rescued from the Thames, and another is at
Abbotsford. The latter came from Torrs, Kirkcudbrightshire.
Among the very numerous finds of horse furniture, four bridle-bits
with elaborate ornamentation belong to the British, the Edinburgh,
and the Dublin Museums.

Among personal ornaments, which play such an important part
in our materials for the study of Celtic art, the most important
are fibulae, torques or collars, and
armlets. The number of such ob-
jects in our museums is very great,
and, within their own clearly de-
fined limits, they show an astonish-
ing variety of form. The finest
thing of the kind is the gold collar,
already mentioned, in the Dublin
Museum. In simple beauty and
in the skill of its execution it could
scarcely be excelled. Other fine
collars, of somewhat different char-
acter, are the bronze one from
Wraxall, in the Bristol Museum,
and, a third, also of bronze, in the

FIG. 14. — CELTIC DISK.

(British Museum.)

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES

British Museum. This last was found in Lochar Moss, Dum-
friesshire. A good specimen of the bronze armlets is one found
in the neighborhood of Forres, now at
Altyre. The fibulae are very numerous.

Objects of domestic use from the
same period are often ornamented, but
the ornament is of the same character
as that already illustrated, and need
not be referred to in detail.

There is, however, one form of
Celtic art from this middle period
which must be referred to here, namely
that of enamelling. This was practised
by the Celts of the Iron Age before
the advent of the Romans, and carried
to such a pitch of perfection that
nothing quite equal to its products has
yet been encountered on Continenta

FIG. 15. — FOOT OF THE
ARDAGH CHALICE.

(Dublin Museum.)

Sir
the

Europe. The late
Augustus Franks gave the name of Opus Britannicum to
enamels of the British Celts, and believed them to be the first
west-European enamels. The fragment reproduced in Chapter
XII is thoroughly characteristic. To these early Celtic enamellers
belongs the credit once given to the Irish Scribes of a later age,
of having invented the famous pattern of the divergent spiral.

In all this activity the general characteristics never vary.
From first to last Celtic art depended
on line for its unit, on the nature
of the material for its determinant,
and on free invention for its expressive
value. The Celt was not inquisitive.
His desire was not for knowledge, but
for creation. He wished to produce
rather than to reproduce. In a word, he
was synthetic rather than analytic. The
possibility has often been suggested, or
rather it inevitably suggests itself, that
the character of the Iberian races, partly
dispossessed and partly absorbed by the
Celt, counted for something in the form
taken by his art. In view, however, of
the homogeneity of the Celtic idea wher-
ever we find it, from its first mutterings
II

FIG. 16. CROZIER.

(Dublin Museum.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

to its last and most ambitious achievements, we cannot believe that
the example of an inferior race had very much effect upon it.

While Celtic art was being lost in Great Britain under the stress
of the Roman Conquest, it was holding the even tenor of its way in
Ireland, and piling up those accumulations which, in their ruin, have
left that island so much richer in the debris of early Celtic civilization
than the rest of the world. So far as these belong to the pre-
Christian Era, however, they do not call for any more detailed
notice than has already been given. They show that the motives
common in the neighboring island during the late Bronze and pre-
Roman Iron Age held the field in Ireland too. There, however,
owing to the longer survival of the Celtic

t monopoly, they developed a boldness
and self-confidence hardly equalled else-
where. Of this boldness — not always
leading to beauty — a Bronze Disk,
British Museum (Fig. 14), and a crowd
of objects in the Dublin Museum are
examples.
Christianity was brought to these
islands about the end of the fourth cen-
tury or beginning of the fifth. It made
its way from Western Gaul into Corn-
wall, Wales, and the South -Western
corner of Scotland. From Wigtown-
shire it crossed into Ireland about 430
, I A.D In Ireland it prospered so ex-
ceedingly that, before many generations
had elapsed, that island was sending
" return waves of Celtic Christianity "
at lona, and the East of England, at
Lindisfarne. But the new religion endured for centuries before it
began to create any form of art which could be called distinctively
Christian. And in Ireland, when these forms came, they did not
supersede Pagan ideals, they were grafted upon them. Hence we
have a continuity in Irish decorative art down to the beginning of
the thirteenth century which does not exist elsewhere to anything
like the same extent.

The arts in which the Celtic Christians of Ireland excelled were
stonecutting, metal-work, the writing and illumination of manuscripts,
and architecture. The most important things left to us by the Irish
stonecutters, or sculptors, are the so-called High Crosses, of which

FIG. 17.— CROSS OF CONG.

(Dublin Museum.)

to the West of Scotland,

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES

two at Monasterboice, two at Clonmacnoise, and one each at
Durrow and Tuam, are the most important. The art of these
crosses corresponds exactly, taking the
difference of material into account, with
that of the metal-workers. The motives
are essentially Celtic, depending always on
line and a devoted search into all its pos-
sibilities. Down to the very end the spirit
of representation is never found except
under the strictest control. Figure sculp-
ture exists, of course, and in some in-
stances, as on the Cross of Muirdach at
Monasterboice, and on the Tuam cross, it
is even fairly advanced. But it is always
ornament, and the scenes are treated in
such a way as to remain complementary
to the purely decorative panels, and are

not allowed to become extraneous and ^^^ ,8._shrine of st. Patricks
self-contained. bell.

It is the same with works in metal: (Dublin Museum.)

The early motives are gradually enriched

and added to by importations from without
as well as by the developed ingenuity of
the native artist. But down to the end,
down to that Cross of Cong which is the
supreme expression of the school, the
essential character of Celtic ornament re-
mains the same. The Celtic artist under-
stands, or rather feels, that form and the
play of line supply him with a language
suited not only to his ideas but to the
materials in which those ideas have to be
expressed. When he uses figures he
makes them the vehicle for linear patterns
and is never tempted to let them be
dramatic externally.

Again the same story has to be

told when we come to the manuscripts.

No Celtic manuscript with illuminations

or ornaments of any kind can be ascribed

to a date earlier than about 630 A.D. The book of Kells, the

most famous of them all, is distinguished by the ambition of its

riG. 10. — INTFRLACED ORNAMENT
FROM THE BOOK OF DURROW.

(Trinity College, Dublin.)
(Photo by Lawrence.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 20. — FIGURES ON THE SHRINE OF
ST. MAGWE.

designer as well as by his extraordinary skill in execution. But its
motives form a resume of all that Celtic art had accomplished

down to that moment, rather than a
step in advance. Natural objects
are, indeed, introduced, but always in
a form so conventionalized that they
become linear motives like the rest.
Another manuscript, the Book of
Durrow, shows a more restrained
taste than its more famous rival. A
third, ** The Book of Armagh," is
still finer in a quiet way. It dates
from about 840 A.D.

In architecture the Irish Celt
showed the same qualities as in the
other arts. His structures are by no
means ambitious, but his designs never
fail to have that appropriateness to
material and purpose which betrays
an essentially artistic race. The
earliest buildings of which remains exist are the stone forts, or
duns, which are to be found in considerable numbers in the
counties of Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Donegal and
Antrim. These are stone enclosures, in which the Cyclopean
masonry is often of remarkable excellence. They contain chambers
in their walls, as well as small domical, beehive, or boat-shaped
huts in the space these walls enclose. The earliest Christian
monasteries and oratories are but slight developments from these
forts and huts. The most remarkable specimen of the former
is the monastery on Skellig Michael, an isolated rock in the
Atlantic, twelve miles off the coast of Kerry. The monastery
occupies a plateau, some seven hundred feet above the sea,
approached by many hundreds of steps cut in the rock. The
plateau is about 180 feet long by about 100 feet wide. Upon it
are the remains of three oratories, six bee-hive cells, two wells, live
burial grounds, and many rude stone crosses.

The best isolated specimen of the early Irish oratory is that of
Gallerus (Fig. 4). It stands, in strangely perfect preservation, on
the north side of Dingle Bay, co. Kerry.

Between the sixth and eighth centuries building in un-dressed
stones with dry joints was gradually superseded by the use of mortar
and dressed stone, and this naturally brought in its train forms which

PRIMITIVE ART IN THE BRITISH ISLES

may be fairly called architectural. During the period under discus-
sion these forms were confined chiefly to doorways, although occa-
sionally a window shows the beginnings of
aesthetic ambition. Two characteristic door-
ways are figured here. The buildings in
which these occur are almost invariably
distinguished by good proportions, in the
relations of parts to the whole.

Among the latest examples of the early
period of Irish architecture must be included
the first of those round towers which are
such a characteristic feature, although they
are by no means so exclusively Irish as we
are apt to believe. The early specimens
are built of un-dressed stones, roughly
coursed, the joints filled in with small stones
and coarse mortar. The only architectural
leaven they show is that of general propor-
tion. Any discussion of their purpose is
outside the scope of this handbook; but it
may be remarked, in passing, that those
who see in them towers of refuge against
the attacks of the Norse pirates seem to
have established their case. At the begin- •-

ning of the nineteenth century the remains of 1 1 8 of these towers
still existed in Ireland. Outside Ireland 22 have been catalogued, of
which the best known, perhaps, is that at Brechin, in Scotland

(Fig. 21).

■■BMBiy

FIG. 21. — ROUND TOWER,
BRECHIN,

BIBLIOGRAPHY TO CHAPTER I.

Cartailhac and Breuil, Altamira (rAnthropologie, 1904, p. 625). Montelius, O., Chronologic
der Aeltesten Bronzezeit, Brunswick, 1900. Hoemes, M., Urgeschichte der Bildenden Kunst
in Europa, Vienna, 1898. Romilly Allen, J., Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times,
London, 1904; Early Christian S])mbolism in Great Britain and Ireland ; Early Christian
Monuments in Scotland; Celtic Illuminatrve Art (reproductions), Dublin. Stokes, Margaret,
Early Christian Art in Ireland, 1887. To be used with caution. It is twenty years old.
Smith, Reginald A., and Read, Charles H., Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age
in the British Museum, 1903. Read, Charles H., Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age in
the British Museum, 1904. Anderson J., Scotland in Pagan and Early Christian Times.
Westwood, Paloeographia Pictorica Sacra; Miniatures of the Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS.
Middleton, J. H., Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times, Cambridge,
1892. Hill, A., Ancient Irish Architecture, 1870. Petrie, G., Ecclesiastical Architecture of
Ireland, 1845. Stokes, Margaret, The High Crosses of Castledermot and Durrow, 1898.
Wilde, Sir W. R. W., Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities of Gold in the Museum of the
R, Irish Academy, 1862,

riG. 22. — CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL, OXFORD.

CHAPTER II

ANGLO-SAXON ART

The direct influence of the Roman invaders on the course of art in
the British Isles was so evanescent, and its resuhs so essentially
outside any true racial movement, that we need here only note
its existence and pass on. British art may be divided into three parts:
Celtic, Saxon, and the art which sprang from the blending of these
two races and their union with the new blood from Northern France.
Celtic art has been already dealt with: the present chapter will be
devoted to those Saxon forms which followed it in Britain and co-
existed with its later glory in Ireland.

Our chief authorities for Saxon art are architectural remains. At
one time it was believed that the Saxons built almost entirely in wood
and, consequently, that stone witnesses to their ambition as builders
were few and unimportant. Recent and more careful research has
led to a somewhat drastic revision of that belief. Evidence of a
Saxon origin has been discovered in many buildings which used to be
classed as Romano-British and Norman, and sufficient material has
now been gathered to enable a trustworthy opinion to be formed of
the powers and peculiarities of the Saxon architect. If we took our
courage in both hands and applied to Anglo-Saxon art the principles
we assert in connection with Continental art, we might even venture

ANGLO-SAXON ART

to surmise that the special features of Norman Round Arched Gothic
were, in many cases, the resuhs of contact between romanesque
forms from the South and East with the Enghsh civiHzation of the
North-West.

The remains of Saxon architecture are almost entirely ecclesias-
tical. Their distribution shows little of that affiliation with the
previous Roman organization which we find in Gaul. In Gaul the
Christian dioceses correspond with the ancient Roman civitates, and
the cathedral cities with the chief centres of each civitas. It was
not so in Britain. There the distribution of the primitive churches
was in great part disregarded by the Teutonic invaders, who often
established their sees at unimportant centres of population, such as
Crediton, Ramsbury, St. Germans, Wells, and Lichfield. " What-
ever the Saxons did or did not do," says Professor Baldwin Brown,
" to the Roman towns, they put them out of relation to the ecclesias-
tical system." This fact supplies an additional reason for accepting
the foundation of the Saxon church as a new starting-point in
tracing the history of British Art.

The earliest Teutonic invaders found Romano-British Christianity
established in the country. They destroyed it over the whole of
the territory they occupied, pushing it into the west and north.
There it came into closer contact than before with the Celtic
Christianity of Cornwall, Ireland, and Scotland, and was gradually
solidified into a Christian system which finally had its centre at a
point as far removed as possible from the shadow of Saxon invasion.

Meanwhile, toward the end of the sixth century, the Saxons
themselves began to adopt Christianity, and to follow its customs.
Their early churches, which have now to be studied chiefly in their
foundations, show, as might have been expected, strong though pass-
ing evidence of being simply modifications of Roman buildings.
At Silchester the foundations have been traced of a small Basilican
structure which was probably a Christian church. Saxon building
was, then, affected for a short time by Roman example as well as
by Celtic tradition. It cannot, however, be denied that it soon
developed a character of its own, which marked almost the whole
of the period of nearly five centuries over which it extended.

The space at my command is insufficient for a detailed notice of
the various stages of Saxon architecture. I must be content with a
general description of its character, and a short account of its most
important monuments.

When compared with the Celt, the Saxon was poor in aesthetic
gifts and inclinations. He had little sense of the congruity into which

17 c

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

the material, form, decoration, and use of an object should be
brought. His sense of proportion, too, of the mathematical element
in art, was rudimentary; and he was almost entirely devoid of that
power to play happily with line which made the Celt an artist
almost from the earliest moment to which we can trace his
existence. Lasdy, he was no engineer. He gives no sign of being
alive to that play of forces which goes on in every built-up
structure. He is without the Gallic instinct for concentrating power
where it is required, on the one hand, and economizing material
where it has nothing to do but enclose, on the other. His buildings
are like boxes, and the relation between their shape, solidity, and
purpose, is seldom happy.

The earliest Saxon structures were rough - combinations of ideas,
partly their own, partly Romano-British. From this they gradually

passed to a style made up of
British traditions, German
traditions, and echoes from
what was being done on the
nearest part of the European
Continent. They ended by
building in a fashion which
makes their latest structures
difficult, in these days, to dis-
entangle from the early works
of their Norman conquerors.
How much that similarity was
due to the influence of Saxon
over Norman, and how much to that of Norman over Saxon, it is
not so easy to decide as once was supposed. Professor Baldwin
Brown, the latest and most thorough of writers on this subject,
gives a list of about 1 73 English churches which " exhibit
remains of Saxon building." The list would afford an opportunity
for a good deal of discussion were we primarily concerned with
archaeology, but our business being with art, we need only notice
those more important monuments which have a definite artistic char-
acter of their own.

It used to be asserted that Saxon stone architecture took much of
its inspiration from a previous timber architecture which it super-
seded. A careful examination of the facts throws more than doubt
upon such a theory. It may be allowed that the Saxons made great
use of timber, which was plentiful in their time, for domestic pur-
poses and even for buildings of a higher character. But it cannot be

r""'''l' '^rj ;/• -^.r^'^ >»

— -»,

C7^

^""W^J

■^^'^p^

FIG. 23. — BARTON-ON-HUMBER CHURCH.

ANGLO-SAXON ART

FIG. 24. — TOWER OF EARLS
BARTON CHURCH, NORTH-
AMPTONSHIRE.

ignored that stone had been used for many centuries in these islands
before the Saxon inroads, and had left its own traditions and examples.
In a country commencing civilization, timber
building may hold a monopoly for ages, and
may hand on its forms to the next develop-
ment. But v^^here a stone architecture has
once flourished, its tradition remains. The
Saxon churches usually quoted as show^ing
the influence of timber construction are not
the earliest, but belong to quite a late period
in the style. The towers of Earls Barton
and Barnack, in Northamptonshire, and of
Barton-on-Humber, in Lincolnshire, are ex-
amples. They seem obviously inspired by
some form of half-timber construction, but
behind them lies a long period of building
activity in which no such relation can be
traced. Curiously enough, the one relic we
possess of timber building in Saxon times,
does not belong to the only system which could have inspired the
designs quoted in support of the theory that the Saxon builders
took their ideas from timber construction. The wooden church at
Greenstead, Essex, is not a frame, or half-timber building, but a

** block-house." It is constructed of
the split trunks of oaks, set upright
and close together on un oak sill.^

The chronology of Saxon churches
can be determined only roughly.
Professor Baldwin Brown divides
those which remain after a drastic
process of elimination into five
periods. For our purposes, however,
two will be enough. The earlier
was distinguished by modesty of
plan, by monotony in the wall faces,
by a tendency to the box-like in
general construction, and by the use
of Romano-British forms, or actual
structures, in the ornamental parts.
During the later period a tendency to more elegance can be perceived.

^ It appears pretty certain that this Greenstead church is identical with a timber chapel erected
near Aungre" (Chipping Ongar), for the reception of St. Edmund's body during its transference
from London to Bury St. Edmunds, in 1013 (Dugdale's Monasticon. Ill, 139).

19 c2

riG. 25. — GREENSTEAD CHURCH, ESSEX.

debris from Romano-British

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

The solids and the voids have a better relation to each other, and the
proportions of height to w^idth are more agreeable. On the other
hand, the earlier buildings often show a
Roman respect for solidity in the dangerous
parts, w^hich is not so well marked in the
later.

One of the earliest churches to show
Saxon characteristics is that of St. Pancras,
at Canterbury, the foundations of which
have recently been laid bare. So far as
recovered, it consists of an oblong nave
about forty-three feet by twenty-seven, two
porches, at the west end and on the south,
and two small fragments of wall suggesting
that it ended to the east in a semi-circular

FIG. 26. — FONT, ST. MARTIN'S,
CANTERBURY.

apse.

Still more interesting are the remains of
what Professor Brown calls "quite the most famous parish church in
the whole of England," viz., that of St. Martin, at Canterbury.
This church now consists of a very large, square ended, Saxon
chancel, of a nave partly Saxon, and of a later western tower. Its
technique, like that of St. Pancras, is largely Roman and much
of its material Roman brick re-used. Among other early examples
may be named the churches of Stone, near Faversham; of Cor-
bridge, Northumberland; and of Escomb, Jarrow, and Monk-
wearmouth, Durham ; the fragments at Lyminge, Rochester, and
Reculver, Kent ; the crypts of Ripon and Hexham, and the

remarkable church of Brix-

worth, Northamptonshire.

Brixworth is one of the
most imposing of our Saxon
monuments, although it has
been considerably mutilated
in the course of time. Its side
aisles, or possibly chapels, have
disappeared, and many win-
dows have been introduced.
On the other hand, it gives
evidence of developments fig. 27.— st. martin's church, canterbury.
during its own Saxon period

which turn it into a more than usually valuable document. It was
built in the last quarter of the seventh century by the Abbot of

ANGLO-SAXON ART

! \

'11%%:^

Peterborough, who used a great deal of Roman brick in its erection.
It originally consisted of an apsidal sanctuary opening into a choir
of thirty feet square, which,
again, communicated by an
arch of about twenty-eight
feet span with a nave about
fifty-six feet long by thirty
broad. Westward of the nave
was built, in later, perhaps,
but still Saxon times, a square
tower with a curious attach-
ment on its western side, in a
large circular stair-turret rising
nearly to a level with the roof-

ridge or the fig. 28. — brixworth church.

church.

The monuments from the later period of Saxon
architecture, which lasted from about 800 to the
Norman Conquest, are so numerous that not even
a list can be given here. They range, in time,
from the churches of Avebury (Wilts), Bishopstone
(Sussex), Bardsey (Yorks), and Lydd (Kent), to those
of Bradford-on-Avon (Wilts), Barton-on-Humber
(Lincolnshire), Earls Barton and Barnack (Northamp-
tonshire), and the church of Branston (Lincolnshire),
in which last Saxon and Norman features are combined
with unusual
intimacy.
The churches of Earls
Barton, Barnack, and Barton-
on-Humber afford the best
remaining examples of that
use of stone strips as surface
decoration which has been
quoted as proof that the forms
taken by Saxon stone architec-
ture were determined by ex-
perience with timber. This
particular invention — a most
unhappy one, and one that

never would have occurred to a Celtic people — may have been so
inspired, but it has little to do with the general development of

FIG. 29. — TOWER

ARCH, MARKET

OVERTON.

FIG. 30. — SAXON CHURCH, BRADFORD-ON AVON.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 31. — CHURCH IN DOVER CASTLE.

Saxon building ; and it came
near the end of its course.

A happier method of deco-
rating a wall is that employed
on the little church of Brad-
ford-on-Avon. Here a shal-
low arcade of semicircular
arches is carried, like an ex-
ternal quasi-triforium, round
the whole of the church.
It is supported by flat pi-
lasters, without capitals or
bases, which divide the lower

part of the walls into well-proportioned
panels.

More interesting, even, than this Brad-
ford church is the cathedral of Oxford and
its connection with pre-Norman architecture.
After his massacre of the Danes in 1002,
Ethelred the Unready made a vow that he
would rebuild the church of St. Frideswide,
in Oxford. He kept his vow, and some
archaeologists contend that a .large part of
his structure is extant to this day, in the
existing cathedral of Christ Church. The
substructures of the apse of the older church
of St. Frideswide have been discovered
within recent years, to the north of the pres-
ent choir. Those who uphold the Saxon

FIG. 32. — LITTLE SAXHAM
CHURCH TOWER ARCH.

FIG. 35. — BRANSTON CHURCH, LINCOLNSHIRE.

theory believe that Ethelred
respected the previous shrine
and built his church to the
south of it. They contend
that the arcade and walls of
the present choir and certain
analogous parts of the nave
and transepts are substan-
tially Saxon, modified, muti-
lated, and overlaid in later
times with Norman and
pointed Gothic. The ques-
tion is too large and too

ANGLO-SAXON ART

u.,

HUh

w4^

9B'^<f>

FIG. 34. — CLAPHAM CHURCH,
BEDFORDSHIRE.

technical for discussion here, but those who beHeve the cathedral of
Christ Church to be identical in some of its parts with Ethelred's
church of St. Frideswide seem to
have put forward a plausible case.

Before leaving the subject of
Saxon architecture it will be con-
venient to enumerate once more its
broad characteristics, and to note
those features on which some re-
liance may be placed as tests of a
Saxon origin.

Saxon builders had little or no
feeling for the structural significance
of forms. They were satisfied to
make their buildings stand. They
did not feel the desirability of
making them declare, by their forms,
that they meant to stand. No race
with an instinct for expressive build-
ing would have dabbled in such
forms as ** long and short work," or the vertical dominoes of Earls

Barton, Barnack, Barton-on-Humber,

and other churches of the late period, or
that infelicitous arrangement by which,
in Saxon tower-windows, a stumpy
turned column or baluster is set to hold
up a long through-stone by its middle.

Saxon walls often look too thin for
their work, and it is extremely rare to
encounter any sign that their builders
were alive to the varying strains they
would have to resist. Buttresses very
seldom occur, even at quoins.

The feeling for general proportions
was poor. Buildings are too high and
narrow for their superficial extent ;
tapering or pyramidal forms of any kind
are rare. The proportion of voids to
solids is seldom pleasing, and orna-
mental details are often unrelated,
aesthetically, both to each other and to their situation.

On the other hand, Saxon technique roughly as it began,

^■M^'iSRlft

FIG. 35. — CHURCH OF ST. REGULUS,

ST. Andrew's.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

shows a stronger tendency toward refine-
ment than that of the Normans. It
betrays, perhaps, the first sign of that
affectionate, though not always well di-
rected, solicitude which was to be
a permanent characteristic of our national
art. As examples of this we may name the
scanty remains of the Saxon Church at
Westminster Abbey, the pillars of the Saxon
crypt at Repton, and the upper stage of
St. Benet's tower, Cambridge, which must
have been a most happy design before it
lost its " German helm."

A masterpiece of architecture may be
compared to the human body. Just as
the latter has its supporting skeleton,
(Restoration by the Author.) its vital organs Conveniently disposed,
and an outer skin which both protects

the whole and welds it

into unity and beauty, so a

perfect building is one in

which three similar elements

are happily allied. The Saxon

architects failed to grasp the

logical connection between

these three elements, with

the result that such charm

as their structures possess

is invariably due to the

interest of the parts, never

to the high organization of

the whole

FIG. 37. — repton: SAXON CRYPT.

FIG. 36. — TOWER OF ST.
benet's, CAMBRIDGE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY TO CHAPTER II

G. Baldwin Brown, M.A., The Arts in Early England (vol. i, The Life of Saxon England
in its Relation to the Arts ; vol. ii, Ecclesiastical Architecture in England from the Conversion of
the Saxons to the Norman Conquest), London, 1903. J. Fergusson, History of Architecture,
vol. ii, London, 1874. Sir G. G. Scott, Lectures on the Rise and Development of Med i cecal
Architecture, 2 vols., London, 1879. King, Handbooks to the English Cathedrals, Murray.
London. Bell's Series of Handbooks to the English Cathedrals. T. Hudson Turner, Some
Account of Domestic Architecture in England from the Conquest to the End of the Thirteenth
Century, Oxford and London, 1877. J. Park Harrison, The pre-Norman Date of the Design
and some of the Stone-work of Oxford Cathedral ; Discovery of the Remains of Three Apses at
Oxford Cathedral : A pre-Norman Window in Oxford CathedraliLondoa 1894). Brown, R.,
Notes on the Earlier History of Barton-on-H umber, n.d.

FIG. 38. — ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S THE GREAT, LONDON. (PARTLY RESTORED.)

CHAPTER III

ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.
ARCHED GOTHIC

OR ROUND

The connection between early Norman architecture and that of
the Saxons was probably less slight than is usually supposed. We
can, in fact, recognize an adumbration of Norman forms in many
buildings which unmistakably betray a Saxon origin, such as the
church at Branston, Lincolnshire (Fig. 33), which would certainly
have been classed as Norman but for the presence of Saxon technique
in its execution. There can, however, be no doubt that both the
Saxon natives and their Norman conquerors believed the new style
to embody a fresh departure, to be a novum genus compositionis,
to use the phrase of Matthew Paris. How far it was strictly
Norman does not concern us here. It is enough for our purpose to
know that it was a style elaborated by the race which sprang
from the conquest of Neustria and its Celtic population by the
Norse invaders. Its form may have been influenced, to some
extent, by the example set by the late Saxon builders on the north
side of the Channel, and its development was stimulated, no doubt,
by the sudden increase of artistic activity which took place all over
Christendom as soon as the dreaded year, 1000, had been safely
passed.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 39. — ST. JOHN'S CHAPEL,
TOWER OF LONDON.

In the eleventh century, and for long after it, a narrow sea was
no such barrier between one country and another as it is now. In
the days when roads scarcely existed, and
means of land locomotion were at once bad
and confined to the rich, a sea, if not too
wide, made possible an intercourse which
could not have been carried on over any
i ^HL| 9 li^l serious distance by land. Normandy was
I A ^■■■H^H practically nearer to England than to Paris.
r Al^H^V^^H The Normans had more in common with
the English than with the French. Even
to this day habits that we recognize as
English have persisted in the Duchy, many
parts of which are not to be distinguished,
even by the keenest eye, from the southern
counties of England. In tracing the origin
of Norman Gothic, then, it is only fair to
postulate a reciprocal action between the two countries, the late,
refined Saxon builders having their influence over the younger,
ruder, and more vigorous Normans, and vice Versa.

Norman architecture ran its early course on almost parallel lines
in Normandy and England. It was a
comparatively new thing with the in-
vaders themselves when they followed
their Duke to this country. Lanfranc,
Abbot of St. Stephen's, Caen, whom
William appointed to the See of
Canterbury in 1070, began the re-
building of the English cathedral on
lines which exactly followed those of
the Norman Abbey, then recently com-
menced. Canterbury was finished first.
Its still existing parts may be taken as
the oldest survivals of the new style
of any importance, but it had a pred-
ecessor in the church built by Edward
the Confessor on the site at West-
minster which has since become so
famous. This church was apsidal. It
had a triforium, which appears to have

been vaulted, like the aisle below. It had a central and two western
towers, the choir being in the crossing. It contained numerous

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F " ^rM

L m W::^

if . m m:-M

10 5 p iPFFrT

FIG. 40. — PLAN : ST. John's chapel,

TOWER OF LONDON.

ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE

chapels, in the triforium as

well as on the floor of the

church. Such evidence as we

possess goes to prove that the

ground covered by it coincided

pretty well with that on which

the present Abbey stands. An

interesting feature of the scanty

remains of the Confessor's

buildings is the comparative

delicacy of the workmanship,

hinting at the junction of an

old tradition — that of Saxon

building — with the rude vigor

of the new style.

A characteristic of Early

Norman cathedral planning

was the laying out of eastern

ends in numerous apses — Bury

St. Edmunds and Norwich

had three, St. Alban's seven

(Fig. 42). Few traces of this

arrangement are now to be

found above ground.

Norman Gothic breathed almost from the beginning a spirit which led

naturally to the pointed style by which it was succeeded. Its character-
istics may
be thus enu-
merated : —
1. Great
thickness
and weight
of walls,
to secure
stability
among the
numerous
thrusts of
FIG. 42. — PLAN OF ST. alban's in lOQo. vaults and

arches.

2. The employment of the semicircular and segmental arch.

3. Variation in the proportions of piers and columns according to

FIG. 41. — TOWER OF ST. ALBAN S CATHEDRAL.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 43. — NORWICH CATHEDRAL :
NAVE.

the load to be carried, and not to their
height.

4. Subdivision of arches into two or
more orders, and of piers to meet that
subdivision.

5. The use of ornamental motives
appropriate to subdivided arches and
piers.

Among all these features the two
which prepared the way for the forms
of pointed architecture were the sub-
division of piers and arches and the
use of the semicircular or segmental
arch. The one led naturally to that
system of economizing material and
accenting ossature which was carried
in time to its logical conclusion by the
architects of the thirteenth century ; the other opened a path to the
idea of cutting a vertical slice out of the centre of a semicircular
arch when its span had to be narrowed,
an expedient which would be more
grateful to eyes accustomed to seg-
mental forms than any modification of
the curve itself.

The earliest complete example of
very early Norman Gothic which still
exists in this country is the Chapel of
St. John, in the Tower of London
(Figs. 39 and 40). Granted Norman
principles, a better design could scarcely
be produced. It is, of course, unreason-
ably solid and heavy, and the stilted
arches in the apse are ugly, but the
decoration of the capitals, the sub-
division of the wall pilasters, and the
combination of a plain wagon vault
over the nave with the groining of the
aisles, all show conscious skill on the
part of the architect.

A more ambitious monument of
early Norman is the Abbey — now cathedral — of St. Alban's
(Figs. 41 and 42). Its erection was begun by the monk Paul,

Hfti

FIG. 44. — NORWICH CATHEDRAL :
CHOIR.

ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 45.— DURHAM NAVE.

of St. Stephen's, Caen, soon after his relative, Lanfranc, had com-
menced operations at Canterbury. Paul was ambitious, and
designed a church to cover nearly twice
as much ground as the site with which
Lanfranc was contented. St. Alban's
was 465 feet long, 210 wide across the
transept and, probably, 1 55 wide across
the west front. It was built entirely of
Roman brick and other materials from
the neighboring ruins of Verulamium.
It was covered, within and without, with
white plaster. Before his death. Abbot
Paul had caused the semi-dome of the
apse behind the high altar to be enriched
with painting, an example followed by
his successors throughout the church.
The inside roofs were flat timber ceil-
ings, painted. For internal decorative
effect, St. Alban's depended on painting and on the due subordina-
tion of its piers and arches, as, indeed, it was bound to do by the
intractable nature of its materials.

At the same time as St. Alban's, a great Norman cathedral was
being erected at York. It was begun between 1070 and 1080,
but only the slightest indications of its plan now remain. Win-
chester Cathedral was begun somewhat later, probably in 1080, on
a still vaster scale. It was 530 feet in extreme length and 225 in

width across the transepts.
The transepts and the crypt
under the east end are all that
we can now see of this Norman
church, although much of its
fabric still exists inside the
later Gothic (Fig. 48). Being
carried out in stone, it was
more thoroughly developed
and more satisfactory alto-
gether than the church at
St. Alban's. Another cathe-
dral dating from the same
period is that of Ely, begun
by Abbot Symeon when he was not far short of a hundred years
old. Here the plan, while similar to those of Winchester and

FIG. 46. — DURHAM CATHEDRAL.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 47. — TEWKESBURY ABBEY.

St. Alban's in some parts, had a touch of originaHty in a splendid
western transept, of which some of the features were immediately

afterward reproduced in the
abbey church of Bury St.
Edmunds.

Next, perhaps, after that
of Ely, came the rebuilding
of St. Paul's. This was
begun in 1083, by Bishop
Maurice, on the great scale
which remained a distinction
of the cathedral of London
down to the fire of 1666.
Its architecture resembled
that of Winchester, but was
more ornate. Its proportions,
too, were loftier. About the
same time as St. Paul's, the Norman cathedral of Rochester was
begun by Bishop Gundulph, a great builder. He founded Rochester
Castle, built the White Tower in the Tower of London, and one
or two smaller buildings besides. In 1096 was begun what is, on
the whole, the most complete monument of Norman architecture
now remaining in the country. This is the cathedral of Norwich,
commenced by Bishop Herbert de
Losinga, who had purchased the see
from William II for the sum of £1,900
(Figs. 43 and 44). The cathedral is
made up of a very long nave of fourteen
bays, a transept 192 feet long and an
apsidal choir, or rather sanctuary.
Among other foundations dating from
this period of unexampled energy in
building are the cathedrals of Worcester,
Chichester, Gloucester, and Durham,
and the abbeys and churches of Tewkes-
bury (Fig. 47), Waltham, Christchurch
(Hants), and Bury St. Edmunds.

The early phase of Norman touches
its apogee at Durham (Fig. 45). The
design has a vitality we do not always

find in the style. The nave is no monotonous repetition of one
motive, as at St. Alban's, and, although in a less degree, at

.^-

li \i.

FIG. 48. — WINCHESTER, TRANS-
FORMATION OF NAVE.

ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 4g. — KOCK OF CASHEL.

Norwich. It is divided into symmetrical sections, each comprising
two bays, and supplying a happily proportioned constituent to the
general scheme (Fig.
46). The Norman
nave of Durham is a
book in well-balanced
chapters ; that of Nor-
man St. Alban's, an
unbroken, rather long-
winded narrative.
Externally, Durham
suffers from the
spaciousness of its tri-
forium. This is lofty
enough to embrace,
under its roof, the but-
tresses which take the
thrust of the nave

vault, and so to deprive the exterior of a valuable source of variety
and shadow.^ On the other hand, Durham has been less un-
happy in its disasters than some other cathedrals. Even WyattV
meagre rose window has a good effect, at a distance. And Durham
is distinguished among Norman churches as being vaulted through-
out, although, indeed, it may
be said that the vaulting of
the transepts was not origi-
nally intended.

It must be remembered
that the century immediately
following the Norman con-
quest was the great century
of architectural ambition in
England. The Norman
clergy had no sooner settled
into their share of the spoil,
than they began to build.
Their ideas grew so rapidly
that, before a generation had
passed, they had covered the country with Norman Gothic, and
were erecting cathedrals on a scale almost unknown in Europe.

1 As originally built, the aisles had gabled roofs, which were less monotonous than the present
mangement. See Sir G. G. Scott's Mediaeval Architecture, vol, ii, p. 129.

FIG. 50. — FOUNTAINS ABBEY, SOUTH TRANSEPT
AND TOWER.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 51.— LITTLE SAXHAM CHURCH.

indications to be found in illuminated manu-
scripts, partly by reasoning from monumental
buildings.

The English house of the Saxon and
early Norman period was a lineal descend-
ant of the Roman villa. In Italy the Roman
house, outside Rome, consisted, roughly
speaking, of an open atrium surrounded
by small rooms in which sleeping, eating
and cooking took place. In England the
atrium became, by force of weather, the
hall. This hall was for long the only large
room in the building. It was originally used

in common by

They discounted our thirteenth century
and the chances of our Early Pointed.
In France the great expansion took
place later. It had to await the partial
removal of the foreign incubus and the
apparition of a great king in Philip
Augustus, before it could gather way.
The result was that it coincided with
the finest moment of Gothic art, and the
fullest advantage could be taken of the
opportunities given.

The Domestic architecture of this
Early Norman period has to be divined
partly from the

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u. y^H

^^.

FIG. 52. — CORMACK S
CHAPEL, CASHEL.

FIG. S3. — DOORWAY OF CHAPTER-
HOUSE, DURHAM .CATHEDRAL.

the master and his family and all his
retainers. Gradually subordinate cham-
bers were added, and became more and
more numerous and important. But
there is no reason to believe that,
during the Norman period, the concep-
tion of a house as a hall with a few
special chambers attached was ever
superseded. These halls were often of
very noble proportions as well as of
elegant architecture. But such speci-
mens belong to a later date than we
have yet reached. At first the hall
had, as a rule, but one room of any
32

FIG. 54.

-GLASTONBURY ABBEY, ST. JOSEPH'S
CHAPEL.

ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE

size attached to it. This was the private room, with beds, of the
master and his family, and was known as the *' solar." Gradually
other rooms and " hovels " [the
latter usually without windows]
were added. The kitchen was
separate, when it existed at all,
but cooking was often done in
the open air. In short, the house
developed slowly and steadily,
from the single room for all pur-
poses to the complex arrange-
ments of a matured civilization, by
a process similar to that known in
biology as fissiparous generation.
Having now referred to the
most characteristic productions
of the Norman period in Eng-
land, it may be well to give a
resume' of its distinctive features.

Relative height was lower than in Saxon buildings. The narrow
and high naves which were so common in Saxon churches, sug-
gesting that the architect was afraid of a wide span for his roofs,
are superseded by others of lower, shorter and wider proportions.'
Saxon walls, with their careful execution on vicious lines, are

succeeded by walls roughly
carried out on sounder prin-
ciples. Norman walls are
very thick, with large joints
and bad mortar. In monu-
mental buildings, a core of
rough stones, scarcely held
together by an apology for
mortar, was faced and sup-
ported by a comparatively
thin skin of ashlar, or dressed
stones. Things improved as
time went on, but the Nor-
mans never became really
;ood builders. If their cathe-
rals had been constructed

FIG. 55.— LEUCHARS CHURCH, FIFE.

. , , ,, ,, uiaia ndu ucen construciea

with the solidity of our modern public buildings, they would
scarcely be showing a sign of age even at this day.

33 D

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 56. — NAVE, ELY CATHEDRAL.

The skeleton of a Norman church is but gently suggested.
Buttresses are wide, but very shallow. Walls terminate above

in a parapet of slight projection,
carried often by a corbel table
reminiscent of a military machi-
colation. Windows, as a rule,
are simple round-headed open-
ings with little ornament (Figs.
39, 47, etc.). Wheel windows
are often used, in gables. Walls
are ornamented by blind ar-
cades, sometimes of two orders,
sometimes interlaced, uncomfort-
ably, like the edges of a basket.
Doorways are the chief centres
of ornament. Orders here are
often greatly multiplied and
worked with as much ornament
as they will bear (Figs. 52 and
53). Norman capitals show an
almost unbroken evolution from
a form which may be compared
to the Doric capital of Greece to the delicate, plant-suggested forms
of early Pointed. Norman vaults, which are comparatively rare,
are of all types from plain barrel, or
wagon, to groined and ribbed, vaults
(Fig. 39, 45). Churches often have their
aisles vaulted and their naves covered
with a wooden ceiling (Fig. 56). It is
doubtful, however, whether any Norman
roof of timber has survived to our time.
Throughout the first half of the
twelfth century the Norman forms
underwent a continual process of re-
finement, on the one hand, and enrich-
ment on the other. Walls become
thinner, joints closer and more carefully
worked, columns less thick, carving
more delicate and more undercut, but-
tresses more salient. Speaking gener-
ally, buildings become more enriched with shadow, and more
inclined to confess their ossature. The ruling spirit changed fronr

FIG. 57-

CHICHESTER CATHEDRAL !

NAVE.

ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE

being one interested in the refined execution and decoration of a
whole conceived simply as an enclosure, into one curious about
structure, articulation, development ; into one which saw something
akin to the architecture of a tree in that of a great cathedral, and
wished to give to each part a relation to that which immediately
preceded it, not unlike the relation of leaf to twig, of twig to bough,
of bough to trunk, and of trunk to root. That this relation was
more strongly insisted upon south of the Channel than in England
was due to the fact that Norseman and Celt was an alloy more
favorable to a structural unity in art than that of Norseman and
Anglo-Saxon. But even here it had its effect. The final traces of
Saxon flatness and boxiness disappeared, and at last everything was
ready for that apparition of the pointed arch and its consequences
which was to mark the second half of the twelfth century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

G. Baldwin Brown, The Arts in Early England, 1903. Sir G. Gilbert Scott, Lectures on ihe
Rise and Development of Mediaeval Architecture, London, 1879. J. H. Parker, Glossary of
Terms used in Grecian, Roman, Italian, and Gothic Architecture, Oxford, 1850. R. J. King,
Handbooks to the English Cathedrals (Murray) ; ditto, by various authors (Bell) : Britton, J.,
Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 1807-1835; Hill, A., Monograph of Cormac's
Chapel, Cashel, Cork, 1874; Ancient Irish Architecture, Cork, 1870. W. Longman, The
Three Cathedrals Dedicated to St. Paul, London, 1873. J. Neale, The Abbey Church of
St. Alban, Herts, 1878. G. Petrie, Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland, Dublin, 1845.
V. M. C. Ruprich-Robert, L' Architecture Normande au XL' et XII' Siecles, Paris, 1884,
et seq. Archceologia, 1 773-1908. B. Winkles, Cathedrals of England and Wales. 1836-1842.
Spanton.J.. When Was My Parish Church Built? 1900.

RG. 58. — CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL : CRYPT.

FIG. 59. — LINXOLN CATHEDRAL, FROM THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER IV

EARLY ENGLISH, OR FIRST POINTED, GOTHIC
ARCHITECTURE

A GREAT deal of inconclusive discussion has gone on over the
origin of the pointed arch and the structural system to which it led.
No very profound study of Romanesque and Norman buildings is
required to show that problems frequently arose for which one
obvious solution was to cut, in the mind, a vertical slice from the centre

of a semicircular arch. The
play of the diagonals of a
groined vault also helped to
draw attention to the pointed
form. Used at first in special
situations, to overcome inci-
dental difficulties, and some-
times for mere decoration, the
pointed arch soon began to
proclaim its own flexibility and
FIG. 60. — CLOISTERS, FOUNTAINS ABBEY. to mvite tile arciiitect to a

fuller exploration of its powers.
In the hands of builders who had carried the subordination of
arches to the development reached in late Norman work, the

EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 6 1. — EASTERN TRAN-
SEPT, LINCOLN.

additional facilities for getting rid of superfluous material and light-
ening a whole structure by clothing its skeleton as thinly as possible,
afforded by the pointed form, were sure to
lead rapidly to their logical conclusion in
France, and as near to it in England as we
English ever get.

The essential distinction which gradually
established itself between pointed Gothic and
other forms of architecture was its system-
atic reduction of the ratio of material em-
ployed to space enclosed. Its structural
forms are a consequence of this process
and of the necessity for using small units.
The great stones of trabeated building were
not to be had in Western Europe.

The earliest systematic users of the pointed
arch in this country appear to have been
the Cistercians. By them it was employed
in its simplest and least decorative form,
indeed, but with rare intelligence. It

would be difficult to name any buildings in which the essential
elements of any style of architecture are used with more simplicity
and success than are those of First Pointed in the Cistercian abbeys.
The ** Cloisters," or cellarium, of Fountains
Abbey (Fig. 60) may be given as an example.
In the church at Fountains a further proof that
Cistercian architects were curious about struct-
ural principles is afforded by the nave aisles.
Here each bay is covered with its own
transverse vault, carried upon arches springing
from the main piers of the nave, on the one
hand, and from corbels on the outer wall on
the other. By this arrangement the more
dangerous thrusts are minimized ; but it does
not lead to beauty.

The written history of early pointed architect-
ure has been disfigured by a somewhat absurd
partisanship. We have had, on the one hand,
English writers who have treated the Gothic
style as essentially English, even going so far
as to call it " the English Style " ; and, on the other, French,
English, and now American critics who have flown to the opposite

FIG. 62. — CHOIR, WEST-
MINSTER ABBEY, LONDON.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

extreme, and asserted that the only true Gothic is that of France,
all others being its more or less unintelligent imitations. Ihe
English chauvinism was the result of pure ignorance, Gothic France
having been scarcely studied at all when Rickman began to write.

The opposite contention is

f '^: • • " t t I f 1 1 T T t j|4|

FIG. 63. — WESTMINSTER ABBEY : PLAN.

more deliberately partisan,
for we often find it sup-
ported by arbitrary defini-
tions carefully adapted to
French Gothic. Some

justification might, possibly,
have been given for the
statement that only French
Gothic is genume if English
examples had been echoes

of French, if, for instance, Westminster Abbey had stood in the

same relation to some French church as the old Norman Cathedral of

Canterbury did to St. Stephen's, Caen. But no such relation existed.

English Gothic and French

were separate and divergent

growths from one root, each

pursuing its own ideals and

developing its own vernacu-
lar, and soon reaching a

point at which borrowing,

the one from the other, was

perforce restricted to general

ideas. In an artistic sense,

England and Northern

France were scarcely two

nations in Plantagenet times.

They had much more in

common, for instance, than

the North of France had

with the South. Their in-
tercourse was intimate and

frequent. Ideas could not

be adopted in the one country

without becoming known in

the other. But in each these

ideas were used in obedience to the diversity of character ethno-

logically set up. No better instance of the biased criticism which

FIG. 64. — WESTMINSTER ABBEY: NAVE.

EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

has been directed against English Gothic could be given than the
way in which Westminster Abbey has been treated. It is obviously
eclectic in conception. Parts, but
only parts, of the plan,^ the propor-
tions of height to width of the nave
and aisles, and the treatment of the
transept ends and east end, are more
French than English. But there the
foreign influence stops. The propor-
tion of height to length, the minor
proportions, the designs of arches
and windows, the mouldings, the
caps and abaci, the treatment of wall
surfaces, are all in the English ver-
nacular. It may, in fact, be com-
pared to a novel conceived partly on
French lines but written in English,
which would certainly be an English
novel. It is the work of some un-
known English architect of genius,
who, by the exercise of a conscious

faculty for selection which was rare in the middle ages, obeyed the
wish of Henry III, and achieved what is, perhaps, the most faultless
design in the whole range of Gothic architecture, French or English.

But this is anticipating. The

FIG. 65.

LINCOLN CATHEDRAL, WEST
FRONT.

FIG. 66. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL : PLAN.

transition from round arched to
pointed Gothic requires to be
treated a little more at length
before plunging into a discussion
of the latter in its full develop-
ment.

New features and enlightened
aims began to declare them-
selves very early in the twelfth
century. The blind force of
Norman building gave way to a new elegance and lightness, to an
awakened sense of proportion between work to be done and effort
put forth. Walls grew thinner, openings larger, ** orders " more
numerous, decorative features richer and more complex. The
pointed arch appeared and soon began to talk to the more intelligent

1 Scott seems to have forgotten the length of the transept and the shortness of the sanctuary
when he said that the plan of the Abbey was "purely French."

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

of those who used it, suggesting its own fitness for the solution of
many problems, especially in the matter of vaults, which had puzzled
the Norman builder.

FIG. 67. — SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.

The best example, for our
purpose, of the transition
between round arched and
pointed Gothic is afforded,
perhaps, by Chichester Cathe-
dral (Fig. 57), where the nave
is Norman, while, in a single
bay of the choir, the two
forms are combined with ex-
traordinary felicity. This
choir, however, is by no
means one of the earliest in-
stances, for its approximate
date is 1 1 86 ; it was begun
immediately after the fire which consumed much of the Cathedral
in that year. The transition from the round to the pointed basis
of style was not continuous. Builders vacillated for a time between
the two, just as they did or did not perceive the full significance of
the new invention. With their never failing genius for construction
and articulation, the French developed the invention more rapidly
and more systemati-
cally than the English,
but nevertheless the
oldest structure in
which the new style
exists without any
echo from the old is
in England, and not
in France.

Those writers on
architecture who ap-
pear to take for their
first principle that noth-
ing is good unless it
comes out of France,
assert that the choir
and eastern transept

of Lincoln are French, in spite of the fact that all the details are
English and that no similar work of the kind can be pointed to

FIG. 68. — SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.

EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 69. — YORK MINSTER, SOUTH
TRANSEPT AND CENTRAL TOWER.

south of the channel. The following

opinion from Viollet-le-Duc, whose

knowledge of Gothic detail was, and

still remains, unrivalled in France,

has been often quoted but may here

be given once more, as the com-

pletest answer to those who would

deprive England of the credit of

Lincoln choir : " After the most

careful examination I cannot find, in

any part of the Cathedral of Lincoln,

neither in the general design, nor in

any part of the system of architect-
ure adopted, nor in the details of

ornament, any trace of the French

school of the twelfth century (the

Lay school, from 1 ) 70 to 1 220), so

plainly characteristic of the Cathe-
drals of Paris, Noyon, Senlis, Char-

tres. Sens, and even Rouen The construction is English, the

profiles of the mouldings are English, the ornaments are English, the

execution of the work belongs to the English school of workmen of

the beginning of the thirteenth century." So convinced was Viollet
of the English origin of Lincoln choir that he
refused to accept the date given for its con-
struction, thinking it impossible that our archi-
tects could so have anticipated those of his own
nationality. But the evidence as to date
seems beyond dispute. It may be allowed
that the structural principles of Gothic archi-
tecture were grasped more firmly, and fol-
lowed more strictly, by the French than by
their northern contemporaries (as, indeed,
structural principles, in every form of art,
always have been), but that does not justify
the conclusion that never, at any time or
place, did they receive, a lead from the rival
centre. The disputed part of Lincoln Cathe-
dral is conspicuous only by its date. In
character it fits absolutely into the English

pattern. There is nothing about it to excite the feeling, with which

Canterbury inspires us so strongly, that we are in the outskirts of

70. — THE FIVE SISTERS,
YORK.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 71. — WEST PORCH, ELY
CATHEDRAL.

the French Royal Domain. The eastern transept at Lincoln is a
bold stride forward from anything which had previously been done

in England, but the stride is toward
the English ideal, and not toward
the French.

English Gothic and French were
two dialects of one language, and
the disciples of the one could no
more express themselves in the other
than a Berkshire peasant can talk
Aberdeen. Whenever we have
external proof that Frenchmen were
employed on an English building,
we find the work they did was
French too. The choir of Canter-
bury, for instance, is French work
down to its most intimate details.
If the choir of Ljncoln had been
created by men trained in the traditions of the He de France, it
would have been the obvious sister of those great French cathedrals
which were its predecessors or contemporaries in date, and that no
one has ventured
to call it.

The whole
question of the
relation between
French and Eng-
lish Gothic re-
quires to be more
frankly discussed
than it has usually
been hitherto.
We have no room
for such a discus-
sion, but even
such a sketch as
this demands that fig. 72. -wells, west front.

some attempt

should be made to point out where mistaken or at least contestable
ideas have crept in.^

I See E. S. Prior's Gothic Architecture in Great Britain (Bell. 1900) for a just and temperate
statement of the English case.

EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 73. — CHAPTER HOUSE, CHRIST
CHURCH CATHEDRAL, OXFORD.

Speaking generally, what we have in England is a great architect-
ural development commencing with the Norman invasion and
the tremendous supply of new energy
brought into the country by the con-
querors. The first structures raised by
these men were entirely similar to those
they left behind in Normandy, which
may, indeed, have owed some part of
their character to intercourse with their
Anglo-Saxon neighbors. As time went
on, however, the genius loci began to
exert itself, the Norman blood to mix
with the Anglo-Saxon, and the Anglo-
Saxon way of confronting aesthetic
problems to modify the Norman. A
slow divergence between contmental and
insular conceptions set in, until by the
time that the round arch was giving way
to the pointed, English plans, elevations, and details of execution
could be distinguished at a glance from
French. This process never ceased.
From the day which saw the laying of
the first stone of Lanfranc's Cathedral
at Canterbury, to the completion of
Henry VII's chapel at Westminster,
those Gothic principles which were
common to all north-western Europe
gradually clothed themselves, in this
country, in an English garment. In
France, the structural skeleton was
made the most of and developed to its
logical conclusion, which often led to
sublimity, but sometimes to ugliness and
even absurdity. In England, the archi-
tect was over-ready to hide structure
with an irrelevant skin, leading some-
times to beauty with character, sometimes
to beauty without it, sometimes, alas ! to
the loss of both.

The choir and eastern transept of
Lincoln Cathedral (not the presbytery or " angel choir ") date from
about 1 1 90. They were begun in the episcopate of Bishop Hugh.

FIG. 74.— CHRIST CHURCH SPIRE,
OXFORD.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

It has not only been asserted that the architect was a Frenchman,
but one French writer declares that he reproduced the design of a
church commenced at Blois in
1138! Such a statement refutes
itself ; and, moreover, it has now
been ascertained that the architect
was English, and came of a family
long settled in Lincolnshire. The
rebuilding was continued systemat-
ically by the two immediate suc-
cessors of Bishop Hugh, until the
completion of the nave in or about
1240, by Bishop Grostete. On
the whole Lincoln Cathedral may
be regarded as the most important
specimen of the English form of
the first period of pointed Gothic.
The nave is less effective than it
might have been, chiefly through
the too great width of the bays
and the failure to bring the vaulting

shafts down to the ground. The west front, also, imposing as it
is, must be given up as a mistake. It has no congruity with the
Cathedral behind it. But the great central tower (Fig. 93) has few
rivals in England and none elsewhere.

In the quality most deliberately sought after by English architects,
Lincoln, however, is excelled by Salisbury, which shows happier ex-
ternal proportions, perhaps.

FIG. 75.

-PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL,
WEST FRONT.

than any other Gothic Cathe-
dral, either in England or
abroad. Nowhere else do
we find the same harmony
of lines and masses, the
same gradual development
of beautiful forms from the
ground up to the apex of the
spire. The design is typically
English, with its unimportant
west front, its north porch, its
long double transepts, its square east end, and the great spire rising
from the crossing. Up to the tower-base the work is all of one
period, between 1 220 and 1 250. The spire belongs to the fourteenth

FIG. 76. CHOIR AND CHAPTER HOUSE,

ELGIN CATHEDRAL.

EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

century. It is 20 feet lower than the fleche at Amiens, being only
404 feet high against the 424 of the other: *' yet the SaHsbury spire
is one of the most imposing objects of which Gothic architecture can
boast, the other an insignificant pinnacle that hardly suffices to relieve

the monotony of the roof on
which it is placed " (Fergus-
son). An American writer
puts it very well when she
says : " No better church than
Salisbury could be fancied as
a base for one of the greatest
spires in the world. Its suc-
cessive portions so build them-
selves up toward the centre
that we feel it would be in-
complete did a less imposing
pinnacle surmount it " (Mrs.
FIG. 77. — CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL, DUBLIN. Van Renssclacr). But Salis-

bury was begun at least 20
years later than the early pointed work at Lincoln.

Although Lincoln and Salisbury are its two great full-dress
examples, our First Pointed Style is to be seen, perhaps, with a
more intimate charm in many works, and parts of works, of a less
ambitious kind. Lack of ambition, perhaps, cannot be predicated
of the north transept of York, with its famous row of lancets ;
for nothing more imposing than these Five Sisters, as they rise far
off, like majestic ghosts,
before a visitor entering
by the south door, is to
be found in the whole
range of Gothic architect-
ure. Between the design
of this transept end, and
the chapel of the Nine
Altars at the not very
distant Fountains, there is
much in common. They
were built at about the
same time (1205-1245),
as also was the more
famous, although not, I think, more beautiful. Nine Altars at
Durham. Still more exquisite, perhaps, was the now ruined East

FIG. 78. — ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, DUBLIN.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

end of Tynemouth Abbey, with its graceful lancets, and a vault
in which ingenuity and art are happily combined. The South-
western Porch of St. Alban's still exists in a drawing made for.
Sir G. Gilbert Scott {Mediceval Architecture, Vol. I, p. 167) to
show what we have lost through the lack of worldly wisdom in
Abbot John de Cella and the energetic business habits of Lord
Grimthorpe !

Finest, perhaps, of all these parerga of the Early English Style
is the great Western Porch of Ely Cathedral (Fig. 71). It is almost
too important to be called a Porch, for it has two stories, the upper

one containing a room as large as a
small church. The Porch itself, be-
tween an outer and inner doorway,
measures about 40 feet by 30. Both
doorways are beautifully proportioned
and exquisite in detail, as are the four
ranges of decorative arcading and the
angle pinnacles by which the exterior is
enriched. Another beautiful, though
less elaborate, porch of about the same
date is that which forms the north
entrance to the contemporary cathedral
of Wells.

Wells, perhaps, is more trying to
one's feelings than any other English
cathedral. It has narrowly escaped
being the most beautiful of them all.
Even as it is, few things can bring
more delight to the lover of architect-
ure than a pilgrimage to this small
cathedral, hidden away, with its de-
pendencies, in a fold of the Mendips. But three blots are upon
it. The nave design is one of the least happy ever conceived
by a Gothic architect ; the engineer's device by which the central
tower is balked of its wish to fall is hideous and destructive,
while the cafe au lait color of the Doulting stone fails to charm.
Add to all these, a modern disfigurement in the foisting of a
series of what have been called gigantic slate pencils into the
West Front, and it will be seen that Wells has its disappointing
features. The West Front (Fig. 72) has been extravagantly praised
and unreasonably abused. As a design on its own account it is one
of the best left us by the thirteenth century, the towers being

j[& ^ -^J^B^fe-T 1,

FIG. 79. — ST. DOLOUGH S CHURCH
CO. DUBLIN.

EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

FIG. So. CLOISTER, KILCONNKL ABBEY,

IRELAND.

especially fine. Its faults are a certain crowding together of the

central parts, and the weakening of the buttresses by cutting into

their angles to insert quatrefoil niches

for statues. Freeman falls foul of it

as a West Front, calling it a sham.

It is difficult to see why. So far

from being a sham it is one of the

comparatively few west fronts, either

in England or elsewhere, which tell

the literal truth! But then it must

be read with candor and without

prejudice. What, in fact, does it

say? The towers are sitting securely

on terra firma, not bestriding an aisle,

and they say so. The central division confesses itself the finish to

the nave behind ; the compartments between this central division and

the towers obviously close the aisles ; the three doorways are clearly

meant to give access to human beings, not to giants. The whole

conception is at once beautiful and logical, much more logical than

Notre Dame, or the cathedrals of Rheims and Amiens. The real

fault is one shared with those French examples, or at least with

the two latter : its richness is too strongly contrasted with the

comparative sobriety of the church to which it acts as preface.

As an ensemble, the Cathedral of Wells with its dependencies is
unrivalled, being even more complete than Durham. The little
town of ecclesiastical buildings includes the great church itself, with

its Chapter House, cloisters,
and library, the Bishop's
Palace, with its wall, moat,
and gatehouse, the Deanery,
Archdeaconry, and Vicar's
Close with its own hall,
chapel and library, all lying
round a green and timbered
close into which we still make
our way through beautiful
and ancient gates.

According to tradition, a

very large number of English

castles and early domestic buildings date from the troubled reign of

John (1 199-1216), overshadowed as it was by its Papal interdict.

St. Briavel's Castle, Monmouthshire, the residence of one of the Lords

)I. — GLASGOW CATHEDRAL.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

of the Welsh Marches, belongs to this period. Its remains are pure
Early English. The Priory of Haverfordwest, with its fine church,
was founded in 1200. The rebuilding
of the choir of Worcester, after a fire,
was begun in 1 202. The Abbey of Beau-
lieu, Hampshire, was founded by John
in 1204. The Abbey of Halesowen,
Shropshire, founded by John, was begun
about 1215.

With the accession of Henry III, in
1216, came a great revival. The Inter-
dict by which the faithful had been
oppressed in the previous reign was re-
moved, and the building of cathedrals and
other ecclesiastical monuments went on
as merrily as in the early days of the
Norman supremacy. The king himself,
though feeble enough as a king, took a
more personal interest in the work of
his architects than any previous monarch
had done since the Norman Conquest. The charm and dignity of
the greatest architectural monument of his reign is known to be due,
in great part, to his own action. For Westminster Abbey would

FIG. 82. CHAPEL OF THE NINE

ALTARS, FOUNTAINS ABBEY.

FIG. 83. — BEVERLEY MINSTER.

never have been exactly as we see it had he not insisted on his
own views as to its style and scope. The chief relic from the

EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

early part of his reign is Salisbury Cathedral, but the years which
saw its erection also witnessed the building of the cathedral at
Wells (1225-1240), the western transept of York with the famous
Five Sisters (1227-1260), the choir of Southwell Minster (1233),
the Abbey at Netley, Hants (1239); the Chapel of the Nine
Altars, and the vault of the nave at Durham (1242) ; Elgin
Cathedral (1224); the early-English parts of Beverley Minster
(Fig. 83); and Glasgow Cathedral (1240-1270). With the
building of the choir, transepts, and Chapter House of Westminster
Abbey (1245-1270), the Presbytery of Lincoln (1256-1280), and
St. Mary's Abbey, York (1270-1290), the First Pointed, or Early
English, begins to glide into the Second Pointed, or Decorated,

manner.

For Bibliography, see Bibliography to Chapter VI.

«^4 i.J:Xii i irBH l.'.U i 'iL ^iul^

FIG. 84. — CHAPTER HOUSE,
SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.

FIG. 85. — EXETER CATHEDRAL, LOWER PART OF WEST FRONT.

CHAPTER V

DECORATED, OR SECOND-POINTED, GOTHIC
ARCHITECTURE

There is, of course, no line of de-
marcation between the first and
second period of English pointed
architecture. The one develops
imperceptibly into the other, and
it is only by looking backward or
forward, in sharp perspective, that
a change in character can be de-
scribed. The most important devel-
opment is in windows. Toward
the end of the Early English
period, lancets had been grouped
into pairs, under a single hood
moulding. The tympanum thus
established had been pierced, pro-
ducing what is known as plate
tracery. The next step was grad-
ually to reduce the strips of stone
left between these openings to the slightest scantling consistent
with safety and a safe appearance, producing what is known as

FIG. 86. — CHAPTER HOUSE, WEST-
MINSTER ABBEY.

DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

bar-tracery. Another change was the intro-
duction of more freedom in the general

design of windows. These were sometimes

square headed, and of various proportions

of height to width. As time went on the

geometrical forms to which bar-tracery was

at first restricted were changed for more

flowing lines, approximating sometimes to

the later flamboyant of France. Purely

ornamental details become richer. Vaults

become more complicated, additional ribs

being introduced, and finally the Heme vault,

with its wandering tracery of ribs, makes its

appearance. Apart from these more or

less organic changes, the Decorated period

shows a general development of all orna-
mental motives, until the unsurpassed richness of such conceptions

as the nave and west front
of Exeter Cathedral, St.
Stephen's Chapel, at West-
minster, and the Lady
Chapel, at Ely, is reached.
With the full development

FIG. 87. — ST. ETHELBERT'i
GATE, NORWICH.

FIG. 88. — CRYPT, GLASGOW CATHEDRAL.

of the second-pointed style, Gothic
architecture in England reached its
apogee. Structural and decorative forms
came into a fuller and happier relation
to each other than they had ever done
before, and motives were perfected
which would have led to a complete
fusion between aesthetic and scientific
requirements had English architects
united the French sense of logic to
their other good qualities.
Each of the three phases into which

FIG. 89. — DOORWAY, CHAPTER
HOUSE, ROCHESTER.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 90. — LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL,
CHOIR.

our Pointed architecture has been divided has its peculiar fitness. The
Early English period, especially in its later developments when large

w^indows with geometrical tracery were
employed, was better adapted than
either of its successors to take charge of
a great structure as a whole. The
Decorated phase lent itself, as its
title suggests, to the elaboration of
what I may call architectural jewelry
— " purple patches," some purists
might call them! — enriched vaults,
doorways, windows, tombs, and other
matters on which decoration might
be lavished without impropriety.
As for Perpendicular, it found a
task thoroughly suited to it in the
provision of those comparatively
small, but gorgeous, interiors which
form its chief glory. For Royal
chapels nothing better has ever been
devised.

Among the larger achievements of
the Second-Pointed, or Decorated, style, the nave of York and
the nave and choir of Exeter are perhaps the most important.
The proportions of the former are not, however, quite happy, its

width being too great for the other ele-
ments in the design. Exeter, on the
other hand, produces an excellent effect,
although, mathematically, its ratio of
width to height differs but little from
that of York. A peculiarity of Exeter
is the large share usurped by the vault
in the total effect. A still more com-
plete illustration of the style is afforded
by Lichfield Cathedral, which is almost
entirely Second Pointed. From the
logical point of view, the design of its
beautiful nave and choir is scarcely
equalled in England. A few feet
more of height would have made it
perfect.
The central octagon at Ely belongs
52

FIG. 91. — ANGEL TOWER, CANTER-
BURY CATHEDRAL.

DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 92. — TOMB OF EDWARD II,
GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL.

to this period, and affords a curious
example of wliat seems at first a
very happy thought turning out a
disappointment. The weak point in
the usual scheme of a cruciform
Gothic church is the crossing, with
the tall, well-Hke space it involves.
To cut off its corners and turn
this square into an octagon, lighted
from four points, must have seemed
an ideal solution to the architect
who hit upon it. But in effect
it is not so. The resulting propor-
tion between octagon, on the one
hand, and nave, choir, and aisles, on
the other, is not quite agreeable,
and on the whole it is not surprising
that, for six centuries, no one repeated
Alan of Walsingham's invention.

The Chapels of Merton College,
Oxford, and of St. Etheldreda, in

Ely Place, Holborn, the Lady Chapel in Ely Cathedral, and

St. Stephen's Chapel, at Westminster, show the Decorated style

in its application to buildings smaller

than cathedrals. The most refined

in its beauty, of these four chapels,

is St. Etheldreda's, which might

almost be referred to the Transition

from First Pointed. The two great

windows, East and West, show

the latest phase of geometrical

tracery at its very best, while the

side windows, with their connect-
ing wall arcades, or rather canopies,

are scarcely less beautiful. The

Chapel of Merton College has

much in common with St. Ethel-
dreda's, which, however, it greatly

excels in size. The Lady Chapel

at Ely has some of the most

exquisite detail ever carried out by

Gothic carvers, but its proportions

FIG. 93. — CENTRAL TOWER, LINCOLN
CATHEDRAL.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 94. — WELLS CATHEDRAL AND CHAPTER
HOUSE, FROM THE NORTH EAST.

are too wide and low.
With a few feet less
width and more height, it
would have been a gem.
St. Stephen's, Westminster,
so far as we may judge
from the illustrations in
which alone it exists, was
one of the most perfect
works of the fourteenth
century. It united a rich-
ness equal to that of the
richest Perpendicular to

beauty of proportion, and its loss is greatly to be deplored.
But, perhaps, the most perfect

objects created by the Gothic

architects of this, or of any ether,

period, were the polygonal

chapter houses which glorify so

many English cathedrals. These

ecclesiastical halls had existed

in England from very early in

the Norman activity. At first

they were rectangular chambers,

from 25 to 35 feet wide and 40

to 60 feet long. In 1133 a

chapter house was begun at

Durham, with one apsidal end.

The next change was at Worcester, where a circular, vaulted

chamber was built with a
central support. This appears
to have been immediately ac-
cepted as the definite form,
the only further advance
being the suppression of the
central column, which was
achieved at York in the
last chapter house built in
Gothic times. The principles
of Gothic construction were
never more happily applied
than in these adjuncts to

.fm. ^^' \

A**^*

11 ^1 A

i<.i ijis III

•■

FIG. 95. — ST. ETHELDREDA S CHAPEL,
ELY PLACE, HOLBORN.

FIG. 96. — MERTON COLLEGE CHAPEL,
OXFORD.

DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

an English capitular church. They
are the replique to the clearstories of
France, with the additional merit of
being as indispensable as they are
beautiful. The two earliest which
belong to the transition period, Salis-
bury and Westminster,' are practically
identical. Their window tracery is of
the latest geometrical stamp. The later
chapter house at Wells, though less
perfect in its proportions and less
scientific in structural expression, is more
*' felt," with human touches which may
be surplusage, but are decidedly agree-
able. York
just falls
short of per-

FIG. 97. — LADY CHAPEL, ELY. fcCtlOn. ItS

general pro-
portions are fine, its windows magnificent.

But the

cone in

which t h e

vault cul-
minates i s

not a happy

device,

while t h e

richness of

t h e stall

canopies is

affected for

t h e worse

by their

plain gables.

