THEIR OPERATION.USE AND CARE VERRILL GASOLENE ENGINES THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE A COMPREHENSIVE, SIMPLE AND PRACTICAL WORK Treating of Gasolene Engines for Stationary, Marine or Vehicle Use. Their Construction, Design, Management, Care, Operation, Repair, Installation and Troubles. Written especially for the Owner, Operator or Purchaser of Gasolene Motors who is unfamiliar with Technicalities and is not a mechanic or engineer. A book that is indis- pensable to the Amateur and of value to the Professional. Containing also a complete table of Motor Troubles and Remedies and a full Glossary of Technical Terms used in Connection with Gasolene Engines. By A. HYATT VERRILL Fully Illustrated n*tk 1^2 Original Engravings NEW YORK THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 132 NASSAU STREET 1912 / COPYRIGHTED 1912 BY THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING Co. Composition, Electrotyping and Printing by the Publishers Printing Co., New York TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION . . " '-.. : . . . . . 9 CHAPTER I Types of Motors. Operation of Two-cycle Motor. Operation of Four-cycle Motor 15 CHAPTER II Various Designs, Makes, and Forms of Two-cycle Motors. Three-port Motors. Combination and Four-port Motors. Open-base and Distributor-valve Motors. Multiple- cylinder Two-cycle Motors . . . . . 32 CHAPTER III Various Forms, Designs, and Variations of Four-cycle Motors. Valves and their Operation. Valve Mechanisms and Motions. Automatic and Mechanically-operated Valves. Sleeve-valve and Rotary-valve Motors. Opposed-cylinder and Offset-crank Motors, Freak Motors, and Horizontal Motors .... .-. . . . . . 54 CHAPTER IV Parts of Two-cycle Motors. Parts of Four-cycle Motors. Design and Construction of Motor Parts. Cylinders, Pistons, Crank-cases, Rings, Pins, Jackets, Shafts, Con- necting-rods, Bearings, Cams and Gears. Cooling Methods. Water- and Air-cooled Systems . . .75 CHAPTER V Motor Accessories. Vaporizers and Carburetors. Pumps, Fans, and Water Circulation. Lubrication. Gravity and Force-feed Oiler, Grease Cups and Oiling Methods 98 267^97 . OF CONTENTS CHAPTER VI IGNITION PAGE Principles of Electrical Ignition. Dynamos and Magnetos. High- and Low-tension Magnetos. The Wico Igniter. Spark Coils. Spark Plugs. Vibrators. Timers. The Delco System. Make-and-break Ignition. Igniters. Operation of Igniters. Comparison of Make-and-break and Jump Spark. Altering Make-and-break to Jump Spark 124 CHAPTER VII Mufflers and Exhaust Devices. Governors. Fuel and Fuel Consumption. Oils and Greases. Installation. Piping and Wiring. Gaskets and Packings. Adjustments. General Care of Motors 162 CHAPTER VIII Table of Motor Troubles with Causes and Remedies. Tools. Emergency Repairs and Makeshifts. Grinding Com- pounds, Polishes, Enamels, Paints, etc. Carbon Removers and Cleansers. Belts and Belt Dressings. Anti-freezing Mixtures 208 CHAPTER IX Glossary of Alphabetically Arranged Technical Terms with Explanations. Heat Values of Fuels. Size and Capacity of Tanks. Iron Pipe Table. U. S. Standard Screw Threads. Cap-screw Sizes. Drills for Screw Holes. Surface and Volume Tables . ... . . 246 LIST OF ILLLUSTRATIONS Cover design, drawn specially for this book by DOROTHY I. VERRILL riGURE PAGE 1. Operation of Two-cycle Engine . . . . .17 2. Operation of Two-cycle Engine . . . . .18 3. Operation of Two-cycle Engine 19 4. Operation of Two-cycle Engine 20 5. Operation of Four-cycle Engine 22 6. Operation of Four-cycle Engine .---. . . . 23 7. Operation of Four-cycle Engine ' . ^ . . . . 24 8. Operation of Four-cycle Engine . . . . . 25 9. Three-port Motor . . . . . * . . 33 10. Gray Model "T" Motor ' . . . . ,. . 34 11. Two-three-port Motor .> . . . . .-. . . 35 12. Two-three-port Motor with Accelerator . .(- . . 37 13. Crasser Motor . . . ; . . . . 38 14. Smalley Motor ^ . 40 15. Powell Open-base Motor . . .: - . :. . 42 16. Motor with Throttle in By-pass . . .v . . 44 17. Elmore Motor with Distributor . . . i . 46 1 8. Two-throw Crank Shaft . . . .; '. ,. . 50 19. Three-throw Crank Shaft . . . . \/. . . 50 20. A, Four-throw Crank Shaft at 90 Degrees . . 50 20. B, Four-throw Crank Shaft at 180 Degrees . . 50 21. Cylinders Cast en bloc 51 22. Separate Cylinders on Solid Base .... 52 23. Tappet Valve 55 24. Poppet-valve Mechanism ...... 56 25. Mechanically Operated Valves ..... 58 26. L-head Cylinder 59 27. Valve in Head Cylinder 60 28. Sleeve-valve Motor; Sleeves and Piston ... 62 29. Sleeve-valve Motor; General Plan .... 63 30. Sleeve- valve Motor; Section 64 31. Sleeve- valve Motor; Section 65 32. Sleeve- valve Motor; Section .,,,, 66 3 4 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 33. Diagram of Cylinder Head of Reynolds Motor and Valve Removed with Gear 67 34. Motor with Offset Crankshaft 69 35. Opposed Cylinder Motor 71 36. Freak Balanced Motor 73 37. Horizontal Motor ........ 74 38. Parts of Two-cycle Motor . . . . . -77 39. Parts of Four-cycle Motor 79 40. Make-and-break Spark System 81 41. Piston and Rings 83 42. Piston Pin 84 43. Section of Piston with Pin held by Set-screws . . 85 44. Piston Pin Bushed in Piston 86 45. Piston Pin Bushed in Connecting Rod ... 86 46. Connecting Rod with Hinged Cap .... 86 47. Connecting Rod with Bolted Cap .... 87 48. Solid Base with One End Removable .... 87 49. Split Base . . . . . . . . 88 50. Base with Both Bearing Ends Removable ... 89 51. Cylinder with Separate Head 9 52. Cylinder with Water Jacket Clamped on . . 9 1 53. Methods of Attaching Counterweights 9 2 54. Gray Counterbalanced Shaft . . ... -93 55. Removable Bearings, Gray ..... . 94 56. Tapered Fly-wheel Shaft . . . . , . -96 57. Tapered Fly-wheel Shaft with Bushing . . . 96 58. Tapered Fly-wheel Shaft with Releasing Nut . 96 59. Vaporizer . . . .~ . . , . 99 60. Schebler Model "D" Carburetor . .. . . . 101 61. Krice Carburetor . . . . ; . '.. . 103 62. Kingston Carburetor . . ... . . . 104 63. Cadillac Carburetor . . ..... -105 64. Plunger Pump . ... * :.. .-. ... . . 108 65. Rotary Pump . . . .:' '.,.& Y> ;- : .> - . 109 66. Lobee Gear Pump (Ghost View) . . . - ,'- ; . . no 67. Lobee Gear Pump, Flow of Water . . . in 68. Ferro Water-circulating System . . * . . . 112-113 69. Multiple Oiler . . . . . . ., ^ . . 115 70. Detroit Force-feed Oiler . . . .. .~ t ^- . 116 71. Osgood Force-feed Oiler . .. . ' . . -Wv 11 7 72. Buffalo Oiling Rings . . ^ > ", > ;-V -. . 120 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 5 FIGURE PAGE 73. Buffalo Oiling Rings Assembled on Shaft . . .121 74. Gray Oiling System . . -.. . . . .122 75. Grease Cup 122 76. Ferro Oiling System . . . . . . . 123 77. Diagram of Dynamo ....... 127 78. Diagram of Magneto 128 79. Parts of Comet Magneto . . . .. . . . . 131 80. Wico Igniter . . -. . i. . . . . . 132 81. Diagram of Jump-spark Coil . > . , . 137 82. Types of Vibrators . -. ....... . .138 83. Connecticut Plug Coil . . . . . . . 141 84. Standard Plugs . ^..; ..- . ' v . . . 143 - 85. Reliance Plugs ' - >. ; . :. i .'-. * . . . .144 86. Breech-block Plugs -._... -> , . . 145 87. Rajah Plugs . . .- ..... * . . 146 88. E-Z Plugs . ; . - V : J 47 89. Magneto and Edison Plugs . ':.;*,>. . 148 90. Cam and Spring Timer r ; . . . .149 91. Simple Timers ........ 149 92. Tuttle Timers Assembled on Motor . . . .150 93. Tuttle Timers, Sectional View . . ... 151 94. Roller and Spring Wipe Timers . . ... 153 95. Delco System .: 154-155 96. Make-and-break Igniter with Lettering . . \^. . . 157 97. Make-and-break Igniter .... i ; * . 158 98. Make-and-break Igniter, Self-contained. : i. > . . 159 99. Make-and-break Igniter, Altered to Jump Spark . .160 100. Gray Auxiliary Exhaust . . . . . .163 101. Auxiliary Exhaust Chamber 164 102. Reid Underwater Exhaust Head 166 103. Reid Underwater Exhaust Connected to Boat . .166 104. Underwater Exhaust Connections and Fittings . .167 105. Underwater Exhaust Connections and Fittings . . 168 1 06. Muffler with Pebbles .169 107. Muffler with Perforated Inlet Pipe . . . . 169 1 08. Muffler with Inlet and Outlet Perforated . . . .170 109. Baffle-plate Muffler 170 no. Yankee Auto Muffler 171 in. Yankee Marine Muffler 171 112. Ejector Muffler i? 2 113. Hydrex Silencer i?3 6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 114. Thermex Silencer 174 115. Exhaust- valve Governor 175 1 1 6. Throttle-valve Governor 176 117. Hit-and-miss Governor . . . . . . .177 1 1 8. Inertia Governor . . . . . . . .178 119. Concrete Beds ........ 184 120. Beds in Boats 186 121. Marine Exhaust Properly Connected (Under Water) . 188 122. Marine Exhaust Properly Connected (Above Water) . 189 123. Stationary Exhaust with Connections . . . .190 124. Detroit 3-way Valve 191 125. Gasolene Piping and Connections ..... 193 126. Wiring Single-cylinder Jump Spark for Batteries . 194 127. Wiring Single-cylinder Jump Spark for Batteries and Magneto . . . . . . . . . 195 128. Wiring Two-cylinder Jump Spark for -Batteries . . 196 129. Wiring Make-and-break for Batteries . . . .197 130. Wiring Make-and-break for Batteries and Magneto . 197 131. Wiring any Number of Cylinders with Master Vibrator 198 132. Alpco System with Generator and Storage Battery . 199 133. Wiring for Perfex or Orswell Systems . . . .199 134. Wiring for Perfection Plug Transformer . . . 200 135- Wiring for Connecticut Plug Coil .... 200 136. Wiring " Delco " System . . . . . . 201 137. Reliance Terminals 202 138. "Connecticut" Terminals . . . . . . 203 139. Old Bolt Split to Tighten 212 140. Slit Lock Nut 213 141. Monkey Wrench Used with File as Pipe Wrench . 214 142. Patching Leaky Jacket 216 143. Set-screw to Tighten Bearings 219 144. Valve Lifter . 220 145. Valve Grinding Tool from Augur 221 146. Valve with Ball Race 223 147. Morgan Priming Cup 224 148. Spreading Rings with Pliers . * - '...-%- \ . . 225 149. Shims for Removing Rings . . ... . 225 150. Pliers for Spreading Rings . . . . , >:;. . . 226 151. Wedges on Cylinder-head for Putting in Piston ... . . 227 152. Shims for Inserting Piston in Cylinder . . , 228 PREFACE IN the preparation of this work the author has endeav- ored to produce a book which will serve as a practical guide and handbook to all those who at any time have occasion to use or operate gasolene engines. It is par- ticularly intended for those with little or no knowledge of mechanics or engineering, and with this purpose in view technical terms and names have -been practically eliminated from the text and descriptions, and explana- tions have been made as clear and plain as possible and as concise as a full explanation will admit. As tech- nicalities cannot be entirely avoided in any work dealing with machinery, a full glossary of such terms, as applied to gasolene motors, has been added to the work, and the reader who is without any knowledge whatever of machinists' and engineers' terms will find in this feature a ready reference and explanation. Appreciating the value of illustrations as an aid to text description, the author has endeavored to figure each and every part and feature treated in the work; and in order to make the illustrations more plain and understandable every part or portion not directly related to the point under discussion has been eliminated in the figures. The illustrations are in no sense working drawings, but are mainly diagrammatic, and no attempt has been made to draw them to accurate scale, while in order 7 8 PREFACE to bring out certain features of construction or opera- tion such features have been purposely exaggerated. This is the case with the tapered shafts on page '96, as well as with the pitch of various screw threads and gear teeth. This may be wrong theoretically, but in serv- ing its purpose it is good practically, which is exactly the reverse of many theories in mechanics and engi- neering. While volumes might be devoted to enumerating and describing all the troubles which might occur in gasolene- engine operation, yet the number that are likely to be met are comparatively few and are fully covered in the alphabetically arranged table of troubles in the work. The plain and simple tables of screw threads, pipe sizes, etc., will, it is hoped, prove of value, especially to those having occasion to replace or order fittings or screws. The chapter on useful hints and makeshift repairs has been compiled from actual experience and each has been tried and tested many times in real practice. The author sincerely hopes that the work will prove as useful and valuable to all his readers as a similar work would have been to him in the early years of his gasolene-motor experiences. September, 1912. INTRODUCTION THE discovery of the Gas Engine marked a new era in mechanical progress and its perfection has led to some of the most marvellous and important of modern inven- tions and achievements. Through its use aeroplanes and submarines have become possible, and motor vehicles of all kinds depend largely upon the gasolene engine for power; while motor boats, launches, and power cruisers have placed yachting within reach of the man of moderate means, whereas a few years ago the use of steam confined this pleasure to the wealthy few. Useful and important as the gas motor has proved for vehicle and marine use, even more valuable are its services in stationary form. In factory, home, and farm the stationary gasolene engine is in daily use, performing steadily and easily the work of many hands at a fraction of the cost of the old steam engine. On the farm espe- cially has the explosive motor proven its worth, and this light, simple, portable power-plant has revolutionized farm work in many sections. Labor that was formerly slow and irksome is now performed easily, quickly, and pleasurably and the ingenious farmer finds a thousand and one uses for his motor. It will separate his cream, turn his grindstone, do the wife's washing, and light the home with electricity; and if mounted on a "tractor" 9 10 INTRODUCTION it will plough and harrow the fields, plant and cultivate the crops, and will mow, thresh, and grind the grain. When we consider the manifold uses of the gas engine and the number in daily use it seems surprising that so few owners, operators, or users thoroughly understand their engines or their construction, operation, or care. Many a man who would feel incompetent to operate a steam engine will .undertake to handle a large or com- plicated gas engine; and yet, as a matter of fact, the latter is by far the more delicate piece of mechanism. It certainly speaks well for the modern gas motor that, under the ordinary conditions and in the hands of so many people absolutely ignorant of the first principles of engineering or mechanics, there is so little trouble. It is no uncommon thing to hear the owner of a gasolene engine boast that his motor has run so many miles or so many hours without missing an explosion. Did you ever hear a steam-engineer boast that his engine had run a few hours or a few days without blowing up the boiler or bursting a cylinder? and yet there is as much reason for one as for the other. If a gas motor is properly adjusted and runs smoothly for an hour there is no earthly reason why it should not continue to run for days, months, or years, as long as it is fed fuel, lubri- cating oil, and electric current, and ordinary wear and tear are attended to, as in any other piece of machinery. The idea that a gas engine must give trouble, that it is an obstinate and balky thing, and that it will fail at the most critical time without cause is pure nonsense. If a gas engine fails to operate there is some good and suffi- cient reason; for the modern gas engine is no longer INTRODUCTION 11 an experiment, made by guess and by hand, but is a thoroughly well made, carefully designed, and well tested mechanical device; but like any other machine, to operate successfully, it must be given certain con- ditions. Nine times out of ten the "balkiness and obstinacy" are in the operator and not in the motor, and a little common sense and judgment will do far more than a lot of swearing, cranking, and hit-or-miss adjusting. One often sees a man operating a motor, which is running smoothly and well, continually loosening a nut or screw here and tightening there, or fooling with some part or another of his engine. This practice is sure to cause trouble and sooner or later the motor skips and stops. Being perfectly ignorant of the cause, or of the former adjustment of the parts, the operator tries one thing after another and eventually either gives up in despair or by pure luck gets the motor running. In the former case a repairman's bill results in blaming the motor and gas engines in general, while in the latter case our friend flatters himself that he knows all about gas engines and thereafter poses as an expert with a fund of ready advice to every other user of a motor; and yet, should the same trouble arise again, he would be as much at a loss as before. This sort of trouble is far commoner with marine motors than with those in motor vehicles, for in a boat the engine is exposed and within easy reach, whereas in the vehicle it cannot be touched or meddled with while operating. It is mainly for this reason that vehicle motors appear to run more regularly and reliably than marine motors. Of course one now and 12 INTRODUCTION then runs across an old, poorly designed, or worn-out engine that will run badly and cannot be depended upon, but in most cases a little adjustment here and there, a little lubrication, or some other small matter is all that is required. During a number of years' experience in handling and repairing gasolene engines, the author has yet to find a motor which could not be made to run save in one or two cases where the engine was completely worn out and fit only for the junk heap. Many books have been written on gas engines and their care and operation, but in the majority of cases these works are either too technical or are confined to one particular class of engines. Others describe and discuss oil, kerosene, and producer-gas engines, as well as those designed to operate on gasolene, and this is apt to be very confusing to the inexperienced, for while, strictly speaking, all these are gas engines, yet the individual peculiarities of different fuels require certain variations in design and operation in the motors and each should be made a separate study in itself. The purpose of the present work is to furnish all the necessary information regarding gasolene engines in simple language free from technical terms and as far as possible cover all varia- tions, types, and classes of these motors and their various parts, accessories, and appliances. In order to illustrate the various types of engines and devices cer- tain makes with distinctive characters have been used as examples, but the author wishes it clearly understood that such mention of a certain make of engine or accessory does not imply that it is the best or that it is recom- mended or endorsed by this work. Such mention merely INTRODUCTION 13 indicates that the motor or appliance is typical of its class and is a well known and standard make. As the number of gasolene motors on the market is steadily increasing and there are over ten thousand manufacturers of explosive engines in the United States to-day, it is practically impossible to mention more than a very limited portion of the various designs, innovations and improvements constantly being made in this industry. In all gasolene engines the principle is the same, and the care and operation identical, and the man who becomes thoroughly familiar with one engine will have no trouble in mastering any other. As technical terms cannot be avoided under certain conditions, such as ordering new parts, making repairs, machine-shop work, etc., a glossary of such terms with an explanation of the meaning of each has been added to the work as well as an alphabetically arranged table of common troubles and their symptoms and remedies, features which the author believes will prove of great value to all owners, users, or operators of gasolene motors. GASOLENE ENGINES CHAPTER I TYPES OF MOTORS. OPERATION AND EXPLANATION OF TWO-CYCLE AND FOUR-CYCLE MOTORS ALL gas, gasolene, or oil motors, known collectively as Explosive Engines, may be roughly divided into two classes or types: the Two-cycle or Two-stroke engines and the Four-cycle or Four-stroke engines.* While these two types are quite distinct in their con- struction and operation, yet the principle in each is the same. A charge of gas, gasolene, or oil vapor is drawn into the cylinder, is compressed therein by a piston, and while under compression is ignited by an electric spark or similar device. The force of the exploding gas drives down the piston which*, acting upon a crank, transmits the power of the explosion to a revolving shaft and thence to the boat, vehicle, or machine requiring the power. It will thus be seen that a gas of the highest explosive * The author is well aware that certain six-cycle motors have been built and used to some extent. In these engines the additional idle stroke is utilized to draw a charge of clean air into the cylinder in order to more perfectly scavenge the burnt gases. Such motors have not come into general use, however, and the ordinary operator is not likely to encounter an engine of this type. They are not considered of sufficient importance to be worthy of consideration in the present work. 15 16 GASOLENE ENGINES power, an ignition device that can be depended upon, and a cylinder that will not leak and lose compression are the most necessary essentials for the proper operation of a gas motor. The simplest form of gasolene engine is the Two-cycle in which the parts may be reduced to a minimum, only three moving parts being absolutely essential (Fig. i). In this figure the piston A is represented as being at the upward limit of its stroke with the space between the top of piston and top of cylinder B filled with a charge of compressed gas. At this position, or "Firing Stroke," an electric spark takes place at C and ignites the gas which, exploding, drives the piston A downward. At the point illustrated in Fig. 2 the opening D in the cylinder wall is uncovered by the piston, and the burning and practically exhausted gas rushes out through this opening and escapes. Almost at the same instant the opening E is uncovered and a fresh charge of gas which has been contained in the base F is forced up through the opening G to take the place of the exhausted charge (Fig. 3). The momentum of the moving fly-wheel and shaft now carries the piston on its upward course, closing the openings or "ports" D and E and at the same time drawing by suction a fresh charge of gas or gasolene vapor into the base through the opening H (Fig. 4). As the piston reaches the top of its stroke a spark again ignites the compressed charge, the piston is again forced down, and the operation repeated over and over again. In this motor it will readily be seen that an explosion or impulse takes place at every complete revolution of the shaft or, in other words, at every two strokes of the THEIR OPERATIONS, USE, AND CAKE 17 Fig. i. Operation of Two-cycle Engine (See page 16) 18 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 2. Operation of Two-cycle Engine (See page 16) THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 19 Fig. 3. Operation of Two-cycle Engine (See page 16) 20 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 4. Operation of Two-cycle Engine (See page 16) THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 21 piston. In order to first start a two-cycle motor in its operation a charge of gas or vapor must be drawn into the base and forced up to the top of the cylinder and compressed there. One complete revolution of the shaft is necessary to accomplish this, and this revolving a shaft by hand is commonly known as "cranking.'' Unless a motor is out of order or some adjustment is wrong one revolution only should suffice to start the engine, and if it fails to start then further cranking is merely a waste of time and strength until the fault is corrected. Indeed most motors when properly adjusted will start by merely rocking the fly-wheel back and forth and "throwing it up" against compression. In cold weather, however, motors will often start very hard and at such times "priming" should be resorted to. This matter will, however, be fully dealt with in the succeeding chapters. In Figs. 5 to 8 a section of a four-cycle engine is illustrated. In this type of motor the parts are far more numerous and the operation more complicated. The motor is shown in Fig. 5 with the piston P at the top of stroke or "firing stroke," with a compressed charge ready to explode, and with both the valves VI, VE closed. The explosion taking place the piston is forced down as in the two-cycle motor already described, and the shaft is turned half a revolution. In its downward passage the exhaust valve VE is opened through the action of a cam C and gear G connected to the main shaft, and the motor then appears as illustrated in Fig. 6. The piston now commences its upward stroke, thus forcing the burnt gas out through the exhaust valve 22 GASOLENE ENGINES which remains open until the piston has reached its upward limit and has commenced to descend. At this point the exhaust valve closes and the intake valve VI Fig. 5. Operation of Four-cycle Engine commences to open (Fig. 7). As the piston continues on its downward course its suction draws a charge of gas in through VI until the lowest point of the stroke is THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 23 reached. The intake valve VI now closes, and as the exhaust valve VE still remains closed the upward stroke of the piston compresses the gas until again ignited by Fig. 6. Operation of Four-cycle Engine the spark (Fig. 8) . The operation is then repeated over and over. By reference to the figures and the explana- tion it will be seen that in this form of motor an explosion 24 GASOLENE ENGINES takes place at every two revolutions of the shaft or at every four strokes of the piston. To the uninitiated it would appear that an engine Fig. 7,-f-Operation of Four-cycle Engine receiving an explosive impulse on every two strokes would naturally be more powerful and would run more steadily and with less vibration than a motor receiving THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 25 an impulse only on every fourth stroke. In reality there is but little difference in the power delivered by a two-cycle or a four-cycle engine; while, as a rule steadi- Fig. 8. Operation of Four-cycle Engine ness and reliability are in favor of the four-cycle motor. Probably the four-cycle motor uses less fuel for the same power than a two-cycle, but even this may be doubted 26 GASOLENE ENGINES in the case of many of the better classes of two-cycle engines. In the four-cycle type the burnt gases have a longer opportunity to escape, besides being mechanically forced out by the piston itself, and as a result the fresh charge of gas is purer and possesses better explosive properties and more power. Moreover, the idle stroke allows the cylinder more time to cool off while the valve action regulates the amount of charge taken into the cylinder more accurately than in the fixed opening, or port, of the two-cycle type. Each type of motor has its devotees who claim all the advantages for their own particular type, but it is doubtful if there is any great difference as far as actual utility is concerned. Both the two- and four-cycle types are used extensively in station- ary work, but for light marine work the two-cycle type is the most used. For larger boats and where great power is desired the four-cycle engines predominate, while in automobiles and other motor vehicles four- cycle engines are almost universally used. This seems to be due to the greater perfection of the four-cycle engines rather than to their actual performance as com- pared with the two-cycle, for in a few makes of cars the latter are employed with very marked success. Although the two-cycle is so much simpler in construction and operation yet it is harder to design and build a really good two-cycle motor than a four-cycle, and usually it requires more care and more knowledge to regulate and adjust one correctly. This seeming paradox is explained by the fact that in a four-cycle motor the timing and regulating of the valves may be made to overcome many faults in the design or construction of the motor THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 27 or its parts, whereas in the two-cycle motor every measurement must be within very exact limits in order for the motor to work at all. In adjusting motors the valves again cause the four-cycle to be the simpler, for a considerable difference in the amount of air or fuel, or even in more important matters, makes but slight difference in the apparent working of the motor, whereas in the two-cycle type a very slight difference in the pro- portions of the fuel causes a marked difference in the results obtained. It has been claimed by many that the four-cycle is more flexible, or, in other words, can be varied in speed and power to a greater extent than the two-cycle motor, but I am inclined to doubt this. A properly designed and constructed two-cycle motor may be run satisfac- torily at from one hundred to several thousand revolu- tions per minute without trouble, and many of the best four-cycle engines fail to run at all regularly when the speed is varied suddenly to any extent. A very important point that is all too frequently overlooked by the owner or user of gasolene motors is the " human element." One man will get splendid results from a certain type or make of engine while another person will have continual trouble with it and condemn it outright. This peculiar adaptability, or "knack" as it may be called, of some operators with certain engines seems remarkable at first sight, but if carefully studied will usually prove to be due to the fact that the operator has thoroughly learned his engine. No two gasolene motors are exactly alike, and no two engines will run equally well with exactly the same treatment. This is 28 GASOLENE ENGINES more often due to surrounding conditions than to the motor itself, but nevertheless I have yet to see the engine that does not require some " humoring" and for this reason I strongly advise every purchaser or user of a gasolene motor to be sure that he has thoroughly mastered his motor and learned its ways before deciding that there is really anything wrong with the mechanism itself. Before deciding on the type or make of motor suited to your particular requirements, study the matter care- fully and study the advantages and disadvantages of each until thoroughly satisfied that you have selected the best motor for your purpose. There are many hundreds of motors made, and while practically every well-known and reliable firm turns out a good motor nowadays, yet some are better than others and each make and type possesses certain advantages that fit it for particular purposes or conditions. Do not expect to get a first-class motor at an absurdly low price. It costs money to design and build a good engine, and while the large manufacturer, with special tools and machinery and every facility for turning out motors in large numbers, can make a much lower price than the man who makes each motor by hand and builds only a few at a time, yet if a motor is advertised at a very low figure, steer clear of it. As a rule the motors made by large firms at a reasonable price are far better than those made in small numbers at a high price, for in the former case the parts are interchangeable and new pieces may be purchased at a low figure and will always fit, whereas the small manufacturer seldom turns out parts that do not require considerable hand work before they THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 29 can be made to fit an old motor. Many manufacturers depend on overrating their motors to increase sales. They will advertise a motor at almost double its actual power and sell it at the price others charge for the actual power advertised and thus appear to sell a motor at a very low price. Usually such motors are extremely high-speed, short-lived engines, or else the maker is deliberately trying to defraud you. There is no excuse for being swindled, however, for it is a simple matter to determine the horse-power of any motor. Bore and stroke and speed give the power, and while various motors may give more or less power according to design and workmanship, yet within certain limits the power may be readily determined. The amount that the explosive gas is compressed before ignition also affects the power of the motor, as well as the proper adjustment of fuel, proper lubrica- tion, and correct ignition. The power computed from these established factors is known as the Indicated Horse-power, but the whole of this power is never available. A large part is consumed in overcoming the friction in the motor itself, and the power remaining after this is overcome is called the Delivered Horse-power. The proportion of the Delivered Power to the Indicated Power is known as the Mechanical Efficiency, and is usually expressed in per cent. Thus if the Indicated Horse-power of an engine is 10 H.P. and the Delivered Power is 8 H.P., the Mechanical Efficiency will be 8/10 or 80 per cent, and the friction load (overcome in oper- ating) will equal 10 8 or 2 H.P. While the pressure of the gas under compression varies considerably, accord- 30 GASOLENE ENGINES ing to the fuel used and design of engine, yet the pressures are