Like other

buildings of

t h e same
class, it has its charm diminished by the mistaken treatment of

1 The Chapter House of Westminster was the Parliament House of the kingdom from shortly
after its erection until the Reformation, when the Commons migrated to St. Stephen's Chapel.
The Chapter House then became the storeroom of the national archives, which it remained until
its restoration by Sir G. G. Scott.

FIG. 98. — CHAPTER HOUSE,
WELLS.

FIG. 99. — WALTHAM CROSS
RESTORATION.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. lOO. — CHAPTER HOUSE, YORK
MINSTER.

the one un-windowed bay. Had the device of opening this bay
and filling the tracery, which is identical with that of the windows,

with shadow instead of with solid
wall, been adopted, all these polyg-
onal chapter houses would have
been greatly improved. It would
have lessened the sense of confine-
ment, introduced just the right touch
of variety, and obviated the use
of expedients which are in no
single instance
happy.

The Eleanor
Crosses ( 1 29 1 -
1293) belong to
the Decorated
period, but none
are now in a
condition to
show their full beauty. The Martyr's Memorial,
at Oxford, by Sir Gilbert Scott; Charing

Cross, in the fore-
court of the South
Eastern Railway
Station, by E. M.
Barry ; and the
restoration of Wal-
tham Cross itself,
bad as it is, give
some idea of their
general aspect. The
tombs of Edward II,
in Gloucester Cathe-
dral, of Aymer de Valence, Earl of
Pembroke, with its enamelled decora-
tion, in Westminster Abbey, and the
Percy Shrine, in Beverley Minster, are
all sumptuous and well preserved
examples of the sepulchral work of
tomb is particularly magnificent, and
of the exuberant decorative carver.
Edward III, at Westminster, belongs

FIG. lOI. — PERCY
SHRINE, BEVERLEY
MINSTER.

FIG. I02. — CHOIR, CARLISLE
CATHEDRAL.

the time. The Percy
utters the last word
The superb tomb of

DECORATED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

to the first years of Third

rather than to Second

Pointed.

Many other proofs of the

pecuHar suitability of the

Decorated phase for the

enrichment of passages in

the greater designs of the

mediaeval architects might be

quoted, such as porches and

doorways, of which those

of St. Mary's, Beverley,

and the Chapter House at

Rochester (Fig. 89), are

beautiful examples ; rood-
screens and retables, like

those of Beverley Minster

and Durham Cathedral ;

windo vs, the finest, perhaps,

being ihe great east window

of Carlisle Cathedral (Fig.

1 02) ; and spires, such as those

of Grantham, Newark, and

Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire. The Bloxham tower and spire

are among the most perfectly balanced
designs carried out in the style.

Other important monuments of the
Earlier Decorated period, in their ap-
proximately chronological order, are:
St. Ethelbert's Gateway, Norwich
(1273-1278), the choir and transept
of Exeter Cathedral (1279-1292), the
hall of the Bishop's palace. Wells
(1280-1292), Dorchester Abbey,
Oxfordshire (1280-1300), the east
end of Carlisle Cathedral (1292-1340),
the south porch of St. Mary Redclyffe,
Bristol (1292), the tomb of Arch-
bishop Peckham, at Canterbury (1292),
the cloisters and part of south transept
with rose window, at Lincoln (1296-
1306), and the central tower of Wells

FIG. 103. — LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL, WEST
FRONT.

FIG. 104. — CHAPTER HOUSE,
YORK MINSTER.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

1320-1337). Of the later period, parts of Melrose Abbey
1327-1390), the spire of Salisbury Cathedral (1331), the great
east window of York Minster (1338), the Hall at Penshurst
(1341), the destroyed St. Stephen's Chapel at Westminster (1350-
1365), parts of Windsor Castle (1360-1375), with its crypt, and
the choir of Selby Abbey (1375), are, or once were, among the
best examples. The great east window of York affords the chief
example of an arrangement in the glass walls of Gothic cathedrals,
which might, with advantage, have been carried farther than it was.
For halt its height the tracery is double, the inner and outer skins
being connected and mutually stiffened by horizontal cross-pieces.
Such a contrivance not only increases the actual strength, it has aesthetic
value also, and if skilfully used would remove that appearance of
weakness which is, for instance, a defect in such beautiful things as the
soaring clearstories of France. At York it has the additional and
not unimportant advantage of allowing the triforium passage to be
carried across the window.

For Bibliography, see Bibliography to Chapter VI.

FIG. 105. — PENSHURST PLACE, KENT.

FIG. io6. — ST. George's chapel, Windsor: partly a restoration.

CHAPTER VI

PERPENDICULAR. OR THIRD POINTED. GOTHIC
ARCHITECTURE

107. — TOMB OF EDWARD III,
WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

The Third Pointed, or Perpendicu-
lar, variety of English Gothic is easily
distinguished. It first declared itself
by the somewhat timid intrusion of
vertical lines among the curves of
decorated tracery. These vertical
lines gradually increased in number
and assertiveness, until they became
the obvious characteristic of an age.
Other features are the nearly uni-
versal use of square hood-mouldings
over doorways, the four-centred
arch, the finmg down of mouldings
until they become little more than
reeds, the stiltmg of the bases of
columns and shafts, and the almost
total abandonment of foliage motives
in the carving of capitals, corbels, etc.
59

^^ OF THE ^y

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Io8. — WINCHESTER CATHE-
DRAL, NAVE.

terior, which shall overlie the inner struct-
ure and withdraw it from our knowledge.
The form of continental art to which it
may most fairly be compared is the Belgian
Gothic of the fifteenth century, which is,
however, more akin to second pointed in
detail. The spirit of Perpendicular was

The Perpendicular style is essentially
English. It embodies a complete break-
ing away from continental traditions and
answers to predilections which have
been characteristic of English art ever
since it began to have a character of its
own at all. Perpendicular does not
produce its effect by confessing, or rather
declaring, its

own inner con- '

stitution, and
showing how
well that is
adapted to the
work in hand,
as does the best
French work of
t h e thirteenth
century. It aims
at a rich and
picturesque ex-

f ^

C'k^

109. — WINCHESTER:
PLAN.

FIG. no. — DIVINITY SCHOOL, OXFORD.

antagonistic to plain
surfaces. It particularly dis-
liked the spandrils left by
the pointed arch when it cut
through a wall, and got rid
of them partly by flattening
the arch and so diminishing
their extent, partly by filling
them with elaborate panelling.
It next attacked the vault,
and by successive devices
transformed the pyramidal
severeys of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries into those
inverted cones covered with

PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

stone lace, which make up what is known as fan vaulting. And
here it may incidentally be remarked that the attitude of the

FIG. III. — KING S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE.

FIG. 112. — HENRY VII S CHAPEL,
WESTMINSTER (eXTERIOR).

13. — HENRY VII S CHAPEL, WEST-
MINSTER (interior).

French and English architects toward vaults is, perhaps, more
characteristic than anything else they did. The French architect
was so impressed by the fitness of the vault for its immediate

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 114. — MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD:
CLOISTER QUAD.

the architecture below. The most
daring French vauhs, such as that
of Amiens, look mean, their great
height notwithstanding, beside a
comparatively modest performance
like the vault of Exeter, to say
nothing of such a miracle in stone as
the vault of King's College Chapel,
at Cambridge (Fig. 1 20).

Important examples of the Per-
pendicular period abound, although
no building of the first magnitude
was erected wholly in the style.
Among the earlier specimens, be-
tween 1377, the year of the acces-
sion of Richard II, and 1422, when
Henry VI came to the throne, the
most important are (in chronological

purpose that he confined
himself to its structural de-
velopment, carrying that to
completion and there stay-
ing his hand. His English
rival was less thorough in
his appreciation of the vault
as an engineering contriv-
ance, but, on the other
hand, he made more use of
it as an aesthetic climax to

-THE BEAUCHAMP CHAPEL,
WARWICK.

FIG. 116. — CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL.

order), the tomb of Edward
III (1377), in Westminster
Abbey, the nave and west-
ern transepts of Canterbury
Cathedral (1378-1411), the
ruined Chapter House of
Howden, Yorks (1380-
1400); New College, Ox-
ford (1380-1390); the
Church of St. Mary's, War-
wick (1380-1390); the
Cloisters of Gloucester Ca-
thedral (1381-1412) (the

PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 117, — MAGDALEN COLLEGE
CHAPEL, OXFORD.

earliest fine example of fan vault-
ing) ; Thornton Abbey, Lincoln-
shire (1382-1390); the tombs of
Richard 11 and his queen, Anne,
in Westminster Abbey (1394),
erected by Richard himself on
Anne's death ; the tower of How-
den Church (1405) ; the nave of
Winchester Cathedral (1394-
1410) ; parts of Canterbury Cathe-
dral (1410-1430) ; the upper part
of the walls and the great timber
roof of Westminster Hall (1400);
and the great east window of York
Minster (1405-1408).

Between the accession of Henry
VI in 1422 and the death of
Henry VII in 1509, and even for
the first thirty years of the reign
of Henry VIII, the Perpendicular
style persisted without showing many

FIG. 118. — NEW COLLEGE CHAPEL,
OXFORD (restoration).

fig. 119.— all souls chapel, oxford
(restoration).

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

signs of the coming transformation.
The chief buildings wholly or partly
erected during this century and more
are : the transepts and tower of
Merton College Chapel (1424); the
Cloisters at Norwich (1430) ; South
Wingfield Manor House, Derbyshire
(1433-1455); Tattershall Castle,
Lincolnshire (1433-1455) ; Fother-
ingay Church, Northants (1440);
part of St. John's College, Oxford
(1437) ; the Beauchamp Chapel,
Warwick (1440); King's College
Chapel, Cambridge (1440); St.

FIG. I20.— KING S COLLEGE CHAPEL,
CAMBRIDGE.

Mary's Church choir, Oxford
(1443-1450); Sherborne Abbey
Church, Dorsetshire (1445-1450);
The Divinity School, Oxford (1445-
1455) ; Bishop Beckington's build-
ings at Wells (1450-1465); the
Central Tower of Gloucester Cathe-
dral (1454-

FIG. 121. — TOMB OF THE EARL OF
WARWICK, WARWICK.

FIG. 122. — MERTON COLLEGE
CHAPEL, OXFORD.

1460) ; the North-western Tower of Croy-
land Abbey (1470); Crosby Hall, London
(1470); the Choir Screen in York Min-
ster (1475?); Magdalen College, Oxford
(1478-1492); the Reredos, St. Alban's
Cathedral (1480?); and St. George's
Chapel, Wmdsor (1481-1508). For the
reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII,
we may add to this list: the nave and
aisles of St. Mary's Church, Oxford
(1488); the central, or Angel, tower of
Canterbury Cathedral (1490-1525); the
tower of Magdalen College, Oxford
(1492-1505); Bath Abbey Church (1500-
1540); Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster
64

PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

(1503-1520); the nave of Melrose Abbey (1505); the Vault of
St. George's, Windsor, and of King's College Chapel, Cambridge
(1508-1515); Thornbury Castle, Gloucestershire (1510-1522);

PW»T3i'" 1

IHIHI^T , i^*^^i^3

FIG. 123. — SOUTH PORCH,
GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL.

FIG. 124. — WALLINGFORD SCREEN,
ST. ALBAN'S.

Earts of Brasenose and Corpus Christi Colleges, Oxford (1512-1517)
.ayer Marney Hall, Essex (about 1520); Compton Winyates
Warwickshire (about 1520); and the
Hall of Christ Church, Oxford (1524-
1 529), and much of Hampton Court.

The finest, perhaps, of the earlier
examples of developed Perpendicular
is the nave of Winchester Cathedral
(1390-1410). The transformation of
die old Norman nave into the present
one has been often illustrated in books
on architecture (Fig. 108). The pro-
portions of the three original Norman
stories do not account for what is un-
doubtedly the chief fault of the Per-
pendicular design, the too great height
of the main arches and the abolition of
the triforium. The interior of King's fig. 125
College Chapel, Cambridge (Fig. 120)
may be fairly compared to a cathedra
nave, few of which approach it in scenic effect. As a free
aesthetic conception and example of pure skill in construction, it

65 F

ST. FRIDESWIDE S SHRINE,
CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL, OX-
FORD.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 125. — DURHAM: CENTRAL
TOWER.

can hold its own with any building ever raised ; but if we look
at it from a French standpoint, and demand that neither skill

nor aesthetic designing shall hide the
scheme of structure, it is more open
to fault-finding. And yet, after all, it
is not easy to establish a sound logical
basis for rejecting the one system and
accepting the other. If we insist that
the actual method of construction shall
be visible to any intelligent eye survey-
ing the interior of a Gothic cathedral,
we are at once met by the difficulty
of accounting for the stability of vault
and clear-story. If, on the other hand,
we allow a detailed examination of
the whole building before demanding
a verdict, the vault of Henry VII's
Chapel may justify itself as easily as
that of Amiens. We cannot well lay
it down that the intelligent eye may go outside and reassure itself
with the sight of the flying but-
tresses, at Amiens, and may not
visit the roof to constater — why
have we no convenient word for
that in English? — the part played
by the great transverse ribs at
Westminster !

The strictly architectural parts
of St. George's, Windsor (Fig. 1 06),
are inferior to the same things at
King's College and at Westminster.
The nave and choir arcades are
thin and poor, and the vault monot-
onous. These faults have been
avoided by the architect of Henry
VII's Chapel, who has produced
what is, on the whole, the most
successful example of thorough-
going Perpendicular in its latest
phase (Fig. 113). The interior

of his chapel only wants two things to be a perfect gem in its
way, viz.: Stained glass in the windows of the apse, and the

FIG. 127. — BEVERLEY MINSTER,
WEST FRONT.

PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

absence of the bronze screen round the King's tomb. This screen,
fine in itself, goes far to destroy the proportions of the chapel,

^ ^ J ITlill " -- ^

-:ia -l^wris >..■..

FIG. 128. — YORK MINSTER. SOUTH SIDE.

while it hides Torrigiano's beautiful monument. Outside, the chapel
is hardly so successful (Fig. 112). The clear-story and flying
buttresses are finely conceived, but
the panelling of the lower story,
with its apparent attempt to de-
ceive the spectator as to how much
is wall and how much window, is
less satisfactory. In the Divinity
School at Oxford (Fig. 110), the
quantitative relation between the
interior, as a whole, and its parts
— especially in the number and
scantling of the vaulting ribs — is
unusually happy ; but the eye
would have been better pleased
had the trace of the main arches
supporting the vault — they are
more than ribs — been less angular
at the imposts, a remark which
also applies to the blind arches at
the ends of the hall.

The fan vaulting, which exists
in greater or less development in all
these buildings, is the most famous and typically English feature of

67 F 2

FIG. 129. YORK minster: CHOIR,

LOOKING EAST.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 130. — COMPTON WINYATES, WARWICKSHIRE.

the style. It first appeared
in its full perfection in the
cloisters of Gloucester Cathe-
dral. Its origin was simple.
It occurred to some architect
or builder that the inverted
pyramids, of which the
severeys of a groined vaylt
had previously consisted,
could be lightened by cutting
off their angles. This readily
suggested the substitution of a cone for a pyramid, while the
absorption of the groins al-
lowed the ribs to be freely
used as decorative media.
The Gloucester vault is not
only the earliest, it is one of
the best examples of the
method. Others (besides
those in the chapels already
described) are to be found
in St. Lawrence's, Eve-
sham, in Bath Abbey, in
the retrochoir at Peter-
borough, in the choir of
Oxford Cathedral (Fig. 22),
and the neighboring staircase of the college hall, in the remark-
able Perpendicular church
at Fotheringay, and in a
large number of other build-

Many tine towers were
carried out in " Third
Pointed." Among the best
may be named the towers
of Howden Church, Yorks,
of Merton (Fig. 122),
and Magdalen Colleges,
Oxford, of Fountains
Abbey (Fig. 50), of St.
Mary's, Taunton, and All
Saints, Derby; of the churches at Boston, Wrexham (Fig. 134),

FIG. 131. — WESTMINSTER HALL.

FIG. 132. GATEHOUSE, THORNTON ABBEY.

PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

\4^^'

3 1 y »

FIG. 133. — ILMINSTER CHURCH.

and Gresford (near Chester),
and the central towers of
Canterbury (Fig. 91), Glouces-
ter (Fig. 137), York, and
Durham Cathedrals (Figs.
128 and 126). Fine spires
are hardly so numerous.
The best, perhaps, are those
of St. Michael's, Coventry,
and St. Mary's, Oxford,
restored as they are, while
the " crowns " of St. Nicho-
las's, at Newcastle, and St.
Giles's, Edinburgh, are the best
examples of a motive which
occurs elsewhere, in steeples,
market crosses (Fig. 132),
etc.

The customary East End
of an English church lends
itself to the presence of a fine background for the High Altar.
Consequently we find many of our cathedrals and chapels closed at
the East by a magnificent rere-
dos, in which sculpture and
decorative architecture unite
to produce a gorgeous effect.
Unhappily the statues in the
great majority of cases are
modern restorations, the various
furies which have swept over
English religion having made a
clean sweep of the original
figures. Perpendicular lent it-
self to the enrichment of such
screens. The finest now re-
maining are the two very similar
ones at Winchester and St.
Albans (Fig. 1 24, the Walling-
ford screen, lately spoilt by the
introduction of figures in a yellow
stone which accords but ill with
the white architecture), and the

FIG. 134. — ST. GILES S CHURCH, WREXHAM.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

splendid East Ends of three
college chapels at Oxford, New
College, Magdalen, and All
Souls' (Figs. 117, 118, and
119). Besides these Eastern
glories, the choir of an Eng-
lish cathedral is sometimes shut
off from the nave by a sump-
tuous barrier, which carried the
Rood, the best remaining ex-
ample being in York Minster.

The style has also left many,
splendid tombs. The exquisite
resting-place of Edward III in
Westminster Abbey dates from
the very beginning of the Per-
pendicular period (Fig. 1 07) ;
that of Richard II and his
Queen from somewhat later;
the tombs of Gower, the poet,
in Southwark Cathedral, of
Henry IV and Archbishop
Warham, at Canterbury, of
Thomas Fitzalan, Earl of Arun-
del, at Arundel, of Rich-
ard, Earl of Warwick, at Warwick (Fig. 121), of Humphrey,

Duke of Gloucester, at St. Albans, the

shrines of St. Frideswide, at Oxford

(Fig. 125), and William of Wykeham,

at Winchester, and the very late semi-
Renaissance Salisbury Chantry, in

Christchurch, Hampshire, may also be

particularized.

Before leaving Perpendicular, and

with it Gothic architecture, a word

must be said about a feature no less

English than the fan vaults. I mean

those magnificent timber roofs in which

our carpenters of pre-Reformation days

expressed their courage and skill. The

finest is the roof of Westminster Hall,

which may fairly be called the greatest

FIG. 135. — GATEWAY, CANTERBURY.

FIG. 136. — LAYER MARNEV
TOWERS.

PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

creation of the carpenter the world
has to show (Fig. 131). Here the
principles (the main transverse mem-
bers) become trefoil arches, enriched
with carved angels at their cusps,
and filled in and connected above by
open timber tracery. Slight varia-
tions of the same construction were
used for the roofs of Hampton Court
Hall, and the Hall of Cardinal Col-
lege, now Christ Church, at Oxford.
At Hampton Court, however,
much of the ornamental detail is
pure Renaissance, some of it, as will

FIG. 137. — CENTRAL TOWER, GLOUCESTER
CATHEDRAL.

be found noticed elsewhere,
bearing marks of Holbein's in-
tervention. Many other fine
timber roofs date from this
period, such as those of Trunch
Church, Norfolk, and St.
Peter's Mancroft, Norwich.
Akin to these magnificent
timber roofs are the great
screens which exist in so many
many cases, however, these are
both in spirit and detail. They

FIG. 138. — CLOISTERS OF GLOUCESTER
CATHEDRAL.

English Halls and Chapels. In
rather Renaissance than Gothic,
are very numerous, and often of

FIG, 139. — HAMPTON COURT PALACE, WEST FRONT,

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

a richness which recalls the exuberance of similar things beyond the
Pyrenees, rather than anything nearer home.

Some of the finest examples are in the churches of Holbeton, Har-
berton, Dunster, Atherington, Bovey Tracey, Cartmel, Kenton,
Croscombe, Staverton, Llananno, Strensham, and in King's College
Chapel, Cambridge, the Middle Temple Hall, and Wadham College,
Oxford. This list includes screens of all periods, down to the com-
mencement of the full Renaissance.

BIBUOGRAPHY TO CHAPTERS IV, V, and VI

Scott, Sir G. G., Lectures on the Rise and Development of MeJiceval Architecture, 1879.
Moore, C. H., Development and Character of Gothic Architecture, 1890. Prior, E. S., History
of Gothic Art in England, 1900; King, R. J., Handbooks to the English Cathedrals (Murray).
Winkles, B., Cathedrals of England and Wales, 1836-1842. Dollman, F. T., and Jobbins. J. R..
Ancient Domestic Architecture in Great Britain. Freeman, E. A., History of the Cathedral
Church of IVells, 1870. Billings, R. W., Architectural Antiquities of the County of Durham,
1846. Billings, R. W., Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland. Britten, J., Cathe-
drals, 1821-1835. Britton, J., Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 1807-1814. Brayley,
E. W., and Britton, J., History of the Ancient Palace . . . at Westminster, 1836. Gough, R.,
Sepulchral Monuments in Great Britain, 1 796. Longman, W., The Three Cathedrals Dedicated
to St. Paul, London, 1873. Scott, Sir G. G., Gleanings from Westminster Abbey, 1863. Wickes,
C., Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of England, 1853—1859. Bond, Francis,
Screens and Galleries in English Churches, 1908. Henfrey, H. W., and Watney, H., East
Anglian Rood Screens. Strange, E. F., Painted Rood Screens in East Anglia. Ditchfield, P. A.,
The Cathedrals of Great Britain, \902. Fergusson, ]., History of Architecture, 1874; Archceolo-
gia, 1773, el seq. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Transactions, 1852, et seq. Paley, F. A.,
Manual of Gothic Mouldings, London, 1 891 . BloAram, M. H., The Principles of Gothic Archi-
/ec/ure, London, 1882. Morris, William, Gothic Architecture, i^ondon, 1893. Scott, Sir G. G.,
An Essay on the History of English Church Architecture, London, 1881 . Willis, R., The Archi-
tectural History of Cambridge, 1886. Fallow, P. M., Cathedral Churches of Ireland, 1894.
MacGibbon, Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland, Exlinburgh, 1887; ditto. Ecclesi-
astical Architecture of Scotland, E<Jinburgh, 1895.

FIG. 140. — MARKET CROSS,
SALISBURY.

FIG. 141. — LONGLEAT, WILTS.

CHAPTER VII
THE TUDOR CHAOS

The last song of Gothic in England gradually died away between
the accession of Henry VIII in 1309 and the final creation of the
English variety of Renaissance architecture by Inigo Jones rather
more than a century later. Between the latest achievements of

Perpendicular, as an organized sys-
tem, and the earliest works of Jones,
lay a sort of architectural whirlpool,
in which fragments of Italian and
German Renaissance shouldered the
wreckage of English Gothic and
threw up that peculiar mixed style
which has again been so effectively
used during the last quarter of a
century.

Between the last building in which
Gothic ideas, as understood in
England, governed the whole, say
between the erection of Wolsey's
Hall at Christ Church and the com-
plete surrender to new principles
from Southern Europe under the
lead of Inigo Jones, England was covered with buildings in what is
called the Tudor Style, about which it is very difficult to write

FIG. 142. — HALL, HAMPTON COURT.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

1-43. — CEILING OF BISHOP WEST S CHAPEL, ELY.

systematically. The characteristic of the period, speaking broadly,
was the use of motives, from both the Gothic and the Latin

traditions, in a merely
picturesque fashion, with
little or no regard to their
structural origin. Tempted
by the renewal of national
comfort and prosperity,
after the destructive period
beginning with the Wars
of the Roses and ending
with the tyranny of Henry
VIII, had passed away,
Italian, Flemish, and Ger-
man artisans came to Eng-
land in large numbers.
Under such conflicting in-
fluences architecture be-
came chaotic. The period was scarcely one of transition in the true
sense. Forms did not slowly develop from each other; they were
mixed up with new forms, the mixture sometimes ending in a super-
ficial harmony, sometimes in mere eccentricity, but never in a real
organic unity. Things were not to be straightened out until

a man of genius arose to do it.

Inigo Jones was to do for
English art after the Tudor con-
fusion what Napoleon did for
French society after the turmoil
of the early Revolution.

The earliest monument of im-
portance in which the Gothic
influence meets the Latin is
Wolsey's palace at Hampton
Court. The Cardinal began
work in 1515. His architects
and artisans were mostly Eng-
lish, but Italians were employed
on some of the ornament. It is
known that Giovanni da Majano
made the terra-cotta roundels

with busts of Roman Emperors, which appear on the two outer
towers. Giovanni found terra-cotta in use in England — at Layer

[44. — CEILINO OF WOLSEY S CLOSET,
HAMPTON COURT.

THE lUDOR CHAOS

FIG. 145. — AUDLEY END, ESSEX.

Marney, Sutton Place, and elsewhere — but his work shows no sign

of native influence. And this we almost

invariably find to be the case. Wherever
we have documentary evidence of the
employment of foreigners on an English
building, we find the work they did was
foreign also. They did not come here to
accept English notions, but to carry out
their own. We have reason to believe
that other Italians besides Giovanni da
Majano worked at Hampton Court, but the
ceiling (Fig. 144) of the room known as
Wolsey's closet, which has been usually
accepted as Italian, seems rather to belong
to that type of Renaissance ornament which
Holbein used with such felicity. Unless I
am much mistaken, this ceiling is not the
only place in which the effect of his example, at least, is to be

FIG. 146. — GATE TOWER,
TRINITY COLLEGE.

FIG. 147. — HATFIELD HOUSE.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 148. — HARDWICKE HALL, DERBYSHIRE.

traced in Wolsey's palace. Torrigiano's tomb of Henry VII at
Westminster, within the elaborate but destructive English grille,

is entirely Italian. Imported
Italians were responsible for
many other fine creations,
among them the magnificent
tomb destined first for Car-
dinal Wolsey and secondly
for Henry VIII, but used —
what survived of it — for the
sepulture of Nelson nearly
three centuries later ; this
was the work of Benedetto
da Rovezzano. Such things
do not belong to the history
of English art, however, and need not be discussed at any length.
The whole movement, indeed, can scarcely be considered as belong-
ing to our true national development, but in such a manual as this
its chief productions will have to be noted, nevertheless.

Many conditions helped to make the period incoherent. The

foreign immigrants came as
artisans, or at most as what we
should now call sub-contractors,
not as masters. In no single
case has proof been found that
a foreign architect was intrusted
with the chief control of an
important work. The instance
usually given is that of Longleat
(Fig. 141) and John of Padua.
But even there we have no evi-
dence but tradition, and on this
doubt is cast by the aspect of
the work itself ; for Long-
leat is an English house, with
a certain Latin purity in the
design of its details. The archi-
tect may have been either John
Shute, or, possibly, though not
probably, Robert Smithson, who
appears on the accounts as clerk of the works. Immediately on
the completion of Longleat, Smithson was intrusted with the

-HARDWICKE HALL, PRESENCE
CHAMBER.

THE TUDOR CHAOS

erection of Wollaton Hall, Notts, which resembles Longleat but
slightly. Decisive differences are the greater exuberance of detail

FIG. 150. — MONTACUTE, SOMERSETSHIRE.

in the latter, and the comparative inferiority of its proportions, both
as a whole and in parts. But if we suppose that John of Padua
acted as adviser either to Shute or Smithson, we shall account for
both the appearance of Longleat and the tradition as to its architect.
Mr. Reginald Blomfield (who believes Shute to have built Longleat)
suggests the Salisbury Chantry, in Christ Church, Hants, as a
good example of the way in which work was divided between
English builders and foreign ornemanistes. There the structural
parts are ordinary late Perpendicular in design and workmanship,
while the vertical bands on the engaged shafts, the horizontal bands
on the architraves, and the spandrils above the niches, are enriched
with Renaissance ornament of the finest Italian design and execution.
Foreign influences in England during this century vary locally.
The number of French im-
migrants was small. Scarcely
any work bearing signs of a
French origin can be pointed
to, the chief exceptions being
the Oxenbrigge Monument
in Bride Church, Sussex,
and some capitals in the old
church at Chelsea (Blom-
field). The Italian, German,
and Flemish immigrants, on
the other hand, spread them-
selves over the country, al-
though in a partial and tentative way, the Italians clinging to the
districts easily reached from the Channel ports, the Flemings and

FIG. 151. — LONG GALLERY, CHIRK CASTLE.

(Partly Restoration.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 152. — GALLERY, HADDON HALL.

The

most important, and one of the earhest, of
the Germans, was Holbein, who left a few
casual finger-prints on English building as he
passed to his painting room. Most of the
odds and ends of architecture ascribed to him,
however, offer no recognizable proofs of his
authorship. The Northern Gate at White-
hall, which stood opposite to where Gwydyr
House now stands, and has figured so often
in books as " Holbein's Gate," was a
thoroughly English, late Gothic design,
similar to the towers at Hampton Court,
the Gates of Trinity and St. John's, at
Cambridge, and many other contemporary
structures. The Southern, or King Street,
Gate, which stood where Downing Street at

pres-

Germans showing their pref-
erence for the eastern coun-
ties and the midlands.

Throughout the latter part
of Henry's reign the Italians
in England steadily dimin-
ished, while the Flemings
and Germans grew in num-
ber. This adjustment was
in harmony with the politico-
ecclesiastical situation, and
partly resulted from it.

FIG. 153. — HERTFORD TOMB,
SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.

FIG. 154. — LONGFORD CASTLE, WILTS.

78-

ent debouches on White-
hall, was probably the one
designed by Holbein. No
quite satisfactory reproduc-
tion has survived, but Ver-
tue's engraving of 1 725, made
from a drawing of his own
and published two years
after the site was cleared,
shows that the King Street
Gate was entirely chatacter-
istic of the Augsburger, both

THE TUDOR CHAOS

in detail and in general de-
sign. Another trace of his
activity, hitherto unrecog-
nized, is to be found, I think,
in the beautiful pendants to
the timber roof of the great
hall at Hampton Court.
These were supplied by one
" Richard Rydge, Kerver,"
of London, (Law), but in
their design the griffe du
lion is unmistakable.

The reign of Elizabeth
saw a great influx of Ger-
nftans and Flemings, whose
influence — that of the Ger-
mans at least — was not for
our good. To their ex-
ample may be traced the
nonsensical ornament and
defective proportion which
were characteristic of Eliza-
bethan building. Their in-
fluence was predominant
throughout the reign. 'The
screens and mantel-pieces
of old Charter House, of
Longleat, and of Hatfield,
the ponderous entrance
porch of Audley End, the
strapwork gables ... of
Wollaton, the barbarous
notion of using Tuscan and
other columns as chimneys,
the shapes of men and
women ending in balusters,
all show the heavy hand,
the merely mechanical in-
stinct of the German work-
man ; and architectural de-
sign being at a low ebb at
this period, or being rather.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 159.-CHAPEL, KNOLE.

one should say, in an undeveloped state, people who built houses
had recourse to that last refuge of the destitute, the pattern book,

that is, folio pages of design done
into space, designs not made in
relation to specific conditions, but
made as merely academical or
commercial exercises by some facile
designer of tailpieces and title
pages. ... It was unfortunate
that the treatises most in use in
England at this time were German
rather than Italian. ... It is evi-
dent, in fact, that the English
builder-architect of the time of
Elizabeth was a somewhat ignorant
and ill-educated person, and did
not follow better models simply be-
cause he was ignorant of their existence " (Reginald Blomfield).

The Germans and Flemings, like the Italians before them,
were employed in more or less subordinate capacities. No
building of importance was left entirely in their hands, except,
perhaps, Sir Thomas Gresham's Exchange. For this the design
came obviously from the Low Countries. Both in detail and in
general conception it breathes
Antwerp, and is distinguished
by a restraint and grace which
are not to be found in more
Teutonic creations. The Ger-
man invaders are mainly respon-
sible for the frequently pictu-
resque but still oftener barbarous
designs of mantel-pieces, chim-
neys, tombs, and other objects
giving a purchase to ill-re-
strained invention, which have
come down to us in such
numbers from the reigns of
Elizabeth and her immediate
successor. A good example
of the characteristic designs

to which this Anglo-Teutonic art gave birth is that for the
Hertford monument in Salisbury Cathedral, in which details often

FIG. 160. GALLERY, POWIS CASTLE.

THE TUDOR CHAOS

FIG. l6l. — ROOM FROM SIZERGH CASTLE.

(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

absurd in themselves are coordinated into a not unpleasing
whole (Fig. 1 53).

Englishmen in the position of what we should now call architects
are not to be certainly
identified for any one of
the great Elizabethan build-
ings. The identification of
Robert Smithson as the
master mind at Wollaton is
perhaps the least problem-
atical. Many works have
been ascribed to John
Thorpe, who was most likely
only a surveyor. Thomas
Holt, who is credited with
much work at Oxford,
including the Tower of the
Five Orders, in the old
Schools, was an excellent carpenter. On the other hand. Sir
Thomas Tresham was probably the architect, in our sense, of several
charming buildings erected at his expense. John Abel was a pictu-
resque if somewhat coarse worker in the half-timber method popular
in the richly wooded shires of the West.
Thomas and Robert Grumbol, and John
Westley, of Cambridge, close the list of not-
able master builders who worked in methods
popular before Inigo Jones (Blomfield).

The Tudor chaos, as was to be ex-
pected, produced no ecclesiastical buildings
of importance. After the sequestration of
the monasteries (1534-9), church building
in England was in practical abeyance until
the destruction of eighty-nine London
churches by the Great Fire ( 1 666) opened
a field to the genius of Wren.

The chief monuments are country
houses ; they include Longleat (Fig. 141);
Montacute (Figs. 1 50, 1 68) ; Chadcote ;
Burghley ; parts of Longford Casde
(Fig. 154), Wilts; Wollaton House, Notts;
Holland House ; Audley End (Fig. 1 45) ; Kirby House ; Aston
Hall, Birmingham; Apethorpe Knole (Figs. 155-9); Buckhurst;

81 G

illtllll tAfc

iHiiiu'ismi

FIG. 162. — OLD HOUSE,
CHESTER.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 163. — MORETON OLD HALL, LANCASHIRE.

Holdenby; Kirkby Hall (Fig. 204); Loseley; Littlecote; Hard-
wicke (Fig. 1 48) ; Hatfield (Fig. 1 47) ; and Ampthill. Among

destroyed monuments the
most important, perhaps,
were Nonsuch Palace, which
only survives, however, in
some more or less incom-
prehensible engravings, the
first Royal Exchange already
mentioned, and Old Somer-
set House. In all these
buildings, more or less, con-
tending influences can be
traced, the German making,
on the whole, for confusion and meaningless enrichment, the
Flemish and Italian for reticence, the apropos, and general good
taste.

With a very few exceptions the earliest timber and half-timber
buildings still extant in the country date from the day of the Tudor
monarchs. In several half-timber houses domestic Perpendicular
may be found in such purity as it possessed, but the great majority
belong to the Tudor style as well as dynasty. The most ambitious
examples are to be found in Lancashire, where Samlesbury, Speke
Hall, Moreton Old Hall (Fig. 163), and other fine manor houses
show what could be done with the method. Some beautiful work

is to be seen in Agecroft Hall,
in the same county. The
western counties are full of
good half-timber work, the best
specimens being in Chester,
Shrewsbury, Dunster, and other
towns. Lyemore (Fig. 164),
Montgomeryshire, once the home
of Lord Herbert of Cher-
bury, is a fine manor house.
Ockwells Manor House, Berk-
shire, is an exquisite specimen,
very beautiful in detail, dating
from the reign of Henry VII.
The eastern and south-eastern
counties are rich in similar work, which is to be found at Ightham,
Harrietsham, Wingham, Bury St. Edmund's, Lavenham, Saffron-

' 82

FIG. 164. — LYEMORE, MONTGOMERYSHIRE.

THE TUDOR CHAOS

ii\

KTiHi

1^1

FIG. 165. GLAMIS CASTLE, FORFARSHIRE.

Walden, Newark, etc. Scraps of finely carved timber work —
corner-posts, doors, windows — frequently crop up through later
construction, adding their
modest contribution to the
fragmentary evidence on
which our belief in the
artistic capacity of our for-
bears has to depend in so
many directions.

In spite of their bastard
birth, the creations of this
chaotic period have a de-
cidedly English stamp. Ex-
travagant in detail as they
often are, they betray little of that passion for detail for its own sake
which marks the Teuton ; while the Latin readiness to make almost
any sacrifice for the sake of symmetry finds little more than an
enfeebled echo.

Domestic architecture both in Scotland and in Ireland was semi-
military, and, so far, mediaeval, much later than in England. Its
remains in Scotland are remarkably interesting. They show strong
signs of that French influence which was so long an important factor
north of the Tweed, but in spite of this they have a decided
character of their own. It is difficult to find a mediaeval building in
Scotland in which there is no evidence of aesthetic ambitions.
Even in the rudest border pele, the mouldings of a doorway or a
chimney-piece, the cor-
belled support of a
pepper-box turret, will
show that the man who
built it had a corner in
his mind for art. And
even where, by rare ex-
ception, no such details
are present, some dignity
of proportion — as in Both-
well Castle, for instance
— will preclude the de-
duction that the claim of
art was unknown and

ignored. A true instinct is betrayed, too, by the use of the sky-
line. The main seat of effect in a building is its upper part, and

FIG. 166. HOWTH CASTLE, COUNTY DUBLIN.

G 2

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 167. CHIRK CASTLE, OSWESTRY.

this the Scottish architects understood as well as those of the New
York sky-scrapers. The exact dates of Scottish castles are often
difficult to fix. A large proportion are still inhabited, and have been
continuously added to and modified for centuries. But their type is well
known and is a variation — sometimes more effective than its models

— of the chateaux
built in France while
security was still the
main objective. As
dwellings, the Scottish
mediaeval castles were
by no means so rude
as is often asserted.
Of this we may con-
vince ourselves by those
arrangements for the
convenience of their
occupants which can still be traced. *' Garderobes," for instance, are
at least as numerous and well placed as in a modern house. Warmth
was well provided for, fire-places and chimneys being plentiful. A
favorite method of construction was to divide the total height into
two or three stories by tunnel or groined vaults, and to sub-divide
these again into four or six by timber floors. Good examples of
Scottish castles of various types — some ruined, some still alive

and active — are
Borthwick, Both-
well, Crichton,
Castle Campbell,
Caerl averock,
Cawdor, Craig-
millar, Crosra-
guel, Linlithgow
Palace, Dirleton,
Glamis (Fig.
165), Fyvie, and
those North-
western Towers
of Holyrood in
which occurred
the few romantic
and tragic events in the life of the famous old Palace.

In Ireland the signs of art in mediaeval domestic architecture I

FIG. 168. — MONTACUTE, SOMERSETSHIRE.

THE TUDOR CHAOS

chiefly consist of a characteristic sky line and pleasant general pro-
portion (Howth Castle, Fig. 166). The countless castles are, as a
rule, mere ruins, or so embraced and hidden by later accretions
that their arrangements are impossible to follow. A considerable
number of modern houses in Ireland have an ancient castle for their
core. It is not uncommon to find two modern drawing rooms sep-
rated from each other by a wall eight, ten, or even fifteen feet thick,
the explanation being that some ancient stronghold of the O'Conors
or O'Tooles forms a concealed backbone to the modern house. In
comfort they were little inferior, as a rule, to those of Scotland,
but are much poorer in those slight but unmistakable traces of an
aesthetic bent which surprise and please the eye in the northern
country ; which is curious, seeing how the Irish excelled in their
early ecclesiastical architecture and in many other walks of art.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Taylor, H., Old Halls of Lancashire and Cheshire. 1884. Clayton, J., Ancient Half-timber
Edifices of England, 1846. Nash, J., Mansions of England. 1839-49. Shaw. H., Details of
Elizabethan Architecture. 1839. Archaeologia, 1773, etc. Transactions of the Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland, 1852, etc. Blomfield, Reginald, A.R.A., A History of Renaissance
Architecture in England. 1500-1800, 1897. Gotch, J. A., Early Renaissance Architecture in
England. 1901. Gotch, J. A., Renaissance Architecture in England, folio, 2 vols. Gamer, T.,
The Domestic Architecture of England during the Tudor Period, 1908. Davie, W. G., and
Green, W. C., Old Cottages and Farmhouses in Surrey, 1908. Law, Ernest, History of Hamp-
ton Court Palace, 1885-91.

riG. 169. — MAPPERTON, FROM BLOMFIELD.

FIG. 170. — ST. PAUL S, FROM LUDCATE HILL.

(Picturesque view, to show the fitness of the design for the site.)

FIG. 171. — WHITEHALL. CENTRAL BLOCK OF NORTH FRONT, AS DESIGNED BY INIGO JONES.

CHAPTER VIII

THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE-INIGO JONES
AND SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN

The beginning of Renaissance architecture in England as a definite,
reasoned-out method of design dates from the first works of Inigo
Jones. Jones was born in 1 5 73 and spent much of his time in early
manhood on the Continent. His English career began in 1 604, but

it was not until 1615 that he
became Surveyor-General of the
Works, and not until 1619 that
he made his first scheme for the
rebuilding of the Palace of White-
hall. This first project was the
comparatively modest Palace de-
signed for James I, to be elabo-
rated many years later into the
magnificent conception completed
for Charles I, which has been a
mine of architectural ideas ever
since.' Of these plans the only
part ever carried out was the Banqueting House, which is,
perhaps, as satisfactory a solution of an artistic problem as we
can point to. Internally, it was to be a state dining room,
with a provision for spectators: externally, a link between build-
ings of more complex purpose, more elaborate design, and much

' There is a conflict of evidence as to which of the two designs was the earlier, but on the whole the
probabilities seem to favor the conclusion that the more splendid design was the later.

FIG. 172. — ST. PAUL S, COVENT GARDEN
(INIGO JONES.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

greater elevation. It is scarcely too much to say that, given
the conditions, Jones's second Whitehall is the most astonishing
creation by a single mind that the history of architecture has to
show. It was the work of a man who went to Italy, learnt the
grammar of his art there, and returned to this country to throw
off a scheme for a palace larger than any other in the world ; at
once more varied and m.ore homogeneous ; inspired with a national

TIT

iJ °i.

ffi

j(=:)-:r i

FIG. 173. — GROUND FLOOR PLAN OF INIGO JONES'S WHITEHALL.

(Scale: about 300 feet to the inch.)

feeling in spite of the fact that no national tradition existed to help
him ; and grandly monumental in its total effect.

Confining our attention to the more ambitious of the two projects :
the Palace of Whitehall was designed to cover a site about 1200
feet long by 900 feet wide, that is, rather more than four times the
ground occupied by the existing Houses of Parliament. It was
to contain seven inner courts, of which the great central quadrangle,
running through the whole from North to South, was to be nearly
800 feet long by about 380 feet wide — this court, surrounded by
magnificent and happily varied pavilions measuring from 80 to 110
feet in height, would have had no rival in the world. West of it
there were to be three courts, the central one being circular and
extremely rich in its details. Eastward, too, there was to be a trio

INIGO JONES AND WREN

},*^^M\)/I :

*•[""" I I'*' ,-|(>««ii irt I ;i 1 1 I 1,1 4 1, 1 1 I I I ,|,,

FIG. 174. — INIGO JONES'S WHITEHALL, FROM MIILLER S ENGRAVING.

of courts, all quadrangular. The only detail in tlie whole design
which has ever been subjected to much adverse criticism was the
proposed completion of the sky line with a pair of pepper-box
turrets in the centre of each

facade. But Jones, like Wren,
and Alfred Stevens, and other
great artists, always improved his
designs in the execution, and no
doubt anything which weakened
the project of Whitehall would
have been weeded out before
the last stone was laid. Had
Charles I only contrived to keep
his head on his shoulders, London
would have possessed in White-
hall a secular pendant to St.
Paul's which would have sufficed,
in itself, to remove the reproach
of architectural poverty so long
brought against it. And the
project was no dream, no " Castle
in Spain." It was an under-
taking determined on and ac-
tually begun, which only mis-
carried through events unconnected with itself. I have called
the plans for Whitehall a mine of architectural ideas. Those who

FIG. 175. — ASHBURNHAM HOUSE (STAIRCASE).
INIGO JONES.

(From Blomfield.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

are familiar with its details may recognize the source of many little
passages of design about the streets of English cities. One of the

most flagrant instances is afforded

FIG. I7O. — GREENWICH HOSPITAL.
(INIGO JONES.)

by Sir George Gilbert Scott's
forced essay in Renaissance at
Westminster. In the Home
Office block much of his archi-
tecture consists of slices con-
veyed from the facades of White-
hall, and spoilt by atrocious
detail. The difference between
the masculine power of Jones
and the weakness of Scott,
working blindly in a style he
had never assimilated, is shown
in startling fashion by comparing

their basements ; — that of Whitehall is superb in the combined

beauty and vigor of its rusticated arcade, which was born to

support the great wall above it and to do it with grace. Scott's

panelled lower story is deplorably weak and crushed.

Over the other works of Inigo Jones there has been much dispute.

A large number of buildings — Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, St.

Mary's Porch (Fig. 177) and the Inner

Quadrangle of St. John's College, Ox-
ford, the Exchange at Copenhagen,

among others — have been ascribed to

him without evidence and against the

probabilities. But parts of Greenwich

Hospital, of Wilton House, Salisbury

(including the two splendid rooms known

as the Double and Single Cubes), Rayn-

ham Park, Norfolk, part of Cobham

Hall, Kent (Fig. 186), the church of

St. Paul, Co vent Garden, Ashburnham

House, Westminster, with its beautiful

staircase (Fig. 175), and the Watergate

to York House, in the Strand, which

still stands, half buried, at the foot of

Buckingham Street, are from his designs.

" His extraordinary capacity is shown

by the success with which he freed English architecture from

the imbecilities of the German designers, and started it on a line

FIG. 177. — PORCH OF ST. MARY S,

OXFORD.

(? INIGO JONES.)

INIGO JONES AND WREN

FIG. 178. — ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. (WREN.)

of fresh development, borrowed, it is true, from Italy, yet so

successfully adapted to English traditions, that it was at once

accepted and followed by

the best intelligence of the

country for the next

hundred and fifty years.

His especial strength lay

in his thorough mastery

of proportion, his contempt

for mere prettiness, and

the rare distinction of his

style. His own theory of

architecture was that, in

his own words, it should

be 'solid, proportional ac-
cording to the rules, mas-
culine and unaffected.'

No man has ever more

completely realized his own

ideal of his art " (Blomfield). To this I must add that Jones

had that final and most decisive mark of all great artists, that he

could pour his own personality into every detail of his work ; so

that, apart from all objective tests, it recommends itself by an

individual unity of character which raises every project of his into

the rank of a creation.

The years immediately succeeding Jones's death are poor in

architectural monuments. His pupil and assistant, John Webb,

did a great deal of work,
but most of it has little dis-
tinction. At one time he
was engaged in superintend-
ing the execution of his
master's designs at Wilton
House, at Amesbury, at Ash-
burnham House in Dean's
Yard, Westminster, and prob-
ably at Gunnersbury and
Greenwich. The best per-
haps of his own designs is
that for Thorpe Hall, near

Peterborough, built for Oliver St. John. It has much of Jones's

dignity and felicity of proportion.

[79. — EASTERN QUADRANGLE, HAMPTON
COURT. (WREN.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. l8o. — TRINITY COLLEGE
CHAPEL, OXFORD. (WREN.)

But English Renaissance architecture made no move which

need be chronicled here between the death of Jones and the
first activities of Wren.

Christopher Wren was born in 1632.
His father was Dean of Windsor and his
uncle, Matthew Wren, Bishop of Ely. He
himself was a pupil of Busby, at West-
minster, a fellow commoner of Wadham
College, Oxford, and a fellow of All
Souls' by the time he was twenty-one. In
youth his interests were aroused by all
those forms of science in which mathe-
matics, and mechanical ingenuity, and skill
in adapting abstract knowledge to practical
ends, could be made to play a part. It
was not until 1 66 1 , when he was twenty-
nine years of age, that he was brought
into practical contact with architecture. In

that year he was appointed assistant to Sir John Denham, the

Surveyor-General of Works. Soon afterward he built the Chapel

of Pembroke College, Cambridge, and the Sheldonian Theatre,

Oxford. The Ashmolean Museum has also been ascribed to him,

but there is reason to believe it was the work of a forgotten architect

called Wood. His best design in Oxford is the interior of Trinity

College Chapel (Fig. 180). Wren's great

opportunity, the greatest ever afforded to

an architect, came with the fire of London

in the autumn of 1666. He drew up

a magnificent plan for the laying out of

the city on new lines, which was defeated

by English conservatism and other forces.

He rebuilt the Cathedral and no fewer than

fifty-four churches within the sound of its

bells. The most famous of his churches is St.

Stephen's, Walbrook (Fig. 181), in which

extraordinary dignity of effect has been

reached by simple though ingenious methods.

It has been suggested that certain Eastern

domes gave Wren a hint for that of St.

Stephen's. This is improbable, especially

as a church existed nearer home, viz., the Church of St. Anne, at

Haarlem, which embodied exactly the same idea. If St. Stephen's

. 92

FIG. l8l. — ST. STEPHEN'S,
WALBROOK. (wren.)

INIGO JONES AND WREN

be the best of Wren's small churches, his
best steeple is certainly that of Bow Church
(Fig. 182), Cheapside, in which the problem
of adapting quasi-classical detail to a vertical
general conception is solved with unique
success. The domes and colonnades of
Greenwich Hospital (Fig. 184), forming one
of the most effective conceptions Renais-
sance architecture has produced, the Monu-
ment of London, St. Bride's, Fleet Street
(Fig. 183), the eastern block of Hampton
Court Palace (Figs. 179, 185), the library
of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Temple
Bar — barbarously carted away in 1878
— are also among the triumphs of Wren.
But his name will always be more
loudly connected with St. Paul's than
with any other of his works, albeit the
Cathedral of London is by no means so
faultless as some of the designs just men-
tioned. St. Paul's was actually begun
1672. The design carried out was

FIG. 182. — BOW CHURCH,
CHEAPSIDE. (wren.)

not the first prepared by the architect.

Two others require to be mentioned. One is

P embodied in a wooden model now lodged in an
upper chamber of the Cathedral, the other in
a paper scheme sealed by the King and known
as the "warrant" design. The model shows a
church far inferior to the existing one in its
_ external elevations, but superior to it in plan

and internal arrangements generally. It was re-
jected through the influence of the Duke of
York, helped, perhaps, by the secret inclinations
of the King, as ill adapted to the ritual of the
Roman Church. The second, or " warrant "
design, could not have been seriously put for-
ward. No architect in his sober senses could
have proposed to carry it out. It was possibly
intended to amuse the Court while Wren was
elaborating the conception with which the world
is now so familiar. But the secret history of
these designs is unknown, and we may suspect that the intelligence

FIG. 183. — ST. bride's,
fleet STREET. (WREN.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

and humor of Charles II, who found himself between Rome and
London, between his brother and the French Court, on the one
hand, and the English people on the other, had a good deal to do
with the comedy of the " warrant " design.

St. Paul's, as it is, has a more than plausible claim to be considered
the most successful great church built in Europe during the Renais-
sance. St. Peter's at Rome excels it in size and in the dignity of
its internal arrangements, while Michelangelo's dome would rival
Sir Christopher's if only we could see it. But the external design
of St. Paul's, as a whole, is infinitely finer than that of St. Peter's,

FIG. 184. — GREENWICH HOSPITAL. (WKEN.)

while the other churches which might be quoted in the same
connection — the Pantheon and the Church of the Invalides, in
Paris, St. Isaac's at Petersburg — are comparatively unimportant and
lack the imaginative touch which makes the mass of St. Paul's so
imposing.

Besides his fifty-five churches. Wren built eight colleges, thirty-
five halls (City companies, etc.), four palaces, and over forty other
important buildings.

After St. Paul's the most important of Wren's achievements was
the rebuilding of the eastern part of Hampton Court. To do this
he had to destroy a considerable part of the Tudor palace, which
is matter for lamentation ; but he almost reconciles us to the loss

INIGO JONES AND WREN

by the beauty of the buildings he reared on the site. And not
only are they beautiful, they are convenient also to a degree then
quite unknown in a palace, as all those who have had the oppor-
tunity for a thorough exploration will agree. Nowhere else have
the chosen materials, red brick with stone dressings, been endowed
with such dignity. He also designed a magnificent approach, with
a semicircular forecourt, for the northern side, between the
existing palace and the gates of Bushey Park. This was never
carried out. His additions to Trinity College, Cambridge, may
almost be classed as a palace. The design for the library is one
of the cleverest he made, although it cannot be denied that the
contrivance by which he reconciled a high external basement story
with a low internal one cannot be accepted without a qualm.

FIG. 185. — S.E. ANGLE, HAMPTON COURT PALACE. (WREN.)

Certain achievements of Wren were eccentric. He designed the
existing towers of Westminster Abbey, a few " Gothic " churches
in the City, and the curiously happy upper stage of Tom Tower,
Oxford. Interesting as these productions may be to a student of
Wren's personality, they need not be discussed in a sketch of a
nation's artistic evolution.

It was not only as artists that Jones and Wren deserved well of
their country, they also confirmed the tradition which has made
English architects the best planners in the world. In arranging
their buildings, and providing for the easy access of light, air, and
people to every part, they showed a freedom and common-sense
which have, on the whole, governed English architecture ever since.
In judging of this we are not confined to their finished works. Both
men left behind them a large number of plans, designs, and sketches,
which illustrate the extent of their powers. The chief collections of

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

these are in Worcester and all Souls' Colleges, Oxford, at Chats-
worth, and in the Soane Museum.

It is scarcely too much to say that, as the word architect is now
understood, Jones and Wren were the two greatest of whom we
have any full knowledge. Their achievements do not rank with the
creation of Greek or of Gothic architecture, but no other individual
architect can be named whose genius and activity led to such results
as theirs. Jones is most easily compared with Palladio ; Wren,
perhaps, with such a man as the elder Mansard. But Palladio's
genius was less masculine, less broad in its grip than that of Jones.
Great as his success was when the problem before him was simple,
we have no reason to suppose that he could have designed White-
hall. And Mansard's gifts cannot stand for a moment beside the
immense variety, the taste, the sense of proportion, the judgment
and ingenuity, the copious imagination, and the unrivalled skill in
adapting a design to its destined surroundings, of Wren.

BIBUOGRAPHY '

Loftie, W. J. Inigo Jones and Wren, or the Rise and Decline of Renaissance Architecture
in England, 1893. Triggs, H. Inigo and Tanner, Henry, Some Architectural IVorks of Inigo
Jones. Folio. Blomfield, Reginald, A.R.A., A History of Renaissance Architecture in
England, 8vo, 2 vols., 189/. Britton and Pugin, Public Buildings of London, 1825.
Cunningham, Peter, Inigo Jones, 1848. Elmes, James, Life and Works of Sir C. Wren, 1823.
ditto, 5/r C. Wren and His Times, 1852. Campbell, Colin, Vitruvius Britannicus, 1715-1725.
Kent, W., Architecture of Inigo Jones, 1727. Leoni, translated by Ware, I., Architecture
of Palladio, 1715. Vardy, John, Some Designs of Inigo Jones, 1744. Ware, Isaac, A Complete
Body of Architecture, 1756; Designs of Inigo Jones, 1757. Phillimore, Lucy, Sir Christopher
Wren, elc, 1881. Wren, Christopher (jun.), Parentalia, 1750. Mackmurdo. A. H., Wren's
City Churches, Orpington, 1883.

FIG. l86.— COBHAM H.-^LL, KENT, SHOWING BLOCK ASCRIBED TO INIGO JONES.
%

no. 187. — SOMERSET HOUSE. (SIR WILLIAM CHAMBERS.)

CHAPTER IX
FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN

Jones created a new dialect in Renaissance architecture, Wren gave

it flexibility and completed its adaptation to English wants. But

in one respect Wren was happier than Jones.

He "both founded a school and lived to see

it flourish. Though he had practically retired

many years before his death in 1723, he could

see around him many architects well able to

take up and carry on his tradition." (Loftie.)

They were : Edward Garman, or German,

the architect of the second Royal Exchange

(which went up in smoke in 1838) and of

several other City buildings ; Captain Winde,

or Wynne, possibly a Dutchman, who built

Newcastle House in Lincoln's Inn Fields,

and old Buckingham House in St. James's

Park ; Henry Bell, of King's Lynn, where

much excellent work by him is to be found ;

Talman, builder of Chatsworth, Thoresby

(destroyed) and Swallowfield, now chiefly

remembered as one of those who harassed

the later years of Sir Christopher Wren.*

1 "Talman," says Blomfield, "seems to have been the true type
of the official architect. His work has the technical ability found

in the work of nearly every known English architect of the Restora- , . , . ■ r ■ t

ticn. and onward till the latter part of the eighteenth century ; that is to say, his design is fairly correct,
according to the accepted canons of classical architecture, and his construction is sound though by
no means dexterous." Renaissance Architecture in England vol. ii, p. 196.

97 H

FIG. l88. — ST. MARY-LE-

STRAND, LONDON.

(GIBBS.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 189. — HORSE GUARDS, WHITEHALL. (KENT.)

Slightly later were the Earl of Burlington, Hawksmoor, Gibbs,
Archer, James, Vanbrugh, Kent, Colin Campbell, Vardy, and
the elder of the Bath Woods. Of these men he who has most
interested posterity was undoubtedly Vanbrugh, who had the
advertising gift during his lifetime and has not lost it since. He
talked well and wrote good plays, and as an architect was full
of courage and vigor. Unfortunately, his detail, like that of
Michelangelo, is apt to be vulgar, and many of his buildings are
spoilt by windows even worse in design than those of the top story of
the Palazzo Farnese. His chief works are Blenheim Palace (Figs.
201, 202), Castle Howard, Seaton Delaval (Fig. 200), Grimsthorpe,
and the ugly part of Greenwich Hospital. Of these, Castle Howard
is the most agreeable, but it can hardly be called a good design.
The best feature is the basement on the garden front, which is
happy both in proportions and detail. Blenheim is strong enough,
but very ugly. Its architect shows himself deficient in that in-
definable quality, so indispensable in domestic architecture, which
we know as taste. His accents are badly distributed. He is

FIG. 190. — HOLKHAM HOUSE, NORFOLK. (KENT.)

FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN

riG. 191.— KEDLESTON HALL, DERBYSHIRE. (PAINE AND R. ADAM.)

robust where he should be playful, decorative where he should be
severe, simple where a little elaboration was clearly invited. The
other men named above were more timid than Vanbrugh, but most
of them had much better taste. Lord Burlington produced several
excellent designs, the best being his own house in Piccadilly, which
is now divided between the Royal Academy and the children in
Battersea Park. Hardly less excellent is the design he made for the
great dormitory of Westminster School. By Kent, his intimate friend
and perpetual guest, the best things are Holkham House (Fig. 190), the
Horse Guards (Fig. 189), and the unfinished Treasury building on
the south side of the Horse Guards parade. The western front of
the Horse Guards is an excellent design. The front toward Whitehall
is less successful, because the architect has failed to provide any
eesthetical bond of union be-
tween its parts. There is a
happy mean between the
total concealment and the
brazen display of structure,
which Kent has missed in
Whitehall, although he had
hit it off exacdy in St.
James's Park. Hawksmoor,
the direct pupil of Wren,
produced two original de-
signs in St. George's, Blooms-
bury, and St. Mary Wool-
noth, at the end of Lombard
Street, and a not ineffective
piece of eccentricity in the towers of All Souls at Oxford. The
best, and best known, works of Gibbs are two London churches, St.
Mary-Ie-Strand (Fig. 188) and St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, and the

99 H2

FIG. 192. — MANSION HOUSE, LONDON.
(GEORGE DANCE, THE ELDER.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 193.— CUSTOMS HOUSE, DUBLIN. (gANDON.)

surroundings the design stand
apart from the routine conceptions which too
often mark the style. The Radcliffe Library
shows the same taste and intelligence. The
imagination refuses to conceive any other sort
of building in this position and entourage.
Gibbs's design for the Senate House at Cam-
bridge was never completely carried out.
The existing block is only one-third of what
was originally intended. The principal works
of Colin Campbell are Mereworth, Kent ;
Houghton, Norfolk ; and Wanstead, in
Essex, now destroyed. By Archer we have
Cliveden House and St. John's Church,
Westminster — " the kitchen table on its
back "; by James, St. George's, Hanover
Square ; and by Vardy the excellent park
front of Spencer House, St. James's (Fig. 1 99).
By the two Dances, father and son, are the

Radcliffe Library at Oxford (Fig.
196). Of all Wren's successors,
Gibbs shows the largest share of
that gift for adapting art to condi-
tions in which Sir Christopher
was unrivalled. The Church of
St. Mary-le-Strand, with her
skirts gathered about her like a
lady in a crowd, has now lost
some of the significance derived
from the former conditions of the
site, but even in its changed
far enough

FIG. 194. — ST. CLEMENT

DANES, LONDON.

(wren and GIBBS.)

FIG. 195. — BANK OF IRELAND. (CASTELL.)

100

Mansion House (Fig. 192) and
the late Newgate Prison respec-
tively. The latter was a really
fine design, and its disappear-
ance is a disaster for London, in
spite of its ungentle associations.
Wren and his immediate
successors had, for the time,
so completely supplied English
wants in grandiose architecture,
that the generation which began

FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN

to come into the world with the arrival
of the Hanoverian Kings found com-
paratively little to do. Between the
death of Queen Anne and the end of
the eighteenth century a large number
of fine country houses and metropoli-
tan churches were erected, indeed, but
the rebuilding of Somerset House was
the only national work of any great
importance. To this statement, how-
ever, the creation of Bath by the two
Woods, father and son, provides a
collective exception. Without contain-
ing any design of conspicuous merit, the

city is full of

FIG. 196. — OXFORD, RADCLIFFE
LIBRARY. (GIBBS.)

FIG. 197. — TOWN HALL, ABINGDON.

century came with the re-
building of Somerset House
at the beginning of its last
quarter. The work of
Chambers has been much
criticised, chiefly because it
fails to make the most of
the conditions. The block
which lies between the great
court and the Strand de-
serves nothing but praise ;
but the long front on the

happy ar-
rangement

and pleasant architecture. The best
single design, perhaps, is that of the
Guildhall, by Baldwin, the Woods's
successor. This building was added
to, by the late James Brydon, with
excellent taste. The erection of Blen-
heim Palace, too, by Sir John Van-
brugh, may perhaps be called a
national undertaking, although the be-
lief that it was a free gift from the
nation to the great Duke is not so well
founded as we might wish it to be.
The great national opportunity of the

FIG. 198. — CASINO, NEAR DUBLIN.
(sir WILLIAM CHAMBERS.)

101

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

river (Fig. 1 87), good as it is, might have been so much more effective,
that our gratituae to the architect is far from unalloyed. The

terrace before it is too wide.

and reduces its height, the
sky line is bad, and the flat
dome, though good in propor-
tion, proclaims the meanness
of its materials. An exquisite
and little known design by
Chambers is the Casino, near
Dublin (Fig. 1 93), built for the
first Earl of Charlemont.
Dublin itself is full of good
work which owed much to
his inspiration. The Customs
House, by his pupil Gandon,
is a charming composition.
The " Four Courts," which
owes its existing form to Gandon, is severely dignified, and the
parts he added to the Parliament House, now the Bank of Ireland,
are worthy of the rest. The main quadrangle of Trinity College
was carried out by Mayer from sketches by Chambers.

Much good work in Dublin, and in Ireland generally, is to be
traced to the pupils of the brothers Adam, who embodied the last
living force in the English Renaissance before the archeeological
period set in. In London, the Adams, of whom Robert was
the ruling spirit, built the Adelphi, two sides of Fitzroy Square,

1 most of Portland

FIG. IQQ.

-SPENCER HOUSE, ST. JAMES S, LONDON.
(VARDY.)

Place, and many
isolated houses of
merit, such as
Mrs. Montagu's
in P o r t m a n
Square. A curi-
ous want of in-
ternal peace
marks the art of
these d5A0oi. As
ornemanistes they
were refined to a
fault, seeing in decoration a surface beauty comparable to the
gold lace of a sergeant-major. As architects, on the other hand, they

102

FIG. 200. — SEATON DELAVAL. (VANBRUGH.)

FOLLOWERS OF JONES AND WREN

FIG. 20I. — ELEVATION OF BLENHEIM. (VANBRUGH.)

are frequently over-bold, exercising a mistaken ingenuity in forcing a
monumental gloss upon a frivolous structure, and driving half a
dozen little features under some great mask with which they are
not in sympathy. From this it results that their most satisfactory
productions are monumental designs on which little or no orna-
ment occurs. Much good work in Edinburgh is theirs, the best
things, perhaps, being Charlotte Square, the Register House, and

KITCHEN COURT

^:3«

SALOON 20 ,^ " liSHE »t*<

DINING ROOM 22 27 53 1 J • STARlFrnuRT * Afi

DRESSING ROOM 24 26 55 | ^ _. STABLE COURT j, ♦« j

COURT 26 29 ^2 tl3K Kit)

GREAT HALL 28 [ " %»Mlkm I**J

CORRIDOR 30 31 32 34 "^ 113 f-~1

PORTICO 33 I SI 1 11 I T*T%

5REAT GAUERY 35 I '' I " i , , T*H
THE«,EATGATE 39^ J J_ LH*t"*'"'^'^fH

CARRIAGE HOtlSES 45 47^^,^^ ! dT " ^ *^ \ *« J

44 50 5152
56
) Of GREAT GAUERY 58

THE GREAT COURT

no. 202'. — BLENHEIM, PLAN. (vANBRUGH.) Scale : about 230 feet to an inch.

the " College " (Fig. 203), to which an excellent finish has been given
within recent years by the addition of Sir Rowand Anderson's
dome. In the south, the best examples, perhaps, are Kenwood,
Luton House, and the old Mansion — now, however, removed,

103

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

I believe — at Bryanston Park, Dorset. In most of these we have
to lament a want of congruity between the scale and simplicity
of the architecture as a whole, and the complicated smallness of its

decorative system. Kedle-
ston Hall, Derbyshire, has
to be divided between three
architects, of whom J. Paine,
whose portrait by Sir Joshua
hangs at Oxford, probably
deserves most credit. But
Robert Adam carried the
house to completion. Robert
Adam and his brothers were
more than architects. They
were the authors of a move-
ment in design which effected
every object of domestic use
that was not purely and
exclusively utilitarian. It is scarcely too much to say that their
ideas controlled the domestic arts of these islands from about I 775
to the beginning of the long peace, in 1815.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
All the Works quoted in Bibliography to Chapter VIII, and the following: —
Adam, Robert and James: JVorks, 1778. Adam, Robert: Ruins of the Palace of the
Emperor Diocletian at Spalateo, 1764. Adams, M. B. : Old English Houses, ]8&6. Aldrich,
Henry: Elementa Architecturoe Cioilis, 1789. Belcher, J., and Macartney, M. : Later Renais-
sance Architecture in England, 1897. Birch, G. H. : London Churches of the Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries, 1896. Bulmer, G. : Architectural Studies in Yorkshire, 1887. Chambers,
Sir William, R. A. : Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture, 1791. Evelyn, John:
The Whole Body of Ancient and Modern Architecture, 1680. [Trans, from Freart, Roland].
Gibbs, James: Bibliotheca Radcliviana, 1747; ditto: A Book of Architecture, 1728. Gotch,
J. A.: Buildings erected by Sir Thomas Tresham, 1883. Gwilt, Joseph: Encyclopaedia of
/4rc/»7ec/ure (W. Papwood's Edition, 1876). Mulvaney, Thomas : Life of Gandon, 1846.

FIG. 203. — THE "college," EDINBURGH.
(r. ADAM AND SIR ROWAND ANDERSON.)

FIG. 204. — KIRKBY HALL, NORTHANTS.

104

FIG. 205. — THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. (SIR CHARLES BARRY.)

CHAPTER X
THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS

The wave of devotion to all things classic which passed over the
continent of Europe at the end of the eighteenth century destroyed
Enghsh architecture with its backwash. The inheritors of the
traditions of Jones and Wren died out, and were succeeded by
scholars and archseologists. The classic movement had, perhaps,
begun in this country, with the researches of James Stuart and
Nicholas Revett and the publication of their A ntiquities of A thens
in 1 762. Stuart built a house in St. James's Square, which was
probably the first concrete result of the movement. But without
the fillip given by the French

Revolution and the vogue it
brought to everything which could
be called classical, the eclipse of
old models and traditional ideas
would never have become so com-
plete and disastrous as it did.