so well known and the proper pressure so well established that an average of about 70 pounds per square inch may be counted on. With these factors known the following formulas may be depended upon to ascertain with reasonable accuracy the Delivered Horse-power of any gasolene motor. For four-cycle motors: D.H.P. = Diam. of cylinder multiplied by itself, times the length of stroke, times the number of revolutions per minute, divided by 18,000. For example, the D.H.P. of a motor with a 3-in. bore, 3-in. stroke, running 1,000 revolutions per minute = 3X3X3X1,000 = 27,000, divided by 1 8,000 = i> D.H.P. For the D.H.P. of a two-cycle motor proceed in the same manner, but divide by 13,500. Thus, a two-cycle motor with 3-in. bore, 3-in. stroke, and operating at 1,000 revolutions, would show 3 X3 X3 X 1,000 = 27,000, divided by 13,500, or 2 D.H.P. Usually motors are tested by some form of pressure brake and the D.H.P. thus obtained is called Brake Horse-power. Such tests are reliable and accurate, but it must be borne in mind that the motors while undergoing these factory tests are operated under the most favorable conditions and by skilled engineers and mechanics; and the same motor that delivers 10 H.P. under a factory brake-test may not deliver over 6 H.P. when installed and operated by yourself. It is far better to have too much power than too little, and a few horse-power more or less makes little difference in price. All other things considered you should choose the motor having the longest stroke and largest diameter THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 31 and operating at a medium speed. High speed means short life, and large bore and short stroke mean high speed. Extreme long stroke and small bore, however, mean slow speed and additional weight, and an excess of either is undesirable. With these remarks on the operation and principle of gasolene engines in general, we will now take up the matter of the various motors and their parts and acces- sories in detail. CHAPTER II TWO-CYCLE OR TWO-STROKE MOTORS THE two-cycle motor already described and figured in the preceding chapter is known as the Two-port motor from the fact that there are but two openings, or ports, from the cylinder. Another form of two-cycle motor in common use is known as the Three-port motor (Fig. 9) . The operation of this motor is essentially the same as the two-port type, but in addition to the two ports this motor has a third port or opening, A , which is closed by the piston acting as a sliding valve. On the downward stroke of this motor the third port is closed as shown in the figure, while the gas in the base is forced up to the top of the cylinder through the by-pass B. On the up- ward stroke the gas is sucked into the cylinder through the port A, as in the two-port type. The only advantage of this type of motor over the two-port is that no check valve is required in the inlet for fuel at A. It is usually a high-speed engine, and as a partial vacuum is created in the base on the upward or suction stroke and a con- siderable pressure must be maintained on the downward stroke, tight bearings and joints are essential and these, especially in a marine engine,, are hard to retain for any length of time. Many of the more recent types of two- cycle engines are constructed so that either a two- or three-port system may be used as desired. A very successful motor of this design is the Gray Model "T," 32 THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 33 illustrated in Fig. 10. Almost any good three-port motor may, however, be transformed to a two-port Fig. 9. Three-port Motor engine even after its efficiency as a three-port has expired. Many of the best so-called two-port motors are in reality a sort of combination of the two- and three-port 3 34 GASOLENE ENGINES types. Such a motor is illustrated in Fig. n. In this motor the inlet, or fuel, port, instead of being in the base as illustrated in Chapter I, is situated in the by-pass B midway between the base and the inlet to cylinder C. Fig. 10. Gray Model "T" Motor The operation of this type of motor is precisely the same as in the straight two-port, but it possesses many advan- tages over either the two- or three-port type. The suc- tion created by the piston is greater than in either of the other types, while no great pressure is required in the base THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 35 Fig. ii. Two- three-port Motor 36 GASOLENE ENGINES as in the three-port. The fuel-mixing device is elevated more than in the two-port, which is a distinct advantage in a boat, and the gas or vapor striking on the walls of the by-pass, instead of on the base of the engine, results in far better vaporization and consequently better combustion. The walls of the base are usually cold or nearly so and the mixture of gasolene and air tends to cool them off even more; whereas in the motor under consideration the walls of the by-pass are always warm while the motor is in operation and the mixture of gaso- lene and air striking this warm metal is immediately thoroughly vaporized. Many of the motors of this type have an opening in the base into which the fuel intake may be screwed. In such cases the operator may use his motor as a regular two-port or as a combination as desired. In many motors of this class very superior results are obtained by attaching an auxiliary air inlet in the base. This is closed when starting or running slowly, but when running at high speed is gradually opened until the best possible results are obtained. Such an auxiliary inlet is shown in Fig. 12 (A), and is known as an "Accelerator." Two-cycle motors are also made which possess some of the best features of both the two- and three-port types. An example of this style of engine is the Crasser motor illustrated in Fig. 13. This motor has a vaporizer A, as well as an automatic air valve B, a third port C, and a transfer port D, which acts as the second port on a two-port motor. In operation the piston on its upward stroke draws a charge through the vaporizer A into the crank case E, until it reaches a point where the third THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 37 Fig. 12. Two-three-port Motor with Accelerator 38 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 13. Crasser Motor THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 39 port C is uncovered. This permits the vacuum remaining to be displaced by air through the air valve B. As soon as the piston starts on its downward stroke the valve in A closes and the charge in the base is forced up through the transfer port D into the cylinder. This arrangement permits of a large, full charge of gas with consequently higher compression, more power, and freedom from crank-case explosions. In this motor the ports are placed in the forward and rear sides of the cylinders: by this method the piston and cylinders wear longer than if the ports were cut in the sides of the cylinder walls as the main thrust of a piston is sideways. Still another type of two-cycle engine is so constructed as to admit the charge from the base through a port in the piston walls and hence through a by-pass and valve in the top of the cylinder. The Smalley engine is of this design, and is illustrated in Fig. 14. On the upward stroke of the piston a charge of gas is drawn through the fuel inlet A into the crank case B. When the piston starts downward this vapor is brought under compression until the piston reaches the lowest point of its stroke, whereupon the port C in the piston comes into line with the port D in the cylinder, thus allowing the compressed gas to rush up through the by-pass E and through the valve Fj into the top of the cylinder. At the commence- ment of the upward stroke of the piston the valve F closes by the spring G, and the gas held in the top of the cylinder is compressed and ignited; the piston is driven down and the exhaust gas passes out through the open- ing H, as usual. This motor has several advantages, not the least of which is the cooling effect on the piston 40 GASOLENE ENGINES of the fresh charge of cool gas rushing through it at each stroke. The fresh charge coming directly in from the head of the cylinder also serves to drive out all Fig. 14. Smalley Motor traces of burnt gas and results in a cleaner and better charge for firing. The only disadvantage in this engine lies in the inlet valve in the cylinder head. This valve THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 41 in time will wear and cause loss of compression and will require regrinding as often as the valves of a four- cycle motor, and to the ordinary operator grinding of valves is a bugbear. Moreover, if the valve sticks, or the spring breaks, the motor is temporarily put out of service, and usually such accidents occur at the most inopportune and critical times; a similar engine with mechanically operated valve might be more satisfactory. Several good motors of the two-cycle type are now constructed with an open base, or, in other words, without the closed crank case usually seen. This style of motor has many advantages over a closed-base engine. All the working parts of the crank, shaft, etc., are readily accessible for adjusting and oiling, and any danger of leakage and loss of compression in the base is obviated. An engine of this style of construction, made by the Powell Engine Co., is shown in Fig. 15. As will be seen by the diagram the piston P is hollow, and below it and above the base a compression plate A is placed through which the piston rod slides. Below the compression plate the piston rod is pivoted to the connecting rod B, at the cross-head C, which is a part of the same casting as the piston rod itself. On the upward stroke of the piston the gas is drawn into the space D, between the piston P and the compression plate A, through the inlet port E. On the downward stroke the gas is forced up through the by-pass F, to the port G, and thence to top of cylinder, exactly as in the ordinary two-port motor. After the explosion occurs the exhaust gases pass out through the port H. This motor possesses stronger compression than in a closed-base engine for forcing the charge into the 42 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 15. Powell Open-base Motor THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 43 cylinder, with a result that a quicker firing charge is obtained and also better scavenging of the burnt gases. The carburetor may be placed far lower than the lowest level of the cylinder, thus eliminating any danger of flooding, while the straight thrust of the piston rod and cross-head bearing do away with all side wear on the piston and cylinder walls. The cold charge of gas inside the piston also helps materially to cool the same, while the heat from the piston aids in better vaporization of the gas before its transfer to the firing chamber. The only objection to this type of motor is the additional height made necessary by the cross-head and connecting rod below the cylinder level. In stationary or marine use this is no serious objection, but for vehicle use it would necessitate a very high engine hood or small clearance beneath the shaft. Several makers of two-port motors have also resorted to placing a throttle valve in the by-pass as shown in Fig. 1 6 (r), and while the speed and power of a motor so equipped may be controlled to some extent by this arrangement, yet as a rule I have found them rather unsatisfactory. A throttle on the fuel-mixing apparatus is far more reliable and easier to adjust. Some motors are also manufactured with a fourth, or air, port, and wonderful results are claimed for this type of motor. Undoubtedly it possesses many good points, but as a rule the fewer ports there are the more reliable the engine. To obtain the best results each port must be accurately designed and finished, and in a small engine the varia- tion of a small fraction of an inch in the size of one or more ports will make a wonderful difference in the 44 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 16. Motor with Throttle in By-pass THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 45 power and operation of the motor. Moreover, the first part of a motor that wears loose is generally the piston or the connecting rod between the piston and crank shaft. As a slight wear here causes the piston to have considerable play up and down in the cylinder, it will be easily seen that the variation in the amount of opening of each port during operation is considerable. With every port added this variation, due to looseness, increases the resulting variation of the amount of fuel admitted to the cylinder, and as the amount of play varies quite a little according to the load of the engine and its speed, it is very difficult to adjust a motor thus worn. In fact the results from a three- or four-port motor with a loose piston or connecting rod are almost as great as if the ports were rapidly but unevenly opened and closed by hand. Any one can thus readily under- stand why a strictly two-port motor will run more satisfactorily when old or badly worn than a three- or four-port engine. Probably the most reliable and efficient two-cycle motor yet produced is the Elmore, which is used in the well-known Elmore automobiles. This motor, which is illustrated in Fig. 17, is entirely distinct from most other two-cycle motors and in its construction and operation it overcomes most of the objectionable features of the two-cycle engine. The figure is purely diagrammatic and represents a section of one of the four cylinders and a portion of the base cut away. The piston of the Elmore motor differs materially from that of other motors, inasmuch as the lower half or base is much greater in diameter than the piston proper (Fig. 46 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 17. Elmore Motor THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 47 iy-4). The up-and-down motion of this large half of the piston acts as a gas pump and alternately draws in gas to fill the lower half of cylinder or base, H, and forces it out under considerable pressure. When the slightly compressed gas is driven out of the base it does not at once find its way up through a by-pass and port into the same cylinder as in the ordinary motor, but, through the agency of a gas " distributor," is introduced to the firing chamber of another cylinder. This " distributor," which is the essential portion of the Elmore motor, con- sists of a revolving cylinder B almost surrounded by another cylinder C. The chambers thus formed are provided with long ports running lengthwise; those of one chamber opening on one side of the distributor D and those of the other chamber opening on the opposite side E. In operation the distributor is revolved within its casing by a silent driving chain from the crank shaft, each end being supported by spindles and ball bearings. In action each lower half of a cylinder receives gas drawn through the outer chamber of the distributor. This gas under low compression is then returned to the inner chamber of the distributor, from which it is led into the firing chamber of the cylinder whose piston is just commencing the ascending or compression stroke. Compression and explosion then follow exactly as in any other engine, and the operation is repeated in each cylinder in proper order, thus giving four explosions or impulses to the crank shaft with cranks set at po-degree angles. It must be borne in mind that the chambers of the distributor do not extend through its entire length. The 48 GASOLENE ENGINES inner chamber B is divided at its centre, thus dividing the distributor into two equal parts. These two parts are connected by means of a by-pass F which is opened or closed by the operation of the throttle G. Until the throttle is opened half-way the two halves of the dis- tributor operate independently, with the result that the cylinders work in pairs. When the throttle is half- opened the central control automatically opens and the power of the motor is then at once increased through all four cylinders operating alternately. This Elmore motor, although apparently complicated, is in reality far simpler and has less parts than the ordinary four-cycle engine. Although advertised as a "valveless" motor, it is not strictly a valveless engine, for the " distributor " is actually a sort of rotary valve. The motor may therefore be considered a rotary-valve two-cycle motor. There is no doubt of the high efficiency of this engine, and its design and construction mark a great advance in two-cycle engines. The loss of base compression, unequal distribution of gas, loss or waste of fuel, and various other defects of the ordinary two- cycle engine are entirely overcome in the Elmore, and its flexibility, power, reliability, and economy of fuel are fully equal to many, if not all, six-cylinder, four-cycle motors of equal rating. In comparison with four- cylinder, four-cycle motors of the ordinary type, the Elmore is far ahead. The trouble and difficulties expe- rienced with poppet-valve, four-cycle motors is absent in the present motor, but the revolving distributor, chains, numerous rotating ports of the distributor, and the various other parts must be perfectly timed and THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 49 free from any lost motion or undue wear to work satis- factorily. These various parts of the rotating mechanism render the motor far more complicated than the regular two-cycle machine and it is therefore doubtful if this type of motor is so well adapted to the ordinary needs of the gasolene-engine user as either the regular two- or four- cycle engine. As a vehicle motor it is most efficient, and for this purpose for which it was designed the rotary distributor is no objection. For small boat or stationary use, however, the simplest engine is the best, and motors for this purpose should be selected which can be readily repaired, adjusted, or taken down and cleaned by inexperienced hands. Two-cycle motors, as well as those of the four-cycle type, are usually made in either one, two, three, four, or, six cylinders. The operation of a multiple-cylinder, two- cycle engine is practically the same as in a single-cylinder, but certain parts are slightly different in construction and design. In a two-cylinder motor the piston of one cylinder is on the downward stroke while that of the other is on the upward stroke, or, in other words, the cranks of the shaft are set opposite one another or at an angle of 180 degrees (Fig. 18). In a three-cylinder motor the cranks are set at 120 degrees (Fig. 19), while in a four-cylinder motor the cranks may be set at 90 degrees (Fig. 20 A), or at 180 degrees as shown in Fig. 20 B, C. Three-cylinder motors have some advantages over the two- or four-cylinder machines, but they are more difficult to time correctly and either two- or four-cylinder engines are more widely used. 4 50 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 1 8. Two-throw Crank Fig. 19. Three-throw Crank Fig. 2oA. Fig. 206. 20C. Fig. 20A-B-C. Four-throw Crank THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 51 A multiple-cylinder motor will not deliver as much power in proportion as the same number of cylinders in separate motors, but on the other hand they run far more steadily and with less vibration than the single- cylinder engine. Moreover, they are easier to control and if one or more cylinders fail to work the engine will Fig. 2 1 . Cylinders en bloc usually operate on the remainder, and while in action the faulty cylinders may be adjusted until all are in running order. Few multiple-cylinder engines will carry a full load when any of the cylinders fail; and as a rule such engines, as well as all but the smaller single- cylinder motors, should be provided with a clutch, or gear, so that they can be run free from a load when so desired. Multiple-cylinder motors have numerous disadvan- 52 GASOLENE ENGINES tages, especially for the person unfamiliar with explosive engines or other machinery; their parts are far more numerous than in the single-cylinder motor; they are harder to " crank" or turn over, and if any adjustment or regulation is wrong it is far more difficult to locate the trouble. In case of a serious trouble or breakage Fig. 22. Separate Cylinders on Solid Base a multiple-cylinder motor is more difficult to take down than an engine of one cylinder, and in many makes the entire machine must be taken apart in order to reach a break or injury in any one of the cylinders or its parts. Multiple-cylinder engines of the two-cycle type are made either "en bloc" with the several cylinders in one casting (Fig. 21), or are built up of several separate cylinders bolted to a single bed plate or base (Fig. 22). Each of these systems has its advantages, for while the solid casting results in a more compact and stronger THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 53 engine, the built-up motor is easier to take apart and repair. For vehicle use and marine work, where considerable power is required, multiple-cylinder motors are almost universally used, but for stationary work, except where great power is necessary, single-cylinder engines give satisfactory results. In estimating the power of motors with several cyl- inders the formulae already given may be used, but the square of the bore times the length of stroke should be multiplied by the number of cylinders before multiplying by the number of revolutions; for example, to find the D.H.P. of a three-cylinder motor of 4-in. bore and 4-in. stroke operating at 500 revolutions per minute: 4X4X4 X3X 500 = 96,000 divided by 13,500 = 7^ D.H.P. It must be borne in mind that these figures are merely approximate. The only method for determining the exact power of an engine is by actual test, but the use of formulae helps a great deal in selecting a motor, as it gives the prospective purchaser, or user, a reasonable idea of the power he may expect a motor to deliver under normal conditions when operating at the number of revolutions indicated. CHAPTER III FOUR-CYCLE MOTORS To a person familiar with two-cycle motors the four- cycle engines appear extremely complicated at first. With the number of moving parts reduced to the mini- mum in the former, their operation and care seem easy and their mechanical construction and principle very simple. In the four-cycle motors the parts are greatly increased in number while the moving push rods, cams, gears, and springs make the engine appear a most bewil- dering piece of mechanism. This apparent complication has done much to prevent the adoption of four-cycle motors for light marine and stationary work, for many people seem to think a skilled engineer is necessary to operate one of these motors. In reality a four-cycle engine is very simple if we study it properly, and its care and operation are almost, if not quite, as easy as those of a two-cycle. In fact, a good four-cycle engine requires less personal attention and can be handled more readily when at a distance or out of reach than a two-cycle, as is evident from the facility with which automobile motors are started, stopped, and handled from the driver's seat while the motor is completely out of sight and reach. Four-cycle motors are made in any number of cylinders from one to eight or more; but as the mechanism and operation are identical in each cylinder, a single-cylinder 54 THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 55 machine once understood will render any multiple- cylinder motor intelligible. Four-cycle motors, like the two-cycle engines, consist of a cylinder, piston, base or crank case, connecting rod, shaft, and fly-wheel. In addition to these common parts it also has a number of other moving pieces whose function is to operate the valves. These parts are known collectively as the valve mechanism, and as they seldom require atten- tion their complicity need cause no worry. As in two-cycle motors, there are various styles and vari- ations in four-cycle types. The commonest form in use is known as the poppet-valve or mushroom- valve engine. In this motor the valves for the inlet of the vapor charge and for the outlet of the ex- haust are mushroom-shaped, con- sisting of a rounded or flat disk- like head attached to a cylindrical Fi s- ^.-Tappet Valve shaft or spindle called the valve- stem (Fig. 23). Nine- tenths of the four-cycle motors in use to-day employ this style of valves, and their variation consists mainly in the method employed to operate the valves or in the location of the valves in the cylinder casting. As the valves operate but once for each complete revolution of the crank, it is necessary to attach the valve mechanism to some form of gear with a ratio of two to one, or, in other words, to so reduce the speed of the shaft operating the valves that it makes 56 GASOLENE ENGINES but one revolution to every two revolutions of the motor shaft. This may be accomplished by either cog-wheels, worm-gear, or sprocket-wheels and chain. Practically every form of gear is used by the various makers of four- cycle engines, but the worm- or screw-gear, or the gear- wheels with slanting teeth known as the " helical gear," are the most satisfactory and are now generally used. Fig. 24. Valve Mechanism. Cadillac In the earlier designs, as well as in many modern motors, plain cog-wheels or spur-gears are used. These work very well, but wear faster and are far more noisy than the screw, or helical, forms. In Fig. 24 the valve mecha- nism of a motor using the spur-gear is shown. In 'fne illustration, T represents the cog-wheel attached to the engine shaft, and S a gear of twice the size of T, attached to a separate shaft. Keyed to this shaft is a cam R, THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 57 which turns against the roller Q pivoted in the push- rod P. As the engine shaft revolves in the direction indicated by the arrows, the wheel S revolves at half the speed and in the opposite direction. When the cam R runs against the push-rod P, it pushes it outward against the bell crank 0. This in turn presses the valve stem L upward and lifts the outlet valve H from its seat /, thus allowing the burnt gas to escape. The spring M, acting against the valve foot N, serves to bring the valve firmly on its seat and to cause the push- rod to follow back against the cam. In this motor it will be seen that the inlet valve E is not connected with any valve gear or other mechanism, but is provided with a spring C, which serves to keep it firmly seated. This is known as an automatically operated valve, while the outlet valve is a mechanically operated valve. Many motors are built in this way, for the suction of the piston on the intake stroke is sufficient to act on the inlet valve and cause it to open long enough to admit the proper charge of gas. Although several excellent motors utilize this sys- tem, yet they have many disadvantages. The springs soon lose their strength and liveliness, causing the valve to open slowly or unevenly, or else to open too readily and seat too lightly. In one case the charge admitted is insufficient, while in the other case the com- pressed gases are liable to escape backward into the inlet and cause loss of power and back-firing. Moreover, in case of a leakage around the piston, or in the firing chamber, the suction of the piston may prove unequal to the task of opening the inlet valve far enough or long 58 GASOLENE ENGINES enough to admit a full charge. It is far better to operate both inlet and outlet valves by mechanical means as illustrated in Fig. 25, in which the exhaust valve is 'E ig. 25. Mechanically operated Valves actuated by the push-rod and cam A, attached to the cam-shaft B, and the inlet valve VI is also operated by THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 59 another push-rod D through the cam E, on the same shaft with the exhaust-cam, but set at an angle with it. By this method there is no chance of the inlet valve sticking on its seat or failing to seat and if the cams and gears are set properly a uniform and correct charge will always be admitted to the cylinder at exactly the Fig. 26. "L"-head Cylinder right time. This is a very common and widely used type of four-cycle motor. The exterior form is shown in Fig. 26. It is known as the T-head or L-head type from the shape of the cylinder and valve chamber. More recent still is the valve-in-head type in which the two valves are located in the head of the cylinder instead of in an offset, or separate, chamber. This type (Fig. 27) has many advantages over the T-head type, and is now generally acknowledged to be far more effective and 60 GASOLENE ENGINES economical. The two valves being set in the cylinder head allows the interior to be machined smooth and free from corners, or pockets, where burnt gas might accumulate. The incoming charge also serves to thor- oughly fill the chamber and the outgoing exhausted gas is more thoroughly discharged. The cylinder head and Fig. 27. Valves in Head valve seats, as well as the piston head, are also greatly cooled by the fresh charges of gas, while the arrangement of the valves allows the greatest cubical capacity of the cylinder with the least area of surface. Most of the various makes of poppet-valve motors vary principally in the valve mechanism, style of gear, and other minor details; but motors with rotary and sliding valves have now come into use and in their perfected state give results equal to, or even better than, the best poppet- valve engines. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 61 The Knight Sleeve Valve motor is a comparatively recent invention, but has won its way rapidly to pop- ularity and success by its remarkable performances in several well-known makes of automobiles. In this engine, which is shown in Fig. 28, the piston is surrounded by two cylindrical sleeves, or tubes, one within the other and both between the piston itself and the walls of the cylinder proper. The diagram (Fig. 28) shows a section cut away to show the piston P, the inner sleeve 5, and the outer sleeve O, while C represents the cylinder walls. The two sleeves are connected with connecting rods and eccentrics to the gear shaft, as illustrated in Fig. 29, in which P represents the piston, 5 the inner sleeve, O the outer sleeve, C the cylinder, A and B the connecting rods to the two sleeves, and D the eccentric attached to the gear shaft E. The gear is in the form of a sprocket-wheel E connected with the main shaft by a roller chain F. In the sleeves are openings, or ports, G, H, which are alternately brought opposite the exhaust and inlet ports in the cylinder, I, J. In operation the sleeve O, sliding past the sleeve S, brings the ports G, H opposite one another as well as in line with the inlet port /. This occurs on the downward stroke of the piston and the charge of gas is thus drawn into the cylinder as in Fig. 30. On the upward or compression stroke, the sleeves move to the position shown in Fig. 31, in which the ports G, H, I, J are all out of line and thus closed against the escape of gas from the cylinder. The charge is com- pressed and fired on the limit of this upward stroke as usual and the piston driven downward. Near its lower limit two of the ports are again brought opposite the 62 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 28. Knight Sleeve- valve Motor; Piston and Sleeves THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 63 outlet port and the burnt gas is forced out through the exhaust on the upward return stroke as in Fig. 32. This Knight type of motor is practically noiseless in operation, has little wear, and obviates all trouble with badly fitting or worn valves or weak springs. It also provides Fig. 29. Knight Sleeve-valve Motor; General View an ample and uniformly sized opening for both intake and exhaust of gases, and tests appear to prove that it actually improves in efficiency with age and use. The sliding sleeves must of course create quite an appreciable amount of friction, although it is doubtful if this is much 64 GASOLENE ENGINES greater than the combined friction on the various cams, push-rods, valve stems, springs, and other parts of the poppet-valve motor. Lubrication is very essential to this motor, for if allowed to run dry, or to overheat, the Fig. 30. Knight Sleeve- valve Motor; Section to show Operation friction on the sleeves becomes enormous and severe cutting and extreme wear soon result. Rotary -valve motors are now being made which work excellently; and the Reynolds motor, illustrated in THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 65 Fig. 33, has proven a most practical and reliable engine of this type. The illustration represents a view of the upper portion of the cylinders with the rotary valves A in place in cylinders //, ///, and IV, and removed from Fig. 31. Knight Sleeve- valve Motor; Section to show Operation cylinder /. The valves consist of circular disks A, A, revolving in recesses machined in the cylinder heads R, R, and are provided with openings B, which correspond in shape with openings in the cylinder heads, C, D. The 5 66 GASOLENE ENGINES stems of these disk valves are connected together on top of the cylinders by means of spiral or helical gears E, which are in turn operated by a geared vertical shaft F connected at its lower end with a gear on the engine Fig. 32. Knight Sleeve-valve Motor; Section to show Operation shaft* On the suction stroke the valves are rotated through the action of the gears, and the opening B in a valve moves into line with the corresponding inlet port C, thus allowing a charge of gas to be drawn into the THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 67 ig- 33- Reynolds Rotary Valve Motor. Top of Cylinder and Valve 68 GASOLENE ENGINES cylinder (position IV). On the upward or compression stroke the valve continues in its rotation and covers the inlet port C and permits proper compression of the charge which is fired in the usual manner (position II). After the explosion the piston on its downward stroke revolves the shaft with its connecting gears and thus rotates the valves until the opening B uncovers the exhaust port D, through which the burnt gases are forced by the returning piston (position ///). This motor is too new to judge of its ultimate future or general adoption, but it possesses many advantages over either the poppet- valve or sleeve-valve types, and where it has been used it has given most highly satisfactory results. The exhaust opening being a trifle larger than the inlet, allows a full and perfect scavenging of the burnt gas, while the uniform and accurate opening of the inlet and exhaust ports is fully equal to the same results obtained in the Knight motor. The valves being of bronze form their own bearing surface on the iron of the cylinders, while the constant rotary motion and the fact that they are always firmly seated prevent the formation of carbon deposits. Of course there is some wear of the valves against their seats, but adjustment for taking up this small amount of abrasion is provided. There is comparatively little friction and the valves are provided with ball bearings at the upper end of the stems, while the action of the spiral or helical gears is positive, accurate, and practically noiseless. The shaft gear, vertical valve driving rod, and valve gears are all enclosed, giving the motor a very neat and clean appear- ance, and yet all are readily accessible. Although here- THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 69 tofore used principally as a marine engine, yet there is no reason why the rotary-valve motor should not give equally good results in stationary or vehicle use, and automobiles are now being equipped with this motor which will doubtless prove most successful. Another rotary-valve engine which has recently Fig- 34- Offset Cylinder Motor appeared on the market is the Russell motor manufac- tured by The Silent Valve Co. of America. In this engine the rotating valves are conical in form and through a special arrangement of driving yokes and springs the valves automatically adjust themselves for 70 GASOLENE ENGINES wear or expansion. Doubtless many other designs of rotary- and slide-valve motors will soon appear, for the present tendency of design is to improve upon the old poppet-valve mechanism. For general use, however, it is doubtful if this type of valve can be greatly improved upon. Four-cycle motors vary considerably in design and arrangement of parts with different makers. These motors, as well as those of the two-cycle type, are often made with the cylinders offset (Fig. 34), a system which is supposed to overcome the tendency to a dead centre and which is used to a considerable extent on vehicle motors but has never become general on marine or stationary engines, but is a special feature of the well- known Ferro engines. Motors with the cylinders horizontal and opposed or opposite are also widely used, and this arrangement has many advantages over the vertical-cylinder motors and has been adopted by many makers of marine, vehicle, and stationary engines. These motors are very compact, light, and powerful, and the balanced method of construction gives a mini- mum vibration owing to the impulse from the opposite pistons overcoming the jar and rotary tendency of ordinary motors (Fig. 35). For small vehicles such motors are excellent and in many classes of boats they are far more convenient than the regular vertical engines. Their operation, as well as that of certain " V-shaped" models, is practically the same as in the ordinary four- cycle motor, but in the opposed-cylinder type the two cylinders may be adjusted so that the explosion in the two cylinders occurs alternately, thus giving an impulse THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 71 for every revolution as in a two-cycle motor. Multiple- cylinder, four-cycle motors are made in from two to six or more cylinders, but in the four-cylinder machine Fig- 35- Opposed Cylinder Motor the cranks are set at an angle of 180 degrees and are commonly constructed with the two central cranks close together without a central bearing, or with a very small 72 GASOLENE ENGINES one, thus allowing the two middle cylinders to be more closely placed and saving considerable space (Fig. 20, B, C). This method is possible in a four-cycle motor as the crank case is open and is one continuous chamber from the front to rear cylinder. In the two-cycle motors the crank cases are separate and closed and it is therefore necessary to have each crank separated by a gas-tight bearing on the shaft. The fact that four-cycle, four-cylinder motors have cranks at i8o-degree angles renders such motors more irregular in the pressure exerted on the shaft and causes more vibration than either three- or six-cylinder motors of the same type; and the latter are rapidly taking the place of the four-cylinder engines where silent, steady operation is desired. In addition to the ordinary types and practical forms of both two- and four-cycle motors, many original and remarkable variations in design and construction are fre- quently patented and offered for sale. Such designs are mainly freaks, and while some of them such as the true rotary motor may eventually be perfected and become practical for every-day use, yet at the present time a satisfactory rotary gasolene engine is unknown. Among these freak designs is the type illustrated in Fig. 36. In this engine the explosion is balanced by the motion being transmitted through the levers D, F to the cranks G, while the explosion occurs between the two pistons H, H, thus driving the levers D, D by the connecting rods E, E. While this motor actually works, yet it has no advantage over any other opposed -cylinder motor and has innumerable disadvantages, not the least THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 73 of which is the extra weight of the various moving parts. All these levers, cranks, etc., also add a great deal to the friction, while the loss of power through worn bearings and lost motion more than offsets any possible advan- tages the design may possess. Numerous motors have been designed in which an impulse occurs alternately at opposite ends of a piston, thus giving an explosion for every stroke of the piston. Motors of this design are expensive to construct and the difficulties in properly Fig. 36. Freak "Balanced" Motor cooling and lubricating the connecting and piston rods are very great. In very large sizes such engines are in use, however, and give excellent satisfaction. A detailed description is not necessary, as the operation of these motors is practically identical with single- acting engines, although in some designs the mixture of fuel and air is forced into the compression chamber by the action of a pump cylinder operated by an eccentric or cam. 74 GASOLENE ENGINES Both two-cycle and four-cycle motors are frequently made in horizontal form (see Fig. 37) for stationary use. For such purposes a horizontal engine is often superior to a vertical machine, as it gives a wider, longer, and more stable bed in proportion to the height from floor, and in addition it permits of the use of large and heavy Fig. 37- Horizontal Motor fly-wheels which give steadier running with less vibra- tion and decrease to a minimum the liability of the motor stalling when operating under a heavy load. The operation >f a horizontal engine is in no manner different from that of a vertical motor of the same type, and hence a further description is not necessary. CHAPTER IV PARTS OF TWO-CYCLE MOTOR. PARTS OF FOUR-CYCLE MOTOR. .COOLING METHODS; WATER- AND AIR-COOLED MOTORS. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF MOTOR PARTS; CYLINDERS, PISTONS, PISTON-RINGS, CONNECTING-RODS, CRANK-CASES, JACKETS, SHAFTS, COUNTER'WEIGHTS, BEARINGS, GEARS, CAMS AND VALVES, FLY-WHEELS; ACCESSIBILITY. BY reference to the following figures and explanations of cuts it will be seen that the number of parts in the two- or four-cycle engine is not very great, but as many of the smaller parts, such as the various bolts, screws, nuts, pins, springs, washers, etc., are duplicated many times, the actual number of pieces used in an engine is very large. While the main parts, such as cylinder, shaft, piston, connecting-rod, piston-rings, crank-case, fly-wheel, etc., are identical in either type of motor as far as actual numbers go, and in multiple-cylinder engines are merely duplicated for each cylinder, the four-cycle motor has in addition numerous pieces of mechanism connected with the valve and cam shaft that are wanting in the two-cycle motor. The illustrations represent motors of both the water-cooled and air-cooled jump- spark type. Air-cooled motors have fewer parts owing to the absence of pump, water pipes, check valves, etc. (Fig. 39), while the make-and-break system of ignition requires more parts than the jump spark (see Fig. 40). All gasolene and internal-combustion engines require cooling of some sort to prevent overheating, warping, 75 76 GASOLENE ENGINES PARTS OF TWO-CYCLE MOTOR (Jump Spark, Water-cooled) A, Cylinder 5, Water Jacket C, Piston D, Piston Rings , Piston Pin F, Connecting Rod G, Crank Case or Base H, Bearing Head or End Plate 7, Main Bearings J, Connecting-rod Bearings K, Piston-pin Bushings L, Counterweights M, Oil Duct to Connecting-rod Bearings N, Crank O, Crank Shaft P, Timer Gears Q, Gear Cover 'R, Timer Shaft S, Timer T, Fly-wheel U, Fly-wheel Locknut V, Fly-wheel Key W, Ball Thrust X, Pump Eccentric Y, Pump Plunger Z, Pump Packing Gland PK, Pump Packing PB, Pump Body CV, Check Valves DC, Drain Cock FC, Firing Chamber SP, Spark-plug Hole THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 77 Fig. 38. Parts of Two-cycle Motor Water-cooled, Jump Spark 78 GASOLENE ENGINES PARTS OF FOUR-CYCLE MOTOR (Jump Spark, Air-cooled) A, Cylinder AH, Cylinder Head B, Radiating Flanges C, Piston D, Piston Rings DC, Drip Cock E, Piston Pin F, Connecting Rod FA, Connecting-rod Cap FC, Firing Chamber G, Crank Case GA, Base Plate H, I, Main Bearings J, Connecting-rod Bearings K, Crank Pin LL, Counterweights M, Valve Driving Gear N, Crank O, Crank Shaft P t Timer Gears <2, Valve-gear Shaft R, Timer Shaft S, Timer SP, Spark Plug T, Fly-wheel U, Fly-wheel Locknut V, Fly-wheel Key W, Ball Thrust X, Valve Gear F, Valve Cam Z, Valve Push-rod Roller ZA, Valve Push-rod VE, Exhaust Valve VEF, Exhaust-valve Foot VEG, Exhaust-valve Stem Guide VES, Exhaust-valve Stem VET, Exhaust- valve Spring VI, Inlet Valve VIG, Inlet- valve Stem Guide VIS, Inlet- valve Stem VIT, Inlet- valve Spring IV, Inlet EX, Exhaust THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 79 AH Fig. 39. Parts of Four-cycle Motor Air-cooled, Jump Spark 80 GASOLENE ENGINES EXPLANATION OF FIG. 40 (Parts of Two-cycle Make-and-break System) A, Spark Plug /, Plunger Spring B, Movable Electrode K, Rocker-arm Spring C, Electrode Rocker Arm L, Dog Spring D, Electrode Spindle M, Slide Bar E, Electrode Spindle Bushing N, Slide-bar Guide F, Angular Dog O, Ecccentric and Eccentric Rod G, Trip Adjusting Screw P, Pump H, Plunger Q, Pump Plunger /, Plunger Thimble THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARF Fig. 40. Parts of Make-and-break System 82 GASOLENE ENGINES * and seizing of the cylinders and pistons, and this is accomplished either by means of air forced past the cylinders by a fan or blower, or by water circulated between the cylinder proper and an outer covering known as the water jacket (Fig. 38 B). Air-cooled motors are usually provided with flanges of thin metal cast on the cylinders (Fig. 39), to aid in radiating the heat, and are little used in comparison with water-cooled motors. In marine use the water- cooling system is used invariably, as it is very easy to connect the pump to an outlet and inlet and thus keep fresh, cool water circulating through the jacket while the motor is operating. When used for vehicle or stationary use a radiator or similar cooling system is used, through which the water is forced by the pump, and which, by numerous thin flanges or by thin-walled com- partments of small capacity, tends to radiate heat and thus cool the water. In stationary engines a large tank, or hopper, is usually sufficient to cool the water through exposure of a large surface to the air. A sheet of cloth, wire gauze, or a perforated plate is often used to aid in cooling the water from stationary motors, as the hot water from the engine flowing over this is rapidly cooled by radiation of heat from the large surface exposed to the air. Ignition of either the jump spark or make-and-break spark may be used in gasolene motors and as far as efficiency is concerned there is but little choice; the make-and-break system is electrically simple and mechanically complicated, while the jump-spark sys- tem is just the reverse electrically complicated and THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 83 mechanically simple. Ignition systems will, however, be dealt with in detail in a following chapter and are only mentioned here in connection with the various parts of the motors. The actual value, life, and power of a motor depend almost as much upon the quality of material used and care taken in the construction of its various parts as upon its design and proportions. The cylinders are commonly made of fine-grained cast iron, and after boring to the proper size should be ground to a mirror finish and fitted to within i/iooo of an inch. The piston may vary considerably in shape and proportion with different makes and types of engines, but the general principle of construction is the same, and cast iron is principally used in making them. A perfect-fitting piston is essential to a good motor, for if too loose the compression will be lost, where- as, if too tight, it will bind when hot and score the cyl- inder walls or prevent the motor from operating. It is customary to test all pistons and cylinders by limit gauges; Fig. 41. Piston and Piston , Rings one of these gauges is 1/2000 of an inch oversize, the other the same amount undersize, and if the parts fit the under- size gauge or fail to fit the oversize gauge they should be 84 GASOLENE ENGINES discarded. The piston should not fit the cylinder too snugly, however, for allowance must be made for expan- sion when hot, and in order to allow for this and yet to retain gas under compression, piston rings are provided. These rings are made of cast iron and are turned and faced on a lathe, ground on the sides, and are then cut, clamped together, and ground on the faces. They are made eccentric, thicker on one side than the other, and are cut with a diagonal or lapped joint on the thinner Fig. 42. Piston-pin side. The rings may be two, three, or four in number and are placed in grooves on the piston and are usually pinned in position (Fig. 41). The rings are slightly com- pressed when the piston is inside of the cylinder and their tendency to expand keeps them pressed firmly against the cylinder walls, thus forming a gas-tight joint. The connecting-rod may be either of steel or bronze, and may be either cast or forged. The upper end, which fits inside the piston, is held in place by a hardened pin passing through the piston from one side to the other and known as the piston pin (Fig. 42). There are various methods of fastening this pin in place, but set-screws within the piston (Fig. 43, 5) are perhaps the most satisfactory. Some makers bush the pin where it fits the piston walls and fasten the connecting-rod to the pin (Fig. 44), while others fasten the pin to the piston and provide a bearing surface for the connecting-rod THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 85 head by placing a bronze bushing between the pin and connecting-rod (Fig. 45). The latter system is preferable as it obviates any danger of the pin working endwise and scoring the cylinder walls. The lower end of the connecting-rod is split, or cut, through the centre of the hole bored for the crank shaft, and a babbitt, or bronze, bearing fitted in place and the two parts clamped together around the crank shaft. There are various methods of fastening the bottom cap to the rod proper, Fig. 43. Piston-pin held by Set-screws but a hinge on one side and cap-screw with double nuts on the other is widely used (Fig. 46). Other makers used a loose cap held to the rod by screws on either side, and while this method allows of finer adjustment, it is not so convenient as the hinged cap (Fig. 47). Crank cases may be cast from iron, steel, aluminum or other metal, and may be made either solid, with one end removable (Fig. 48) ; with split base (Fig. 49) ; with both 86 GASOLENE ENGINES bearings or end plates separate (Fig. 50) ; or the upper portion of crank case and cylinder may be cast in one piece with a separate cylinder head held in place by bolts (Fig. 51); or a combination of two or more of the above Fig. 44. Piston-pin bushed in Piston Fig. 45. Piston-pin bushed in Connecting-rod may be used. In either case all joints should be turned and faced true and smooth and thin gaskets of paper, or similar packing, placed between the ground surfaces. Fig. 46. Connecting-rod with Hinged Cap Crank cases are commonly furnished with hand-hole plates on the sides (Figs. 50, 51, H), and these should be of ample size to permit tightening or adjusting the THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 87 connecting-rod bearing without taking down the motor; many motors are made in which the hand-hole plates are so small that they are absolutely useless. Of course, Fig. 47. Connecting-rod with Bolted Cap in four-cycle motors, the base being open and the entire side plates removable, there is no trouble in getting at the crank shaft. In small-sized motors it is often easier to remove the Fig. 48. Base with One End Removable cylinder to reach the piston and crank shaft than to attempt working through a hand-hole in the base, but in large-powered and heavy motors the hand-holes are SO GASOLENE ENGINES preferable, and in this class of engines removable cylinder heads are a great convenience as they permit the piston being withdrawn through the cylinder by simply removing the head and disconnecting the con- necting-rod from the shaft through the hand-hole plates. Fig. 49. Split Base Water jackets are usually cast integral with the cylinders (Fig. 38), but in a number of light-weight motors especially those for vehicle use the jacket is formed from spun copper or similar material and is clamped over the cylinder, leaving a space between the two THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE (Fig. 52). This method is very satisfactory where fresh water is used for cooling, but for salt-water use it is not advisable, as the salts in the sea- water set up galvanic action between the copper jacket and the iron cylinder Fig. 50. Both Ends of Base Removable and this soon eats away the cylinder and causes rapid corrosion. Crank shafts are perhaps too often neglected in the smaller and cheaper motors, and even in many of the 90 GASOLENE ENGINES larger sizes they are not given as much care and attention as they should have. Crank shafts bear all the strain and pressure of the explosive impulses and serve to o ^v ^ f T Fig. 51. Cylinder with Separate Head transmit all the power to the machinery; they should therefore be designed with a large excess of strength and should be forged from the highest grade of steel. Open- THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 91 hearth .35 to .45 carbon steel is excellent material, and after forging into shape it should be annealed, which relieves the strain from forging and renders the steel tough and strong. They should then be machined to Fig. 52. Water Jacket Clamped On within 3/1000 of an inch in size, and finally ground to a mirror finish, where the bearings are to fit. Many otherwise good motors have cranks without counter- balances, but these are most essential to single-cylinder 92 GASOLENE ENGINES motors if smooth running and lack of vibration are desired. There are many methods of fastening counter- weights to crank shafts, some of which are shown in Fig. 53. Malleable-iron weights fitted to the crank and dowelled and riveted answer very well and are widely used (Fig. 54). This is the method adopted by the Gray Motor Co. Bearings are most important parts of a motor, and various materials are used by different makers. Babbitt, bronze, white-bronze, and various Fig- 53- Methods of Fastening Counterweights special alloys are utilized, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. Babbitt is excellent, if of very high grade, but will melt and cut badly if improperly lubri- cated or overheated. Bronze will wear well and will stand considerable heat, but will cut and injure the shaft or other moving parts if allowed to run dry or wear loose. Whatever material is used, the fit should be perfect and the bearings so constructed that they are easily remov- able and interchangeable. The Gray Motor Co. uses a very high grade special babbitt, and the main bearings are very long and so constructed that they are removable THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 93 and interchangeable in a few moments (Fig. 55). In a two-cycle motor the size and length of the main bearings are very important, for if worn or loose the crank com- pression will be lost and the motor's efficiency destroyed. Gears, timer parts, and all water connections on marine Fig. 54. "Gray" Counter Weights motors should be of bronze, or similar metal, to prevent rust and corrosion ; and if quiet-running gears are desired they should either be made in pressure die moulds from bearing metal or should be made with fibre or rawhide inserts or with slanting or helical teeth (Fig. 33). The particular kind of gears used depends largely upon the 94 GASOLENE ENGINES experience and personal choice of the manufacturer. Some use one kind and some another, but iron or steel gears are to be avoided as far as possible unless of the worm or helical type, for bevel or spur gears of these metals are invariably noisy and wear rapidly. The bearing-metal gears used in the " American motors" run very quietly and give excellent results. These gears are cast in special moulds and are formed under several tons' pressure. Other makers obtain equally good Fig- 55. "Gray" Removable Bearings results by using fibre inserts in the teeth, or by taking great care in cutting all gears on special machines which insure the utmost accuracy. Cams for operating the valve mechanism of four-cycle motors should be of case-hardened steel, and the same metal should be employed wherever severe friction or continual pounding occurs, as on push-rods, valve-stem feet, rocker arms, etc. Valves are made of various materials, but the best forms are those forged from high- grade nickel steel. Cast-iron valves with steel stems riveted in place were formerly used, but it well repays THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 95 any motor-owner to replace all such valves with new ones forged from the best quality steel. Accessibility in a motor is a very important matter and one that is all too often overlooked. Many motors of excellent design and most careful construction are so assembled that in order to get at some small minor part it is necessary to take down the entire motor. Of course it is practically impossible to build a motor in which every part can be removed without disturbing some other part, but the nearer one can come to this ideal condition the better. Cylinders should be removable without disturbing the base or shaft, and all piping and water connections should be so arranged that they can be easily removed or disconnected without disturbing the rest of the motor. In this connection the fly-wheel is of considerable importance, and in many motors this is very difficult to remove, although, in order to reach the gears or pump eccentric, it is necessary to remove it. Wheels that are fitted to a straight shaft and keyed in place often rust fast to the shaft and are almost as solid as if a part of it. While it is absolutely necessary to have the fly-wheel tight, to avoid vibration and pounding, yet it should be fastened in such a way that it can be taken off without special tools or machinery. Several makers use a tapered end to the shaft fitted in a tapered hole in the fly-wheel. The wheel is forced on the taper by a large nut and is prevented from slipping by a key (Fig. 56). Such wheels are usually easy to remove, but a still better plan is to use a bushing of bronze between the shaft and the wheel, as this prevents the iron wheel from rusting to the steel shaft (Fig. 57). 96 GASOLENE ENGINES Fig. 56. Tapered Fly-wheel Shaft with Key Fig. 57. Tapered Fly-wheel Shaft Bushed Fig. 58. Tapered Fly-wheel Shaft with Releasing Nut THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 97 Still another method which renders the wheel easy to remove is illustrated in Fig. 58. This consists of a tapered shaft with shoulder A, which is threaded and provided with a nut B. The wheel is forced up on the taper and shoulder as in the ordinary tapered shaft and the nut B is then set up against it. When the wheel is to be taken off the forward lock-nut C is removed, and by turning the rear nut B against the wheel the latter is easily forced off the shaft. This idea is original with the author and has been employed on several motors with great success. Even with a straight shaft and key the rear nut will force the wheel from the shaft unless very badly corroded. CHAPTER V MOTOR ACCESSORIES VAPORIZERS CARBURETORS COOLING SYS- TEMS FANS AND PUMPS CIRCULATING DEVICES LUBRICA- TION GRAVITY AND FORCE-FEED OILERS GREASE CUPS OILING SYSTEMS. ALL attachments and parts of a gasolene engine, not actually a part of the motor itself, may be classed under the general head of Accessories, for while these various devices may outnumber the parts of the motor and the latter may be incapable of operating without them, yet they are seldom manufactured by the motor manufac- turers and often are of equal importance and of greater value than the bare engine. In fact a motor without accessories is no better than so much old metal, as far as use is concerned. Nevertheless, many owners or operators of gasolene motors who are very careful to purchase or use the best motor that money can buy are very careless or indifferent where the attachments or accessories are concerned. In reality most failures of gasolene motors to give satisfaction are due to faulty or poorly constructed or obsolete accessories. The best motor in the world will not operate properly with poor ignition or poor vaporizing devices, whereas a poor motor will often work fairly well if furnished high-class ignition and fuel-mixing apparatus. Every gasolene motor must be supplied with some sort of device for furnishing the explosive gas and for so combining the air and fuel as to 98 THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 99 form the proper mixture or "gas" to give the greatest possible explosive force without waste of fuel. Such devices are known as mixers, carburetors, or vaporizers, and they may be roughly divided into three groups: Vaporizers, Float-feed Carburetors, and Me- chanically operated Mixers. Gasolene, benzine, kero- sene, alcohol, or any other liquid fuel must be vaporized or transformed into an explosive gas by mixing with air Fig- 59' Vaporizer before it can be utilized as a fuel for internal-combustion engines. The function of either mixers, carburetors, or vaporizers is to create a mixture of gasolene or other fuel with the air in such proportions as to give the highest efficiency. Vaporizers as a rule are cheaper and simpler than carburetors and are not nearly as satisfactory. A common form is illustrated in Fig. 59. In this cut A 100 GASOLENE ENGINES represents the inlet to motor; B, the gasolene supply pipe or inlet; C, the air intake; D, the needle valve; and E, the check valve. The gasolene flows through the opening of the needle valve D and the amount admitted to the motor is varied by screwing the valve up or down. While the check valve E is held on its seat by the spring F, the opening of the needle valve is closed and no gasolene flows through. As soon as the motor commences to operate the suction through the inlet A draws air through the inlet C and this suction raises the check valve from its seat, allowing a small jet of gasolene to run into the vaporizer. This gasolene is mixed with the air as it rushes through from C to A and passes into the motor in the form of a vapor or fine spray. By varying the adjustment of the needle valve D and the lift of the check valve E, the proportion of gasolene to air can be varied to suit the speed or condition of the motor. In theory this system is excellent, but in actual operation it often proves faulty. The best form of fuel mixer is undoubtedly the float- feed carburetor. A number of makes of these carbu- retors are on the market and each has its own good points and advantages. The operation of all is very similar and if one is thoroughly understood the others are easily mastered. A form in common use and which invariably gives most satisfactory results is known as the "Scheb- ler." This carburetor is made in several forms and types, varying in the arrangement of air and gasolene supply and regulating devices, but the simpler form known as "Model D" is as satisfactory for general use as any and is far easier to understand than the more complicated THEIR OPERATION, USE, ' A&D GARS' iOi models. This carburetor is illustrated in Fig. 60, in which R represents the inlet to motor; G, the gasolene pipe inlet; A-C t the air intake; D-E, the needle valve; O, the automatic air valve; F, the float; and H, the float valve. The flow of gasolene fills the float chamber B until the float F rises upward and shuts off the supply MODEL "D" Fig. 60. Schebler Carburetor by the float valve H. As long as the motor is inactive this level remains constant and no gasolene passes into the motor. As soon as the piston moves on the suction, or intake, stroke a current of air is drawn through C and across the opening of the needle valve towards the motor 162 'GASOLE'NE ENGINES inlet R. This draught of air sucks a small quantity of gasolene from the opening of the needle valve and this, gathering upon the walls of the air passage, rapidly evaporates and is readily combined with the inrushing air and converted into an almost dry gas or vapor. The small amount of gasolene drawn from the full chamber is at once replaced by the automatic action of the float and float valve. The proportion of air to gasolene is easily and accurately regulated by means of the needle valve and air valve, D and O. It is usual to regulate the supply for the motor while running at medium speed and then by speeding up and slowing down so adjust the automatic air valve 0, by means of the thumb nut W, that the best results are obtained at all speeds. The function of the check valve which is attached between carburetor and engine is merely to prevent the vapor in motor base from rushing back through the carburetor instead of upward through the by-pass to the firing chamber. It is therefore only necessary on two-port, two-cycle motors, for in the three- port type the piston itself acts as a check valve, while in four-cycle motors the mechanically, or spring, actuated intake valve prevents any backward pressure of the gases. This carburetor, as well as those of other makes and most vaporizers, is also provided with a throttle valve K, operated by a lever P, and which shuts off all or a portion of the gas entering the chamber of the motor by closing the opening R. This lever may be so adjusted by the set-screw 5 that the throttle cannot be com- pletely closed, but will serve to feed just the right THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 103 amount of vapor to operate the motor at the slowest possible speed. Another excellent carburetor of the float-feed type is the "Krice" illustrated in Fig. 61. In this carburetor C is the motor connection, D the cylindrical throttle; E the annular gasolene openings; F the gasolene level K Fig. 61. Krice Carburetor and float; G the gasolene bowl; K the needle-valve adjustment; L the throttle lever; M the air intake; R the inlet valve operated by the float; T the gasolene connection; U the needle valve; and V the drain cock. The advantages claimed for this carburetor are that the gasolene, instead of being drawn from the needle-valve opening direct, is drawn through a narrow slit or open- ing nearly three inches in circumference and i/ioo of an inch wide and is vaporized within the chamber H, thus 104 GASOLENE ENGINES producing more rapid evaporation and drier gas. The throttle D is also novel, being semi-cylindrical in form, and not only acts as a throttle, but also as an air adjust- ment for varying speeds of the motor. Still another excellent type of float-feed carburetor Fig. 62. Kingston Carburetor is the " Kings ton" illustrated in Fig. 62. This car- buretor acts on the same general principle as those already described, but has five supplemental air-suppl} inlets which are automatically