It was disastrous in many ways.
It brought into fashion a style of
building unsuited to the habits of
the English people and the climate
of their country. It created a pro-
pensity toward revivals. It de-
based taste and substituted the archaeologist for the artist — and,
finally, it spoilt building, for when men copy they are apt to do so

105

FIG. 206. — ST. GEORGE'S HALL, LIVER-
POOL, (elmes.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

in inferior materials.* The last
evil, however, may have been a
blessing in disguise, for the brick
and stucco in which so much
pseudo-classical building of the
early nineteenth century was
carried out is making our task
easier in clearing it away and
replacing it with something better.
During the whole of the long
period which elapsed between the
building of Somerset House and
that return to the Jones-Wren
tradition which marked the end
of the nineteenth century, English
architecture was in a non-natural
and insincere condition. Build-
ings were designed by men who
had to keep one eye on artificial conditions and the other on the
nature of the case. In the first half of the century they were
contriving the best churches, houses, railway stations, compatible
with obedience to Doric or Ionic rules ; in the second half, their
incubus was the precedent set by the cathedral-builders of the
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, modified and com-
plicated by examples taken from various architectural centres on

-great hall, penrhyn castle,
(hopper.)

FIG. 208. — ST. George's, doncaster.

(sir G. G. SCOTT.)

FIG. 209. — MANCHESTER TOWN HALL.
(WATERHOUSE.)

* It was gravely proposed, in the flood of the classical revival, to transform the Gothic of Oxford
into Greek, by means of stucco columns, pediments, and pilasters !

106

THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS

FIG. 2IO. — THE LAW COURTS, CENTRAL
HALL. (street.)

the continent of Europe. As time
went on, they did much better under
the latter tyranny than under the
former. The better results of the
Gothic revival are probably the best
things to which an antiquarian spirit
has ever led in art, and far excel the
most successful achievements of the
pseudo-classicist. So good are they,
indeed, that they are often criticised
as too good, and likely to seduce the
learned New Zealander of a distant
future into accepting them as genuine
relics from the Gothic centuries.

To treat all these galvanizings of
the dead as part of the live stem
of British art would be absurd.
They are divagations from it and
impediments to its growth. The whole period in which they
occurred has been branded by a distinguished professor as " Chaos."
All that need be said is to note their occurrence, mentioning
some of the real artists who contrived to show their mettle in
spite of the conditions, and a few of the best works they produced.

Among the chief buildings of the
classical revival are St. Pancras
Church, which would be a good
imitation of a Greek temple ex-
ternally were it not for the steeple ;
the Bank of England ; the British
Museum ; the entrance to Euston
Station; the Athenaeum Club; the
arches at Hyde Park Corner ; the
Fitzwilliam Museum, at Cambridge ;
various public buildings in Edinburgh
and Glasgow ; and St. George's Hall,
at Liverpool. The last named, the
work of a young architect named
Elmes, is perhaps the most success-
ful adaptation of classical models to
modern uses yet made in Europe.
If its lot had been cast in a sunny
climate and a smokeless city it would

107

f
1 A A > ' '^

i } |\ ."ir. '

■l \

J i"^ i : 3

<il

FIG. 211. — EXETER COLLEGE CHAPEL.
(sir G. G. SCOTT.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

have been world-famous by now.
But Greek architecture requires an
ever-blazing sun to justify its spirit.
The classical revival was followed by
one based on the Italian Renaissance,
which differed from the movement
inaugurated by Inigo Jones in that
it was a literal translation instead of
a rendering into idiomatic English.
It aimed at setting down in the
streets of London a series of build-
ings which would have been at home
in those of Rome or Florence, or
even on the banks of the Venetian
canals. It is exemplified chiefly in the works of Sir Charles
Barry (Bridgewater House,
Reform Club, Travellers'
Club, Halifax Town Hall,
10 Kensington Palace Gar-
dens) ; C. R. Cockerell (Uni-
versity Galleries, Oxford ;
Sun Fire Office, Thread-
needle Street) ; Sir James
Pennethorne; the two
Smirkes, and others.

FIG. 212. — THE LAW COURTS, STRAND
ENTRANCE. (STREET.)

The original begetter of
the Gothic revival in England
was, no doubt, Horace Wal-

FIG. 213.

-keble college chapel, oxford,
(butterfield.)

FIG. 214. — CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE

EVANGELIST, RED LION SQUARE.

(PEARSON.)

pole, whose toy of Strawberry Hill
was slowly elaborated between 1 760
and 1 770. He had, of course, been
preceded by Wren, whose quasi-
Gothic, however, was inspired by
anything rather than by a desire
to breathe life into a vanished
form of art. Strawberry Hill set a
fashion which slowly made its way
toward the status of a serious
movement. The country was sprinkled
over with churches and mansions
on which some supposed -to-be -
108

THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS

FIG. 215. — DESIGN FOR BELFRY, CHRIST
CHURCH, OXFORD. (BODLEY.)

Gothic badge — pointed windows,
spiky pinnacles, crenellations — had
been hung. But meanwhile the
young men had been learning, and
by the time the movement was just
one century old, they had mastered
their business and were at last ready
to break a lance with the real old
Gothic architects.

During the period of apprentice-
ship a certain number of works had
been carried out which should not be
ignored. The Church of St. Luke,
Chelsea, had been built, and was
considered, at the time, a wonderful
exercise in Perpendicular ; Windsor
Castle had been remodelled, almost
rebuilt, by Sir Jeffrey Wyatville,
who on the whole acquitted him-
self of his very difficult task with
more success than might have been expected. The old Palace
of Westminster had been burnt down and a gorgeous successor
erected on its site. Thanks to the organ-
izing power of Barry, the archeeological
knowledge of Pugin, and the taste of both,
this last enterprise ended in the greatest
success ever scored under similar condi-
tions. Looked at with the eye of the
archaeological purist the Houses of Par-
liament were designed at least a quarter
of a century too soon. They are without
Gothic frankness, and variety. But
they are extraordinarily well arranged ;
they are grandiose ; and their details —
even to such magnificent details as the two
great towers — are full of beauty. Per-
haps the one great fault committed by
Barry, from his own point of view, was
the failure to bring the central block of the
river-front out to the edge of the terrace,
and to connect it with the water by a
noble flight of steps. A palace standing

109

FIG. 216. SCOTT MONUMENT,

EDINBURGH. (kEMP.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

fig. 217. — westminster cathedral, porch,
(bentley.)

on a river's edge and yet cut
off from it by a wall is like a
bather who fears to wet her
feet !

By the time the Houses
of Parliament were finished,
the Gothic revival had pro-
ceeded so far that the style
in which they were de-
signed had already become
anathema with the younger
Gothic architects. These
had re-surveyed the whole
field of pointed architecture,
and had determined that
the true principles were only to be found in the buildings of
the fourteenth century. For a time this belief governed the
situation, although a certain number of practitioners wandered after
strange gods, in the Gothic of Germany, Venice, and Spain.
Putting aside Pugin, the forerunner, the men who first attracted
attention about the time when the last stone was being set on
the Victoria Tower (1860-61) were those to whom the successful
imitation of Gothic architecture in this country will in future be
credited. They were Raphael Brandon, the architect of the
Irvingite church in Gordon Square ; G. E. Street, that demon of
energy to whom we owe the Law Courts (Fig. 210-1 2), the additions
to Bristol Cathedral, and a Gothic design for a National Gallery ;

Butterfield, the creator of

All Saints', Margaret
Street, and of Keble Col-
lege, Oxford (Fig. 213);
Pearson, the architect of
Truro Cathedral, of the
Church of St. John the
Evangelist in Red Lion
Square (Fig. 2 r4), and of
the north porch of West-
minster Abbey ; Burges,
whose most important
works are the Cathedral
of St. Finn Bar, at Cork,

FIG. 2l8. — trinity CHURCH, SLOANE STREET. (SEDDING.) ^HCl V^ardlll V^aStlC; OIF

110

UNlVERsn T

LASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS

Gilbert Scott, the most active
of them all, who is at his best
in the interior of Exeter Col-
lege Chapel (Fig. 211), in
Doncaster Parish Church
(Fig. 208), in St. Michael's,
Hamburg, and in St. Mary's
Cathedral, Edinburgh;
Brooks, who is well repre-
sented by the Church of St.
Columba, N. London ; Bod-
ley, the architect of Eccleston
Church and the most sym-
pathetic and justly inspired of
them all, whose fine project
for the bell tower of Christ
Church, Oxford, is not yet
completely carried out (Fig.
215); Goldie, the architect of
St. Vincent's, Cork ; Sir
Arthur Blomlield, who built
the existing nave of St.
Saviour's, Southwark, and
many churches ; and a great
number of others.

Beside these men, certain
architects were at work who
used Gothic forms in a freer
and more arbitrary fashion,
generally with a plentiful
want of success. The most
conspicuous of these was
Alfred Waterhouse, who
reached through energy and
business capacity a vogue to
which his purely artistic
gifts scarcely entitled him.
Oxford, Edinburgh, Man-
chester (Fig. 209), and
London have suffered greatly
from his activity.

The last phase of the

FIG. 219.-

-westminster cathedral, nave,
(bentley.)

Ill

-WESTMINSTER CATHEDRAL, BRAMPTON
CHAPEL.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

1 1 HHJHJJHH

III

FIG. 221. RYLAND S LIBRARY,

MANCHESTER.

(basil CHAMPNEYS.)

Gothic Revival is an echo from
the Tudor chaos. In it Gothic detail
is used in a masterful, arbitrary
fashion, and too often with a
complete disregard for beauty and
for that logical articulation w^hich
makes one form the natural outcome
of another. Anything uglier, for
instance, than the window tracery,
or more unreasonable than the
filling in of the spandrils to the
nave arches, in the much admired
Church of the Holy Trinity, Chelsea
(Fig. 218), by Sedding, it would be
difficult to name. Freedoms as great
have been taken by Mr. Mackenzie
in his Marischall College, Aberdeen
(Fig. 222), but there a sense of
beauty governs the whole — as it does
the interior of the Rylands Library, at Manchester (Fig. 221), by
Mr. Basil Champneys, and the design for the exterior of the Scottish
National Portrait Gallery, by Sir Rowand Anderson.

The fashion-curve in the Gothic revival is curious. It began
with Perpendicular, sank — or rose — steadily to the earliest forms of
Pointed, and then as steadily reversed the process, until now it is
back at the mixture of Perpendicular with Renaissance in which the
first death of Gothic occurred. On the whole, perhaps, the modern
architect who has been most successful in the free, one might almost
say the irresponsible, use of those mixed forms which first prevailed in
England in Elizabethan and Jacobaean times, is Mr. T. G. Jackson,
whose genius is gifted with a quite remarkable flexibility. His work
at Oxford — and elsewhere — is a singularly happy continuation of
local traditions.

The Classical revival, like the Gothic, survives to-day in a certain
number of buildings in which its forms are used with as much
freedom as is compatible with their genesis, and with a flexibility
which is quite new. One of the best examples is the new building
for the Glasgow Assurance Company (Fig. 223), in Euston Square,
by Professor Beresford Pite, in which a Greek severity is relieved
by touches of free design skilfully grafted on the main conception.

Here, perhaps, is the place to note the fact that all these
revivals were carried on to an accompaniment of protest from those

112

THE CLASSIC AND GOTHIC REVIVALS

who insisted that architecture, like other arts, but perhaps in even
greater degree, should express the living ideas of its ow^n time.
Such a contention is so indefeasible as to be a truism, for no
architecture, seriously intended, can fail to be the expression of
its age. When classical scholarship and archaeology are the leading
intellectual preoccupations of a generation, they are bound to find
expression in its art, and to become, in their way, valuable documents
for the future. It is the same with restoration. In a restoring age
we must restore : only, let us be very curious as to the rights of each
case before proceeding to action. If an example of architecture
be famous for qualities which cannot be restored — for its associations
or the glory placed upon it by time — let us leave it alone. But if
it be famous for the beauty of its design — like the Angel Tower of
Canterbury — or for the part it plays in a group — like the Venetian
Campanile — the best restoration to be compassed is clearly demanded.
Our failure or success in the task will be judged by posterity, and
will form part of the permanent badge of our age. The moral
of all this is that it is of little use to try to enforce upon
any art principles which are not in sympathy with the intel-
lectual character of the time. The nineteenth centurv as a whole,
was a fine, critical and

inquiring century, much
more addicted to finding
out causes than to pro-
ducing new results, and
much of its art, especially
in those branches which
are most easily touched by
scholarship, was scientific
rather than aesthetic in its
inspiration. In an attempt
to follow the internal de-
velopment, natural uncon-
scious growth of British
archtecture, it is of assist-
ance only through the light
it casts on English charac-
ter and habits of thought. One of the most salient features it betrays
is, unhappily, a fault : that of instability. The French instinct, or
perhaps reasoned-out determination, is to cling to all the fertile
strains in their own tradition. That instinct has been and still is
one of the chief causes of their general supremacy in art life as a

113

FIG. 222. — MARISCHALL COLLEGE, ABERDEEN.
(MARSHALL-MACKENZIE.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

whole. A French architect with a problem to solve is content with
what has become the national vernacular. He introduces only such
modifications as are required by the special conditions. Hence there
is a natural continuity and affiliation in his forms which is not, and
never has been, so marked in English building. That we have the
qualities of our defects is only a partial consolation, and the posses-
sion of a certain number of structures in which an eclectic method
has been used with extraordinary skill, scarcely makes up for the
absence of such a body of homogeneous art as French Renaissance
architecture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barry, Rev. A.: Life and Worko of Sir Charles Barry, London, 1867. Hittorf : Notice
Historique ei Biographique sur la vie et les ceuvres de Sir Charles Barry, Paris, 1 860. Pugin,
E. W.: Who was the Art Architect of the Houses of Parliament, London, 1867. Barry, Rev.
A. : The Architect of the New Palace of Westminster, London, 1868. Pugin, A. W. N. : An
Apology for the Revival of Gothic Architecture in England, London, 1843. Ditto: State of
Ecclesiastical Architecture in England, hondon, 1843. Ditto: The True Principles of Pointed,
or Christian, A rchitecture, London, 1 84 1 . Ferrey : Recollections of A . W. Pugin. Water-
house, Paul: Life and Works of Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, in the Architectural Re-
view for 1897. The Ecclesiologist for 1852. Scott, Sir G. G. : Pergonal and Professional
Recollections, i^ondon, 1879. Street, A. E. : Memoir of G. E. Street, London, 1888. East-
lake, C. : The History of the Gothic Revival, l^ondon, 1872. Cooper and Wilson : The Works
of John Sedding, in the Architectural Review for 1897. Newberry, J. E. : The Works of J. L.
Pearson, R.A., in the Architectural Review for 1896. Sedille, C. : Architecture Contemporaine
en Angleterre, n.d. The Architectural Review, passim, vols. I to XVIII.

FIG. 223. — GLASGOW ASSURANCE BUILDING, EUSTON SQUARE.
^ , (BERESFORD PITE.)

114

ifiri

IBM.

Inlllll

mM ' M.

mth\'%'\

rfilB

|'pii^'?5V?f.-: -

' 'mm

liU

FIG. 224. — TOWN HALL, BELFAST. (siR E. BRUMWELL-THOMAS.)

CHAPTER XI
MODERN RENAISSANCE

Roughly speaking, the full Gothic revival prevailed for about a
generation. It w^as then challenged by what was called " Queen
Anne," a style compounded of various features taken from Jones
and Wren, their followers, and the
architects of Belgium and Holland.
The first building in the new manner
to attract much attention was New Zea-
land Chambers, in Leadenhall Street
(Fig. 225). It was the work of Richard
Norman Shaw, an architect of genius,
who has, ever since, been accepted as
the chief leader in the movement.
His next important work in London
was the insurance office at the junction
of St. James's Street and Pall Mall, in
which the Flemish influence is very
strong. At a long interval this was
followed by the clumsily named New
Scotland Yard, a robuster exercise in
a more English dialect ; and that again,
after several years, by those designs for
remodelling whole districts of London,
of which the chief results, at present, are the Gaiety Theatre (Fig.
230) and the Piccadilly Hotel (Fig. 226). Meanwhile Mr. Shaw

115 l2

FIG. 225. — NEW ZEALAND CHAMBERS,
LEADENHALL STREET.

(norm AN SHAW.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 226. — THE PICCADILLY HOTEL.
(nORMAN SHAW.)

has been extremely active in the
country, building a large number of
country houses, in which ideas taken
from French chateaux, Belgian
hotels-de-ville, and the earlier Eng-
lish Renaissance have been used
with great skill, vigor, and origi-
nality. The general movement of
his art has been from the pictu-
resque eclecticism with which he be-
gan to something more in harmony
with the genius of Inigo Jones.

And in this he has carried Eng-
lish architecture as a whole with
him. For at last our best architects,
who are, in great part, his disciples,
appear to have settled down to the
conviction that their true
course is to return to the
path pointed out by Jones
and Wren, and to develop
that form of Palladian which
was shown by the works of
those two men to be suited
to our wants, character, and
climate. During the last
ten or fifteen years many
important buildings have
been erected, in London and
the provinces, in a style which may be fairly called the legitimate

offspring of our two great
architects. Within our limits
it is impossible to give even a
bare list of them all, and I
must be content with naming
a few of the most successful.
Mr. Belcher, who is con-
spicuous for the flexibility of
his designing power, is re-
sponsible for the Institute of
Chartered Accountants (Fig.
(sir ASTON WEBB.) 23 1 ) and Electra House

FIG. 227. — KINMEL PARK. (nESFIELD.)

FIG. 228.

-NEW COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, SOUTH
KENSINGTON.

116

MODERN RENAISSANCE

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^P^

Mis:

mi.^^

-^m^d*- "

FIG. 229. — THE WALDORF HOTF.L.
(MARSHALL-MACKENZIE.)

(Fig. 233) both in the City, as well
as for a number of buildings in
which something that approaches
a new style — begotten, appar-
ently, of a sneaking kindness
for the new art of Germany —
is employed. ' Of this the
newest examples are Mappin's
shop in Oxford Street, the Medi-
cal Association building in the
Strand, and the Office at the
North-Western corner of St.
James's Street, which devotes
the last corner of that " celebrated
eminence " to insurance. The
chief objection to these designs
is one based on the practical
limitations of the human mind !
If an architect could invent a whole style, from initial principles
to the last decorative detail, he would be free to design as he
pleased. But so far no such man has appeared in this world.
The most daring innovator has
found himself admitting parts of
the old language, twisting them
away from their significance, and,
generally, substituting his own sic
Volo for a comprehensible relation
between form and purpose. Here
and there in London streets signs
are to be found that this later
style has drawn followers after
it. The more traditional method
governs the late Mr. Mountford's
Central Criminal Court, Mr.
Marshall-Mackenzie's Waldorf
Hotel (Fig. 229), and a large
number of other buildings by
which our streets are being rapidly
transformed.

An important group of designs
are those connected with that
outburst of official activity in

117

FIG. 230. — THE GAIETV THEATRE.
(NORMAN SHAW.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 231. — INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED
ACCOUNTANTS. (bELCHER.)

building which may possibly, in the future, come to be looked
upon as the chief claim to our gratitude of the governments

between 1895 and 1906.
Mr. William Young be-
came known through the
work he did at Gosford,
Midlothian, at Culford, Suf-
folk, and at Glasgow. His
Town Hall (Fig. 232) in the
latter city is not entirely sat-
isfactory, mainly because the
chief front compares un-
favorably with the sides.
But on the whole the build-
ing is magnificent, inside and
out, without being vulgar or
overcharged. When it was
resolved that the disgraceful
rookery in Pall Mall, which
had so long done duty as a War Office, should disappear and be
succeeded by a palace in Whitehall, the resolution to entrust a proved
architect with the commission was not surprising. The Admiralty had
been the result of a competition, and had given London a most con-
venient office, but had saddled it with some very bad architecture. So
Young was entrusted with the War Office, and J. C. Brydon, another

Scot, was commissioned to
provide the group of offices
for the Board of Trade,
Local Government Board,
etc., at the corner of Parlia-
ment Street and Parliament
Square. Young's War Of-
fice (Fig. 234) is open to
criticism for a certain want
of congruity between design
and purpose, but on the
whole it has largeness and
dignity and is free from that
pattern-book character which
degrades so much London
architecture. B r y d o n ' s
palace strikes a different

fig. 232. — glasgow town hall,
(young.)

118

MODERN RENAISSANCE

"electra" building,
(belcher.)

note. Commonplace enough
in general conception, it wins
respect by the refinement of
its details and their happy
distribution. The circular
court may have been inspired
by Inigo Jones, but is far
inferior to the corresponding
feature in that great artist's
Whitehall. A third struct-
ure, undertaken at about the
same time as these two, is
the new College of Science at
South Kensington, in which
Sir Aston Webb, continuing
his progress away from the
paralysing influence of
Waterhouse, produced a
building in which little but
true Renaissance feeling is to
be detected (Fig. 228). A still further step in the same direction may
be traced in his design for the very ingenious structure now being
erected at the end of the Mall, which is to house the First Lord
and First Naval Lord of the Admiralty, and to disguise the break
of axis in the avenue from Queen Victoria's statue to that of Charles
the Martyr. The more private buildings which have been erected
at the same time as all these public structures are distinguished,
for the most part, by respect for the tradition of English renaissance.
Experiments in styles
drawn from climates very
different from ours are
much less frequent than
they were, and Gothic
has practically disap-
peared from the secular
field. Among the better
designs which have been
carried out since the new
spurt began, we may name
Mr. Reginald Blomfield's
club house at the corner

of Suffolk Street and Pall hg. 234.— the war office, (young.)

119

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

fig. 235. united kingdom

provident institution,
(h. t. hare.)

be erected on the south side of the river from the
designs of Mr. Ralph Knott. It will have a touch
of the right kind of originality in its design, the
want of which is the chief defect of Sir E. Brum-
well Thomas's rather splendid Town Hall at
Belfast (Fig. 224). Here the reliance on Wren
is carried, perhaps, just a shade too far. It can-
not be

Mall (Fig. 237), Mr. F. E. Wimams;s
blocks in Regent Street and St. James's
Street, Mr. Atkinson's great red and
white shop in Oxford Street, and Mr.
Keen's Baptist Church House, in Hol-
born. A large number of other build-
ings have been put up in London, Edin-
burgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere, during
the last decade, which give evidence of
good training, skill, and readiness to think.
Examples of this will be found among
the illustrations to this chapter. Within
the next few years
we are promised
another serious
addition to our
public monu-
ments in the
County Hall, to

fIG. 23').-

—SHOP, WIGMORE
STREET.

(WALLACE AND GIBSON.)

237. united university club.

Creg. blomfield.)

denied,
howev-
er, that
its Town Hall does as much
for Belfast as St. Paul's for
London.

While these men and many
others have been helping to
reestablish the English tra-
dition, a good deal of mistaken
skill has been lavished on struc-
tures of a very debatable charac-
ter, such as the Imperial Institute,
the new Victoria and Albert
Museum, and the new Cathe-

120

MODERN RENAISSANCE

dral of Westminster — of these, the two last
give evidence of great abihty on the part of
their creators, but the designs of both suffer
from the same radical defect. There is not
enough congruity betv^^een their scope and
purpose as a whole, and the style and distinc-
tion of their external architecture. A
museum consisting of a few enormous halls
has no business with domes, minarets, and
pagodas on its roof. These falsify its dec-
laration of purpose and interfere with that
even distribution of light which is one of the
first requirements of exhibition rooms. Still
less should a church, consisting of a single
imposing hall, be packed externally with a
crowd of small annexes, inorganic in arrange-
ment, and over-delicate in detail. The ex-
quisite taste,
however, of

^3ii 1

l^ffi

«■

lii

}

FIG. 238. — DOORWAY, NEW-
GATE STREET.

FIG. 239. — INSURANCE BUILDING,
EDINBURGH. (j. M. DICK-PEDDIE.)

the late Mr.

Bentley's detail, goes far toward
justifying the erection of a Byzanto-
Italian Cathedral almost in the
shadow of Westminster Abbey.

But perhaps the most important,
and cer-
tainly the
most suc-
cessf ul.

movement
in the latest phase of British architecture,
has been that illustrated by the countless
country houses, large and small, erected
during the last quarter of a century. Good
planning has been a virtue oi English
house-building for many generations, and
now to that virtue thoughtfully significant
architecture has been added. The styles
most commonly used are a playful form
of English Palladian and a development
from the late Tudor, by which it was
immediately preceded. We may give as

121

FIG. 240. — DOORWAY.
(lanchester and RICKARDS.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 241. — CHAMBERS IN ST. JAMES S STREET.
(nORMAN SHAW.)

ago as little thought as possible was spent on such

erections, which
were turned o u t
on much the same
principle as quar-
tern loaves ! A
great change has
now taken place —
all over the country
these modest un-
dertakings are be-
ing carried out in
a spirit which at
least makes for art
— o f t e n , indeed,
we find their
creators falling into
an almost excus-
able mistake, and
make some village

examples of the two styles
the new house at Bryanston
Park built for Lord Port-
man by Mr. Norman Shaw
and the house in Kensington
Palace Gardens designed for
Lord Cadisle by Mr. Philip
Webb.

A development which
makes less figure in t h e
world, but can by no means
be passed over in silence, is
that which is connected with
the designing of small houses,
small churches, small public
buildings, in villages and
country towns. A generation

r
i

FIG. 242. — SHOP,
EDINBURGH.

FIG. 243. — COMMERCIAL BANK OF
SCOTLAND, GLASGOW.
(SIDNEY MITCHEL.)

attemptmg to
church or hall
carry more design than it will bear.
But the old indifference is dead, or
at least moribund, and hundreds of
illustrations might now be quoted of
modest opportunities happily used.

122

MODERN RENAISSANCE

In this respect the palm of priority must be awarded to Scotland.
There — perhaps as a result of the " feuing " system, so much more
favorable to the tenant than that of ** building-leases "—evidence
of thought in design and care in execution has been visible much
longer than in England. Scottish architects, how^ever, are much
less eclectic than English ; they have an almost French respect for
tradition, and variety is vastly more conspicuous south of the
Tv/eed than north. The result is that Scotland, as a whole, is
singularly free from those excursions into exotic forms of building
which disfigure all the greater English cities. Practically, the only
vagary of which she has to repent is the endeavor which followed
on the christening of Edinburgh as the Northern Athens, to
naturalize Grecian architecture in that city and — of all places — in
smoky Glasgow. That this attempt was made with no little skill
must be allowed, but its results, especially in the commercial capital,
are not a little depressing.

FIG. 244. — CHIMNEY PIECE,
(nORMAN SHAW.)

BIBUOGRAPHY

For further information on the subjects of this chapter, reference can only be made to current
periodicals. The Architectural Review, The Builder, The Architect, Mons. C. Sedille's Architec-
ture contemporaine en Angleterre (n.d.).

123

KG. 245.— ARUNDEL MANUSCRIPT NO. 83: FOLIO I31B. (British MuSCUm.)

124

FIG. 246. — PSALTER, COTTON MS.

NERO c. XIV. (British Museum.)

FIG. 247. — ARUNDEL MANUSCRIPT,

83: FOLIO 132. (British Museum.)

CHAPTER XII

CERTAIN MINOR ARTS

Ironwork

In a handbook professing to deal with the Fine Arts, no great
space can be afforded for those minor activities which, at their best,
cannot shake themselves free from utilitarian conditions. And yet,
in the case of the British Islands, they cannot be passed over in
silence, for they help to fill the gap which has already been so
often alluded to.

Much has been said of the artistic industries of these islands
during the long periods which elapsed before the higher forms
of art began to develop at all. Some account has now to be
given of certain activities practised in later times, side by side
with the greater arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting.

Few industries are more fascinating than that based on iron. The
most widely distributed of metals, iron is the most adaptable of all
to man's various wants. On the other hand, it is remarkably perish-
able if not carefully nursed. It is chiefly in consequence of this latter
defect that archaeologists are still able to differ so profoundly on the
questions of how long it has been used, and how widely its use

123

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 248. TOMB OF

QUEEN ELEANOR.

(Westminster Abbey.)

was distributed at various epochs. It appears to be fairly certain that
the Egyptians were acquainted with it at least as early as 2000 B.C.*
According to their own statements, which,
however, are not to be implicitly relied on,
the Chinese knew it at least as soon. In
Mesopotamia its use cannot be surely traced
beyond about 1000 B.C. In Syria it was
known somewhat earlier, in Greece perhaps
earlier still, and in India at least as early as
in Greece. How soon iron working entered
into the metallurgy of Western Europe is still
uncertain, our damper climates being more
destructive of evidence than those of the East.
The Phocasans of Marseilles worked iron
mines in Spain as early as between 600
and 500 B.C. The excavations at Bibracte
have revealed an ancient Sheffield, where
iron and even steel were manufactured. The Gauls were famous
for their skill in working iron long before the days of Ceesar, and
the Britons were probably but little their inferiors. In both
countries iron was used as a medium of exchange in the form
of rings. The climate of these islands is such that very few objects
have survived from those Roman days which have yielded rich
harvests further south. A folding chair with bronze enrichments,
a few andirons, candelabra, and hinges complete our catalogue.
Coming down to later centuries, when varying influences from
without — Scandinavian, Danish, Saxon — had their effects, we find
that the progress of iron-working is still to be chiefly traced
in hinges. These were more easily preserved than other objects.
They were securely fixed to timber, and were often protected from
rust. They seem to have taken on an elaborate form sooner in
these islands than elsewhere, and as a natural consequence preserved
the utilitarian basis of their ornament longer. Their elementary
form was that of an iron strap embracing the door on both
sides and folded near its centre round the pivot let into the
jamb. To this were added side-pieces, often in the form of
a crescent, which gave a stronger hold on the timber. The junc-
tion of these straps with the socket itself was protected, in the
case of English doors, by the overlapping of the jamb, which put the

1 The contention that as they were able to carve diorite, syenite, porphyry, and other hard rocks
many centuries before 2000 B.C., they must have known and used iron, is quite inconclusive ; for
given unlimited time and patience, which we know the Egyptians were always ready to put into
dieir work, the hardest rocks can be shaped without iron.

126

IRONWORK

weakest part of the combination well out of reach of violence. An
interesting early example of this arrangement is to be seen on the
door of Stillingfleet Church, Yorkshire, where the working parts
are combined with the representation of a viking ship and other
signs meant to act as charms. Another ancient specimen is the
hinging of a door in the church of Willingale-Spain, in Essex, with
which that of a door at Eastwood, near Rockford, in the same county,
may be associated. Other well-known examples are at Erith,
Maxstoke, Weston-Barton, Margaret Roding, Compton-Norton,
Leicester, Kingston-Lisle, Sparsholt, Haddiscoe, Kenilworth!
Raveningham, and the Cathedrals of Gloucester, Hereford, Peter-
borough, and Chichester. Some fine hinges from St. Alban's are
in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

All these are examples of pure smithery, in which the iron is
worked with hammer alone. They were succeeded by more
complex performances in which stamps were used, the white-hot
iron being driven into metal dies. This second style was carried to
great perfection, or at least to great elaboration, in France, where
the hmges of the great doors of Notre Dame remind us of the
Roman scroll. Stamped work in England was never so ambitious.
One of the finest examples is the south door leading to the cloisters,
in Durham Cathedral. But this appears to
be of French origin, although more English
than French in design. Here the hinges still
supply the chief motive, but as time went on
they were frequently ignored and ironwork put
on doors as mere surface decoration and re-
enforcement. Of this perhaps the most
beautiful English example is supplied by the
doorway of Worksop Priory. Here the door
is double, the design resting on the vertical
lines of the central opening, and ignoring the
hinges. This specimen dates from about the
end of the twelfth century, and gave motives
to many other works of the same class in Ox-
fordshire, Herefordshire, Somersetshire, and
elsewhere.

Less consecutive than hinges in their illustration of progress,
but more important in themselves, are the grilles which formerly
existed in such vast numbers in our churches and cathedrals. A
peculiar viciousness seems to have been shown, at various times,
in their destruction, and comparatively few have come down to our

127

FIG. 249. — GATES OF
ALL SOULS, OXFORD.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

day. Most of those which remain are built up of iron straps turned
into spirals, loops, quatrefoils, and other simple forms, held together
by collars and set in rectangular iron frames protected by spikes at
the top, and sometimes strengthened by flat bands of pierced iron.
Good specimens are the choir grille in Lincoln Cathedral, a tomb
grille at St. Albans, a grille from Chichester Cathedral in the
South Kensington Museum, and the fine grille of St. Swithin,
at Winchester, which is the oldest as well as the finest work of
its own class now extant. It dates from the last years of the
eleventh century. The most important of all remaining grilles,
however, is the " herse " over Queen Eleanor's tomb in West-
minster Abbey (Fig. 248). It belongs to the class of stamped
work, and is the only early specimen either in England or the

royal domain in France
(to which for a long
period the method was
practically confined) the
date of which is known.
It was made in 1294
by Thomas de Legh-
tone (Thomas of Leigh-
ton Buzzard) for the
sum of £13. A con-
sideration of dates and
other matters makes it
likely that this kind of
work originated i n
England, that French
promptness, carried it to
hinges, and then

250. — SCREEN I ROM ST. JOHN'S, FROME.

(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

smiths seized upon it with their usual

the extravagant richness of the Notre Dame

dropped it in default of patrons for anything so costly.

The thirteenth was the blacksmith's great century. His aesthetic
ambitions were then fully developed, and progress had not 3'et pro-
vided him with a royal road to any of his effects. All the
operations which intervened between the delivery at his forge of
rough bars of iron and the production of such a work as the St.
Swithin's grille, had to be performed with his own hand, under the
control of his own fallible but masterful eye. Putting aside stamped
work, his material and his way of using it were as expressive as the
painter's, and so, to the modern student, his productions have an ever-
growing charm. To quote Mr. Starkie Gardiner :^ "The quick and

^Ironwork: South Kensington Handbook, 1907.

128

IRONWORK

FIG. 251.— CANADA GATES, BUCKINGHAM PALACE.

decisive treatment of iron while it is transiently in a plastic condition
must be regarded as the true art of the blacksmith, and of necessity leads
to vigorous and masculine effects. The tools of the smithy proper
consist of forge and bellows, hammer and anvil, tongs and chisels."

With the fourteenth century new methods and new tools came to
complicate his practice, and to deprive it of not a little of its
spontaneity and individuality. The use of iron as a decorative
feature began, probably, in this country, whence it spread south-
ward and westward. But English ironworkers lost their supremacy,
partly through the general failure of art in the early fifteenth
century, partly through the more active ambition of their Continental
rivals. In the use of iron for purposes which exactly fitted it,
they were equalled only by the French. In forcing the powers
of iron, and employing it in ways better suited to wood or to more
ductile materials, they were left far behind. The history of metal-
working in England, as a spontaneous expression of cesthetic ideas,
comes to a temporary end with the commencement of the two
centuries of political and religious trouble which intervened between
1450 and 1650. In later times it was re-inspired from abroad and
produced much fine work, in which the restraint and propriety
of English taste is again conspicuous ; but it could no longer boast
any strong, native character, while it fell short of its rivals in that
magnificence which in some degree atones for impropriety. In our
own day ironwork, like other arts, has sprung into new and energetic
life, and is producing results which are often quite admirable. The
revival has much to contend with ; especially in the damage done to
the public taste by the presence of so many bad and ambitious
designs in cast iron in conspicuous places (the Coalbrookdale gates
near the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, those in the Marble Arch
and the arch at the top of Constitution Hill, for instance). But

129 K

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 252. LEAD URN,

PARHAM (BLOMFIELD).

such iron work as the new grilles between choir ond choir aisle in
St. Paul's, the Canada gates (Fig. 251) at Buckingham Palace and
those in the new Government Offices in
Whitehall, and Bentley's beautiful bronze
screen to one of the side chapels in West-
minster Cathedral, are distinctly encouraging
for the future.

Enamels.

Little if any light is thrown upon the
course of the Fine Arts in this country by
what is left of our native enamels. Docu-
ments, indeed, seem to prove that the trade
of the enameller flourished here throughout
the Middle Ages, but his work never ap-
pears to have risen to the confines of the
Fine Arts, as it did in Italy, France, and
Germany. As industrial arts, the Celtic
enamellers (Figs. 253-5) occupy a high
place, and in later centuries the method was effectually used for the
decoration of utilitarian objects. The enamelled brasses (candle-
sticks, andirons, etc.) of the Tudor and Jacobaean periods are often
effective, and the Battersea enamellers of the eighteenth century
show a pleasing fancy allied to much skill at their metier, but
only by the production of portrait minia-
tures, after the Petitots had shown the
way, can English enamelling claim a place
among the Fine Arts. During the last
five and twenty or thirty years it has, of
course, shared in the general revival of
all forms of art, but has so far been
practically restricted to decoration.

Stained Glass.

Perhaps the most attractive of all the
subsidiary arts is that of producing in stained
and painted glass a crown and complement
to architecture. Those who have wandered
for hours or days in the great cathedrals
which still wear their crown of color, in
York, or Chartres, or Le Mans, or the comparatively humble fane
at Gouda, look back, I think, on the glass as the vitalizing feature

130

FIG. 253. — TARA BROOCH.

(Dublin Museum.)

STAINED GLASS

FIG. 254. — CELTIC ENAMEL, FROM POLDEN HILL

(British Museum.)

of the whole. It is to a church what the eye is to the human face.
And yet it is, or ought to be, strictly subordinate. The architect
should strike the note and the
glazier dance to his pipe.
Those ensembles are the most
satisfactory in which this prin-
ciple has been most intelli-
gently followed.

Endeavors have been
made to refer the art of stained-
glass window-making to the
East, like so many arts. Links
are missing, however, in the
chain of proof. The glass mosaics set in plaster tracery of Saracenic
buildings are, no doubt, the offspring of an old tradition, but the
desire to bring the large openings necessary in European climates
into the scheme of decoration was a force unknown in the blaze
of Eastern light.

The fashion in Western Europe seems to have started somewhat
abruptly, and may, perhaps, be traced as much to a sudden
perception that architecture might be illuminated as well as the
mass books, as to a slow evolution like that of architecture itself.
The earliest glass we can point to is by no means the work of men
feeling their way. It has been asserted that the art was first
practised in France, as early as the reign of Charlemagne. But of
that there is no real evidence. The earliest glass now in existence
dates from the twelfth century,' but very little, if any, of that date can
be identified in England. The
thirteenth century, however, has
left us a rich legacy in glass — at
Canterbury, York, Lincoln, Salis-
bury, etc. — and in the fourteenth,
the art was more active here than
elsewhere, French activity being for
a time more or less arrested. It was
not until the end of the thirteenth
century and beginning of the four-
teenth that Germany took the art
seriously.

During the Perpendicular period an immense amount of glass was

' The Germans claim a date as early as the eleventh century for certain un-beautiful windows
ia Augsburg Cathedral, but the claim has not yet been generally acknowledged.

131 K 2

255. — ARDAGH CHALICE.

(Dublin Museum.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

produced in England, especially after the accession of Henry IV.
This activity continued down to the Renaissance period, during
which, however, much of the best glass now in this country appears
to have been imported from abroad, from France and Belgium.
The magnificent windows of King's College, Cambridge, were
probably Flemish in their origin, although of native manufacture.^
Contracts for them still exist. From the middle of the sixteenth
century down to the middle of the nineteenth, the art was in the
slough of despond. Wrong ideas prevailed for two centuries and
a half, and when at last the right conception again struggled to the
surface, it took a whole generation to purify itself and learn to make
a window which could be looked at without horror by those
familiar with ancient glass.

The art divides itself, historically, into periods corresponding to
those of pointed architecture itself. As a matter of fact, its whole

course, like that of the architec-
ture to which it formed a crown,
is one continuous transition, so
that if life were long enough and
patience inexhaustible, all the
glass in the country might be
arranged into an unbroken table
of chronological precedence.

Speaking more or less roughly,
however, Gothic glass may be
thus divided : —
Decorated, 1300 to 1380:

FiG. 256. — SYON COPE.

(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

Early Pointed, 1180 to 1300
Perpendicular, 1380 to 1520.

A few fragments of a date earlier than about 1 1 80 have been
called Byzantine, while Renaissance feeling becomes so strong after
1 520 that the epithet Gothic has to drop out.

The First Pointed window was a mosaic of colors, of small
pieces of pot-metal glass set in strips of lead, the latter following and
making out the design. The glass was also painted, but the paint
was restricted to the work of helping out the forms suggested
by leading and color, and was never used as a substitute for care
in the management of these latter elements. The purely decorative
parts of early windows were usually in grisaille, with little admixture
of positive color. On the other hand, their pictorial parts — figures

- The cartoons for these windows have lately been ascribed, with some show of justification, to the
Antwerp glass-p>ainter, Dirick Jacopssone Vellert, who was identical with the engraver known as
Dirk van Staren from his monogram. (See Burlington Magazine for October, 1907.)

132

STAINED GLASS

and backgrounds — were as deep, rich, and positive in color as
was consistent with transparency.

The general design of First Pointed windows falls into four
classes : —

1 . Windows entirely in grisaille.

2. Medallion windows, in which pictures of medallion form
and character were set in a decorative framework.

3. Figure windows, with sacred personages standing under
feigned canopies and in feigned architectural settings.

4. Jesse windows, in which the genealogy of Christ was set out
more or less in the form of a heraldic tree.

Besides the indications given by these definitions, First Pointed
glass may be distinguished by the conventional character of the
detail, especially of the foliations, and by the use of hatched
backgrounds, which, while lowering the general tone and pulling
the design together, not only did not interfere with the brilliancy of
the glass, but actually enhanced it.

The second, or Decorated, period is to be distinguished from the
first by various developments.

1 . Windows become more pictorial in general conception, the
design being often so schemed as to embrace several " lights."

2. The colors are brighter and gayer, admitting more daylight.

3. Figures are better drawn and more naturally posed.

4. The ornamental foliage is more imitative of real plants.

5. The leading becomes actually lighter, although, in consequence
of increased delicacy in the painting and the more transparent glass,
it asserts itself more than before.

In England the finest Decorated glass is to be found in Merton
Chapel, Oxford ; in the Chapter House, nave, and presbytery of
York Minster ; at Tewkesbury, Wells, Salisbury, Gloucester, and
Bristol.

The third, or Perpendicular, period is more national in its
characteristics than its predecessors. An English Perpendicular
window is much more easily distinguished from a contemporary
French or German one than an example from the first or second
period. The distinctive features are : —

1. The diminished significance of the leads, which are divorced
from the design more than ever before.

2. The increased pictorial quality of the conception as a whole.

3. The presence, in the feigned architecture, of those Perpen-
dicular elements which prevail in the real stone architecture of the
same period.

133

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 257. — COPE or ST. SILVESTER, ST. JOHN LATERAN, ROME.

The typical Perpendicular window represents, or suggests, a collec-
tion of niches, or screen, of silvery-white tabernacle work, filled with
richly colored figures against colored backgrounds. A great window
of this style is, in short, a translucent picture of one of the great archi-
tectural screens of the period, such as the Wallingford Screen at St.
Albans, or the screens of Magdalen, All Souls', and New Colleges
at Oxford. The combination of almost white tabernacle work with
colored figures fulfils both practical and artistic requirements, for the
architectonic frame lets in plenty of light, while the color decorates
magnificently.

England is rich in fine glass from this third period. The
city of York is a perfect museum of it ; not only the Cathedral,
but many other churches, especially that of All Saints, North
Street, being rich in Perpendicular glass. The old windows in the
ante-chapel of New College, Oxford, among which the Reynolds
** Nativity " looks such an unhappy intruder, are fine specimens of
the style in its early years. All Souls also has some good glass of
this period ; so have the Abbey Church of Great Malvern, the
Cathedral at Winchester, and a very large number of other churches.

With the close of their true architectonic evolution, storied
windows lost their decorative character and began a disastrous
rivalry with the freest of the fine arts. Those characteristics which
bound them to the architecture in which they were set were system-
atically suppressed. Leads were avoided as far as possible and
finally discdnnected from design. Pot-metal* was superseded by

* Glass of which the coloring matter has been introduced among the original ingredients before
fusion.

134

NEEDLEWORK

enameHed glass, with a consequent loss both of translucence and safety.
Painted detail was elaborated for its own sake, and realism intro-
duced into elements from which it should have been carefully ex-
cluded. In England the best examples of Renaissance glass are either
wholly or partially of foreign origin. Lichfield Cathedral possesses
some fine Flemish windows. There are many at Oxford and Coven-
try. King's College Chapel, Cambridge, is a museum of Transition
and Renaissance glass, dating from 1516-30.

From the end of the Perpendicular period down to late in the
nineteenth century, the true architectonic art of stained-glass window-
making was held down in this country by all sorts of false ideals.
During the Renaissance period and the long years of unhappy
experiment by which it was followed, nothing was produced with
any national cachet. It was not until half the nineteenth century
had rolled away that glimmerings of the right spirit began to show
over the horizon, and foundations were laid for that evolution which
has at last enabled us both to appreciate the work of our fore-
bears and to produce something not entirely alien to it in principle.

Needlework and Tapestry.

It is doubtful, perhaps, whether any full justification can be
produced for including tapestry and needlework in a manual of the
fine arts. In treating British art, however, it is peculiarly de-
sirable that they should not be passed over in silence, for they afford
the best support to our contention that these islands were by

FIG. 258. — ASCOLI COPE.

no means such laggards in aesthetic activity as some of our critics,
and not least our native ones, contend. They may be taken, together

135

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

with the production of illuminated manuscripts, to show that during
the ages of the untroubled Christian Church, artists were as active
and numerous, proportionately, on this side of the English Channel as
on the other. The works of the needle and of the illuminator's
brush survive when more self-assertive things perish. Shrines,
statues, stained-glass windows, are at the mercy of the fanatic's
club. They can neither escape nor resist. A cope or a manuscript
can do both ; it can take a blow without much damage, or it can
hide. As a result we have copes and manuscripts in sufficient quan-
tity to prove that the sap of art rose vigorously in the English tree,
and that if we cannot rival our nearest neighbors in the volume of
our contribution to the world's treasure of mediaeval art, it is less
because we failed as artists, than because we had our turmoils
at unlucky moments and our wealth too soon.

Spinning, weaving, and the use of the needle were known in
these islands in very remote times. Perforated spindle whorls and
heavy combs for driving the weft close on the warp have been
found among the neolithic deposits, while discoveries made in
Switzerland have proved that flaxen thread was known to the lake-
dwellers. Once the knowledge of weaving established, art came as
a matter of course. The use of thread could not persist very long
without suggesting the first experiments in pattern, and these experi-
ments would presently be enriched in the light of what older
civilizations were doing in the same direction. The characteristic
design of our earliest historical civilization appears to have been
tartan, which has come down to us in a developed condition
in the clan tartans of Scotland. Boadicea wore a tartan robe
on the day of her disaster, as — according to Dion Cassius — did
the bulk of her people. Industries like spinning, weaving, em-
broidering, and the making-up of stuffs so provided into garments,
involved art, so long as the work was done by individuals, without
machinery. Art did not require to be introduced. It sprang up
of itself, as soon as human beings found materials between their fingers
to which variety could easily be given, according to their own
tastes and predilections.

One of the earliest needleworkers of whom we have any real
knowledge is the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, and
a British princess. She embroidered a figure of the Virgin which
still exists in the Church of Vercelli (Bock, Liturgische GeWdnder).
Helena died in the fourth century a.D. It is probable that the
women of Britain were skilled weavers and embroiderers by that time,
as we know they were three centuries later. Even in the sixth century

136

NEEDLEWORK

classes were formed for the execution of embroideries for the Church,
and long before the Norman Conquest the work of the English
ladies was famous all over the Continent. The Danish inroads
helped, no doubt, to confine artistic industries more closely to convents
and monasteries, than in Continental countries. The most celebrated
relic of ancient English needlework is the so-called Bayeux Tapestry,
which is, of course, not tapestry at all. Its artistic merit is far inferior
to that of other English works of about the same period, and even
earlier. The beautiful Anglo-Saxon stole and maniple of St.
Cuthbert, at Durham, dates from about the year 910. We know
from the chronicles that the English ladies, from the highest to
the lowest, were
patiently piling up a
great wealth of
needlework all
through the Gothic
centuries. The names
of many survive.
Among them were
/Elfled. Queen of
Edward the Elder,
whose name appears
on the s t o 1 e of St.
Cuthbert. Another
y^lfled (or /Ethel-
fleda) gave a pictured
hanging to Ely Ca-
thedral, St. Dunstan
is said to have de-
signed embroideries to be executed by /Edelwyrme, a noble lady
of his acquaintance ; Emma, wife of Ethelred, and afterward
of Cnut, and /Elgitha, Cnut's first Queen, were generous donors of
embroideries to the Church; Editha, the Confessor's wife, em-
broidered his coronation robe. It is on record that the Con-
queror and his companions were astonished by the splendid em-
broideries they found worn by the Saxon nobles. These the
Normans and their ladies began at once to collect and imitate. It is
scarcely too much to say that needlework of every kind was to the
gentlewomen of Britain in the Gothic centuries what sport is in
these days of progress. The wealth of the English cathedrals in all
sorts of embroidery was amazing. The Lincoln catalogue shows
that at the Reformation the Cathedral owned between six and seven

137

FIG. 259. — OPUS ANGLICANUM.

(British Museum.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

hundred figured vestments, richly wrought of the finest materials, and
other cathedrals were scarcely less rich.

A certain number of English embroideries have survived, mostly
in cathedrals and other storehouses
abroad, which go to prove by their
exquisite beauty that English art was
no less flourishing a tree than that of
any Continental country. The cope of
St. Silvester in S. Giovanni Laterano,
the cope in the Bologna Town Museum,
the Daroca cope at Madrid, the Syon
Monastery cope in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, to which I would add
the famous Ascoli cope, which has seen
so many curious vicissitudes, and the
Toledo cope — all these and a number
of less important relics show a form of
art, at once national and elaborately
developed, which could never have
sprung up in any country but one rich
in artistic industries.

" Opus Anglicanum " began to be
famous in the twelfth century ; at least
its fame then began to be so great as
to win mention in the chronicles. Its vogue continued throughout
the Middle Ages, and its productions were eagerly sought after
all over Europe. Its characteristics were the union of fine taste
in design with a quite unprecedented audacity in the plastic use
of stitchcry.

A fine and wonderfully well-preserved fragment (Fig. 259),
dating from the fourteenth century, was given to the British Museum
by the late Sir Augustus Franks, but the finest pieces are mostly in
foreign treasuries. The glory of English needlework disappeared,
like that of so many other artistic industries, in the first half of the
fifteenth century, to be revived, indeed, under the Tudors, but
then no longer in its purely national condition.

The history of tapestry in England is in the same condition as
that of too many other artistic industries.

We know from documentary evidence that English looms were at
work all through the Middle Ages. In 1344 a law was passed for
their regulation. Fifty years later the Earl of Arundel disposed by
will of a set of hangings which had been woven for him in London.

138

FIG. 260. — DUTAlh, COPE OF ST.

SILVESTER, ST. JOHN LATERAN,

ROME.

IVORIES

In 1495 a hanging was made for Canterbury Choir, which is now
at Aix, in Provence. Early in the sixteenth century a manufactory
was set up at B arches ton, in Warwickshire, and in the reign of
James I the famous manufactory was estabUshed at Mortlake, where
hangings second to none for firmness of execution and the beauty of
their borders were made. Here were woven sets from the cartoons
of Raphael, acquired from the Brussels weaver who had woven the
set for the Sistine Chapel at Rome. These were commissioned by
Charles I, who had bought the cartoons, it is said, on the advice of
Rubens. Many of the tapestries themselves are now in the Garde
Meuhle at Paris. A fine suit of Mortlake tapestries is at Hard-
wicke Hall. One or two attempts have been made since the
Mortlake enterprise came to an end to revive the art in England.
The most serious of these was the founding of a low-warp manu-
factory at Old Windsor, some thirty years ago, with the help of
workmen from Beauvais and Aubusson. Its products were good
in execution, but poor in design, and its life was short.

Ivories

Until quite recently it was the almost invariable custom to refer
every northern mediaeval ivory the origin of which was not documente
to either the French or the Flemings ; and yet there is abundant
proof that Gothic England possessed numbers of ivory carvers and
that their productions were
highly popular. The vicissi-
tudes of the Church in this
country led, of course, to the
destruction of vast numbers
of ecclesiastical objects, such
as pastoral staves and crosiers,
pixes and paxes, private
shrines and altars. But enough
have survived to prove that,
during the great period, from
about 1280 to about 1420,
our native artists were not
inferior to their Continental
rivals in skill. During t h e

last decade or two the characteristics of our native production
have been gradually recognized. English ivories are distinguished

139

FIG. 261. — TAPESTRY AT HATFIELD.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

f^.^^f

FIG. 262. — IVORY TRIPTYCH.

(British Museum.)

by more sobriety of conception and earnest simplicity of expression
than French, Flemish, and German examples, while the archi-
tectural details introduced supply another test of origin.

The objects to which the mediaeval
ivory carver devoted himself were the
same in England as elsewhere : the
smaller items of church furniture ;
horns, to which the form of a tusk
lent itself so kindly ; statuettes ; combs ;
book-covers ; mirror-cases ; small boxes,
caskets, or pixes ; chessmen, etc.

The most interesting specimen of
very early carving at present known
is a casket presented to the British
Museum by the late Sir Augustus
Franks. It is not of ivory, however,
but of the bone of the whale. It has
panels with scenes, probably from the
Saga of Odoacer, fitted with fine decorative effect into boldly carved
runic inscriptions (Imelmann). A magnificent early carving in
whale's bone is the Saxon Adoration of the Magi, of about 1000,
in the Victoria and Albert Museum (see title-page).

An interesting and somewhat mysterious find of ivories was the
discovery, about ninety years ago, in the Lewis
(Hebrides), of a large number of chessmen
carved in walrus ivory. The find consisted of
six kings, five queens, thirteen bishops, fourteen
knights, nineteen pawns, and ten warders, the
forerunners of the modern rook or castle.
One would say it was the stock of some carver,
who profited by the frequent opportunities of
acquiring his material which occurred in that
northern latitude. One of the finest examples
of early English ivory carving is a fragment
which appears to have been the arm of a chair,
formerly in the great Meyrick collection at
Goodrich Court. It is of walrus ivory and
exquisite both in design and workmanship.
Pastoral staves and crosiers of ivory were prob-
ably not uncommon in the Gothic centuries,
but very few have survived. The Victoria and Albert Museum,
however, possesses one which is closely related to the bronze

140

%^>l

r--^^^.

j^^

-r

FIG. 263. DEXTER LEAF

OF A DIPTYCH.

(British Museum.)

ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS

crosiers of various degrees of elabora-
tion which have come dow^n to us
from the same period. It also pos-
sesses a wonderful diptych in open
tabernacle work, in which skill and
design go hand in hand.

Fine examples of the English
school of the fourteenth century are
in the Victoria and Albert Museum
(Fig. 294) and the British Museum
(Figs. 262, 263) — a triptych and
one leaf of a diptych, both carved
for Bishop Grandison, of Exeter.
The Gothic ivories in the Ashmolean,
at Oxford, appear to be nearly all
English ; and good examples are
now frequently being separated (as ^^°- '^^(■frintt^^CoUe'^e
a chemist would say) from their non-
English companions. A splendid diptych, ajoure, in the Salting
collection, in an Italian frame, may be claimed as English.

BOOK OF KELLS.

Dublin.)

Illuminated Manuscripts.

In a comprehensive history of
invention of printing, the chapter
progress of that art in these Islands
would be the most homogeneous
and, perhaps, the most interesting
of all. It would begin with the
wonderful Celtic school of monastic
art, which arose in the fifth century
and came to long persisting perfection
some two centuries later, and it would
end with the first quarter of the
fifteenth century, when the series
of political earthquakes began which
were to destroy for centuries so
much of the national character of
British Art. Between those two
extreme dates the production of
Illuminated Manuscripts went on
in a line of more or less steady de-

141

book production before the
dealing with the birth and

FIG. 265. — PAGE FROM LINDISFARNE

GOSPELS. (British Museum.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 266. — PAGE FROM A
CELTIC GOSPELS.

(Lambeth Palace.)

velopment, and during a great part of the time our scribes and
decorators were doing better work than any of their rivals. We have
seen that the first wave of Christianity
which reached us had its most permanent
effect in Ireland, where it was in some
degree protected from the raiding tribes of
Northern Europe, so that after a time it
gathered strength enough to reevangelize
the nearer coasts of Britain. With Chris-
tianity it introduced its art, and the monas-
teries founded in Scotland and England
became centres for the distribution of those
Celtic conceptions which had been devel-
oped in peace beyond the protecting sea.
The Irish Celts "had learned to produce
goldsmiths' work and manuscript illumina-
tions with such marvellous taste and skill
as has never been surpassed by any age or
country in the world " (Middleton). The
illuminators based their designs on those of the goldsmiths. In
many cases, indeed, the same individual both decorated a manu-
script and bound it in metal. So that a
page from such a work as the Bool^ of
Kells is really a translation into terms of
paint of notions suggested by the idiosyn-
crasies of metal, enamel, and precious stones.
On this fact both its virtues and its short-
comings depend, its miraculous delicacy,
intricacy, and yet freedom from confusion,
as well as its occasional want of propriety.
The Book of Kells was probably written
between 680 and 700. Its extraordinary
elaboration defies description in words — can
only be appreciated, indeed, by ordinary
eyesight with the help of a microscope and
a great deal of patience. It has been said
that the natural forms introduced show an
absolute incapacity on the part of the Celtic
artist to represent the human figure. I
have already explained (pp. 5-7) why such
incapacity should not be too readily assumed. The monastic painter
was a Celt, with an eye for unity and the value of line, and was

142

FIG. 267. — ROYAL MS. I D. X
FOLIO 6.

(British Museum.)

ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS

FIG. 268.— INITIAL FROM A LATE
FOURTEENTH CENTURY MISSAL.

(British Museum.)

not easily tempted to introduce disturbing elements into his designs.
He did not wish to imitate the human figure, he wished merely to
use it so far as it submitted to his
arbitrary but rightly decorative in-
tentions. The human figure is so
interesting in itself that, once it was
made use of in art, it gradually in-
sisted on taking an ever more and
more important place, but with men
in whom Celtic blood predominates
it continues, even to this day, essen-
tially an element in pattern.

I have already had occasion to
allude to the finest examples of Celtic
illumination. They are the Book of
Kells (Fig. 264), the perhaps earlier
Book of Durrow (Fi^. 19), the later
Book of Armagh, the Book of the
Gospels of St. Cuthbert, or Lindis-
farne MS. (Fig. 265), the Commen-
tary ofCassiodorus on the Psalms, in
Durham Cathedral, and a splendid Gospels in the Imperial Library of
St. Petersburg. The last three are examples of the English school
founded on the teaching of the Irish monks. They are more gorgeous

than the earlier MSS., chiefly through
the introduction of gold and silver leaf,
which the purely Irish illuminators never
used. Illuminated manuscripts continued
to be produced in Ireland down to the
tenth century, but the later school is by
no means equal to that which gave us
the Book of Kells. The influence of
the Irish illuminators was chiefly active
in Scotland and in Northumbria, but it
extended not only to Canterbury and
other centres in Southern England, but
to many places on the continent of
Europe, whither it was carried by the
ubiquitous Irish missionaries. The library
of St. Gall owns a number of finely
illuminated books of the later Irish type. Irish influence also
penetrated to the Scandinavian peninsula, where typically Celtic

143

FIG. 269. — PAGE FROM APOCA-
LYPSE, ROYAL MS. 19 B. XV.

(British Museum.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

forms are to be identified in the ornament of those timber churches
of the eleventh and twelfth centuries which are the earliest Christian
monuments in the country.

A change in the character of Anglo-Celtic illumination naturally
followed the closer connection with Rome brought about by the
Synod of Whitby in 664 and its logical consequences. Italian ideas
modified the old Celtic conceptions, and the combination gave birth
to a style which characterized English illumination during those

generations which saw it the
leading school of Europe. This
is noticeable in a gentle but pro-
gressive infusion of classical feel-
ing into the treatment of figures
and their draperies. The purely
ornamental parts of the work
retain their Celtic air for a long
time, and by the time it has dis-
appeared the classical touch has
gone too, and both figures and
ornament have combined to form
a style in strict unity with the
Gothic movement as a whole.
From the end of the tenth
century to the early years of the
fifteenth, excepting a short eclipse
after the middle of the fourteenth
century, the English school of
illumination was the most influen-
tial in Europe.

It was with the help of a
famous English scribe and
scholar, Alcuin of York, that Charlemagne created what has been called
the Anglo Carolingian school of manuscript writing and decoration.
Alcuin controlled the production of a large number of manuscripts
in the Benedictine monasteries of France — at Tours, Soissons, Metz,
etc. He revised the Vulgate, and a magnificently written and
illuminated copy in the British Museum is believed to be the
actual copy prepared for Charlemagne. '* The figure subjects are
mainly classical, with fine architectural backgrounds of Roman
style, drawn with unusual elaboration and accuracy, and even
with fairly correct perspective. The initial letters and all the
conventional ornaments show the northern artistic strain which

144

FIG. 270.-

-PAGE FROM HARLEY MS. 7026.
FOLIO 4 B.

(British Museum.)

ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS

FIG. 271. — THE POPE AND THE
GOLDSMITH. (SIR DAVID

WILKIE.)

Alcuin himself introduced from York. Delicate and complicated
interfaced patterns, as were first used in the wonderful manuscripts
of the Celtic monks, are freely in-
troduced into the borders and large capi-
tals " (Middleton).

As Northumbria had given Alcuin
to Charlemagne to help in the creation
of a French school of illumination, so,
after the practical destruction of North-
umbrian civilization in the ninth century
by the Danish ruffians, the movement
established by Alcuin reacted on North-
umbria and re-kindled the quenched
fires. And not only on Northumbria.
Alfred the Great was as enthusiastic as
Charles the Great in the cause of litera-
ture and art. A new school arose in
his capital of Winchester and in the
great Benedictine monasteries through-
out the country. The Carolingian influence is to be traced in the
earlier results of the new movement. The famous Chatsworth
Benedidional, written by Godeman, chaplain to /Ethelwold, Bishop
of Winchester, is an instance of this. In its thirty full page minia-
tures it combines features of the Carolingian and more exclusively
English schools. Its date is about 965.

Another centre of illumination was the Benedictine Abbey of
Glastonbury under St. Dunstan, himself a good artist. The Bodleian
possesses a drawing of Christ with a prostrate saint at His feet,
said by a twelfth century annotator to be
Dunstan, by himself.

Side by side with the Anglo-Carolingian
School of Winchester, a completely native
school of Anglo-Saxon illuminators was at
work. By the eleventh century this had
reached great excellence, especially in the
production of designs depending almost
entirely on line for their effect. By the
twelfth century these competing schools
had led to a great development in the
production of decorated manuscripts. All
through the century the art rapidly pro-
gressed until it culminated in the splendid English illuminations of

145 L

FIG. 272. — artist's mother.

(a. geddes.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 273. — ST. JACQUES, LISIEUX,
(C. J. WATSON.)

the thirteenth century, which were long
without rivals in any European country.
A close analysis of the best work of
this century shows that Celtic, Anglo-
Saxon and Norman traditions all con-
tributed to its final excellence, although
the influence of the last named strain
was probably the strongest. It affected
art, indeed, over the whole of the An-
gevin Empire, down to the Pyrenees.

Down to a quite recent date it was
assumed by historians of art that the
French, the Parisian, school of illumi-
nation was not only preeminent in
Europe at the end of the thirteenth and
beginning of the fourteenth centuries,
but was also the nursery of excellence
elsewhere. This opinion was contested by English students, and it
is now in a fair way to be acknowledged that to England belongs,
almost entirely, the credit of being the leader. Without England the
style of illumination which prevailed in the French Royal Domaine,
from the time of St. Louis onward, would be unexplainable. The
breach of continuity with the past would be too great. It was
from the English hearth that the French illuminators took the fire
which they blew into so great a flame
in the fourteenth century.

^P^' (^^'Mii*'! ''"' ^^^' ^^^ through the fourteenth century

i .i.rc V j£».,e.^ ^j^j j^j. jj^^ ^j.gj t-^enty or thirty years

of the fifteenth, the illumination of
manuscripts in England became grad-
ually more national — more different
from similar work on the continent —
in style. It also fluctuated greatly in
excellence. The years of the Black
Death almost stifled the art, and it was
not until nearly the close of the four-
teenth century that good work was again
produced in any quantity. Down to
the commencement of the Wars of the
Roses, however, fine work was still done,
and many splendid manuscripts date from
the years between about 1 380 and 1 430.

146

FIG. 274. — ST. MERY, PARIS.
(hedley FITTON.)

ETCHING

Etching

The art of etching has had a curious
career in this country. After its in-
vention — as a pure and separate art^
by Rembrandt, it lay unnoticed for
more than a century and a half by
English artists, and then, like a forgotten
seed, it suddenly germinated in the
minds of two Scottish painters, coming
up almost as sound and whole as Rem-
brandt had left it. David Wilkie and
Andrew Geddes have left but a few
plates behind them, but those few are
enough to show how completely alive
they were to the idiosyncrasy of the
medium. Their attempt — if we can call it one — to revive a dormant
art was frustrated by one of nature's little ironies in the foundation
of the Etching Club, a loose confederacy of painters who had
neither the qualities nor the aims of the true artist in line.
They thought in anecdote, and other men's anecdotes at that !
Their plates, speaking broadly, have no touch of the right character,
and are now practically forgotten. The example of Wilkie and
Geddes was not fruitless, however. Two etchers arose soon after
the middle of the century who will take their places in the future
among the great masters. One of these was James McNeill
Whistler ; the other, his brother-in-law, Francis Seymour Haden.
During most of his career Whistler posed as anti-English, although
his art was mainly British, in spite of his American birth and French
training. It was essentially an art of emotional selection. He

-miss seymour haden.
(whistler.)

thought he was painting with his
nated, almost as much as those of
Meryon, by his passion. As a
painter. Whistler had another
British trait ; he was an island,
an individualist, a man almost
completely disconnected from sur-
rounding or traditional influences.
As an etcher, however, he was the
legitimate offspring of the best
talkers in line by whom he was pre-
ceded. His brother - in - law, Sir

147

brains, but these were domi-

FIG. 276. — APRIL IN KENT. (f. SHORT.)

L 2

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 277. — THE AGAMEMNON. (SIR F. SEYMOUR HADEN.)

Francis Seymour Haden, was newer and more detached than
he, also colder, more conscious, more scientific. Whistler's powers
as an etcher first became generally known in 1871, when a series
of " Sixteen etchings of scenes on the Thames and other subjects '*
was published. From that time to his death he was accepted as,
perhaps, the most consummate master of the art since Rembrandt,
his only rivals in modern times being the two men already
named, Sir Francis Seymour Haden and Charles Me'ryon.

Me'ryon's art may almost be claimed as
English. His father was English,
and his inspiration came from a n
English imagination, determined by the
face of Paris and heated by a touch of
insanity.

The interest excited by the plates
of Whistler and Seymour Haden led
first to a feverish hunt after other
etchers, by which the fame of Me'ryon
was established, and secondly to the
investigation of the powers of the
etching point by many of our younger
artists. During the last twenty years
or so, the class of painter-etchers — as
we now call etchers who etch their own
ideas — has greatly increased, or rather
has been created, and not a few among its members have shown powers
which will give them a permanent place among the masters of the art.

148

FIG. 278. — MILL IN WIRRAL.
(f. BURRIDGE.)

ENGRAVING

FIG. 279. — WOODCUT, FROM THE
"fall of PRINCIS."

Reproductive etching, the use of etching for purposes formerly
confined to engraving, has been carried farther on the Continent
than here, ahhough these islands have supphed the chief market for
its resuhs. One of the best of all
reproducers in the method, however,
is an Englishman, W. E. Hole,
R.S.A., who is responsible for
some remarkable plates after
Rembrandt and the masters of the
so-called Romanticist school in
France.

Engraving

Engraving, in the purest sense of
the word, the use of the burin or
graver to plough or punch hollows
in the copper, has never enlisted
a large class of votaries in this

country. It demands qualities of patience and exactness with
which we, as a nation, are not so richly endowed as some of our
rivals. Engraving is, in fact, a form of criticism. Its excellence
depends on a frame of mind not dissimilar from that which leads
a man to devote his life to the examination — word by word,
syllable by syllable, letter by letter — of, say, Shakespeare. The
Englishman's eye loves results, but does not always delight in
means. Short cuts and royal roads appeal to him, and so he has
distinguished himself as a wood engraver,
and has, in recent times, invented what is
known as the mixed method of repro-
ducing pictures in black and white : a
method in which etching, engraving, and
mezzotint all bear their parts. The bril-
liant prints obtained by these means are
not satisfactory to those who combine a
respect for unity with their other aesthetic
proclivities.^

The art of wood engraving may almost
be claimed as an English invention — as
practised in Italy and Germany it was a
delicate mechanical process, at the service

FIG. 280. — WOODCUT INITIAL
LETTER TO FOXE'S "MAR-
TYRS."