opened and closed by bronze balls M, which float within the retainers N at high speeds, but close against their seats at slow speed, thus doing away with the more uncertain spring action of other automatic air- regulating devices. As a rule THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 105 the simpler and more positive the better in carburetor design, for a slight derangement in any part will result in variation of mixture and loss of power or stoppage of the motor. A form of mechanically operated mixer is shown in Fig. 63, which represents the mixer used on the Cadillac i K r J v ^G \ A r-sr Fig. 63. Mechanical Mixing Valve (Cadillac) single-cylinder automobiles. In this cut, A represents the inlet to the motor; B the gasolene inlet; C, the air intake; D, the needle valve; E, the diaphragm; F, the valve seat; G, the adjusting screw; H, the mixer binder; /, the needle-valve spring; /, the binder screw; and K, the adjusting-screw binder. In operation the air, drawn inward by the suction stroke of the cylinder, causes the diaphragm E with the needle valve attached 106 GASOLENE ENGINES to lift from the valve seat and thus permit a small quan- tity of gasolene to escape and mix with the inrushing air. The screw G bears upon a spring H which presses upon the top of the needle- valve stem, and this spring and screw are adjustable by means of the binder H and screw / so that the spring exerts greater or less pressure upon the needle valve and thus allows it to raise higher or lower according to the requirements of more or less gaso- lene. When correctly adjusted this mixer gives excellent results, but the adjustments must vary with climatic variations and the conical head of the needle valve and its seat become rapidly worn and often permit too much gasolene to enter the chamber. The carburetor of a motor is its most delicate piece of mechanism and has been aptly called the "Heart of the Gas Engine." It should never be tampered with until everything else has been looked over in case of trouble, for it is often the work of several hours to readjust a carburetor correctly. It is a very common fault of many operators to continually fool with the carburetor or even to use it to turn off the supply of gasolene by screwing the needle valve onto its seat. This is a practice that cannot be too strongly condemned. Turning the needle valve against its seat injures both valve and seat and it is practically impossible to adjust it once it be- comes rough, burred, or bent. A regular cut-off valve or cock should be placed in the pipe line outside the car- buretor, and this should always be used for shutting off the fuel supply when the motor is not in use. A great deal of trouble with carburetors is caused by water, or particles of dirt, getting in the gasolene and finding THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 107 its way into the needle valve. A gasolene-strainer should be placed between the fuel tank and carburetor, but even this will not always prevent foreign matter from working into the valve. Practically all float-feed carburetors have a drain cock at the bottom of the cham- ber, and this should be frequently opened after the motor has stood idle for some time and the gasolene allowed to run off. If the gasolene thus drained is caught in a glass bottle or similar vessel you will be surprised to find how much water or dirt frequently drains off. On multiple-cylinder motors it is often customary to use a single carburetor with the intake pipe or manifold attached to the several cylinders. This system often works to perfection, but in other cases a separate car- buretor attached to each cylinder proves far more satis- factory. Frequently on two-cycle, two-port motors apparent carburetor trouble is due to the check- valve spring being either too weak or too stiff. It usually pays to have several springs of varying strengths on hand and by experimenting with these excellent results may often be obtained when it is impossible to get satis- factory operation through carburetor adjustments alone. A very important part of the motor is the cooling system. In the case of air-cooled motors a simple fan driving the cool air across the motor is all that is required, and this is so simple and so easily watched that any tendency to overheat can be easily attended to. In the case of water-cooled motors the system is far more complicated, and overheating may be caused by some portion of the cooling system failing to operate where it is very difficult to locate it. A very simple system of 108 GASOLENE ENGINES water-cooling used in many stationary motors, and in some vehicle motors, depends upon the well-known fact that hot water rises, and by placing a hopper, or radiator, at an elevation slightly higher than the motor === _ _ Fig. 64. Plunger Pump and connecting it to the water jacket the water con- tinually flows through the motor about the cylinder. This system does not prove very satisfactory with two- cycle motors, as in this type of engine the explosion at every revolution tends to heat the cylinder walls far THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 109 faster than in the four-cycle motors where an explosion only occurs at every other revolution, thus allowing the motor to cool off appreciably between the explosions. Usually a pump of some sort is used to force the water through the jacket and around the cylinders. This pump may be either of the plunger type (Fig. 64), of the gear type, or of the true rotary type. The plunger type of pump is very satisfactory where clear water is Fig. 65. Rotary Pump used, but in marine use it frequently becomes clogged by bits of seaweed, shells, gravel, or other matter becom- ing wedged between the check valves (Fig. 64, A, A) and their seats. This is readily removed by unscrewing the check- valve caps (Fig. 64, B, B). In addition to this trouble the plunger pump is usually noisy and requires packing around the plunger (Fig. 64, C, C) in order to keep the pump from sucking air. Even when the plunger packing is as tight as it 110 GASOLENE ENGINES can be made without offering great resistance, there is apt to be quite a little leakage of water which is ex- tremely objectionable. In vehicle use the imprac- ticability of keeping this type of pump tight has led to the almost universal adoption of some form of rotary pump. The true rotary pump is a very simple affair and may be driven by belt, cog-wheel, sprocket-and-chain ; or by similar mechanical means; it has the advantage of operating noiselessly and, moreover, can be placed at Fig. 66. "Lobee" Gear Pump some distance from the engine or where most con- venient. A common form of this pump is shown in Fig. 65, but the shape of the paddles or interior fans varies with different makes. This style of pump cir- culates a large quantity of water at low pressure, and where a longer pipe line is used or where there is danger of dirt or other matter partially clogging the circulating system the gear pump is preferable. The Lobee gear pumps are typical of this class of circulating pumps, and one of these is illustrated in Fig. 66. These pumps may be driven in either direction, but the water will THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 111 always flow in the direction of revolution as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 67, A, B. For this reason a check valve should be placed between the engine and pump when a motor is frequently reversed, for otherwise air may be drawn into the intake pipe and an air-lock formed which will prevent the pump from working satis- factorily until the air is forced out and the pump primed, Fig. 67. Flow of Water in Gear Pump by pouring or forcing water through it and the pipes. Marine engines should always be provided with two check valves on the water pipe, one between pump and intake in boat and the other between the pump and water jacket (Fig. 38, CV). These prevent the water from flowing back from the cylinder through the pump, thus causing air in the pipes, and also prevent the boat 112 GASOLENE ENGINES PLUG FOR DRAINING' WATER CHANNELS \t* Fig. 68. "Ferro" Water Circulation System THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 113 from flooding if the pump, engine, or pipes are below water line. With a rotary pump it is a good plan to have a cock or valve at the pump, or close to it, as in this way the pump can be primed, or oiled, through the cock without trouble. Both plunger and rotary or gear pumps should also be provided with a drain cock at the lowest point, from which all water may be drawn in cold weather to prevent freezing, and there should be Fig. 68 a. "Ferro" Water Circulating System a test cock between pump and engine so that by merely opening this the operator may readily ascertain if the pump is operating properly. The water-cooling system in the Ferro engines (illus- trated in Fig. 68) is unique and is well worthy of con- sideration. In these motors there is no exposed piping or connections as the water from the intake is pumped directly into the water jacket by means of a plunger pump directly connected to the shaft. In the illustra- tions the system of circulation as well as the simplicity of the pump are plainly shown. After leaving the pump 8 114 GASOLENE ENGINES the water is forced through a channel in the crank case and hence up to the jacket. Entering the water jacket the water divides and passes up on both sides of the exhaust port and then up and around the cylinder to the cylinder head, from which it passes into the exhaust manifold. It can then be piped either directly to a tank, to the outboard connection, or can be led into the exhaust pipe. At the lowest point in the water channel in the crank case there is a drain cock from which all water may be drained from the cylinder. Almost as important as the vaporizing system is the lubrication equipment, for if allowed to run dry, or with too little oil, a gasolene motor will at once heat up and will soon be ruined beyond repair. If fed too much oil, carbon will accumulate in the cylinder, on the piston and valves, and will even choke up the muffler and exhaust, besides causing a disagreeable odor and excess of bluish smoke. Lubricators or oilers may be divided into three groups: gravity oilers, force-feed oilers, and grease cups. Gravity oilers consist of a tank or other receptacle to hold the oil, with pipes running to the various points of the motor requiring lubrication. They operate by the oil dripping through from the reservoir by gravity, and in order to aid in their opera- tion a small ball check is usually placed at the top of the oil pipes. This class of oilers is in general use and they may consist of either a large tank from which numerous pipes lead, or may be merely independent oil cups. Several makers now have glass-bodied oil cups with several feeds, as illustrated in Fig. 69. For small or single-cylinder motors these oilers answer all require- THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 115 ments, but they require frequent refilling and the best of them are apt to leak oil and become greasy and dirty. Force-feed oilers are very different in principle and construction; they consist of a tank or receptacle for the oil, within which is a compact oil pump operated by a lever, pulley-wheel, or gears connected to the engine, and this pump forces the oil through the pipes to the proper points. As the pump will force the oil against high pressure there is no danger of the pipes becoming clogged or the oil failing to reach the bearing surfaces. On some portion of the oiler there are small tubes, enclosed by glass, through which the oil is forced in drops in exactly the quantity that it is fed to the engine. This acts as a sight feed, and by means of plungers, or screw adjustments, the flow of oil to any or all pipes may be regu- lated to feed the proper amount. On large-size, mul- tiple-cylinder, vehicle motors or any motor that operates for some time without continual observa- tion, the force-feed system is a necessity, and although the first cost is more than for the gravity oilers the results are fully worth the additional outlay. An excellent type of this class of oilers is manufactured by the Detroit Lubricator Co. (Fig. 70), while those of the Osgood Fig. 69. Multiple-feed Oiler 116 GASOLENE ENGINES Lubricator Co. are illustrated in Fig. 71. Grease cups are used on bearings, shafts, and smiliar places, and consist of a cup which is filled with grease that can be forced onto the bearings by means of a plug, or plunger, screwed into the cup (Fig. 75). For marine and sta- tionary work these grease cups answer very well, but if the motor is provided with a force-feed lubricator or Fig. 70. "Detroit" Force-feed Lubricator a tank gravity-feed oiler it is better to oil the bearings by the regular lubricator pipes. The principal points for lubrication are the piston, piston-pin, connecting- rod bearing, main bearings, and, in four-cycle motors, the gears, cams, and push-rods. The proper amount of oil to be fed depends largely upon the size and speed of the engine and its age and care. A new motor will require more oil than one which has been operated for some time, while an engine that has become badly worn, and loses compression, may often THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 117 6cCTIONAL VlEW Fig. 71. "Osgood" Force-feed Lubricator 118 GASOLENE ENGINES be made to operate far better by feeding an excess of oil which serves to fill the leaks around piston rings and bearings and thus hold compression. Usually from six to fifteen drops per minute is sufficient for a well-cared-for motor. Another method of lubrication that has many advantages consists of oiling the motor through the gasolene. To accomplish this, oil should be added to the gasolene in the proportion of one pint of oil to five to eight gallons of gasolene. The oil and gasolene must be thoroughly mixed and this may be accomplished either by stirring them together before placing in the tank or by pouring both together through a funnel with a strainer. Another method is to mix the oil with a small quantity about a gallon of the gasolene and then add this to that in the tank. The oil thus mixed is held in suspension in the gasolene in minute globules, and passes with the gasolene through the carburetor. Within the motor the gasolene is vaporized, while the oil is deposited over all parts of the interior of the motor, thus lubricating it very thoroughly. This method gives excellent results but has numerous disad- vantages. If one has a private gasolene supply where the oil may be properly mixed in known proportions there is little trouble, but if you purchase oil or gasolene here, there, and everywhere as is necessary when on a cruise with a boat or on a long automobile trip it is next to impossible to get the proper proportions every time; either too much or too little oil is sure to result under such conditions, and in addition it is considerable trouble to stop and mix the oil and gasolene every time the tank is refilled. Moreover, the oil passing THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 119 through the carburetor has a tendency to keep the carburetor oily and accumulate dirt, while oftentimes the oil becomes gummy and hard from cold weather, or from the cold generated by evaporation on the carburetor, and the latter then becomes clogged and fails to operate properly. In four-cycle engines the oil often accumulates on the valve stems and causes them to stick, or is forced into the exhaust pipe and muffler, causing clogging and soot. The most difficult parts of a motor to lubricate suc- cessfully are the piston-pin and crank-shaft bearing of the connecting rod, and this is accomplished in various ways. A common and good method is to have a hole bored through the piston-pin and another through the connect- ing rod connecting with the former. The oil, fed into the cylinder, lubricates the piston and also enters the hole in the piston-pin and, after lubricating the bearing at the head of connecting rod, finds its way down to the crank shaft. This method is excellent on small to medium-sized engines and is well shown in Figs. 38, M ; 43 and 44, O; and in Fig. 74. To lubricate the crank-shaft bearings still more effectively a splash system is used in many motors in which a quantity of oil is kept in the bottom of the crank case and into which the connecting-rod cap and crank shaft dips at each revolution, thus splashing the oil about and lubricating the various internal parts. Practically all two-cycle motors lubricate more or less on this principle, for there is always an excess of oil accumu- lating in the base into which the crank dips. To more evenly distribute the oil in the base a system of oil rings 120 GASOLENE ENGINES is often used by the best makers of gasolene motors and has been adopted on the majority of good motors. This method consists of rings attached to the crank shaft and to which oil is fed through the base or otherwise The centrifugal action of the oil rings, which are slightly eccentric, serves to keep up a steady and uniform feed of oil to the various parts of the TW crank and shaft bearings. This ring system is far superior to the splash method, and is illus- gjl trated in Figs. 72 and 73, which pp show the ring used by the Buffa- lo Motor Co. and the crank Fig. 72. Buffalo" Oiling shaft with rings assem bled. This company was the first to introduce these oil rings and they have since been adopted by many manufacturers and are used with various modifications almost universally. A unique and very compact as well as highly satis- factory system of oiling is used in the well-known Ferro motors. This is well shown in the sectional view illustrated (Fig. 76), and consists of an oil tank in the base of motor and cast integral with it. This is filled by means of a filler tube (6) which rises from the base. A short tube fitted with a check valve connects the crank case with the tank and from the latter another tube (5) leads upward to the sight-feed distributor at top of cylinder. From the distributor various feed pipes lead to the points requiring oil. In operation the pressure in the crank case causes enough air to pass through the check valve into the oil reservoir to force the THEIR OPERATION , USE, AND CARE 121 122 GASOLENE ENGINES oil up to the distributor. As a constant pressure is maintained in the tank only a very slight additional pres- sure is required to force oil to the sight feeds and hence r Fig. 74. "Gray" Lubricating System to the various points requiring lubrication. Aside from adjusting the needle valves on the distributor and keep- ing the tank full of oil, this device requires but little Fig. 75- Grease Cups attention and is practically automatic ; operating when the motor runs and ceasing as soon as the engine stops. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 123 Fig. 76. "Ferro" Lubricating System CHAPTER VI IGNITION. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL IGNITION. DYNAMOS AND MAGNETOS. HIGH- AND LOW-TENSION MAGNETOS. THE Wico IGNITER. SPARK COILS. SPARK PLUGS. VIBRATOR. TIMERS. DELCO AND PERFEX SYSTEM. IGNITERS. OP- ERATION. COMPARISON OF MAKE-AND-BREAK AND JUMP SPARK. ALTERING MAKE-AND-BREAK TO JUMP SPARK. EVERY internal combustion engine must be provided with some method of igniting the charge of compressed gas in the cylinder, and while in the past this was accom- plished in several ways, at present practically all gaso- lene engines use an electric spark for the purpose. Electric ignition in general use may be divided into two classes, Jump-spark and Make-and-break-spark ignition systems, but before discussing these two methods in detail a short explanation of the general principles of electricity as used for ignition purposes may be of interest. Elec- trical currents are said to "flow" through certain con- ductors, such as metallic wires, but the exact actions of these currents are not known. It is generally conceded, [ however, that the current does not pass through the body of the metal as much as it follows the surface. A clearer idea of electrical action may be obtained by comparing the current with the flow of liquid through a pipe. A liquid in a 'pipe is said to be under a certain pressure which causes it to move, the pressure being due to a difference in level of the source and outlet, or caused by some mechanical means as a pump. In the same way an electrical current has pressure or voltage caused 124 THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 125 by a difference in what is known as a potential (see Glossary) between the source and the outlet; thus we have: Volts = the unit of pressure dependent upon the difference in Potential, equivalent to Ibs. per sq. inch = unit of pressure dependent upon difference in level. The amount of water or liquid passing a given point during a certain time is known as the rate of flow in gallons per minute, etc. So a current of electricity has a similar rate of flow, which is measured by a unit known as an Ampere, which represents quantity just as in a water pipe the quantity is reckoned in gallons. The quantity of water is dependent upon the pressure used to force the water through the pipe and upon the resist- ance or friction of the pipe. In the same way the num- ber of amperes in an electrical current depends upon the pressure or voltage and upon the resistance to the passage of the current through the wires, or other conductors. Thus we have: Ampere = unit of rate of flow, dependent upon voltage and resistance; equivalent to gallons per minute = unit of rate of flow, dependent upon pressure per sq. inch and frictional resistance. The resistance to the flow of an electrical current is measured by units called Ohms, and is dependent upon the diameter, material, length, and temperature of the wires, exactly as the flow of water is resisted by friction dependent upon the size, shape, and length of a pipe. Therefore we may compare: Ohm = unit of resistance dependent upon diameter, material, and length of wire; with coefficient of friction = unit of frictional resistance dependent upon diameter, shape, and length of pipe. 126 GASOLENE ENGINES The two general sources of electricity for ignition are wet or dry cells and magnetos or dynamos. A storage battery does not generate electricity but merely stores that generated by a dynamo or other apparatus. By passing the electrical current through a contrivance known as a " spark coil" a certain change takes place in the electrical current and the voltage is increased. If the coil consists of a soft iron core with numerous coils of wire around it it is known as a Primary Coil, and is the kind used in the make-and-break system of ignition. If, however, the coil is composed of two different kinds of wire with the outer coil finer than the under and not connected with it, it is known as a Secondary Coil, such as is used in the jump -spark system. Dynamos and magnetos are mechanical devices used to produce electricity, and a simple form of one of these is represented diagrammatically in Fig. 77. The pieces A and B are electro-magnets, or, in other words, arc pieces of iron magnetized by means of a small current known as a shunt S, made to pass around them as shown. This shunt current is really a small part of the current produced by the dynamo itself. The ends of these two pieces of iron are known as poles and between them is a space known as the magnetic field. In this area an axis or armature, C, is rotated, upon which wires are wound so that the windings are continually passing through the lines of force between the poles and thus currents of electricity are generated in the wires. As the rotation of the armature causes currents in the wires which flow in opposite directions, these currents are gathered so they will flow in one direction through the outside wires THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 127 where the current is to be used, and to accomplish this purpose small pieces of carbon or other substance known as brushes, D, are used which rub on small segments of copper known as a commutator, E, at- Fig- 77- Diagram of Dynamo tached to the end of the armature and to which are fastened the ends of the wires used in winding the armature. The brushes are so arranged that they touch the copper pieces connected with the proper wires so that a direct current will flow through the outside circuit. In Fig. 78 is a diagrammatic section of a magneto. Here A and B are the magnets, but in this case they are 128 GASOLENE ENGINES permanent, or true, magnets and no shunt current is required; it is mainly in this detail that dynamos differ from magnetos. An electrical field exists between the poles or ends of these permanent magnets, and a Fig. 78. Diagram of Magneto revolving armature C with its windings cuts through the lines of force, producing currents in the wires exactly as in the dynamo. Brushes D and a commutator E are again used in this case to gather the flow of current in one direction. The strength of current generated by the above machines is dependent upon the size of wire, the strength of the magnetic field, the number of turns of THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 129 wire, and the speed at which the armature is rotated. For this reason the shunt current of the dynamo increases rapidly as the speed of the machine increases, thereby increasing the magnetism of the electro-magnets and the field so that the strength of current will increase more rapidly in this type with the speed at which it is operated than it will in a magneto with permanent magnets. To obviate this difficulty with the dynamo a governor is supplied which regulates the speed of the armature regardless of the speed of the engine to which the mechanism is attached. This governor is essential where a magneto or dynamo is to be used for ignition in order to prevent burning out the wires at high speed and yet produce a good spark at low engine speed. As a source of current either a dynamo or magneto may be used exactly as if it were a storage or dry battery, or it may be attached to a switchboard and used to accu- mulate electricity in a storage cell which can then be utilized for ignition and lighting. Magnetos are divided into two general classes, high- tension and low-tension. The low-tension magneto consists of magnets as usual, but with a primary winding only, as in primary coils, and the current is broken at the instant of its greatest intensity. Other low-tension magnetos are fitted with timing devices by which the current can be broken and a spark produced when desired, thus allowing the spark to be retarded or advanced and thus regulating the time when ignition of the charge in the engine takes place. High-tension magnetos have an armature provided with two windings like the jump-spark coils. These 9 130 GASOLENE ENGINES machines are fitted with a mechanical breaker which produces an induced effect on the secondary winding and therefore no spark coil is required. The Bosch, Simms, and various other magnetos are of this type. Another high-tension system consists in using a sort of low-tension magneto in which the current is passed through an induction coil fitted with a mechanical breaker. The Splitdorf, Holley, and Eiseman magnetos are of this type, while the Remy magneto has a sta- tionary winding with two revolving inductors, thus eliminating revolving wires, brushes, and moving con- tacts. The great majority of magnetos in use, however, are of the low-tension type, and these possess the great advantage that their current can be passed through the regular spark coil and thus be switched off or on from the battery circuit at will. Moreover, these machines may be used with advantage for lighting purposes. The Eureka magneto manufactured by the Henricks Novelty Co. is of this type, and, this wonderful little machine will ignite the motor charge and operate a total of 36 candle-power electric lights at the same time. This firm also manufactures a number of other magnetos, among them the "Comet," which is probably the smallest and most compact magneto made that is really practical. Many magnetos are inaccessible and are so complicated in construction that if out of order an electrical expert must be called on to adjust them. In the Comet the parts are very few and any one can take down, adjust, and repair one of these machines. The illustration (Fig. 79) shows the few parts and simple construction, while the brush holders can be removed THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 131 without wrench or screw-driver, thus permitting exam- ination or cleaning at any time. A unique variety of magneto which has recently been Fig. 79. Parts of "Comet" Magneto showing Accessibility perfected is the "Wico Igniter" made by the Witherbee Ignition Co. In this machine there is no rotary motion, the electrical current being generated by reciprocating, 132 GASOLENE ENGINES or sliding, motion only. This remarkable machine is illustrated in Fig. 80. The magnets consist of tungsten steel permanently magnetized and fastened to cast-iron pole pieces which carry the magnetic lines of force from the poles to the soft iron cores. The pole pieces are fastened to the base casting and support the magnets' Fig. 80. "Wico" Igniter cores and coils. The cor.es fit into slots in the pole pieces and are built up of sheets of soft iron, and each core extends from just beneath the upper arma- ture down through a pole piece and coil to just above the bottom armature. The armatures consist of sheets of soft iron, mounted on a spool-shaped piece which in turn is loosely fitted onto the squared end of the armature bar. This armature bar is THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 133 a piece of steel, its central cross-section being flat while its ends carry the armatures and are square. This leaves shoulders which bear against the armatures through the medium of fibre washers, the shoulders serving to carry the armatures in and out of contact with the cores when in operation. The armature itself is freely supported by a box-shaped guide which is fastened to the case. On the outer ends of the armature bar are spiral springs held in place by cup-shaped washers and pins, making a self-locking fastening similar to valve-spring fastenings. These springs bear against the armatures and force them against the shoulders of the armature bars. The coils each have a simple, high- tension winding and are connected by a metal strip, thus making a continuous winding. In the single- cylinder machine one end of the winding is grounded to the case of the igniter while the other end runs to the spark plug of the motor. In two-cylinder machines no ground connection is used, but both ends of the wind- ings are connected to the plugs of the motor. In the back of the case there is a square slot in which slides the square driving bar. This bar receives its motion from the engine and at its upper end is provided with a pivoted latch of hardened steel. The latch is held in against the latch block by a spring which fits into a recess between the latch and the driving bar. Above the latch is a hardened steel timing wedge which is held upward against the timing quadrant by a spiral spring. The timing quadrant is pivoted on the back of the case and is moved by a small handle projecting above the case. 134 GASOLENE ENGINES As the driving bar, connected with the engine, is moved upward carrying the latch with it, the shoulder on the side of the latch snaps under the square head of the latch block. As the motion reverses, the latch carries the latch block and armature bar upward. The lower armature being in contact with the stationary cores cannot rise with the bar, but the lower spring is compressed between the retaining washer and the armature while the bar rises and carries with it the upper armature which bears against the upper shoulders on the bar. As the driving bar continues its upward motion the bevelled upper end of the latch meets the lower end of the timing wedge, and as the wedge is stationary a further movement of the latch causes it to be pushed aside until its shoulder clears the latch block and releases it. As the lower armature spring is at this time exerting a pressure between the armature bar and the cores through the lower armature, the instant the latch is released the armature bar is pulled quickly downward carrying the upper armature with it. Just before the motion of the upper armature is stopped by hitting the cores, the lower shoulders on the armature bar come in contact with the lower armature and its momentum carries the lower armature away from the cores against -the pressure of the upper spring which acts as a buffer. The electrical action which ensues by this operation is as follows. With the parts in position as shown, the magnetic lines of force starting from one pole of the magnets flow through the adjacent pole piece to the core, downward through the portion of the core covered by the coil to the lower armature, across to the other THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 135 core, and up to the other pole piece and other pole of the magnets, thus completing the magnetic circuit. The magnetic lines cannot travel upward and through the upper armature because it is separated from the cores by air gaps and the lower path offers less resistance. The portion of the cores covered by the coils is therefore magnetized, the same as in the core of a jump-spark coil. When the armature bar released from the latch is at the end of its downward