^ A few very great line engravers have been British, or at least members of the British school.
William Faithorne (1616-1691) owkI a good deal of the beautiful style <rf his later worb to the

149

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

of an art, the art of drawing. It was not until Thomas Bewick
(born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1 753) reversed the usual method
and started the system of the white line, that the woodcutter
became an artist, working freely from drawings, pictures, or
Nature herself. The old process involved great mechanical

labor and skill, but
no art ; the new one
required compara-
tively little labor or
skill, but could only
be used with effect
by an artist. Holbein
and Diirer's work as
artists was finished
when they had made
their designs. The
rest was a strictly
mechanical process of
removing from their
blocks all those parts
of the surface which
corresponded to
blank paper in the
design. Bewick be-
gan with a block
blacked all over — on
that he drew his
subject in white line,
exactly as the dry-
point engraver draws
upon copper. I n
doing so he was
obliged to interpret
his model, just as any other user of a process incapable of direct

example of Nanteuil, under whom he worked for a time in 1649. His son, William Faithorne,
junior ( 1 656— 1 70 1 ?), would, perhaps, have rivalled his father, had his mode of life been steadier.
Sir Robert Strange (1721-1792) was a Scot, of a Fife family settled in Orkney; "William
Woollett (1735-1785), a Kentish man by birth, was of Dutch extraction. Strange's method of
engraving shows a purity, breadth, and vigor which has never been excelled, while Woollett treated
landscape with extraordinary taste, flexibility, and refinement of sty'e. Strange was too fond of
the seventeenth-century Italians, but he has also left plates after Titian, holbein, and Vandyck.
WooUett's best work was done after Richard Wilson. William Sharp ( 1 749- 1 824) was but little
inferior to Woollett. A fine and complete collection of his works is in the Bntish Museum. John
Keyse Sherwin (1751-1790) has left some excellent plates, one of the best being the Banquet of
the Knights of St. Patrick, in Dublin Castle. Throughout the nineteenth century the pure art of
line engraving was slowly dying, and may be said to have now become extinct.

150

-PLATE FROM HARRINGTONS ARIOSTO.

MEZZOTINTS

fig. 282. — duke of monmouth,
(abm. blooteling after sir
peter lely.)

imitation has to interpret. The consequence was that a print from a
block cut by him contained his own individuaHty, showed his own
grip of the subject and his own ideas of
how to do it justice, which was only
possible with the old process when
designer and engraver were one and
the same person. Ruskin called him a
reformer *' as stout as Holbein, or
Botticelli, or Luther, or Savonarola."
Incidentally, Bewick's method was
peculiarly adapted to the English
genius, in that it was not entirely ob-
jective, or destructive of individuality.
Bewick's chief works were his English
Quadrupeds, published in 1790, and
his two series of English Birds, pub-
lished in 1 797 and 1804 respectively.
His example inspired many followers, of
whom the best, perhaps, were Charlton
Nesbitt and Luke Clennell, but the white line never entirely ousted
its rival. One cause of this, perhaps the chief cause, was that
many wood engravers had begun life as
engravers on copper, and followed the
second occupation without giving up
the first. Such men were Robert
Branston, John Orrin Smith, William
Harvey, and others who produced great
numbers of book illustrations in the
days before photography had bred its
large family of mechanical processes.

Mezzotints

If those methods of engraving which
depend upon line made but a weak
appeal to the English genius, it was not
so with mezzotint, in which the quality
of paint is approached more closely
than in any other method of artistic
reproduction. The art of mezzotint
was invented by one Ludwig von Siegen, an officer of mingled Dutch
and German blood in the Service of the Landgraf of Hesse-
Cassel. By him the invention was communicated to Prince Rupert,

.151 .

FIG. 283. — ELIZABETH AND EMMA
CREWE. (jOHN DIXON AFTER
SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 284. — MRS. ABINGTON AS
THE COMIC MUSE. (jOHN
WATSON AFTER SIR JOSHUA
REYNOLDS.)

Who was the first to use it with vigor and breadth. From Prince
Rupert, Sir Christopher Wren, who was at one time credited with the
invention, may haye learned the process.
Two small mezzotints of negroes' heads are
ascribed to him. The first man to grasp
the full possibilities of the method was a
Dutchman, Abraham Blooteling (1634-
1 700 ?), who was domiciled in London
from 1 672 to his death (Fig. 282). Put-
ting aside the works of Prince Rupert, of
which the Great Executioner is the best, the
earliest English mezzotint, so far as we
know, is a portrait of Charles II, by
William Sherwin, which is dated 1669.
At about the same time plates were
being published in London bearing the
names of Richard Tompson and Alexander
Browne, but whether these men were
engravers or only publishers seems to be
uncertain. Edward Lutterell^ (or Luttrell),
an Irishman by birth (1630 ?-l 710 ?),
Francis Place (1647-1728), R. Williams (flourished 1680-1700),
and Isaac Beckett (1653-?) all helped to prepare the great develop-
ment of the eighteenth century, which
may be said finally to have been set
afoot by John Smith (1652 ?-l 742).
Smith had the good fortune to find at
once a generous patron and an artist
well fitted for reproduction by the
scraper, in Sir Godfrey Kneller, after
whom he mezzotinted no fewer than
1 38 plates. Kneller was not faithful to
Smith, however, and also employed
Jean Simon (1675-1755?), a French-
man and pupil of Smith's, to translate
several of his pictures into black and
white. Simon may be claimed for the
English School of Mezzotint, as it was
not until he came to London that he
abandoned the burin for the scraper, and devoted himself to the

* The Irish National Gallery possesses a pastel portrait by Lutterell executed on the rocked
surface of a copper-plate prepared for mezzotinting.

152

FIG. 285. — LADY CHAMBERS.

(j. MACARDELL AFTER SIR JOSHUA

REYNOLDS.)

MEZZOTINTS

FIO. 286. — HOPE NURSING LOVE.
(EDWARD FISHER AFTER SIR
JOSHUA REYNOLDS.)

*' black art." William Faithorne the younger, already mentioned

as a line engraver, also scraped mezzotints. George White

(flourished 1714-1731) is believed

to have been the first to etch his

outline on the copper before laying

the mezzotint ground. Two of the

most industrious mezzotinters in the

first half of the eighteenth century

were the John Fabers, father and son,

who came here from The Hague when

the latter was three years old. Young

Faber is best known by his plates after

the Kneller portraits of the members

of the Kit-Cat Club.

At the end of the first quarter of
the eighteenth century, mezzotint
scraping was falling into neglect in
England. The practitioners were
dying out, and those who survived
were doing inferior work. Among
the latter, however, was one Thomas Beard, who, without ever
becoming a distinguished engraver himself, played a not unim-
portant part in the history of mezzotint. He migrated to Dublin,
where he scraped the first Irish plate, and helped to sow the seed
of what was to be a great movement in the art. John Brooks, the
first native Irish mezzotinter, had his curiosity excited. He came
to London, learned to scrape, re-
turned to Ireland, and practised
the art there for a time. With
him travelled to Ireland one
Andrew Miller, a pupil of Faber
junior. These three men, Beard,
Brooks, and Miller, kept mezzo-
tint alive during the dead years of
the eighteenth century, and, by
means of a school established by
Brooks, prepared the great de-
velopment which marked its second
half.

This development was due in the
beginning entirely to Irish-bom workers. The greatest of these
was James MacArdell, a pupil of Brooks, whose best plates have

133

FIG. 287. THE LADIKS WALDEGRAVE.

(valentine GREEN AFTER SIR
JOSHUA REYNOLDS.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

seldom been rivalled and never surpassed. MacArdell's life was
short. He died at thirty-seven, having produced more than two
hundred plates. On a series of thirty-seven after Reynolds his
fame chiefly rests, but many of his plates after other painters,
from Van Dyck to Hudson, are as fine as those after Sir
Joshua.

Contemporary with MacArdell was his fellow countryman,
Richard Houston, who might have become an even greater engraver

had he kept clear of that stumbling
block to so many Irishmen of genius,
intemperance. Houston left about
160 plates behind him, besides a great
deal of insignificant hack work to which
he was reduced by his own improv-
idence. Richard Purcell and Charles
Spooner repeated Houston's follies
but did not rival his ability. Other
Irishmen were Michael Ford, Michael
Jackson, Edward Fisher, John Dixon,
James Watson, and Thomas Frye.
Thomas Frye was more of an original
artist than most engravers. His extant
drawings are good, and his best known
plates are life-size heads, portraits done
from life with no intermediary but his
own drawings. The last of the Irish mezzotinters to quit this
world was James Watson, who died in 1790, leaving a daughter,
Caroline, who won a great reputation for herself as an engraver in
stipple.

The art founded by Ludwig von Siegen in 1 642 rose to its highest
level in the last thirty years of the eighteenth century. Isolated
plates had touched the summit of excellence long before — for
instance, Blooteling's Monmouth (Fig. 282), the best of John Smith's
plates, MacArdell's Lad^ Chambers (Fig. 285), etc. — but it was not
until the English engravers had been fired by the example of the Irish
pupils of James Brooks that the art became a great and flourish-
ing tree showering its fruit broadcast over an admiring country.

The earliest master of this great period was John Finlayson,
whose most refined plate, Elizabeth, Duchess of Argyll, was pub-
lished in 1 770. Immediately after Finlayson came William Pether,
famous for his plates after Rembrandt and after the candle-lighted
scenes of Wright of Derby ; John Watts, a vigorous scraper, who

134

FIG. 288. — LADY CAROLINE PRICE.
(JOHN JONES AFTER SIR JOSHUA
REYNOLDS.)

MEZZOTINTS

FIG. 289. — SIR HARBORD HAR-
BORD. (j. R. SMITH AFTER
GAINSBOROUGH.)

followed the pursuit more or less as an amateur ; Philip Dawe,
who, like Pether, was fond of reproducing candle-light pictures;
Jonathan Spilsbury; Giuseppe Marchi, the
pupil of Reynolds ; and two men of
higher powers than any of these in
Valentine Green and John Jones.

Green was born in 1739, came to
London in 1765, was elected A.R.A. in
1775, and died in 1813. The chief merit
of his plates lies in the delicacy both of
his texture and of his interpretation of his
originals. Among his best plates are the
Ladies Waldegrave (Fig. 287), Lady^Bett^
De/me, and the Countess of Ay^lesford ^her
Reynolds, and Ozias Humphry^, after
Romney. John Jones was born about
1 745 and died in 1 797. He was among
the more versatile of the scrapers of
mezzotint, his plates showing very great
variety, in manner as well as in merit.
Among the best are Lad}) Caroline Price (Fig. 288), and Charles
James Fox, after Reynolds ; and Dulce Domum, after W. R. Bigg.
Earlom (1743-1822) was a man of
enterprise as well as of extraordinary
dexterity, for he scraped such diffi-
cult subjects as the flower pieces
of Van Huysum and the land-
scapes of Hobbema. But John
Raphael Smith (1752-1812) may,
on the whole, be considered the
most conspicuous figure in the
long procession of the mezzotinters.
His numerous plates yield to none
in brilliance and in every di-
rection his accomplishment was
complete. His earliest plate, a
portrait of Pascal Paoli, is dated 1769; he left off work about
1809.^

» Other mezzotinters of this period of fullest achievement were Thomas ^Yatson (|7437 ?)
William Dickinson (1746-1823). Robert Dunkarton (1744-1811) John Murphy (flounshed
1780-1809). Charles Townley (1746-1800?). James Walker ( 1 748- 18 1 9) William Doughty
(active 1775-1782). Henry Hudson (active 1782-1793). Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Josiah
Boydell (1750-1817), John Dean (d. 1793), Thomas Park (b. 1760; left off engravmg m
1 797). Joseph Grozer ( 1 755 ?- 1 799 ?), and Charles Howard Hodges ( 1 764- 1 837). Those mne-

FIG. 290. — SALISBURY FROM THE
MEADOWS. (DAVID LUCAS AFTER
CONSTABLE.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 2QI. MRS. CARWARDINE AND

CHILD. (j. R. SMITH AFTER
ROMNEY.)

The skill of the engravers persisted far into the nineteenth
century, but opportunities were not then what they had been. The

methods of English painters were no
longer so apt for reproduction in mezzo-
tint as in the days of Reynolds and
Romney, and costume, under the con-
tinually increasing pressure from the
bad example of France, became steadily
more and more unpicturesque. It is
hardly to be wondered at that the
art practically disappeared before the
century was fifty years old, and that,
when it did revive, its attention was
still mainly given to the great painters
of the Georgian era. During the
nineteenth century two innovations were
made in the practice of mezzotint.
In the first place attempts were made
to scrape steel, instead of copper, with
great loss of charm; secondly, the process of " steeling " the
copper — covering it electrically with a deposit of steel — was
invented, and is now generally used, although a plate so treated
fails to give the softly rich impressions yielded by the naked copper.

The purity of mezzotint became
more and more adulterated with
etching, until in the work of
Samuel Cousins the two are so
combined as to be equal contribu-
tors to the final result. Such a
plate as the Midsummer Night's
Dream of Cousins may be com-
pared to the wash drawings of the
eighteenth century, the linear skele-
ton answering to the etched work
and the wash to the scraped.
The nature of mezzotint made it inevitable that it should be
chiefly used for the reproduction of figure pictures, and among

teenth century scrapers who belonged to the end of the great period rather than to the modem
revival were John Young (1755-1825) ; William Say (1768-1834), the first man to experiment
with steel ; George Townley Stubbs (1756-1815). William ( 1 766- 1816) and James ( 1 769- 1 859)
Ward. George Dawe (1781-1829), George Clint (1790-1835). S. W. Reynolds (1773-1835).
William Whiston Barney (d. 1800), Charles Turner (1773-1857). Henry Meyer (1782-1847).
Thomas Lupton (1791-1873). John Richardson Jackson (1819-1877). John Charles (1795-1835)
and James (1800-1838) Bromley. David Lucas (1802-1881), and Samuel Cousins (1801-1887).

156

FIG. 292. — RAGLAN CASTLE. (j. M. W
TURNER. LIBER STUDIORUM.)

MEZZOTINTS

figure pictures, of portraits, and among portraits, of those in
which modelhng was broad, both in heads and draperies. Ideal
subjects for the mezzotint scraper are the portraits of Lely, Hogarth,
Reynolds (especially those in which the draperies are the work of
Peter Toms), Raeburn, and Romney ; many of Hoppner's portraits
and a few of Lawrence's call for such interpretation. But Gains-
borough does not lend himself so kindly to the method ; his chiar-
oscuro has less play, and his brush less breadth, than the scraper
invites. The delicious color and unrivalled lightness of execution
which set him on a pedestal of his
own are not to be fully suggested by
any form of black and white. In our
own day, Mr. Sargent's portraits
would make ideal subjects for the
scraper.

Landscape is a bad subject for
the scraper. Earlom, indeed, showed
great ability in his work after Hobbema,
Turner and his engravers did wonders
with their mixed methods in the Liber
Studiorum, and David Lucas set one
aspect of the genius of Constable before
us with extraordinary vigor. But even
the best of these things fail to give us
that feeling that here we have some-
thing put to its proper use with consummate taste and consummate
skill, which is inspired by the best mezzotints after Sir Joshua
and Romney.

The revivalist mezzotinters have followed, in the main, the older
and purer methods. The steeling of copper plates has made it
feasible to print large editions without much sign of wear, so that
steel plates and conspicuous etching have been practically abandoned,
and the best modern mezzotints do not fall so very far below those
of the great period in charm.

FIG. 203. LADY PEEL. (SAMUEL

COUSINS AFTER LAWRENCE.)

BIBUOGRAPHY

Gardner, J. Starkie, Ironwork. Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook, 1893 and 1907.
Burlington Fine Arts Club, Catalogue of an Exhibition of Chased and Embossed Steel and Iron-
work. 1900. Stuhlfauth, G., Die altchristliche Elfenbein Plastik. 1896. Victoria and Albert
MuEcum, Handbook (.Ivories); ditto. Reproductions of Carved Ivories, 1890. Imelmann, Rudolf,
Wanderer und Seefahrer in Rahmen der Altenglischer Odoaker Dichtung, Berlin, 1 908.

Burlington Fine Arts Club, Catalogue of European Enamels, London, 1897. Victoria and
Albert Museum, Catalogue of English Enamels (Schreiber Collection), London, 1885. Gardner,
J. S., English Enamels, 1894. Hermann, P., On Glass and Enamel Painting. 1897. Brown,
k. M., The Art of Enamelling on Metal, 1900.

137

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Day, Lewis F., Windows, a Book about Stained and Painted Glass, 1897; ditto, Victoria
and Albert Museum Handbook- Stained Glass Windows. James, M. R., The Windows of
King's College, Cambridge. 1899. Burlington Magazine for October, 1907.

Alford, Lady Marian, Needlework as Art, . Caulfield, S, F. A., and Saward, B. C,

Dictionary of Needlework, London, 1881.

Middleton, J. H., Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediceval Times, 1892. Molinier,
E., Les Manuscrits et Les Miniatures, Paris, 1892. Thompson, Sir E. Maunde, English Illus-
trated Manuscripts, 1895. Warner, G. F., Illuminated Manuscripts in the British Museum,
1899. Vitzthum, Georg, Graf, Die Pariser Miniatur-Malerei von der Zeit der hi. Ludwig bis
zu Philipp von Valois, Leipzig, 1907. Burlington Fine Arts Club, Catalogue of Illuminated
MSS., 1908.

Short, Frank, The Making of Etchings, 1888. Herkomer, Sir Hubert von. Etching and
Mezzotint Engraving, 1892. Wedmore, F., Etching in England, 1895; ditto, Whistler's
Etchings, 1899. Whitman, A. C., The Masters of Mezzotint, 1898. Davenport, Cyril J.,
Mezzotints, 1904. Woodberry, G. E., History of Wood Engraving. Chatto, W. A., A
Treatise on Wood Engraving, London, 1839. Hamerton, P. G., The Graphic Arts, London,
1882. Gleeson-White, J. W., English Illustration, 1897. Wedmore, F., Fine Prints, 1897.
Frankau, Julia, Eighteenth-Century Colored Prints, 1900. Fagan, L. A., History of Engraving
in England, 1 893 ; ditto. Catalogue of Engraved Work of W. Woollett, 1 885 ; ditto. Catalogue
of Engraved Work of W. Faithorne, 1887. Bryan, Michael, Dictionary of Painters and En-
gravers, ed. of 1898, etc. Dobson, H. A., Bewick and his Pupils; Cundall, J., A Brief History
of Wood Engraving, 1895.

294. — ENGLISH ivory: FOURTEENTH
CENTURY.

(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

158

FIG. 295. — PANEL FROM ST. STEPHEN'S, WESTMINSTER. (British MuSCUm.)

CHAPTER XIII

PAINTING IN THE BRITISH ISLES FROM ITS ORIGIN
TO THE BIRTH OF HOGARTH

The remains of early painting in the British Isles are few, although
by no means so few as current talk about our arts would suggest.
Wherever conditions have been favorable, relics of ancient painting
exist to show that here, as elsewhere, the arts were complete, and
the cortege of trades marching under the banner of Apollo without
any serious gap. Given a country church, dating back to the early
days of Gothic architecture, disposing of no dangerous depth of
purse, but covered with ancient whitewash : you are pretty sure,
on carefully lifting the whitewash, to come upon traces of pictured
decorations : Crucifixions, Last Judgments, figures of Saints or
Bishops. These islands were not open to the" multitudinous
influences by which the southern nations of the Continent were
surrounded, and so they cannot boast of so much variety in their
remains of early painting. Anything that reached them from
the East or South had to travel so far, and pass through so many
modifying forces on the way, that our telics are more homogeneous
than similar things elsewhere. Among examples of wall painting
of which any vestiges remain are such decorations as those of the
Galilee at Durham and the nave at St. Albans's. Only one bay of
a decoration which at least filled three bays, is now extant at

159

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Durham. It includes feigned hangings, strongly reminiscent in
style of the illuminations of the thirteenth century, and two nobly
conceived figures of bishops. The crucifixion is the chief subject
at St. Albans's.

We have seen that the decoration of English MSS. was on the
whole superior to what was being done in foreign countries down
to the early years of the fifteenth century. It was characterized
by boldness in conception, by vivacity, and taste in execution. It
was carried on with almost unbroken industry from the early

days of the Celtic monasteries to
the beginning of the Wars of the
Roses, so that, in spite of all
the destruction of the Reformation
and of the Puritan wrath which
followed, its remains are still rich
and numerous. These illuminations
are sufficient in themselves to
prove that painting had a normal
career in the British Isles during
the middle ages. And they by no
means stand alone. Apart from
the ruder wall paintings alluded
to above, there still exists a cer-
tain number of paintings which are
at once distinct from contemporary
work on the continent of Europe
and of very high merit for their
time. Three of the chief examples
are figured here (Figs. 295, 297,
298). The portrait of Richard II,
in Westminster Abbey, taking its
date, scale, and excellence into
account, is the most important thing
of its kind in Europe (Fig. 298).
The Wilton portrait of the same king, with its accompaniments, is
still more intimate in its charm. In style these are quite distinct
from anything then being produced on the Continent, while they
are akin to other English work of the time. The third example
(Fig. 293) is a fragment from a series of paintings removed from
St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, ^ to the British Museum. It

FIG. 2g6. — RICHARD II. WEST-
MINSTER. (Painter unknown.)

'A portrait of Eldward
of 1834.

kneeling, also existed in St. Stephen's Chai^el previous to the fire

160

EARLY PAINTING

FIG. 297. — RICHARD II. AND SAINTS.

(Wilton House.)

dates, apparendy, from about the
middle of the fourteenth century,
and has strongly distinctive features
of its own which bring it into closer
relationship with English Illumina-
tion miniatures than with anything
in Italy or France. The action of the
figures is varied, perhaps too highly
varied, and dramatic. The model-
ling is fused, the rendering of
draperies elaborate, the coloring
both brilliant and rich. These
latter characteristics are to be
found in all three of these paint-
ings, although their dates are prob-
ably half a century apart. Exactly
similar qualities are to be found
in a fourteenth century retable
in Norwich Cathedral. The con-
tinental work which comes nearest
is that of certain later French-
men, such as Jean Malouel, who may well have been influenced
by English painters, just as French and Flemish illuminators were

influenced by the decorators of
English manuscripts. The distinc-
tive features, speaking broadly, of
English Gothic painting are energy
of movement and fine color, a rare
combination, which is not to be found
in Tuscan Art of the time to the same
degree.

Little substance or continuity, how-
ever, can as yet be given to the his-
tory of painting in England before
the advent of Holbein, about the
middle of Henry VIIFs reign.
Great destruction of things portable
had taken place during the Wars
of the Roses, and the fate which
threatened the religious houses for
some years before their dissolution
had its effect in discouraging their
161 M

FIG. 298. — MARGARET BEAUFORT.

(Painter unknown.)
National Portrait Gallery.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

artistic activity. So that the German painter arrived in the nick of
time to supply a needed stimulus. The earliest English works, except
the Wilton and Westminster portraits, that we should now call pic-
tures date from the years of his activity and confess his influence
very clearly indeed. They belong to two classes : miniatures, or
" limnings," as they were called, and portraits life-size or of a size
approaching that of life. Our immediate business is with the latter.

As the great school of English portrait miniaturists had one,
at least, of its roots in Holbein, so has the still greater school of
our portrait painters in large. Before the days of the Augsburger

there were portrait painters in the
country. Indeed, it seems likely
that this particular branch of
art flourished exceptionally in
these islands from very early
days. National propensities do
not readily change, and among
the few important pictures which
have come down from our
Gothic centuries we find several
portraits — (e.g., those of James
III of Scotland and his Queen,
Margaret of Denmark, ^^^ Sir
Edward Boncle, on the panels
at Holyrood now ascribed to
Hugo Van der Goes, as well as
the Richard II in Westminster
Abbey (Fig. 296) — on a scale
hardly known elsewhere at the
same period. All previous
fashions in portraiture dissolved, however, before the sun of Holbein.
In those days the facilities for advertisement were slight enough. A
portrait would be painted and sent home, and only the sitter's friends
would have much chance of enjoying it. But the work of the Augs-
burger had the merit of appealing to all kinds of people, to those
who saw nothing in a picture beyond a more or less successful attempt
to imitate some object outside it, as well as to those who understood
art. Such a panel as the Duchess of Milan, in the National Gallery,
would delight the ignorant by its truth of imitation as much as it
would the man of knowledge and taste by its combination of objective
veracity with the sincere expression of emotion.

Holbein's example dominated English painting for nearly a

162

HG. 299. — PORTRAIT OF EDMUND BUTTS.

(JOHN BETTES.) National Gallery.

EARLY PAINTING

FIG. 300. — ENGLISH PORTRAIT, BY
SOME FOLLOWER OF HOLBEIN.

century, until the apparition of
Samuel Cooper and Van Dyck.
A very large number of pictures
exist which would never have put
on the form in which we see them
had he never come to England.
But few, if any, men can be traced
to his studio, and yet fewer pictures
assigned to any particular disciple.
His own work, of course, does not
belong to the aesthetic stem it is
our present business to trace, but
its effect was so great that a short
sketch of his career must be given.
He was born at Augsburg in 1497
and died in London in 1543, having
spent the years 1526 to 1528 and
1 532 to 1 543 in the English capital.
Here he painted a large number of portraits, most of his sitters
being drawn either from the entourage of the Court, or from the
German colony. He is supposed to have painted all the wives
of Henry VIII, as well as the King
himself. He went abroad more than
once to paint ladies on whom the
King thought of bestowing the danger-
ous prize of his hand. On the 7th of
October, 1543, he made his will, to
which an administrator was appointed
on the 29th of the following month;
so his death occurred between those
two dates.

The life-work of Holbein is, per-
haps, more homogeneous and more
level in excellence than that of any
other painter. His pictures vary
greatly in importance, but scarcely at
all in the success with which they
carry out their aim. He is never
careless, empty, or perfunctory. His
miniatures of the two small sons of
Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, are as complete in their way
as the Darmstadt Madonna, or The Ambassadors, or the Georg

163 M 2

FIG. 301. — UNIDENTIFIED PORTRAIT.

(Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 302. — PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM
STOCKE (?).

(Worcester College, Oxford.)

Ghisze, The art of Holbein united Teutonic to Latin character-
istics. No portrait painter has been more objective, and yet few

have had a finer sense of design or
of color pattern. Indeed, in one
respect he is unequalled as a color-
ist. No man has succeeded so com-
pletely as he in uniting frankness of
individual tint to harmony in the
final result. His genius is like the
daylight coming through a stained-
glass w^indow : it reconciles tints
apparently the most irreconcilable.
I may be allow^ed to name what
seem to me his masterpieces : —
The Meyer Madonna (Darm-
stadt), The Ambassadors, and
Christina, Duchess of Milan,
(London), Georg Ghisze, Berlin, Duke of Norfolk, Windsor,
Portrait of a Young Man, Vienna, Thomas Morrett, Dresden,'
Sir Bryan Tuke, Munich, and Sir Thomas More in the collection
of Mr. Edward Huth. It is probable that the best of all his works

was the group of the two Henrys,
VII and Vlll, with their wives,
which was destroyed with White-
hall. A partial cartoon survives
to give a hint of what has been
lost : it belongs to the Duke of
Devonshire.

Woltmann says that ** in Eng-
land Holbein seems to have stood
quite alone, and to have worked
in general without pupils or assist-
ants : his artistic style here found
no imitators." This too sweeping
statement seems to be founded on
nothing more than the fact that no
immediate pupil of the master made
a European name. England swarms
with pictures painted in a style founded on his, most of them,

1 Doubts have been thrown on the tradition which identifies this portrait as that of Morett,
Henry VIII's jeweller. But the attempts to identify him with a French Morette or an Italian
Moretta appear to me to rest on evidence weaker than that of his face, which claims him for
England.

164

FIG. 303. — PORTRAIT OF A NAVIGATOR.

(Oxford University Gallery.)

EARLY PAINTING

indeed, of slight merit, but a few showing that some men of real
gifts were numbered among the great man's scholars or disciples.
To only two of these, among those who painted in large, can
particular pictures at present be assigned with any approach to confi-
dence. A male portrait in the National Gallery, by John Bettes,
who painted with his brother Thomas in the reigns of Edward
VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, is excellent (Fig. 299). It has been
asserted that Gwillim Strete, or Stretes, was a Fleming, mainly on
the strength of his name. It is probable that he was the direct
pupil of Holbein, and that we have examples of his work in the
full lengths of the Earl of Surrey (at Hampton Court and
at Arundel Castle), in that of
Edward VI, which was at the
Old Masters in 1902; and in
the copy of Holbein's Jane Sey-
mour, which hangs in The Hague
Museum. It is possible, however,
that none of these are by Strete,
and that his real hand is to be rec-
ognized in a portrait signed with
the monogram G. S., in the col-
lection of Lord Yarborough. Many
other English artists flourished, or
at least existed and painted, during
these reigns. Their names and
many of their works have survived,
but evidence to connect the one with
the other is very scanty. Pictures
are known by Sir Robert Peake
(1590?- 1 667), by Richard Lyne (F. 1572), by Richard Stevens
(F. 1590) (who was by extraction Dutch), and a few others, but
the names only of John Bossam, of Edward Courtenay, Earl of
Devon, of Peter Cole, of John Shute, of Nicholas Lockie or
Lockey, and many more, have survived. It is curious that only
by rare exception do English pictures earlier than the nineteenth
century bear their authors* signatures. If each painter had signed
but a single picture, we should have had something to go upon
in sorting out their works, and the historian's task would have been
enormously simplified. An able painter who flourished in the last
half of the sixteenth century was George Gower, who was made
Sergeant Painter to Queen Elizabeth in 1584. A signed and
dated portrait of himself, enriched with biographical facts, belongs

165

FIG. 304. — UNIDENTIFIED PORTRAIT.

(Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

to Mr. George Fitzwilliam, at Milton, Northants. His hand is
also to be recognized in a double portrait, back and front of panel,
in the collection of Lord Strathmore. It represents the ninth Baron
Glamis and his secretary, George Boswell, both as boys. These
portraits show that Gower was a very good artist indeed.

Another painter of considerable ability who belonged to the last
years of Elizabeth, and to the reigns of James I and Charles I,
was Sir Nathaniel Bacon, K.B., of Culford, Suffolk. He was the
son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the first of the baronets, and was con-
sequently the nephew of the great Sir Francis. He was born in or
about 1583 and died in 1627. At least three excellent pictures by

him are known : his own portrait
and a kitchen piece, called The
Cook Maid, in the possession of
Lord Verulam, at Gorhambury,
and another portrait of himself in
the possession of Mr. Nicholas
Bacon, of Raveningham Hall, Nor-
wich.^ Still better are the series
of Tradescant portraits, in the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It
appears probable that most of these
are the work of one de Critz, or
de Crats, of a family which held
official positions at the courts of
Elizabeth, James I, and Charles I.
Meres, in the Wits Common-
Wealth, published in London in
1 398, speaks of " John de Cretz "
as very famous for his painting. This same John was employed on
the tomb of Elizabeth, in Westminster Abbey. He had a brother,
Thomas, as good or better than himself ; an Oliver and an Emanuel
are also known : a fine portrait of the former is in the Ash-,
molean Museum. Both John and Emanuel seem to have been
Sergeant Painters to Charles I. At the dispersal of the King's
pictures they were buyers, says Walpole, to the amount of £4,999.
If one of them was really the author of the Tradescant pictures, he
was the best native painter in large of his time, as Robert Walker,
Cromwell's favorite painter, asserted him to be. A de Critz
is credited with the painting of the ceiling in the " Double Cube,"
at Wilton. He is also mentioned by Pepys as the painter of

^See article by Prince Frederick Duleep Singh, Burlington Magazine for July, 1907.

166

FIG. 305. — PORTRAIT OF JOHN BULL.

(The Schools, Oxford.)

EARLY PAINTING

a portrait of the first Lord Sand-
wich, which cost £3 10s., in-
cluding the frame. De Critz is
hardly an Enghsh name, but the
absence of any mention of it in
French or Flemish archives sug-
gests that the family in question
was, at least, English born.

The only other painter of any
great merit, who flourished be-
fore the days of Van Dyck and
can be claimed as in any degree
English, was Cornelius Jonson,
or Janssen van Ceulen. He was
born in London in 1593, and is
believed to have died in Holland
in 1664. Had he been a better
colorist, he would have taken a
very high place indeed among
the painters of his time. His
charm, in spite of his cold and

G. 306. — EARL OF PORTLAND.
(C. JONSON.)

National Portrait Gallery.

portraits often have a wonderful
timid ways with color. The best

(onsons I know of in this country are a head of the Earl of Port-
and, in the National Portrait Gallery, a head in the same manner
in the Irish National Gallery, and a lady's portrait in Mrs. Joseph's
collection. The two male portraits show a strong affinity with the style
of Dobson, a likeness which disap-
pears in Jonson's later work. It has
often been said that Jonson was
driven from England by the com-
petition of Van Dyck, but he was
here for at least seven years after
Van Dyck's death. The Rijks-
museum, Amsterdam, has a picture
signed Corns. Jonson Londini fecit,
1648, and in that same year he re-
ceived the Speaker's warrant to
enable him to leave England and
take his chattels with him.

Van Dyck (1599-1641) came
to England for the first time in
1621, but only on a flying visit.
About 1630 he came again and

167

FIG. 307. — PORTRAIT OF A LADY.

(c. JONSON.) Mrs. Joseph.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 308. — ENDYMION PORTER.

(dobson.) National Portrait Gallery.

then, in 1632, he setded here, on the invitation of Charles I. He
was lodged in Blackfriars, where, for nine years, he lived richly,

worked hard, and directed a
large staff of scholars and as-
sistants. Being, perhaps, the
most impressionable of all great
painters, he rapidly threw off
the manner he had contracted
under the influence of the great
Venetians, and adopted one sug-
gested, possibly, by the work of
Samuel Cooper. His best Eng-
lish pictures are worthy to hang
beside the finest of his Genoese
period, but many things he did
in this country are perfunctory,
and inferior to studio repetitions
of his good things by his better
pupils. The truth of that state-
ment became quite evident when
129 pictures ascribed to him
were brought together at Bur-
lington House in 1900. The best and the worst things in that
collection betrayed his own hand. All three of his manners
are now finely illustrated in the National Gallery : the early
Flemish period by the half length of Cornelis Van der Gheest ;
the Genoese, by the portraits of the Marchese and Marchesa (?)
Cataneo, lately acquired ; and the English by the superb equestrian
portrait of Charles I from Blenheim Palace.

So far as a national school of painting can be rooted in a single
man, and him a foreigner, the modern English school is rooted in
Van Dyck. Holbein had a great effect in his day, but artist as he
was, he had too much Teutonic objectivity and curiosity in his com-
position to become the permanent head and creator of anything
British. A great contrast was presented by Van Dyck. Affected
at once by the genius loci, if not by the work of the native artists,
the Fleming built up a style in complete accord with English
predilections, a style which could readily impose ilself on the majority
of those painters of mixed Celtic and Teutonic blood by whom he
was to be followed.

Most of Van Dyck's own immediate scholars were of foreign
birth. The best, probably was Jean de Reyn, who came so near

168

EARLY PAINTING

his master that his works are mostly catalogued as Van Dyck's ;
except in Dunkirk, where he passed the last thirty years of his life
and left many pictures in the churches. Another clever pupil
was David Beek, a Dutchman, whose facility has been celebrated
by a saying of Charles I's, chronicled by Descamps: '' Parhleu,
Beek, je crois que Vous peindriez a cheval et en courant la poste!"

Besides his pupils. Van Dyck employed in his studio several
painters who had learnt elsewhere: Adriaan Hanneman, a pupil of
A. Van Ravesteyn and Daniel Mijtens, senr., Peter Lely, who
was under his influence for some months before his death, and
two Englishmen, William Dobson and Henry Stone (known as
" Old Stone ").

Dobson was a pupil of Sir Robert Peake, but seems also to have
been strongly affected by the example of Cornelius Jonson. He
was set upon his feet by Van Dyck, who had discovered him in
a state bordering on destitution. He acted for a time as the
Fleming's assistant, although his style was quite distinct from Van
Dyck's when independently exercised. On the death of his patron
he was appointed Sergeant Painter
to the King, but died poor five years
later. His best works, such as the
portrait of Endymion Porter (Fig.
308), in the National Portrait Gal-
lery, touch a very high level.
Dobson's pictures are fairly numer-
ous, but a great deal of disen-
tangling of the true from the false
yet remains to be done.

Henry Stone was a son of
Nicholas Stone, a good sculptor, and
master mason to James I. He copied
many pictures of Van Dyck and
others, and was a painstaking, dull
artist. He died in London in 1653.
Edward Bower is remembered by
one remarkable picture, a portrait
of Charles I as he appeared at his trial, belonging to the Duke of
Rutland. A good portrait in the Schools, at Oxford, represents
Nicholas Lanier, who seems to have followed Van Dyck.

A painter whose ability earns him a place between Dobson and
" Old Stone " was George Jamesone, or Jamisone, called, absurdly
enough, the Scottish Van Dyck. He was born in Aberdeen late in

169

FIG, 309. LADY BELLASYS. (siR PETER

LELY.) Hampton Court.

^ OF THE

^NiVERsiTV

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

the sixteenth century. He was apprenticed in Edinburgh in 1612,
and it has been asserted that he also studied under Rubens, in Ant-
werp. Of that, however, there are no signs in his work. Tradition
says that the family of Rubens's second wife, Helena Fourment, was
an offshoot from a well-known Aberdeen stock, the Formans. The
possibility suggests itself that the master's friendship with the Fourments
and Jamesone's sojourn at Antwerp — otherwise improbable enough
— may have had some connection with each other. Jamesone's works
are fairly numerous in Scotland. They are distinguished by careful

execution in a thin, luminous
impasto, but are monotonous in
color and lack vigor. Jame-
sone died in 1646, and was
buried in the famous church-
yard of the Grey Friars in
Edinburgh.

From the end of the first
half of the seventeenth century
onward, painters of native
origin begin to increase rapidly
in numbers. We are still far
from anyone who rose to the
level of the following century,
but after the example of Van
Dyck had had time to produce
its effect, art began to attract
men of some gifts to its pursuit.
During the Commonwealth it

FIG. 310. — MISS JANE KELLEWAY. i • 1 J • 1 1 1

(sir peter lely.) Hampton Court. languished, as might have been

expected, but Lely found pa-
tronage ; asdid Robert Walker and Samuel Cooper, who each painted
Cromwell more than once. But the line of British painters, which
has continued to the present day, began with certain scholars of Lely.
Sir Peter Lely was born at Soest,' near Utrecht, in 1618. His
father, a military captain named Van der Faes, had changed the
family name. The son studied in Haarlem under Pieter de
Grebber, but came to England in 1641, shortly before the death of
Van Dyck. Here, like Van Dyck himself, he rapidly built up
a style which suited his new milieu, and was rewarded by a vogue
which lasted till his death in 1680. He became an agreeable

^ Lely has often been catalogued with the German School, in spite of his utterly non-German art, in
the belief that the Soest of his birth was the Westphalianltown of that name.

170

EARLY PAINTING

colorist, he cultivated elegance in design and breadth in execution,
and he took manners as he found them. His best work is as
good as work without intensity can ever hope to be. He began by
painting in brown tones, with little positive color, which latter
he allowed to creep into his conceptions rather gradually. Internal
evidence proves that he made great use of assistants. The pictures
ascribed to him are very numerous, and have not yet been
completely studied. But so far as my own experience goes, I
should say that Lely's own work is characterized by generally
excellent, sometimes masterly,
design, by a strong tendency to
brown, which became gradually
less marked, however, as time
went on, and by more careful mod-
elling than that of his scholars.
The pictures on which we find
his monogram all have this char-
acter. One of the best is a large
family piece of Charles Dormer,
Earl of Carnarvon, with his wife
and two children, in the possession
of Sir Algernon Coote, of Ballyfin,
Queen's County. This Earl of
Carnarvon was the third of the
creation, and son of the Robert
Earl, who fell at the first battle of
Newbury. A fine group of three
male sitters is at Christ Church,
Oxford. Of the many pictures ascribed to Lely in the National
Portrait Gallery, the following seem to me to be his: Duke of
A Ihemarle, Duke of Buckingham, Charles II, Mary Davis, Nell
Gwyn, Countess of Shrewsbury, Wycherley, Duchess of York, and
himself The Windsor Beauties at Hampton Court show, per-
haps, a closer study of Van Dyck than anything else he did. The
Lady Bellasys, with its floating cherubs, reminds one of the Fleming's
excursions into mythology : but in design it is finer than most Van
Dycks. Had it been carried out with the older man's patience, it
would have been a masterpiece of courtly portraiture. But Lely had
little patience. Toward the end of his career his draperies, especially,
become mere scaffoldings for drapery, all deep shadow and high
light. And his dealings with character are on a far lower plane than
those of Van Dyck. But he could, when he chose, rise to an

171

FIG. 311. — COMTESSE DE GRAMMONT.

(sir p. lely.) Hampton Court.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 312. MRS. JANE MIDDLETON.

(? JOHN GREENHILL.)

National Portrait Gallery.

occasion. Walpole mentions a good many Lelys which are now
difficult to trace, especially as his name has been attached to innu-
merable works he never touched
or even saw. His drawings and
pastels are good, though slight.
He shares with Rembrandt,
Lawrence, Bonnat, and a few
other busy artists, the honor de-
served by the fine connoisseur.
After his death his collections
brought the enormous amount,
for the time, of some £26,000.

The best pupils of Lely were
John Greenhill and Mary Beale.
John Greenhill was born at
Salisbury in 1649 and died in
1676, so that he had not much
time in which to make a name.
His life was shortened by dis-
sipation. Two or three of his
pictures are at Dulwich College,
one signed with his initials, J. G.
They are distinguished by refinement of drawing and by an agree-
able silver tonality, which help us to recognize his share in works
ascribed to his master. The portrait of Mrs. Jane Middleton (Fig.
3 1 2), in the National Portrait Gallery, seems to be his ; if so, it is
probably his masterpiece.

Mary Beale had a longer life than her fellow scholar and employed
it better. She worked hard at her profession, as is shown by her
husband's diary, quoted by Walpole from Vertue's papers. She was
born in 1 632 and died in 1 697. Her portraits are numerous, but many
have been given to her master, Lely. She had a stronger inclination
toward positive color than either Lely or Greenhill: her handling
is broader and less fused, her composition and modelling flatter, and
her painting of flesh more interested in accident, than Lely's.

The names of several other disciples of Lely have come down to
us, but in most cases it is impossible to attach any picture to the name.
To this, however, Pepys's " painter in ordinary," John Hayls, is an
exception. His portrait of Pepys himself is in the National Portrait
Gallery (Fig. 3 1 3), and several of the Russell family are at Woburn.
Other English painters of this period were William Reader, or
Rieder, by whom there is a good picture in the Ashmolean ; Anne

172

EARLY PAINTING

Killigrew, celebrated by Dryden ; Edward Hawker, who succeeded
to Lely's house and studio on that painter's death ; Sir John Gawdie,
who was deaf and dumb ; and WilHam Shepherd. The last-named,
however, belonged to a somewhat earlier generation. He was the
master of the versatile Francis Barlow (died 1 702), a native of Lin-
colnshire, who painted animals, especially birds, with considerable
felicity. • He was also an engraver, and Hollar engraved after him. His
edition of i'^Esop, with plates from his own designs, is well known.

Another '* strain " among the painters of the seventeenth century
is represented by the scholars of Isaac Fuller, whom I shall have to
mention presently. His best pupil was John Riley, born in 1646,
who would probably have become a painter of real importance
under favorable conditions (Fig. 315). A good and interesting
picture, The Scullion, by him is at Christ Church. The names
should also be mentioned of Thomas Manby, a landscape painter ;
of the two Joseph Michael Wrights, uncle and nephew, the elder
a pupil of Jamesone and the master of Edmund Ashfield, by whom
there are some fairly good portraits at Burghley House.

Hitherto we have found the influence of foreigners who had won
a real vogue in England working generally for good. Holbein
might have founded a great school in England, had his genius been
more in harmony with that of
the mixed race among whom he
settled. The sympathetic Van
Dyck adopted a style which was
in complete accord with the Eng-
lish character and would almost
certainly have produced the effect
in the seventeenth century it did
in the eighteenth, if puritanism and
the civil troubles had not dis-
couraged enterprise in the arts.
Lely again, although he was
content not to probe too deeply
into his own reserve of power,
was a real if superficial artist
whose example could teach noth-
ing that required to be unlearnt.
His presence had at least done
something to prevent the fifth-
rate foreigners — the Hoogstratens, Gascars, Verelsts, Huysmans,
Soests, Wissings, &c. — from doing all the harm they might other-

173

FIG. 313. — S. PEPYS. (JOHN HAYLS.)

National Portrait Gallery.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

wise have done. But on Lely's death, and even before it, fashion
threw itself at the feet of perhaps the least interesting painter who
ever monopolized the patronage of any society. Kneller had
facility — he could pose a sitter as well as most modern photographers !
and he could draw. But his portraits, with scarcely an exception,
proclaim so frankly that his chief, if not his only preoccupation, was
with the satisfaction of his patrons at the least possible outlay of
thought and muscle, that we can neither look at nor remember them
for more than a few minutes at a time. His success was fatal to
English painting during his life. It set a measure to which others
had to dance, on pain of starvation. Among those Englishmen who
worked between the death of Lely and the advent of Hogarth we can
descry, now and then, signs of a gift which might have developed
richly had the Kneller tyranny been removed. With Kneller himself
these pages are hardly concerned. His pictures vary in merit from
examples of what may be called vigorous facility to performances
without even facility to recommend them. Among the best may be
named two portraits at Oxford, Bishop A tterhury and Sir Jonathan
Trelawney, Bart, both at Christ Church; and Godert de Ginkel,
Earl of Athlone, in the Irish National Gallery. Much of the Ginkel,
however, is calmly appropriated from a Charles I of Van Dyck!
The contemporaries of Kneller were so faithful to his example that
their work need hardly be mentioned separately. In Michael Dahl,
the Swede, still more in the Scot, Jeremiah Davison, and the
Englishman, Jonathan Richardson, we divine powers which might
have led to better things had the Lubecker stayed in his own
country. Lord Morton owns a large picture by Davison, at
Dalmahoy, near Edinburgh, which implies very considerable ability ;
another belongs to Mr. Stopford Sackville, at Drayton House,
Northamptonshire. Both of these are signed. Jonathan Richard-
son shows both courage in the attack and skill in the solution of a
difficult problem in his whole length of Sir Hans Sloane, in the
Bodleian. The last painter of this stem who need here be noticed
was Thomas Hudson, the pupil of Richardson and the master of
Reynolds. He seems to have been of an amiable character on the
whole, and not so incapable a painter as used to be supposed. It is
difficult to form a trustworthy idea of his powers, however, as
he painted little but the heads and hands, leaving all the rest to
his drapery men, who varied greatly in capacity. The portrait of
Samuel Scott, in the National Gallery, is warm and luminous, but
others are mechanical and cold to the last degree.

Here I must hark back for a moment to record the beginnings of

174

EARLY PAINTING

a form of art which has never, in modern times, been popular in
England : I mean the painting of walls and ceilings in secular build-
ings. The oldest and the best example we can point to is the
Rubens ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall, which has
recently been restored for at least the fourth time. The master
took immense pains with this composition. A large number of
preparatory sketches and studies are in existence, which make it
probable that when the ceiling was in its pristine glory it was one
of his best things of the kind. The subject, the History of James I,
is divided into nine compartments, each painted on canvas and
attached afterward. They were fixed in their places between
the end of 1635 and the middle
of 1 636. The price paid to
Rubens was £3 ,000, equal to
about £ 1 0,000 at the present day.

The first English work of the
kind still extant is the ceiling of
the Sheldonian Theatre. This
was painted in 1 669 by Robert
Streater, Sergeant Painter to King
Charles II. He also painted a
reredos for All Souls' College,
which was removed about 1872,
when the remains of the magnifi-
cent Gothic reredos (Fig. 119), since
restored, were brought to light.
The chief characteristic of the fig.3I4.-godertdeginkel. (kneller.)

CiiJ' •!• 'V li National Gallery, Dublin.

bheldonian ceilmg is its complete

lack of decorative value. Another painter employed on somewhat
similar work at Oxford was Isaac Fuller, already mentioned as
the master of John Riley. Fuller was born in 1606, and received
a certain amount of training in Paris, under Francois Perrier.
His own portrait, a work of much character, is at Queen's College.
The fame of these works — for they were all famous in their day
— brought the usual irruption of second-rate foreigners into the
country. England was full of buildings in which blank walls cried
out for decoration, and these, instead of being used to encourage
and educate our own painters, were handed over light-heartedly to
first one and then another alleged artist who would have been better
employed in blacking shoes. Verrio and Laguerre both had ability
of a kind, but it was ability entirely divorced from any perception of
what was fitting in the decoration of an architectural monument.

175

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Verrio was the greater offender of the two. He had much neo-
Italian vulgarity ; while Laguerre had a redeeming touch of what

the Goncourts call the mauvais
hon-gout of the Frenchman.
Verrio's least offensive perform-
ance is probably the great saloon
at Burghley, while Laguerre
never did better than in his
work for Sir Godfrey Kneller,
at Whitton Hall, now called
Kneller Hall, near Twicken-
ham. One of the worst ex-
amples of Verrio's particular
form of vulgarity is the decora-
tion of the ** King's Great Stair-
case " at Hampton Court, where
he carried out his tasteless
trick of abolishing real coves,
cornices, and pilasters for the
sake of showing how well he
could imitate them in paint.

It was probably the success of
these men in winning commis-
sions that led young James Thornhill, a cadet of an old but im-
poverished family ** of that ilk," to turn his attention to the same
form of art. He is distinguished from his foreign rivals by greater
reticence, and a better sense of what the occasion required, if not by
power. His paintings in the dome of St. Paul's show that with
more experience he might have become an acceptable decorator.
They are conceived, at least, in the right spirit, of dependence on
the architecture. His son-in-law, Hogarth, painted wall pictures
also. The Good Samaritan and The Pool of Bethesda, in St.
Bartholomew's Hospital.

A Scotsman, Alexander Runciman (1736-1785), showed more
power in this same class of art. He decorated the great saloon of
Penicuik House, near Edinburgh, with scenes from Ossian, and a
cupola in the same house with scenes from the life of St. Margaret
of Scotland. The Ossian decorations were destroyed by fire in
1899, but not before the writer had seen them. They were too
low in tone for their purpose, but otherwise showed great ability.
John Runciman (1744-1768), Alexander's younger brother,
showed high promise in the same direction during his short life.

176

FIG. 315. — CHIFFINCH. (jOHN RILEY.)

National Portrait Gallery.

EARLY PAINTING

The last achievements of this Rubens-born movement were the
decoration of the great room of the Society of Arts by James
Barry, which was carried out between the years 1777 and 1780,
and the painting of the grand staircase at Burghley, Northampton-
shire, by Thomas Stothard, between 1780 and 1783 (Fig. 372).
Such work of the same class as England has produced in later years
has had a different inspiration.

The chief cause of the English failure to do much in the way of
monumental painting has been our habit of putting amateurs — at the
best — in positions of control over such matters, and making them
responsible for success or failure. The best road to success is through
the want of it, but then you must be in a position to form a right
judgment as to the causes of failure. Instead of being frightened by
an initial catastrophe, the man who knows clears away its results
and tries again. This is too much to expect of amateurs, and less
than amateurs — Bishops, Generals, Speakers, Black Rods, Junior
Lords of the Treasury, etc. They cannot profit by failure, for they
cannot really grasp its causes, and are forced to believe that the
only safe proceeding is to abandon operations. In all our attempts
at monumental decoration in the Houses of Parliament, for
instance, the causes of positive failure are obvious to those who have
trained their faculties to see them. If our rulers would only brace
their nerves to a new beginning, and start by putting the manage-
ment of the whole business into the hands of some individual who
had proved his capacity by his own work, they would almost
certainly endow their country with a palace as dignified internally
as it is externally. What has been done in the City, in the Royal
Exchange, shows both the competence of many of our painters and
the absurdity of our lay methods. There you may find not a few
well-conceived wall pictures — those, for instance, of Mr. Abbey and
Mr. Macbeth — but the enterprise, as a whole, is totally ruined by
the remarkable procedure of allowing independent commissions to
be given, and every artist to play his own tune. How could
harmony be even hoped for from such a way of going to work ?

For Bibliography see end of Chapter XVI.

yy^ir]

177 N

FIG. 316. — MARRIAGE A LA MODE. BREAKFAST SCENE. (HOGARTH.) National Gallery.

FJG. 317.— MARRIAGE A LA MODE. TOILET SCENE. (HOGARTH.) National Gallery.

.178

FIG. 318. — REYNOLDS. (BY HIMSELF.)

Royal Academy.

FIG. 319. — RAEBURN. (bY HIMSELF.)

National Gallery, Edinburgh.

CHAPTER XIV
PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

The history of English painting, from the destruction of its
ancient nurseries, the monasteries, down to the second quarter of the
eighteenth century, is, then, the history of a struggle against foreign
invasion. On two occasions the invaders were both capable and
benign, capable of setting a great
example and willing to let the
native profit by it. But as a
rule, they were men who either
were or ought to have been fail-
ures at home, coming here to
draw upon the deeper and more
facile purses of the north-western
barbarian. It was not a healthy
struggle. It was between men
patronized for their foreign birth
— as artists, of all kinds, ever have
been in modern England — and
men who thought their only
chance of success lay in imitating the methods of their rivals. Thus we
always had mediocrity on the one hand, and insincerity on the other.

179 n2

FIG. 320.-

-HIS OWN SERVANTS.

National Gallery.

(HOGARTH.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

At the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury, however, fortune sent a deUverer.

WilHam Hogarth was exactly the
type of man required by Enghsh art
at the time of his birth. He was not
only a great artist, he was an organizer
of resistance. He rallied the forces
of English painting, which had been
dispersed in the overthrow of the old
religion, and, by tongue and pen as
well as example, prepared people's
minds for the notion that art was not
an exotic. His own early portraits

FIG. 321. SHRIMP GIRL. (HOGARTH.)

National Gallery.

were a declaration of war
against the empty conventions
which had ruled between the
death of Lely and that of
Kneller. They encouraged
those of his fellow-countrymen
who had art in them to be true
to their own feelings, instead of
seeking out and adopting half

FIG. 323. — ^DR. JOHNSON. (REYNOLDS.)

National Gallery.

FIG. 322. — GARRICK between TRAGEDY AND
COMEDY. (REYNOLDS.)

Lord Rothschild.

understood formulae from third rate
Continental studios. In spite of
the extreme contrast between their
works, one is tempted to compare
Hogarth with Watteau. Both men
understood that their fellow-country-
men had got into an impasse,
and both — Hogarth deliberately,
Watteau in obedience to a less
conscious impulse — set themselves
to lay a new foundation on ideas
of their own, which they felt to be
racial.

Hogarth was born in Bartholo-
180

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 324. — TWO GENTLEMEN. (REYNOLDS.)

National Gallery.

FIG. 325. NELLY o'bRIEN. (REYNOLDS.)

Wallace Collection.

mew Close, on the 10th of November, 1697. He began active
life as apprentice to a silversmith ; but at the age of tw^enty-one
forsook the engraving of ornaments and coats of arms on silver
for copper-plate engraving for the booksellers. In 1 730 he married
the daughter of Sir James Thornhill and began to paint portraits
and those " moralities " on which his fame now mainly rests. In
1 753 he added authorship to his other accomplishments, publishing
that " Analysis of Beauty " which deserves so much more respect
than it has ever won. In 1757 he was appointed Sergeant
Painter to the King, and in 1764
he died.

Antaeus has seen himself re-
peated again and again in art history.
When painting has fallen to be a
mere conventional habit, it has been
revived by seeking earth. Some
man, or group of men, has insisted
on returning to the primitive found-
ations of nature, to gather new
strength, and prepare for a new
bloom. Hogarth was the pre-
Raphaelite movement of the eigh-
teenth century. He turned his back
on the empty, weak-kneed graces
of Kneller and his following, and

181

FIG. 326. — GIBBON. (REYNOLDS.)

From Print.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 327. DUCHESS OF DEVONSHIRE AND BABY.

(REYNOLDS.) Duke of Devonshire.

shouted to English art to turn its face to realities with him. His
invitation was not consciously accepted, but it had its effect. It shook

the belief in formulae and
made painters think, with
the result that before the
middle of the century Eng-
lish painting had entirely
changed its complexion,
and from being the most
feebly conventional, had
become, of all European
schools, the most robust
and most promising for the
future.

It is only within the last
decade or two that we
have begun to understand
Hogarth. It used to be
the fashion to speak of him as a sort of showman in paint. His
pictures were discussed as if their only claims to admiration lay in
the stories they told. The truth is that Hogarth combined the

powers of a consummate technical
painter, of a true artist, and of a
story-teller, more completely than
any other man had ever done
before. His " morahties " not
only wed good design to dramatic
force, they make each depend on
the other, so that we can scarcely
tell whether we admire a passage
for its pictorial or its dramatic
qualities. Fortunately, our public
and semi-public collections are
rich in his works. The National
Gallery possesses sixteen, includ-
ing the Marriage a la Mode,
the Shrimp Girl, the portraits of
himself with his dog, of his sister,
and of Quin, the actor, the Calais
Gate, and the wonderful group
of his servants' heads. The National Portrait Gallery has a
fascinating little picture of himself at his easel. In the Soane

182

FIG. 32». — AGE OF INNOCENCE.

(REYNOLDS.) National Gallery.

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

Museum are the Rakes Progress, and the Election Series; in
the Foundling Hospital the full length of Captain Coram, the March

FIG. 329. — MISS MONCKTON. (REYNOLDS.)

From Print.

of the Guards to Finchley, and
the appropriate Finding of Moses;
St. Bartholomew's has the two wall
pictures, The Good Samaritan and
the Pool of ^ethesda, which can-
not be numbered among his suc-
cesses ; while good examples are to
be found in the National Gallery
of Ireland ; the Royal Academy ;
the British Museum ; the Fitz-
william Museum, at Cambridge ;
and the Royal Collections. Among
private collections, that of Lord
Ilchester is the richest, chiefly
through the presence there of the
Scene from the "Indian Emperor;
or, Conquest of Mexico," one of the
best of all Hogarth's pictures from
the executive standpoint.

Hogarth delayed the recognition

183

FIG. 330. — MRS. STONE NORTON.
(GAINSBOROUGH.)

Mr. A. de Rothschild.

FIG. 331. — HON. MRS. GRAHAM.
(GAINSBOROUGH.)

National Gallery, Edinburgh.

of his own genius by his

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 332. — GAINSBOROUGH.

(by himself.) Royal Academy.

chauvinistic pen. His diatribes
against foreigners, against the
collection of " old masters,"
against traditional likes and dis-
likes generally, may have been
required by the state of opinion ;
but he suffered through being
their author. They isolated him,
and made the very men who
profited by his ideas shrink from
accepting their propounder as a
leader. The new independence
was his creation, but more than
a century had to pass before the
fact was acknowledged. His
example and expressed opinions
had a great effect upon the next
innovator — the second founder,
we may call him, of the modern school of painting — Sir Joshua
Reynolds. In Sir Joshua's published writings, however, scarcely
an allusion to Hogarth is to be found.

Sir Joshua was Hogarth's junior by nearly a generation. He
was born in Devonshire in 1723. At the age of eighteen he
entered the studio of Thomas Hudson, having already acquired

some little degree of skill at
home. Two years later, having
had one of those quarrels with
his master which seem de rigueur
with gifted artists, he returned to
Devonshire, and established him-
self as a portrait painter at
Plymouth Dock, as Devonport
was then called. In 1 746 he
came to London, and then,
in 1 749, he started on a voyage
to the Mediterranean, with Com-
modore Keppel, which was
to end in a three years*
stay in Italy, passed mostly in
Rome. In 1752 he returned
„„, ,,„^„ ,^ to ^ London, where he spent

FIG. 333-— MRS. SIDDONS. , f 1 * VC I 1 7AQ

(GAINSBOROUGH.) National Gallery. the rest ot hlS lite. In I /DO

184

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

he became first President of the
Royal Academy, and in 1 792 he
died.

If the leading quaHties of
Hogarth were the perfectly
coherent ones of disrespect, in-
dependence, and a determina-
tion to build his monument on
foundations of his own, those of
Reynolds were the apparently
inconsistent ones of respect for
established reputations and a
strong bent toward thinking for
himself. Much of his intellect-
ual activity was directed toward
discovering good reasons for
allowing fifth-rate artists to enjoy
first-rate reputations, and yet in
his own practice, he was one of the most thoughtful and various
of painters, and one of the least tolerant of all that was stereo-
typed and perfunctory.

The great distinction of Sir Joshua's art, the characteristic which

FIG. 334. — LADY MULGRAVE.

(GAINSBOROUGH.) Groult Collection.

FIG. 335. MISS HAVERPIELD.

(GAINSBOROUGH.) Wallace Collection.

185

. FIG. 336. — BLUE BOY.

(GAINSBOROUGH.) Duke of Westminster.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 337-

-WATERINO PLACE. (GAINSBOROUGH.;

National Gallery.

sets it apart from that of anyone else, is its variety. In other mat-
ters he had his superiors. But in the variety which comes

naturally from a mind
always active, always
interested, always taking
a new initiative, no
painter of his age
approached him. Every
picture he painted, even
when it was only a head,
represented a conscious
exertion of the mind.
And he was moved by
beauty ; he was preoccu-
pied with color, with
the texture of paint, even
with the melody of line,
which last has not always
appealed to the English-
man. His early pictures — those painted before his establishment
in London in 1 732 — betray the influence of Hogarth, Gandy of
Exeter, and Rembrandt. Some caricatures painted in Rome are
especially Hogarthian in their excellent technique. Four of these
(the most important a parody on Raphael's School of Athens, in
which the men who formed the English coterie in Rome are
substituted for the Greek philosophers) are in the Irish National
Collection. But the second half of the eighteenth century was not
far advanced before Reynolds had shaken down into a style
which can be recognized as his own at a glance. During the
last thirty years of his activity he talked Michael Angeio and the
Bolognese ; but while he talked he kept his eye on Venice, and
made many dangerous experiments in the attempt to capture her
charm. It is probable that in their early freshness, as they appeared
on the walls of Somerset House, many of his pictures had a splendor
of color unsurpassed even by Titian.

Reynolds is not well represented in our public galleries. Pictures
by him exist in private hands which give a higher idea of his
powers than anything to be found in the national collections. Such
pictures are the Lady Crosbie, in Sir Edward Tennant's collec-
tion, the Duchess of Devonshire with her Daughter (Fig. 327),
in the Duke of Devonshire's possession, Garrick between Tragedy
and Comedy (Fig. 322), which belongs to Lord Rothschild, several of

186

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 338. — THE MORNING WALK ; PORTRAITS OF SQUIRE AND MRS. HALLETT.

(GAINSBOROUGH.) Lord Rothschild.

187

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

the pictures at Althorp, Lord Leicester's Charles James Fox, Master
Crewe, at Crewe Hall, and the great family picture at Blenheim

of the Duke of Marlborough

339. LANDSCAPE. (GAINSBOROUGH.)

Mrs. Joseph.

I-

with his wife and children.
But the Lord Heathfield,
the Lady Cockhurn and
her Children, the Angels'
Heads, the Age of Inno-
cence (Fig. 328), and the
three Montgomeries as The
Graces, in the National Gal-
lery, with the Nelly O'Brien,
the Mrs. Carnac, and others
in the Wallace Collection,
make a better show for Rey-
nolds than we can point to for
his great rival Gainsborough.
In many ways Gainsborough was the antithesis of Sir Joshua,
which makes it difficult to avoid a comparison when writing of their
art. Gainsborough was the younger by four years. He was

born in Suffolk in 1727. With
the exception of the years be-
tween 1741 and 1746, which
he spent in London as the
pupil, successively, of Gravelot,
the French illustrator and en-
graver, and Francis Hayman,
his whole active career divides
itself into three periods of four-
teen years each : from 1746 to
1 760 at Ipswich ; from 1 760 to
1774 at Bath; from 1774 to
his death in 1788 in London.
He never left his own country,
and within it his travelling was
confined to one or two excursions
into Wales and the north of
England. His development was
quite normal. He began by
painting with extreme care and

riG.340.-MRS. ROBINSON. (GAINSBOROUGH.) ^^^^\ ^^ ^ ^^y^ ^bvioUsly baScd

Wallace Collection.

188

the Dutch pictures which

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

were at that time present in considerable numbers in East Anglia.
His early landscapes remind one of Wynants, his early figures of
Metsu or Terborch. In Bath his design became broader and
more highly organized, his brushing freer and more personal,
and his color warmer. In London all these developments became
more assured, but there is no such breach of continuity between
his Bath and his London manner as used to be asserted. Between
Ipswich and Bath there is such a breach. In Suffolk his masters
were the Dutchmen. At Bath and in its neighborhood he was
brought face to face with Van Dyck, and soon drew himself out of

the prim, collected manner of

Ipswich, to put on some, at least,
of the swing and freedom of the great
cosmopolitan.

It is impossible to reach a com-
plete idea of Gainsborough's powers
from our public collections. In Lon-
don, the National Gallery has one
first-rate portrait in the Mrs. Siddons
(Fig. 333), and one fine land-
scape in The Watering Place (Fig.
337). The Wallace Collection owns
the Mary Robinson (Fig. 340) and
Miss Haverfield (Fig. 335). The
famous Mrs. Graham (Fig. 331)
hangs in the Scottish Gallery.
Against each of these, however,
some slight objection can be urged.
The red curtain behind the head of
Siddons is not all it should be, the
Perdita Robinson is hardly a design,
the Mrs. Graham has not yet com-
pletely thrown off the effects of her fifty years in the dark, and The
Watering Place is very low in tone. The value of a fine Gains-
borough is now so enormous that the nation is never likely to get
another, so the student who wishes to know what he could do at his
happiest moment must see The Morning Walk ^^^ Mrs. Sheridan,
at Lord Rothschild's ; the Miss Linley and her Brother, at Knole ;
the Mall, in Sir Audley Neeld's collection at Grittleton; the three
portraits of ladies in Mr. Alfred de Rothschild's dining-room in
Seamore Place; the Blue Boy at Grosvenor House; the Lady
Muhravcy in the collection of the late M. Groult ; and as many

189

FIG. 341. — LADY BEAUCHAMP PROCTOR.

(romney.) Mr. L. Raphael.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

as possible ot the wonderful
drawings which earn a place
for Gainsborough among the
great masters of the point.

For if Reynolds was vari-
ous in one way, his rival was

various in another. ** D

him ! how various he is ! "
Gainsborough is said to have
exclaimed before the Presi-
dent's pictures in the ex-
hibition. But he himself had
his own variety, for he
excelled in portraits, in land-
scape, as an animalier, and
as a maker of drawings.
He beat Reynolds, too, in technique, for his pictures stand like
rocks, when not violently interfered with, and his manner — ** all
those odd scratches and marks . . . this chaos, this uncouth and
shapeless appearance," to use Sir Joshua's own words — leads
through freedom up to unity with an unerring directness rivalled
only by the greatest executants, by men like Franz Hals, Rubens,
Velazquez, Raeburn, Manet, and Sargent.

The third member of the triumvirate by whom the ground floor

of the edifice of English paintin

FIG. 342. CHILDREN OF EARL COWER.

(romney.) Duke of Sutherland.

FIG. 343. — LADY ARABELLA WARD.

(romney.) Viscount Bangor.

was raised on the foundations lai<
by Hogarth was Gainsborough's
junior by seven years and Sir
Joshua's by eleven. George
Romney was born at Dalton,
in Lancashire, at the end of
1 734. He contrived to educate
himself as a painter with no better
help than that of one Steele, a
strolling artist who pervaded the
northern counties at the time.
This was a great achievement,
for Romney became an excellent
draughtsman and a master of
technique in its wider sense very
early in his career. In 1 756 he
married, and settled in Kendal as
190

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

a portrait painter. In 1 762 he came to London, leaving his wife

and two children in the North. In 1 773 he went to Italy, where

he stayed two years. Returning to London in 1 775, he settled in

Cavendish Square, and there

divided the patronage of the town

with Reynolds and Gainsborough.

About 1 795 he moved to Hamp-

stead, where he built himself a

studio which now forms part of

the local Conservative club. In

1799 he went back to Kendal,

dying three years later in the

presence of a wife and son whom

he had only seen at very long

intervals since he had left home

nearly forty years before.

Romney's popularity has fluctu-
ated more than that of any other
English painter of importance.
Forty years ago his pictures were
entirely neglected. Their market value was trifling, and his name
was never mentioned except as that of an artist who had sunk
beneath the surface. This state of things was due partly, if not
wholly to the mere fact that his works were out of sight. The

FIG. 344. — EUPHROSYNE. (rOMNEY.)
From Print.

FIG. 345. — MRS. CURRIE.

(romney.) National Gallery.

191

FIG. 346. — MRS. JORDAN. (ROMNEY.)

From Print.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

I'IG. 347. LADY LOUISA CONNOLLY.

(ALLAN RAMSAY.) Holland House.

national collections contained none
of any importance and the country
houses were not public. Another
cause, however, was the character
of his genius. In one respect Rom-
ney appeals to the crowd : he is
the painter, par excellence, of the
pretty Englishwoman. No one has
succeeded so well as he in putting
on canvas the sort of head an
English novelist selects for his
heroine. But, artistically, Romney
was somewhat of an exotic. His
gift was more Latin than that of any
other important English painter.
He thought in line, and is, in his
best work, more akin to French
masters of black and white, and —
to make a very long stride — to the
Greek sculptors, than to his own
British contemporaries. It would be
difficult to name a picture, in any school, which unites modernity
with genuine classical feeling as happily as the Children of Earl
Gower — who " dansent en rond " (Fig. 342). It is a delicious pict-
ure, conceived on lines which have led to boredom in other hands.

It is essentially a design. Its color
is used in the spirit of the map-
maker, to distinguish between one
province and another. And yet it
is good color in its way. Romney 's
workmanship was so clean — his
brushing so prompt and free from
confusion or repetition — that his
color has remained transparent and
luminous, and therefore not too un-
pleasant even when slightly hot.
But perhaps the most surprising
thing about Romney is the early
mastery of academic virtues which
he won. So far as we know, he
had nothing that would now be
called a training, and yet his first
192

FIG. 348. — PAUL SANDY.

. (cotes.) National Gallery.

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

London portraits are notable for ex-
cellent drawing, and for a skill and
taste in the disposition of drapery
which no one has surpassed. They
hold their own with the deliberate
classicisms of Louis David and other
French painters of the Revolution.

Romney has been still less for-
tunate than Reynolds and Gains-
borough in his fight for publicity.
Scarcely any picture showing him
quite at his best has won its way
into a national collection. The
London Portrait Gallery, indeed,
has a head of himself, one of the
best self-portraits left by any
painter, and the Wallace Collec-
of " Perdita " Robinson; but the
Gallery include nothing in the first
and examples are almost entirely absent from the provincial
His finest works are in the collections of the Duke of

FIG. 349. — HORACE WALPOLE.
(NATHANIEL HONE.)

tion a fine and famous head
seven pictures in the National
flight,

museums, nis nnest worKs are
Sutherland (Gower Children, Fig. 342, and Lord Stafford in a
Van Dyck Dress), Sir George Russell (Mrs. Russell and Child),
Lord Powis (Hon. Charlotte Clive), Lord Iveagh (Lady Hamilton
Spinning), Lord Bangor (Lady Arabella Ward, Fig. 343),
Lord Warwick (Lady Warwick cmd her Children and Miss Vernon
as Hebe), Sir Edward Ten-
nant (Mrs. Jordan, Fig.
346, and Countess of
Derby), Lord Cathcart
(Countess of Mansfield), Mr.
Leopold Hirsch (Mrs.
Raikes), Mr. C. Wertheimer
(Ladies Caroline and Eliza-
beth Spencer and Mrs. John-
son), Sir Hugh Cholmeley
(Catherine and Sarah Chol-
meley), Mr. L. Raphael
(Lady Beauchamp Proctor,
Fig. 341, and Lady Prescott

and Family), Mr. Tankerville ^^^ 350.-CAROLINE lady Holland.

Chamberlain (Lady Hamilton (allan ramsay.) Holland House.

193 O

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

FIG. 351. — MRS. MARGARET CROWE. (OPIE.)

as a Bacchante), and Mr. Ralph
Bankes (Miss Woodley, after-
ward Mrs. Bankes).

Side by side with these three
men Richard Wilson was doing
for landscape painting what they
were doing for portraits. Born in
1713, he was senior to them all,
but it was not until his return to
London from Italy, in 1 753, that
he renounced portraiture, in which
he had won a certain measure of
success. The credit of the change
has been put down to Zuccarelli,
who saw some of the Englishman's
sketches in Rome and strongly
advised him to devote his powers
to the painting of landscape. It is probable enough that his advice
would not have been so readily taken had not the appearance of Sir
Joshua, Gainsborough, and Romney narrowed existing opportunities
in the other genre. Wilson, like the three portrait painters, had
his roots in tradition, but his head was in the sun. In his methods,
and even in his ideals, we can trace the influence of Claude, of
Lucatelli, of Panini, of Zuccarelli ; but this debt he supplements
with his own gift of design and sense of beauty, his own poet's

imagination and freshness of inter-
est in the power of art to suggest
romance and Italy. At his best
he has a distinction not again to
be reached before the flowering of
Corot. He has depth, repose,
and essential humanity. Unfor-
tunately he is not always, or often,
at his best. His life was a strug-
gle and he painted too much, so
that many canvases which quite
correctly bear his name represent
him at moments when interest and
inspiration were asleep. As a
whole, however, he was a true,
ife-giving painter, and so has had

FIG.352.—GARRICK. (R.E.PINE.) From Print, a following. In his own time,

194

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 353- — LADY. (hOPPNER.) FIG. 354. — LADY. (hOPPNER.)

Mrs. Trevor Martin.

however, the only artist of any power who was much affected
by his example was the Irishman, George Barret, whose later
works betray a close study of Wilson and are sometimes cata-
logued under his name. Other disciples, such as Farrington and
William Hodges, were comparatively powerless. Wilson's death
occurred in 1 782.

Wilson's best pictures are, as a rule, comparatively small, simple
compositions, broad in handling, finely balanced in design, luminous
in color. Two little Scenes in
Italy in Jthe National Gallery are
of delightful quality, reminding us
of Guardi by their freedom and of
Chardin by their crumby paste.
His more ambitious efforts, such ^is
the Niohe in the National Gallery,
of which Sir Joshua made rather
tasteless fun in his fourteenth dis-
course, are less satisfactory. In his
preoccupation with gods and god-
desses he loses the transparent
color and the unity of design on
which his charm depends.

The spirit of modern painting —
for through it all runs a thread of ^^^ 355._portrait of a lady.

unity— sprmgs from the example (hoppner.) Mrs. Fieischmann.

195 O 2

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

of these five Englishmen :
Hogarth, Reynolds, Gains-
borough, Romney, and Wilson :
supplemented by that of one
later man of genius, in Con-
stable. Their activity covered
the years between 1 735 and
1 795, and it breathed a new
vitality into an art which was
practically moribund. Good
painters existed elsewhere, of
course : Antonio Canale and
Giambattista Tiepolo in Italy,
Watteau and Chardin in France,
were no mean successors to the
best who had gone before. But
they were successors. Their art
was in the sunset rather than
the sunrise. And delightful as we find it, it was rather a solace
than a stimulus. Some might say the same of Wilson. But so far
as his art was retrospective it deserved and won little attention.
His influence rested upon his development of the natural capacities
of landscape, in color and atmosphere.

Side by side with these originators a number of men were

FIG. 356. — PORTRAIT OF A LADY. (HOPPNER.)

Mrs. Trevor Martin.

FIG. 357. — SISTERS FRANKLAND.

(HOPPNER.) From Print.

196

FIG. 358. — DOUGLAS CHILDREN.

(HOPPNER.) From Print.

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 359. — LADY STEUART OF COLTNESS.

(raeburn.) Mrs. Fleischmann.

producing pictures of sufficient
merit to give them a right to places
in a biographical dictionary. The
most attractive, both as an artist
and as a man, was the Scotsman,
Allan Ramsay. He was born in
Edinburgh, in 1713, the son of
Allan Ramsay, the poet and book-
seller. At the age of sixteen he
became a foundation member of
the short-lived Academy of St.
Luke in Edinburgh. About 1 734
he came to London for a time,
went on, two years later, to Italy,
returned to Edinburgh in 1 739,
and finally established himself in
London in 1 752. In 1 767 he
became Painter in Ordinary to
George III, and in 1 784 he died.

Ramsay has hitherto been robbed of his deserts by the foisting of
bad pictures with which he had nothing to do into his ceuvre, by
the failure of any good example of his powers to win entrance
to a metropolitan gallery, and by his unfitness for the post of
portrait-maker to the King. The Scottish national collection has a
delicious half-length of his wife, a
niece of the great Lord Mansfield.
A fine male portrait is in the
National Gallery of Ireland ; and
the collections of Lord Lothian,
Lord Stair, Sir Thomas Gibson
Carmichael, and Mr. Thomas Bar-
ing have good examples. Holland
House is rich in his works (Figs.
347, ^A&y. With more self-confi-
dence Ramsay would have been
one of the best painters of the
eighteenth century. The pictures
he carried out with his own hand
are distinguished by an exquisite
sensibility, by a reserve and light-
ness of execution which occasion-
ally border on timidity. In color

197

FIG. 360. — LORD NEWTON. (rAEBURN.)

National Gallery, Edinburgh.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 3C1. — MRS. JAMES CAMPBELL.

(raeburn.) Mr. Lionel Muirhead.

they show a pink suffusion which
is characteristic.

To certain other painters whose
careers coincided, more or less,
with those of the epoch-making
five, allusion must be brief.
Francis Hayman (1708-1776) is
now remembered chiefly because
Gainsborough was his pupil.
Arthur Pond (1 705-1 758, Fig.
375), Joseph Highmore (1692-
1780), George Knapton (1698-
1778), Arthur Devis the elder
(1711-1787), Nathaniel Hone
(1 7 18- 1784), Tilly Kettle (1740-
1786), Henry Walton (1720?-
1 790 ?), Charles Brooking (1 723-
1 753) the sea painter (Fig. 376) ;
all these were able to turn out good pictures on occasion, and it
is much to be regretted that no provision now exists for collecting
examples of their work for the nation. They had one great quality
in common : they could all paint. The meagre, starved impasto,
the paint rubbed into the canvas rather than laid upon it, of, which

we have seen too much since,
looks wretched indeed beside the
fat, frank, and free handling of
the old English school.

The effect of good example on
those who immediately followed
Sir Joshua, Gainsborough and
Romney, was like that of warm
rain on a parched garden. The
dryness disappeared, and even
when no high degree of merit
was reached, art with life in its
veins shot up all over the coun-
try. The second-rate men who
worked between the middle of
the eighteenth century and the
early years of the nineteenth were
no longer mere repeaters of a pat-
tern, depending on journeymen

198

FIG. 362. — MRS. FERGUSSCN. (rAEBURN.)

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 363. — NATHANIEL SPENS. (raeburn.) Archer's Hall, Edinburgh.

199

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 364. — SIR JOHN SINCLAIR OF
ULBSTER. (RAEBURN.)

for the minor details of their work.
They were modest artists, trying, at
least, to say something in their selected
medium. They included one man
of genius, in Hoppner, and many
painters of ability : Francis Wheatley
(1747-1801), Thomas Beach (1738-
1806), Nathaniel Dance (1735-
1811). John Opie (1761-1807),
Wright of Derby (1734-1797),
Robert Edge Pine (1730-1788),
Hugh D. Hamilton (1 734 ?- 1805),
John Downman (1750-1824), whose
stained drawings now enjoy such a
vogue, and Francis Cotes (1725-
1 770). Cotes, whom I have named
last, really belonged to the same gen-
eration as Sir Joshua, for he is sup-
posed to have been born in 1725,
and he died in 1 770. But as an oil painter he was so severely in-
fluenced by Reynolds, that he must take a place among his disciples.
At the end of his comparatively short life his pictures became so
like those of the President, that several have since been sold as
Sir Joshua's, and even exhibited at the " Old Masters " as such
without exciting much protest.

Hoppner himself, fine painter as he
was, would never have produced the
works for which the world competes so
eagerly to-day, had not Sir Joshua lived
before him. Hoppner was of German
extraction, but nothing could be less
Teutonic than his art : unless, indeed,
his tendency to heat, as a colorist, was
due to his blood. He was born in
1 759, and began life as a chorister in
the Chapel Royal. When his voice
broke he took to another form of art,
and became a Royal Academy stu-
dent. Through the patronage of the
Prince of Wales he soon conquered
the town, sharing its favors with
Lawrence for nearly twenty years.
200

(

fig. 365. — major clunes.

(raeburn.)

National Gallery, Edinburgh.

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 366. — J. J. ANGERSTEIN.

(LAWRENCE.) National Gallery.

He died, not quite sane, in
1810.

Hoppner has been even more
unlucky than Ramsay in failing to
make his proper entry into the
nation's collections. No idea of
his powers can be formed from the
National or the Portrait Gallery,
and he is almost entirely absent
from the provincial museums. His
best pictures have been changing
hands frequently of late years,
under the stress of enormous prices.
The fine group of the four Douglas
children (Fig. 358), which used to
be in Lord Morton's collection at
Dalmahoy, is now the property of
Lord Rothschild. The famous
Sisters Frankland (Fig. 357) has
passed into the collection of Sir Edward Tennant. A lovely por-
trait of some beautiful unknown was sold for a great price at Christie's
in 1905, and now belongs to Mr. C. Wertheimer. The Lady Louisa
Manners, the group of Hoppner's own children — Children Bathing
—Lord Darnley's Countess of Darnley and Child, Lord Rosebery s
William Pitt, and a series of
three beautiful portraits of beauti-
ful women, now in the possession
of Mrs. Trevor Martin, of Port-
land Place, for whose husband's
family they were painted, are all
among his best productions (Figs.
353, 354, 356).

Contemporary with Hoppner,
and belonging like him to the
second generation of our national
portrait painters, were two men
of great originality, in Raeburn
and Lawrence. Raeburn was the
elder. He was born in 1 756,
in Edinburgh, worked under
David Martin, painted minia-
tures, and then, at the age of

201

367. — MRS. WOLFF. (LAWRENCE.)

From Print.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 368. — PRINCESS CHARLOTTE.

(LAWRENCE.) Earl of Ilchester.

twenty-two, married a wife with
means, who enabled him to visit
Italy. After a stay there of about
two years he established himself in
Edinburgh, where he was undis-
puted head of the native school for
more than a generation, and painted
every one of "light and leadmg" in
the Scottish capital with the one
important exception of Robert
Burns.

Raeburn holds a place in the
small company of men who have
been real pioneers. He was born
into a country swarming with workers
in the particular form of art he chose,
and dominated by at least three men
of genius ; and yet he built up a style
which was at once obviously sincere, quite different from what he
saw about him, and so truly begotten of the metier that it has since
grown into an European ideal. So far as we can now guess, his
school was the portrait of Pope Innocent X, by Velazquez, in the
Doria-Pamfili palace. At least, that is the only masterpiece, in the
manner which appealed to him, with
which we know him to have been
familiar. There is nothing to show
that he ever met a Frans Hals. But
a single spark is enough to set genius
alight. Van Dyck became the English
Van Dyck at the sight of a few minia-
tures by Samuel Cooper, and the
Spaniard's pope was more than ca-
pable of firing the ambitions of a
man like Raeburn.

Raeburn's art improved steadily from
his definite, settlement in Edinburgh to
the end of his life. But, unlike most
painters who have not stood still, he
developed from a perhaps excessive
breadth of touch and simplification of
the planes, to a rounder modelling and
a more united impasto. All his stages

202

FIG. 369. — LADY DOVER AND
CHILD. (LAWRENCE.)

From Print.

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 370. MISS FARREN (lADY DERBY).

(LAWRENCE.) From Print.

can be traced, in good examples,
in the two chief Scottish collec-
tions — the Edinburgh National
Gallery and the Glasgow Museum
— but no other public institution
has so far obtained any of his finest
works. The Louvre has been
especially unlucky ; for of three
pictures there ascribed to him, not
one has any claim to be considered
his ! The following list is confined
to what seem to me his best works :
— Edinburgh National Gallery :
Mrs. Campbell of Balliemore,
Lord Newton (Fig. 360), Glen-
garry (on loan), John Wauchope,
Major Clune (Fig. 365), and
His Own Portrait (Fig. 319).
Archer's Hall : Nathaniel Spens
(Fig. 363). Trinity House, Leith :
Viscount Duncan. Glasgow
Museum : Mrs. W. Urquhart and Sir John Sinclair of Ulhster,
Bart (Fig. 364) on loan. Private collections : Sir George Douglas
Clerk, Sir John and Lady Clerk ; Sir Robert Dundas, Lord Presi-
dent Dundas; Mr. Munro Ferguson, William Ferguson of

Kilrie, General Sir Ronald Ferguson,
G.C.B., Ronald and Robert Ferguson,
and Robert Ferguson of Raith; Mrs.
Fleischmann, Lady Steuart of Colt-
ness (Fig. 359) ; Lord Tweedmouth,
Lady Raeburn; Mrs. Pitman, John
Tait of Harvieston and his Grandson ;
Mrs. Ernest Hills, The Macdonalds
of Clanranald ; Mr. Arthur Sander-
son, Mrs. Cruikshank; Mr. Lionel
Muirhead, Mrs. James Campbell
(Fig. 361); Lord Moncrieff, Rev. Sir
H. Moncrieff Wellwood; Hon. Mrs.
Baillie Hamilton, The Mac Nab;
Mr. J. C. Wardrop, James Wardrop
of TorbanhiU; and Mrs. Joseph,
Male Portrait.
203

FIG. 371. POPE PIUS VII.

(LAWRENCE.) From Print.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 372. — INTEMPERANCE. (sTOTHARD.) National Gallery.

Raeburn's example had its effect, of course, on his Scottish con-
temporaries, but only one of these rose to any great excellence, and

he too often found
the early Victo-
rian atmosphere
stifling to his pow-
ers : I allude to
Sir John Watson
Gordon, whose
best works are re-
spectable echoes
of Raeburn.

The originality
of Lawrence was
very different from
that of Raeburn,
but originality it
was, nevertheless. It set up a new ideal in portraiture, and
had a character of its own. It will always fail to rank with the
other originalities — those of Sir Joshua, Gainsborough, Romney,
and Raeburn — because, in the first place, it was less essentially
pictorial, and, in the second, it represented a far less admirable type
of thought. But Lawrence went his own way, through the am-
bitions and ideas of the great time in which he lived, with a single-
mindedness and belief in what he was doing which one cannot help

admiring. His art was based
on the superficial aspects of
things ; it was nourished by
glances at outsides rather than
by sympathetic divinations ;
it appeals to us as women do
at a ball, not in talks by the
fireside ; and it has unhappy
faults of technique. For he
was no colorist, and had
wrong ideas about how paint
should be " left " — to use Sir
Joshua's phrase. But his art
has that about it which makes
it an insuppressible feature in
during the waning of the

FIG. 373- — DEATH OF MAJOR PIERSON.

(COPLEY.) National Gallery.

our mental visions
Georges.

of English society
204

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 374-

-WHITE HORSE AND GROOM.
(STUBBS.)

National Gallery.

Lawrence was born in 1 769, in the same year as Wellington and
perhaps Napoleon. He was a precocious genius, becoming the
bread-winner of his family before he was into his teens. At the
age of ten he set up as a por-
trait painter at Oxford, moved
soon afterward to Bath, and,
in his eighteenth year, estab-
lished himself in London. His
success was unbroken through-
out life. In 1791 he was
elected an A.R.A. although
under the statutory age ; in
1794 he became an R.A.,
and in 1820 P.R.A., having
received the accolade five
years previously. He died in
1830.

With regard to the national collections, the same unhappy story
has to be told about him as about so many other English masters.
He is quite inadequately represented in our public museums. The
National Gallery has one good specimen in the half length of John
Julius Angerstein (Fig. 366), whose collection formed the nucleus of
the gallery. The Portrait Gallery is richer ; there, among some
two dozen examples, you will find three or four — Warren Hastings,
Thomas Campbell, Sir James Mackintosh, Wilherforce — showing
his power of head-painting at its best. But we have to go to
Windsor and to private collections to learn the full extent of his
powers. The following are some of his best performances :—
Windsor Castle: Pope Pius VII (Fig. 371), Cardinal Consalvi ;
Duke of Abercorn's collection : Four Portraits of Children, in
ovals; Mrs. Maguire and Arthur Fitzjames ; Eaiil of Durham:
Master Lambton ; Duke of Sutherland : Countess Gower and
Child and Lady Elizabeth BelgraVe; Earl Grey's collection :
Countess Grey and Daughters ; Sir Thomas Dyke Acland's :
Lady Acland and Two Sons; J. Pierpont Morgan, Esq.: Miss
Farren (Fig. 370 ; the full length picture, formerly in the possession
of Lord Wilton) ; Lord Annaly : Lady Dover and Child (Fig. 369) ;
Mr. Moulton Barrett : Miss Mary Moulton Barrett (" Pinkie ") ;
Earl of Jersey : The Duke of Wellington (half length, at Middleton
Park, Oxfordshire) ; and Marquess of Londonderry : Viscount
Castlereagh, Viscountess Castlereagh, and Charles, Third Marquess
of Londonderry, in Hussar Uniform (Londonderry House).

205

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 375. PEG WOFFINGTON. (POND.)

National Portrait Gallery.

Lawrence was the connecting link between the splendor of Eng-
lish portraiture in the second half of the eighteenth century and

its devitalization in the first half of
the nineteenth. It is difficult to
decide how far he was cause as
well as illustration. But perhaps
we shall be doing him no injustice
if we say that his example, like
that of greater men before him,
worked nothing but harm. His
gift, such as it was, was un-English,
and in the average English imitator
could lead to little but affectation.
Certain it is that, by the time he
was nearing the end of his career,
all freshness and vitality had died out of portrait painting in the
English capital, not to be revived again until the movement
of 1 850 came to make a change.

Side by side with the portrait painters, two other sets of artists
pursued their ideals, with very different success. The first of
these, and the nobler, according to most theorizings about art,
were the " history " painters. In noticing the strain of activity
which sprang from Rubens and his Whitehall ceiling, I mentioned
several attempts at monumental decoration which ended in some-
thing short of complete failure, such as Barry's decoration in the
Society of Arts, and Runci-
man's work at Penicuik. In
1 773 a proposal was made
which might have led to
something very curious
indeed, had it been accepted.
This was an offer on the part
of the members of the infant
Royal Academy to decorate
the interior of St. Paul's : to
carry on, in fact, the work
begun by Sir James Thorn-
hill. This offer, although
made in very generous terms,
was refused. And we can hardly regret the refusal. St. Paul's
was scarcely a corpus vile on which to make a hazardous experi-
ment. It was much safer to let the artists try their hands on under-

206

FIG. 376. SEAPIECE. (BROOKING.)

Col. Hutcheson Poc, C.B.

PAINTING-MIDDLE PERIOD

takings such as those of the pubUsher, Boydell. For him many of
the best known painters of the time painted a series of pictures from
Shakespeare, which were exhibited. Reynolds, Romney, West,
Opie, Northcote, Stothard, Fuseli, Smirke, Hamihon, Westall, and
Barry were among the contributors. Boydell's *' Shakespeare" was
followed by Macklin's " Bible " and Fuseli's " Milton." But all
these adventures ended in artistic failure and did not even
encourage further experiments in the same direction. Another
influence which worked for evil in English " history " painting was
the teaching of Sir Joshua. In his own hands the historical spirit
often led to fine results, but the chief effect the "Discourses " would
have on a young painter who wished to venture on the grand
style would be to destroy his individuality and deprive his art of
character.

Almost the only man to stand up
against the mistaken spirit of the time,
(and to paint history with an accept-
able combination of veracity and
style, was John Singleton Copley,
whose Death of Chatham and
Death of Major Pierson (National
Gallery, Fig. 373) are very good
works in their way. Copley was
born in 1737, in Boston, U. S. A.,
of an English father and Irish
mother. He came to England in
1775, and here passed the rest of
his life, dying in 1815 at the age of
78. He was the father of Lord
Lyndhurst. Opie, too, occasion-
ally did fairly well in the same
genre. His Murder of Riccio, in the Guildhall, London, has
at least vigor.

The only painter of religious pictures at this time who need be
alluded to was Benjamin West. Beginning, like Romney, with a
picture in which the Death of Wolfe was represented in a
common-sense way, with English soldiers dressed in modern uniforms
instead of Roman togas, West rapidly won the admiration and
patronage of George III. This sufficed him for the remainder
of his life, but he supplemented his earnings from the Royal purse by
painting portraits and occasionally decorative panels for private
individuals. Some of these latter works are more pleasing than the

207

FIG. 377. — J. p. CURRAN. (HUGH

HAMILTON.) National Gallery,
Dublin.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

ambitious canvases painted for the King. West was born in
Pennsylvania in 1 738. He came to England in 1 763 and spent
the rest of his hfe in London. He was an original member of the
Royal Academy and became President at Sir Joshua's death in
1792. He died in 1820.

The one man who endeavored to walk in the footsteps of Benjamin
West was Benjamin Robert Haydon (1 786-1846). He attempted, to
his own hurt, to put in action some of the theories of Sir Joshua Rey-
nolds, those theories with which the President had tried to justify his
own praise of what he called the Great Style in art. Haydon failed
egregiously, and yet he was a man of ability in his own way. His
journals and autobiography are of poignant interest. But he was
without the special gifts required for success in his chosen walk, and
so his life moved through one disappointment after another to a
tragic close. One of his best pictures hangs in a restaurant under
Charing Cross Station.

For Bibliography see end of Chapter XVI.

FIG. 378. — PANEL FOR CEILING. (WEST.)

Burlington House.

208

HHHiOL

■■

■rii

1 /

^^H

HP^"

jhI

^^^E

FIG. 379. — ULYSSES AND POLYPHEMUS. (TURNER.) National Gallery.

CHAPTER XV
MODERN PAINTING- TURNER TO WATTS

The only form of landscape painting which was really encouraged
in the eighteenth century was the topographical. Portraits of
houses and parks were produced in great numbers and fill the
country houses to this day. This form of art was followed by
one painter of capacity, whose works show that under more
favorable conditions he might have conquered a respectable place in
our school. This was John Wootton, a pupil of Jan Wyck. He is
said to have been born in
1668; he died in 1765.
He painted animals, chiefly
race-horses, and topographical
landscapes in a style recalling
Caspar Poussin and his fol-
lowers. Wootton's best works
are excellent. Among the
best are a series in the outer
hall at Althorp. Many other
respectable delineators of fact ^^^ 38o.-chapel fields, Norwich, (crome.)

flourished durmg the century, National Gallery.

209 . P

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

U^^

FIG. 381. — PORINGLAND OAK. (CROME.)

Rev. C. J. Steward.

the most satisfactory, perhaps,
being the Malton family, who
enriched architectural perspec-
tives with pictorial quality, with
no little success. But land-
scape in the more orthodox
sense was utterly neglected.
Wilson contrived to make the
income of a bricklayer by
hawking his pictures about like
boot-laces ; but Gainsborough
scarcely ever sold a landscape,
although they covered every
wall in his house, and his
patrons passed them daily on
their way to his sitters' chair.
But a fashion arose in the
country which came to the
rescue of the landscape painters.
This was the custom, which has persisted ever since, of including
drawing lessons in the curriculum of a polite education. Our
national school of water-color painters sprang entirely from this
custom, and not a few of our oil painters owed their " take off " to
it also : among the latter, one of the most gifted of them all.

The second generation of English landscape painters, the
generation which corresponded to that of Raeburn, Hoppner, and
Lawrence, among her portrait painters, began with the birth, at the
end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century, of three men of

genius. The first to ap-
pear was John Crome,
commonly called 1 d
Crome, who was born at
Norwich in 1769. He
began life as a coach-
painter, but soon forsook
that metier to become a
drawing master and land-
scape painter. He died
at Norwich in 182L
His work united three
invaluable characteristics :
it was based on excellent

FIG. 382

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

models, it was refreshed and
purified by continual reference
to nature, it was inspired by
sincere personal emotions and
affections. The influence of
Hobbema and other Dutchmen
of the seventeenth century is
as obvious as that of Wilson
and Gainsborough, but nature
breathes through all that Crome
did, and his pictures have ^^'^'- 383— garden of the hesperides. (turner.)

. • r • 1 1-. IT National Gallery.

great mdividuality. He was

various for a landscape painter. Some of his works are as broad
and " large " as those of Philip de Koninck, others carry what Ruskin
called the niggling of Hobbema to an extreme. He is fairly well
represented in the national collections. Slate Quarries and Mouse-
hold Heath, in the National Gallery ; Mousehold Heath, in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, and a Landscape, in the Tate Gallery,
show different sides of his art. Another fine picture is The Poring-
land Oak (f^^S* ^^0> ^^ the Rev. C. J. Steward's collection, and a
magnificent Moonlight was lent to the Franco-British exhibition by
Mr. Darell Brown. Crome was the founder of the Norwich School of
Painting, which will, presently, have to be noticed at greater length.
Six years later than Crome, Joseph Mallord William Turner,
the son of a barber, was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden.
\ His birth took place on the 23rd of April, St. George's day, a fact
in which Ruskin used to take peculiar pleasure. His boyhood was
passed in various home employments connected more or less closely
with art, and in 1 789 he
'intered as student of the
Royal Academy. Ten
years later he became an
associate of the same
body, and in 1802 a
full member. He trav-
elled over a large part
of Western Europe in
the course of his career.
He painted in water
color and in oil, he
etched and mezzotinted,
and, in short, led a nriore

FIG. 384. — SPITHEAD.

211

(turner.)

National Gallery.

P 2

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 385. — STORM, (turner.) Tate Gallery,

Strenuous and universal art
life than any other English
painter : and he died rich.

The career of Turner was
on such a scale that it is
difficult to fit it into a hand-
book at all. He left a greater
mass of work behind him
than any other artist, before
or since, for everything he
did was done with his own
hand, without help and al-
most in secrecy. So entire
was his devotion to his own imaginative, and yet objective, form
of aesthetic activity, that in time it became his only vehicle of
expression, and practically his
one link with the world. His
career has been divided,
not unreasonably, into three
periods: a period of literal,
almost topographical, work
from nature ; a period of ex-
periment with the styles of
other men ; and a period of
free self-expression, ending
with a few years of chaos
through which splendid gleams
of imagination strike now and
then like lightning through a cloud. All these periods, but espe-
cially the two latter, may be well studied in the collection he left

to the nation. This collec-
tion consists of about one
hundred finished oil pictures
and many in various stages
of incompleteness. Among
these latter are the splendid
dreamlike landscapes, carried
as far as the palette knife
would take them, which
now hang in the Tate Gal-
lery. Besides work in oil,
the bequest enriched the

FIG. 386. — SOL DI VENEZIA. (TURNER.)

National Gallery.

FIG. 387. — GIUDECCA. (TURNER.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

212

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

nation with some nineteen thousand drawings, varying from water
color pictures, in which all the resources of that medium are
brought into play, to the slightest and most rapid sketches. From
such a mass of work it is difficult to select a few examples to

FIG. 388. — THE VALLEY FARM. (CONSTABLE.) National Gallery.

stand for the whole, but perhaps the following may be considered
fairly representative : — Kilgarran Castle (Lord Armstrong), Con-
Way Castle (Duke of Westminster), Fishermen on a Lee Shore
(Lord Iveagh), Walton Bridges (Lady Wantage), Crossing

213

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 389. SKETCH FOR THE LEAPING HORSE.

Victoria and Albert Museum.

(constable.)

the Brook
(National Gal-
1 e r y ), Spit-
head: boat's
crew recover-
ing an anchor
(ditto), Mer-
cury and
Herse (Lord
Swaythling),
A Fro s t y
Morning
(National
Gallery),
Th e Deluge
(Mr. Darell
Brown), Rock-
ets and Blue Lights (Yerkes Collection), Burial of Wilkie (National
Gallery), The Fighting Temeraire (ditto), Ulysses deriding Poly-
phemus (ditto). The "Sun of Venice" going to Sea (ditto), and
Rain, Steam, and Speed: the Great Western Railway (ditto).
We shall have to return to Turner in future sections.
John Constable, who, with Crome and Turner, completes our

triumvirate, was born at East Berg-
holt, Suffolk, in 1776. His father
was a wind-miller, and Constable
himself began life in the same em-
ployment. But he soon quitted it
and, at the comparatively late age
of twenty-four, became a student at
the Royal Academy. In 1816 he
married a wife with " prospects,"
which were fulfilled. He became
an A.R.A. in 1819, an R.A. in
1829, and died in 1837.

The personal character of Con-
stable counts for more, perhaps, in
the history of modern painting than
any other single force which could be
named. It showed a combination at
once rare, and yet necessary for the time in which he lived. In
him the instinctive, irrepressible, and yet only half-conscious desire

214

fig. 390. — cottage in cornfield.

(constable.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

FIG. 391. — SKETCH FOR THE HAY WAIN. (CONSTABLE.) Victoria and Albert Museum.

for aesthetic expression was combined with an intense love for the
simple forms of nature to which he was accustomed, and with
a self-reliant stubbornness of will which made him unpopular as a
man, but saved him from disaster as an artist. He " loved every
stump, and stile, and lane in the village," but he could not paint
without exercising the finest gift of objective selection landscape painter
ever had, and he never felt the slightest temptation to bow to idols
which were not his own. "I
imagine myself to be driving
a nail," he said ; " I have
driven it some way, and
by persevering I may drive
it home ; by quitting it to
attack others, though I may
be amusing myself, I do not
advance . . . while my par-
ticular nail stands still." His
career was not adventurous.
He sold a certain percent-
age of his landscapes ; he
occasionally painted portraits ; he had a few understanding clients
who not only enabled him to add to the income derived from his

215

FIG. 392. — VALLEY OF THE YARE. (STARK.)

National Gallery.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 393. — LANDSCAPE WITH WINDMILL.

(stark.) Mrs. Joseph.

own and his wife's modest fortunes, but also encouraged him with
their sympathy. One of these, the Rev. John Fisher, archdeacon

of Salisbury, may fairly be called
his earliest appreciator. Perhaps
the most gratifying incident in his
life was the admiration excited
by certain pictures of his when
exhibited in France, at the Salon
in 1824, and at Lille in 1825.
To these opportunities for seeing
his work much of the character
of modern French landscape has
been justly traced.

Constable's art has always been
the subject of violent, even
acrimonious, discussion. Some
have brought against it the absurd
accusation of being too literal and
imitative. Such a picture as the
Cornfield, in the National Gal-
lery, with its marvellous combina-
tion of objective truth and aesthetic unity, requires a finer instinct for
selection, for seizing upon the things which tell, and neglecting
those which do not, and for design, both at large and in detail, than
anything carried out on more idealistic lines. The assertion, which
was also made, that he could
not draw, was equally ab-
surd. To make out form,
in detail, was no part of his
object in his pictures. To
form, at large, they are mar-
vellously true, giving the
shape, modelling, and extent
of the ground and the objects
it bears with unfailing truth.
Even in the smallest kind of
drawing. Constable was a
master, as those who are
familiar with his pencil
drawings and his few por-
traits know. In short, he was a very great artist, even when
divorced from his context, while as a figure in the vision of nine-

216

FIG. 394. — GREENWICH. (viNCENT.)

Sir Cuthbert Quilter, Bart.

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

FIG. 395. — SHIPPING AT MOUTH OF THAMES.

(coTMAN.) Victoria and Albert Museum.

teenth century painting he stands out as the greatest liberator,
inventor, and creator of them all.

Like Turner, but unlike most of the better English painters.
Constable is well represented in our public collections. The
National Gallery has three fine
pictures of his maturity in the
Cornfield, The Hay Wain,
and The Valley Farm (Fig.
388), besides a crowd of less
important things. The Diploma
Gallery at Burlington House
has the Jumping Horse, of
which a superb palette knife
sketch is at South Kensington
(Fig. 389), together with an-
other, equally fine, of the Hay
Wain (Fig. 391). Besides
these the Museum owns a

collection of about 500 pictures and sketches in oil, water color,
and " black and white," nearly all bequeathed by the painter's
daughter, Miss Isabel Constable.

With the flowering of Turner and Constable the fountain of
vital sap which began to rush up the stem of British art in the
fourth or fifth decade of the eighteenth century lost its vigor,
and painting, for a time, became a matter of routine, expressing
shallow emotions and appealing to shallow admirations. There
were exceptions, of course, over and above those afforded by
Turner and Constable themselves ; but in a general way the
spirit of English painting,
between the Peace of
1815 and the 1851
Exhibition, was utterly pa-
rochial.

The chief exceptions
to this generalization were
supplied by the Norwich
School, by the School
of Water-Color Painters,
and by one individual
artist.

The Norwich School fig. 396.-chatkau of the duchesse de berri.

, , . ' (bonington.) Mrs. Joseph.

gives the best instance to

217

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 397. — THE STABLE. (mORLAND.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

be found in English art, until quite recent years, of a body
of men working on common lines and in the tradition of a

common master. The Eng-
lish character does not readily
adapt itself to such a system.
It is at once too individualistic
— "every Englishman is an
island!" — and too eager to
reach results. The effect of
the latter characteristic is that
English artists have been less
thoroughly grounded in their
metier than their continental
rivals, and therefore both less
able and less ready to teach.
Within the last twenty years
a change has taken place.
We have learnt from the ex-
ample of the French. Our
painters have shown a new
tendency to fall into groups
round a central figure: and
they have certainly become
much better workmen. The
Norwich School was distin-
guished by a common prac-
tice, rather than by anythim
that could fairly be calle
a principle. It was a
school exclusively of land-
scape, accepting the
nature to which it was
most accustomed as its
subject, painting simply
and solidly, composing
with care and some arti-
ficiality, never forgetting
that a picture, to be
framed and hung up in
an English middle-class
home, was the thing in
making. The more

FIG. 398. AI.DERNEY CATTLE.

Tate Gallery.

(ward.)

FIG. 399. — SUSPENSE. (lANDSEER.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

218

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

FIG. 400. — WAR. (lANDSEER.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

important members, after Old Crome himself, were the Ladbrookes :
Robert Ladbrooke (1770-1842), the father, Henry (1800-1870),
and John Bernay (1803-
1879), the two sons; John
Bernay Crome, " Young
Crome "(1793-1842), whose
best works are much better
than his reputation would lead
one to expect ; James Stark
(1794-1859); Joseph Stan-
nard (1797-1830); George
Vincent (1 796-? 1830); and
a man of real genius, John Sell
Cotman(? 1782-1842). Few
of the better works of these
men have made their way into our public collections. Stark, alone,
is represented in the National Gallery by a picture showing him
nearly at his best. George Vincent's best work is a famous Green-
wich Hospital, from the Thames (Fig. 394), which he painted more
than once. As for Cotman, his oil pictures present great difficulties to
the connoisseur. His works — or those ascribed to him — vary greatly
in style and manner, and offer a promising arena to the scientific picture
sorter. His water colors and designs in black and white are more
homogeneous. The latter, especially,
show a pictorial imagination of the
highest kind. To the present writer
it seems not too much to say that such
designs as Turning the Sod (Fig.
5 10) and The Centaur (Fig. 51 l)in
the British Museum Print Room have
more imagination and a finer aesthetic
unity than anything in Turner's Liber
Studiorum. Cotman was also a re-
markable etcher and draughtsman of
architecture. In spite of the enhanced
reputation he has lately begun to
enjoy, his name is still below the
place it ought to hold in the history
of modern art.

A small category of painters who
do not fit into any of the groups al-
ready discussed must now be noticed.

219

—CRUCIFIXION. (ETTY.)

Mr. F. Sidney.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 402. — BATHER. (eTTY.)

Tate Gallery.

I mean the animal painters. They
do not come readily under other
heads, because they had, as a
class, a quite distinct origin. The
English love of country pursuits
led early to the existence of a
set of men whose business it was
to illustrate sports, paint the por-
traits of foxhounds, racehorses,
and so on. Now and again one
of these men would develop more
talent than the rest and earn the
right to be considered an artist.
Wootton, already mentioned as a
landscape painter (see p. 209),
was one of these ; another was
the excellent George Stubbs
(1724-1806), who painted his
own type of horse with remark-
able skill and soundness ; a third was the great George Morland
(1763-1803), who became at once a delightful artist and one of
the most consummate painters of modern times. Morland's breeding
was essentially artistic. His grandfather, George Henry Morland
(d. 1789), was not a bad painter, if the small picture ascribed to
him in the Glasgow Gallery {The Oyster Seller) is really by him ;
his father, Henry Robert Modand (1 730 (?)-l 797), was a very
good artist indeed ; while his
mother, Maria, at least exhibited
at the R.A. George was an
improvement on his father both as
a painter and as a citizen, much
as he left to be desired in the
latter respect. For Henry Mor-
land prostituted his talent to
some undignified uses, a tempta-
tion resisted by the son even when
things were at their worst. And
things were bad with him nearly
all through his career. His dis-
sipations were probably less severe
than has been asserted, but he
always spent more than he had,

220

IIG. 403. THE REFUSAL. (WILKIE.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

FIG. 404. THE SONNET. (mULREADY.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

and so was never free from the
stress of his creditors and of those
who knew how to find a harvest
in his difficulties. He painted a
large number of pictures, for he
had extraordinary facihty of in-
vention and execution. Techni-
cally, his work has seldom been
surpassed, and it also shows that
he was endowed with an extraor-
dinary feeling for beauty and
artistic unity. It is difficult to say
whether he excelled most as a
genre or as an animal painter.
Masterpieces in the former class
are the Lavinia series, the Visit
to the Child at Nurse, and Black
Monday: in the latter, the Interior of a Stable (National Gallery),
and A Stable (Fig. 397 ; V. and A. Museum).

Morland's brother-in-law, James Ward (1769-1859), was a fine
artist in the same genre, although in a very different style. His
manner is personal to an extreme degree, and only becomes quite
acceptable in his larger pictures. Harlech Castle, in the National
collection ; two huge canvases in the Tate Gallery, A Iderney Bull,
Cow, and Calf in a Landscape (Fig. 398) and Gordale Scar,
Yorkshire; and 5/. Donat's Castle, with Bulls Fishtins, in the V.
and A. Museum, show him at his best. To James Ward belongs the
honor, such as it is, of having influenced the first steps in animal

painting of Sir Edwin Land-
seer. Landseer (1802-1873)
was for many years the prime
favorite of those English
people who were fond of
pictures but ignorant of art.
His humanization of animals
appealed to them, his shallow-
ness did not shock them, while
they were unable to appreciate
the poverty of his color and
the emptiness of his facility.
So during his lifetime he en-
joyed a popularity reached by

FIG. 405. — COTTAGE IN HYfcE PARK.

(nasmyth.) Tate Gallery.

221

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 406. TAMING OF A SHREW. (LESLIE.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

few. His best pictures, perhaps, are still in private hands, the Death
of the Otter, for instance. But he is more than sufficiently well

represented in the National
Gallery and in the Victoria
and Albert Museum.

The early years of the
nineteenth century saw the
activity of a considerable
number of painters of more
or less agreeable talent and
of real sincerity in David
Wilkie( 1785- 1841), Patrick
Nasmyth (1786-1831),
William Dyce( 1806- 1864).
and John Phillip (1817-
1867), all Scots; the Irish-
man, William Mulready (1 786-1863), the Anglo-Americans, Charles
Robert Leslie (1794-1859), and Gilbert Stuart Newton (1795-
1835); and the Englishmen, Augustus Wall Callcott (1 779-1844),
Wiiliam Etty (1787-1849), and George Lance (1802-1864).

Etty, in a sense, may be called the most unlucky of artists ; for he
was endowed by nature with two gifts : one for painting the nude

human animal, the other for that
larger domesticity which means love
for one's own surroundings and place
of origin ; and the two had the worst
effect on each other. If Etty could
have transferred himself in youth to
some centre where his own particular
genius could have developed fully and
been warmly welcomed, he might have
become a leader in art. As it was,
he had to pass his life in shadow, to
see his work and himself misunder-
stood, and to be almost forgotten when
he died. His pictures are most un-
equal, ranging from chalky, cold, and
even meaningless combinations of gaudy
color to renderings of human beauty,
in which realism and style are united
with extraordinary felicity. Titian, Rubens, Rembrandt, had mag-
nificent conventions for flesh ; Etty, at his best, gives you the real,

222

FIG. 407. UNCLE TOBY AND

WIDOW WADMAN. (LESLIE.)

National Gallery.

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

FIG. 408.— I.ES TEMMES SAVANTES.
(LESLIE.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

glowing, palpable thing itself. He is fairly well seen in our public
collections : Youth at the Prow and Pleasure at the Helm, and
The Bather (Fig. 402), in the National
Gallery ; Cupid and Psyche, at South
Kensington ; The Storm, in the Man-
chester Gallery, and a series of heroic
subjects in the Edinburgh National
Gallery, are among his better things.
But the best examples I know in the
ownership of any public body are a
triple study of the nude, in the Metro-
politan Museum, New York, and a
quasi-copy after a Titian Venus in the
Royal Scottish Academy.

The men of talent were infinitely
more successful m a worldly sense.
Wilkie was a child of fortune all his
life. His first mishap was the loss of
health from which, eventually, he died.
His best things show a rare faculty

for building works of real, though modest, originality on the example of
an alien school and different age. The best pictures by him accessible
to the public are The Blind Fiddler and The Village Fair, in the
National Gallery, the sketch for Blind Man's Buff, in the Tate
Gallery, Boys digging for Rats, in the Diploma Gallery, Burling-
ton House, and The Refusal (Fig. 403), at South Kensington;
but the unfinished, indeed the scarcely commenced, Knox dis-
pensing the Sacrament at Calder
House, in the National Gallery of
Scotland, has great charm, promis-
ing more, perhaps, than the finished
picture would have performed. A
Bathsheha, owned by Mrs. Naylor,
of Leigh ton Hall, Welshpool, is
perhaps the best of his efforts out-
side his own proper field. The
Reading of a Will, at Munich,
has been entirely destroyed by re-
painting. Patrick Nasmyth's land-
scapes, in a manner based on Hob-
bema, have always been popular with the lovers of minute finish.
Several good examples are in the National Gallery. William Dyce

223

riG. 409. — FRUIT. (lance.)

National Gallery.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 410. — THE READER. (t. S. GOOD.)

Tate Gallery.

has earned fame by his wall
pictures in the King's Robing
Room at Westminster, which
are very good indeed in view
of the conditions of his time.
John Phillip was a native of
Aberdeen. He received his art
education in the R.A., and began
his career by painting scenes of
humble Scottish life. In 1846
he went to Spain, was at once
captivated by Velazquez, and
began that long series of illustra-
tions of Spanish life, painted often
with great vivacity and breadth,
and in fine color, which earned
him the sobriquet of " Phillip of
Spain." His best picture is prob-
ably the Spanish IVake or "La Gloria, " in the Edinburgh Gallery.
Another excellent painter who, at times, treated Spanish life, was
F. Y. Hurlstone (1880-1869), by whom there is a fine picture in
the Tate Gallery. It is fat and rich in impasto, and the work of a
true colorist.

William Mulready was born at Ennis, Co. Clare, in 1 786, but
came to London while still a boy and entered the Academy

Schools in 1800. He became
both A.R.A. and R.A. in the
interval between the exhibitions of
1815 and 1816. He was a slow
and most painstaking worker, so
his pictures are scarce outside the
Victoria and Albert Museum,
which owns no less than thirty-
three. The two best, perhaps, are
The Sonnet (Fig. 404) and Choos-
ing the Wedding Gown. His art is
spoilt by his hot and gaudy color.
More agreeable, on the whole,
is the gentle, almost feminine art
of C. R. Leslie, who might have
been a very acceptable painter
even now, if he had not embar-
224

FIG. 411. — BYRON. (PHILLIPS.)

From Print.

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

FIG. 412. — HASTINGS. (CHALON.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

rassed himself with a text.
His subjects are nearly all
taken from writers — Shake-
speare, Moliere, Cervantes,
Sterne, Le Sage, &c. — whose
visions are seldom on all fours
with those of pictorial art.
Leslie, like Mulready, is too
well represented at South
Kensington, where twenty-
four of his pictures have found
a home. Gilbert Stuart New-
ton was a rarer spirit, but his mind gave way at a comparatively
early age, and his works are scarce. Ahelard is in the Diploma
Gallery at the Royal Academy; Yorick and the Grisette in the Tate
Gallery ; Captain Macheath in the possession of Lord Lansdowne.

To the same class as the two last belongs Augustus Leopold Egg,
whose works, however, betray a kind of ability which is not effective
in paint. Well drawn and intelligently arranged, they have no
enveloppe and no pictorial motive. Pretty much the same verdict may
be passed on William Collins, with whom landscape plays as large
a part as incident. He was a better colorist than some, but was
excelled in his turn by the still-life painter, George Lance, several
of whose pictures are in our London galleries (Fig. 409).

Callcott, to whom the foolish name of "the English Claude" was
sometimes given, was born in 1 779,
and, like Hoppner, under whom
he afterward studied, began public
life as a chorister. His landscapes,
which are much better as a rule
than his subject pictures, betray the
study of Cuyp as well as Claude.
He is not well represented in the
national collections; his master-
piece, probably, is the Mouth of
the Tyne, in the collection of
Lord Ridley.

Paul Falconer Poole, a native
of Bristol, had no regular educa-
tion in art. But he early won
a certam measure of success, and / s

« V.V.11U111 iiiv,«ouiv, vyi ouv,v-v-oc., uiiva ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ PORTRAIT. (jACKSON.)

tor many years was the chief Victoria and Albert Museum.

225 Q

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

English painter of imaginative subjects, after Watts. He is repre-
sented both in the Tate Gallery and at South Kensington.

Contemporary with these men
were a number of portrait
painters to whom it is scarcely
necessary to allude. For some
reason not easy to trace, the
pictorial treatment of portraiture
almost entirely disappeared be-
tween the death of Lawrence
and the sudden turning of Millais
to that form of art. Practically
the only exception to the uni-
versal dulness was supplied by
Watts, who contrived to unite
largeness of style and a true
no. 414.-COLLEONE STATUE, VENICE. pictorial imagination to the more

(J. HOLLAND.) Mrs. Joseph. objective requirements of por-

trait. Millais thought it necessary
to make excuses when he took to portraiture, so low had its reputation
sunk. Even Watts, who contrived to give it so much dignity, did
his best to avoid it during the first half of his life.

George Frederick Watts (1817-1904) was of Welsh extraction;
and both in art and character showed many Celtic traits. His
education was desultory. He worked for a short time in the
Academy schools, and haunted the studio of William Behnes, the
sculptor ; but he used to say his real master was Phidias, and his
real school the Parthenon marbles. He had a genius for friendship,
and painted generation after generation of single families. In
one case the succession ran to six generations ! He sent in a picture,
The First Naval Victory of the English, to the Westminster Hall
competition of 1847. It won a prize of £500, was bought by the
Government, and now hangs in a committee room of the House of
Lords. A fresco painted in the same building has disappeared, but
another, in the great hall at Lincoln's Inn, being painted on a more
seasoned wall, has had better fortune, and may fairly be called
the finest modern wall picture in this country. About the same
time he began the great series of allegorical pictures by which,
perhaps, he is likely to be best remembered; for they have the
almost unique merit, among allegories, of being easily understood
as well as fine in art. A few years later his other series, that of
portraits of famous people, was commenced. These are very

226

MODERN PAINTING FROM TURNER TO WATTS

unequal, but among them are some of the finest heads painted by
any modern master. Lord Stratford de Redclyffe (National Por-
trait Gallery), Russell Gurney (Fig. 418), IValter Crane (Fig.
451), and William Morris (National Portrait Gallery) may be
named among the best. Some of his time was given to sculpture,
in which he might have greatly excelled had he concentrated his
powers on that form of art (see Chapter XX). Watts died in Little
Holland House, Kensington, in 1904. The nation is rich in
his pictures. During his lifetime he gave many to provincial gal-
leries, the finest presented in that way, perhaps, being the Fata Mor-
gana, at Leicester. One of his best pictures. Time, Death, and
Judgment, hangs in St. Paul's Cathedral. To the National Por-
trait Gallery he gave a series of thirty-one portraits of celebrated
people, and to the Tate Gallery twenty-three pictures. By the
Cosmopolitan Club, a society established for many years in Charles
Street, Mayfair, in what was at one time the painter's studio, the
Tate Gallery has also been enriched by one of the most effective of
his decorative pictures, a huge canvas, dealing with the Story of
Nostagio degli Onesti, from the Decameron. A large collection of
his works is open to the public in his house, Limnerslease, near
Compton, in Surrey.

For Bibliography, see end of Chapter XVI.

FIG. 415. CALISTO. (rOTHWELL.)

National Gallery, Dublin.

227

FIG. 4l6.r— MISS ALEXANDER. (WHISTLER.)

Mr. Alexander.

228

FIG. 417. — HEARTS ARE TRUMPS. (SIR JOHN MILLAIS, BART.)

Mrs. J. H. Seeker.

CHAPTER XVI

PAINTING-FROM THE PRE-RAPHAELITE
REVOLT TO THE PRESENT DAY

With the culmination of Watts, the history of British art, before
the outbreak of those movements which affected it so profoundly
during the second half of last century, comes to an end. Watts
lived on, indeed, until the twentieth century was three years old,
but his art was curiously homogeneous, and in all its ups and
downs was scarcely affected by the various kinds of modernism,
whether in revivals or new experiments, which broke out around
him.

In 1848 seven young men bound themselves together in a society
to which they gave the name of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.
They were Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Holman Hunt, John
Everett Millais, James Collinson, and Frederick George Stephens,

229

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 418.-
(WATTS.)

-RUSSELL GURNEY .

National Gallery.

painters ; Thomas Woolner,
sculptor; and William Michael
Rossetti, writer. Their object
was to break with the empty
conventionality which had grad-
ually dominated English art,
substituting for it real, even if
primitive, ideas, and the sincere
study of nature down to her
most intimate details. The
movement was at first received
with ridicule and violent abuse,
but a
for-
mid-
ab le
d e -
fen-
der

arose in the person of John Ruskin,
whose eloquence did much gradually to
win respect for the new principles. These
were carried to an extreme at first, but
were softened as time went on, and

t h e
final
effect
of the
move-
ment
was
entirely
painting.

FIG. 419. — ELIJAH AND WIDOW'S

SON. (madox brown.)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

beneficial to English

Gabriel Rossetti,
spirit, had, perhaps.

FIG. 420. HOPE.

(watts.) Tate Gallery.

its ruling
been in-
fluenced more than can now be
traced by his friend. Ford Madox
Brown, in whose work a fore-
shadowing of the P.R.B. prin-
ciples can be recognized. Brown
(1821-1893) was educated, as
an artist, at Bruges, Ghent, and
230

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

FIG. 421. — MRS. MORRIS. (ROSSETTI.)

FIG. 422. — LILITH. (ROSSETTI.)

Antwerp, and did not establish himself in England until 1847.
He took part in the Westminster Hall competitions (1845-
1848), and was commissioned thirty years later to execute a
series of twelve wall paintings in the Manchester Town Hall,
which remains his chief work. He is represented by two
important pictures at the Tate Gallery, Christ Washing St. Peter's
Feet and Chaucer at the Court of Edward III.; and by an
extraordinary page of elaborate perversity, called Work,, in the
Manchester Gallery. Two of his
better designs are Elijah and the
Widow's Son (V. and A. Museum)
and Romeo and Juliet (Leathart
Collection). Madox Brown's gift
was essentially Teutonic. He either
did not feel, or set himself to spurn,
certain artistic conditions which men
of Latin and Celtic blood instinc-
tively obey. He stuffed his nar-
rative till he killed it, he forced his
drama till he caricatured it, he too
often confused passion with gri-
mace; and his art remained the art
of a young man all his life. He
never was an actual member of the
P.R.B., and some doubt remains as

231

FIG. 423. — REGINA CORDIUM. (roSSETTI.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

to whether he was invited to
become one or not. His in-
fluence, nevertheless, was far-
reaching and profound.

Gabriel Rossetti (1828-
1882), the real founder and
ruling spirit of the P.R.B.,
was in a sense Madox
Brown's pupil, but he painted
his first picture, The Girlhood

4^4- — CHANT d'aMOUR. (sIR E. BUkNE-JONES.)

Mr. James Ismay.

of Mar^ Virgin, with the help of Holman
Hunt. He had been for a short time a
student at the Royal Academy, and there
can be no doubt that his art would have
profited by a longer stay. He never passed
out of "the antique" into "the life," and
throughout his career he was handicapped
by his consequent inability to do what he
wished with his palette and brush. In
spite of this he contrived to win a great
reputaUon among his friends as a painter
both in water color and in oil. His sub-
jects were,
as a rule,
legendary,
mystical,
and poetical
rather than
strictly pic-
torial: and
it is not un-
just to say
that his gifts

FIG. 425. — DEPTHS OF THE SEA.
(sir E. BURNE-JONES.)

Mr. R. H. Benson.

FIG. 426. — BURD ELLEN.

(wind US.)

as a painter are chiefly
shown in his water colors. Together
with Burne-Jones, William Morris,
and others, he painted the walls of
the old debating room in the Oxford
Union, but the pictures are now
232

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

fig. 427. — the annunciation,
(g. a. storey.)

almost invisible. Among the best
of his oil pictures are The Blue
Bower, The Beloved, and the
LaclyLilithoi\864. T\ie Dante's
Dream, now in the Liverpool
Gallery, is an ambitious failure,
considering that it was painted in
the nineteenth century. Rossetti
avoided publicity while he lived,
and it was not until after his death
that any considerable section of
the public became acquainted with
his art. Two of his pictures, Beata
Beatrix and an early work, Ecce
Ancilla Domini (Behold the
Handmaid of the Lord), are in
the National Collection at Mill-
bank. Rossetti 's personal influence
over those with whom he came in
contact was enormous, and to him

chiefly must be imputed that plunge downward in the technique
of painting which occurred in England more or less simultaneously
with the successful attempt to raise its intellectual level. Among
the numerous
painters who
may be called
his followers,
few show any
real compre-
hension of the
expressive
value of their
material.

Of all his
followers by
far the most
important
was Sir Ed-
ward Burne- fig. 428. — mercy and truth. (MRS. DE MORGAN.)

Jones (1833-

1898), who was, like Watts, of Celtic extraction. He was educated

for the Church, but at the age of twenty-two made the acquaintance

233

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

of Rossetti, by whom he was induced to leave Exeter College,
Oxford, and commence painter. He produced a large number of

designs for stained glass, he col-
laborated with Rossetti and Morris
in decorating the Oxford Union,
he travelled with Ruskin in Italy
and copied the Venetian Masters ;
he decorated rooms for Lord Car-
lisle, William Morris, and Birket
Foster; he made cartoons for
tapestry and for mosaic; and he
painted many pictures. His art
was unknown to the public until
the opening of the Grosvenor Gal-
lery in 1877, when he made a
great sensation with The Da^s
of Creation, The Beguiling of
Merlin and The Mirror of Venus.
These were followed a year later
by Laus Veneris and the Chant
d' Amour, perhaps his two best
works. Other things in which his full power is seen are : King
Cophetua and the Beggar Maid (National Collection), Wheel
of Fortune (Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour), The Golden Stairs
(Lady Battersea), The Depths of the Sea (R. H. Benson,
Esq.), The Brazen Tower and The Briar Rose. He was

elected an A.R.A. in 1885;

FIG. 429. — SHADOW OF DEATH.

(holman hunt.) Manchester Gallery
By permission of Messrs. Agnew &r= Sons.

exhibited a pictorial hint
to the Academy the fol-
lowing year; and resigned
in 1893. He was created a
baronet in 1894. Burne-
Jones would deserve to be
set on one of the highest
pedestals in the temple of
art were it not for certain
peculiarities, which were his
own, and faults of tech-
nique, which he probably
owed to the influence of
Rossetti. His imagination was effeminate, and his self-criticism
weak. As a draughtsman, he had little sense of structure and

234

ITG. 430. — LORENZO AND ISABELLA.

(millais.) Liverpool Gallery.

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

solidity; as a painter, he entirely failed to give his material the
rich body which is its right. Splendid in color though his finer
works certainly are, the poverty of their substance deprives them of
a place beside the great Venetians by whom they were inspired.
This defect, and the structural ignorance which spoils the beauty
of his drawing, correspond so closely to similar defects in Rossetti
that we are doing the latter no injustice in laying them at his door.

Other painters whose work sets them in the same group with
Rossetti and Burne- Jones are James Collinson, member of the P.R.B.,
Charles Allston Collins,
Arthur Hughes, Mat-
thew James Lawless, and
W. L. Windus, all of
whom did good work
which has never won
appreciation. Coming
down later still, in the
same succession, we
reach the names of J. M.
Strudwick, Spencer Stan-
hope, Fairfax Murray,
Evelyn Pickering (Mrs.
de Morgan), T. M.
Rooke, Marie Spartali
(Mrs. Stillman), Archi-
bald Macgregor, Byam
Shaw, Reginald Framp-
ton, Graham Robertson,
Cayley Robinson, T. C.
Gotch, etc.

Returning to the
P.R.B., one member
requires a paragraph to himself, so lonely has been the furrow he
has ploughed for the last half-century. Mr. William Holman Hunt,
O.M., born in 1826, was the oldest of the active pre-Raphaelites.
He is one of those painters, more numerous, perhaps, in this country
than elsewhere, who unite considerable aesthetic gifts with perverse
theories as to their use: the result being a series of works before
which it is quite impossible to feel that sense of active repose which
the finest art inspires. A picture which excites controversy is not
necessarily a good picture : and nearly all Mr. Hunt's pictures do this.
His best works, perhaps — as works of art — are Strayed Sheep y The

FIG. 431-

-YEOMAN OF THE GUARD. (MILLAIS.)

Tate Gallery.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 432. — SOUVENIR OF VELAZQUEZ.

(millais.) R. Academy.

Hireling Shepherd, the Shadow
of Death, and the Finding of
Christ in the Temple. But every
picture with an interesting per-
sonality behind it is interesting:
and the personaHty betrayed in
Mr. Hunt's work is very interest-
ing indeed, but, like the person-
ality of Mantegna, it is not es-
pecially that of a painter. Among
those who should be catalogued
in his suite, although some among
them would not confess, per-
haps, to being his disciples, are
W. S. Burton, R. B. Martineau,
and Frederick Sandys.

The only other member of the
Brotherhood who requires de-
tailed notice is Millais. Sir John
Everett Millais, Bart. (1829-

1896), was a Jerseyman. He came to London at the age of nine,

was one of the most brilliant of Academy students at the age of

seventeen, an A.R.A. at twenty-four, an R.A. at thirty-four, and

P.R.A. a few months before his

death. He began life as a painter

by accepting the conventional

methods in vogue before 1848,

but on the foundation of the P.R.B.

he adopted its principles in all their

rigidity, sending pictures to the

exhibition which raised a storm of

abuse and ridicule. Among these

were Ferdinand and Ariel, The

Carpenter's Shop, the Woodman's

Daughter, Lorenzo and Isabella

(Liverpool Gallery), The Return

of the Dove to the Ark (Oxford

Gallery), Mariana in the Moated

Grange, and The Death of Ophelia

(Tate Gallery). The first picture

to win the suffrages of the crowd

as well as of the more open-minded

236

fig. 433. — portrait of j. c. hook,
(millais.)

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

i/'i

ll^^

>'L-i

»/«

' ^

r /

m im'' ^

TIG. 434. — LILIUM AURATUM.
(j. F. LEWIS.)

critics, was The Husuenot (Miller Col-
lection), which was folio wed by The Order
of Release (Tate), the Proscribed Royal-
ist, The Rescue, the Black Brunsioicker,
the Vale of Rest, Sir Isumhras at the
Ford (Mr. R. H. Benson), and, above
all. The Eve of St. Agnes (Mrs. Prinsep),
in which poetry of general conception
was united to a literal and non-selective
execution. Toward 1870 a change
came over his ideas. He painted more
richly and with a better sense of decora-
tion, turning out such fine pages of color
as Stella, Vanessa, a Souvenir of Velaz-
quez (R. Academy), the Gambler's Wife,
and The Boyhood of Raleigh (Tate).
About the same time he began the regu-
lar painting of portraits, the earliest to attract any great attention
being Sisters (three of his own daughters), Miss Nina Lehmann,
Hearts are Trumps (Mrs. J. H. Seeker and her sisters ; three young
gids at dummy whist), and Mrs. Bischoffsheim. Among his later
portraits are Mrs. F. H. Myers, The Earl of Shaftesbury, K. G.
(British and Foreign Bible Society), Mrs. Jopling, ^ree Gladstones
(National Gallery; Christ Church,
Oxford; Earl of Rosebery,
K.G.), Mrs. Perugini, John
Bright, Cardinal Newman, Lord
Tennyson, Sir Gilbert Greenall,
Lord Beaconsfield, J. C. Hook,
R.A., Dorothy Thorpe, Lady
P^SSy Primrose, and Simon
Eraser.

If art be "nature seen through
a temperament," Millais as a
landscape painter was not an
artist at all, for his pictures are
so entirely objective that a pho-
tograph from, say. Chill Octo-
ber, is hardly to be distinguished
from one after the place itself.
And so with all his more ambi-
tious landscapes. They are por-

jL 1

237

FIG. 435. — PICCADILLV. (E. J. GREGORY.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 436. — HER FIRST DANCE. (siR W. Q. ORCHARDSON.)

By permission of Messrs. Dowdeswell.

traits of sitters with whom he ventured to take no sort of liberty:
they had become his friends too late in life. If he had held out

his hand twenty years

sooner, he might have
had time to work through
his over-respectful ap-
proaches, and to give us
landscapes worthy to hang
beside the Eve of St.
Agnes, or the portraits
of Gladstone, Tenny^son,
and Hook-

The place of Millais
in our history is difficult
to fix. At present he is
being judged mainly by
^ his faults, and his fame

stands lower than it did while he was alive. But the time will come
to him, as to others, when his weak productions will be forgotten, and
he will be remembered only as the painter of such things as those
enumerated above. The danger to his reputation may then lie in a
certain lack of individuality, in a variety which appears to spring
rather from vacillation than from breadth of sympathy. The man
who could paint both Christ in the house of his Parents and
Bubbles may seem too vague in outline for worship, and the power
evident in his best things may be insufficient to keep him in the front
rank. Everything, however, is forgiven to a colorist, and in color

most of his pictures are fine,
while the years will soften
crudeness in the rest.

To find pre-Raphaelite
principles carried to their
logical conclusion we have
to turn to two painters who
had nothing to do with the
brotherhood, or with each
other. These two were J. F.
Lewis. R.A. (1805-1876),
andJohnBrett(l832-1902).
Lewis was called by Ruskin
one of the leaders of pre-Raphaelism, while of a picture by Brett
the' same critic declared it was "after John Lewis, simply the most

238

FIG. 437. — MASTER BABY. (ORCHARDSON.)

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

FIG. 438. — EARL SPENCER.

(frank HOLL.)

perfect piece of painting, with respect to touch, in the Academy
this year; in some points of precision it goes beyond anything the
re-RaphaeUtes have done yet."
oth Lewis and Brett are well
represented in the Tate Gallery.
To me their art seems without
serious interest.

Without going so far as those
who would derive every touch of
poetry and of love for beauty in
modern English painting from the
pre-Raphaelites, it must yet be con-
fessed that their influence was great
and is by no means exhausted even
now. How far this was due to
their own example and how far to
that of the real pre-Raphaelites,
the Italians of the fifteenth century,
it would take a volume to
determine. It may be said that the
study of these latter men's works was a result of the movement of
1848. At that rate, the general revival of interest in primitive art,
and the total neglect of the Italians of the seventeenth century, may
be credited to Madox Brown,
who thus becomes a very im-
portant person indeed. For
there can be no doubt whatever
that his example was the torch set
to the pre-Raphaelite bale-fire.

The following list includes
most of the better painters, not
yet mentioned, who have shown
obvious sympathy with pre-
Raphaelite ideas : G. P. Boyce,
Walter Crane, W. H. Deverell,
Arthur Hughes, Frederick
Shields, Simeon Solomon, J. E.
Southall, Henry Wallis, Mat-
thew J. Lawless, Gerald Moira,
and E. J. Gregory.

The pre-Raphaelite revolt is
the last great movement which fig 439

239

COUSINS, (frank HOLL.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

really belongs to the history of British Art. Those developments
which have taken place since are more cosmopolitan than British.
They have been moves toward assimilating our insular ideas to those
of the Continent, which, in painting, mean the ideas of France and
Holland. Being all moves in one direction, they have had con-
siderable similarity, one with another, and it is scarcely worth while
to dwell much on the differences which separate the neo-Scots
school from that of Newlyn, or both from those franker disciples of

Paris who have been so greatly
encouraged by the genius of the
two Americans, Whistler and
Sargent(Figs.416, 449, 450).

The Scottish School which
became so conspicuous in the
sixties, was mainly the creation
of Robert Scott Lauder, whose
teaching had a great effect on the
painters who were beginning their
careers just after the completion
of the first half of the nineteenth
century. The two ablest members
of the school were John Pettie,
who died comparatively young,
and Sir William Quiller Orchard-
son, who has gradually conquered
a place in the front rank of Euro-
pean painters, and that in spite of
the extreme individuality of his
style. His best pictures are divid-
FiG. 440.— SPRING, (j. LAVERY.) cQ bctwccn portraiture and the

Musee du Liixembourg, Paris. i*i r f*ii..- T.i

higher lorm or illustration. In the
former class, Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart, is perhaps his finest work;
in the latter, Voltaire (Hamburg Kunsthalle), Napoleon on the
Bellerophon (Tate Gallery), and A Tender Chord (Humphrey
Roberts Collection), show him at his best.