stroke, the armatures occupy the opposite positions with relation to the cores that is, the upper one is in contact while the lower one is separated. The magnetic circuit through the lower part of the cores is thus broken while the top forms a bridge for the magnetic lines across the tops of the cores. The combined action of the two armatures causes a very sudden demagnetization of the cores covered by the coils, which thus induces a wave of current in the coils, as is done in an ordinary induction coil when its core is demagnetized by breaking the primary circuit. In this igniter the permanent magnets replace the battery and primary winding, while the armatures replace the vibrator and timer in interrupting the magnetic flow through the cores. The timing of the spark is accom- plished by releasing the armature bar earlier or later in the stroke. This is done by shifting the position of the timing quadrant which in turn varies the position of the wedge so that it releases the latch earlier or later. The timing quadrant is provided with several notches into one of which the top of the wedge fits, thus holding the quadrant in the desired position. At one end of the quadrant there is a notch considerably deeper than the 136 GASOLENE ENGINES others. This notch is so deep that when the wedge rests therein the latch is not tripped, and consequently the armature bar is not released and no spark is produced. In this position the quadrant acts as a switch and by mechanical means shuts off the current. The advantages of this new form of igniter over rotat- ing magnetos are numerous. It produces a hot spark at very high voltage for starting the engine, as the spark strength is entirely independent of the speed at which the engine is operated, and also because the voltage is strongest with the spark in its retarded or starting posi- tion. It is simple, strong, very compact, and dust-, oil-, and water-proof; moreover, it does away with all outside appliances and accessories such as switches, batteries, coils, wires, etc., the only wire exposed in the whole system being the short secondary wire leading from the igniter to the motor spark plug. In using a jump-spark coil some method must be provided for interrupting or breaking the current in order to produce a spark in the induced current of the secondary winding. This is ordinarily accomplished by the use of what is known as a Vibrator. Fig. 81 represents a diagram of a jump-spark coil, and in this figure A is the core; B, the primary winding; C, the vibrator; D, the vibrator spring; E, the contact points; F, the adjusting screw; G, the condenser; H, the timer; and /, the secondary winding. As the core A is mag- netized by the current passing around it in the primary winding B, the iron will, of course, be alternately mag- netized and demagnetized as this current is made or interrupted. This intermittent magnetizing of the core THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 137 is brought about by means of a timer, a mechanism on the engine which alternately connects and separates the points between which the primary current flows. This alternating magnetization and demagnetization of the core is used to operate the piece C, at the end of the spring D, in such a way that when the spring in its normal position is touching E, the current from the A/I AIA 1 A A Fig. 81. Diagram of Jump-spark Coil magneto or battery flows through the wire as shown by the arrows, thus magnetizing the core, but the instant the core becomes a magnet the piece C is drawn against its end, thus separating the spring D from the point E and breaking the primary circuit, causing the core to lose its magnetism and therefore allowing the piece C to spring back against E, again making the circuit, and thus operating over and over again as long as current is supplied to the primary winding. Non- vibrating coils 138 GASOLENE ENGINES are used on many engines, but in these coils only a single spark is produced each time the timer on the engine makes and breaks the primary circuit; and hence there is less likelihood of getting a powerful, hot spark than where the vibrating coil is used which produces a series of sparks at each contact of the timer points. The advantage of the non-vibrating coil lies in the fact that the vibrator, contact points, and adjustments are done Hammer Vibrator Ribbon Vibrators Fig. 82. Types of Vibrators away with, but as this type of coil does not "buzz" it is far more difficult to locate the trouble than with a vibrating coil in case of failure to "spark" properly. An important part of the coil to consider is the vibrator itself, and upon the proper adjustment and construction of this depends in great measure the efficiency of the spark. Vibrators are made in various styles known as Hammer vibrators, Ribbon vibrators, Feather vibrators, etc. (Fig. 82), and the particular kind and make best suited to a particular motor can only be determined by experiment. As a rule slow-speed engines do best with a hammer vibrator, medium-speed motors with a ribbon THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 139 vibrator, and high-speed motors with feather vibrators. A good coil, when properly adjusted, should consume about Y$ to X ampere for each cylinder. By adjusting the points nearer together or farther apart by means of the adjusting screw F (Fig. 81), the amount of current consumed may be increased or decreased and the spark made weaker or stronger. If the points are too close the current consumed will be greatly increased without increasing the operation of the engine and with injury to the coil. The aim should be to use just as little current as possible and obtain a good spark and proper ignition. The best way to accomplish this is to test the flow of current with an ammeter placed between the battery connection and the coil, and then adjust the coil until it consumes the minimum current without missing explosions of the motor. If this method is not available it is a good plan to gradually loosen the adjust- ing screw with motor running until the engine commences to miss explosions. As soon as this occurs turn the screw down very slowly until the engine runs regularly, and leave it in this position. When the coil is once properly adjusted it should never be changed unless the motor misses explosions or loses power and the trouble is located in the adjustment of the coil. The sparking points on a coil will frequently burn or wear down until they are pitted, are uneven; or stick together and fail to vibrate. This may be remedied by carefully smoothing them off with a fine flat file, but a better plan is to occasionally change the wires from the batteries so that the current flows in the opposite direction and thus depolarizes the contact points. If 140 GASOLENE ENGINES your wires have been connected so that the carbon of the battery led to the coil and the zinc to the ground, shift them so that the zinc leads to the coil and carbon to the ground. An important part of all vibrator coils is the condenser (Fig. 81, G). This consists of layers of tin-foil separated by mica or paraffined paper. The sheets of foil are connected together alternately and these con- nections are then brought across the vibrator of the coil through proper wires. The condenser is usually placed in the bottom of the coil box, out of sight; and as the wires and connections are all inside there is no external evidence of the condenser and many users of coils are entirely ignorant of its existence. The function of the condenser is to reduce the spark at the primary break (at the vibrator points) which without it would be larger than that produced at the secondary terminals of the spark plug. This result is accomplished by the capacity of the condenser being just great enough to neutralize the self-inductance of the primary current by temporarily absorbing the impulse in the primary current at the moment it is broken by the vibrator. Almost instantly, however, there is a reverse action and the stored energy in the condenser flows back with extreme rapidity and adds its quota to produce a larger secondary spark. In the Orswell and Perfex systems of ignition the coil is located in a casing attached to the spark plug, while the vibrator and condenser are in a separate case or box near the batteries. This obviates long secondary wires where short-circuiting is most likely to occur, and produces a hotter and larger spark, owing to lack of resistance that will occur where long secondary wires THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 141 are used. Similar results are obtained by the use of cylindrical water-proof coils with vibrator attached to the cylinder of engine near the plug, as used on the Gray motors, or by a form of coil attached to the plug itself, as used in the Solocoil and Caille Perfection systems. In either of these latter systems the coil does not differ materially from an ordinary vibrator coil, but the length of secondary wire is reduced to a minimum and as the Fig. 83. "Connecticut" Plug Coil switch is placed on the coil itself only two wires lead from the battery to the engine. Another form of coil, manufactured by the Con- necticut Telephone & Electric Co., which has recently been placed on the market, is designed to overcome all the usual troubles of the jump-spark system for marine work. This coil consists of a water-, heat-, and oil- proof casing attached directly to and covering the spark plug, thus entirely eliminating all secondary wiring 142 GASOLENE ENGINES and at the same time acting as a plug protector. Only two wires lead from the battery or magneto to the engine when this coil is used (Fig. 135) and no shock can be received when adjusting coil or plug. The case is covered with a tightly fitting metal cap that locks in place by bayonet locks, and the severest tests of this coil for injury by heat or water have failed to prevent its satisfactory action. The plug coil is illustrated in Fig. 83, and as will be seen the porcelains are readily removable and cost less than a common plug, while the position of the coil on the top of cylinder renders it very convenient for adjustment or examination. In fact this new coil has all the advantages and none of the dis- advantages of the Perfex or Orswell systems. It is as secure from short-circuiting as these devices, and in addition does away with the separate vibrators and con- densers with their attendant wiring. Several other manufacturers have recently placed similar coils on the market, but all operate on the same principle. In the earlier forms of jump-spark ignition much trouble was encountered through short-circuiting, espe- cially in the secondary current or spark plugs, and the use of the jump spark was largely confined to cabin boats and to stationary and vehicle use. With improved coils and magnetos, thoroughly insulated wire and timers, and highly developed spark plugs much of this difficulty has been overcome and little trouble is now encountered with short-circuiting, even in open boats. Usually, the greatest trouble is in the spark plugs, and these simple and cheap accessories are often given far less attention than they deserve, There are a large number of makes THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 143 of plugs on the market some good, others better, and some very poor and it will always pay to have the best and to keep several on hand for emergencies. The ordinary types of plugs are shown in Fig. 84, which illustrates the forms known as the "Petticoat" and " Conical" types, as well as the porcelains removed to show internal construction. These answer very well Fig. 84. Types of Standard Plugs and Porcelains for stationary or vehicle use, but where used in an open boat or under severe conditions of any sort a specially constructed plug should be used that will resist short- circuiting to the highest degree. Probably the nearest to a trouble-proof plug yet produced is the Reliance. This plug in its various forms is illustrated in Fig. 85. The porcelains are also shown removed, and the sectional view shows the internal construction. These plugs are provided with a very small platinum point embedded 144 GASOLENE ENGINES in the porcelain and ground flush with it. Above this and connecting it with the terminal at the top of plug is a copper quill and spring which compensates for any difference in expansion and contraction between the porcelain and metal and also prevents breakage of the porcelain by tightening too much on the packing nut. The fine platinum point concentrates and intensifies Fig. 85. "Reliance" Plugs and Porcelain the spark to such an extent that the heat and scouring action instantly destroys any short-circuiting material around it on the surface of the porcelain. So efficient is this action that a Reliance plug will actually spark when immersed in a glass of water. Notwithstanding this high efficiency they will at times short-circuit when hot and suddenly drenched with spray or when thoroughly saturated with moisture after being exposed to rain or fog. By merely wiping off the THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 145 outside of the porcelain and rubbing with oil or grease the trouble is readily overcome, however, and the spark plug will continue to operate as before. Probably no plug ran be made that will not occasionally short-circuit under evere marine conditions, and the Reliance is certainly very near perfection. Many other excellent plugs are to be had and the choice lies mainly with the user; one person having far better results with one kind than another. The Wright, Spit-fire, Never - miss, Sta - rite, Sootless, Red - head, and many others are all good plugs and give highly satisfactory results Several makes are so constructed that they may be readily taken apart for examination or clean- ing, and this is a most valuable feature where the plug is difficult to remove from the cylinder or is inaccessible. The Breech-block plug (Fig. 86) is constructed with the porcelain held in position by an interrupted screw which is turned by a lever and can be almost instantly opened and closed the same as the breech block of a modern cannon. The Rajah plugs illustrated in Fig. 87 are also readily taken apart and consist of but four pieces, all of which are inter- changeable and easily removed or replaced. When using a high-tension magneto for ignition separate plugs must 10 Fig. 86. Breech-block Plug 146 GASOLENE ENGINES O be used for the battery and magneto, and this requires two plugs in the cylinder. Magneto plugs are especially constructed to withstand the high, hot current of the machine and are manufactured by almost all spark-plug makers. To obviate the use of two separate plugs com- bination plugs with two terminals one for magneto and one for the battery are furnished. These are known as the Edison type, and one of this kind as well as a standard magneto plug are shown in Fig. 89. A distinct advance in plug construction is found in the "E-Z" plugs illustrated in Fig. 88. These plugs can be instantly removed to clean the points or to replace porcelains without the use of any tools whatever. The lower portion of the plug screws into the cylinder as usual, while the upper portion, consisting of the electrodes and porcelain, slips into the lower shell and is fastened securely by a bayonet lock. Where plugs are frequently removed, or are difficult to get at with a wrench, this is a most excellent feature and cannot be too highly praised. The plug can also be used as a priming cap or relief cock, for the quarter turn required to open it is as easily made as turning on an ordinary cock. The joints are held by asbestos and are guaranteed against Fig. 87. Rajah Plugs JSE, AND CARE 147 leakage; and a test by the writer failed to develop any leak under 350 Ibs. air pressure. Timers are of many kinds and vary from very simple affairs to highly finished and complicated devices, but Fig. 88. "E-Z" Plugs the function of all is merely to interrupt and complete the current of the primary circuit in unison with the compression stroke of the motor, so that the explosion will take place at the proper instant. The simplest form of timer consists of a spring and cam (Fig. 90). In this form of tinier the ground wire is attached to the engine frame (F) and the other wire to the terminal A, on the spring B, which is insulated from 148 GASOLENE ENGINES the engine by the fibre block C. The cam D is fastened to the valve-gear shaft or to a special shaft operated by the motor and so placed that it will bear against the spring B at the instant when the explosion should take place. The cam, touching the spring, forms a connection for the electrical current and hence a spark is produced at the plug within the cylinder. As in order to secure the Fig. 89. Magneto and Edison Plugs greatest efficiency from a gasolene motor it is necessary to explode the gas just before the piston reaches the uppermost limit of its stroke, some device must be provided to time the spark to take place at different points in the engine's revolutions. If the spark was advanced enough to give the best results when operating at high speed, it would ignite the charge too soon at low speed and when starting, thus causing pounding, or backfiring, with disastrous results to motor and oper- THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 149 ator. To accomplish this variation, a shifting device known as a spark advance is used. This consists in having the spring, or other arrangement, to which the insulated terminal is , attached, mounted on a pivot A- Fig. 90. Cam and Spring Timer which allows the timer to swing in a segment of a circle around the cam. By moving the timer backward or forward the spark is produced either before or after the upward limit of the piston on the compression stroke. Fig. 91. Simple Timers The advance may be operated by a short handle or lever attached directly to it or may be operated from a dis- tance through the medium of rods and levers as in the case of automobiles and other vehicles. 150 GASOLENE ENGINES Other forms of simple timers are illustrated in Fig. 91, but in all of these the operation is so similar to the one described that a further explanation is not essential. These simple timers work very well for stationary engines and many of them are in use on automobiles and on marine engines. A peculiar but very satisfactory timer for marine engines is that used on the Tuttle Fig, 92. "Tuttle " Timer on Motor motors and which is illustrated in Figs. 92 and 93. In this timer, A represents the eccentric on the engine shaft, which also operates the pump plunger P. The eccentric rod B is pivoted at the point C to the pump plunger, and the upper end is carried out and terminates in a holder D carrying a small electric brush, which is backed by a spiral spring shown in the section at E, F THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 151 Fig. 93. " Tuttle " Timing Device 152 GASOLENE ENGINES Near the top of the cylinder of the motor there is placed a circular bronze disk, pivoted to the cylinder and provided with metallic inserts surrounded with insulating material ground flush with the surface G. The terminals from the wires are fastened to these insulated inserts and the ground wire attached as usual to the engine frame. In operation the eccentric rod. bearing the brush which presses against the timer-disk by means of the spring F, revolves in a circle of the same circumference as the timer disk. As the brush passes over the insulated inserts an electrical connection is made and a spark produced, but while passing over the rest of the surface no spark is produced as this portion of the disk is thoroughly insulated from the terminals. By moving the disk backward or forward by the lever E y the spark is advanced or retarded. The timers now generally used are enclosed in tight cylindrical cases and are operated by a timer shaft in the case of two-cycle motors (see Figs. 38 and 39, S) or are attached to the valve cam-shaft in four-cycle motors. They are of two general styles roller contact and spring contact and those two types are shown in Fig. 94. Their operation is so simple and so similar to those already described that no explanation is required, however. Many more complicated forms of timers are in use, such as Monitors, Unisparkers, Distributors, etc., but these are generally used for special magnetos or dynamos or with certain kinds of engines or very highly developed and complicated motors for vehicle or racing use. Full explanations and directions for their use and operation THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 153 are always furnished by the makers, and the amateur should never attempt to regulate or repair one of these delicate instruments. A very successful system is known as the Delco, in which one unit embodies a timer, a means for advancing and retarding the spark, and a Fig. 94. Roller and Spring Timers high-tension distributor. This entire combination is known as the "Distributor" and requires but one coil for any number of cylinders. The distributor is rigidly mounted on the engine and does not rotate as does the ordinary timer. The spark control is effected by moving a lever on the side of the case, and this eliminates all 154 GASOLENE ENGINES moving wires and makes possible better mechanical construction. The distributor is illustrated in Fig. 95. The distributor is used in connection with a coil, a relay, and a switch, and these are furnished either ' 95- " Delco " Ignition System separately or combined within a common case or box. The relay is the apparatus for breaking the primary circuit and takes the place of vibrators on ordinary coils as it acts for each cylinder in turn as the com- THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 155 mutator or timer makes connection. From the ordinary vibrator it differs, inasmuch as it uses but one spark for each contact instead of several. This relay is the only moving part of the entire system, and is very easily adjusted or regulated. This Delco system has been adopted with great success by many motor-manufactu- Fig. 95- "Delco" Ignition System. rers, and is used on many of the leading automobiles. As a rule, however, the simpler and more accessible the timer and ignition system the better, for nine- tenths of motor troubles are due to faulty ignition and the simpler the entire electrical system is made the more readily can the operator locate his troubles. Small, delicate, or 156 GASOLENE ENGINES intricate parts should be avoided, and in this respect the jump-spark system far excels the make-and-break. In the latter system of ignition a simple primary coil is used and no vibrator or timer is required. This greatly simplifies the electrical apparatus, but the number of small parts, springs, etc., used in the igniter render it liable to many troubles absolutely unknown to the jump- spark ignition. Several forms of make-and-break igniters are shown in Figs. 40, 96, 97, 98, and in each the operation is very similar. Within the cylinder a stationary electrode A is placed, to which one of the wires from the coil is fastened. On the outside of the cylinder there is attached a sliding rod M, operated by the eccentric rod C. Above this slide rod is a plunger H t which is held pressed downward by a stiff spiral spring /, bearing against a thimble /. Within a recess in the slide rod is an angular dog Fj held forward by the spring L, and which bears upon the lower end of the thimble / or plunger H, thus lifting it against the force of the spring / when the eccentric rod and slide move upward. Fastened to the cylinder is an adjusting screw G which bears against the dog F, and trips it from the end of the thimble / or plunger H, thus allowing the latter to be forcibly driven downward by the action of the spring /. Between the top of the slide bar M and the thimble / a rocker arm C is placed, which is connected to a spindle Z>, bearing on its inner end within the cylinder a movable electrode B. When the slide moves upward, bearing the dog and plunger with it, the rocker arm is forced up to follow the spindle by the spring K, thus bringing THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 157 the movable electrode B into contact with the permanent electrode or spark plug A, and completing the electrical circuit. As the slide bar reaches its upward limit the Fig. 96. Make-and-break Igniter (Operation) screw G trips the dog from the plunger, and the latter on its downward travel brings the thimble against the rocker arm C and thus snaps the movable electrode B 158 GASOLENE ENGINES away from the spark plug A, creating a sudden, hot spark between the two. The igniter may be timed to advance or retard the spark by screwing the adjusting screw G either up or down, and may be still further adjusted by screwing up or down the spark plug A, or by loosening the set- screw that connects the rocker arm to the spindle and allowing it to set at a varying angle with the movable electrode. In the form of igniter illustrated the spark plug is screwed into the cylinder head, and the rocker spindle is inserted through the cylinder, enclosed in a bushing E. This form is in wide use, but it is often essential to remove the rocker electrode for repairs or cleansing and to do this requires considerable time and work. To overcome this difficulty several makers have adopted an igniter which is entirely self-con- tained in one piece, and which bolts onto the cylinder with its inner portion projecting inside. Such an igniter is illustrated in Fig. 98, in which the lettering is the same as already described and identical with that in Fig. 40. The make-and-break system has the advantage of being practically water-proof, for it is operated by a low- tension current and is free from short-circuiting troubles. For this reason it is a great favorite with fishermen, u - 97- Make-and- break Igniter THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 159 lobstermen, and other users of open boats; but its dis- advantages in my mind more than offset its good points. The sparking points of the two electrodes frequently become foul with dirt or soot and the low-tension spark is not sufficiently hot to burn this off as in the jump-spark plug. The continual banging or hammering together of the two electrodes soon wears away the points, necessitating Fig. 98. Self-contained Igniter frequent renewal and adjustment; the spindle of the rocker arm often becomes gummed or stuck with oil or rust, causing missfires or breaking of the spindle or rocker; the set-screw holding the rocker to the spindle often breaks or wears loose, allowing the rocker to work 160 GASOLENE ENGINES on the spindle without operating the interior electrode; springs lose their strength or break; and the mica insulation of the spark plug often breaks, or becomes so filled with oil and soot that it fails to act as an insula- tion. In addition to all these defects the make-and- break system is very noisy and dirty and requires constant care and attention. Many make-and-break Fig. 99. Make-and-break Igniter Altered to Jump-spark motors that are practically worn out may be given a new lease of life by converting them into jump-spark motors. This is usually very easy and inexpensive. If the igniter is of the external type illustrated in Figs. 40, 96, and 97, it is only necessary to remove the rocker and spindle and plug the hole; remove the plunger, plunger spring, thimble, and rocker spring. Fasten a piece of fibre to which a terminal and spring is attached to the slide guide and replace the make-and-break THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 161 plug with a standard jump-spark plug. This trans- formed igniter is shown complete in Fig. 99. The dog on the slide bar coming into contact with the spring A makes the electrical connection and causes a spark in the cylinder. By placing an adjusting screw through the fibre block B, as shown in C, the spring may be pressed up or down at will, thus retarding or advancing the spark. In the case of motors having a rotary pump, or provided with a self-contained igniter, it is often easier to attach a regular timer to the pump shaft or to a special shaft operated by gears on the engine crank shaft. Of course in any case where the system is changed from the make-and-break to the jump-spark it is necessary to substitute a vibrator coil for the primary coil used in the old make-and-break arrangement. 11 CHAPTER VII MUFFLERS AND EXHAUST DEVICES GOVERNORS FUEL AND FUEL CONSUMPTION OILS AND GREASES INSTALLATION PIPING AND WIRING GASKETS AND PACKINGS ADJUSTMENTS GEN- ERAL CARE OF MOTORS. A VERY important part of a gasolene motor is the exhaust. As the burnt gases leave the cylinder at a speed of from 6,000 to 12,000 ft. per minute with a pressure of from 25 to 35 Ibs. per square inch, it will be seen that it is of the utmost importance that the exhaust opening is of ample size to allow the gases to escape without creating a back pressure in the cylinder. In four-cycle motors the exhaust valve should also be large enough, and with sufficient lift, to allow the gases to escape quickly and completely during the scavenging stroke. If the exhaust gases were allowed to escape freely into the air there would be little danger of back pressure in the cylinder, but the speed and pressure of the gas would cause loud explosive noises and con- siderable flame; to overcome the disagreeable noise various devices are used, known as "silencers" or " mufflers." Mufflers and silencing devices are of a great variety of designs and construction, but the object in all is to overcome the noise to the greatest possible extent without creating back pressure. If the exhaust can be quickly cooled after leaving the cylinder, or if the gas can be allowed to fully expand before reaching the air, very little noise will result. 162 THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 163 Many motors intended for marine use have an auxil- iary exhaust chamber as an integral portion of the engine. In the Gray motors this chamber is merely an enlarge- ment of the exhaust opening, but being water-cooled it serves to allow the gases to expand in addition to cool- ing them, thus materially reducing their pressure (Fig. 100). In other engines the auxiliary exhaust is in the form of a separate chamber or box attached Fig. loo. "Gray" Auxiliary Exhaust to the cylinder by bolts and is either water-jacketed or arranged with a valve that allows a certain amount of the circulating water to pass directly into the exhaust gases. Such an auxiliary exhaust chamber is illus- trated in Fig. 101. On marine engines, it is customary to lead all or a portion of the circulation water into the exhaust pipe or muffler and thus cool the gas and reduce the pressure. In the case of vehicle or stationary engines this cannot be done to advantage, as the water used for cooling is generally confined to a definite amount which passes through a radiator or cooling device and is used over and over again. In air-cooled motors there is of course 164 GASOLENE ENGINES no method of passing water into the exhaust. If the exhaust is merely led into a large cylinder or chamber before reaching the air, the gases will expand and will pass out with but little noise. For stationary use such Fig. 101. Auxiliary Exhaust expansion-chambers, if of ample size, will usually prove efficient as a silencing device, an old cask or barrel, or even an inverted box, often being all that is required with small motors. In the case of large motors a cement or brick chamber is often used, and this can easily be THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 165 made large enough to permit full expansion of the gases and practically eliminate the sound of the explosions. In marine service there is often an under-water opening to the exhaust, but before leading the exhaust outboard an expansion chamber of ample size must be connected with the engine. With two-cycle motors there are many objections to the use of an under-water exhaust. The exhaust port being open during a considerable portion of the operation of the motor, combined with the fact that the explosive impulse and the inrushing fresh charge are the only methods of carrying off the burnt gases, often results in water or steam working back into the cylinder. In a four-cycle motor the exhaust valve is closed against any back pressure during the entire intake stroke, and the burnt gases are forced out by the pressure of the piston during the scavenging stroke. For these reasons there is little chance of water or steam getting into the firing chamber. Wherever an under-water exhaust of any kind is used, however, it should be pro- vided with a relief cock at its highest point of piping, as well as a drain cock at its lowest point; and it is also good practice to provide a three-way cock or valve at some point of the pipe in order that the exhaust may be turned off from its under-water connections and deflected through an exhaust pipe " leading to the air above the water line. The valve connecting the under- water exhaust should always be turned off when the engine is to be idle for any length of time, for no matter how carefully the exhaust is installed or how far above the water line the motor may be, there is always a chance 166 GASOLENE ENGINES that the boat may fill through a leak in the piping or that it may leak sufficiently or be filled with rain to such an extent that the inside connections will be lower Fig. 102. "Reid" Underwater Exhaust than the water line, thus allowing the boat to fill and sink. The relief valve should always be opened when starting the motor to avoid the possibility of steam or water working back into the cylinder, and this valve should always be kept open when the motor is not in use. Fig. 103. Exhaust on Boat The drain cock at the lowest point in the pipe will serve to drain off any water in the pipe in cold weather and also in starting, for if a pocket of water collects in THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 167 the pipe it will often draw back into the motor when first cranking it to start. 'Until a motor gets well under way it is often very difficult to get good results with an under- water exhaust, and in such cases the three-way valve will prove very convenient, for by its use the exhaust can be deflected Fig. 104. Underwater Exhaust Connections into the air until well started, when it can be turned into the under-water connections. Various methods of leading the under-water exhaust out from the bottom of the boat are in use, but the best method is to use an under-water exhaust head of some sort. A very good form known as the Reid is shown in Fig. 102. This is fastened to the side or bottom of the boat and connected with the exhaust pipe as illustrated in Fig. 103, a thin piece of rubber being placed between the planking and the head to make a water-tight joint. The arrangement of expansion chamber, exhaust pipe, three-way, relief, and drain cocks, and outboard head are shown in Figs. 104 and 105. In place of cooling or 168 GASOLENE ENGINES expanding the exhaust gases in order to reduce the noise a system may be used by which the rapidly moving volume of gas is broken up into innumerable small jets before reaching the air or by so retarding a portion of the gas that the exhaust reaches the air in a continuous or nearly uniform stream or jet. The fact that a steady stream of exhaust gas makes less noise and commotion Fig. 105. Underwater Exhaust Connections than alternating jets renders the exhaust of a multiple- cylinder motor far easier to silence than that from a single-cylinder engine. In order to break up the volume of exhaust gases various devices are used. In the older forms of mufflers the exhaust was led into a chamber or casing filled with stones, pebbles, or coke (Fig. 106) which served to break up the gas into many small jets before it reached the air. Another form, shown in THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 169 Fig. 107, consists in a casing and a perforated pipe leading from the exhaust port of the engine. The gas, leaving this pipe through the numerous small holes, loses much of its pressure and speed and divides into many jets. As some of these are far nearer the opening to the air Fig. 1 06. Muffler with Pebbles than others, the gases finally leave the silencer in a more or less continuous stream. If a second pipe of larger diameter is placed in the muffler, as illustrated in Fig. 108, still better results are obtained. Such mufflers are used considerably, but usually are rather Fig. 107. Muffler with Perforated Inlet inefficient and often create considerable back pressure. Other forms of silencers consist of hollow chambers provided with segments or plates perforated by small holes and set alternately in the chamber. This style of muffler is shown in Fig. 109, and if properly designed and 170 GASOLENE ENGINES of ample volume is quite effectual and creates little back pressure. The well-known Yankee mufflers are constructed with a combination of these two systems. Sectional views are shown in Figs, no and in. The gases entering at A z s 000560 O C25 O <3^0 O O oo 5) o & X ^ -^ Fig. 1 08 .Muffler with Perforated Pipes partly pass through the perforations at B and are partly deflected by the partition C and the interior of the pipeZ), and then expand in the chamber E. From this chamber they pass through the opening in the plate at F and hence through perforations in the outlet pipe at G and Fig. 109. Baffle-plate Muffler into the air through the tail piece H. In the Ejector muffler a very different system is used. This is illustrated in Fig. ii2. It consists of three expansion chambers, A, B, C, which are separated by conical plates, D, E, F, perforated at top and bottom and arranged in two sets. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 171 The central tube G, leading through the muffler, is of varying diameter and a portion of the gases from the exhaust passes directly into the central chamber B and hence through the second set of cones Z>, E, F (2), before the gas which enters the first chamber A has Fig. no. " Yankee" Auto Muffler passed through the first series of cones D, E, F (i). A small portion of the gas is also led straight through the central pipe G to the outlet at a very high velocity. This creates a partial vacuum in the third chamber C, Fig. in. "Yankee" Marine Muffler and the gas moves rapidly from the second chamber B to fill the partial vacuum in the chamber C. The for- ward movement of the gas through the first and second chambers A, B, to the third C, causes a sudden expansion which removes the heat from the gases and reduces the 172 GASOLENE ENGINES O pressure in the muffler to below that of the atmosphere, thus allowing the gases to escape with no appreciable noise and no back pressure. These mufflers work excellently both in vehicle, stationary, and marine use; and in the latter case still better results are obtained by running a portion of the cir- culation water into the ex- haust before it enters the muffler. In , the Hydrex silencer, which is intended for marine use, and which is shown in Fig. 113, deflecting plates with small openings, an ex- pansion chamber,and a water- cooling system are combined. The gases from the motor enter the silencer at A and are deflected upward and given a whirling motion by the internal cone. Water from the jacket enters at B, through an annular opening which forms a circular sheet of water, into the tube or in- verted cone V. The gases Fig. ii2. "Ejector" Muffler , _ deflected upward by the out- side of this tube pass through this sheet of water and are again deflected down through the inner tube THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 173 by the lips C, into the chamber E. The hot gases striking the water instantly lose their heat and pressure and noise, so that the cooled gases then issue quietly from the chamber by the outlet G. Any excess of water is provided for by a drain cock B at bottom of silencer, which leads directly to the bot- tom of the boat. The Thermex silencer works in a similar man- ner and is illustrated in Fig. 114. Various other forms of excel- lent mufflers are in use, and new ones are constantly being de- signed and put on the market. Mufflers in which the gases are given a rotary or whirling motion are quite satisfactory; and si- lencers have been used in which the gases were led into a casing surrounding the fly-wheel which, being provided with fans or blades, acted as a blower. Whatever style of muffler, silencer, or expansion chamber is used, care should be taken to have the same of ample size to accommo- date the exhaust gases without back pressure. A vol- ume of $5/2 times the square of the piston diameter times the stroke will usually be large enough, but even under the best conditions the perforations or other openings in a muffler will frequently become clogged with soot or rust and the silencing device and exhaust pipes should be frequently examined and cleaned, especially if an excess of oil is used. Fig. 113. "Hydrex" Silencer 174 GASOLENE ENGINES Whenever a motor is used under conditions of varying load or work, some method must be used to prevent the engine from racing or speeding up when running free and at the same time allow it to operate at its maximum speed and power when working. Such devices are known as governors, and are used principally on Out-let- Fig. 114. "Thermex" Silencer stationary motors. Many large marine motors as well as numerous vehicle motors also use governors, and their use adds much to the life and efficiency of any motor of considerable size and power. There are various meth- ods of governing, the principal kinds being Hit-or-miss, Throttling, and Varying Ignition. In the hit-or-miss the action of the governor is to shut off the fuel supply, open or close the exhaust valve, shut off ignition, or dis- engage the valve mechanism. In the throttling method the fuel supply is reduced or the explosive gas throttled. In the varying-ignition system the governing is accom- THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 175 plished by cutting off the current from the sparking device or by varying or timing the point of Ignition. In Fig. 115 is illustrated a form of governor which operates by preventing the exhaust valve from opening. When the speed of the engine exceeds its normal limit, the balls A move outward, causing the cam B to be moved to the right by the action of the dogs C on the Fig. 115. Exhaust Valve Governor governor arms D, which are held in a grooved collar E on the sleeve F. The end of the cam B is thus prevented from acting on the roller G, until the motor falls to its normal speed, thus preventing the valve mechanism from operating the valve. Ordinarily the cam is held in position by the springs fastened to the governor balls, which hold the cam against the shoulder of the bearing / of the cam shaft /. 176 GASOLENE ENGINES Another form of governor, shown in Fig. 116, may be used in connection with any of the governing methods mentioned, but is particularly adapted to throttling methods. The two balls A, A are rotated through any convenient method of con- nection with the motor, and in the illustration are rep- resented connected by bevel gears B, B.. As the speed of the motor increases the balls swing outward as indicated by the arrows, thus com- pressing the spring C, and pushing down the stem D, by means of the collar E\ as the rod moves down, the valve F, at its lower end, moves past the holes G, H, which admit the charge of vapor, and thus gradually throttles the charge that passes to the engine through H. In Fig. 117 is shown a governor which operates on the hit-or-miss principle. When the motor races or runs beyond the normal speed the action of the balls causes the blade A to move away from the notched valve lifter B, thus throwing the valve out of action. A governor of the inertia type is illustrated in Fig. 118. In this form, if the engine attempts to run above normal speed, Fig. 116. Throttling Gov- ernor THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 177 th'e lower end of the double lever A will be depressed by the cam B, and the valve lift C will be thrown out of engagement with the shoulder D, thus preventing any action of the valve until the motor speed drops to normal. Various other forms of governors are in use and these may be attached to a bracket fastened to the engine frame or may be bolted to the fly-wheel or cam shaft. In the Twentieth Century motors a centrifugal governor Fig. 117. Hit-or-miss Governor is fastened to the fly-wheel and through properly ad- justed springs and rods is connected with the carburetor throttle. Governors are usually properly adjusted to give the best results when the motors leave the makers; and unless they become loose, broken or worn, or very evidently out of adjustment they should not be meddled with. As most governors depend to a large extent upon spring action, any rust, corrosion, or dirt on the latter is liable to affect the operation of the governor, and care should be taken that they are kept free from dirt and rust. They should also be frequently lubricated, but good machine oil and not cylinder oil should be used for this purpose. 12 178 GASOLENE ENGINES Various fuels are used in operating internal-combustion engines and practically any grade of gasolene, benzine, or naphtha may be used to operate a gasolene motor with slight variations in carburetor adjustments. Poor, stale, or dirty gasolene will often give poor results, and as a rule the lower grades are not so economical as the better grades. Moreover, poor fuel results in an excess l I Fig. 1 1 8. Inertia Governor of carbon and soot and should be avoided as far as possible. Many gasolene motors will run very well on denatured alcohol or kerosene if first started with gaso- lene. There is really but little reason for using these as fuel, however, for gasolene gives so much better results and so much less soot and carbon that it more than makes up for the additional first cost. Sometimes, how- ever, the operator of a motor will find himself short THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 179 of fuel where no gasolene can be purchased. At such times, if the motor is started and well heated on gasolene, kerosene or alcohol may be used. It is always a good plan to carry a small quantity of your regular gasolene for use in an emergency, and this should never be used until absolutely necessary. The fuel consumption of a gasolene motor depends a great deal upon the care with which the carburetor is adjusted in order to use the minimum amount of fuel to obtain the best results; the accurate timing of valves and ignition, and the original design and construction of the motor. A two-cycle motor will use more fuel than a four-cycle, and a multiple-cylinder motor will use more than the same number of separate cylinders. Another item which enters quite largely into fuel consumption is the temperature of the cylinder. The best results are obtained when the temperature of the water in the jacket is kept at about 160 degrees Fahrenheit. With this temperature, high-grade fuel, and careful operation the average engine will consume about i 1/5 pints of gasolene, or about 15 ft. of natural gas, per horse-power per hour under full load. Engines that will burn gas satisfactorily will usually burn gaso- lene, and vice versa, but it is best to have the motor arranged to consume a certain kind and quality of fuel. Many manufacturers provide devices for using kerosene in gasolene motors; and if kerosene is to be used it is far better to use such a device, or else purchase a regular oil engine, than to try to operate a motor intended for gasolene or gas by crude oil or kerosene. Many operators of gasolene engines give very little care to the oil and grease used as lubricants. This is 180 GASOLENE ENGINES in reality a very important matter and too much care cannot be used in selecting the best oil for the motor and, when once found, adhering to one brand and not con- tinually changing. Some engines require a much heavier oil than others and a new motor will usually work better on a light oil than an old or worn engine. In hot weather, also, a heavier oil can be used than in cold weather, for even the best of gasolene-engine cylinder oils will thicken up in cold weather. Many motors in which the rings or cylinder are so badly worn as to lose compression will operate very successfully if fed a heavier grade of oil, and in two-cycle motors a good supply of heavy oil or grease on the bearings results in better base com- pression and more efficient service. Machine oil or steam-engine oils should never be used in a gas-engine cylinder. The terrific heat in these motors will ignite any but oils made especially for the purpose, and poor or low-grade oils will form excessive carbon deposits. Oil is cheaper than motors and the very best on the market is none too good for the poorest motor built. Machine oil is very good for exterior use and for that purpose is superior to cylinder oil, but even where so used it should be of a high grade that will not gum or stick. Greases used in grease cups and transmissions should be selected with as much care as the oil, for a poor grease will gum and stick, while a grease containing any grit, dirt, or foreign matter will soon cut out and ruin bearings. Some greases on the market are more like soft soap than grease; they are stringy, sticky, elastic compounds and are unfit for any use. A good THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 181 grease should be smooth, clear-colored, clean and soft in any weather. The hardness or softness of a grease used should be determined by trial, and any reputable manufacturer of oils and greases will gladly furnish samples of the various grades. The grease used should be heavy enough so that it will not run and spread, and should be soft enough to feed easily and regularly through the grease cups. The oil used should always be strained before being placed in the lubricators, and if at any time the oil is found to contain any trace of grit or dirt it should be at once discarded and all oilers, oil-pipes, and bearings thoroughly cleaned with kerosene and gasolene before using new oil. The amount of oil to be fed to any motor, or to any part of a motor, depends largely upon the make, the age, the care, and the work of the engine as well as upon the grade of the oil. A new engine should be given a liberal supply of oil until well broken in, when the supply can be cut down somewhat. Too much oil will cause soot and carbon, but too little will result in wear and cutting, and of the two evils it is far better to use too much than too little. When stopping the motor the oil should always be turned off, as otherwise an excess may get into the cylinder. If a mechanical force-feed oiler is used it will take care of itself in this matter. An excess of oil is readily determined by smoke from the exhaust, and a smell of burning or hot oil. If the proper amount of oil and a correct mixture of fuel are being used, the exhaust will be almost colorless or of a faint bluish tint. If too much oil is used the blue will increase until a dense bluish or yellowish smoke issues from the exhaust. If 182 GASOLENE ENGINES the mixture of air and fuel is too rich that is, contains too much gasolene the exhaust smoke will be either black or dense and white with a sharp, choking, pungent odor. Most engine-makers furnish directions as to the proper amount of oil to be fed the various parts, and these should always be observed. Few moving parts of a motor require less than six drops per minute and few need more than fifteen or twenty, but in winter the adjustment of the lubricators must be altered to suit weather conditions in order to supply the proper amount of oil. The installation of a gasolene motor seems a very easy matter, but really many excellent engines fail to give proper service or satisfaction owing to careless or improper installation. In vehicle motors this fault is not common, as the makers of motor-propelled vehicles install the motors themselves and usually see that it is properly done. Stationary motors that are manu- factured mounted on trucks, frames, or skids are also usually free from faulty installation, but stationary motors set up by the purchaser and especially marine motors, are often so badly installed that it is surprising that they work at all. The first consideration in installing a motor is the bed. For stationary engines the character and material of the beds depend largely upon the space available, the material at hand, and. the location. Brick, stone, cement, and timbers all make good beds, but perhaps the most satisfactory method is to make a good solid bed of concrete in which timbers should be embedded THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 183 just far enough apart so that the bed-plate of the motor may be bolted to them. The timbers should be of ample size, and, to hold them firmly in the cement or concrete, spikes or bolts should be driven into them at intervals before burying in the cement. The cement bed, as well as timbers, should be smooth and level, but a space under and around the motor may be made depressed to catch any water or oil, and drains may be led from this. If after finishing the bed the timbers are found out of level, they may be easily levelled up by thin shims, or bits of wood or metal, placed between- them and the engine bed-plate. In placing the motor care should be taken to see that it is so placed as to afford the greatest facility in reaching any and all parts of it and at the same time it should occupy as little space as possible. The engine may be bolted to the bed either by lag-screws through the holes in the bed-plate and well set into the timber, or by bolts put through the timbers before embedding. The bed-plate may then be set over these bolts and held in place by nuts. In either case washers should be placed between the head of lag-screw and engine bed-plate or underneath the nuts. The screws or nuts should be screwed in gradually, first at one corner, then at another; and one bolt or screw should never be fully tightened up before setting up another, as this will often bring an unequal strain and cause a crack or break in the engine bed-plate. For large stationary motors the beds should be made of solid concrete or bricks set in concrete, and on top of this a flat heavy slab of flagstone or granite should be placed. The bed should be carried down to hard pan 184 GASOLENE ENGINES or at least below the frost line, and if the motor is to be placed above the ground floor of a building the bed should have solid iron columns running down to the ground. If this is not possible it should be placed as near the side or corner of the building as possible, and the portion of the floor supporting the bed should be firmly Fig. 119. Concrete Beds and rigidly braced. Never bolt an engine directly to floor timbers or planks. In making a heavy concrete bed the sides should slope slightly and the bolts for holding down the engine should be well set in the concrete. A good method is to insert the bolts through iron pipe with a nut at the lower end, and the whole THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 185 should then be embedded in the cement. Such a method is shown in section in Fig. 119. Mufflers and exhausts on stationary engines should be well covered or protected with asbestos, for they become very hot and are liable to cause bad burns or even set fire to some object that happens to come in contact with them. Exhaust pipes, where led through a wooden wall or partition, should be protected, and a metal collar should be used over the hole with a space of at least one inch between the pipe and the nearest wood. The outer end of the exhaust should be led away from all surrounding objects or walls and should never lead into a chimney, water or steam pipe, smokestack, or other confined space. If this is done unburnt charges of gas may enter and later explode by flame or heat with serious results. If a wooden bed is used it should be firmly mortised or bolted together and should be securely fastened to the flooring or ground. Many engines are given far too light a bed, and when under full power will jump and vibrate tremendously. A good bed should be strong and steady enough to hold the motor down immovably under its highest speed and greatest load. When installing a marine engine the method is gov- erned to a great extent by the boat, the timbers, and the accessibility of the location. Timbers for a boat engine's bed should be of well-seasoned hardwood of ample size and strength, and should be securely bolted to ribs and keel, but not to the planking. A very good plan is to use two long timbers running lengthwise, or fore and aft, of the boat and fastened to the ribs. Across these the 186 GASOLENE ENGINES bed timbers should be bolted and these should also be securely fastened to the keel. In a flat-bottomed boat timbers may be set across the boat, bolted to keel and sides, and the engine-bed bolted lengthwise of these (Fig. 120). This method takes the jar and vibration from the floor boards and planks. Great care should Fig. 120. Engine Beds in Boats be taken in getting a marine engine level and in absolute line with the shaft; a very slight deviation will cause enough friction on the shaft to stop the engine or hold it down to only a fraction of its speed and power. I have seen a ten-horse-power motor that could not be turned over more than one explosion owing to a bend in the shaft so slight as to be scarcely perceptible to the eye. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 187 Where it is difficult or impossible to get a perfect alignment, or where there is a constant vibration or motion, the shaft should be connected through a uni- versal joint. Flexible unions, elbows, joints, and stuffing boxes may also be used if desired. In vehicle construction with a shaft drive universal joints cannot well be avoided, and in many high-powered and racing boats they are also used to great extent; but it is better to avoid flexible connections as far as possible, as they are expensive, cumbersome, and must be given con- siderable care if they are to prove efficient. The exhaust piping in a boat can be so readily^cooled by admitting a part of the circulating water that there is no excuse for its ever burning or scorching anything, but nevertheless it is a good plan to have it well pro- tected and led in such a way that it will not be in the way of people passing to and fro. A marine motor, more than any other, should be handy and accessible and ample room should be left on all sides to allow it to be adjusted, taken apart, or cleaned readily, and the drain cock in base should be within easy reach. It is usually most convenient to have the exhaust on the port and the intake on the starboard side where the operator sits behind the motor, but the arrangement of such matters must be guided by the conditions in each par- ticular case. In installing any engine the exhaust silencer should be as near the motor as possible, and the exhaust pipe should be as short and with as few bends and turns as can be arranged. Where right angles must be made in an exhaust pipe two forty-five-degree elbows should be used instead of one common elbow, and tees 188 GASOLENE ENGINES should be avoided as much as possible; they always have pockets which are a nuisance. Connections as far as possible should be made with flanges or flanged unions, as ordinary screw unions and right-and-left couplings soon become so foul and corroded as to be impossible to disconnect. The exhaust in a boat should always be so arranged as to slant downward from the motor to Fig. 121. Marine Exhaust properly Installed the outlet, for even if far above the water line a wave may now and then wash into the exhaust. If a long exhaust pipe is unavoidable it should be gradually increased in size, and it is a good practice to always use a larger-sized pipe at every turn of the exhaust pipe beyond the first. For connecting up an exhaust pipe lead and oil should never be used, as it soon burns out and either leaves a leaky joint or cements THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 189 the joints together into a solid mass. Cylinder oil and graphite make an excellent joint, and even linseed oil and graphite is very good. Where a solid and permanent job is desired the joints may be made with red lead and molasses, or with litharge and glycerine, or with a cement composed of sulphur, iron filings, and sal-ammoniac mixed into a thin paste with water. Well-fitting threads may also be well cemented together by the use of sal- ammoniac and water alone. Where the boat is intended Fig. 122. Installation of Exhaust above Water-line for salt- water use the exhaust pipe should be of galvanized iron, and this is far better than black iron even where used around fresh water or for stationary motors. A sample of a well-installed marine exhaust is shown in Fig. 121. This illustrates an under- water exhaust, while Fig. 122 shows methods of exhaust piping when above the water line. In Fig. 123 is shown the method of properly piping a stationary exhaust where it was carried a long distance and several turns had to be made. The water-circulation pipe connections should be made with care, for a small air leak in the intake will often cause failure of the pump, and a leak in the outlet 190 GASOLENE ENGINES is very messy and disagreeable in a boat and wasteful of water in stationary or vehicle use. Brass pipe is advisable in marine work, although for fresh-water use galvanized pipe answers very well. Connections on water pipe may be made with white or red lead and oil, and common unions may be used, although for many reasons flange unions are better. Turns in water pipe are not as objectionable as in the exhaust, but are to be avoided as far as possible, and the piping should always Fig. 123. Installation of Stationary Engine Exhaust be provided with drain cocks at the lowest points in order to draw off the water in cold weather. Hose connec- tions are bad and should never be used where they can be avoided. They are uncertain at the best and soon rot. Moreover, they become soft and are liable to collapse with suction and shut off the water supply, while pieces of the fabric or rubber are always likely to work loose and get into the pipe, valves, or pump and cause trouble. At the intake of a boat's water system there should be a THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 191 strainer, and a cock should also be provided for shutting off the intake when not using the boat. Many a boat has filled and sunk through a loose or broken connection and lack of a valve to shut off the water. In connec- tion with the water system, where a small part of the water is turned into the exhaust, a three-way valve will be found most useful. A valve of this sort, made by Fig. 124. " Detroit" Three-way Valve the Detroit Lubricator Co., is illustrated in Fig. 124. By the use of such a valve any amount of water desired may be admitted to the exhaust or it may be turned off completely and all the water led overboard direct. In making up the gasolene pipe more care should be used than in any other part of the various pipes and 192 GASOLENE ENGINES connections. A small leak in this pipe may result in fire and destruction or even in loss of life, for even a drop or two of gasolene now and then will produce enough gas in a boat or small building to blow it to atoms. In open boats the greatest danger lurks in the bilge or around the tank, but in cabin boats, or in cellars or buildings, the entire place may be filled with gas that will explode the moment a flame is brought into contact with it. Even in motor vehicles a leak in a pipe or tank may allow gas to form which will ignite by a short-cir- cuited wire or a carelessly dropped cigar or cigarette, and nearly every case of gasolene fires or explosions about motors can be traced to a leaky connection or pipe. All joints in the gasolene pipe should be made with shellac or with common laundry soap, as any material containing oils is useless. Where brass pipe is used the connections should be carefully threaded and screwed up tight. A good, clean, new thread will hold gasolene without anything else. Where a flexible tube is used it should be of soft copper and all the unions or connections should be soldered or brazed in place. Where a gasolene pipe is subject to any vibration or jar a loop or turn should be provided to absorb vibration (Fig. 125, G), and the pipe should frequently be looked over for breaks or cracks. A cock should always be placed at the tank so that the supply may be readily shut off (Fig. 125, E) and a strainer should be provided to catch any water or dirt in the gasolene (Fig. 125, H). Lead or block-tin pipe is to be avoided. It is easily bent or crushed, is apt to be punctured, it corrodes and forms scales and sediment in the gasolene, and in case of fire it quickly THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 193 melts, thus allowing more gasolene to run out and feed the flames. Careful attention should also be given to the gasolene tank. It should be of copper or galvanized -iron of ample capacity and the feed pipe should be connected a short distance above the lowest portion. This will prevent any dirt or water in the bottom of the tank from work- ing into the feed pipe. At the lowest point in the tank B ! ^H a Fig. 125. Gasolene-Pipe Installation there should be a drain cock from which the collection of sediment and dirt may be drawn from time to time (Fig. 125, Dy. This drain in a boat should lead over- board and thus avoid danger of the gasolene getting into the bilge-water. A cock should also be placed in the feed pipe close to the tank so that the supply may be entirely shut off at any time (Fig. 125, E). The filler hole in the tank should be covered with a screw top (Fig. 125, B) and a small air vent made in the side of this cap (Fig. 125, C). This will allow the fuel to flow freely and also prevent dust or water from entering the 13 194 GASOLENE ENGINES tank. The tank on stationary engines should have the bottom at least six inches above the highest point of carburetor, and on marine or vehicle motors it should be high enough so that any motion of the boat in a sea-way, or of the car when hill-climbing, will not bring the carburetor above the lowest point of the tank. Fig. 126. Wiring Single-cylinder Jump-spark with Batteries Every tank should also be provided with splash plates inside to prevent the liquid from swashing about and causing irregular feed. To many motor-owners and users the question of electrical wiring is a very serious matter. In many cases one must be a good electrician as well as mechanic to wire up a motor, but in the majority of cases the wiring is comparatively simple and easy. A description of wiring is of little use, for it is far easier to follow a diagram or design a new one suited to particular require- ments by the aid of