The younger Scottish school originated in Glasgow, whither, during
the last thirty years, a very large number of fine pictures by the
French romanticists have found their way. How far the existence
of these pictures, and others of good quality in the local collections,
may have been the cause, and how far the result, of the local interest
in art it is difficult to say. Certain it is that for many years past
an ever-increasing number of young Glaswegians have attracted

240

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

general attention by their pict-
ures. The first Glasgow
painter to develop a new
and personal feeling toward
nature was John Milne
Donald (1819-1866). He
was the true artistio progenitor
of Colin Hunter, whose best
works, such as the Herring
Market at Sea (Manchester
Gallery) and Lobster Fishers,
show

FIG. 441. — WHARFDALE. (CECIL LAWSON.)

FIG. 442. — AN EARLY

VICTORIAN.

(W. LOGSDAIL.)

both fidelity to nature and a brilliant gift of
artistic selection. By far the strongest im-
pression was made, however, on the Glasgow
School, by the example of Whistler and by
the work of a native impressionist of great
ability, Mr. William McTaggart. The more
distinguished of the younger men are Sir
James Guthrie, now P.R.S.A., John La very
(Fig. 440), George Henry, Edward Hornell,
Alexander Roche, James Paterson, E. A.
Walton, T. Austen Brown, Joseph Crawhall,
Harrington Mann, D. Y. Cameron.

The Newlyn school was not a local develop-
ment, like that of Glasgow, but merely consisted
of a number of young artists who held similar
ideas, and
thought it
wise and

pleasant to withdraw into the
soft quietude of the Cornish
coast ' for their development.
The leader of the exodus, if
such a word may be used, was
Stanhope Forbes, whose wife,
Elizabeth Forbes, is one of the
few women who can both con-
ceive an organic work of art and
carry it out. The main character-
istics of the group, as a whole,
are fidelity to scenes of familiar fig. 443

241

-MUSIC LESSON.

(lord LEIGHTON.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 444. MAUNDY THURSDAY. (siR J. D. LINTON.)

life for subjects, and their execution in a broad manner of brushing,
with scrupulous regard to the behavior of Ught. Besides the

Stanhope Forbes, the
group includes Frank
B r a m 1 e y, Norman
Garstin, John da
Costa and several
others.

Apart from these
more or less organized
movements, English
painting has had its
groups and tendencies
like other schools. To
us, w^ith our present
inclinations, the most interesting group appears to be formed by the
men who are nearest to nature, who obey, in fact, the principles
of Constable and Courbet, even although some among them would
rather criticise than praise those two artists' works. Most of these
men are landscape painters, and, as nature has many moods, they
show enough variety to make it appear a little venturesome to put them
all in one group. James Clark Hook (1819-1907) was a Londoner
born well within sound of Bow Bells. In his youth he received the
advice of Constable and won the Academy gold medal. For years
he painted costume pictures, but about 1854, when he was already
thirty-five years of age, he discovered his true line and began that

series of sea and coast subjects
which made him famous. His
works are so curiously equal in
style, merit, and "importance"
that selection is difficult. Luff
Bo^ ( 1 859) and four pictures
in the Tate Gallery represent
him well.

Still more realistic than
Hook are Henry Moore
(1831-1895) and. Napier
Hemy. Moore, especially, \
built up a style of rendering the
sea which has never been ap-
proached for veracity in texture, color, and movement. His blue seas,
with the sun behind the spectator, almost produce illusion. Among

242

FIG. 445.— ^SUMMER MOON. (lEIGHTON.)

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

FIO. 446. — THE OPEN BOOK.
(albert MOORE.)

les sees things with more

his better things are The Newhaven
Packet, Clear Shining after Rain
which won the Grand Prix in
Paris Exhibition of 1889), a
Perfect Day for a Cruise, and A
June Sea. Mr. Napier Hemy has
more variety, but less freshness.
Two pictures in the Tate Gallery —
Pilchards and The London River —
represent him well. Edwin Hayes,
Irish by birth, worked in much
the same style; Mr. W. L. Wyllie
paints life on the water with a keen
sense of its scenic qualities — evi-
dence, Toil, Glitter, Grime, and
Wealth on a Flowing Tide and
The Battle of the Nile, both in the
Tate Gallery. Mr. Thomas Somerscai

breadth and simplicity, but suggests the light and movement of the
south with the happiest truth in Off Valparaiso (Tate Gallery).

Of the landscape painters, in the literal sense, belonging to this
group of independent naturalists, the most distinguished is Cecil
Gordon Lawson (1851-1882), who was, in all probability, only
prevented by his weak health from taking a higher place than any
other English landscape painter since the death of Turner. His
best work combines a poetic imagination with frank observation and
grandeur of style in a
very high degree. His
life was too short for a
great harvest. Among
his best pictures are
The Minister's Gar-
den (Manchester Gal-
lery), The August
Moon (Tate Gallery),
The Hop Gardens of
England, The Cloud,
and Burden Moor.
The influences we feel
in Cecil Lawson's art
are those of Watts and
Ruysdael, with

'. — HOME FROM THE RIDE.

Tate Gallery.

243

(CHARLES FURSE.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

ft .

FIG. 448. — DIANA OF THE UPLANDS.

(CH. FURSE.) Tate Gallery.

whom, too, Mr. Alfred East
has much in common, in spite
of the more decorative balance
of his conceptions. The influ-
ence of Corot is also evident
in his work. More directly
traceable to Constable is the
art of Mr. Mark Fisher, whose
best pictures are at once bril-
liant pages from nature and
thoroughly well organized crea-
tions. Bo^s Bathing (Dublin
City Gallery) and On the
River Stour are fine examples.
Mr. J. R. Reid paints in a
style which recalls various other
painters, but is still thoroughly
individual.

Death has been cruel to the
British school of painting during
the last quarter of a century. It has cut off our most promising land-
scape painter at thirty-one, our most promising painter, without any
qualification, at thirty-six, and one of our cleverest young men at
thirty-three. The allusions, of course, are to Cecil Lawson, C. W.
Purse, and Robert Brough. Furse (1 868-1 904) was born at Staines,
his father, Canon Furse, being a relation of Sir Joshua Reynolds. He

received his education in art
at the London Slade School
and at Julian's, Paris. He
was a slow beginner, for
although his early works
attracted much notice, they
scarcely promised the great
performance in which his art
culminated. For many years
Purse suffered from lung
trouble, which finally killed
him. Among his best works
are: The Return from the
Ride, Diana of the Uplands,
and Equestrian Portrait of
Lord Roberts, K.G., all in

FIG. 449. — painter's mother, (vvhistler.)

Mu ' "

[usee du Luxembourg, Paris.

244

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

the Tate Gallery ; The Lilac Gown (portrait of Miss Mabel Terry
Lewis) and Cubbing with the York and Ainsty (a family portrait).

The talent of Robert Brough (1872-1903) was of a different kind.
It lay too much, perhaps, in mental and manual dexterity, and in a
faculty for seizing upon telling points. It was showing signs, how-
ever, of leaving this behind and acquiring breadth and dignity when
a railway accident put an end to his career. His Saint Anne of
Brittany and Twixt Sun and Moon
are in the Modern Gallery at Venice ;
his Fantaisie en Folie in the Tate
Gallery.

The mention of Venice suggests the
names of two painters who should not
be passed over in silence: Mr. Henry
Woods and Mr. William Logsdail.
They have both painted the Lagoon
City with great ability, and the former
has practically devoted his whole career
to illustrating Venetian life, and, inci-
dentally, to the painting of daylight.
In this he has occasionally found a com-
panion in his brother-in-law, Mr. Luke
rildes, who will be remembered, how-
ever, chiefly by his scenes from modern
English life, such as The Village Wed-

One of the quaint perversities to
which artists are prone is the belief
that good archaeology makes good art.
England is seldom without a group of
painters working in what they hope are
classical traditions, and producing what
they believe to be plausible restorations

of the life of Greece and Rome. Lord Leighton was the head and
leader of the more decorative section, just as Sir Laurence Alma
Tadema is of the more historically minded. Other members of the
group are, or were. Sir Edward Poynter, Val Prinsep, C. E.
Perugini, and Albert Moore. i

With Albert Moore, however, classicism was merely a vehicle ; a
vehicle driven with great ability, for our critical fancy could almost
agree that thus and not otherwise the Greeks must have painted:
but still a vehicle, for he had a true pictorial reason for his art in his

245

FIG. 4SO. — DUCHESS OF PORT-
LAND, (j. S. SARGENT.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

rhythm of line and the decorative beauty of his color. Among
his best pictures are The Quartet, Midsummer, A Summer Night,
Silver, and The Open Book (Fig- 446).

A group of English painters of which a good deal used to be
heard was the St. John's Wood School, in which the bond of union
was a common devotion to "costume" subjects. Among the chief
members were P. H. Calderon, H. S. Marks, John Pettie, W. F.
Yeames, and several other painters who carry on the tradition
with as much success, perhaps, as it deserves. Among the ablest
of these are Mr. J. Seymour Lucas, who contrives to prove himself
an artist in spite of his archaeology, and Mr. A. C. Gow, whose
drawings of soldiers and other picturesquely clothed individuals are
as complete and precise as those of Meissonier. A very large
number of other painters would have to be noticed in any exhaustive
work on English art. In a hand-book such as this it is enough to
mention a few of the more conspicuous among those who have
worked with acceptance without being part and parcel of any
particular movement or group.

Frank Holl (1845-1888) had two careers. He began as a
powerful but sombre painter in the genre of Israels, delighting in the
blackest woe, whether for the sake of the black or the woe has never
been determined fNo Tidings from the Sea, The Lord gave and
the Lord hath taken away. Hushed, &c.). In 1878 he sent to the
R.A. a portrait of Cousins, the engraver, which was so much ad-
mired that for the rest of his life Holl's studio was crowded with
sitters. Among his best portraits are the Duke of Cleveland, Earl
Spencer, Lord Overstone, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Lord Wolseley,
and John Bright. He sometimes failed to catch a likeness, but his
work is always full of strength and decision, and may be compared
to that of the distinguished Frenchman, M. Leon Bonnat.

Mr. John Macallan Swan (B. 1847) is of Scottish extraction.
His art education was obtained at Worcester, in London, and in
Paris. He is chiefly famous for his animals, which he paints and
models with unrivalled knowledge of movement and structure. But
his pictures and sculptures in which the human figure is treated are
no less admirable. His drawings, too, are among the best of modern
times. He is represented in the Tate Gallery by a good picture,
The Prodigal Son.

Mr. Briton Riviere (B. 1 840) paints animals from a different stand-
point. A less profound glance into their anatomy is sufficient for
him, for he is concerned more with their picturesque exteriors
and with their dramatic capabilities than with their structure,

246

PAINTING-THE PRESENT DAY

One of his better works is the Herd of Swine running "violently
down a steep place into the sea," in the Tate Gallery.

Sir Hubert von Herkomer's most conspicuous quality, or defect,
is his versatility. He is painter, engraver, enameller, modeller,
musician, actor, architect, &c., and has consequently never carried
any one of his pursuits to the perfection it might otherwise have
reached. Versatility alone does not
make a Leonardo. Among his
better pictures are two portraits of
ladies, one in white and one in
black; The Last Muster; the
Town Council of Landsherg,
Bavaria, and the Council of the
Royal Academy, 1908.

Mr. J. W. Waterhouse ought,
perhaps, to be classed with the
archaeologists, but he contrives to
be so essentially modern in his
archaeology that we prefer to look
upon him simply as a decorative
painter. His best works — St.
Cecilia, Hylas and the Nymphs —
would make excellent tapestry. His
earlier and more dramatic pictures
^Mariamne, St. Eulalia, The Magic Circle— aire less attractive. I
must be content to name Mr. Bacon, Mr. Campbell Tayler, Mr.
Charles Sims, Mr. Cadogan Cowper, Mr. Greiffenhagen, Mr.
Mouat Loudan, Mr. E. J. Gregory, the late James Charles ( 1 85 1 -
1896), and Mr. La Thangue, as all producing work with a
character and individuality of its own. Mr. Sims, especially, has
attracted notice during the last few years by works in which extraor-
dinary technical dexterity is at the service of a strange and moving
imagination. At first, he was content with suggesting more
thoroughly than any other English painter the quality and behavior
of unmitigated sunlight, as we see it in places like Brighton beach.
For the last two years he has been much more ambitious, and has
sent to the Academy a series of painted poems which excite the
greatest curiosity and hopes for his future. ^ They are painted
poems of the right kind, not in the least degree literary, but depending
entirely on pictorial qualities for their power to move our sympathies.
One of these. The Fountain, has already found its way into the national
collections.

247

FIG. 451

-WALTER CRANE.
F. WATTS.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Among the latest movements in English art is the foundation of
the Society dubbed with some clumsiness and want of resource The
New English Art Club. It was founded some twenty years ago by
a number of young artists whose bond of union was a Paris training,
the leading spirits at the time being W. J. Laidlay, T. C. Gotch,
T. Stirling Lee, Frederic Brown, S. J. Solomon, T. B. Kennington,
J. Havard Thomas, P. W. Steer, and one or two more, nearly all
of whom have since won a certain measure of distinction. At the
present moment the club includes several men of great ability,
the most promising for the future being, perhaps, Mr. William
Orpen, whose early work — he is still very young — recalls that of
some of the greatest names in art. Another member, Mr. Augustus
John, has given proof of executive ability of the first class.

It will be noticed that nothing has been said about the Impres-
sionists as a separate school. Their principle, that a picture should
make the same kind of impression on the eye as that made by nature,
plus selection for the sake of beauty, has affected the whole of art
in its modernest development. It is really a more intelligent form
of the principle for which the P.R.B.'s contended, substituting things
as seen for things as they exist. Its inventor and preacher was James
Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834-1903), an Anglo-Celt by race,
an American by nationality, a Frenchman by early training. His
example has so widely affected the theories and practice of art in
our own time that any attempt to shepherd his followers into a group
would be misleading.

BIBLIOGRAPHY TO CHAPTERS XIII— XVI

Vertue, George: MS. Collections in the Print Room of the British Museum. Walpole,
Horace, Earl of Orford : Anecdotes of Painting, Dallaway and Womum's Edition. Redgrave,
G. and R. : A Century of Painters, 1 866. Bryan, M. : Dictionary of Painters and Engravers,
ELdition of 1898 (Williamson). Chesneau, E. : La Peinture Anglaise, n.d. Bouchot, H. : La
Femme Anglaise el des peintres, 1903. Dobson, Austin, and Armstrong, Sir W. : William
Hogarth, 1902. Armstrong, Sir Walter: Sir foshua Reynolds, 1901; Thomas Gainsborough,
1899; Turner, 1902. Wherry, O. : Turner. 1903. Ward, T. H., and Roberts, W. : Romney,
1904. Phillips, Claude: John Opie {Gazette des Beaux Arts), 1892. Leslie, C. R., and
Taylor, Tom: Letters of John Constable, 1876. Gower, Lord R. Sutherland; Sir Thomas
Lawrence, 1900. McColl, D. S., and Carmichael, Sir T. D. G. : Nineteenth Century Art, Glas-
gow, 1902, Muther, R.: History of Modem Painting, 1899. Sizeranne, R. de la: Histoire de
la Peinture Anglaise Contemporaire, 1895. Sizeranne, R. de la: Whistler, Ruskin, et
d'Impressionisme (Revue de I'Arl), 1893. Hunt, W. Holman: The Pre-Raphaelite Brother-
hood {Contemporary Review), 1886. Monkhouse, Cosmo: British Contemporary Artists,
1899. Meier-Graefe, J.: Entwickelungsgeschichte der Modemen Kunst, 1904. (Translation
by Miss F. Simmonds now in the press.) Burne-Jones, Lady : Life of Sir Edward Burne-Jones,
Bart., 1906. Millais, J. G. : Life of Sir John Everett Millais. Bart. Way, T. R., and Dennis,
I. R.: The Art of James McNeill Whistler, 1903. Duret, Theodore: Whistler, 1904.
Meypell, Mrs.: The Works of John Singer Sargent, 1903. Baldwin-Brown, G. : The Glas-
gow School of Painters, 1908. Armstrong, W. ; Scottish Painters, 1888. Dictionary of
National Biography,

248

f^^^^i'^ ''^V^^^^

ft J^l^i fl

I2i^

(unknown

FIG. 452.— CHILD.

(Mr. G

FOLLOWER OF HOLBEIN.)

FIG. 453- — CHILD.

Salting's Collection.)

CHAPTER XVII
PORTRAIT-MINIATURES

During the century which elapsed between the disappearance of
EngHsh supremacy in the art of decorating manuscripts and the
arrival of Holbein at the Court of Henry VIII., the traditions of
the miniaturists had faded away,
until they retained only just enough
vitality to afford a hint to the Augs-
burg master. He was not slow in
showing the native limners what
their art could do, and from his ex-
ample dates a fashion and a succes-
sion which persisted until the inven-
tion of photography. The first of
his followers (he was no pupil) to
reach any respectable proficiency
was Nicholas Hilliard, who has left
on record the often-quoted saying:
"Holbein's manner of limning I have «<=• "ferriaitogTcofiecS""™'
ever imitated, and hold it for the

best." Not that Hilliard's miniatures are very like Holbein's. There
is no danger of confusing them, as those of other painters practising
at the same time in England have been confused, with the German

, 249

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 455. — N. HILLIARD, P^RE.

(hilliard, fils.) Salting Collection.

master's work. Hilliard had a
finer sense of elegance than Hol-
bein. His sitters have a grace of
carriage and a suavity of contour
which Holbein lacks. But they
exist with far less vigor, their
drawing is less unerring, and their
color far inferior to Holbein's in
that combination of frankness and
harmony which was the most sur-
prising quality in the German.

Hilliard was succeeded by two
men of greater powers than his
own: Isaac Oliver, or Olivier, and
Peter, his

son. Although of English birth, they were
probably of French extraction. The date
of Isaac's birth is unknown, but he died in
Blackfriars, where Van Dyck was after-
ward to establish himself, in 1617. Isaac
Oliver's style began by very distinctly show-
ing its affiliation with that of his master,
Hilliard, but grew simpler and more broadly
effective as it developed. Peter, whose
earlier miniatures strongly resemble the
later ones of his father, showed himself in

time to be a

FIG. 456. — HILLIARD, NICHO-
LAS, (by self.) Salting
Collection.

FiG.457.—LADY.(j.HOSKiNS.) Mrs. Joseph.

faithful admirer of Van Dyck. It is
known that he also painted in large,
in oil, and it is more than probable
that he was the true author of cer-
tain portraits now ascribed to Van
Dyck, which do not exactly agree
with the master's style or with that
of any of his known scholars. Peter
Oliver died in 1 647. Fine examples
of the two Olivers are owned by
his Majesty, by Lords Derby and
Exeter, by Mr. Burdett Coutts and
Mr. Wingfield Digby, by the Duke
of Buccleuch, and many other col-
lectors. The Victoria and Albert
250

PORTRAIT-MINIATURES

FIG. 458.— LADY HUNSDON. (l. OLIVER.) FIG.459. — ARABELLA STUART. (n.HILLIARD.)

Mrs. Joseph's Collection.

Museum possesses, in the Jones collection, Isaac Oliver's wonder-
ful full-length miniature of Sackville, Earl of Dorset, here reproduced
(see Frontispiece). Besides the two Olivers, several other miniaturists
worked in England in the Holbein tradition. The two cleverest,
and latest, were Penelope Cleyn, the daughter of a designer at the
Mortlake Tapestry factory, and John Hoskins (d. 1 664 ?). Hoskins
was only surpassed as a miniaturist by his own nephews and pupils,
Alexander and Samuel Cooper, the latter of whom was not only
the best miniature painter, but one of the most gifted artists that
England can boast.

Samuel Cooper (1609-1672) was the pupil of his uncle Hoskins,
and also studied for a time in France and Holland. He appears
to have been the true originator of the style we now associate
exclusively with Van Dyck, for miniatures by him, executed before
Van Dyck came to England, anticipate the air of conscious dis-
tinction which the Fleming afterward saw in the English upper
classes. Among the finest of Cooper's works are the miniatures
of Cromwell, at Chatsworth ; of Monk, at Windsor ; and
several in the magnificent collection of the Duke of Buccleuch. "No
portrait by Van Dyck . . . brings us into such intimate rela-
tion with a personality as do Samuel Cooper's miniatures . . .
and how profoundly artistic they are ! Each occupies its narrow
surface to perfection, each is a masterpiece of design, of drawing,
of modelling, even of color ; and each stops exactly where
it should. There is no effort to tell more than the conditions

251

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

no. 460. — SIR PHILIP SIDNEY.

(i. OLIVER.) Windsor Castle.

to his Majesty, the Dut
land, Devonshire, and Portland, Earl Spen-
cer, Mrs. Joseph, and others.

After the death of Cooper, English paint-
ing of portrait miniatures soon came to the

will allow, no attempt to rival work
on a larger scale. Solicitude is con-
centrated on the heads, and there every
touch helps to add intensity to the
artist's record of the man before him.
A fine Cooper is a triumph of selec-
tion, of precision in the right place,
of suggestion in the right place, of
balance and harmony all over."
Cooper's miniatures are still numerous,
although a
large number
have p e r-
ished in one
way or an-
other. Good
c o 1 1 e c tions
also belong
of Suther-

riG. 462.

-DOUBLE LOCKET. (hILLIARD.)

Mr. G. Salting.

FIG. 461. PORTRAIT OF MAN

UNKNOWN. (l. OLIVER.)

V. 6* A. Museum.

end of its first period
of glory. Cooper was
followed b y three
men of great ability,
Thomas F 1 a t m a n ,
Laurence Crosse, and
Nathaniel Dixon,
after whom the art
fell for a time into
the hands of ungifted
immigrants, who cap-
tured patronage by
means which have
too often proved
successful since their
day.
The second fine

252

PORTRAIT-MINIATURES

FIG. 463. — JAMES I.
(l. OLIVER.)

FIG. 464. — ANNE OF DENMARK,
(l. OLIVER.)

FIG. 465. — HENRY, PRINCE OF
WALES. (l. OLIVER.)

FIG. 466. — PRINCE CHARLES,
(l. OLIVER.)

FIG. 467. — HENRY, PRINCE OF
WALES. (l. OLIVER.)

Mr. G. Salting's Collection

FIG. 468. — LADY. (l. OLIVER.)

253

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 469 — PORTRAIT OF RICHARD
CROMWELL. (S. COOPER.)

Mrs. Joseph's Collection.

FIG. 470. — PORTRAIT OF LADY

UNKNOWN. (fLATMAN.)

period began about the time of the founding of the Royal Academy,
in 1 769. John Smart, who exhibited in London from 1 762
to 1813, was the best equipped of this later generation. His
miniatures have never been equalled for completeness, precision,
and technical perfection. In modelling they equal those of Holbein,
and it is only in harmony of color that they occasionally fail to
please. Smart was a friend of Cosway, whose art, however, was
strangely unlike his own. Where Smart was complete, precise,

almost Teu-
tonic in his love

for detail and

finish, Cosway

was broad in

conception and

execution, and

dependent on

his sense of

beauty for

effect. It is

curious that both

were miniatures

FIG. 471. — PORTRAIT (FLATMAN.) £

Mr. Salting. ot men : some

five feet high !
Slightly junior to these two artists, and inferior to them in genius,
were the two Plimers, Andrew (1763-1837) and Nathaniel

254

FIG. 472. — PORTRAIT OF MAN
UNKNOWN. (FLATMAN.)

Mr. Salting.

university
^^4LLfor^)>Portrait-miniatures

FIG. 473.

-portrait of gentleman.
(bogle.)

(1 757-1 822), Ozias Humphrey
(1742-1810), James Nixon (1741-
1812), George Engleheart (1752-
1829), Samuel Shelley (1750?-
1808), Richard Crosse (1740?-
1810), and Horace Hone (1756-
1825) ; while on a lower plane still
were Nathaniel Hone (1718-1784),
Henry Edridge ( 1 769- 1 82 1 ), Samuel
Cotes (1734-1818), WilHam Wood
(1768-1809), Thomas Hazlehurst
(1760-1818), Luke Sullivan (Died
1 77 l),Richard Collins (1755- 1831),
William Grimaldi (1751-1830),
Samuel Finney (1721-1807), John
Bogle(l 769-1 792), Andrew Robert-
son (1777-1845), and many others.

The nineteenth century brought with it a decisive fall in the general
character of portrait miniatures. They became ambitious in the wrong
direction, with a tendency to increased size, elaboration, and self-
assertion, and a consequent loss in the unity which had been their
artistic charm. Andrew Robertson ( 1 777- 1 845) was a man of ability,
but his miniatures do not look content. They seem to breathe a
desire to grow into life-size pictures. And it was the same with the
other miniaturists who filled in the
time between him and the advent of
photography : with Mrs. Mee
(1770?- 1851), Newton (1785-
1869), Ross (1794-1876), Chalon
(1781-1860), and Thorburn(1818-
1885).

The splendor of the British
school of portrait miniatures is a
rather curious phenomenon. For it
depends on qualities which have not
distinguished British art as a whole.
It depends on a sense of form, on
power of concentration, on ability
to summarize fact without falling into
emptiness, virtues which have, more
often than not, been somewhat to
seek among our artists. None of

255

fig. 474. — PORTRAIT OF A LADY.

(j. SMART.) Mrs. Joseph.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

the Continental miniaturists have equalled Samuel Cooper,
Flatman, Hoskins, Laurence Crosse, John Smart, or Cosway, or even
some members of the second flight, in the gift for putting no more
on a square inch or two of card or ivory than it was fit to bear, and

FIG. 475. — PORTRAIT OF A MAN.

(cosway.) Mrs. Joseph.

FIG. 476. — PORTRAIT OF DUKE OF

WELLINGTON. (coswAY.) Mrs. Joseph.

FIG. 477. — PORTRAIT OF LADY ANNE

FANE, (cosway.) Mrs. Joseph.

FIG. 478. — portrait of A LADY.
(ANDREW ROBERTSON.)

yet suggesting at the same time that their equipment was complete]
and could have played on a six-foot canvas with equal success.

A certain number of English miniaturists worked in enamel,
is quite certain that the art of enamelling was practised hei

256

PORTRAIT-MINIATURES

throughout the Gothic ages, for docu-
mentary evidence exists that the art was
frequently the subject of regulations by the
Sovereign. The probability is that many
objects at present ascribed to Continental
schools were produced in England, if not
always by Englishmen. A country in
which the making of stained-glass windows
was carried to the perfection it reached
here could scarcely have failed to work
successfully in enamel. The fashion of
enamel miniatures — if it can be said ever

been a

FIG. 479. — PORTRAIT OF A
LADY. (S. PLIMER.)

FIG. 480. — PORTRAIT OF A
MAN. (bogle.)

to have

fashion — was set
in England by Jean Petitot the elder
(1607-1691) and his friend, Pierre
Bordier (F. 1650), both natives of
Geneva. After a period of study in Italy,
the two friends came to England, where
they were patronized by their country-
man. Sir Theodore de Mayerne, physi-
cian to Charles I. Mayerne, who pre-
sented them to the King, had long been
studying enamels, so that his knowledge,
added to
the tech-

nical ex-
perience of the two artists, led to
great results. Petitot had lodgings
in Whitehall. He "portraictured"
the King and other members of the
Royal Family, he copied several of
Van Dyck's pictures in enamel, and
was an established institution when
the triumph of the Parliament and
death of the King drove him to seek
new fields. He emigrated, and
sought the patronage in exile of
Charles II., who brought him to the
notice of Louis XIV. For the
French King he produced a large
number of enamels, in which he was

257

FIG. 481. — WARREN HASTINGS.
(O. HUMPHREYS.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

fig. 482. — enamel.
(gervase spencer.)

assisted by the faithful Bordier, and by his own son, Jean Petitot
the younger (after 1650?- 1695). The elder Petitot died at Geneva
in 1691, at the age of 84. His son settled in
England. He studied for a time under Samuel
Cooper, and was still living in London in 1695.
Enamels by Bordier are comparatively rare, the
most important being the Fairfax Jewel, pre-
sented by the Parliament to Sir Thomas Fair-
fax after the battle of Naseby. It now belongs
to Lord Hastings. Enamels by the Petitots
are numerous. Their merit lies almost entirely
in the excellence of their technique, which leads
to great brilliance and vivacity. Fine collec-
tions exist in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, the Wallace collection, the Louvre, and in many private
cabinets.

The first successor of the Petitots in this country was Charles
Boit, a Franco-Swede, who came to England as a drawing master,
but when here took up enamel painting. His career was stormy
and his works are rare. The best are in the possession of Mr.
Jeffrey Whitehead, Lord Spencer, Captain Holford, and in Viennese

collections. After Boit came his
pupil, Christian Friedrich Zincke,
a Saxon and a prolific artist, who
produced a large number of por-
traits. The best of these are excel-
lent, uniting brilliance to breadth
of effect with conspicuous success.
Good examples are to be found in
all the chief collections of minia-
tures. Zincke lived in England
for sixty years, dying here in 1 767.
Other foreigners by birth who
worked enamel in England, in the
eighteenth century, were : George
Michael Moser (1 704 ?-l 783) and
Jeremiah Meyer (1 735-1 789), both
foundation members of the Royal
Academy, Rouquet (1 702?- 1 759),
Groth (1650), Christian Richter (1680 ?-l 732), and the brothers
Hurter (1730-1790).
The native English enamellers were a small band. Gervase

258

FIG. 483.-

-enamel portrait of h. bone,
(by himself.)

PORTRAIT- MINIATURES

Spencer (d. 1 763), who began life as a domestic servant, produced
some good miniatures in enamel as well as in water color.
Nathaniel Hone (1718-1784) was excelled
in enamel as well as in ordinary miniature-
painting by his son Horace (1756-1825),
whose best work is full of charm and
power. Henry Spicer, William Prewitt,
and several other native workers are known
chiefly or solely by their signatures on a
few pieces. A more important name is
that of Henry Bone (1755-1834). who
would have been one of the finest of all
workers in enamel had his eye for color
been better. A native of Cornwall, he
began life as a decorator of porcelain, at
Plymouth. After devoting himself to enamel,
he produced copies of many famous pictures

and of a whole series of Elizabethan portraits. He was elected R.A.
in 18 II, and died in 1834. His sons, Henry Pierce (1779-1855)
and Robert Trewick Bone (1790-1840), practised their father's
art with less success. With the death of H. P. Bone in 1855
the succession of workers seduced into enamel in England by the
fame and fashion of Petitot came to an end. Within the last few
years the art has been taken up anew, and practised with success
by Sir Hubert von Herkomer, Mr. and Mrs. Nelson Dawson,
and several others. So far, however, no one has again attempted
to make it a medium for portraiture. It is adapted neither to
modem fashions nor to modern hurry.

FIG. 484. — PORTRAIT. (NOAH
SEAMAN.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Propert. J. L.: A History of Miniature Art, 1887.
British and Foreign, 1903. Williamson. G. €.: Portrait Miniatures, 1897; Illustrated Cata-

Foster, J. J.: Miniature Painters,
"oreign, IVLO. Williamson, G.
logue of Exhibition of Miniatures, Burlington Fine Art Club, 1889; Catalogue of Exhibition of
Miniatures at the Royal Academy, 1879; Catalogue of Special Exhibition of Miniatures at
the S. K. Museum, 1865. Robertson, Andrew: Letters of, with a Treatise on the Art of
Miniature, 1895.

259

FIG. 485. — SKETCH FOR A LANDSCAPE. (GAINSBOROUGH.)

J. P. Heseltine, Esq.

CHAPTER XVIII

WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

One of the three artistic activities in which England can show a
clean pair of heels to all her rivals is painting in water color.* This
art, of course, was no new discovery on the part of our eighteenth
century painters. It had been practised in the same form, i. e., in
transparent color, by the Dutch landscape painters of the previous
century. But they had only turned to it occasionally, and had never
cared to develop its special capacities. The particular individual to
whom the modem school should look as its originator was Paul
Sandby (1725-1809), a native of Nottingham, who followed
successively the occupations of military map-maker, topographical
draughtsman, picturesque draughtsman and drawing-master. He
was also an etcher and aquatinter. Much of his work was done in
body color, but he also practised the more luminous method. His
last employment was that of chief drawing-master at the

' The other two being mezzotint engraving and the painting of portrait

260

WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich. Excellent examples
of his work are in the
British Museum, the Edin-
burgh, Dublin and Kensing-
ton collections. Contem-
porary with Sandby were
various half-forgotten artists
who occasionally, at least,
painted in water color :
Charles Brooking (1 723-
1 759), already mentioned
for his sea pieces in oil ;
Dominic Serres (1722-1793),

FIG. 486. — ON THE WHARFE. (gIRTIN.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

the two Gilpins, the Rev. W.
(1723-1804) and Sawrey,
R.A. (1733-1807); George
Barret and Gainsborough,
whom we need not discuss
further here, and Alexander
Cozens (died in I 786). The
last-named was the natural
son of Peter the Great by an
English mother, who accom-
panied the Czar back to
Russia. Peter sent him to
study painting in Italy, whence
he came to England in 1 746.
He soon became the fashion,

was appointed drawing-master to Eton College, and to the Prince

of Wales. He married a sister

of Robert Edge Pine, and begot

a son by whom he was to be

excelled in his own line. Alex-
ander Cozens is to be studied in

the Victoria and Albert and

British Museums. His drawings

are imaginative in a ghostly way,

and prepare one for the stronger

though very similar productions

of his more gifted son, John

rvobert v^ozens. j.^^^ ^gg_ — ^^jj, tholsel, dublin. (malton.)

The younger Cozens ( I 752- National Gallery, Dublin.

261

FIG. 487. — DUTCH SHIPPING. (tHOMAS HEARNE.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

fig. 489. — verona.

(bonington.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

1799), to whom Constable applied the often quoted phrase, "he
was the greatest genius who ever touched landscape," painted the

poetry of landscape in a method which
was almost monochromatic. He was the
first to suggest the grandeur and unap-
proachableness of the Alps, and so, in
some measure, was the forerunner of
Turner, who has, indeed, left us several
Turneresque versions of actual drawings
by Cozens. Unfortunately, Cozens had
a strain of madness in him, which de-
veloped into insanity before the end of his
life. Good collections of his drawings
exist in the British Museum and at South
Kensington.

A long stride in advance was made
when a certain young man, more than
twenty years the junior of J. R. Cozens,
appeared on the scene. Thomas Girtin
(1773-1802) was the first of our water-
color painters in the modern sense. He
used color frankly, for its own sake, giving all the depth and power
of which the medium was capable. He was also a consummate
artist, seeing his subject with fine breadth as well as an eye to
characteristic detail. Good examples of his work are in the British
Museum and at South Kensington. His drawings are always so
far topographical that they represent real places. Some of the best

deal with Paris, Durham, and
scenes in Wales and Scotland.
A magnificent Rue St. Denis,
Paris, appeared at Christie's
in 1908.^

Girtin's influence on Turner
was great. Turner himself
declared : "If Tom Girtin had
lived, I should have starved."
And there was so much
foundation for his terrors that,
while their careers ran on
parallel lines, Girtin was al-

FIG. 490. — OXFORD. (dE WINT.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

ways ahead,
by drink.

He died, however, at twenty-nine, his end hastened
262

WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

Beside the Cozens and Girtin, a
great number of artists, or draughts-
men, were putting more or less skill
and intelligence into the task of ex-
ploring the capacities of water color.
It will be sufficient here to name men
like Henry Edridge (1769-1844).
who distinguished himself in several
genres; A. W. Devis (1763-1822).
John Webber (1 752-1 792) and Wil-
liam Alexander (1767-1816), all of
whom worked in what were then
remote parts of the world ; Thomas
Hearne (1744-1817). John (1745-
1 786) and Robert Cleveley (d. 1 809).
Nicholas Pocock (1741-1821),

-VALE OF IRTHING. (COPLEY FIELDING.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

(see p. 208). All these were
eclipsed when Turner began
to let his imagination work on
the possibilities of the medium,
and, in drawing after drawing,
to lift it from a byway of art
into a high road along which
the painter could march, head
up, with only one misgiving.
Working in a material of
which you distrust the per-
manency is a little like lighting
with an unguarded rear. But

FIG. 491. — LINCOLN. (dE WINT.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

Michael Angelo Rooker.
A.R.A. (1743-1801),
William Marlow (1740-
1813). William Pars
(1742-1782), William
Payne (exhibiting from
1786 to 1813). Edward
Dayes (1763-1 804), who
influenced Turner con-
siderably ; and the three
Maltons, already noticed

E^^m

FIG. 493. — WINDSOR CASTLE. (dAVID COX.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

263

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 494. — CORN FIELD. (dAVID COX.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

a hundred years ago, per-
haps, distrust had not begun
to creep in, and no premoni-
tion of the ruin which has now
overtaken too many drawings
of the time had yet come to
spoil the pleasure of their
making. As soon as Turner's
halting years were over, he
began to extend the province
of water color, and this he
never ceased to do until his
creative days were past. He

widened its grasp, he enriched
its effects, he invented its de-
vices : until it was capable of
such productions as the Edin-
burgh or Battle of Fort Rock,
in the National Gallery, or such
a wonderful color dream as
the Doge's Palace, in the
National Gallery of Ireland.
The best way to learn the
whole depth and breadth of

FIG. 495. — MACBETH AND THE MURDERERS.
(O. CATTERMOLE.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

FIG. 496. — VENICE, (j. HOLLAND.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

Turner as a water-color painter is to
study three public collections : the collec-
tion of finished drawings in the National
Gallery, which is quite accessible and
easy of examination in spite of what
over-hasty criticism has said to the
contrary ; and the two small collections
left to the Scottish and Irish Galleries,
respectively, by the late Henry Vaughan.
These two latter collections have the
unique advantage, as collections, of being
entirely unfaded, an advantage they will
retain, as Mr. Vaughan's will requires
that they shall only be exposed to day-

264

WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

light under certain specified
conditions, which completely
secures them against damage.

Early in the nineteenth cen-
tury the water-color painters
had so far begun to feel their
strength that a certain number
of the leading spirits among
them combined to form an
academy, or rather an Exhibit-
ing Society, of their own.
The original members included

FIG. 498. — BORGIA S' AMUSE. (rOSSETTI.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

FIG. 497. — STILL SUMMER. (f. O. FINCH.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

George Barret, junr. (died
1842). W. Havell (1782-1857).
Joshua Christall (1767-1847),
J. Varley (1778-]842\ Cor-
nelius Varley (1781-1873). and
eleven men of less importance.
Francois Louis Thomas Francia
(1772-1839), a native of Calais,
settled in London, was elected
shortly after the Society was
founded, and took a considerable
share in moulding the future
of the

s c h ool.

He also
had a great effect on the develop-
ment of the gifted Richard Parkes
Bonington (1801-1828), who affords
the most remarkable instance known,
perhaps, of race and nationality pre-
vailing over environment in the forma-
tion of an artist. For Bonington was
almost entirely French in training and
education, but in his art as English as
man could be.

The later history of English water
color resolves itself merely into a cata-
logue of famous names, and a few notes
on their varieties of ideal and practice.

265

FIG. 499. — KING RENE'S HONEY-
MOON. (ROSSETTI.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

The nature of the material
prevented these varieties from
being very great, and kept
the painter of famiUar Eng-
land on one narrow^ plat-
form w^ith the figure painter
and the illustrator of the
larger aspects of nature
abroad.

The most flourishing period

of all, the period between

FIG. 500. WARKWORTH CASTLE. , . , . ^ . . «'1J

(sir ERNEST wATERLow.) the founoation of the old

Society" and the commence-
ment of that doubt of the material's permanence which has made

FIG. 501. — PLOUGHING IN SUSSEX. (tHORNEWAITE.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

itself felt during the last five and twenty years, was illumined by the

genius of some ten or twelve
men. These were : George
Barret, junr., already men-
tioned, Samuel Prout ( 1 783-
1852), William Henry Hunt
(1790-1864). Peter de Wint
n 784-1849), Anthony Van-
dyke Copley Fielding ( 1 787-
1855), David Cox (1783-
1 859), George Cattermole
(1800-1868), WilHam James
Muller (1812-1845), Francis

riG.502.-HAVFIELD,AMBERLEV. (WIMPERIS.) ^^'J^'. ^'""^ O ^l^ ^ J^'/^^C^n^'

Victoria and Albert Museum. and JamCS Holland ( I OUU-

266

WATER-COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

1870). All these were drawing-
masters, and in that employment
acquired the combination of
facility, vigor and richness which
marks the \^hole group. The
necessity for producing an
effective result in the minimum
of time was an excellent dis-
cipline. It did not permit the
ground to be covered twice.
Tones had to be laid at once
in their proper strength, and
modelling was done less by add-
ing than by rubbing out. The
results were luminous pictures,
with the light inside them.

George Barret was the son
of the Irish disciple of Wilson
mentioned in a previous chapter.
He distinguished himself chiefly
by his mastery of atmosphere, in which he reminds us of Albert
Cuyp. In design, however, he was more akin to Claude, delighting
in elaborately balanced compositions of a classical stamp. These he

FIG. 503. — THE DRINKER.
(WAINWRIGHT.)

painted in oil as well as water.
Kensington. F. O. Finch ex-
celled in the same Claudesque
style of art as Barret.

Samuel Prout is famous for the
sympathetic skill with which he
delineated time-worn specimens of
Gothic and Renaissance architect-
ure ; Copley Fielding for the
dexterity with which he treated
subjects requiring technical experi-
ence ; Peter de Wint for his con-
summate craftsmanship, as befitted
his Batavian blood ; Muller and
James Holland for their decorative
brilliance ; and David Cox, the
best of the whole group, for the
happy novelty of his most expres-
sive style, and for his love of every-

267

A fine example is at South

-MRS. SIDDONS. (j. DOWNMAN.)

From Print.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 505.— PASTEL PORTRAIT. (jOHN
RUSSELL.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

thing which makes for beauty in
nature. W. H. Hunt is more
narrowly imitative. Some would
deny his right to be considered
an artist at all, and, indeed, he is
so inarticulate in design that it
takes all his gift for color to excite
much interest to-day. A large
number of other water-color
painters who have distinguished
themselves, or at least earned their
fame, mainly in oil, might be
noticed here, but that would be
repetition. The list includes such
names as those of Madox Brown,
Millais, Rossetti, and Burne- Jones.
A small group which requires
to be noticed by itself is that
which clusters round Frederick
Walker (1840-1873) as its leader. Its art is aggressively
English, depending for inspiration on what our German friends
would call sentimentality ; but justifying itself to some extent by
the frequently exquisite quality of its execution. After Walker
himself, its most distinguished member was George Pinwell (1842-

1875), who, like Walker, gave more
than one hint that beneath the anecdotic
form of art, to which most of his days
were given, lay a robust power which
might have led him far had the fates
been more propitious. Walker and
Pinwell had a following in their lives,
and are never likely to lose it
entirely ; for their art appeals to a
continuing passion of the Anglo-Saxon
race.

The generation which has followed
these men has been notable as a whole
for its experiments with the medium.
Certain painters of ability, such as the
late Thomas Collier, Mr. Thornewaite,
Sir Ernest Waterlow, and E. M. Wim-
peris, have been content with the sim-
268

FIG. 506. — FEMALE FIGURE.
(GAINSBOROUGH ?)

British Museum.

WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

FIG. 507. — CHALK DRAWING (ALFRED

STEVENS.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

plicity of the old ways, and have
carried on the traditions of Cox
and De Wint. But others seem
to have feh that new methods
were required to keep up pubHc
interest in their art ; hence many
technical developments, mostly con-
nected with body color, and a
much wider range of subject than
used to be thought sufficient. In
the invention of novelties a younger
institution than the "old Society,"
the Institute of Painters in Water
Colors, has shown, perhaps, the
greater activity. In recent years
attempts have been made to widen
the province of water color and
to spur it into a mistaken rivalry
with oil. But these attempts have been suggested, not by artistic
considerations, but merely by the demand for novelty made
by a blase generation. Continental practice has also contrib-
uted to lead English water-color painting out of its ancient
ways, and to make it a thing
of ingenuity and dexterity rather
than of sincere art. The young
French aquarelUstes, especially,
have turned the water-color
artist into the Paganini of Paint-
ing.

Work in Pastel almost comes
under the head of water color, so
often has the latter medium been
called in to help out the former.
Pastel flourished in England during
the second half of the eighteenth
century, beginning with such men
as Arthur Pond (whose pastels,
although numerous, are generally
unrecognized as his), and Francis
Cotes, and ending with John
Russell and J. R. Smith. The
recent revival has again led to

269

FIG. 508. — CHALK DRAWING. (ALFRED

STEVENS.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 509. — STUDY FOR ISAIAH GROUP,
ST. PAUL'S. (ALFRED STEVENS.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

very clever work being done in tha
method.

Drawings

The Anglo-Norman genius never
having been of such a character as
to demand expression in line, or
form to use a w^ider term, drawings
are comparatively rare in the Eng-
lish school. Our painters have
loved to begin their work on the
canvas, with the smallest possible
antecedent labor in the way of
sketches, studies, investigations of
structure and movement. In the
eighteenth century very few indeed
made serious drawings. Those of
Reynolds were rough scribbles,
giving little more than the crudest indications of what was intended.
Hogarth's drawings were blocked-out maps of pictures ; Romney
practically did none at all ; Gainsborough alone drew in the sense
that the French and Italians drew. His drawings, whether of
figures or landscape, are among the finest ever produced and now
fetch enormous prices at auction. They are always studies of move-
ment, with its decoration of sym-
pathetic drapery in the case of
figures ; and of light and shadow
in the case of landscape. They
are never objective studies of struct-
ure. Hoppner made good draw-
ings of landscape, rather too slavishly
modelled on those of Gains-
borough. As a young man
Lawrence lived by making draw-
ings, and continued the habit, more
or less, throughout his life. But
his works in line are strangely
weak and empty ; the drawing in
his better pictures — the Angerstein
in the National Gallery and the
Warren Hastings in the National
270

FIG. 510. — TURNING THE SOD,

British Museum,

(COTMAN.)

WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

FIG. 511. — THE CENTAUR. (COTMAN.)

British Museum.

Portrait Gallery, for instance — is
infinitely finer than anything he did
with the point. The little portraits
of Downman are masterpieces in
their own way, and may fairly be
classed as black and white ; for
their color is a mere tinting, often
put on from the back, and their
beauty lies in the sculpturesque
purity of their contours, combined
with an agreeable flow of line else-
where. A number of good draw-
ings have also been left by Raphael
Smith, Wilkie, Bonington, and
others. But the habit was seldom
persistent enough to lead to great
results, either in quality or quantity.

The landscape men make a far
better show than the figure painters.
The drawings of Turner are real

preparations for pictures, notes of all the phenomena of nature,
transfigured sometimes and always affected by his own feeling in
their presence. Those of Constable are superb, showing the happiest
combination of objective with subjective qualities. Crome was a
master of black and white, and Cotman more than a master. Some
of his drawings — Turning the Sod and The Centaur, both in
the British Museum, for instance — betray a pictorial imagination
of the highest rank.

On the whole, however, the painters of the first half of the
nineteenth century were dumb
as linear draughtsmen. It was
not until the pre-Raphaelite
movement came to draw atten-
tion to all the habits of the
early Italian painters that much
was done with the point. And
even then it was not in line,
strictly speaking, that the Eng-
lish painter thought. The first
man to do really fine work
was Alfred Stevens, one of the
greatest masters of design that

271

FIG. 512. — LANDSCAPE. (COTMAN.)

Sir Hickman Bacon, Bart.

ART IN GREAT" BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 513. — TREES. (constable.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

ever lived. His best chalk drav^ings
have never been excelled. From
the time of Stevens onw^ard,
British painters have been much
readier to use the point than ever
before. Not that his example had
much, or anything, to do with it.
For so great an artist he has
remained curiously unknown, even
to the present day. The revival
of drawing is part of the general
movement which has breathed
vitality, if not always excellence,
into every department of art.
The drawings of Lord Leighton, of
Sir Edward Burne-Jones, of
Albert Moore, have qualities
which will preserve them from
oblivion,' while those of Whistler will take place, beside his etch-
ings and lithographs, with the finest of modern works in line.
When we turn to living painters it is difficult to make sure of saying
anything which will stand the test of time : for a painter may fail
to attract notice with his brush, and yet do good work, more or
less in secret, with the point. It is safe, however, to say that our
descendants will treasure the drawings of Mr. J. M. Swan, Mr. Augus-
tus John, Mr. Muirhead Bone, and a few others.

In drawings conceived for the sake of illustration, our English
school has been prolific, and distinguished, for a century or more.

But comparatively few of
those who have devoted them-
selves to this class of work
have made their bull's-eyes on
the right target. Instead of
depending on line, they have
too often hankered after
color, tone, and other qual-
ities not to be easily made
good with the point. This
is particularly true of
Frederick Walker and his
school. In recent years a
great improvement in this
272

FIG. 514. — SALISBURY. (CONSTABLE.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

WATER -COLOR PAINTINGS-DRAWINGS

matter has taken place, and it would now be possible to compile
a long list of workers in black and white who are thoroughly
alive to the limits, as well as to the powers, of their art. Much of
the credit of this improvement must be given to the illustrated
newspapers and cheap magazines. The first of these to show the
way was the Illustrated London News, founded more than half a
century ago ; and a further long stride in advance was made by the
Grapnic, some twenty years later. The managers of the latter
periodical gathered a regular school of young workers in black and
white about them, and gave a stimulus to this particular branch of art
which is not yet exhausted. For a time such work was all entrusted
to the wood cutter, but a day came at last when processes founded
on photography enabled fac-similes to be produced at small cost and
with great fidelity. This brought work with the pen to the front.
Pen-drawing lent itself to methods which helped the draughtsman
to do himself rapid justice, to produce brilliant results promptly,
and with a certainty limited only by his own capacity. It may fairly
be called the characteristic art of the last quarter of a century, and has
had an enormous influence in spreading among people in general
less faulty notions on art than those which used to be commonly
held. Clever draughtsmen with the pen, artists in black and white,
are now so numerous that to name a few would be invidious, but
this form of drawing cannot be mentioned at all without exciting
memories of such men as Charles Keene and Phil May.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Roget, J. L.: History of the Old Water Color Society, 1891. Monkhouse, Cosmo: The
Earlier English Painters in Water Color, 1 898. Redgrave, R. and S. : A Century of Painters,
1866. Armstrong, Sir W. : Turner, 1902; ditto, Alfred Stevens, 1881. Stannus. H.: Alfred
Stevens, 1891. Rossetti, W. M.: Some Reminiscences, 1906. Sharp, W. : Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, 1882. Phillips, Claude: Frederick Walker and his ff^ori^s. Portfolio, 1894. Hamerton.
P. G. : Landscape, 1885. Orrock, J. : On the English Art of Water Color Painting, 1891 ;
Report to the Committee of the Council of Education on the Action of Light on Water Colors,
1888. Hamerton, P. G. : Drawing and Engraving, 1892. Gleeson White, J. G. : Modem
Illustration, 1895. Pennell, J.: Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen, 3rd Ed., 1897.
Pennell, J. and E. R. : Lithography and Lithographers, 1 898. Dictionary of National
Biography.

273

riG. 515.— SLEEPING SOLDIERS ON THE EASTER SEPULCHRE. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL.

CHAPTER XIX

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD-GOTHIC
SCULPTURE

The history of Early Sculpture in the British Isles shows the same
peculiarities as that of our other arts. In the first place, it is full of
gaps ; the image-breakers have swept away links wholesale, which
we are left to divine from what went before and came after.
Secondly, the advance from barbarism to cultivation was very

far from continuous, and, more
frequently than in other coun-
tries, we are shifted from one
racial development to another.
These latter changes correspond
with the modifications in the
English population, and illustrate
what was said in our first chapter
of the racial characteristics of
European Art. The oldest re-
mains in Great Britain which
can be brought under the head
of Sculpture in any developed
sense, are a number of crosses
which have been called Anglian
but which are undeniably Celtic
in inspiration. The finest is the
cross at Bewcastle, in Cumber-
land, with a figure of Christ on
one face and characteristic Celtic
ornament on the other three.

FIG. 516. — SOUTH DOOR OF ANGEL CHOIR.
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL.

274

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD

■p

1^9

i«^

ii^iiSili

FIG. 517. — SAXON BAS-RELIEF : CHRIST COMING

TO THE HOUSE OF MARTHA AND MARY.

CHICHESTER CATHEDRAL.

The inscriptions it bears allow

this monument to be ascribed

to the middle of the second

half of the seventh century^

It is a first-rate example of

the early Celtic instinct for

expression in line, and the

control of a pattern into unity.

Contemporary with this, or

but little later, are several

other crosses and fragments

in the neighborhood of the

Border. These all belong to

an epoch of fine inspiration,

depending, probably, for the

excellence of their technique

on the presence of craftsmen

from Eastern Europe among

the native sculptors. But the Eastern influence has, perhaps,

been exaggerated, or rather misunderstood. It is there, no doubt,

but only as affecting craftsmanship. Its effect upon the controlling

Celtic spirit is hardly perceptible.

In the south of England, with Winchester for its centre, a different
ideal assumed control after the Saxon Conquest. A school with
a Teutonic rather than a Celtic character gradually established
itself. Technically, its ideal
was one of research, rather
than of unity and breadth,
while its conceptions were
complex, crowded, and dra-
matic, rather than simple,
coherent, and sculpturesque.
Fine examples of this Saxon
school at a fully developed
moment are the famous re-
liefs in Chichester Cathe-
dral dealing with the story
of Lazarus (Figs. 517 and
518), Christ coming to
the House of Martha and
Mary and The Raising of

- "^ rj-., . =» -^ FIG. 518. — SAXON BAS-RELIEF : THE RAISING OF

Lazarus. 1 tiere is a sense lazarus. chichester cathedral.

275 t2

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 519. — DETAIL

FROM SOUTH DOOR-

WAY. LINCOLN

CATHEDRAL.

of striving after refinement in the execution, and
not a little technical ambition. Such difficult
matters as three-quarter profiles are attempted.
Besides these Chichester reliefs, other important
relics of the school exist in certain large roods,
of which Bradford-on-Avon and Romsey possess
the best specimens. These were sometimes ac-
companied by attendant angels, of which also a
few examples still exist.

The Norman Conquest brought another change.
The conquerors were a vigorous race, lately from
the North, stirred by aesthetic ambitions derived
from the Celts they had subdued. They at once
set about covering their latest acquisition with
monuments of architecture, but it was long before
they made any serious attempt to add the glory of
free sculpture to their other activities. Their
great cathedrals, Winchester, St. Albans, probably
London and Canterbury, were left bare of any
figure decoration but that of the painter. At Lincoln, indeed,
certain reliefs stand on the west front which would be early and
important examples of Norman figure work, could they be accepted
as contemporary with the architecture in which they appear.
For this front was in building, by Bishop Remigius, as early as
1075. But these reliefs are of such a character that the choice

seems to lie between assign-
ing them to the Saxon era
and the first half of the twelfth
century. In a sketch of our
national sculpture, as an art by
itself, no place need be found
for such carving as was done
in the days of round arched
Gothic. Even in its most
developed form, as in the
West Portal of Rochester
Cathedral, it is narrowly archi-
tectonic.

Gothic sculpture, in any free
sense, may be said to have
begun with the fashion of intro-
ducing carved heads at certain

FIG. 520.-

-CIRCULAR BOSS.
CATHEDRAL.

276

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD

FIG. 521.

-CENSING ANGEL, LINCOLN
CATHEDRAL.

points in First Pointed structures.
These heads were, of course,
decorations, but the corbels, label-
ends, and string-stops, which
supplied their raisons d'etre were
so exactly adapted to their forms,
that the carver could work as
freely, slnd express himself as
sincerely, as if he were under no
conditions but those of tools and
material. It was not so with
capitals, string courses, spandrels.
There the structural forms modi-
fied the decorative, and the sculp-
tor's work is often meaningless
— as expressive art — without the
surrounding architecture.

The justifying cause of the slowness with which free sculpture
developed in pointed Gothic Architecture has been well put ;
"Gothic Art, having found its theme in the vertebrate expres-
sion of stone building, refused to admit any discordant phrase."^
Figure sculpture was scarcely ac-
cepted as part of their scheme
by first pointed builders at all.
At Canterbury, at Chichester, in
the great buildings of the north,
it does not exist. Scarcely a
trace of it is to be found north
of the Humber before the middle
of the thirteenth century. It was
in the south that ambition awoke,
and that the future greatness of
English Gothic Sculpture gave
its first sign in those splendid
carved heads in which we are
still so rich. "Destructions, de-
termined and continuous, have
been defacing them for six hun-
dred years, but they still remain
to us by the thousand, and the fine quality, vivacity, and variety

^ Prior, E. S. and Gardner, A.; "English Mediaeval Sculpture** (.Architectural Review,

VokXIItoXVll).

27.7

FIG. 522. — THE BROTHERS OF JOSEPH,
SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 523. — FIGURES, WEST
FRONT, WELLS CATHEDRAL.

of their treatment are astonishing." (Prior
and Gardner.) In the great majority of
cases they were carved in situ, the stones
being already buih into the walls. But in
certain districts a good many occur which
were supplied to the masons ready-made,
having been carved at some central atelier
out of the local stone. By the ihiddle of
the thirteenth century the ability of the
English carver was thoroughly developed,
and excellent work was being done all
over the country, proving that English
builders had a plentiful supply of native
skill and knowledge at their command.
By this time the head-carving had fully
developed its national characteristics of
refinement of execution and delicacy of
sentiment, and had been supplemented by a growing ability to treat
the figure as a whole. Figure sculpture was first strictly confined
to those points where it was demanded by the architecture : the
corbels, &c., already referred to, bosses (Fig. 520), capitals, where

it lived in some discomfort, and
those triangular spaces above
the shoulders of an arch which
call so loudly for occupation
(Figs. 521-22). After the
heads, the next specimens of
figure sculpture we can point to
are in these same spandrels, the
finest examples being at Lin-
coln, Salisbury, and Westmin-
ster Abbey. At Lincoln and
Westminster the spandrel shape
has determined the character
of the figures. These are prac-
tically restricted to angels, whose
wings help them to be happy
at their posts. The finer angels
at Lincoln are equal to any-
thing of their date in Europe,
or for long after ; while the best
of those at Westminster, such

FIG. 524. — FIGURES ON THE GATEWAY TO
THE CLOSE, PETERBOROUGH.

278

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD

as the two in the angles of the north tran-
sept, are scarcely inferior. The figures of
soldiers on the Easter Sepulchre at Lincoln
are examples of the same style at its happiest
and most developed moment (Fig. 515).
At Salisbury the subjects are less closely
governed by the architecture, and are, in-
deed, sometimes quite independently con-
ceived, e.g.^ the group of "Lot and his
Daughters," and the much restored but
extraordinarily fine group of "Joseph's
Brethren" (Fig. 522). The central dates
of all these are for Lincoln, about 1240,
for Westminster, about 1250, and for Salis-
bury, about 1270.

So far as quantity goes, the greatest
display of English mediaeval sculpture is
at Wells. Here we have everything :
corbel and label heads, capitals, panels in
relief, sunk panels with heads and parts of
figures in the round, and full length statues,
standing free. Statue carving in southern
England began somewhat abruptly, but in
that there is nothing difficult to explain.
The sculptors who had so far been em-
ployed on decorative work had acquired
Quite enough skill to enable them to supply
the new demand the moment it arose. On
the assumption that a sudden demand must
have been externally met, the Wells statues
have been ascribed to French, Italian, and
even Greek sculptors, in defiance of the
fact that no similar work can be pointed
to on any part of the European continent.
No evidence, indeed, of any kind has been
discovered to suggest that the work is
foreign, unless, indeed, the fact that a
certain number of figures high up on the
West Front bear Arabic numerals on their
backs, can be called so. In these some
writers would see Italian masons' marks.
But Arabic numerals had come into occa-

279

FIG. 525. — MADONNA,
CHAPTER HOUSE, YORK.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 526. — TOMB OF ARCHBISHOP
GRAY, YORK

(Purbeck figure.)

have the serene
simpHcity which
distinguishes the
early sculpture of
all schools, and,
freely conceived
as they are, they
fit into and carry
on the spirit of
the architecture
which enframes them. They are carved from
the Doulting stone of which the cathedral is
built. Originally their total number seems to
have been about 255, of which 183 remain^;
those which are well out of reach being, on
the whole, in fairly good condition. In type
they vary decisively from the figures at Lincoln
and Salisbury, but a certain affinity can be
traced with the two figures over the door of

sional use in this country as early
as the middle of the thirteenth
century, which is not too late for
these figures, and other explana-
tions of their presence might be
given. ^ The absence of anything
elsewhere to which these statues
can fairly be compared is evidence
of their English and local origin
which cannot easily be refuted. In
character, they

FIG. 527. — FIGURE IN
HENRY V.'S CHANTRY,
WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

FIG. 528.— TOMB OF ARCHBISHOP PECKHAM, CANTERBURY.

(Wooden figure.)

280

the Westminster
Chapter House, which
illustrate the subject of
the Annunciation.

' Prior and Gardner suggest,
for instance, that these statues
were moved out of harm's way
while the towers were being
built, in 1380-1430, and num-
bered in order to secure their
return to their right places.

^ Archaeologia, vol. Hx, p.
147.

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD

After Wells, Exeter has the richest
display of sculpture to be found on
any English Cathedral (Fig. 85).
Here again the statues are carved
from a local stone, which has
weathered very differently from that
of Wells. At Wells the statues are
mutilated, but sharp, the Doulting
stone breaking more readily than it
dissolves. At Exeter the reverse is
the case,
with the
result that

FIG. 529. — TOMB OF EARL AND
COUNTESS OF ARUNDEL.

FIG. 530. — PIETA. BREAD-
SALL, DERBYSHIRE.

(Alabaster.)

those tech-
nical details which are so useful in deter-
mining dates and origins are mostly illegible.
The spirit of the Exeter work is quite dis-
tinct from the earlier sculpture at Wells.
It is mouvemente and dramatic in concep-
tion, and must be referred to some artist or
school of artists who were less profoundly
sympathetic with
architecture than
those of Wells. In
addition to these
great cathedral-
families of statues,
numerous English
churches bear wit-

ness to the existence of a widespread school
of sculpture throughout the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, although, like all other
activities, it shrank and cowered for a time
after the murderous visitation of the Black
Death. Good sculpture cannot be produced
sporadically, and a single fragment is enough
to prove that where it was carried out there
must once have been much more. Such
statues, to take instances at random, as the
Madonna on the central pillar of the door-
way to the Chapter House at York
Minster (Fig. 525), the figures on Henry

281

FIG. S3I. — BISHOP FOUND
AT FLAWFORD, NOTTS.

(Alabaster.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 532. — THE ANNUNCIA-
TION.

British Museum.
(Alabaster.)

ducts came into such demand — partly, no
doubt, through royal insistence — that a
regular school grew up around them. Be-
ginning early in the
second half of the
twelfth century,
orders were received
from many parts of
England for shafts,
capitals, and other
decorative members,
as well as for statues,
both for niches and

V.'s chantry (Fig. 527) at Westminster, and
those over the main doorway of Burford
Church, Oxfordshire, imply a wide and long
continued development.

A most important phase in English Gothic
sculpture was that brought about by the
existence in the so-called Island of Purbeck,
in Dorsetshire, of quarries supplying a line,
hard, warmly colored shell-limestone, capa-
ble of polish, and as
decorative as a good
marble. These quar-
ries belonged to the
King, and were in
convenient proximity
to the royal Castle of
Corfe. The result
was that their pro-

ne. 533. — FIGURE WITH

MODEL OF A CHURCH,

FLAWFORD, NOTTS.

(Alabaster.)

FIG. 534. — MADONNA,
FLAWFORD, NOTTS.

(Alabaster.)

tombs. Purbeck developed a style of its
own, so that for a century and a half, from
II 75 to 1325, the marbler, with his attend-
ant polisher, was the chief nurse of our native
Gothic sculpture, Westminster Abbey and
the Temple Church are rich in the work
of the Purbeck marblers, the effigies in the
Temple including both early and late ex-
amples. Peterborough has the tombs of
five abbots ; Worcester the tomb of King
John (Fig. 545) with its fine recumbent
282

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD

FIG. 535. — TOMB AT HOLME-PIERREPOINT, NOTTS.

(Alabaster.)

figure, and York that of
Archbishop Gray (Fig.
526).

Early in the fourteenth
century the P u r b e c k
fashion died out, and was
succeeded by figures in
stone, bronze, alabaster,
or wood. The marblers
seem to have brought
about their own super-
cession by the common
error of not knowing
where to stop. Not
content with the polished
Purbeck, they elaborated
it with painting and gilding, until at last their fine material was
entirely overlaid and hidden. This left them at the mercy of the
stone workers, whose figures, when similarly decorated, looked as
well as their Purbeck rivals and were far less costly. (Prior and
Gardner.)

The completion of the Wells sculpture and the decaying vogue
of the Purbeck ateliers threw a large number of statue makers on
the country at large. These men dispersed to various centres, and
the greater homogeneity which marks English Gothic sculpture after
about 1300 may have been due in some degree to their influence.

The eclipse of the Purbeck marblers, then, was brought about by
the ability of workers in
cheaper substances to rival
their effects. The super-
seding materials were free-
stone and wood, and the
chief centre at which these
were employed appears to
have been London. From
the middle of the thirteenth
century onward the capital
supplied much of the sculpt-
ure required and more or
less controlled its character.
Varieties of style can, of
course, be traced, from the

283

FIG. 536. — TOMB OF SIR RALPH GREEN,
LOWICK, NORTHANTS.

(Alabaster.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 537. HOLME-PIERREPOINT, NOTTS.

(Alabaster.)

reposeful attitudes and sharply
cut plaited draperies of the Wells
school to the free action and
billowy folds of some northern
and eastern centres. But a
London parallel for any provin-
cial accent can nearly always be
found. Among the freestone
statues, either made in London or
under its influence, may be named
the figures of the Eleanor Cross
at Northampton, which were
carved in London by one William
of Ireland in 1290, a recumbent
and much damaged knight at Aldworth, Berks, which curiously
echoes Michelangelo's conception of Adonis ; the statues of the
Lady Aveline, of her husband, Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, and
of Aymer de Valence, at Westminster ; of Lady Fitzalan at
Chichester, and the Burghersh tomb, at Lincoln.

Among the many scores of wooden figures which still exist,
scattered all over England, the finest, probably, is that of Archbishop
Peckham, at Canterbury (Fig. 528). Westminster Abbey has the
figure of William de Valence (in which a wooden core supports a
copper skin) and the rude core of what was once, probably, a
magnificent effigy of Henry V.

The fashion of alabaster figures was a later development, but lasted
longer and spread more widely than any of the others. More than

500 specimens have been
catalogued. It had its
origin in the existence of
rich deposits of the mate-
rial known as English
alabaster all across the
country, from southern
Lincolnshire to Stafford-
shire. These appear to
have been often drawn
upon for the sculptor be-
fore the great develop-
ment of the tomb-figure

536.— ruMB IN SOUTHWELL CATHEDRAL. mduStry b C g a tt . A

(Alabaster.) c u r i o u s Mantegnesque

284

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD

FIG. 539. — TOMB.

(Alabaster.)

Pieta (Fig. 530), a series of figurines (Figs. 531, 533-34) and
reliefs (Fig. 532) have come down to us, some of which are
beautiful. The docile material
put no difficulty in the sculp-
tor's way, which was not
entirely an advantage. A
great school of what were
called " Alablasters " sprang
up, and for several genera-
tions met a large part of the
demand for sepulchral effigies,
not only in England, but also
on the Continent, and, in
another direction, as far as
Iceland. Its results were but
little above the industrial level,
as a rule. A few are real
works of art, but the majority are so designed as to awake a suspicion
that the ateliers charged for their products according to weight !
The list of ** alablasters " seems never to have included a sculptor
of any really free imagination. To be sure, no worse school of
design in the round could be suggested, perhaps, than one which
involved the constant manufacture of recumbent figures of men in
armor. Among the best which have come down to us may
be named the effigy of John of
Eltham, in Westminster Abbey,
the figure of William Fettiplace,
in Swinbrook Church, Oxford-
shire, and the various works figured
in these pages (Figs. 535-540),
especially the fine and really
artistic statue of Edward II.
at Gloucester (Fig. 540), and the
figure of a knight at Holme Pierre-
point (Fig. 535).

Metal working of all kinds flour-
ished in Gothic England, as the
records prove, although so few of its
results can now be pointed to. Eng-
lish goldsmiths, like those of other

countries, extended their operations to the production of bronze
statues and figurines, to the casing of those in wood, and the

283

FIG. 540. — HEAD OF EDW.4RD II.
GLOUCESTER.