others. The makers of most motors furnish full wiring directions and diagrams with their engines; but as motors frequently require new wiring, THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 195 new systems are installed, or old motors without direc- tions may be purchased, diagrams for wiring the various types of motors, as well as several systems of both battery and combined battery and magneto, are illus- trated in Figs. 126 to 136. In wiring for a motor, whether for marine, stationary, Fig. 127. Wiring Single-cylinder Jump-spark with Batteries and Magneto or vehicle use, the best materials only should be used. About 80 per cent of motor troubles are due to ignition, and a large proportion of these are due to poor or faulty wiring. Too much care cannot be taken to see that all materials are perfect, all joints well made, and that the wiring as a whole is as well done and as free from the chance of injury, breakage, or short-circuiting as pos- sible. For primary wires in the jump-spark system, or for the wiring on a make-and-break engine, fairly 196 GASOLENE ENGINES light wire may be used, but this should be of good quality, well insulated, and of the multiple-strand kind. Single- strand wire is very good, but in connection with a motor the constant vibration is liable to break, or partly break, the wire and as this is not visible through the insulation the trouble is often very difficult to locate, especially Fig. 128. Wiring Two-cylinder Jump-spark with Batteries only as the two ends may rub together, causing intermittent or weak connections. Where staples are used to fasten wires to seats, rails, or any woodwork, they should be fibre- or leather-covered, or when these cannot be secured, a bit of rubber, leather, or even cloth may be placed between the wire and the staple. Two wires should never be confined under the same staple, for if the insulation becomes worn or broken, short-circuiting is almost sure to result. Have as few joints in a wire as THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 197 Fig. 129. Wiring Make-and-break with Batteries Fig. 130. Wiring Make-and-break with Batteries and Magneto 198 GASOLENE ENGINES possible, and when making a joint have the strands bright and clean and after being twisted firmly together they should be soldered. Soldering is not absolutely necessary, but it is safer, and with the modern soldering compounds, which can be used with a match or small torch or lamp, it is very easy to solder all joints. Whether Fig. 131. Wiring any Number of Cylinders with Master Vibrator the joint is soldered or not, it should be well wrapped with several layers of adhesive rubber tape. Secondary wire should be of the highest grade and where there is dampness or grease it should be led through a metallic or fibre tube or casing. Grease, water, and oil will in time destroy insulation and allow short- circuiting, and therefore all wires should be as thoroughly protected as possible. In marine work it is a good plan to run the secondary wires through rubber tubing and in all cases the wiring should be kept as short as possible. Avoid confusion of wires and keep each group separate THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 199 a Fig. 132. "Aplco" System of Wiring with "Floating" Storage Battery 4- 1 r- -Q D- / t ^-mch pipe may be threaded for 1/8; 3/8 for 1/4; 1/2 for 3/8; 3/4 for 1/2; i-inch for 3/4, etc. Iron pipe will not thread so accurately, but in many cases a thread can be cut in iron pipe that will answer for an emergency. Pipe- couplings may also be used as reducers by threading the outside for the next larger sized fitting, but they are harder to handle and do not make as good reducers as the pieces of brass pipe. 214 GASOLENE ENGINES In threading brass rods it will often be found that the same sized die as the nut used will not allow the nut to be screwed on. In such cases the rod should be slightly filed down or rubbed with emery before threading. Brass has a tendency to bind when it fits tightly, and threads on brass can always be made with more play than on iron. In using i /4-inch machine thread nuts it is often advisable to use a No. 14 thread with the same pitch in threading bars for the nut. If you should require a pipe wrench and have none at Fig. 141. Monkey-wrench as Pipe Wrench hand you can often handle a pipe successfully by placing a three-cornered file in a monkey wrench and using this on the pipe (see Fig. 141). Old files that are clogged and dull may be readily cleaned and made as good as new by soaking for a short time in sulphuric acid and water. The solution should be weak about i ounce of acid to 2 quarts of water and after soaking a few hours the THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 215 files should be washed thoroughly in a strong soda solution, brushed off clean, and dried by heat and then oiled. In plugging old holes with bolts or pipe plugs there is often great difficulty in getting them to hold tightly and not leak. This is often the case in holes tapped in water jackets where the metal around the hole has rusted away until so thin that it will not hold the thread. Such holes may be covered by brazing on a piece of metal or by fastening a patch of metal over the hole by means of several small screws and a packing between the jacket and the patch. The former requires a professional brazer, while the latter takes considerable time, and if the jacket is rusted badly you may find several holes to plug instead of one covered up. A very good method under such conditions is to file the hole oblong or oval, as shown in Fig. 142, A . Then cut a piece of stiff brass or soft steel or iron just large enough to slip into the hole (Fig. 142, B). Bore a hole through the centre of this piece and fasten it on the end of a short bolt or screw by threading and rivetting (Fig. 142, C). Thread the bolt or screw on the other end almost to the piece of metal. Slip the metal piece into the hole and turn around so that the long ends are across the short diam- eter of the hole. Put a piece of packing over the pro- jecting bolt (Fig. 142, Z>), place an iron or brass patch over the packing (Fig. 142, ), and screw the whole down firmly against the outside of the jacket by a nut on the threaded bolt as illustrated in Fig. 142, and k will be found a most satisfactory way to stop up old holes or leaks in many places. If the cylinder is a small 216 GASOLENE ENGINES one the inner piece of metal, or yoke, as well as the outer patch, must be bent or filed to a curve to fit the jacket; but in large cylinders the curve is so slight that only the outer patch need be curved. The only danger in using this method lies in setting up the nut too tight and thus cracking or breaking the metal around the hole. Small cracks or leaks in cylinders or jackets may often be stopped by filling with a strong solution of Fig. 142. Repairing Leak in Jacket sal ammoniac and water until well rusted up. In large holes or leaks a better method is to fill the opening with a cement of some sort. Various cements are made to withstand heat, water, and oil in iron or metal, but either of the following will prove excellent and may also be used to advantage in fitting pipe-joints where a permanent connection is desired or in placing under THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 217 a patch as described above or for fastening a plug in a hole. FOR IRON FOR GENERAL USE WHERE Sal ammoniac 4 parts HEAT IS NOT TO GREAT Sulphur 2 " Red lead 5 parts Iron filings 32 " Litharge 5 " Mix to a paste with water. Mix to a stiff putty with glyce- rine. FOR IRON OR OTHER METALS Dry white lead 6 parts FoR GENERAL USE Sulphur flowers 6 " Graphite 10 parts Powdered borax I part Whiting 3 Mix to a thin paste with strong Litharge 3 sulphuric acid and use at once. Mix to a paste with boiled lin- seed-oil. Small leaks, as well as compression leaks in crank cases, around bearings or in cylinder heads, may be stopped by cleaning the parts and coating with shellac. After the first coat is thoroughly dry a second or even a third coat should be given. Paint or putty should never be used to stop leaks in a motor, but white or red lead will often serve on water-pipe connections. A leak in a water-pipe may also be stopped by winding with adhesive rubber tape, and even a grease-soaked cloth or rag may be used for this purpose with good success in case of emergency. One of the best methods of stopping a leak in a radiator, tank, water-jacket, or pipe is to use chew- ing-gum. Place a piece of well-masticated gum over the leak and wrap well with adhesive rubber tape or strips of cloth. This will make a perfectly tight repair and will last a long time. I have seen a hole an inch in diameter patched in this way stand daily use for over two years and then, even though the tank had rusted out 218 GASOLENE ENGINES and had been discarded, the chewing-gum patch was still tight and firm. If small leaks occur in the pipes or radiator they may be temporarily stopped by sprinkling fine cornmeal or bran in the water. This should be done while the engine is running or trouble will result. The meal or bran finds its way to every crack and cranny in the system, and where there is a leak it clogs the latter and swells tight. If the meal is placed in the water when the motor is idle it will form masses in the joints and curves and cause complete stoppage of the circula- tion. One of the worst cases of overheating I ever saw was caused in this way. The meal or bran should be scattered in the water slowly and gradually, "and very little used; generally a couple of -large spoonfuls is enough. Sometimes a bearing will become worn or cut and lose compression when it is impossible to get new ones with- out laying up the motor for some time. Bearings that are loose may often be tightened up by means of a set- screw placed in the bearing box as shown in Fig. 143. With bearings made in cylindrical form this of course cannot be done, but with split bearings it often works very well. Occasionally you may have some soldered joint come apart or work loose when no soldering appliances are available. It will be very difficult to resolder such a joint unless a gasolene torch is at hand, but if you are in an automobile and have gas or acetylene headlights the joint may be readily sweated or brazed together in the intensely hot flame of these lamps. It is always advisable, however, to be provided with some one of the THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 219 various prepared soldering compounds which may be used with a common match or oil lamp, or even with a candle. One of the commonest troubles with four-cycle engines is leakage around the exhaust valve. As soon as the valve becomes pitted or worn it must be reground, for otherwise the hot gases will rapidly cut and burn away the valve until the motor is powerless. It is very easy to grind in a valve, and yet many owners and operators never attempt to do it but go to a repair shop or garage and pay to have it done, and very often poorly or Fig. 143. Set-screw to Tighten Bearing improperly done at that. To grind in a valve the spring and foot must be first removed. This is often very easily done by hand, but in some cases it will be found difficult to get out the cotter holding the foot in place without holding the spring up by mechanical means. Various valve-lifting devices may be purchased for doing this, but a home-made affair as shown in Fig. 144 will answer every purpose. After the spring and foot are removed lift out the valve from its seat and clean the surface of valve and seat thoroughly. If the valve chamber is 220 GASOLENE ENGINES readily removed from the cylinder it is best to do so; but if not, the cylinder should be thoroughly plugged with rags or cotton waste. Now spread a thin layer of fine emery and cylinder oil on the surface of the valve and place in its seat. With a screw-driver inserted in the slot on top of the valve, press the valve firmly down and while exerting a steady pressure turn it rapidly back and forth on its seat. Lift the valve occasionally and Fig. 144. Valve-lifter turn it to a new position and continue rotating. After a. few minutes you will find the grinding or "gritty" feel of the valve has disappeared and that it moves about more smoothly and quietly. Now remove the valve and wipe off all the emery and oil on the valve face and seat. If a clean bright surface shows all around, the valve is sufficiently ground, but if spots or streaks of dull or THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 221 black metal show here and there the operation should be repeated until the entire surface is smooth and bright. In grinding be careful not to press down too hard or to get dirt or filings mixed with the grinding mixture, or the valve will be ruined. After the grinding is complete the seat, valve, surfaces around the valve seat, and all other parts where emery may have lodged should be carefully wiped and cleaned, for a minute quantity of emery getting into the cylinder will soon ruin it or a little left under the valve will soon cut it worse than before. Some valves are not provided with a slot in the top for a Fig. 145. Valve-grinding Tool screw-driver, and in such cases there are generally two small, round holes. With valves of this sort you should use either a regular tool made for the purpose or should make a tool from an old auger as shown in Fig. 145. After the valve is ground and in place you should exam- ine the stem to see that it does not project so far that it always touches the tappet or push-rod when the latter is in the position for the valve being closed. If the grind- ing has allowed the valve to drop down until this occurs, 222 GASOLENE ENGINES the tappet or rod should be filed off until about 1/32 of an inch is left between the end of the valve stem and the push-rod or tappet. Never file off the end of the valve stem, as in this case a new valve will prove too long when placed in the old seat. New valves should always be ground into the seats, and a newly ground valve will never be quite tight until it has been operated for some time. Emery and oil is an excellent grinding compound, but Tripoli, rotten-stone, or very fine pumice will give a smoother and more beautiful finish, although the grinding will take longer with these materials than with emery. Various valve-grinding compounds are on the market; and some of these that are composed of carborundum, and come in the form of a paste in collapsible tubes, are the finest and handiest of preparations for grinding valves. Being in a tight tube and already mixed, there is no danger of foreign matter or grit getting in and the consistency of the compound always remains the same. A tube of this material should be in the kit of every user of a four-cycle motor. Even when the valves are well ground in and perfectly adjusted a motor will sometimes lose compression and yet it will be next to impossible to discover the joint or crack where the trouble occurs. At such times the leak may be readily located by squirting soapsuds around each joint while the motor is running. Wherever a leak occurs the suds will form bubbles and you will often be surprised to find how many unsuspected leaks there are in your motor when you test it by this method. A great deal of valve trouble may be avoided by THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 223 placing a small ball race or thrust between the spring and valve foot as shown in Fig. 146. When this is done the valve revolves slightly each time it seats, and is thus continually resting on a new spot, causing less wear and liability to cut or pit. A great many compression leaks may be traced to the priming or relief cocks. These cocks become exceedingly hot through their direct connection with the interior of the firing chamber and are therefore subject to very severe conditions. In order to be gas-tight they are pro- vided with a stiff spring to hold the conical valve in position, and the heat frequently destroys the temper of this spring and allows the valve to shake loose. Oil and gasolene also tend to gum up the cock and prevent it shutting gas-tight, and often the cock will leak con- siderably without visible evidence. A cock manu- factured by the Morgan Mfg. Co. of Newport, R. I., and designed to overcome the many difficulties of spring seating cocks, is illustrated in Fig. 147. This is a dis- tinct advance in this line of accessories and is a good illustration of how little things can be improved to add greatly to the efficiency and service of a motor. Many motor troubles are caused by an accumulation of soot and carbon in the cylinders, firing chamber, valve chambers, or one of the spark plugs or sparking electrodes. The quickest method of removing such deposits is by using one of the various carbon-removers Fig. 146. Valve with Ball-race 224 GASOLENE ENGINES on the market. Care should be taken in using these to see that none of the compound is left in the motor or the crank case, as they will injure the engine unless thoroughly removed and the parts well oiled afterward. Only light deposits and gummed oil can be thoroughly removed in this way, and for such accumulations plain kerosene oil will work almost as well and is safer and cheaper. Where the deposits have become thick and Fig. 147. "Morgan" Priming-cup hard they must be removed by scraping and to do this the cylinder head and other parts must be removed. To thoroughly clean the carbon deposits from a neglected motor is a disagreeable, dirty, and tiresome job; but with decent care and attention there is no need of ever being obliged to do it. Good oil, and not too much of it, will prevent carbon from forming; and if once in a while the cylinders are wiped out with kerosene, and the spark plugs and valves cleaned,- there will be no danger of being troubled with carbon and soot. In removing piston rings great care should be used, as THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 225 these are very brittle and break easily. By spreading the rings slightly with a pair of pliers, as shown in Fig. 148, and then inserting strips of thin tin or brass beneath them, they will slip off easily (Fig. 149) ; new rings should be put on in the same way. The last or lowest ring should be taken off first and the others in Fig. 148. Spreading Rings with Pliers Fig. 149. Shims for Removing Rings regular order, and in replacing them the reverse order should be followed, as otherwise the rings will slip into the empty grooves and cause lots of trouble. Special pliers should be used for spreading the rings, as they must work in exactly the opposite manner from ordinary pliers; that is, the nose should open instead of shut when the handles are brought together. Such pliers may be purchased ready-made, but are easily constructed from pieces of steel rod bound together with wire for a joint as shown in Fig. 150. Oftentimes rings will fail to hold compression when they are not 15 226 GASOLENE ENGINES worn out, through oil becoming gummed and hardened in the groove, thus preventing the rings from moving about or springing properly. If the grooves are found filled with hard oil they should be thoroughly cleaned and freshly oiled before replacing either old or new rings. If the rings show smooth and bright all around it proves that there is no leakage past them, but if blue-black or discolored spots show it indicates a leak. In cylinders Fig. 150. Pliers for Spreading Rings with separate heads, where the piston is lifted up through the top, it is often very difficult to replace the piston and rings. By placing bolts or screws in the stud holes of the cylinder and pushing wooden wedges between these and the rings, the piston may be easily replaced (Fig. 151, W). Strips of brass or tin may also be used as shown in Fig. 152, 5, S, and will save trouble and broken rings. Most engines have considerable bright brass work about them, and it adds greatly to the appearance of any motor to have this kept bright and clean. Hundreds of metal-polishes are on the market and some of these are good, some poor, and some will destroy the metal faster than they polish it. Avoid any polish that cleanses by chemicals or acids. Any polish that smells of ammonia or that will affect litmus paper for an acid test should be avoided by all means. Such polishes will give a ' THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 227 quick and brilliant finish, but the surface of the metal will corrode all the faster afterward and will soon become eaten and pitted until ruined. It is far safer and better to make your own polish and it will cost far less in the end. For rough work, where old corroded brass is to be cleaned, cylinder oil and the finest pumice stone may be used, but for ordinary work or on brass that is in good condition a mixture of rotten-stone and oil, crocus powder and oil, jeweler's rouge and oil, or oil and Fig. 151. Wedges for Putting in Piston whiting should be used. If a more liquid polish is desired, a little kerosene may be added until the desired consist- ency is obtained, while a paste may be made by adding hot parafnne or tallow until the mass partly solidifies when cold. After polishing with any of the above a highly finished result will be obtained by wiping with kerosene and rubbing with precipitated chalk. Steel or iron that has become rusty but should have 228 GASOLENE ENGINES a bright finish may be polished by scouring with emery and oil or emery paper, and afterwards finishing with pumice and oil or rotten-stone and oil. It is better, however, to finish all iron and steel with paint or enamel. Any good engine enamel will answer for most places, but on the exhaust and cylinders a special enamel should be used. For cylinders the highest-grade engine enamel should be used or an enamel made by mixing the color desired with the best quality Japan varnish. Fig 152. Shims for Inserting Piston On exhaust pipes and mufflers few paints or enamels will stand, but graphite mixed with linseed-oil will last longer than any other compound. Before applying paint or enamel to any part of a motor the portion to be painted must be thoroughly cleaned from grease or oil and smoothed bright and clean with emery paper. Old paint or enamel should be smoothed off with emery paper, and if any looseness or cracks appear the old paint should be burned and chipped off to the iron. Parts that rub or bear together, or bearings, should not be painted; many troubles have been caused by painting springs, valve stems, carburetors, igniters, and wires. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 229 Where belts are used there will often be trouble with their slipping, especially where the drive is short. Around water, or in boats, leather belts should be avoided. For pump drives, etc., wire-coil belting or sprockets and chains are better than anything else, but even wire belts will at times slip on the pulley wheels. When this occurs wrap two or three turns of adhesive tape around the wheel in the groove, being careful to have the tape wound in the direction of drive so it will not work up. Cotton-web belts are better than leather in most cases, and rubber is also excellent; while for very long drives nothing excels good manila rope spliced together. When belts slip they should be treated with some compound or belt-dressing. Many excellent dress- ings are on the market, but I have found that resin dissolved in gasolene and sprinkled on the belt is the best thing in an emergency. This should not be used freely on leather belts, however, for the gasolene soon ruins the leather. Perhaps the best material for making a belt stick and pull is common tar soap. By holding a cake of this against a moving belt it can be evenly dis- tributed and the belt will at once cease slipping. In winter time some provision should be made for preventing water from freezing in the tanks, pipes, radiator, and jacket of stationary and vehicle motors. In marine engines the water may be drained off to pre- vent this trouble, but in automobiles and stationary engines it is better to add some substance to the water. Glycerine, calcium chloride, salt, and various other sub- stances are used, but these are all more or less injurious to metals or rubber pipe. The best material is denatured 230 GASOLENE ENGINE^ Alcohol This is cheap, it will not injure any portion of the motor, and it will prevent freezing even at the lowest temperatures. It is better to keep too much rather than too little alcohol in the water, and as the alcohol evaporates rapidly when heated it should be kept up to its proper percentage by adding more alcohol from time to time. When all danger of freezing is past, the water should be thoroughly drained off and new water put in its place. I have usually found that a xo-per-cent solution of alcohol (i gallon to 10 gallons of water) is safe, and it is very seldom that the temperature goes low enough to endanger a mixture of this propor- tion. If alcohol cannot be procured, a solution of equal parts of glycerine and water, or a solution of 5 pounds of calcium chloride to a gallon of water will prove per- fectly safe. A solution that is said to be non-corrosive and will withstand a temperature of 20 degrees below zero is made by combining 75 parts of carbonate of potash with 50 parts of glycerine and 100 parts (by weight) of water. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 231 1111 II^IM rj VH M i ~ I I li ~ - *tjOaJCC^3?jOTio!o CX O, S * * * 2 i- " 1 - ^ Q | | = .S U, (L) U, CX Timer advanced too far. Motor overheated. Too much oil, caus- ing carbon deposit in cylinder. Spark plug rusty or dirty, thus allowing the points to become red hot. Short circuit in timer. Batteries old or wet. Two bat- teries in contact, thus short-cir- cuiting. Wires or connections loose or broken. Spark-plug points broken, dirty, too far apart, or too close together. Vibrator worn or pitted or irregular in ac- tion. Make-and-break igniter out of adjustment or interior elec- trodes worn or dirty. Rocker NN "O ir e i it i S'i , 03 O 3 "- 1 "^ I* 'So 'Sox: .2 O | 5 * o $.8 1 bfl c en rj 3 M G 55 . rt .C W a s ;* a ^ C? S) OQ II jf j sill < -1 111 o3 W >, fl s J3 fill * ~ s o3 ^ rt V. Q J3 ^ E ^ O ^ '"5 ^ *e ^ "S S S- rx, ^ RJ B W ^; "^* O ^ -^ b/i ^ 1 SYJ* "^ O PQ i c u ^ * o 6 "S s a'S > u ^_> ,^ H *- rt C/3 fJ Cv 232 GASOLENE ENGINES o5 L ^ rsj ill I * .2 C TJ K, g ^ X 1(3 GJ -4-* | 3 e & * a Q a c ^ .TS -3 S .S J .2 U)cn O *= u, CXu s b a a CQ i:-i f^ CU VJ _^ ^_, 2^ en _* 2 a^ CJ ^ I '3 CJ CQ (/! -M 03 u b T3 '8 "9 'v G C ^_j ^.J w CD 4-i o II en *0 .B, UH X3 03 03 Sg s l 1 feak or short-circuit spring too weak or irnt out or wet. In O ,G CAJ c or timer. Timer w > , a ) ,*i BB CO- O _o * c 'o OH 3 -M OJ 4J rt U I CJ Rltl. M u S.'3 G^ &' *C *- o "o c-i ^ * G en u, CU S O Prl^ji^ 1 ^r>.2 ^3 2 cu J3 J2 -Q u 5 J5"-" o S,^i I-S G - ? a 2 ^ .2 en ^ U > * j3 S 4 'S 3 & ^ a*4 G G O bfl G Td O t|? B *ii! 03 u G CX bfl tn tn rn . b^O .2 c G T3 ""* *C . C&^1| o3 u, tl G :!i^ :nn a c*^ -^ rt all! 234 GASOLENE ENGINES THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 235 0) TJ E Q % * c ng s S -a 05 X W o bo o c c e T 8 i fc i_ - G -w QJ co c3 a bf> x . ^ 1^|o ti fip s e .s 'e Q ti S^ = fe 8 ilillii 111 ill I 05 W 05 .B, O 05 a 03 ^ C - +J 4-* fj 3 ^ ^H I g I g;| o S O o fc J c^ S3 f. 236 GASOLENE ENGINES o rt r^ u. w 2 ^ S S *o t ^ ~ o ^ . ^ c^ J3 *^ 3 > o w ^ i S G 13 c"-2 > "Tl ^ 3* >> Cy c3 . ^ >, j3 1 "c s flj 1 & S D - rt tn CO s ta > rt k 1 aJ fi 05 S 1 rt o 1 Broken rings. Loose piston pin or connecting-rod bearings. Badly worn cylinder. Loose piece of metal in cylinder. Loose fly- wheel. Loose gears. Broken igniter. Loose bearings. Carbon deposit. Poor water circulation. Pump gland striking eccentric rod or plunger. Poor lubrication. Loose or worn eccentric straps. Leak in pipe line or connections and short circuit, causing spark J*

IH o aj ^1 e 6 joj CO S V rt ^ o 'S oj .Sf ^ "S ."S ^ e & ^ 1 I a Ui ^ CJ s J4 J O fe thus allowing burning gas to blow back and ignite gasolene in carbu- retor. Leak around the manifold or intake-pipe flange connections. Worn or loose gears. Water or dirt in gears. Gear-case loose or dirty. Poor lubrication. Wrong adjustment. Broken tooth of gear, loose key, or bushing. Loose i Jrt o 8 ,0 1 S | 2 to J^ CO $ J) 0, | QJ S^ S & 3 rt T3 *o3 *O h fa 1' c o i o3 S | ^ cd ? o 2 a '8 bo X u, THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 237 S E g - u cu o S C c" jj |o ! ? ^ to 'o CJ a l s c; (0 H^ s -Sg s s I -2 CQ c3 a >> -d s l 3 bo lil H Q. 1 ^ i u. fc 2 S rt || b o | 'S ^to 44 rt o x^ S-5 !^ Magneto t 0^ K* u "*3 o I i en 4-> C CJ (-> -C o a " O J^ t_i 51 S {3 be cu 's 1 r CU JjJ *CU *4J y 'So o js ' en ~ o< 11 'C o -0 o 'So b 3 +j 1 u O stuck or jamn causing backlas of true or >,c3 en r3 3 O UH T3 &"o II Short circuit Coil burnt out Short circuit in 8 | 4 C 'So sg ^ i 8 | g | 3 a 8 | short-circuited, Brushes worn II en 43 2 S - O bO a c s " GASOLENE ENGINES C TJ ~ ^ ^-> X 43 - ; 2 1 1 1 1 1 ^^'^ t ^ ' C ^ U^ rn r* __ - , (j M ^ 0) O o nJ -^ W^ * M en "J ^O c_i * 4J 7? . is J* o S & .S ~ S " ^ &'3 | oj K s u, ^ o rt o" a v2 'u U S ti nj-*H-^oC^>- 1 u ii yif i O u G * ^ fe Ji 0^ O 3 2, S '3 6 & u t: .s S bo U 8-S-g SJg t s S.g.2 oj o o "5j t-^i ;r 1 S g I I g,:|c/) g>|J3 d .SP^ "a g ~ w J> !^ . . d O O Uc I ~-* Ui O C "73 CU I ^ | S .S 8 & x > ^ r c 'g o ij o "" ** W a3 S S g b E ^ rt i^ M > TJ .0 43 o 4; ,* cx^ 1 43 'S. o U *g ,^ ^ -3 42 | ^ S el s fc "3 o TJ S .s E2 8 *^ rt fe - ^ J3 CL) '/) T) S 5 .S| 03 ^ o CJ a > il CJ +> II THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 239 H S >> ? I B sd^BS^ 0- 2 o | c 3 S -d i 5l*g, en j . ^ J .S (j -* *^ l*_ > 2 Ji bx) till l'i>~ i CJ CU O -4-^ cu o rr5 o ^ , O 2'S tJ *^ H 2 ^ . c c ea - S 8 b/0 *O -o ^ J*2 "^ ^ o o I .-2 | 'J3 "^ O II .-i b" o fa M C O ' rt '* s a 3 O i s 3o^ *c *" S '-3 S ^ -: S II en lo 3 1*3 U S 3 O o -o 'S 3 O T3 * _g CD K/I ^ d fe o H Ml -M o cr ^s^ c 3 o 0) ^ -M tsl ^ s d E 2 1 ^ s Q 'So *w 240 GASOLENE ENGINES c > J2 2 a a -a H fsf^HSis ,?-> 3 -a e LH CU flJ 711 ^ < O Cu 03 * IB 2 & c i a - |I d "5. a c aj Q <*i 2 03 4j Cti ^ C 03 w jy x 03 a> .2 u W ^ . c5 -r -a S 8 '* s g IH ^ fafl X 3 -2 *!-> IU g e C o3 bfi W _J | S s -o LC X S c/5 cu > ^ fe i CO OB I e c *c CJ '"o nJ I ^ JS "' 1 >> nS X 1 t s rt _C c a> o ^ S u IH i "rt CO > 3 j s M *J O 95 Cfl JH S CO . So^ J 00 V s z? IH O e c 0) > '3 c ri ta '/i & 'a S j^; S $ 2 Unexploded C C 1 "c, X V T3 c rt by burning ga ^ OJ | i ^r y "8 3 "x 's OJ j=; _O 'C 1 '5 t b/D 1 Loose nuts ( nections. W THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 241 Cause Remedy plunger on plunger pump place packing. Tighten all joints >r leaky, allowing suction of on intake water-pipe. Force water Check valves in water-pipe or air back through outboard inlet worn, or dirty. Bits of metal on marine motors. Flush water- ip or valves. Racing engine, jacket by forcing water back too much retarded. Not through it. Use an exhaust valve ti lift to exhaust valve. Too with longer stem. Adjust mixture gasolene. Water-jacket and oil feeds. Stop engine at once i with dirt or scale. Drive and allow to cool gradually. Do np broken or slipping. Poor not throw cold water on it. Oil ition. Water intake choked well and turn over by hand several times before attempting to start it again. Never run a motor when it overheats, r lubrication. Piston rings Pour kerosene through head of in grooves. Broken or worn cylinder and turn engine over a Cylinder scored from using number of times. Oil well and n rings. Gummy or poor oil. drain all kerosene from base, leating. Grit or rust in cyl- Examine rings and piston. Clean Connecting rod or piston- grooves and replace rings or use >earings worn out of true, new ones. If cylinder is scored ing piston to cant to one side replace or have rebored. Examine am. Connecting rod bent. connecting rod, piston pin, and bearings. Clean out all carbon o kj-Ej^wi^iubu WL.J C t *{* t2 *** 2 *?** o(3o'^ G Q 4? 5 3 1 ^ O .2 'a^ c/5 a. M G It S E |j tn (A 3 c o G o c 13 tj W g JS o 0) Pi 3 en S 2 * o ^ ' "** * .2 *o5 CJ 1 " T3 C *o *^ tn >^3 1 ^ 'g b 1 1 1 .a B )S .2 'S o 16 242 GASOLENE ENGINES > T3 c o -2 s > < ; x c Ills a ? " a s x-s-s s- r-si.^ ? g-a 8-g 0-3 ^ I "S I S 3 S g 31M:_I r* *** ^3 u ^ 8.|h|,| H l!lll J &l8slSIIJ^sl1 > S js OT U G c/) ^4 o a> II -s d - s S.2 THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 243 *5 & e d t a tio im a a o 1 Illil slc3 l SIl sl5 o 3 4-> O J5 2 s a i i^ II u i: e E S *td g B * -i O t O u, d) >H* 2 I^JS-al su 244 GASOLENE ENGINES S o S g bo ^ ^_, vi: e o tn cu ^o bo =3 g rt . <*H CO J-. ^ O rt O Is C u, "? s g s QJ Uc I- C v2 -M 'Sot! 03 o ! & 3! 5S5 .s e ^ - S'S Q w .s ^ >> S 1-1^ 6 ba P d -M f3 Hi C en f> o5 bfl JS M S;5 V k .11 s H > en bfl O bfl .S 6 -S g -^ iJt'.l S "c JS .S ^M 05 J5 H 1 ctf cj c' I 8 o D c en ^ O cu O ti a, -M c ?, 05 G C v o^'S S "c o v- "r s 3 CHAPTER IX GLOSSARY OF ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN CONNECTION WITH GASOLENE ENGINES, WITH EX- PLANATIONS. VARIOUS USEFUL TABLES; HEAT VALUE OF FUELS; SIZE AND CAPACITY OF TANKS; IRON-PIPE SIZES; DRILL SIZES FOR SCREW HOLES; UNITED STATES STANDARD SCREW THREADS; CAP- SCREW SIZES; FINDING SURFACE AND VOLUME. GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS Accelerator Any attachment or device for increasing speed. Advanced Spark An electrical spark produced to ignite a charge of gas in a motor before the piston reaches the upward limit of its compression stroke. Air Lock A gathering of air in a pipe which prevents the flow of liquid through the same. Annular Pertaining to or in the form of a ring. Annular Bearing A bearing in the form of a ring. Annular Opening A ring-shaped opening. Ampere A unit of electrical measurement nearly analogous to quantity. Ampmeter (Ammeter) An instrument for indicating or measuring amperes. Armature A wire coil around an iron core used in producing elec- tricity between two magnets, as in a dynamo. A tmosphere The weight, or pressure, of air, equivalent to 15 pounds per square inch. Babbitt A composition of various soft metals used as bearings to overcome friction. Bearings made from babbitt. Backfiring The backward or premature explosion of a gas engine. Baffle Plate A plate or partition to turn or stop the flow or force of gases or other matter. Balance Weight A weight attached to a crank, shaft, or wheel, to balance the explosive force of the motor and lessen vibration, as well as to overcome the tendency to a dead centre. 