(Alabaster.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 541. — HEAD OF RICHARD II.
WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

(Bronze: from a cast.)

ary in modelling, while
even the Richard II. (Figs.
54 1 , 543) and his queen,
Anne of Bohemia, are in-
ferior to the Eleanor and
the Henry. The small
figurines which used to
form a complete cortege of
weepers round these Gothic
tombs are often freer in

decoration, by various devices, of those
in stone and marble. And, unlike
the workers in these latter materials,
their names have not been entirely
forgotten. The fame of one English
family of bronze workers, at least,
has persisted. These were the Torels,
who worked In London as goldsmiths
for the better part of a century. In
the year 1291 "William Torel,
aurifaber," was paid the sum of
£113. 6. 8. for three bronze figures,
including those of Queen Eleanor (Fig.
542) and of Henry III. in Westminster
Abbey. These are the finest of the
Abbey bronzes. The later Edward III.
(Fig. 544) is curiously stiff and element-

FIG. 542. — FitSURE OF QUEEN ELEANOR.
(WILLIAM TOREL.) WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

(Bronze: from a cast.)

FIG. 543. — FIGURES OF RICHARD II. AND HIS QUEEN,
WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

(Bronze.)

286

conception than the
main effigies.

The later phases
of Gothic architect-
ure were nearly as
bare of free sculpt-
ure as the earliest.
The ** alablasters,"
whose productions
held the field until
the seventeenth cen-
tury, superseded the
local and London
imagers, while the

SCULPTURE-FIRST PERIOD

countless niches provided by
the workers in perpendic-
ular Gothic seem, in many
cases, to have been left
unfilled, and, in others, to
have been occupied by
figures scarcely higher in the
artistic scale than those sup-
plied by the modern purveyors of fonts, pulpits, lecterns, and other
church furniture.

FIG. 544. — FIGURE OF EDWARD ITI,
WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (BfOnze.)

For Bibliography, see end of Chapter XXI.

FIG. 545. — TOMB OF KING JOHN, WORCESTER.

(Purbeck marble.)

287

FIG. 546. — CENOTAPH OF WELLINGTON. (ALFRED STEVENS.) ST. PAUL'S.

CHAPTER XX
SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD

The practice of sculpture as a Fine Art ceased in England for
several generations after the final extinction of our Gothic
School. The active demand for sepulchral effigies, which has been
as continuous a feature of our national life as that for painted
portraits, was met by the alablasters. Although some of these showed
considerable artistic power, their activity on the whole was organized
on commercial rather than aesthetic lines, and tended to discourage
rather than to promote the re-birth of sculpture in its highest form.
The first man to show much individuality, and to bring back some
small modicum of vitality to the art, was Nicholas Stone ( 1 586-
1647), who would, however, have described himself as a mason
rather than as a sculptor. He studied for a time at Amsterdam,
under the son of Hendrik de Keyser, the famous sculptor, whose
granddaughter he married. Returning to England, he did much
work at the Royal Palaces, in London and Edinburgh, and as
a mason executed several of Inigo Jones's designs. The porch
of St. Mary's, Oxford, usually ascribed to Jones (Fig. 1 77),
was almost certainly both designed and carried out by Stone, to
whom, also, must be credited the beautiful gates of the Physic, or
Botanical Garden, in the same University. Several tombs in
Westminster Abbey are by him, also the statue of Dr. Donne in

288

SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 547. — JAMES II. (gRINLING
GIBBONS.) ST. J.AMES'S PARK.

his winding sheet in St. Paul's. One
of his best monuments is that of Sir
Julius Ccesar, in great Saint Helen's.
Stone is one of the few early artists
who have left documents : his ac-
count book is in the Soane Museum.
His eldest son, Henry, was the
painter known as " Old Stone " (see
page 169). Stone left a pupil or
assistant who must be noticed. This
was Caius Gabriel Gibber (1630-
1 700), a native of Flensborg, in
Holstein, who is best known as the
maker of the two figures in " Bed-
lam," Me/anc/io/t/ and Ravins Mad-
ness (Fig. 348). He was also em-
ployed at Ghatsworth, and made the
Phoenix over the south door of St.
Paul's, as well as the panel in relief on the west side of Wren's
Monument of London. Gibber married one Jane Golley, and by
her became father of Golley Gibber.

The first English sculptor to work freely and expressively in the
Renaissance spirit was Grinling Gibbons, to whose merit Fame,
even now, has done but scanty justice. He was born in Holland of
English parents. As an artist he showed a combination of designing
power with patience and technical skill which would have carried
him far with better opportunities. As a decorator his best perform-
ances are to be found at Ghatsworth, Petworth, Burghley, in St.
Paul's, London, and in Trinity Gollege, Oxford (Fig. 180). His
statue of James II.,
which has been moved
within the last few
years from its original
site behind the Ban-
queting House into
St. James's Park, is
one of the finest
bronzes in Europe
(Fig. 547). Gibbons
designed and executed
the pedestal for the

f y^l 1 TT FIG. 548. — "melancholy and RAVING MADNESS.'

statue ot v^naries 11. (gibber.) bethlehem hospital.

289 U

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

in the great quadrangle of Windsor
Castle, and may possibly have sup-
plied sketches for the beautiful pedestal
of Le Sueur's Charles I., at Charing
Cross, which was carried out, however,
by one Marshall (Cust). A great deal of
wood carving is ascribed to him without
evidence and against the probabilities.

Cibber and Gibbons were both more
or less responsible for Francis Bird
(1667-1731), a native of London, who,
after a boyhood spent abroad, set him-
self to profit by the example of the
two older artists.

FIU. 549. COLLEif CIBBER.

(Unknown.) Colored terra cotta.
National Portrait Gallery.

Bird's produc-
tions have been
the victims of
indiscriminate
abuse. His statue of Queen Anne in front of
St. Paul's was a butt for nearly two centuries,
and yet Belt's copy shows that it was by no
means destitute of artistic balance and unity.
His great relief in the pediment over the
west door shows errors of taste, in its stone
rays of sunlight and over-picturesque treat-
ment gener-
ally, but the
single figures
on the same
front are very
good, as, also.

FIG. 550. — DR. JOHNSON.
(bacon.) ST. PAUL'S.

FIG. SSI.— GEORGE III. (WYATT.)
COCKSPUR STREET.

Bronze.

is his Dr. Busby in Westminster
Abbey.

All these men were more or less
inspired by the decorative impulse
characteristic of the Renaissance.
Their draperies were vehicles for
much play of light and shadow ; the
movement of their figures was rather
complex than simple, and oppor-
tunities for the introduction of orna-
ment were sought after rather than
290

SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 552. — SAMUEL WILBERFORCE.
(S. JOSEPH.) WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

avoided. This tendency was now to
be abandoned for one in the opposite
direction, and EngUsh sculpture was to
strip itself deliberately of all those aids
which might, if properly used, have
enabled it to rise to a level not unworthy
of English painting. A classical severity
is admirable in a Greek climate and a
Greek society where constant familiarity
with the naked human figure at its best
breeds a sense of structure, form and
texture which is not to be learnt from
a few tame specimens in a studio. For
artists working under the conditions of
England in the eighteenth century, classic
ideas were fatal. They meant giving up
everything on which the sculptor had relied as vehicles for self-ex-
pression, and receiving in return the mere shadow of a knowledge
which is useless until it is complete.

Four sculptors may be chosen as typical of the whole during this
period of what was fondly believed to be classical purity and
restraint. They were Thomas Banks, Joseph Nollekens, John
Bacon, and John Flaxman. Banks (1735-1805) was the first
English sculptor to depend on a Grecian elegance to give charm
to his art. Nollekens (1737-1823), a Low-Countryman by
extraction, had the same predilections, but a happy fate compelled
him to spend most of his time in making busts. Into these he
contrived to pour no little vitality in spite of his neglect of detail.
By John Bacon (1 740-1 799)— the first Academy student to
receive a gold medal for sculpt-
ure from the first of the P.R.A.'s
— the best work extant is, prob-
ably, the statue of Johnson (Fig.
550) in St. Paul's. The move-
ment is appropriate and coherent,
the drapery well cast and near
enough to the Roman spirit.
Bacon had also some facility as
a purely decorative sculptor, as
his monument of Lord Halifax,

in Westminster Abbey shows, ^^^ ^^.-o^tram. (folev.) Calcutta

Flaxman (1755-1826), fol- Bronze.

291 u 2

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

fig. 554. — athlete and python.

(leighton.)

Tate Gallery. Bronze.

lowing the law which appears to govern
revivals, went farther back for his
ideals, and took the Greek spirit for
his inspiration. His art, although often
playful in conception, was too severe
in form for popularity, or, indeed, for
use, and the commissions he won were
not in proportion to his fame. He is
now remembered chiefly for his outline
illustrations to Homer, /Eschylus, Dante,
&c., which are based on the art of the
Greek vase-painters. A good example
of his sculpture is the monument to
Lord Mansfield in Westminster Abbey.
The mourning youth at the back shows
his technique at its best. But Flax-
man, like the rest of the Classicizers,
did not realize that for the sculptor,
above all men, the motto should be " thorough." The simplicity
of the Greek satisfies because it barely veils profound knowl-
edge, that of his imitator leaves us cold because we have a
sense of emptiness behind. I may illustrate this by a comparison
which, I hope, will not seem frivolous. Such a statue as the
kneeling boy of Subiaco (Thermae, Rome) compares with the

best productions of Flaxman
as a miniature by Cooper, or
Smart, compares with the best
to be found in a modern ex-
hibition. The old miniaturists
learnt to be artists; they learnt
to draw and paint the human
figure no less thoroughly than
the picture painters ; with the
result that, when they simplified
and generalized, they did not
become empty and " cheap."
Their modern successors learn
merely to paint miniatures, and
a glance is sufficient to show
that knowledge does not breathe
through their masks. Nothing
could be simpler, freer from

FIG. 555. — BISHOP PHILPOT. (BROCK.)
WORCESTER.

292

SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 556. — CENOTAPH OF LORD LEIGHTON.

(brock.) ST. Paul's. Bronze and marble.

accent or detail, than the Subiaco
boy, and yet nothing is more
certain than that the mind which
created it knew all there was to
be known about the texture and
artistic anatomy of the human
body. From Flaxman and all
the other English Classicizers
from Banks to Gibson — and, for
that matter, from those of Italy,
France, Germany, and Denmark
— we get no such impression.
We see they have been captured by the outward beauty of Greek
sculpture, and have set out to imitate it without first mastering
the knowledge from which it sprang. Of all the fine arts sculpture
is that which requires the completest and profoundest knowledge
of its bases. The sculptor's means of expression are so restricted,
when compared to those of the painter, that he can afford to
dispense with nothing which is at
once within the legitimate boun-
daries of his metier and capable
of enforcing his idea. It is sig-
nificant that the only bearable
sketch in sculpture is one based
on movement and structure. The
mind accepts such a sketch, know-
ing instinctively that its successful
achievement implies the power to
bring the whole adventure to a
happy conclusion.

The first of the nineteenth
century in England saw many
sculptors at work, and, on the
whole, not a little patronage ex-
tended to them. But their pro-
ductions were characterized, with
hardly an exception, by neglect of
the more expressive qualities of
their art and the cultivation of an
artificial simplicity which meant
nothing at all. Good conceptions
were left, as it were, buried in

293

FIG. 557. — THE BLACK PRINCE.
(brock.) LEEDS.

Bronze.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

the marble, for the want of modelling. Such
statues as the two Eves by E. H. Baily, or
the so-called Tinted Venus, by John Gibson,
would have been respectable works of art if
their modelling had been carried far enough.
That they were left as we see them was not
so much the result of incapacity as of a
mistaken theory as to the limits of sculpture
and a misreading of Greek simplicity. The
best known sculptors of this unhappy period
were Sir Francis Chan trey (1781-1842),
whose busts are often excellent ; Sir Richard
Westmacott (1775-1856), Samuel Joseph
(Died in 1850), who has left two fine statues,
Wilkie, in the National Gallery, and Samuel

FIG. 558. — GAINSBOROUGH. 1Xr.11 £ /C CCO\ * \Y/ i ' ^

(BROCK) Wdherforce (rig. DDZ) m Westmmster

Tate Gallery. Abbey; Patrick Macdowell (1799-1870),

James Wyatt (1795-1850), E. H. Baily
(1788-1866), and John Gibson (1790-1866). Better, when
at his best, than any of these was John Henry Foley (1818-1874),
whose Outram, at Calcutta (Fig. 553), Goldsmith, Burke, and
Grattan, in Dublin, and the often un-
fairly abused Prince Consort in Hyde
Park, are good if not exactly inspired
works.

Foley's influence persisted after his
death in the work of Lord Leighton
and Mr. Thomas Brock. By the former
we have two statues, both in the Tate
Gallery, An Athlete struggling with a
Python (Fig. 554), and The Slug^
gard; by the latter, a number of groups
and statues, in which a high standard is
reached with singular precision. The
Black Prince (Fig. 557) at Leeds, the
Moment of Peril, Eve and Gains-
borough (Fig. 558), in the Tate Gallery,
the Bishop Philpot, at Worcester (Fig.
555), the cenotaph of Lord Leighton in
St. Paul's (Fig. 556), the Robert Raikes
on the Victoria Embankment, and the
Queen Victoria on the last coinage of

294

fig. ssq. wellington monu-
ment, (alfred stevens.) st.
Paul's.
Bronze and marble.

SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD

FIG. 560. — TRUTH.
(ALFRED STEVENS.)

(From the model for the Wellington
Monument.)

her reign, are all good sculpture and
show a versatility which is rare. Two
other sculptors of some capacity who
may be classed with these were the pre-
Raphaelite Thomas Woolner (1825-
1892) and George Armstead. (1828-
1905). Armstead's best things, perhaps,
are his tomb of Lord Winmarleish and
the inner doorway of the Holborn
Restaurant, in London.

The greatest English artist of the
nineteenth century was a sculptor, and
a sculptor whose early training was ob-
tained in the very sanctuary of those
barren principles which led to nullity in
all but the strongest hands. Alfred
Stevens (1818-1875) was a pupil of
Thorwaldsen, into whose studio in Rome
he was admitted at a very early age.
His genius, happily, was so robust, and his curiosity about every-
thing connected with art so unsleeping, that he was in no danger of
being run into the moulds of other men. He really educated
himself as sculptor, as painter, as
architect, as ornemaniste. Returning
to England while still young he ac-
cepted any task which involved the
use of his knowledge, teaching in art
schools, designing fire irons, decorating
houses. His opportunity came with
the death of the Duke of Wellington,
when, after all the usual vicissitudes
which attend a competition, he was
commissioned to execute his monument.
Up to that moment he was practically
unknown, but the fame of what he
was doing in his retired studio soon
brought him a small coterie of friends
and a few commissions to give variety
to his labors. He died in 1875,
leaving his great work still incomplete.
The general conception of the Welling-
ton monument is based on the canopy

295

FIG. 561. — VALOUR.
(ALFRED STEVENS.)

(From the model for the Wellington
Monument.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 562. — PROPOSED MEMORIAL

TO THE 1851 EXHIBITION.

(ALFRED STEVENS.)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

tombs of the Italian Renaissance and,
more immediately, on Mary Stuart's tomb
in Westminster Abbey. But Stevens has
far excelled his models in the coherence
and unity of his general scheme as well
as in the grand design of his groups and
figures. To find anything better than his
Fa/our (Fig. 56 1 ), and Truth (Fig. 560),
we must turn to the greatest of all
imaginative sculptors, to Michelangelo
himself, while in its union of dignity with
decorative value the effigy of Welling-
ton with its supporting sarcophagus
(Fig. 559) is quite unsurpassed. The
other works of Stevens include a
splendid sketch (Fig. 562) for a
memorial to the 1851 Exhibition, to
which Durham's commonplace pro-
duction, now hidden away behind the
Albert Hall, was preferred ; designs
for the decoration of the domes of
St. Paul's and the British Museum
Reading Room ; the sculptural decorations of Dorchester House,
including two beautiful Caryatid figures (Fig. 563) ; and numerous
designs for metal-workers and other
industrials. Stevens was one of the
small band of artists whose every
scribble is of value. The Tate Gallery
possesses a good collection of what may
be called his remains, including his car-
toon for the mosaic of Isaiah in St.
Paul's, five other oil pictures, and a
number of drawings and sketches. In
one respect, too, he was an innovator,
for to him belongs the credit of having
invented that peculiar form of design,
depending on a system of abstract curves
(" squirms "), which has since been carried
so far by Mr. Alfred Gilbert and others,
and is really the foundation of what is
now called Vart nouveau.

The last sculptor to be mentioned
296

FIG. 563. CARYATID IN DOR-
CHESTER HOUSE.
(ALFRED STEVENS.)

SCULPTURE-MIDDLE PERIOD

in this chapter belongs in some ways to a later development.
For although G. F. Watts had reached a patriarchal age at
the time of his death, his work in the round is distinguished
by the almost picturesque freedom inaugurated by Carpeaux

riG. 564. VITAL ENERGY. (o. F. WATTS.) KENSINGTON GARDENS.

Bronze.

and his followers, .rather than by the comparatively " tight "
methods of his own English contemporaries). As a sculptor he
studied, indeed, under Behnes, but his real master was
Phidias, and his school the pediments of the Parthenon.
His best works as a sculptor are the Clutie, of which the Tate

297

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Gallery has a bronze, the Vital Energy, in Kensington Gardens,
the magnificent equestrian group of Hugh Lupus, at Eaton Hall,
and the monument to Lord Lothian.

It is greatly to be wished that a replica of the Eaton Hall group
might be set up in London, Fortune has been unkind to the
metropolis in dealing out to her the inferior works of her own
sculptors, and in banishing their successes to the provinces and
the colonies. The reason, perhaps, is to be sought in the fact that
artists have their hands freer when working for provincial or colonial
employers than when a committee of taste is waiting round the
corner to watch what they do and to pull them up if they set foot
outside the boundaries of the commonplace.

FIG. 565. — HUGH LUPUS, EARL OF CHESTER. (WATTS.)

From the model.

For Bibliography, see end of Chapter XXI.

298

jimiiiMiwi

fl^gi^^^^^^^

m^^- ill

. *i»s«*.

rr*rr-.. 1

^Kj^^^^^^^^^/^^Jm''

ill' MiF ill 1/ I^^^^^^^jSIe^vi ' -*^^^^ * ^

FIG. 566. — RETABLE, ST. ALBANS' CATHEDRAL. (ALFRED GILBERT.)

CHAPTER XXI

SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY

Few things, as a rule, are more difficult to trace than the real origin
of any movement in the Fine Arts. The usual method is to be satis-
fied with the working hypothesis of post hoc, propter hoc, and
to conclude that the earlier in date of any two similar developments
must have been the cause of the later. That such a line of argument
has often led to wrong conclusions it would not be difficult to show.
As our present business, however, is with an instance of its validity,
the point need not be insisted on. Few lines of artistic affiliation
are clearer than that which connects the latest phase in English
sculpture with our neighbors' school of a generation ago. Down
to the middle of the nineteenth century, French sculpture, al-
though much more accomplished than English, was affected by the
same misreading of Greek and Graeco-Roman examples. It analyzed
effects and reduced their causes to a body of principles, failing to
understand that Greek art seems objective only because it was the
outcome of a homogeneous society which had no temptation to be
insincere. The Greek sculptor was really little less subjective than
Rembrandt. To invert his inspiration, and make him the follower
of a priori laws instead of their unwitting creator, was to transform
him from a stimulant into an incubus.

299

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

The revolt came from the same
forces as the romantic movement in
literature, the chief originator being
Carpeaux, a man of genius although
not always a man of taste. His pupil,
or at least disciple, Jules Dalou, driven
from Paris by the consequences of the
war of 1870, came to England and

taught
for years
in the
Lon don
studios;
taught
and talk-
ed, and
awaken-
ed the

FIG. 567. — TEUCER. (hAMO
THORNYCROFT.)

(Tate Gallery. Bronze.)

FIG. 568. — ARTEMIS. EATON HALL.
(hAMO THORNYCROFT.)

with the hills and valleys of the human skin
they began to explore and master the
machinery it covered. Once the means of
expression thus put in their hands, they
were in a fair way to express their own
ideas, whatever their value. So that at
last the one serious foundation of equipment,
plus sincerity, was arrived at.
The first of the younger school to step

300

young Englishmen who came under
his influence to the effect of the
shallow training and misconstrued
classical tradition which had been
depriving their national art of all
vitality. He
offered them
structure and
movement for
the foundation
of their knowl-
edge. Instead
of acquiring a
superficial ac-
quaintance

FIG. 569. — GENERAL GORDON.
(hAMO THORNYCROFT.)
TRAFALGAR SQUARE.

Bronze.

SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY

out of the ranks was Hamo
Thomycroft. He was an enfant
de la balle, for both his father
and mother were sculptors be-
fore him. His first works to
attract attention were the Artemis
(Fig. 368) and the Teucer (Fig.
567). The latter was exhibited
in 1881, and at once made a
sensation. It may be said to
have in-
augura t e d
the new
moveme n t,
with its
thorough
modelling
and tense
vitality. It

FIG. 570. — EDWARD I. (HAMO
THORNYCROFT.)

Plaster.

FIG. 571. — THE MOWER.
(hamo THORNYCROFT.)

Liverpool Gallery.
Bronze.

was followed by a long procession of statues
in which no positive failure is numbered.
They include such fine
things as the Gordon
(Fig. 369), the Mower
(Fig. 371), the Bishop
Goodwin, at Carlisle, the
model for an Edward I.
(Fig. 370), never exe-
cuted, the absurdly placed
Cromwell, at Westmin-
in the Strand, with its

ster, the Gladstone,
appropriately vociferous but perhaps over-ener-
getic acolytes, and the Bishop Creighton (Fig.
372), in St. Paul's.

Next to Mr. Thomycroft, the work of the
late E. Onslow Ford may be mentioned. His
education was a little cosmopolitan. His first
work to attract much notice was a statue of
Rowland Hill; after that came the fine statue;
of Irving, as Hamlet (Fig. 573), the Huxley,
in the Natural History Museum, the Shelley
Memorial, at Oxford, the Gordon, at Wool-

301

FIG. 572. — BISHOP

CREIGHTON.

(hamo THORNYCROFT.)

ST. PAUL'S.

Bronze.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

wich, the memorial to Dr. Jowett, and
the unsuccessful Lord Strathnairn, at
Knightsbridge. The history of the
last named is one of the many trage-
dies of committees. Ford's first model
was excellent, the horse standing at the
edge of the pedestal and looking down
over his toes, while his rider peered
out to the front as if watching a fight.
The uniform was that of Colonel of
the First Life Guards, and the whole
conception had unity, both of line and
action. But the Committee insisted on
alterations

FIG. 573. — IRVING, AS HAMLET.
(E. ONSLOW FORD.)

Guildhall Gallery.

which near-
ly broke the
scul p tor's
heart and
give us the comparatively meaningless
group we now see. The imbecility of
English committees in these matters is
amazing. What would be said of a
patient who engaged a surgeon to cut off
his leg, and then insisted on directing
the operation ? And yet it would be no
more ridicu-
lous than for

FIG. 574. — QUEEN VICTORIA

MONUMENT, MANCHESTER.

(e. ONSLOW FORD.)

Bronze and marble.

FIG. 575. — "maternity"; back of

QUEEN VICTORIA MONUMENT,

MANCHESTER.

(e. ONSLOW FORD.)

a company
of generals
and civil ser-
vants to in-
sist on designing a statue. It is a misera-
ble thing to have to confess, but the
truth is that on nearly every occasion
when a committee has had to select a
design, whether for a building or for a
less utilitarian work of art, in England,
it has passed over something good to
choose something bad. It has not been
that English architects and sculptors
were incapable, but that the laymen
with whom the decisions rested did not
302

SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY

FIG. 576. — THE YOUTH
OF ORPHEUS,
(j. M. SWAN.)

Plaster.

FIG. 577. — THE YOUTH

OF ORPHEUS. BACK

VIEW.

(j. M. SWAN.)

know a good thing when they

saw it. During the last few

years, happily, a truer theory

on such matters has shown

signs of coming to the front,

and the twentieth century may

turn out to be less a record of

lost opportunities than the nine-
teenth. Before parting with

Ford, it must be noted that he

has left some excellent busts,

the best, perhaps, being those

of Sir William Orchardson

and the late Mr. Ridley Cor-
bet, the landscape painter.
From Onslow Ford it is

easy to pass to his friend and

neighbor, Mr. John McAllan

Swan, although they had little
enough in common in their work. Mr. Swan, like the great
majority of his fellow sculptors for the last forty years, gathered
his education in more countries than one, France having a right to
most of the credit. In England he studied at Worcester, and
in that school at Lambeth which has done so much more than its
share for English art. He may be classed as a diociple of Barye
and Fremiet, who has in some ways equalled, if he has not even
excelled, his models. More than any of his rivals has he worked
from within outward, never losing his grip on the fact that a live
animal is an engineering device,
moving only as its levers and
joints allow. And yet he is not
satisfied with structure and its
result in motion. He models the
envelope of flesh, skin, and fur
with greater truth of suggestion
than any previous animalier, not
excepting even his two French
exemplars. Mr. Swan is one of
the few moderns who can be
compared with the Italians of the

early renaissance in his way of looking at art. He is sculptor,
painter, ornemaniste, and a magnificent maker of drawings. Among his

303

FIG. 578. — LEOPARD AND TORTOISE,
(j. M. SWAN.)

^Bronze.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

no. 579. — HOUNDS IN LEASH. (hARRY BATES.)

Tate Gallery. (Plaster.)

best things are two groups
of Orpheus charm-
ing the Beasts (Figs.
376-7), a Puma and
Macaw, Leopard and
Tortoise (Fig. 378), and
Fata Morgana. At the
present moment he is
engaged on modelUng the
colossal Rons for the
tomb of Cecil Rhodes in
South Africa. Between
Mr.

Swan's art and that of Harry Bates there is a
good deal in common. Bates, who, like not
a few of our best sculptors, began life as a
carver, had a gift for the play of line which
amounted to genius. Unhappily his life was
short, and he has left but little behind him.
His finest things, perhaps, are the reliefs of
/Eneas and Homer, and the Hounds in Leash
(Fig. 379). Other members of the same gen-
eration are Mr. Roscoe Mullins, whose chief
work so far is the pediment to the Preston
Museum ; Mr. George Simonds, whose statue
of the Northern Aurora, the goddess Gerd, is
excellent ; Mr. Stirling Lee, the sculptor of
the reliefs of the St. George's Hall, in Liver-
pool ; Mr.
Lucchesi,
the Anglo-

FIG. 580. — DAME ALICE

OWEN.

(GEORGE FRAMPTON.)

FIG. 581. — DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE,
(j. GOSCOMBE JOHN.) EASTBOURNE.

304

Italian author of Destiny and a
Flight of Fancy; and Mr.
Pomeroy, who worked under
Dalou, at Lambeth, and is
responsible for the excellent
Burns, at Paisley, besides many
other statues and much archi-
tectonic sculpture.

Coming down to a slightly
later time, the most notable
figure among those sculptors who

SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY

FIG. 582. — THE ELF. (j. GOSCOMBE JOHN.)

are still on the sunny side of

fifty is probably Mr. George

Frampton, another alumnus of

Lambeth and Paris. Commenc-
ing exhibitor in 1884, he has

been a faithful contributor to the

Royal Academy, sending there

The Children of the Wolf

(Romulus and Remus brought

home by the shepherd Faustu-

lus), Mysteriarch, Lamia, Dame

Alice Owen (Fig. 580), and

many other notable works. As a

sculptor he stands by himself,
and is di-
vided from
his contem-
poraries by
both quali-
ties and de-
fects. No one of his own generation rivals
his power of suggesting intellect and imagina-
tion actually at work in his figures. On the
other hand, his designs are curiously wanting
in that organic relation be-
tween the parts which, at
its best, works out to unity.
He has been responsible
for much good decoration,
and is credited with having
done not a little to bring
about a change for the

better in the aspect of English officialdom toward

artistic questions. Among his best monuments

are the memorial to Charles Mitchell, at New-
castle, the statue of Lord Salisbury, at Hatfield,

and that of Quintin Hogg, in Regent Street,

where the narrowness of the site and the tightly

gathered design work into each other's hands. '
From Mr. Frampton it is easy to pass to Mr.

Goscombe John, yet another son of Lambeth.

Mr. John began as a carver, and won the Gold

305

PIG. 583. — FORTUNE.
(f. PEGRAM.)

FIG. 584.— JOSEPH

PRIESTLEY.
(ALFRED DRURY.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Medal of the R.A. at a compara-
tively mature age. His strong point
is modelling, which he has carried
sometimes to a remarkable pitch of
refinement, one of the best instances
being the torso of his Morpheus.
Other good examples of his power
are a John the Baptist, the seated
Duke of Devonshire (Fig. 581),
at Eastbourne, and The Elf (Fig.
582). Mr. Pegram (Fig. 583).
Mr. Alfred

FIG. 585. — GROUP ON WAR OFFICE.
(ALFRED DRURY.)

Drury (Figs.
584 and 585),
and Mr. Albert
Toft(Fig.587)
have all shown themselves equal to those
opportunities which have come to them so
much more generously than they did to
English sculptors of earlier generations. Mr.
Drury, especially, has left his mark on our
cities, his most important works being the

sculpture on the
new War Office
(Fig. 585), and
the Joseph
Priestley (Fig.
584), at Leeds,
where he had

FIG. 586. — CIRCE.
(BERTRAM MCKENNAL.)

FIG. 587. — VICTORY.
(albert TOFT.)

also a chance of showing that objects
of the severest utility may be the
vehicles of good art. For Leeds
City Square has the best group of
decorative sculpture yet arranged in
England, a group which should bring
shame to the cheeks of those responsi-
ble for the present appearance of
Parliament Square, in Westminster.
In the centre is Mr. Brock's Black
Prince (Fig. 557), surrounded by
eight electric light standards by Mr.
Drury, the lamps upheld by finely
306

SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY

FIG. 588. — THE GIRDLE. (w. R. COLTON.)

Tate Gallery.

modelled figures of nude women ;

the arrangement is completed by

four colossal statues contributed

by Mr. Drury and Mr. H. C.

Fehr. Mr. Albert Toft's best

things are probably Victory (Fig.

587) and The Spirit of Contem-
plation.

Coming down later still we

reach two men of unusual capacity

in Mr. Bertram McKennal and

Mr. W. R. Colton. The former

is the son of a Scots sculptor who

emigrated to Australia, where

the son was born in 1865. He

was educated in London, with

finishing touches in Paris. At the

age of twenty-four he won the

competition for decorating Gov-
ernment House in Melbourne,

Among his best statues are Circe (Fig. 586), For She sitteth on

a Seat in the High Places of the City, and Diana Wounded ;

this last is in the Tate Gallery, which also possesses a bibelot after

Rodin convention, in The Earth and the Elements. Mr. Colton's train-
ing was strictly orthodox :
Lambeth, Royal Acad-
emy, Paris. His best
works, so far, are the
Image Finder (Fig. 589),
The Girdle (Fig. 588),
and Springtime of Life,
the two last in the Tate
Gallery. To the same
generation belong Mr. A.
G. Walker, whose best
things, perhaps, are The
Thorn (Fig. 591), Sleep,
and a fine relief. The Last
Plague ; Mr. J. Wenlock
Rollins, Mr. Gilbert Bayes,
Mr. Taubman, Mr. Paul "''geo^gI"'''

Montford, and Mr. Der- (h. c. fehr.)

307 X2

fig. 589. — THE image
FINDER.

(W. R. COLTON.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

fig. 59 1. — the thorn.
(a. g. walker.)

went Wood. Mr. Wood has especially
distinguished himself by his power of model-
ling and the flexibility of his designing
power. He has probably a great future
before him.

Standing somewhat apart from other
English sculptors is Mr. Havard Thomas,
the author of a beautiful statue and a
wonderfully accomplished piece of model-
ling in The Slave, and
of the much discussed
Lyddas. We have to
answer the following
question before t h e
Lycidas can be accepted
or refused as a work of
art : Is modelling, of the

completes! kind imaginable, to be accepted as
enough to justify the making of a statue, and to
compensate for the total absence of an organized
design ? In short, is good imitation good art ?

The question an-

no. 592. — DOORWAY,

SCOTTISH PORTRAIT

GALLERY.

(BIRNIE RHIND.)

FIG. 593. — MONUMENT TO QUEEN
VICTORIA, DUBLIN.
OOHN HUGHES.)

swers itself.

In Scotland
and Ireland the
art of sculpture
has hitherto had
few chances of
flourishing. In
Scotland, espe-
cially, it has been

feeble and meaningless, although
during the last decade or two signs
of better things have not been en-
tirely wanting. Among living artists,
Mr. McGillivray and Mr. Birnie
Rhind are doing excellent work,
the statues by the latter on the
outside of the Scottish National
Portrait Gallery (Fig. 592) being
very good of their kind. Dublin
has been more fortunate than Edin-
308

SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY

burgh. While the statues fringing Prince's
Street are comically bad, those which stand
in the high places of the Irish capital are
nearly all good. A leaden Tom Moore is,
indeed, a disgrace to every one concerned ;
but Foley, an Irishman, was at his best
when working for his own metropolis (see
page 294), and the Parnell of the late
Augustus St. Gaudens promises, at least, to
be far from commonplace. Meanwhile the
city has been enriched with a monument to
the late Queen

6::^^^

Victoria (Fig.
593) by a young
Irish sculptor,
Mr. John

Hughes, which is
very remarkable
indeed. Its triangular

FIG. 504. — ICARUS.
(ALFRED GILBERT.)

Bronze.

FIG. 595. — ST. GEORGE, TOMB

OF DUKE OF CLARENCE,

WINDSOR.

(ALFRED GILBERT.)

managed with unprecedented
and the whole movement
originality of conception with
tive power in a rare degree.

So far I have
been writing, in ~

this chapter, of
men who have
shown themselves
to be possessed of
more than aver-

pedestal is

jkill,
unites
execu-

age abilities and far more than the average
equipment which used to be at the command
of English sculpture. I have yet to speak of
an artist whose genius, like that of Stevens
in a previous generation, sets him apart from
all his contemporaries. Mr. Alfred Gilbert,
the son of a musician, was trained at
South Kensington, at the Ecole des Beaux
Arts, in Rome, and in the studio of Sir
Edgar Boehm. His first work to attract
much attention was a group. Mother and
Child; after that came Icarus (Fig. 594),

309

FIG. 596. — TRAGEDY AND

COMEDY.

(ALFRED GILBERT.)

Bronze.

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

FIG. 597. — MONUMENT TO QUEEN VICTORIA,

WINCHESTER, FRONT VIEW.

(albert GILBERT.)

one of the finest designs ever realized by a sculptor, busts oi
Mr. J. S. Clayton, Watts, and Baron Huddleston, the statue of
Queen Victoria for Winchester (Figs. 597 and 398), the memo-
rial to Fawcett in Westminster Abbey, the splendid Howard

statue at Bedford, the
Shaftesbury Memorial
Fountain, the monu-
ment to the Dul^e of
Clarence, at Windsor,
and the strange but
fascinating retable to
the High Altar of St.
Albans Cathedral
(Fig. 566). Besides
these more " import-
ant " works, Gilbert
has carried out a
large number of small
figurines (Figs. 594,
595, and 596) and
many decorative de-
signs, from the army
officers' gift to Queen
Victoria at her first
Jubilee to such toys as
seals. Of these a
seal for Lady de
Vesci may be named
as one of the finest.

Mr. Gilbert pos-
sesses a more origi-
nating brain than any
other living British
sculptor. When at
his best, every new
commission was for
him a new problem,
with all sorts of possibilities attached to it. In thinking it over,
his head began to teem with ideas, aesthetical and technical, the
result being too often a slowness in execution which tried the
patience of all concerned a little too highly. The result has been
that not one, probably, of his more important creations represents

310

SCULPTURE-PRESENT DAY

his thought exactly. As an instance of this the bust of Baron
Huddleston may be named. It was conceived as an attempt at
something Hke illusion, an enamelled bronze which should be
comparable in its effect to the colored terra-cotta bust of Colley
Gibber (Fig. 349) in
the Portrait Gallery.
To this idea he after-
ward returned in
the St. Albans rere-
dos, which, in turn,
has been left unfin-
ished. Mr. Gilbert's
technical skill and re-
sources are as great
as those of Cellini ;
it is only when we
come to what may
be called his external
judgment that we find
much to criticise.
Give him a blank to
fill and be will fill it,
in time, with a master-
piece. Unfortunately
it is not always the
right sort of master-
piece. The Shaftes-
bury fountain is
beautiful ; in silver, on
a circular dining table,
it would be beauty in
the right place. In
the unhealed scar
which is now called
Piccadilly Circus its
beauty is wasted, and
the site is only half
occupied. And so with the Clarence tomb at Windsor. The
sarcophagus is fine and the railing about it beautiful, but they
are mutually destructive. The grille hides the sarcophagus almost
as perversely as the bronze grille hides Henry VII. in his chapel
at Westminster, while the sarcophagus blocks the voids of

311

PIG. 598. — MONUMENT TO QUEEN VICTORIA,

WINCHESTER, BACK VIEW.

(ALFRED GILBERT.)

ART IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

the grille, and prevents a full appreciation of its exquisite design.
The greatest tragedy of art is the inability of the artist fully to
realize his dreams. The pure artist, like pure gold, wastes too
rapidly in use. He requires a touch of alloy to make him fit for the
world's purposes, to make him content to withdraw his hand from a
masterpiece while yet it might be bettered. In striving for perfec-
tion the first inspiration too often dies down, and it is not given to
every one, as it was to Alfred Stevens, to be at once the unerring
critic of himself and the inspired creator. Those conceptions of
Alfred Gilbert which remain conceptions, which have never taken
form beyond those slight indications in which their splendor can be
but dimly seen, fill with an immense regret all those who have
followed his career.

BIBUOGRAPHY TO CHAPTERS XIX— XXI.

Prior, E. S., and Gardner, A.: English Mediaeoal Sculpture, Architectural Review, Vols.
XII— XVII. James, M. R.: The Sculpture in the Lady Chapel at Ely, Archaeologia, Vol,
LIX. The Sculpture on Wells Cathedral. Spielmann, M. H.: British Sculpture and Sculptors
of To-day, 1901. Colvin, Sidney: The Drawings of Flax man in the Gallery of University
College, London, with a notice of his life, 1876. Monkhouse, C. : The Works of J. H. FoleUt
1875. Raymond, A. J.: Life of Chanlrey, 1904. Armstrong. W. : Alfred Stevens, 1881.
Stannus, H.: /4//reJ 5/euens, 1891. Dictionary of National Biography. Art Union Journal.
Art Journal, Architectural Review (passim).

FIG. 599. — BASE OF LAMP-STANDARD. (ALFRED DRUHY.)

312

INDEX

Abel. John. 81.

Abercorn, Duke of (collection),

205.
Academy. Royal, 183. 184,

206. 208. 211, 214, 225,

232, 234, 237, 247, 254,

258, 307.
Academy, Royal Scottish, 223.
Adam, Brothers, 102-104.
Adelphi, The, 102.
Admiralty Office. 118.
Adoration of the Magi, carving,

140.
/Exlelwyrme, 137.
/Elfleda, Queen, 137.
/Elgitha, Queen, 137.
Agecroft Hall. 82.
Aix (Provence). 139.
"Alablasters." 285.
Alan of Walsingham. 43.
Alcuin. 144. 145.
Aldworth. Berks. 284.
Alexander. William. 263.
Alfred the Great. 145.
All Saints' Church. Derby.

68.
All Saints* Church. Margaret

Street. 110.
All Saints' Church, York,

(stained glass), 134.
All Souls' College, 96. 175;

Chapal, reredos. 70 ; Chapel.

screen. 1 34 ; Chapel, stained

glass. 134; Chapel, tower.

99 ; Chapel. Wren's work. 92.
Altamira. I.

Althorp. 209 : pictures at, 188.
Altyre, 11.
Amesbury House, 9 1 .
Amiens Cathedral, 45. 47. 62.

66.

Ampthill. 82.

Anderson. Rowand. 103, 112.

Anne of Bohemia, bronze figure

of, 286.
Anne, Queen, 101.
"Anne, Queen, Style," 1 13.
Annaly, Lord (collection),

205.
"Antiquities of Athens," 105.
Archer, 98, 100.
Archer's Hall, Eldinburgh,

203.
Armstead, George, 295 ; Tomh

of Lord Winmarleigh, 29b.
Armstrong, Lord (collection),

213.
Arras, Yorks, 8. 9.
Arundel Castle. 165.
Arundel, Earl of. 138.
Ashburnham House. West-
minster. 90, 91.
Ashfield. Edmund. 173.
Ashmolean Museum. 92. 141.

166. 172.
Aston Hall. 81.
Athenaeum Club. 107.
Atherington Church, wooden

screen in. 72.
Atkinson. 120.
Avebury Church, 2 1 .
Aveline. Lady, statue of,

284.
Aubusson. 139.
AudleyEnd. 79. 81.
Augsburg. 163.
Augsburg Cathedral, 1 3 1 n.
Aylesford, Kent, 9.

Bacon, Charles, 247.
Bacon, Francis, 166.

313

Bacon, John, 291 ; Monument

to Lord Halifax, 29\ .
Bacon, John, Statue of Dr.

Johnson. 290.
Bacon, Nathaniel, 166; The

Cookmaid, 166.
Baillie-Hamihon, Hon. Mrs.

(collection), 203.
Baily, E. H., 294 ; Eve, 294.
Baldwin, 101.
Balfour, Rt. Hon. A. J.

(collection), 234.
Bangor, Lord (collection), 193.
Bank of England, 107.
Bank of Ireland, 102.
Bankes, Ralph (collection),

194.
Banks, Thomas, 291,293.
Baptist Church House, 120.
Barcheston, Warwickshire, 1 39.
Bardsey Church, 2 1 .
Baring, Thomas (collection),

197.
Barlow, Francis, 173.
Barnack Church, 19,21,23.
Barney, W.W., 156 n.
Barret, George, 195, 261,

265.
Barret, George, Junr., 266,

267.
Barry, Charles, 108, 109.
Barry, E. M., 56.
Barry, James, 1 77, 206, 207.
Barton - on - Humber Church,

19,21.23.
Barye. 303.
Bates. Harry. 304.
Bates. Harry, yEneas, 304;

Homer, 304; Hounds in

Leash, 304.
Bath Abbey, 64, 68,
Bath, architecture in, 101.
Bath GuildhaU. 101.

INDEX

Battenea, Lady (coDection),

234.
Bayes. Gilbert. 307.
Bayeux Tapestry, 137.
Beach, Thomas, 200.
Beale. Mary, 1 72.
Beard, Thomas, 153.
Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick,

64.
Beaulieu Abbey. 48.
Beauvais, 139.
Bedford, 310.
Bedlam, 289.
Beek, David, 169.
Behnes, William, 226, 297.
Belcher, T., 116, 117; Electra

House, 116.
Belfast Town Hall, 120.
Belgium, 132.
Bell, Henry, 97.
Belt (sculptor), 290.
Benedictional (at Chatsworth),

145.
Bentley, 121, 130.
Benson, R. H. (collection),

234, 237.
Bettes, John, 1 65 ; Thomas,

165.
Beverley Minster, 49, 57;

Percy Shrine, 56.
Bewcastle Cross, 274.
Bewick, Thomas, 150, 151.
Bibracte, 126.
Bigg, W. R., 155.
Bird, Francis, 290 ; Statue of

Dr. Busbv, 290; Statue of

Queen Anne. 290.
Birdlip, 9.

Bishopstone Church, 2 1 .
Boadicea, 136.
Board of Trade Offices, 118.
Bodleian Library, 145.
Bodley, 111.
Boehm, Edgar, 309.
Bogle, John, 255.
Boit, Charles, 258.
Boncle, Sir Eldward, 162.
Bone, Henry, 259.
Bone, Henry Pierce, 259.
Bone, Muirhead, 272.
Bone, Robert Trewick, 259.
Bonington, Richard Parkes,

265,271.
Bonnat, Leon, 1 72, 246.
Book of Armagh, 14. 143.
Book of Durrow, 14, 143.

BookofKells, 13, 14, 143.
Book of the Gospels of St.
Cuthbert, 143.

Bordier, Pierre, 257, 258.
Borthwick Castle, 84.
Bossam, John, 165.
Boston Church, Tower of,

68.
Boswell, George, portrait of,

166.
Bothwell Castle, 83, 84.
Bovey Tracey Church, wooden

screen in, 72.
Bow Church, Cheapside. 93.
Bower. ELdward, 169; Portrait

of Charles I, 169.
Boyce. G. P., 239.
Boydell, Josiah, 155 n., 207.
Blenheim Palace, 98, 99,

188.
Blomfield, Arthur, 111.
Blomfield, Reginald, 77, 80, 81 ,

91,97, 119.
Blois. 44.
Blooteling. Abraham. 1 52,

1 54 ; Monmouth, 1 54.
Bloxham Church, 57.
Bradford-on- Avon Church, 22 ;

rood at, 276.
Bramley, Frank, 242.
Brandon, Raphael, 1 10.
Branston Church, 21, 25.
Branston, Robert, 151.
Brasenose College, 65.
Breadsall Church, 285.
Brennus, 3.
Brett, John, 238, 239.
Bridgewater House, 1 08.
Bristol Cathedral. I 10.
Bristol Museum, 10.
British and Foreign Bible

Society, 237.
British Museum, 10, 11, 107,

138, 140, 144, 146, 166,

183,261,262,296.
Brixworth Church, 20.
Brock, Thomas, 294; Bishop

Philpot. 294 ; Black Prince.

294, 306; Cenotaph of

Leighton, 294; Eve, 294;

Gainsborough. 294 ; Moment

of Peril, 294; Robert

Raikes, 294; Queen Vic-
toria. 294.
Bromley, J. C, 156 n.
Bromley, James, 156 n.
Bronze Figures in Westminster

Abbey, 286.
Brooking, Charles, 198, 261.
Brooks (architect). 111.
Brooks, John, 153, 154.
Brown, Austen, 24 1 .

314

Brown, Baldwin, 17-20.

Brown, Darell (collection), 211,
214.

Brown, Ford Madox, 230,
232, 239, 268; Chaucer at
the Court of Edward III.,
23 1 ; Christ Washing the
Disciples' Feet, 231 ; Elijah
and the Widow's Son. 231 ;
Romeo and Juliet, 231 ;
Work. 231.

Brown. Frederick. 248.

Browne, Alexander, 152.

Brough, Robert, 244. 245;
Fantaisie en Folic, 245 ; St.
Anne of Brittany. 245 ;
Twixt Sun and Moon,
245.

Buccleuch. Duke of (collec-
tion). 250, 251.

Buckhurst, 81.

Buckingham House, St. James's
Park, 97.

Burdett Coutts (collection),
250.

Barford Church, Oxon, 282.

Burges, 110.

Burghersh Tomb, Lincoln,
284.

Burghley House, 81, 173, 177,
289.

Burke, Thomas, 155 n.

Burlington, Eari of, 98, 99.

Burlington House, 99, 217,
223.

Bume-Jones, Edward, 232-
235, 268. 272; Beguiling of
Merlin. 234; The Brazen
Tower. 234 ; The Briar
Rose. 234; Chant d' Amour,
234; Days of Creation. 234;
Depths of the Sea, 234;
King Cophetua and the
Beggar Maid, 234; The
Golden Stairs, 234 ; Laus
Veneris, 234 ; Mirror of
Venus. 234; Wheel of
Fortune, 234.

Bums. Robert. 202.

Burton. W. S., 236.

Busby, Dr., 92.

Bushey Park. 95.

Butterfield. 110.

Bury St. Edmunds. 19 n., 27,
30, 82.

Bryanston Park. 104, 122.

Brydon, Jsunes, 101.

Brydon, J. C, 118.

Brythons, 8.

INDEX

Caesar, Julius, 3, 1 26.

Cdsar, Sir Julius, Monument

of, 289. 5ee Stone, N.
Calcott, Augustus Wall, 222,

225 ; Mouth of the Tyne,

lib.
Calderon, P. H., 246.
Cambridge, Senate House,

100; Trinity CoUege, 95.
Cameron, D.Y., 241.
Campanile, Venice, 1 13.
Campbell, Colin, 98, 100.
Canada Gates, Buckingham

Palace, 130.
Canale, Antonio, 196.
Canterbury, 143.
Canterbury Cathedral, 26, 41-

43, 62, 63, 276, 277; Angel

Tower, 64, 113; stained

glass, 131; tower, 69 ;

tapestries for choir, 1 39.
Cardiff Castle, 110.
Cardinal College (Christ-
church), Oxford, 71.
Carlisle, 301.
Carlisle Cathedral, 57.
Carlisle, Lord, 234 ; his house,

Kensington Palace Gardens,

122.
Carnarvon, Elarl of, 171.
Carpeaux, 297, 300.
Cartmel Church, wooden

screen, 72.
Casino, near Dublin, 102.
CasUe Campbell, 84.
Castle Howard, 98.
Cathcart, Lord (collection),

193.
Cattermole, George, 266.
Caucasus, 2.
Cawdor Castle, 84.
Cella, Abbot John de, 46.
Cellini, 311.
Celtic art, 3-15, 140, 142,

1 43 ; enamels, 1 1 ; Gospels

page from, 1 42.
Celts, 3, 4, 276.
Central Criminal Court, 117.
Cervantes, 225.
Chalon, 255.
Chambers, William, 101,

102.
Champneys, Basil, 112.
Chan trey, Francis, 294.
Chardin, 195, 196.
Charlecote, 81.
Charlemagne. 131. 144. 145.

Charlemont. Earl of. 102.
Charles I.. 87. 89, 139, 166,

168,257; statue of, 290.
Charles II., 93, 94, 152, 175,

257 ; statue of, 290.
Charles, James, 247.
Charlotte Square, Eldinburgh,

103.
Charterhouse, 79.
Chartres Cathedral, 41 ; stained

glass at, 1 30.
Chatsworth, 90, 97, 251,289.
Chelsea Church, 77.
Chester, half-timber houses at,

82.
Chichester Cathedral, 30, 127;

iron grille in, 1 28 ; sculptures

in. 275-277.
Chipping Ongar, 19 n.
Chinese, the, 126.
Cholmeley, Sir H. (collection),

193.
Christ Church, Oxford, 22, 23.

30, 65. 73. 1 I 1 ; the hall at.

65.
Christall, Joshua, 265.
Cibber, Caius Gabriel, 289 ;

figures of Melancholy and

Madness; ibid.
Cibber. CoUey. 289. 290 ; bust

of, 311.
Cistercians, 37.
Claude Lorrain, 194, 225.

267.
Clennell. Luke. 151.
Clerk. Sir G. D. (collection).

203.
Cleveley, John, 263.
Cleveley, Robert, 263.
Cleyn, Penelope, 25 1 .
Clint, George, 1 56 n.
Cliveden House, 100.
Clonmacnoise, 13.
Cnut, King, 137.
Coalbrookdale Gates, Hyde

Park, 129.
Cobham Hall, Kent. 90.
Cockerell, C. R.. 108.
Cole. Peter. 165.
College of Science. S. Kensing-
ton. 119.
Colley. Jane, 289.
Collier, Thomas, 268.
Collins, Charles AUston, 235.
Collins, Flichard, 255.
Collins, William, 225.
CoUinson, James, 229, 235.
Colton, W. R., 307; The

Girdle, 307 ; The Image

315

Finder, 307 ; The Spring.

time of Life. 307.
Commentary of Cassiodorus.

143.
Compton Norton, 127.
Compton Winyates, 65.
Constable, Isabel, 217.
Constable, John, 157. 196,

214-217. 242. 244. 271 ;

The Cornfield, 216. 217:

The Hay wain, 217; The

Jumping Horse, 217; The

Valley Farm. 1] 7.
Constantine, Emperor. 136.
Constitution Hill Gates, 1 29.
Cooper, Alexander, 25 1 .
Cooper, Samuel, 163, 168,

170, 202, 251, 252, 256.

292; Cromwell. 261;

General Monk. 25 1 .
Coote. Sir Algernon, 171.
Cope, Ascoli, 1 38 ; Bologna,

138; Daroca, 138; of St.

Silvester, 138; Syon. 138;

Toledo, 138.
Copley, John Singleton, 207 ;

Death of Chatham. 207;

Death of Major Pierson,

204, 207.
Corbridge Church. 20.
Corot. 194, 244.
Corpus Christi College, Oxford,

65.
Cornwall, 12, 17.
Cosmopolitan Club, 227.
Cosway, 254, 256.
Cotes, Francis, 200, 269.
Cotes, Samuel, 255.
Cotman. John Sell, 219, 271;

The Centaur. 219. 271;

Turning the Sod. 1]9. 17].
Cotswold Hills, 9.
Courbet, 242.
Courtenay, Exiward, 155.
Cousins, Samuel, 156 and n.;

Midsummer Night's Dream

(print), 156.
Cowper, Cadogan, 247.
Cox, David, 266, 267, 269.
Cozens, Alexander, 261 .
Cozens, John, 261, 262.
Craigmillar Castle, 84.
Crane, Walter, 239.
Crats or Crelz, see De Critz.
Crawhall, Joseph, 24 1 .
Crediton, 17.
Crichton, 84.
Critz, see De Critz.
Crome,John (Old). 210, 211

INDEX

219. 27i : Landscape. 2]];

Mouse hold Heath, 21 1 ;

Poringland Oak. 211; Slate

Quarries, 211.
Crome, John, Junr., 219.
Cromwell. Oliver. 170,261.
Crosby Hall. 64.
Croscombe Church, wooden

screen in, 72.
Crosraguel, 84.
Cross of Cong, 13.
Cross at Monasterboice, 13.
Crosses, High, 12.
Crosse, Lawrence, 252, 256
Cro2se, Richard, 255.
Croyland Abbey, 64.
CulfordHall, 118.
Cust, L., 290.
Custom House, Dublin, 102.
Cuyp. 225. 267.

Da Costa, John, 242.

Dahl. Michael, 1 74.

Dalou, Jules, 300. 304.

Dance (father and son), 100.

Dance, Nathaniel, 200.

Danube, 3.

David, Jean Louis, 193.

Dawe, George, 1 56 n.

Dawe, Philip, 155.

Davison, Jeremiah, 1 74.

Dawson, Nelson, 259.

Dayes, Eldward, 263.

Dean, John, 155 n.

De Critz, Emanuel, John, and

Oliver, 160, 167.
De Grebber, Pieter de, 1 70.
De Keyser, Hendrik, 288.
DeKoninck, Philip, 211.
De Losinga, Herbert, 30.
De Morgan, Mrs., 235.
Delphi, 3.

Denham, Sir John, 92.
Derby, Lord (collection), 250.
DeReyn, Jean, 163.
Desborough, 9.
Deverell, W. H.. 239.
Devis, Arthur, 198, 263.
Devonshire, Duke of, 1 64 ;

(collection of), 252.
De Wint, Peter, 266. 267,

269.
Dickinson, William, 1 55 n.
Digby, Wingfield (collection),

250.
DionCassius, 136.

Dirleton Castle, 84.

Divinity School, Oxford, 64,
67.

Dixon, John, 1 54.

Dixon, Nathaniel, 252.

Dobson, William, 167, 169;
Endymion Porter, 169.

Doncaster Parish Church, 111.

Donald, John Milne, 241.

Donne, Statue of Dr., see
Stone, N.

Doorway, Maghera, Ireland,
5.

Dorchester Abbey, Oxon,
57.

Dorchester House, 296.

Doughty, William, 155 n.

Downman, John, 200, 27 1 .

Drayton House, 1 74.

Drogheda, 7.

Drury, Alfred, 306, 307;
Joseph Priestley, 306.

Dryden, 173.

Dublin, 1 53 ; architecture in,
102; sculpture in, 308, 309;
City Gallery, 244 ; Museum,
10, 12; National Gallery,
183, 186, 197, 261, 264;
Trinity College, 102.

Dundas, Sir R. (collection),
203.

Dunkarton, Robert, 155 n.

Dunkirk, 169.

Duns (stone forts), 1 4.

Dunster, half-timber houses at,
82.

Dunster Church, wooden screen
in, 72.

Durham (sculptor). Memorial
of 1851 Exhibition, 296.

Durham Cathedral. 30, 31, 45,
47, 49, 57, 143; Chapel of
the Nine Altars, 49; Chap-
ter House, 54 ; Galilee, wall-
painting, 1 59, 1 60 ; ironwork,
127; tower, 69.

Durham, Earl of (collection),
205.

Dyce, William, 222, 223.

Dyke-Acland, Sir Thomas
(collection), 205.

Earlom, 155, 157.
Earl's Barton, 19,21,23.
East, Alfred, 244.
East, Bergholt, 214.
Elastbourne, 306.

316

Eastwood, 127.
Eaton Hall, 298.
Eccleston Church, 111.
Edinburgh, 120, 123, 170,

308; architecture in, 103,
107; College, 103; Museum.

10; National Gallery, 203,

223, 224,261,264, Portrait

Gallery ; Scott Monument,
109.
Editha, Queen, 137.
Edridge, Henry, 255, 263.
Edward the Confessor, 26.
Edward the Elder, 137.
Edward II., statue of, 285.
Edward III., bronze figure of,

286.
Edward VI., 165; portrait of,

164.
Edward VII., collection of,

250, 252.
Egg, Augustus, 225.
Egypt, 2, 8.
Egyptians, 126.
Eleanor, Queen, bronze figure

of, 286.
Eleanor Crosses, 56, 284.
Elgin Cathedral, 49.
Elizabeth, Queen, 79-81, 165,

166.
Ely Cathedral, 29, 46, 52,

53, 137; Udy Chapel. 51,

53.
Emma, Queen, 137.
Enamels, 256-259.
Engleheart, George, 255.
Erith. 127.
ELscomb Church, 20.
Eton College, 26 1 .
Etty, William, 222, 223;

Cupid and Psyche, 223 ;

Nude Study, 223; The

Storm, 223; Venus, 223;

Youth at the Prow, and

Pleasure at the Helm, 223.
Exchange, Copenhagen, 90.
Exchange, Royal, 80, 82.
Exeter Cathedral, 51, 52. 57,

281.
Exeter College Chapel, 111.
Exeter, Lord (collection), 250.

Faber, John (father and son),

153.
Faes. see Leiy.
Fairfax Jewel, 258.

INDEX

Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 258.
Fairford Church, 135.
Faithorne, William (father and

son), 149 n., 150 n., 153.
Farrington, 195.
Fehr, H. C. 307.
Ferguson, 49.
Ferguson, Munro (collection),

203.
Fettiplace, William, figure of,

235.
Fielding, Copley, 266, 267.
Figures of Richard 11. and his

Queen, Westminster, 286.
Figures, Peterborough, 278.
Fildes, Luke. 245.

Finch, F. O., 266, 267.

Finlayson, John, 154.

Finlayson, John, Elizabeth,
Duchess of Argyll (print),
154.

Finney, Samuel, 255.

Fisher, Edward, 154.

Fisher, Rev. John, 216.

Fisher, Mark, 244; Boys
Bathing. 244 ; On the River
Stour. 244.

FItzalan, Lady, statue of, 284.

Fitzroy Square, 102.

Fitzwilliam, George, 166.

Filzwilllam Museum, 107.

Flatman, Thomas, 252, 256.

Flaxman, John, 291-293;
Monument to Lord Mans-
field, 292.

Fleischmann, Mrs. (collection),
203.

Foley, J. H., 294, 309: Burke.
294 ; Goldsmith, 294 ;
Qraltan. 294 ; Outram,
294 ; Prince Consort. 294.

Forbes, Elizabeth, 241, 242.

Forbes, Stanhope, 241, 242.

Ford. Michael, 154.

Ford. Onslow. 301. 302; Bust
of Ridley Corbet, 303 ; Bust
of Orchardson, 303 ;
General Gordon. 30 1 ; Hux-
ley, 301 ; Irving as Hamlet,
301 ; Lord Stra'hnairn,
332 ; Memorial to Jowett,
302 ; Shelley Memorial,
301 ; Rowland Hill, 3m .

Forres, 1 1 .

Foster. Birket. 234.

Fotheringay Church. 64. 68.

Foundling Hospital. 183.

Four Courts. IDublin. 102.

Fourment, Helena, 1 70.

Fountains Abbey, 37, 49;
tower of, 68.

Frampton. George. 305 ;
Charles Mitchell Memorial,
305 ; The Children of the
Wolf 305; Dame Alice
Owen, 305; Lamia. 305;
Lord Salisbury, 305 ; Mys-
teriarch, 305; QuintinHogg,
305.

Frampton. Reginald. 235.

Frarxe. 1-3. 131. 132.

Francia. Francois Louis, 265.

Franks. Sir A., 11.

Franks Casket. 138. 140.

Freeman. 47.

Fremlel. 303.

Frye. Thomas. 154.

Fuller. Isaac, 173, 155.

Fusell, 207.

Furse, C. W.. 244 ; Cubbing
with the York arid Ainsty,
245; Diana of the Up-
lands, 244 ; Equestrian Por-
trait of Lord Roberts, 244 ;
The Lilac Gown, 245 ; The
Return from the Ride, 244.

Fyvie Castle, 84.

Gainiborough, Thomas, 157,
188-191. 194. 196. 198.
211. 261. 270; Blus Boy,
189; Hon. Mrs. Graham,
189; Miss Haverfield. 189;
Miss Linley and Her
Brother, 189; The Mall.
189; The Morning Walk.
189; Ladv Mulgrave. 189;
Mrs. Robinson, 189; Mrs.
Sheridan, 189; Mrs. Sid-
dons, 189; The Watering
Place. 189.

Gaels, see Galatae.

Galatae, 3, 4.

Galatia, 3.

Gallerus, Oratory of, 1 4.

Gain, see Galatde.

Gandon. 102.

Gandy of Exeter. 1 86.

Garde-Meubles. Paris. 139.

Gardiner. Starkie. 128.

Garman. Edward, 97.

Garstin. Norman. 242.

Gascar. 173.

Gauls, 1 26 ; see also Galatae.

Gawdie. Sir John. 173.

Geddes, Andrew, 147.
George III.. 197.
German, E.: see Garman.
Gibbons, Grinling. 289-290;

Statue of James IL, 289.
Gibbs. 98. 99, 100.
Gib on. John, 293. 294:

Tinted Venus, 294.

Gilbert. Alfred. 296. 309-312;
Bust off. S. Clayton. 310;
Bust of Baron Huddleston,
310. 311; Bust of G. F.
Watts. 3\Q; Howard. 3\0;
Icarus. 309 ; Memorial to
Farocett. 310; Monument to
Duke of Clarence. 3\Q,3\\;
Mother and Child. 309;
Retable. St. Albans. 310.
311; Shaftesbury Memorial
Fountain. 310. 311 ; Seal
for Lady de Vesci, 3 1 0.

Gilpin. Sawrey. 261.

Gilpin. W.. 261.

Girtln. Thomas. 262. 263 ;
Rue St. Denis. Paris, 262.

Glamis Castle. 84.

Glamis. Lord, portrait of. 1 66.

Glasgow. 1 20. 1 23 ; architec-
ture in. 1 07 ; Assurance
Company. 112; Cathedral.
49 ; Museum, 203 ; Town
Hall. 118.

"Glasgow School." 240. 241.

Glastonbury Abbey, 145.

Gloucester Cathedral, 30, 62,
88, 1 27 ; tower of, 64. 69.

Goldie. 111.

Gold Torque from Limavady. 5.

Goodrich Court. 140.

Gordon. John Watson. 204.

Gosford House. 118.

Gospels. MS., at St. Petersburg.
143.

Gotch. T. C. 235. 248.

Gouda Cathedral, stained glass
at. 130.

Gow, A. C, 246.

Gower. George. 165.

Grandison. Bishop, 141.

Grantham Church, 57.

"Graphic. The," 273.

Gravelot, 188.

Greece, 126.

Green, Valentine, 155; CouH'
tess of Aylesford (print),

M55; Lady Betty Delm]
(print), 155; Ozias Hum-
phrey (print), 155; Ladie
Waldegr<n>e ipnnt), 155.

317

INDEX

GreenhiU. John. 1 72.
Greenwell, Canon, 9.
Greenwich Hospital, 90. 91,

93. 98.
Gregory. E. J.. 239. 247.
GreifFenhagen, Maurice, 247.
Gresford Church, tower of. 68.
Gresham. Sir Thomas. 80.
Grey. Earl (collection). 205.
Grimaldi. William. 255.
Grimthorpe. Lord, 46, 98.
Grostete, Bishop, 44.
Grosvenor House, 1 89.
Grosvenor Gallery, 234.
Groth, 258.

Groult (collection). 189.
Grozer. Joseph. 155 n.
Grumbol. Robert. 81.
Grumbol, Thomas, 8 1 .
Guardi, 195.
Gundulph, Bishop, 30.
Gunnersbury House. 9 1 .
Guthrie, Sir James. 24 1 .

Haden. F. Seymour. 147, 148.
Haddiscoe. 127.
Hague Museum. 165.
Halesowen Abbey. 48.
Half- timber houses, 82.
Halifax Town Hall, 108.
Hals, Frans, 190,202.
Hamburg Kunsthalle, 240.
Hamilton, Hugh, 200, 207.
Hampton Court, 65, 71, 74,

75,93-95, 165, 171, 176.
Hanneman, Adriaan, 169.
Harberton Church, wooden

screen. 72.
Hardwicke. 82. 139.
Harrietsham. 82.
Harvey, William. 151.
Hastings, Lord, 258.
Hatfield, 79, 82, 305.
Hawker. Exlward. 173.
Hawksmoor. 98, 99.
Havell, W., 265.
Haverfordwest Priory, 48.
Haydon, B. R., 208.
Hayes, Eldwin, 243.
Hayls, John, 1 72 ; Portrait of

Pepys, 172; Portraits of

the Russell Family, 1 72.
Hayman, Francis, 198.
Hazlehurst, Thomas, 255.
Hearne, Thomas, 263.

Helena, Empress, 136.

Hemy. Napier, 242, 243 ; The
London River. 243 ; Pil-
chards, 243.

Henry 111., 48 ; bronze figure
of, 286.

Henry IV., 132.

Henry V.'s Chantry, West-
minster, 282 ; statue, 284.

Henry VI., 62, 63.

Henry VII., 63, 64, 164.

Henry Vll.'s Chapel. West-
minster. 64. 66. 67.

Henry VIII.. 64, 73, 74. 76,
78, 161, 164; portrait of,
163.

Henry, George, 24 1 .

Herbert of Cherbury, Lord,
82.

Hereford Cathedral, 127.

Herkomer, H. von, 247,
259 ; Council of the Royal
Academy, 247 ; The Last
Muster, 247 ; Town Council
of Landsberg, Bavaria, 247.

Heriot's Hospital, ELdinburgh,
90.

Hertford Monument, Salisbury
Cathedral, 80.

Hexham crypt. 20.

Highmore, Joseph, 198.

Hills, Mrs. E. (collection),
203.

HiUiard, Nicholas, 249. 250.

Hirsch. Leopold (collection),
193.

Hobbema, 155, 157, 211,

223.

Hodges, Charles H., 155.

Hodges, William, 195.

Hogarth, 157, 174, 176,
180-184. 186, 196, 270;
Calais Gate, 1 82 ; Portrait
of Capt. Coram, 1 83 ; Elec-
tion Series, 1 83 ; Finding of
Moses, 181 ; The Good
Samaritan, 176, 183 ; Por-
trait of Himself, 182; The
March to Finchley, 183;
Marriage a la Mode, 1 82 ;
Pool of Bethesda. 176;
Portrait of Quin, 182;
Rake's Progress, 183;
Scene from the " Indian
Emperor," 183; His Ser-
vants, 1 82 ; Shrimp-girl,
182; His Sister. 182.

Hogarth's " Analysis of

Beauty," 181.

318

Holbein, 71, 75,78, 150, 161.
162-164, 168, 249, 250.
254 ; The Ambassadors, 64 ;
Christina. Duchess of Milan,
162, 164; George Ghisze,
1 64 ; Meyer Madonna,
1 64 ; Sir Thomas More,
164; Morrett, 164; A
Young Man, 1 64 ; Duke
of Norfolk, 120; Sir Brian
Tuke, 164.

"Holbein's Gate," Whitehall.
78.

Holborn, 120.

Holbeton Church, wooden
screen in, 72.

Holdenby, 82.

Hole. W. E., 149.

Holford Collection, 258.

Holkham House, 99.

Holland House, 81, 197.

Holland, James, 266, 267.

Hollar, 173.

Holme Pierrepoint, 285.

Holt, Thomzis, 8 1 .

Holyrood,84, 162.

Holy Trinity Church, Chelsea,
112.

Holl, Frank. 246; John
Bright, 246; Duke ofCleve-
land, 246 ; Samuel Cousins,
246; Hushed. 246; The
Lord ga\>e and the Lord hath
taken away, 246 ; No
Tidings from the Sea, 246 ;
Lord Overstone, 246; Sir
Henry Rawlinson. 246 ;
Earl Spencer, 246 ; Lord
Wolseley,. 246.

Home Office, Whitehall, 90.

Hone, Horace, 255, 259.

Hone, Nathaniel, 198, 255,
259.

Hoogstraaten, 173.

Hook. J. C, 242; Luff Boy!
242.

Hoppner, 157,200,201, 210.
225, 270; Children Bathing,
20 1 ; Countess of Darnley
and Child, 201; Douglas
Children. 201 ; The Frank-
land Sisters, 201 ; Lad))
Louisa Manners, 201;
William Pitt. 20\.

Hornel, ELdward, 241.

Horseguards, 99.

Hoskins, John. 251.256.

Houghton. 100.

Houses of Parliament, 109, 1 10.

INDEX

Houston, Richard, 1 54.

Howden Chapter House, 62.

Howden Church, 63 ; towers
of, 68.

Howth Castle. 85.

Hudson, Henry, 1 55 n.

Hudson, Thomas, 1 74.

Hugh, Bishop, 43. 44.

Hughes. Arthur. 235. 239.

Hughes. John. 309; Monu-
ment to Queen Victoria, 309.

Humphrey, Ozias, 255.

Hunt, W. H., 266, 268.

Hunt. Holman. 229, 232, 235,
236 ; The Finding of Christ
in the Temple, 236; The
Shadow of Death, 234;
Strayed Sheep, 235.

Hunter, Colin, 241 ; Herring
Market. 241 ; Lobster
Fishers, 241.

Hurlstone. F. Y.. 224.

Hurter, the brothers. 258.

Huth, Edward (collection).
164.

Huysman, 173.

Hyde Park Corner, arches at,
107.

Iberians, 3, 4. 7. 1 1 .

Ightham, 82.

llchester. Lord (collection),
183.

He de France. 42.

"Illustrated London News.**
273.

Imperial Institute. 1 20.

Institute of Chartered Account-
ants. 1 16.

Institute of Painters in Water-
colours. 269.

Insurance Office. St. James*
Street. 117.

lona, 12.

Ireland, 7, 12, 142; domestic
architecture in, 83, 85.

Irvingite Church. Gordon
Square, 1 10.

Iveagh, Lord (collection), 193.

Jackson, John R., 156 n.
Jackson, Michael, 154.
Jackson, T. G., 112.

James I., 87, 98, 100, 166,

169.
James III., portrait of, 162.
Jamesone, George, 169, 170.
Janssen van Ceulen, see Jonson.
Jarrow Church, 20.
Jersey, Earl of (collection),

205.
John. Augustus, 248, 272.
John. Goscombe, 305 ; Duke

of Devonshire, 306; The

Elf, 306 ; John the Baptist.

306 ; Morpheus, 306.
John. King. 47. 48.
John of Eltham. effigy of. 285.
John of Padua. 76. 77.
Jones. Inigo, 73, 74, 81, 87-

92, 95. 96. 97. 103, 106,

115, 116, 119,288.
Jones. John. 155; Dulce Do-
mum (print). 155; Charles

James Fox (print). 155;

Lady Caroline Price (print),

155.
Jonson, Cornelius, 167, 169.
Joseph, Mrs. (collection). 167,

203, 252, 294.
Joseph, Samuel, 294; Wilkie,

294.
Julian (art school), 244.

Keble College. Oxford. 110.

Kedleston Hall. 104.

Keen. 120.

Kemp. 109.

Keene, Charles. 273.

Kenilwcrth. 127.

Kennington. T. B.. 248.

Kensington Palace Gardens.
No. 10, 108.

Kent, W.. 98. 99.

Kenton Church, wooden screen.
72.

Kenwood, 103.

Keppel. Commodore, 184.

Kerry, 14.

Kettle. Tilly. 198.

Killigrew. Anne. 173.

King*s College Chapel, Cam-
bridge. 62. 64. 65. 132.
1 34 ; wooden screen in.
72.

King's Lynn. 97.

Kingston Lisle, 127.

Kirby House, 8 1 .

Kirkby Hall. 82.

Knapton. George. 198.

319

Kneller, Sir Godfrey. 152. 153,
174, 176, 181; Bishop
Aiterbury, 174; Godert de
Cinkel, 174. 175; Countess
of Shrewsbury, 171; Sir J.
Trelawney, 1 74 ; Windsor
Beauties, 171.

Kneller Hall, 176.

Knole, 81. 189.

Knott. Ralph. 120.

Koninck, see De Koninck.

Ladbroke, Henry. 219.

Ladbroke. John Bernay, 219„

Ladbroke, Robert, 219.

Uguerre, 1 75. 1 76.

Uidlay. W. J., 248.

Lambeth Art School, 303-
305. 307.

Lancaster. Crouchback, Earl of,
statue of, 284.

Lancashire, half- timber houses
in. 82.

Lance, George, 222, 225.

Landseer, Eldwin, 22 1 .

Landseer. Eldwin. Death of
the Otter, 111.

Unfranc. 26. 29, 43.

Lanier, Nicolas, 169.

Lathangue, 247.

Uuder. Robert Scott. 240.

Lavenham, 82.

Lavery, J., 24.

Law Courts, 1 10.

Uwless, M. J., 235, 239.

Lawrence, Thomas. 157, 172,
201. 204-206, 210. 226.
270 ; Lady Acland and
Sons, 205 ; John Julius
Angerstein,105, 270; Lady
Elizabeth Belgraoe, 205 ;
Thomas Campbell, 205 ;
Lord and Lady Castlereagh,
205 ; Cardinal Consahi,
205 ; Lady Dover and
Child, 205; Miss Farren,
205; Arthur F itzjames, 205;
Four Portraits of Children,
205 ; Countess Cower and
Child, 205 ; Countess Gre])
and Daughter, 10b; Warren
Hastings, 205. 270; Master
Lamhton, 205 ; Charles 3rd
Marquess of Londonderry,
205; Mrs. Maguire, 205;
Miss Mary Moulton-Bat'

INDEX

reU, 205; Pope Pius VII.,
205 : Wellinglon. 205 ;
Wilberforce. 205.

Lawson, Cecil, 243, 244;
A ugust Moon, 243 ; Barden
Moor, 243; The Cloud,
243 ; Hof> Gardens of Eng-
land, 243 ; The Minister's
Garden, 243.

Layer Marney Hall, Elssex,
65, 75.

Leathart collection, 23 1 .

Leeds City Square, 306.

Lee, T. S.. 248, 304.

Leicester, 127; Gallery, 227.

Leighton, Lord, 245, 272,
294 ; Athlete struggling with
a Python, 294 ; The Slug-
gard, 294.

Lely, Sir Peter, 157, 169,
170-174; Duke of Albe-
marie, 171 ; Lady Bellasvs,
171; Charles II., 171;
Charles Dormer, Earl of
Carnarvon, and Family,
171 ; Mary Davis, 171 ;
NellGwyn, 171; Le/y. 171;
Mrs. Jane Middleton, 1 72 ;
Wycherley, 171.

Le Mans Cathedral, stained
glass at, 130.

Leonardo, 247.

Leslie, C. R., 222, 224. 225.

Le Sueur, 290.

Lewis, Isle of, 140.

Lewis, J. F..238.

Uchfield, 17; Cathedral, 52;
stained glass in, 134.

Ligurians, 3, 4.

Ulle, 216.

Uncoln Cathedral. 40-45. 49,
57, 131, 276; iron grille in,
128; presbytery, 49; sculp-
tures in, 278-280; vest-
ments, 137.

Lincoln's Inn, 226.

Limnerslease, 227.

Lindisfarne, 12.

Undisfarne MS., 143.

Littlecole, 82.

Liverpool Gallery. 233. 236.

Llananno Church. wooden
screen in, 72.

Local Government Board
Offices, 118.

Lochar Moss, 1 1 .

Lockie, Nicholas, 165.

Loftie, 97.

Logsdail, WiUiam, 245.

London, fire of, 92.
Londonderry, Marquess of

(collection), 205.
Longford Castle, 8 1 .
Longleat, 76,77,79,81.
Losely, 82.

Losinga, Herbert de, 30.
Lothian. Lord (collection).

197,
Loudan, Mouat, 247.
Louis XIV.. 257.
Louvre, the, 203, 258.
Lucas, David, 156 n., 157.
Lucas, Seymour, 246.
Lucatelli, 194.
Lucchesi, 304 ; Destiny, 304 ;

A Flight of Fancy, 3QA.
Lupton, Thomas, 156 n.
Luton House. 103.
Luttrell, Edward, 152.
Lyndhurst, Lord. 207.
Lyne, Richard, 165.
Lydd Church, 2 1 .
Lyemore, 82.
Lyminge, Saxon remains at,

20.

MacArdell, James. 153. 154;

Lady Chambers (print). 1 54.
Macbeth. R. W.. 177.
Macdowell. Patrick, 294.
Macgregor, Archibald, 235.
Mackenzie, Marshall, 112,

117.
Macklin, 207.

Madonna, York Minster, 281 .
Magdalen College, Oxford,

64 ; screen at, 1 34 ; tower

of, 68.
Majano, Giovanni da, 74, 75.
Malouel, Jean, 161.
Maltons, the, 210, 263.
Malvern Abbey, stained glass

at, 134.
Manby, Thomas, 173.
Manchester Gallery 223, 231,

241,243.
Manet, 190.
Mann, Harrington, 241.
Mansard, 96.
Mansfield. 197.
Mansion House, 1 00.
Mantegna, 236.
Maoris, 8.
Mappin's Shop, Oxford Street,

117.

320

Marble Arch Gates, 129.

Marchi, Giuseppe, 155.

Margaret of Denmark, portrait
of, 162.

Margaret Roding, 127.

Marischal College, Aberdeen,
112.

Marks, H. S.

Marlow, William, 263.

Marseilles, 126.

Marshall, sculptor, 290.

Martin, David, 201.

Martin, Mrs. T. (collection),
201.

Martineau, R. B., 236.

Mary, Queen, 165.

Maurice, Bishop, 30.

Maxstoke, 127.

May, Phil, 273.

Mayer, 102.

Mayerne, Theodore de, 257.

McGillivray, 308.

McKennal, Bertram, 307 ;
Circe, 307 ; Diana Wound-
ed, 307 ; Earth and the
Elements, 307 ; For She
Sitieth on a Seat in the High
Places of the City, 307.

McTaggart, William, 241.

Meath, 7.

Medical Association Building,
117.

Mee, Mrs., 255.

Meissonier, 246.

Melbourne, 307.

Melrose Abbey, 58, 65.

Meres, 166.

Mereworth, Kent, 1 00.

Merton College, Oxford ;
Chapel, 53, 64; tower of,
68; stained glass, 133.

Meryon, 147, 148.

Mesopotamia, 126.

Metropolitan Museum, New
York, 223.

Metsu, 189.

Metz, MSS. at, 144.

Meyer, Henry, 1 56 n.

Meyer, Jeremiah, 258.

Meyrick Collection, 1 40.

Michelangelo. 98, 296.

Middleton quoted, 145.

Mijtens, Daniel, 169.

Millais, John Everett, 229,
236-238, 268; Lord Bea-
consfield, 237 ; Mrs. Bis-
choffsheim, 237 ; Boyhood
of Raleigh. 237; Black
Brunsmicker, 237 ; John

INDEX

Bright. 237; Bubbles. 238.
239; The Carpenter's Shop,
236; Chill October. 237;
Christ in the House of His
Parents. 238; Death of
Ophelia. 236 : Eve of St.
Agnes, 237, 238; Ferdinand
and Ariel, 236; Simon
Fraser. 237 ; The Qambler's
Wife. 237 ; Gladstone. 237,
238 ; Sir Gilbert Greenall,
237 ; Hearts are Trumps.
229. 237 ; /. C. Hook, 237,
238 ; The Huguenot, 237 ;
Sir Isumbras at the Ford,
237; Mrs. Jopling, 237;
Miss Nina Lehmann, 237 ;
Lorenzo and Isabella, 236 ;
Mariana in the Moated
Grange, 236; Mrs. F. H.
Myers, 237 ; Cardinal New-
man. 237 ; The Order of
Release. 237 ; Mrs. Perugini,
237 ; Lady Peggy Primrose,
237 : The Prescribed Royal-
ist, 237 ; The Rescue. 237;
The Return of the Dove to
the Ark. 236 ; Lord Shaftes-
bun,. 237; Sisters. 237;
Souvenir of Velazquez. 236,
237; Stella. 237 ; Tennyson.
237, 238; Dorothy Thorpe.
237 ; The Vale of Rest,
237; Vanessa, 237; The
Woodman's Daughter, 236.

Miller (collection), 237.

Miller. Andrew, 153.

Milton, Northants, 166.

Modern Gallery, Venice, 245.

Moira. Gerald. 239.

Moliere, 225.

Monasterboice. 13.

Moncrieff, Lord (collection).
203.

Monkwearmouth, Durham. 20.

Montacute, 81 .

Montford. Paul. 307.

Monument. The. 93.

Moore. Albert. 245, 246, 272 ;
Midsummer, 246 ; The Open
Book. 246; The Quartet,
246 ; Silver, 246 ; A Summer
Night, 246.

Moore. Henry, 242, 243;
■ Clear Shining after Rain.
243 ; June Sea. 243 ; New-
haven Packet. 243; A
Perfect Day for a Cruise,
243.

Moore. Thomas, statue of. 309.

Morland, George, 220; Black
Monday, 22 1 ; Interior of a
Stable, 221; Lavinia, 221;
A Stable, 221; Vi^t to the
Child at Nurse, 220.

Moreland, George Henry, 220 ;
The Oyster Seller. 220.

Moreland. Henry Robert. 220.

Moreland, Maria. 220.

Moreton Old Hall. 82.

Morett, 164 n.

Morgan, H. Pierpont (collec-
tion), 205.

Morris. William, 232. 234.

Mortlake. tapestry factory at,
139,251.

Morton, Lord, 174,201.

Moser, George Michael, 258.

Moulton- Barrett collection, 205.

Mountford, 117.

Muirhead, Lionel (collection),
203.

MiiUer, W. J., 266. 267.

Mullins. Roscoe. 304.

Mulready. William, 222. 225 ;
Choosing the Wedding
Gown. 224 ; The Sonnet,
224.

Munich Pinacothek, 223.

Murphy. John. 155 n.

Murray. Faixfax, 235.

Mycenae. 8.

Nanteuil. 1 50 n.

Napoleon. 205.

Nasmyth. Patrick, 222, 223.

National Gallery, London, 168,

174, 188, 189. 201. 207.

211. 214. 217, 221, 222.

223, 237, 264, 270; design

for, 110.
National Gallery of Ireland,

see under Dublin.
National Gallery of Scotland,

see under Eldinburgh.
National Portrait Gallery.

London, 167. 172. 182. 193.

201.205.227.271.
Natural History Museum. South

Kensington. 30 1 .
Naylor. Mrs. (collection). 223.
Neeld, Sir Audley (collection).

189.
Nelson. 76.
Nesbitt. Charlton. 151.

321

Netley. Abbey. 49.

Neustria. 25.

Newark. 83 ; Church, 57.

Newcastle, 305.

Newcastle House, Lincoln's

Inn Fields. 97.
New College. Oxford, 62;

Chapel, reredos in, 70;

Screen, 134.
New English Art Club,

248.
Newgate Prison, 100.
New Grange, 7. _
Newlyn School, 241,242.
Newton (miniaturist), 255.
Newton, Gilbert Stuart, 222,

225 ; Abelard, lib ■ Capt.

Macheath, 225 ; Yorick and

the Grisette. 225.
New Zealand Chambers,

Leadenhall Street, 115.
Nixon, James. 255.
Nollekens. Joseph. 291.
Nonsuch Palace. 82.
Norman Conquest. 276.
Normandy. 26.
Northcote. 207.
Northumbria. 143, 145.
Norwich Cathedral, 27, 30,

161 ; Cloisters. 64.
Norwich School. 210. 211.

217-219.
Notre Dame. Paris. 41. 47;

iron hinges at. 127. 128.
Noyon Cathedral, 41.

Ockwells Manor, 82.

Oldcastle, 7, 8.

Oliver, Isaac, 250. 251 ; Sack-
ville. Earl of Dorset, 25 1 .

Oliver. Peter. 250. 251.

Opie. John. 200. 207 ; Murder
ofRizzio. 207.

Opus Anglicanum. 138.

Opus Britannicum, 1 1 .

Orchardson. William Quiller,
240; Sir Walter Qilbev.
240; Napoleon on Board
the Bellerophon, 240; A
Tender Chord. 240; Vol-
taire, 240.

O^Jen. William. 248.

Oxenbrigge Monument, Bride
Church. Sussex. 77.

Oxford. 81. 112. 301; Botani-
cal Gardens, 288 ; Cathe-

INDEX

dral. 68; Gallery. 236;
Renaissance glass at, 135;
Radcliffe Ubrary. 100; Shel-
donian Theatre, 92 ; Uni-
versity Galleries, 1 08 ; Union,
232.
Oxford Street, 120.

Paine, J., 104.

Paisley, 304.

Palladio, 96.

Palazzo Farnese, 98.

Panini, 194.

Paris, Matthew, 25.

Park, Thomas, 155 n.

Pars, William, 263.

Pastel, 269.

Paterson, James, 241.

Parthenon, 297.

Paul (monk), 28, 29.

Payne. William, 263.

Peake, Robert, 165, 169.

Pearson (architect), 1 10.

Peckham, Archbishop, 284.

Pegram, F., 306.

Pembroke College Chapel,

Cambridge, 92.
Penicuik, 1 76, 206.
Pennethorne, 108.
Penshurst Place, 58.
Pepys, Samuel, 166, 177.
Perugini, C. E., 245.
Perrier, Francois, 1 75.
Peter the Great, 261.
Peterborough Cathedral, 68,

127.
Pether, William. 154, 155.
Petitots, the, 130.
Petitot, Jean, 257. 258.
Pettie, John, 246.
Petworth. 289.
Phidias, 226. 297.
Philip Augustus, 32.
Phillip. John, 222, 224; La

Gloria, 224.
Phoeaeans, the, 126.
Pickering, Evelyn, see De

Morgan, Mrs.
PieCa, at Breadsall. 285.
Pine, Robert Edge. 200.
Pinwell. George, 268.
Pite, Beresford, 112.
Pitman, Mrs. (collection), 203.
Place, Francis, 1 52.
Plimer, Andrew, 254.
Plimer, Nathaniel, 254,

Pocock. Nicolas, 263.

Pomeroy, G., 304 ; Burns,
304.

Pond. Arthur. 198.269.

Poole, Paul Falconer, 225.

Portman Square, Mrs. Mon-
tagu's house in. 102.

Portland, Duke of (collection),
252.

Portland, Earl of, portrait of,
167.

Portland Place, 102.

Poussin, Caspar, 209.

Powis, Lord (collection). 193.

Poynter. E. J., 245.

Pre - Raphaelite Brotherhood.
229-239, 248.

Preston Museum, 304.

Prewitt, William, 259.

Prinsep, Mrs. (collection), 237.

Prinsep. Val. 245.

Prior, E. S., 42 n.

Prior and Gardner, 277, 278,
280 n.

Prout, Samuel, 266, 267.

Pugin, Augustus, 109, 110.

Purbeck marbles, 282, 283.

Purcell, Richard, 154.

Pyrenees, the, 3.

Radcliffe Library, see under
Oxford.

Raeburn, Henry, 157. 190,
201-204,210; Mrs. Camp,
bell. 203; Mrs. James
Campbell, 203 ; Sir John
and Lady Clerk. 203;
Major Clunes. 203 ; Mrs.
Cruikshank, 203 ; Viscount
Duncan, 203 ; The Lord
President Dundas, 203 ;
Robert Ferguson, 203 ;
General Sir Ronald Fergu-
son. 203; William Ferguson.
203 ; Glengarry. 203 ; The
MacDonalds of Clanronald.
203; The MacNab. 203;
Male Portrait. 203; Lord
Newton, 203 ; Portrait of
Raeburn. 203 ; Lad); Rae-
burn, 203; Sir John Sinclair,
203 ; Nathaniel Spens, 203 ;
Ladv Steuart of Culross,
203 ; John Tait and his
Grandson. 203; Mrs. W.
Urquhart, 203 ; James

322

Wardrop, 203 ; John Wau-
chope, 203; Rev. Sir H.
M. IVellwood. 203.
Ramsay. Allan, 197; Mrs.

Allan Ramsay, 197.
Ramsbury, 17.
Raphael cartoons, 1 39.
Raveningham Hall, 1 66.
Raveningham. iron hinges at,

127.
Ravesteyn, see Van Rave-

steyn.
Raynham Park, Norfolk, 90.
Reader, William, 1 72.
Reculver, Sajron remains at,

20.
Regent Street, 120.
Register House, Edinburgh,

103.
Reform Club. 108.
Reid, J. R.. 244.
Reinach, S., 6.
Rembrandt, 147, 148, 149.

154, 172, 186,222,299.
Remigius, Bishop, 276.
Repton, crypt, 24.
Reyn, Jean de. see De Reyn.
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 104, 134.
154-157, 184, 188. 190,
194-196, 198. 200, 204.
207, 244. 270 ; The Age of
Innocence, 188; Angels'
Heads, 1 88 ; Caricatures,
186; Mrs. Carnac, 188;
Lady Cockburn and her
Children, 188; Master
Crewe, 1 88 ; Lady Crosbie,
1 86 ; Duchess of Devonshire
and Child. 186; Charles
James Fox. 1 88 ; Garrick
between Tragedy and
Comedy. 1 86 ; The Graces,
188; Lord Heathfield. 188;
Dr. Johnson. 180; Marl-
borough Family Group. 1 88 ;
The Nativity. 134; Nelh
O'Brien. 188.
Reynolds' "Discourses," 207.
Reynolds, S. W., 1 56 n.
Revett, Nicholas, 105.
Rheims Cathedral. 47.
Rhind. Birnie, 308.
Rhine, the, 3.
Rhone, the, 3.

Richard II.. 62 ; bronze figure
of, 286; portrait of, 160.
162.
Richardson, Jonathan, 174.
Rickman, 38.

INDEX

Ridley, Lord (collection). 225.

Rieder : see Reader.

Rijk's Museum, Amsterdam,
167.

Riley. John. 173. 175; The
Scullion, 173.

Ripen, crypt. 20.

Riviere, Briton, 246 ; Herd of
Swine, 247.

Roberts, Humphrey (collec-
tion), 240.

Robertson, Andrew, 255.

Robertson, Graham, 235.

Robinson, Cayley, 235.

Roche, Alexander, 241.

Rochester Cathedral, 276 ;
Chapter-house, 57.

Rochester Castle, 30.

Rochester, Saxon remains at,
20.

Rollins, J. Wenlock, 307.

Rome, 186.

Romney, George, 155-157,
191-194, 196, 198, 207,
270 ; Lady Beauchamp
Proctor. 193; Mrs. Tanker-
ville Chamberlain, 1 93 ;
Catherine and Sarah Chol-
meley, 1 93 ; Hon. Char-
lotte Clive, 1 93 ; Countess of
Derby, 193; Children of
Earl Gower, 192, 193;
Lady Hamilton, 193; Lady
Hamilton Spinning, 1 93 ;
Mrs. Johnson, 1 93 ; Mrs.
Jordan, 1 93 ; Countess of
Mansfield, 193: Lady
Prescott and Family, 193;
Mrs. Raikes, 193; Mrs.
iPerdita) Robinson, 193;
Mrs. Russell and Child,
193 ; Ladies Caroline and
Elizabeth Spencer, 193;
Lord Stafford in a Van
Dyck Dress, 193; Miss
Vernon as Hebe, 193; Lady
Arabella Ward, 193; Lady
Warwick and Children,
193; Mrs. Woodley, 194.

Romsey, rood at, 276.

Rooke, T. M.. 235.

Rooker, Michael Angelo, 263.

Rosebery, Lord (collection),
201.

Ross (miniaturist), 255.

Rossetri, Dante Gabriel, 229-
230. 232-235. 268; Beata
Beatrix, 233; The Blue
Bower, 233 ; The Beloved,

233 ; Ecce Ancilla Domini,
233 ; Dante's Dream, 233 ;
The Girlhood of Mary
Virgin, 232; Lady Lilith,
233.

Rossetti. William Michael. 230.

Rothschild, Lord (collection),
186. 189.201.

Rouen Cathedral, 41.

Round Towers, 15.

Rouquet, 258.

Rovezzano, Benedetto da, 76.

Rubens, 139, 170, 175, 190,
206, 222.

Runciman, Alexander, 1 76,
206.

Runciman, John, 1 76.

Rupert, Prince, 151, 152.

Ruskin, 151, 211, 230, 234,
239.

Russell, Sir George (collec-
tion), 193.

Russell, John, 269.

Rutland. Duke of. 169.

Ruysdael, 243.

Rydge, Richard. 79.

Rylands Library, Manchester,
112.

St. Alban's Cathedral, 28-31,
46, 276; iron grille in, 128;
iron hinges in, 1 27 ; reredos,
64; retable, 310; Walling-
ford screen at, 69; wall-
painting, 159, 160.

St. Anne's Church, Haarlem,
92.

St. Bartholomew's Hospital,
176.

St. Benet's Tower, Cambridge,
24.

St. Briach's Castle, 47.

St. Bride's Church, Fleet
Street. 93.

St. Columba's Church. London,
111.

St. Dunstan, 137, 145.

St. Etheldreda's Chapel, Ely
Place, Holborn, 53.

St. Finn Bar Cathedral, Cork,
110.

St. Frideswide's Church, 22,
23 ; Shrine. 70.

St. Gall. Library of, 143.

St. Gaudens, Augustus, Par-
nell. 309.

323

St. George's Church, Blooms-
bury, 99.

St. George's Church, Hanover
Square, 100.

St. George's Chapel, Windsor,
65, 66.

St. George's Hall, Liverpool,
107, 304.

St. Germans. 17.

St. James's Street, 1 20.

St. John, Oliver, 91.

St. John's Church, West-
minster. 100.

St. John's College. Oxford. 64.

St. John's Chapel. Tower of
London. 28.

St. John the Evangelist's
Church. Red Lion Square,

.. ^'^•

"St. John's Wood School,

The," 246. _

St. Lawrence's Church, Eve-
sham, 68.

St. Louis, 146.

St. Luke's Church, Chelsea,
109.

St. Nicholas' Church, New-
castle, spire of, 69.

St. Martin's Church, Canter-
bury, 20.

Si. Martin's in the Fields,
London, 99.

St. Mary Redclyffe, Bristol,
57.

St. Mary's Abbey, York, 49.

St. Mary's, Beverley, 57.

St. Mary's Cathedral, Edin-
burgh, 111.

St. Mary's Church, Oxford,
64 ; porch of, 288 ; tower of,
69.

St. Mary's Church, Taunton,
tower of, 68.

St. Mary's Church. Warwick,
62.

St. Mary Woolnoth, Lombard
Street, London, 99.

St. Michael's Church, Cov-
entry, spire of, 69.

St. Michael's Church, Ham-
burg, 111.

St. Pancras Church, Canter-
bury. 20.

St. Pancras Church. London,
^107.

St. Patrick's Bell, Shrine qf,
13.

St. Paul's Cathedral, London,
30, 89, 93, 94. 120. 176.

INDEX

206, 227, 289. 296; iron
grille in, 130; Phcenix at,
289.

St. Paul's Church, Covent
Garden, 90.

St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich,
timber roof of, 71.

St. Peter's Church, Rome,
94.

St. Saviour's Church, Soulh-
wark. 111.

St. Stephen's Abbey, Caen,
26, 29, 38.^

St. Stephen's Chapel, see
under Westminster Abbey.

St. Stephen's Church, Wal-
brook, 92.^

St. Swithin's Church, Win-
chester, iron grille at, 1 28.

St. Vincent's Church, Cork,
111.

Sackville, Stopford (collection),
174.

Saffron Walden, 82.

Salisbury, 216.

Salisbury Cathedral, 44, 45,
49, 58, 131 ; Chapter-house
of, 49, 55 ; sculptures at,
278-280.

Salisbury Chantry, Christ-
church, Hants, 70, 77.

Salon, Paris, 216.

Salting (collection), 141.

Samlesbury, 82.

Sandby, Paul, 260, 261.

Sanderson, Arthur (collection),
203.

Sandys, Frederick, 236.

San Giovanni Laterano, 1 38.

Sargent, John, 157, 190,240.

Say, William, 156 n.

Scotland, 12, 7, 1 43 ; archi-
tecture in, 83, 84, 123;
sculpture in, 308.

Scott, Gilbert, 31 n, 39 n, 46,
55,56.90, 111.

Scott Monument, Edinburgh,
109.

Scott, Samuel, 1 74.

Scottish National Portrait
Gallery.see under Edinburgh.

Seaton, Delaval, 98.

Sedding (architect), 1 12.

Selby Abbey, 58.

Senate House, Cambridge,
100.

Senlis Cathedral, 41.

Sens Cathedral, 4 1 .

Serres, Dominic, 26 1 .

Seymour Jane, Portrait of,

165.
Shakespeare, 207, 225.
Sharpe, W., 150.
Shaw, Byam, 235.
Shaw, Richard Norman, 115,

116, 122.
Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford,

92, 175.
Shelley, Samuel, 255.
Shepherd, William. 173.
Sherborne Abbey, 69.
Sherwin, William, 152.
Sherwin, John Keyse, 1 50.
Shields, Frederick. 239.
Shrewsbury, half-timber houses

at, 82.
Shute, John, 76, 77, 165.
Siegen, Ludwig von, 151, 1 54.
Silchester, 17.
Simon, Jean, 152.
Simonds, George, 304 ; Gerd,

304.
Sims. Charles, 247 ; The

Fountain, 247.
Skellig-Michael. 14.
Slade School. 244.
Sliath na Calliaghe. 7.
Smart. John. 254. 256. 292.
Smirke, Robert. 108.207.
Smith. John, 1 52.
Smith, John Orrin, 151.
Smith, John Raphael, 1 55,

269, 271; Pascal Paoli

(print), 155.
Smithson, Robert, 76, 77,

81.
Soane Museum, 96, 183,

289.
Society of Arts, 206.
Society of Painters in Water-
colours, 265, 266.
Soest, 1 70 and n, 1 73.
Soissons. MSS. at, 144.
Solomon, Simeon, 239.
Solomon, S. J., 248.
Somerscales, Thomas, 243 ;

Off Valparaiso. 243.
Somerset House, 82, 101, 102,

106, 186.
Southall, J. E., 239.
Southwell Minster, 49.
South Wingfield Manor House,

64.
Sparsholt. 127.
Spartali, Marie. 235.
Spencer, Elarl (collection). 252,

258.
Spencer, Gervase, 259.

324

Spencer House, St. James,

London. 100.
Speke Hall. 82.
Spicer. Henry, 259.
Spilsbury, Jonathan, 155.
Spooner, Charles, 1 54.
Stair, Lord (collection), 197.
Stanhope, Spencer, 235.
Stannard, Joseph. 2 1 9.
Stark. James. 219.
Staverton Church, wooden

screen in, 72.
Steele (painter), 190.
Steer, P. Wilson, 248.
Stephens, F. G., 229.
Sterne, 225.
Stevens, Alfred, 89, 271, 272.

295.296.309.312; Cartoon

for Isaiah group, 296;

Caryatids, 296 ; Decorative

sculpture in Dorchester

House, 296 ; Design for a

Memorial of the 1851 Ex hi-

bition. 296; Truth, 296;

Valour. 296; Wellington

Monument, 295, 296.
Stevens. Richard. 165.
Stewart, Rev. C. J. (collection),

211.
Stillingfleet Church, Yorks,

127.
Stillman. see Spartali.
Stole and Manciple of St.

Cuthbert. 137.
Stone Church. 20.
Stonehenge. 1. 2. 5.
Stone. Henry (Old). 169, 289.
Stone. Nicholas. 169. 288;

Statue of Dr. Donne. 289 ;

Monument of Sir Julius

Caser, 289.
Stolhard. Thomas. 177, 207.
Strange, Robert, 1 50 n.
Strathmore. 166.
Strawberry Hill, 108.
Streater. Robert. 175.
Street. G.E.. 110.
Strensham Church, wooden

screen in. 72.
Strete or Streles. Gwillim, 165.
Strudwick. J. M.. 235.
Stuart, James. 105.
Stubbs. George, 220.
Stubbs. George Townley. 1 56n.
Subiaco, Kneeling Boy of, 292,

293.
Suez. 2.

Suffolk. Brandon. Duke of, 163.
Sullivan Luke, 255.

INDEX

Sun Fire Office, Threadneedle
Street, 108.

Surrey, Elarl of, portrait of, 165.

Sutherland, Duke of (collec-
tion), 193,205,252.

Sutton Place, 75.

Swallowfield, 97.

Swan, J. M., 246, 272, 303.

304; Fata Morgana, 304;

Leopard and Tortoise, 304;

Orpheus charming the

Beasts, 304; Puma and

Macaw, 304; The Prodigal

Son, 246.
Swaythling, Lord (collection),

214.
Swinbrook Church, Oxon, 285 .
Symeon, Abbot, 29.
Syria, 126.

Tadema, Alma, 245.

Talman, 97.

Tate Gallery, 211, 212, 223,
225. 226, 227, 231. 233.
236, 237. 240, 242. 243.
245-247. 294, 296, 307.

Tattershall Castle, Lines, 64.

Taubman, 307.

Tayler, Campbell, 247.

Temple House, 93.

Tennant, Sir E. (collection),
186, 193,201.

Terborch, 189.

Tewkesbury Abbey, 30.

Thames, shield found in, 1 0.

Thomas de Leghton (Leighton
Buzzard). 128.

Thomas, E. Brumwell, 120.

Thomas, J. Havard, 248, 308;
Lycidas, 308; The Slave,
308.

Thorbum, 255.

Thornbury Castle, Gloucester-
shire. 65.

Thoresby. 97.

Thome- Waite, 268.

Thornhill, James. 176, 181.
206.

Thornton Abbey, Lines, 63.

Thornycroft, Hamo, 301 ;
Artemis, 301; Bishop
Creighton, 30 1 ; Cromwell,
301; Edward I.. 301;
Gladstone, 301; Bishop
Goodwin, 301 ; General
Qordon, 301; The Mower,
301; reucer,301.

Thorpe Hall. 91.

Thorpe. John, 81.

ThorwsJdsen, 295.

Tiepolo. G. B., 196.

Titian, 222.

Toft. Albert, 306, 307; Spirit
of Contemplation, 307 ;
Victory, 307.

Tomb of the Earl of Arundel,
Arundel, 70; of Edward II.,
Gloucester Cathedral. 56;
of Edward III., Westminster
Abbey, 56, 62. 70; of
Queen EJeanor (iron grille),
Westminster. 1 28 ; of Gower,
Southwark Cathedral, 70 ;
at Holme Pierrepoint, 285;
of Henry IV., Canterbury
Cathedral, 70; of Henry
VII., Westminster Abbey,
76, 311; of Humphrey,
Duke of Gloucester, St.
Alban's Cathedral, 70; of
Mary, Queen of Scots, West-
minster Abbey, 296; of
Nelson, Westminster Abbey,
76; of Archbishop Peck-
ham, Canterbury Cathedral,
57; of Cecil Rhodes, 304;
of Richard II. and his Queen,
Westminster Abbey, 63, 70;
of Archbishop Warham,
Canterbury Cathedral, 70;
of the Earl of Warwick,
Warwick, 70; of William
of Wykeham, Winchester
Cathedral, 70.

Tompson, Richard, 1 52.

Toms, Peter, 157.

Tom Tower, Oxford, 95.

Torels, the, 286.

Torrigiano, 67, 76.

Torrs, Kirkcudbrightshire, 10.

Tours, MSS. at, 144.

Townley, Charles, 155 n.

Tower of the Five Orders, 8 1 .

Towers : see Round Towers.

Tradescant portraits, 1 66.

Travellers* Club, 108.

Tresham, Sir Thomas, 8 1 .

Trinity College, Cambridge,
93,95; chapel of, 92,

Trinity College, Dublin, 102.

Trinity House, Leith, 203.

Trunch Church, Norfolk, timber
roof. 71.

Truro Cathedral, 1 1 0.

Tuam, 1 3.

Turner, Charles, 1 56 n.

325

Turner. J. M. W., 211-214,
217, 219, 243, 262-264,
271; Battle of Fort Rock,
264 ; Burial of Wilkie, 214;
The Deluge, 214; The
Doges' Palace, 264; Con-
woj} Castle, 213; Crossing
the Brook, 214; Edinburgh
(water colour), 264; The
Fighting " Temeraire," 214;
Fishermen on a Lee Shore,
213; A Frosty Morning,
214; Kilgarren Castle, 2\ 3;
Mercur]} and Herse, 214;
Rain, Steam, and Speed,
214; Rockets and Blue
Lights, 2] 4; Spit head, 214;
The Sunof Venice going to
Sea, 214; Ulysses Deriding
Polyphemus, 214; Walton
Bridges, l]^.

Turner's " Liber Studiorum,"
219,

Tweedmouth, Lord (collec-
tion), 203.

Tynemouth Abbey, 46.

United University Club. 119,

120.
University Galleries, see under

Oxford.

VanDyck, 167-171,173, 189,
202, 250, 251, 257; Por-
traits of the Marchese and
the Marchesa Cataneo, 168;
Charles L, 174; Cornelius
Van der Gheest, 1 68.

Valence, Aymer de. statue of,
284.

Valence, William de, statue of,
284.

Vanbrugh, 98, 99, 101.

Van der Goes, Hugo, 1 62.

Van Huysum, 155.

Van Rensselaer, Mrs., 45.

Van Ravesteyn. 169.

Van Staren. Dirk, 1 32 n.

Vardy, 98, 100.

Varley, Cornelius, 265.

Varley, J., 265.

Vaughan, Henry, 264.

Velazquez, 190, 202, 224;
Pope Innocent X., 202.

INDEX

Vellert. Dierick J., 132 n.

Verelst. 173.

Verrio. 175, 176.

Vertue, 78. I 72.

Verulam, Lord, 166.

Victoria and Albert Museum,
120. 127. 138. 140. 141.
211. 217, 221. 222. 223,
225, 226, 231, 251, 258.
261.262.

Victoria Tower, 1 1 0.

Vincent, George, 219; Green-
wich Hospital, 219.

VioUet-le-Duc, 41.

Vulgate, Alcuin's, 1 44.

Wadham College, Wren at,

92.
Waldorf Hotel. 117.
Wales, 12.

Wales, Prince of, 200. 261.
Walker. A. G.. 307 ; The Last

Plague. 307; Sleep, 307;

The Thorn, 307.
Walker. Frederick, 268. 272.
Walker, James, 1 55 n.
Walker, Robert. 166. 170.
Wallace Collection. 189. 193.

258.
Wallingford Screen, see under

St. Albans.
Wallis. Henry, 239.
Walpole. Horace, 108. 166,

172.
Waltham Abbey. 30.
Waltham Cross. 56.
Walton. E. A.. 241.
Walton. Henry. 198.
Wanstead. Essex. 100.
Wantage. Lady. 213.
War Office. Whitehall. 118;

sculptures on. 306.
Wars of the Roses. 146. 161.
Ward, James. 22 1 ; A lderne\)

Cattle, 221; Gordale Scar,

221; Harlech Castle, 22].
Ward. William and James,

156n.
Wardrop, J. C. (collection),

203.
Warwick, Lord (collection),

193.
Waterhouse. Alfred. 111. 119.
Waterhouse. J. W.. 247; St.

Cecilia. 247; St. Eulalia,

247; Hyles and the Nymphs,
247 ; Mariamne, 247 ; The
Magic Circle, 247.

Waterlow, Ernest, 268.

Watson. Caroline. 154.

Watson. James. 154.

Watson. Thomas. 1 55 n.

Watteau. 180. 196.

Watts, G. F.. 226, 227, 229,
243, 297 ; Clytie, 297 ; Fata
Morgana, 227 ; Russell
Gurney, 227 ; First Naval
Victory of the English, 226 ;
Hope, 230; Hugh Lupus,
298; Lord Stratford de Red-
clyffe, 227 ; Scene from the
Decameron, 227 ; Time,
Death and Judgment, 227 ;
Vital Energy, 298 : IValter
Crane, 227; IVilliam Morris,
227.

Watts, John, 154.

Webb, Aston, 119.

Webb, John, 91.

Webb, Philip, 122.

Webber. John. 262.

Wellington. 205.

Wells. 17; Bishop's Palace,
57; Cathedral, 46, 47, 49.
57 ; Bishop Beckington's
buildings, 64 ; Chapter-
house, 55 ; sculptures at,
279-281; west front, 42.

Wertheimer, C. (collection),
192.201.

West. Benjamin, 207, 208;
Death of Wolfe, 207.

Westall, 207.

Westley, John, 81.

Westmacott, Richard, 294.

Westminster Abbey, 24, 26,
27,38,48,49,66,121. 160.
166. 284. 310; Chapter-
house, 55 and n.; Henry
VII. 's Chapel, 64; north
porch, 110; St. Stephen's
Chapel, 51-55. 58, 160;
sculptures, 278-80 ; tombs,
288; towers, 95.

Westminster Cathedral. 1 20 ;
bronze screen, 1 30 ; Bramp-
ton Chapel, 111.

Westminster, Duke of (collec-
tion), 213.

Westminster Hall, 63, 226;
timber roof, 70. 7 1 .

Westminster, King's Robing
Room. 224.

Westminster Palace. 109.

326

Westminster School, dormitory
in. 99.

Weston Barton. 127.

Wheatley. Francis, 200.

Whistler, J. McN., 147, 148.
240,241,272.

Whitby, Synod of, 144.

White, George, 153.

Whitehall, 130. 164. 206; iron
gates in. 1 64.

Whitehall Palace, 87-90;
Rubens' ceiling in. 1 75.

Whitehead. Jeffrey (collection),
258.

White Tower. 30.

Whitton Hall, see Kneller
Hall.

Wigtownshire, 12.

Wilkie, David, 147,222. 223,
271 ; Bathsheha, 223; Blind
Man 's Buff. 223 ; The Blind
Fiddler. 223; Boys digging
for Rats. 223 ; Knox dispens-
ing the Sacrament, 223;
Reading of a Will, 223;
The Refusal. 223; Village
Fair, 223.

Waiiam of Ireland, 284.

William II., 30.

Williams. F. E.. 120.

Williams. R.. 152.

Willingale Spain. Essex, 127.

Wilson. Richard, 194-196,
210.211,267; Niobe. 195;

Scene in Italy, 195.
WiltonHouse, 90, 91, 166.
Wimperis, E. M., 268.
Winchester, 145.
Winchester Cathedral. 29, 30,

63,65.69.275. 276; stained

glass at, 1 34.
Winde, 97.
Windsor, 251.

Windsor Beauties, see Kneller.
Windsor Castle, 58, 109, 205.

290.
Windus, W. L., 235.
Wingham, 82.
Wissing, 173.

Witham, dagger found in, 10.
" Wits' Commonwealth," 166.
Wollaton Hall, Notts, 77, 79.

81.
Wolsey. Cardinal. 73-76.
Woltmann, 164.
Wood, architect, 92.
Wood, Derwent, 308.
Wood of Bath. 98, 101.
Wood, William, 255.

INDEX

Woods, Henry. 245.
WooUett, WiUiam. 1 50 n.
Woolner. Thomas. 230, 295.
Woolwich, 301 ; Academy,

261.
Wootton, 209. 220.
Worcester Cathedral. 30, 48 ;

Chapter-house, 54.
Worcester College, Oxford, 96.
Worksop Priory, 127.
Wraxall. 10.
Wren. Christopher, 81, 92-97,

100, 105. 106. 115. 116.
Wren. Matthew, 92.
Wrexham Church. Tower of,

68.
Wright, Joseph Michael, 1 73.

Wright of Derby. 154.200.
Wyatt. James, 31.294.
Wyatville, Jeffrey. 109.
Wyllie. W. L..243; Baflk of

the Nile. 243; Toil. Glitter.

Grime, and Wealth. 243.
Wyck. Jan. 209.
Wynants. 189.
Wynne, see Winde.

Yarborough. Lord (collection),

165.
Yerkes (collection), 214.
York, Duke of. 93.

York House, Strand, the water-
gate. 90.

York Minster. 29. 49. 52. 58.
63 ; Chapter-house. 54 ;
choir-screen, 64; Five Sisters
(window). 49; stained glass

in. 130, 131. 133, 134; rood

screen at, 70; Tower of. 69.
Young, John, 1 56 n.
Young, William, 1 1 8.

Zincke. C. F., 258.
ZuccareUi, 194.

327

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Abingdon Town Hall, 101.

Adoration of the Magi, page xlii.

All Souls College, Chapel, Oxford, 63 ; iron

gates, 127.
Angel Choir, Lincoln, south door, 274.
Annunciation, British Museum, 282.
Apocalypse, page from an, British Museum,

143.
Ardagh Chalice, Dublin Museum, 131.
Ardagh Chalice, foot of. 11.
Arundel MS., 124 and 125.
Ashburnham House, Westminster, 89.
Audley End, Essex, 75.
Bacon, Statue of Dr. Johnson, 290.
Bank of Ireland, Dublin (Castell), 100.
Barton-on-Humber Church, 1 8.
Bates, Harry, Hounds in Leash, 304.
Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 62.
Beaufort, Margaret, portrait of, 161.
Belfast Town Hall (E. Brumwell Thomas),

115.
Bell, Shrine of St. Patrick's, 13.
Bettes, John, Portrait of Edmund Butts. 162.
Beverley Minster, 48; Percy Shrine, 56;

West Front, 66.
Birdlip, see under Mirror,
Bishop, found at Flawford, Notts, 281.
Blenheim, elevation, 103; plan, 103.
Blooteling, Abr., Duke of Monmouth, 151.
Bogle, Portrait of a Gentleman, 255 ; Portrait

of a Man. 257.
Bone, H., Portrait of Himself . 258.
Bonington R. P., Chateau of the Duchesse de

Berri, 2\7; Verona. 262.
Book of Durrow, page in the, 13.
Book of Kells, page in the, 141.
Bow Church (Wren), 93.
Bradford-on-Avon Church, 21.
Branston Church, 22.
Brixworth Church, 2 1 .
Brock, The Black Prince.293; Gainsborough,

294 ; Cenotaph of Leighton. 293 ; Bishop

Philpot. 292.
Bronze Collar, from Wraxall, 9.
Brooking, Sea-piece, 206.

Brothers of Joseph, The, Salisbury, 277.
Brown, Ford Madox, Elijah and the IVidow's

Son, 230.
Bull, Portrait of John, by an unknown painter,

166,
Burne-Jones, Chant d' Amour, 232; The

Depths of the Sea, 232.
Burridge F., Mill in Wirrall, 148.
Canada Gates, Buckingham Palace, 1 29.
Canterbury Cathedral, 62 ; Angel Tower, 52 ;

Crypt, 35 ; Gateway, 70.
Carlisle Cathedral Choir, 56.
Casino near Dublin (W. Chambers), 101.
Cattermole, G., Macbeth, 264.
Celtic Disk, 10; Enamel, British Museum,

131; Fibula. 8; Page from Gospel, 142;

Shield, 8 ; Tankard, handle of, 9.
Censing Angel, Lincoln Cathedral, 277.
Chalon, Hastings. 225.
Chester, old houses at, 81 .
Chichester Cathedral, nave, 34.
Chimney-piece (Norman Shaw), 123.
Chirk Castle, Oswestry, 84 ; Long Gallery, 77.
Christ Church, Dublin, 45.
Christ Church, Oxford, 1 6 ; Design for Belfry

by Bodley, 1 09 ; Chapter-house, 43 ; Spire,

43.
Cibber, C. G., Melancholy and Madness,

289.
Cibber, Bust of Colley, 290.
Circular Boss, Chester, 276.
Clapham Church, Beds, 23.
Cobham Hall, Kent. 96.
College of Science, South Kensington (Aston

Webb), 116.
Colton, W. R., The Girdle, 307 ; The Image-
Finder, 307.
Commercial Bank of Scotland (S. Mitchell),

122.
Compton Winyates, Warwickshire. 68.
Constable, Cottage in a Cornfield, 214;

Salisbury, 272; Sketch for the Leaping

Horse, 214; Sketch for the Hay Wain,

215; Trees, 272 ; The Valley Farm, 213.
Cooper, S., Richard Cromwell, 254.

328

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Cope, The AscolJ. 135.

Cope of St. Silvester, St. John Lateran, 1 34 ;

Detail of, 138.
Cope, Syon, V. and A., Museum, 132.
Copley, John Singleton, Death of Major

Pierson, 204.
Cormack's Chapel, Cashel, 32.
Cosway, Lady Anne Fane, 256; Portrait of

a Man. 256 ; Duke of Wellington, 256.
Cotes. F., PaulSandhy, 192.
Cotman, Centaur, The, 27 1 ; Landscape, 27 1 ;

Shipping at the Mouth of the Thames, 217;

Turning the Sod, 270.
Cotton, MS., Psalter, 125.
Cousins, Samuel, Lady Peel, 157.
Cox, David, Cornfield, 264 ; Windsor Castle,

263.
Crome, Chapel Fields, Norwich, 209 ; Poring-

land Oak, 210.
Cross of Cong, 1 2.
Cross, High, Monasterbolce, 7.
Crozier, 1 1 .

Customs House, Dublin (Gandon), 100.
De Morgan, Mrs., Mercy and Truth, 233.
De Wint, Peter, Lincoln. 263 ; Oxford, 262.
Dexter Leaf of a Diptych, British Museum,

140.
Divinity School, Oxford, 60.
Dixon, J., Elizabeth and Emma Crewe, 151.
Dobson, Portrait of Endymion Porter, 168.
Doorway (Lanchester and Richards), 121.
Dover Castle Church, 22.
Downman, Mrs. Siddons, 267.
Drury, A., Base of Lamp-standard, 312;

Joseph Priestley, 305 ; Group on War

Office, 306.
Durham Cathedral, 29 ; Chapter-house, 32 ;

central tower, 66 ; nave, 29.
Elarls Barton Church, Tower, 1 9.
Edinburgh College (Adam and Anderson),

104.
Edinburgh, A shop in, 122,
Edward III., Figure of, Westminster, 287 ;

Head of. Gloucester, 285.
Deanor, Figure of Queen, Westminster, 286.
EUectra House, Finsbury Pavement (Belcher),

119.
Elgin Cathedral, Choir and Chapter-house, 44.
Dy Cathedral, Ceiling of Bishop West's

Chapel, 74 ; Udy Chapel, 55 ; Nave, 34 ;

West Porch. 42.
Elty, The Bather, 220; Crucifixion. 2\9.
Exeter Cathedral, West Front, 50.
Exeter College Chapel (Gilbert Scott), 107.
Fehr. H. C. 5/. George. 307.
Fielding. Copley, Vale of Irihing, 263.
Figure with Model of a Church, Flawford,

Notts, 282.
Finch. F. O., Still Summer. 265.

Fisher, Eldward, Hope Nursing Love, 153.

Fitton. H., St. Miry, Paris. 146.

Flatman, Portrait, 254 ; Portrait of a Lady,
254 ; Portrait of a Man, 254.

Foley, J. H., Outram, 29].

Ford. Onslow. Irving as Hamlet, 302 ; Monu-
ment to Queen Victoria, Manchester, 302;
Maternity, 302.

Fountains Abbey. 31 ; Chapel of the Nine
Altars, 48 ; Cloister. 36.

Frampton. G.. Dame Alice Owen, 304.

Furse. Charles, Diana of the Uplands, 244 ;
Home from the Ride, 243.

Gaiety Theatre. London (Norman Shaw). 1 17.

Gainsborough. Blue Boy, 185; Female Figure,
268; Hon. Mrs. Graham, 183; Miss
Haverfield, 185; Portrait of Himself 184;
Landscape, 188; Sketch for a Landscape,
260; The Morning Walk, 187; Lady
Mulgrave, 1 85 ; Mrs. {PerdHa) Robinson,
188; Mrs. Siddons, 184; Mrs. Stone
Norton, 183; The Watering Place, 186.

Gallerus, Oratory of. 4.

Geddes, A., The Artist's Mother, 145.

Gibbons, Grinling, James IL, 289.

Gilbert. Alfred, Icarus, 309; Retable, St.
Albans, 299 ; St. George, Tomb of Duke
of Clarence, 309 ; Tragedy and Comedy.
309; Memorial to Queen Victoria, Man-
chester, 3 1 0. 3 1 1 .

Girtin, Thomas. On the Wharf e, 26 1 .

Glamis Castle. Forfarshire. 83.

Glasgow Assurance Building. Euston Square,
London (Beresford Pile), 1 14.

Glasgow Cathedral, 47 ; Crypt, 5 1 ; Town
Hall, 118.

Glastonbury Abbey, 33.

Gloucester Cathedral, Central Tower, 71 ;
Cloisters, 7 1 ; South Porch, 65.

Gold Torque from Limavady. 5.

Good, T. S., The Reader, 224.

Green, Valentine, The Ladies Waldegrave,
153.

Greenhill, Mrs. Jane Middleton, 1 72.

Greenstead Church, 1 9.

Greenwich Hospital (Inigo Jones), 90;
(Wren), 94.

Gregory, E. J.. Piccadilly, 231 .

Haddon Hall, gallery. 78.

Haden. Seymour, The Agamemnon, 148.

Hamilton. Hugh, /. P. Curran, 207.

Hampton Court Palace. S.E. angle (Wren),
95 ; Ceiling of Wolsey's closet. 74 ; Hall, 73 ;
West front, 71 ; Wren's quadrangle, 91 .

Hardwicke F^all, Derbyshire, 76 ; Presence
Chamber, 76.

Harley MS., page from, British Museum, 144.

Harrington's Ariosto. page from, 1 50.

Hatfield House, Herts.. 75.

329

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS

HayU. John, Portrait of Pepys. 173.
Heame, Thomas, Dutch Shipping, 261 .
Henry V.'s Chantry, Figure in, Westminster,

280.
Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster, 61 .
Milliard, N., Double Locket. 252; Portrait of

Himself 250; Portrait of his Father, 250;

Lady A rahella Stuart, 25 1 .
Hogarth, William Hogarth, title-page; His

Own Servants. 179; The Shrimp-Girl, 180;

Marriage a la Mode, 1 78.

Hogarth, Peg IVojffington (colored print),

facing page 1 80.
Holbein, Anne of CleOes, 249; Follower of,

A Child, 249 ; School of, Portrait. 163.
Holkham House. Norfolk (Kent), 98.
HoU, Frank, Samuel Cousins, 239; Earl

Spencer, 239.
Holland, J., Colleone Statue, Venice, 226;

Venice, 264.
Hone, Nathaniel, Horace iVolpole, 193.
Hoppner, The Douglas Children, 196; The

Frankland Sisters, 1 96; Portrait of a Lady,

195, 196 (four examples).
Horse Guards. Whitehall (Kent), 98.
Hoskins, A Lady, 250.
Houses of Parliament (C. Barry), 105.
Howth Castle, co. Dublin, 83.
Hughes. John, Monument to Queen Victoria,

Dublin. 308.
Humphreys, Ozias, Warren Hastings, 257.
Hunt, Holman, The Shadow of Death, 234.
Ilminster Church, 69.
Initial from Missal, British Museum, 143.
Institute of Chartered Accountants (Belcher),

118.
Insurance Office, Edinburgh ( J. M. Dick-

Peddie). 121.
Ivory, 1 4th Century. V. and A. Museum, 1 58.
Ivory Triptych, British Museum, 1 40.
Jackson, John, Portrait of Himself, 225.
John, Goscombe, Duke of Devonshire, 304;

The Elf 305.
Jones. John, Lady Caroline Price, 1 54.
Jonson, Cornelius, Portrait of a Lady, 167;

Portrait of the Earl of Portland. 167.
Joseph, Samuel. Samuel Wilberforce, 291.
Keble College Chapel, Oxford (Butterfield),

108.
Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire (Paine and R.

Adam), 99.
Kilconnel Abbey, Cloister, 47.
Kilcroney, Ireland, 6.

King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 61, 64.
KinmelPark (Nesfield). 116.
Kirkby Hall, Northants. 104.
Kneller, Goderl de Ginkel, 175.
Knole, Kent, 79; Bedroom, 79; Gallery,

79; Colonnade, 79.

Knole Chapel, 80.

Lance, George, Fruit, 223.

Landseer, E., Suspense, 218 ; War, 219.

Law Courts, central hall (G. Street), 107;

Strand entrance, 1 08.
Lawrence. /. /. Angerstein, 201 ; Princess

Charlotte, 202; Lady Dover and Child,

202 ; Miss Farren, 203 ; Pope Pius VIL,

203; Mrs. Wolff. 20).
La wson, Cecil. Wharfedale, 24] .
Lavery, J., Spring, 240.
Layer Mamey Towers, 70.
Lead Urn, Parham. 130.
Leighton, The Music Lesson. 241 ; Summer

Moon. 242 ; Athlete and Python. 292.
Lely, Portrait of Lady Bellasys, 169;

Comtesse de Gramont, 171; Miss Jane

Kelkway, 170.
Leslie, C. R., Les Femmes Savantes. 223 ;

Taming of the Shrew. 222 ; Uncle Toby

and Widow Wadham, 222.
Leuchars Church, Fife. 33.
Lewis, G. F., Lilium Auratum. 237.
Uchfleld Cathedral. 36; Choir. 52; West

Front, 57.
Lincoln Cathedral, 36 ; Central Tower. 53 ;

Detail, South Doorway, 276 ; East Transept,

37 ; West Front. 39,
Lindisfarne Gospels, page from, 141.
Linton. J. D., Maundy Thursday, 242.
Little Saxham Church, 32 ; Tower Arch,

22.
Logsdail, W.. An Earl]) Victorian. 241.
Longford CasUe. Wilts, 78.
Longleat, Wilts, 73.
Lucas. David. Salisbury, 155.
Lyemore. Montgomeryshire. 82.
MacArdell, J., Lady Chambers. 152.
McKennel. B.. Circe. 306.
Madonna. Chapter House, York, 279.
Madonna, Flawford. 282.
Magdalen College. Oxford. 62 ; Chapel, 63.
Maghera. Ireland. Doorway at, 5.
Malton, The Tholsel, Dublin, 261 .
Manchester Town Hall (Waterhouse), 106.
Mansion House, London (G. Dance). 99.
Mapperton, 85.
Marischal College, Aberdeen (Marshall

Mackenzie). 113.
Market Overton. Tower Arch. 21 .
Merton College Chapel. Oxford. 54. 64.
Millais, Hearts are Trumps, 229; Portrait of

J. C. Hook, 236; Lorenzo and Isabella,

234; Souvenir of Velazquez, 236; Yeoman

of the Guard, 235.
Mirror, from Birdlip. 1 0.
Montacute. Somersetshire, 77. 84.
Moore. Albert, The Open Book. 243.
Moreton Old Hall, Uncs., 82.

330

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Morland. G.. The Stable, 218.

Mulready, The Sonnet, 221.

Nasmyth, Cottage in Hyde Park, 221 .

Navigator, Portrait of a, by an unknown
painter, 164.

New College Chapel, Oxford. 63.

Newgate Street, doorway in, 121.

New Zealand Chambers, Leadenhall Street
(Norman Shaw), 115.

Norwich Cathedral, Choir, 28; Nave, 28.

Oliver, Isaac, Anne of Denmark. 253;
Prince Charles, 253; Henry, Prince of
IVales, 253 ; Lady Hunsdon, 25 1 ; James I.,
253; A Lad],, 253; Portrait of a Man,
252; Sackville, Earl of Dorset, frontis-
piece; Sir Philip Sidney, 252.

Opie, John, Mrs. Margaret Crowe, 194.

Opus Anglicanum, British Museum, 137.

Orchardson, W. Q., Her first Dance, 238;
Master Baby, 238.

Panel from St. Stephen's, Westminster, 1 59.

Pegram, F., Fortune, 305.

Penrhyn Castle, Great Hall (Hopper) , 1 06.

Penshurst Place, Kent, 58.

Peterborough Cathedral, West Front, 44;
Figures on Gateway of Close, 278.

Phillips. Byron, 224.

Piccadilly Hotel (Norman Shaw), 1 16.

Picta, Breadsall. Derbyshire. 281.

Pine. R. E.. Garrick, 194.

Plimer, Portrait of a Lady, 257.

Pond, A., Peg WofUngton, 206.

Portrait, unidentified, 163. 165.

Powis Castle, Gallery, 80.

Radcliffe Library, Oxford (Gibbs), 101.

Raeburn, Mrs. James Campbell, 198; Major
Clunes, 200 ; Mrs. Ferguson, 198; Portrait
of Himself 179; Lord Newton. 197; Sir
John Sinclair, 200; Nathaniel Spens. 199;
Lady Steuart of Coltness, 197.

Ramsay, Allan, Lady Louisa Connolly, 1 92 ;
Caroline Lady Holland, 193.

Repton, crypt, 24.

Reynolds, Sir J., Age of Innocence, 182;
Duchess of Devonshire and Child, 1 82 ;
Garrick between Tradegy and Comedy,
180; Qibbon, 181 ; Portrait of Himself,
1 79 ; Dr. Johnson, 1 80 ; Miss Monckton,
183; Nelly O'Brien, 181; Two Gentle-
men, 181 .

Reynolds, Viscountess Crosbie (colored print),
facing page 206.

Richard II., Head of, Westminster, 286;
Portrait of, 1 60 ; and Queen. 286 ; and
Saints. 161.

Riley, John, Portrait of Chiffinch, 1 76.

Robertson, Andrew, Portrait of a Lady, 256.

Rochester Cathedral, Doorway, 5 1 .

Rock of Cashel, 31.

Romney, Lady Beachamp Procter, 189;

Children of Earl Gower, 190; Mrs. Currie,

191 ; Euphrosyne, 191 ; Mrs. Jordan, 191 ;

Lady Arabella Ward, 190.
Romney, The Seamstress (colored print),

facing page 266.
Rossetti, D. G., Borgia s'amuse, 265; King

Rene's Honeymoon, 265; Lilith, 231;

Mrs. Morris, 23 1 ; Regina Cordium, 23 1 .
Rothwell, Calisto, 221.
Round Tower, Brechin, 15.
RoyalMS., IDxFol. 6. 142.
Russell, John, Pastel Portrait, 268.
Rylands Library, Manchester, 112.
St. Albans, plan, 27 ; Tower, 27.
St. Bartholomew's Church, London, 25.
St. Benet's Tower. Cambridge. 24.
St. Bride's, neet Street (Wren), 93.
St. Clement Dane's, London (Wren and

Gibbs), 100.
St. Dolough's Church, co. Dublin, 46.
St. Ethelbert's Gate, Norwich, 5 1 .
St. Etheldreda's Chapel, Ely Place, Holborn,

54.
St. Frideswide's Shrine, Christ Church,

Oxford, 65.
St. George's Chapel, Windsor, 59.
St. George's Church, Doncaster (Gilbert

Scott), 106.
St. George's Hall, Liverpool, 105.
St. Giles' Church, Wrexham, 69.
St. James' Street, chambers in (Norman

Shaw), 122.
St. John's Chapel, Tower of London, 26; plan,

26.
St. John's Church, Frome, screen from,

128.
St. John the Evangelist, Red Lion Square,

108.
St. Magwe, Shrine of. Figures on, 14.
St. Martin's Church, Canterbury, 20; Font,

20.
St. Mary-le-Strand, London (Gibbs), 97.
St. Mary's Church, Oxford, Porch (Inigo

Jones), 90.
St. Patrick's Bell, Shrine of, 13.
St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin,45.
St. Paul's Cathedral, London (Wren), 91;

from Ludgate Hill, 86.
St. Paul's Church, Covent Garden (Inigo

Jones). 87.
St. Regulus' Church, 23.
St. Stephen's Church, Walbrook, London,

92.
Salisbury Cathedral, 40; Chapter-house, 49;

Plan, 39 ; IVIarket Cross, 72.
Sargent, John. Duchess of Portland, 245.
Saxon bas-relief, Chichester, 275.
Scott Monument (Kemp), Eldinburgh, 109.

331

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Doorway
(Birnie Rhind).

Seaman, Noah, Portrait. 259.

Seaton Delaval, 102.

Short, Frank, April in Kent, 147.

Sizergh Castle, Room in, 81 .

Sleeping Soldiers on the Easter Sepulchre,
Lincoln, 274.

Smart, J., Portrait of a Lady, 255.

Smith, J. R., Mrs. Carwardine and Child,
156; Sir Harbord Harbord, 155.

Somerset House (W. Chambers), 97,

Spencer, Gervase, Portrait, 258.

Spencer House, St. James", London (Vardy),
102.

Stark, James, Landscape with Wind Mill,
216; Valley of the Y are, 2\5.

Stevens, Alfred, Caryatid, 296; Chalk Draw-
ing (2), 269; Proposed Memorial of the
1851 Exhibition, 296; A Study, 270;
Truth, 295; Valour, 295; Wellington
Monument, 288, 294.

Stocke, Portrait of William, by an unknown
painter, 164.

Stonehenge, 1, 2.

Storey, G. A., The Annunciation, 233.

Stothard, T., Intemperance, 204.

Stubbs, White Horse and Groom, 205.

Swan, J. M., Leopard and Tortoise, 303;
Youth of Orpheus (2), 303.

Tapestry at Hatfield, 139.

Tara Brooch, Dublin Museum, 1 30.

Tewkesbury Abbey, 30.

Thornewaite. Ploughing in Sussex, 266.

Thornton Abbey, gate-house, 68.

Thornycroft, Hamo, Artemis, 300; Bishop
Creighton, 301 ; Edward L, 301 : General
Gordon, 300; r/ieMon>er,301 ; reucer,300.

Toft, Albert, Victory, 306.

Tomb, 285; of the Earl and Countess of
Arundel, Arundel, 281; of Edward II.,
Gloucester Cathedral, 53; of Edward III.,
Westminster Abbey, 59; of Queen Eleanor,
Westminster Abbey, 126; of Archbishop
Gray, York, 280; of Sir Ralph Green,
Lowick, Northants, 283; Hertford, Salis-
bury Cathedral, 78; at Holme-Pierrepoint,
Notts. 283, 284; of King John, Worcester,
287; of Archbishop Peckham, Canterbury,
280; in Southwark Cathedral, 284; of the
Earl of Warwick, Warwick, 64.
Trinity College, Cambridge, Gate-tower, 75.
Trinity CoUege, Oxford. 289; Chapel, Oxford,
92.

Trinity Church, Holy, Sloane Street (Sedding).

no.

Turner, J. M. W., Clapham Common; 210;
Qarden of the Hesperides, 211; The
Giudecca, 212; Raglan Castle, 156; Sol
di Venezia, 212; Spithead, 21 1 ; Storm,
212 ; Ulysses deriding Polyphemus, 209.
United Kingdom Provident Institution (H. T.

Hare), 120.
United University Club (R. Blomfield), 120.
Vincent, George, Greenwich, 2 1 6.
Wainwright, The,Drinker, 267.
Waldorf Hotel, London (Marshall Mackenzie),

117.
Walker, A. G., The Thorn, 308.
Wallingford Screen, St. Albans, 65.
Waltham Cross, restoration, 55.
War Office, Whitehall (Young), 1 19.
Ward, J., Alderney Cattle, 218.
Waterlow, Ernest, Warkworth Castle, 266.
Watson, C. J., St. Jacques, Lisieux. 146.
Watson, John, Mrs. Abingdon, 152.
Watts, G. P., Walter Crane, 247 ; Russell
Gurncy, 230; Hope, 230; Hugh Lupus,
298; Vital Energy. 297.
Wells Cathedral, West Front, 42; From
North East 54 ; Chapter-house, 55 ;
Figures on West Front, 278.
West, Benjamin, Panel for ceiling, 208.
Westminster Abbey, Chapter-house, 50;

Choir, 37 ; Nave, 38 ; Plan, 38.
Westminster Cathedral, Porch, 110; Nave,

111; Brampton Chapel, 111.
Westminster Hall, 68.

Whistler, J. MacN., Miss Alexander, 228;
Portrait of the Painter's Mother, 244 ; Miss
Seymour Haden, 147.
Whitehall, as designed by Inigo Jones, 87;
ground floor plan, 88 ; from Miiller's en-
graving, 89.
Wigmore Street, Shop in, 120.
Wilkie, D., The Pope and the Goldsmith,

145; The Refusal, 220.
Wimperis, Hay field. Amberley, 266.
Winchester Cathedral, nave, 30, 60 ; plan, 60.
Windus, Burt/ £://en, 232.
Woodcut Initial, Foxe's Martyrs, 1 49.
Woodcut from the " Fall of Princes," 149.
Wyatt, George///., 290.

York Minster, Chapter -house, 56, 57 ; Choir,
67 ; The Five Sisters, 4 1 ; South Side, 67 ;
Transept and Tower, 4 1 .

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