246 THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 247 Ball Bearing A bearing in which revolving steel balls aid in over- coming friction. Ball Cage A metal cup, ring, or recess, holding the balls in a ball bearing. Ball Check A check valve in which a ball fits over the opening, in place of a regular valve. Ball Pein The round end of a machinist's hammer. Ball Race Hardened steel washers, or disks, against which the balls bear in a ball bearing. Bearings The parts on which a revolving surface rests, or through which it passes in contact. Bed The surface to which a motor is fastened by its bed plate. Bed Plate The flat surface at the base of a motor used to attach the engine to its bed. Bell Crank An angular crank transmitting power, or pull, at right angles. Bevel Gear Cog-wheels, or gears, with sloping faces for transmitting power at an angle. Binding Post The post, or metal object, to which electrical wires are fastened. Boxes The metal casings which contain, or hold, bearings in place. Brasses Bearings of bronze or brass used in place of babbitt. Break Spark An electrical spark produced by interrupting or breaking an electrical current. Breaker An object for breaking or interrupting an electrical current. Brushes Metal or carbon points used to gather or transmit elec- tricity from the armature of a magneto to the wires. Burr A roughened or enlarged edge, or end, of a bolt, shaft, pipe, or other metal object. Bushing A cylindrical shell or casing to reduce a hole in a pipe, wheel, or other object or to enlarge the object that passes through a hole. Butt Spark See Kiss Spark. By-pass The passage through which the explosive gas passes from the base to the firing chamber of a two-cycle motor. Cam An. irregular or variously shaped piece attached to a shaft and so designed as to transmit a varying motion. Cam Gear The gear used to operate a cam. Cam Shaft The shaft, or spindle, carrying a cam. Calorific Power The power actually contained in a unit of heat. 248 GASOLENE ENGINES Calorific Value The number of thermal, or heat, units contained in a certain quantity of fuel. Cap Screw A form of machine screw, or bolt, having a square or hexagonal head. Carburetor A device for so combining or mixing liquid fuel with air as to produce an explosive or combustible gas. Castellated Nut A nut with grooves on its top, to hold cotter pins. Catalytic Ignition Ignition by the use of spongy platinum which becomes incandescent in contact with coal-gas or carbureted air. Centrifugal Governor A device which regulates the speed of an engine by the centrifugal force of weights operating through springs or other devices. Centrifugal Pump A pump which operates by a revolving fan or wheel within a casing, and which forces water or other liquids by centrifugal force. Check Valve A valve so constructed that the valve lifts or opens to the pressure in one direction, but closes or seats when pressure is exerted in the opposite direction. Choking The failure of a motor to operate properly through the surplus of oil, fuel, carbon, or restricted passages in the exhaust. Clearance The space between the top of piston at its upward limit and the interior of the top of the cylinder; space between any two objects. Clutch A device for holding motion or power between the motor and the mechanism to be operated and which may be thrown off or released at will. Coil Wire wound about an iron core used to create a greater inten- sity in the electrical current. Columbia Locknut A form of nut provided with a tapered, threaded bushing within a nut; so designed as to contract or grip the thread upon which it is screwed and thus obviate slipping or working loose. Combustion Chamber The chamber or space in the cylinder, or connected thereto, in which the gas is ignited or exploded. Commutator A revolving or oscillating object connected to the wires of anjirmature and through the action of which the elec- tricity is transferred by brushes to the wires. Also applied to timers. Compression Stroke The stroke of a piston which compresses the gas in the cylinder and at or near the limit of which the ignition and explosion take place. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 249 Compression Cock Same as Relief Cock. Condenser Numerous sheets of tin-foil placed in an induction coil and connected to wires across the interrupter. Designed to reduce primary sparking at the contacts and to increase the current. Connecting Rod The arm or rod connecting the piston with the crank shaft. Constant Oil Feed A device for constantly feeding oil while the machine is in operation. A force-feed oiler. Contact Points The points through which an electrical contact is made. The platinum points of the vibrator or of the electrodes on a make-and-break igniter. Controller A device for controlling any mechanism. Cotter Pin A metal pin with the two ends bent around so as to lie close together. When placed in a hole the ends are separated, thus preventing the cotter from slipping out. Counterweight The same as Balance Weight. Counterbalance The same as above. Coupling Any device for connecting two pipes, rods, or shafts. Crank The offset portion of a shaft to which the connecting rod is attached and through which power is transmitted to the shaft. Crank (Starting) The crank or handle for turning over or starting the fly-wheel of the motor. Cranking The operation of turning over the fly-wheel of the motor by hand to start the engine. Crank Case The case or recess within which the crank revolves. Crank Shaft The shaft bearing the crank. Cross-head The piece to which the connecting rod is attached and to which the piston rod is also fastened, and which slides in guides, thus transmitting straight linear motion to a crank by allowing the connecting rod to oscillate on a pivot through the cross-head. Current-breaker A device for interrupting or breaking the current of electricity to produce a spark. Cut-out A device for allowing the exhaust to pass directly into the air without going through the muffler. Cylinder The portion of the motor which contains the piston and within which the explosion takes place. Cylinder Ribs Metal ribs, or flanges, cast upon the cylinder's external surface to radiate heat and cool the cylinder in air-cooled motors. Cycle A certain period of time within which the same events occur regularly. As applied to gas engines it is practically equivalent 250 GASOLENE ENGINES to "stroke" and is one-half a revolution of the fly-wheel, approx- imately. Cyclic Phases The phases or changes in operation during each cycle of a motor. Dead Centre That portion of a revolution during which the piston cannot transmit motion to the crank; the upward and downward limits of the stroke. Deflector The projection from the top of the piston in two-cycle motors designed to prevent the inrushing gas from passing across and mingling with, or escaping with, the exhaust and to direct its course toward the top of the cylinder. Diaphragm A thin plate or partition, usually flexible. Die A tool for cutting male screw threads *on rods or pipes. Die Stock The handles and holder for holding a die when using it. Differential Gear A combination of gears, or wheels, so arranged that motion may be transmitted to different speeds or powers, or where the resistance is unequal the power exerted may be equalized. Differential Cam A cam transmitting varying motions or powers. Differential Piston A piston composed of two pistons of different sizes and operating together to perform separate duties. Distillate Denatured alcohol or similar fuels. Distributor A device for distributing anything. In connection with motors it is usually applied to a form of electrical device which distributes the ignition current to the various cylinders, but is also applied to devices for feeding oil or to an arrangement for leading the charges of gas to various cylinders (see Elmore motor). Dog A mechanical appliance for transmitting certain motions. Dowell A pin or key used to hold two pieces or parts together. Drop Tee A pipe fitting in the form of a tee but provided with a bracket or flange for fastening to a wall or other object. Drop Ell A pipe elbow with bracket as above. Dynamo A machine for generating electricity through the revolu- tion of an armature between electro-magnets. Dynamometer A device for ascertaining the power necessary to operate a machine at a given speed. Eccentric A circular disk set on a revolving shaft with its centre out of true with that of the shaft and used to transmit recipro- cating motion from rotary motion. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 251 Eddy Current A current or irregular flow of the gas caused by square or rough corners in the passages which prevent a free flow to cr from the cylinder. Electro-magnet A piece of iron covered with a coil of wire. When an electrical current is passed through the coil the iron core becomes highly magnetic. Electrodes The two points carrying the electric current between which a spark is produced, as in a spark plug. Exhaust The escape of the burnt gases from the cylinder. The opening through which these gases escape. Exhaust Valve The valve which allows the burnt gases to escape from the cylinder. Expansion Joint A joint or coupling so designed as to be capable of expansion and contraction by one side sliding over the other. Face The smooth or flat surface of a joint or wheel. Face Plate A plate of metal provided with clamps by the use of which an object is held in a lathe where the surface is to be turned off or faced. Faced Joint A joint made by having the two surfaces ground smooth and flat. Fan A revolving wheel or disk provided with blades or paddles for circulating air about a motor to cool it. Applied erroneously to a propeller wheel. Feather Vibrator A form of vibrator of very delicate construction and capable of very rapid vibration. Flange A projecting surface, or ridge, usually applied to parts designed to be bolted together or attached to some other object. Flange Coupling A joint formed by fastening two pipes or shafts together by two flanges bolted together. Flange Union A flange coupling when applied to pipe. Flash Point The temperature at which a substance ignites. Flexible Coupling A coupling composed of oscillating parts so designed as to allow the shaft to revolve even when the two parts are at an angle. Flexible Elbow An elbow constructed as in the above. Flexible Joint Same as above, but more often applied to small rods, etc. Flexible Union A union for connecting pipe constructed with parts which permit it to be set at varying angles. 252 GASOLENE ENGINES Float Fee& An arrangement by which the flow of a liquid is regu- lated by a valve operated by a float. Flooding An excess of gasolene or other liquid fuel in an engine. Fly-wheel The large wheel at the end of the shaft used to carry the momentum of the shaft beyond dead centre and to minimize vibration. Four-cycle The operation of a motor in which an explosive impulse occurs only on every other revolution of the fly-wheel or on every fourth stroke. Friction Clutch A clutch in which the power or motion is held and transmitted by frictional resistance. Gap The space through which a spark will pass between two electrodes or terminals. Gasket A ring of material, or packing, placed between two surfaces to render the joint tight. Gate Valve A valve which operates by a gate or partition that rises and falls in a groove or guide, thus giving a full opening; a full- way valve. Gauge An instrument for measuring anything. Gear A cog-wheel. A combination of cog-wheels. A device for transmitting power, speed, or direction through a combination of cog-wheels or "gears." Gear Pump A form of rotary pump in which the water is sucked in and forced out by the revolution of two interlocking gears. Generator An appliance for generating gas from liquid fuel and air. An instrument for generating electricity. Gland A ring, or thimble, of metal used to hold packing in position. Globe Valve A valve which operates by a circular or globular valve, seating by turning down a threaded stem or spindle. Governor A device for regulating power, speed, or flow. In con- nection with gasolene motors, a device for regulating the speed of the motor within certain limits. Gravity Feed The feeding or flowing of oil by gravity alone. Gravity Oiler An oiler operated by gravity. Not a force-feed oiler. Grounding Connecting one wire from an electrical generator to the ground or to the frame of the motor and using the same in place of a complete wire to the other electric terminal. Hammer Break A form of breaker, or interrupter, which acts like a hammer by striking upon another piece of metal. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 253 Hammer Vibrator A vibrator constructed heavily to give stronger and slower vibrations than other forms. Hanger Bolt A lag-screw with a threaded end in place of a square head and onto which a nut may be screwed after the screw itself is in place, thus avoiding removing the screw from the wood in order to remove the object held in place by the screw head. Helical Gear A gear wheel with the teeth cut at a certain slant or curve, which forms the part of a helix or coil. Helical Spring A spring made in the form of a helix; a coil spring. High Tension A form of electrical discharge of high amperage. The induced current in an induction coil. The secondary current. Hit-and-miss Governor A governor which regulates the speed of an engine by allowing the valves to lift or remain closed through the action of an arm or blade which operates at normal speed but which misses when the desired speed is exceeded. Horse-power The power required to lift 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute. Hot Tube A form of igniter in which the charge of gas is exploded by the use of a tube kept at red heat. Hunting The irregular action of a governor causing an engine to slow up or increase its speed at intervals. Hydrometer An instrument for testing the specific gravity of liquids. Igniter Any device for igniting the explosive charge of gas. Igniting Device Same as Igniter. Ignition The process of igniting the charge of gas. Ignition Plug A plug inserted in the cylinder and which carries the electric spark used in igniting the charge; a spark plug. Indicator A machine for ascertaining the action of an engine by means of a tracing on a card. Indicator Card The card on which an indicator forms a tracing to show the action of a gasolene motor. Inductance The power of inducing, or generating, electricity in a coil of wire by passing an electrical current through another coil close to but not in contact with the other. Induction Coil A coil for generating induced electricity. Inertia The tendency of an object to remain stationary when at rest and which must be overcome before it starts to move. Inertia Governor A governor that acts through inertia. 254 GASOLENE ENGINES Inlet Valve The valve which admits the charge of gas to an engine's cylinder. Insulation The protection, or covering, of electrical conductors to prevent the escape of electricity. Insulator Anything which prevents the electricity from escaping from a conductor. Intake The opening through which the fresh gas is taken into the cylinder. Intake Stroke The stroke of an engine's piston which draws a charge of gas into the cylinder. The suction stroke. Jacket The portion of a motor covering the cylinder and separated from it by a passage for the circulation of water or other cooling liquid. Jig A device by which any machined article may be accurately duplicated. Journal A bearing on a shaft. Journal Box The casing holding a journal. Jump Gap The space through which an electric spark will jump. Jump Spark A spark of high-tension electricity which is caused by separating the electrodes or terminals of a circuit, thus causing the electricity to leap or jump across, producing a hot spark. Key A square piece of metal inserted between a wheel, or similar object, and a shaft and fitting into recesses in each to prevent turning or looseness of the two parts. Keyway The slot or recess into which a key fits. Kicking Backfiring or premature explosions causing the motor to reverse its motion when starting or to "kick" backwards. Kiss Spark A form of make-and-break ignition in which the contact points approach gradually, press firmly together, and separate instantly. Also called Butt Spark. Lag-screws Heavy wood screws provided with a square bolt head. Lead The advance or timing of a spark to cause ignition before the limit of the compression stroke, causing the explosion to exert its greatest force just as the piston passes dead centre. Lever A rod or arm for increasing, transmitting, or controlling power or motion. Liners Thin pieces of metal for reducing or enlarging the space between two pieces of metal. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 255 Lock Nut A nut screwed onto a bolt above the regular nut to prevent the latter from working loose. Lock Washer A washer, or ring, with one side cut through and the ends slightly turned up or sprung apart. Used to place under a nut on a bolt. The turned-up edges prevent the nut from loosen- ing or working off by the friction of the ends bearing on the under surface of the nut. Lost Motion Any looseness or motion which accomplishes no useful purpose and detracts from power or speed. Low Tension The primary electrical current either direct from a generator or battery or after being passed through a primary- wound coil. Lubricant Any substance that lubricates or reduces friction be- tween moving parts. Lubricator Any device for distributing a lubricant. Lug A metal projection for attaching to another object or for bearing against another piece. Magneto A machine for generating electricity by means of an armature revolving, or oscillating, between two permanent mag- nets. Make and Break A system of ignition in which the spark is produced by alternately making and breaking an electrical current. Manifold The common outlet of several pipes or tubes. Manometer A gauge or instrument for determining the pressure of gases. Mechanical Equivalent. The power contained in a gaseous body and which must be accounted for, either as heat abstracted from it or as some form of mechanical energy. A deduction from the law that nothing in nature can be lost or wasted. Mechanical Oiler An oiler or lubricator operated by mechanical means. Mechanical Valve A valve operated by mechanical means. Misfire The failure of a compressed charge to ignite and ex- plode. Momentum The tendency of an object 'to continue in motion after the power required to move it has been stopped. Motor Any machine for producing power or for transforming natural forces to mechanical motion. Muffler A device for quieting or silencing the noise of the ex- haust. 256 GASOLENE ENGINES Needle Valve A valve formed by a pointed rod bearing against the circumference of a small hole. Nipple A short piece of pipe threaded at both ends. Offset Cylinder A cylinder so placed that its centre is at one side of the centre of the crank shaft. Offset Crank A crank placed so that its centre is out of line with the centre of the cylinder. Ohm A unit of electrical measurement denoting resistance depend- ent upon diameter, length, and material of the electric conductor. Analogous to "friction." Oil Feed A device for distributing oil. Oil Pump Any device for pumping oil. Otto Cycle Four-cycle. So called because the Otto engine was the first to successfully adopt this system of operation. Packing Any material used to prevent leakage around a moving part or between the two surfaces of a joint. Packing Gland A piece of metal which presses the packing into place and is held by a threaded screw or other device. Packing Nut A nut used to hold packing in place. Pein The end of a hammer used for striking. Peining Hammering or stretching a piece of metal by use of the "pein." Pendulum Governor A governing device in which the speed is regulated by the swing of a pendulum instead of by centrifugal force. Phases See Cyclic Phases. Pick Blade The small blade or pick of metal which lifts the valve in a pick-blade governor. Pick-blade Governor A governor that regulates the speed of a motor by means of a blade or pick which lifts or misses the valve stem under excessive speeds. Pillow Block A block or stand supporting a bearing or journal. Pinion A small cog-wheel. Properly a wheel with pins or posts in place of cogs. Piston A sliding object within a cylinder; a plunger. Piston Pin The pin which holds the connecting rod to a piston. Piston Ring Metal rings fitted loosely around grooves in a piston which by spring of the metal form a gas-tight joint with the cylinder walls. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 257 Pitman The same as Connecting Rod. Pitting Wearing away or corroding of metal in the form of small holes or indentations. Planimeter An instrument for determining the area of indicator diagrams. Plug In motor parlance, the Spark Plug. Plunger A piston. Any object working or sliding within a cavity made to fit its surface. Plunger Pump A pump operated by means of a plunger or piston. Port An opening through which gas is admitted to the cylinder or base of a motor. Pre-ignition The igniting or exploding of a charge of gas before the proper time. Primary Coil A coil for producing low-tension electricity but not induced current. Primary Winding The first winding on a spark coil conveying the primary or low-tension current. Primary Wire The wire used to convey the primary or low-tension electrical current. Priming Pouring or injecting liquid fuel into a cylinder to start the motor. Placing water in a pump to start its operation. Priming Cup A cup for priming, usually a small receptacle attached to the cylinder and connected with the interior by a valve or cock. Prony Brake A device for testing the power of gasolene motors. Protractor An instrument used for determining angles and degrees of a circle. Puddle Carburetor A form of carburetor in which the liquid fuel is in a pool or puddle instead of in a float chamber, and from the surface of which the gas is drawn. Pyrometer An instrument for measuring the temperature of exhaust gases. Quadrant Any piece of metal in the shape of a quarter circle; usually applied to the curved, notched piece which holds levers in position. Rack A notched, or cogged, bar operating on a cog-wheel for transmitting rotary motion to reciprocating motion or vice versa. Rack and Pinion The combination of a rack and a small cog-wheel or pinion. 258 GASOLENE ENGINES Radiator A device for giving off, or radiating, heat and through which the hot water from the cylinder jacket is passed in order to cool it. Ratchet Valve A valve operated by a ratchet gear instead of by cams. Ratchet Wheel A disk or wheel with notches or projections so formed that it will turn in one direction but not in the other by dogs or lugs dropping into the notches. Ratio The proportion or relation of one thing to another. Reducer An appliance for reducing the size of an opening or of a rod or shaft. Reducing Coupling A coupling smaller at one end than at the other for reducing the size of any two pipes or rods which are connected by the coupling. Reducing Elbow An elbow with one opening smaller than the other. Relief Cock A cock or valve placed in the cylinder to relieve the pressure of compression. Ribbon Vibrator A vibrator made with a slender or thin piece of metal to which the contact point is attached. Ring Oiler A device in the focm of a ring which is attached to the crank shaft and serves to distribute the oil in the crank case to the bearings and connecting rod. Ring Valve A valve in the form of a ring or cylindrical section. Rotary Valve A cylindrical or conical valve which rotates or re- volves on its seat instead of lifting and closing. Ruhmkorff Coil An induction or vibrator coil. Scavenging The cleansing of the cylinder of burnt gases. Secondary Coil An induction coil. Secondary Current The induced current of an induction coil. Secondary Wire Heavily insulated wire for carrying the secondary current. Self-oiling Oiling without the aid of mechanical devices. Self-starting Equipped with a device for starting without turning or "cranking" the fly-wheel. Set-screw A screw of hardened steel or other metal used to hold a shaft or other object in place. Shaft Any revolving rod for transmitting power or motion. Shaft Bearing The bearing through which a shaft passes. Shaft Coupling A coupling for fastening two ends of shafting together. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 259 Shaft Hanger A bearing for shafting attached to a frame or post for fastening to a wall, floor, or ceiling. Shims Thin pieces of metal placed between joints to keep the two parts separated. Short Circuit The passage of electricity from one point to another without passing through the conductors provided. The escape of electricity through faulty insulation. Sight Feed A device by which the flow of oil or other lubricant may be seen in exactly the amount and condition in which it is fed to the parts to be lubricated. Silencer A device for silencing the noise of the exhaust. Sonoscope An instrument for determining the location of vibration or "pound" in a motor. Spark Break The interruption or breaking of an electrical circuit to produce a spark. Spark Coil A coil of either the primary or induction type which intensifies the electrical current and produces a hotter and larger spark. Spark Plug A plug fitted into the cylinder and insulated therefrom and provided with electrodes or terminals which produce the spark. Sparking Points The two terminal points or electrodes from which the spark is produced. Spindle A round rod or bar. The tapered or reduced end of a shaft. Sprocket A wheel provided with teeth which fit into the links of a chain for transmitting power or motion. Sprocket Chain The chain used on a sprocket wheel. Spur Gear A form of cog-wheel or gear-wheel in which the teeth are sharp or pointed. Street Elbow A pipe elbow in which one end is male- and the other female-threaded. Stud A piece of projecting metal to which a nut may be attached; a lug. Stud Bolt A bolt threaded at each end so that it may be screwed into a threaded hole and a nut screwed onto the projecting portion. Stuffing Box A box or casing through which a shaft passes and which may be packed to prevent leakage around the shaft. Suction Stroke The stroke of the piston which draws the charge of gas into the cylinder or crank case. 260 GASOLENE ENGINES Switch A device by which the electrical current may be turned on or off. Tachometer An instrument for measuring the number of revolutions of a wheel or other object. Tap A tool for cutting female threads in nuts, holes, etc. Taper Pin A round, tapered pin used to hold two parts of machin- ery together; especially for fastening a shaft to a wheel or gear. Templet A pattern or guide for duplicating parts. Terminal The end of a wire or electrical connection. Thermal Relating to heat. Thermal Efficiency The proportion of heat utilized by the engine as indicated by the power developed as compared with the total heat contained in the fuel used. Thermal Units The quantity of heat required to raise one pound of pure water from 32 degrees to 33 degrees Fahr. Thread A spiral groove cut in a screw, or in a hole, into which a screw is fitted. Throttle Any device for regulating the speed of a motor by increas- ing or decreasing the amount of gas entering the combustion chamber. Thrust The forward tendency or push of a shaft when operating under a load. Thrust Bearing The bearing designed to overcome the friction of the thrust. Timer A device for interrupting and connecting the electrical circuit at certain intervals in order to produce a spark at the correct time. Timing So regulating the tinier, or the valves of a motor, as to operate at the proper time to develop the best results. Torque A twisting or turning force. Two-cycle A form of motor in which an explosion or impulse occurs on every upward stroke of the piston or on every complete revolu- tion of the crank shaft. Union A device for connecting two pieces of pipe so that they may be connected or disconnected without disturbing the rest of the pipe. Valve A device for opening or closing a passage. Valve Box The casing in which a valve moves. THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 261 Valve Cam A cam which operates a valve. Valve Chamber The chamber within which the valve is placed. Valve Foot The lower portion of a valve upon which push-rods or cams operate. Valve Gear Gears for operating the valves. Valve Port The opening through, or beneath, a valve which is opened or closed by the action of the valve. Valve Rod A rod for operating a valve. Valve Seat The portion of the valve box upon which the valve rests when closed. In a rotary or slide valve the portion around the valve against which it bears. Valve Stem The spindle or shaft that connects the valve with its foot or handle. Vaporizer A device for vaporizing or transforming liquid fuel to a gaseous state by mixing it with air. Vibrator The part of an induction coil which automatically opens and closes the circuit of electricity through the coil. Volt A unit of measurement of electricity denoting the force of current. Analogous to pressure. Voltage The amount of volts produced by a battery or generator and which will flow from it when a circuit is completed. Voltmeter An instrument for measuring voltage. V-motor A form of gas engine in which the cylinders are placed at angles with one another or in "V-shape." V-thread A screw thread in which the grooves are angular with sharp or "V-shaped" angles. Waste Nut A flange or plate for fastening pipes to a floor or wall. Water-jacket The casing outside of a cylinder and which contains the circulating water. Web The thin portion of a wheel connecting the hub with the rim. Whitworth Thread A particular form of screw-thread differing from the ordinary threads in the shape of the grooves. The standard British thread. Wipe Break A form of make-and-break spark in which the spark is produced by one electrode rubbing or passing over the other. Wipe Spark A spark produced by a wipe break. Wire Drawing The pull or resistance caused by overcoming friction or pressure against moving gas, or in overcoming the resistance to a spring. Woodruff Key A form of key which is straight on one side but 262 GASOLENE ENGINES semicircular on the other. Used as a key to hold wheels or gears on a shaft where the end of the key cannot project. Worm Cam A cam provided with a "worm" or spiral groove or projection. Worm Gear A gear which is grooved in a spiral or "screw" manner instead of being provided with cogs. Worm and Segment A form of gearing composed of a worm gear and a sector of a cog-wheel or pinion. Wrist Pin The pin which holds the connecting rod to the crosshead. APPENDIX HEAT VALUE OF FUELS. (The following table is given on good authority but will be found to vary considerably from many other tables.) Fuel Br. Th. Units per Ib. Br. Th. Units per cu. ft. Hydrogen at 32 F 62,030 348 Carbon I4.SOO Carbon monoxide (C O ) 4.,7O6 e; in Pennsylvania heavy crude oil Caucasian crude oil <;heavy) 20,736 20,138 Caucasian crude oil (light) Petroleum refuse Anthracite gas 22,O27 19,832 -1,484 28-candle-power illuminating-gas QSO iQ-candle-power illuminating-gas 1 5-candle-power illuminating-gas 800 62O New York City water gas (60 F. at 30 Ibs. pressure 710.5 Ave. London coal-gas 668 Benzine (C 6 H 6 ) 18,448 Gasolene and its vapor 2I,9OO 690 Ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) 21,430 1,677 Marsh-gas (CH 4 ) 23,594 1,051 Natural Gas, Leechburg Pa 1,051 Natural Gas Pittsburg Pa 892 Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ) Semi-water gas 21,492 868 185 Producer-gas . . 150 263 264 GASOLENE ENGINES WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL PIPE. Table of Standard Sizes and Dimensions Nom. inside diam. inches Threads per inch Actual Inside Diam. inches Auctal Outside Diam. inches Thickness Inches Nom. weight per foot pounds Internal area Sq. inches M 18 36 54 .08 ,42 . 10 3 A 18 49 .67 .09 56 19 1 A 14 .62 .84 .10 .84 30 M 14 .82 1.05 .11 I . 12 53 i ii y 2 i .04 1-31 13 1.67 .86 i K ii 1 A 1.38 1.66 14 2.24 i-49 i y 2 ii 1 A 1.61 19 14 2.68 2.03 2 ii y 2 2.06 2-37 15 3 61 3-35 2K 8 2.46 2.87 .20 3-74 4.78 3 8 3-o6 3-5 .21 7-54 7-38 4 8 4.02 4-5 23 10.66 12.73 5 8 5-04 5.56 -25 I4-50 19.99 5 8 6.06 6.625 .28 18.76 28.88 DIMENSIONS OF DRILLS FOR STANDARD V-THREAD HOLES. Diam of Screw Threads Per Inch Diam. of Bottom of Thread Nearest Drill for Full Thread Correct Size Tap Drill X 20 .163 H A A 18 .216 52 \i *A 16 .267 H A ft 14 314 A if Vz 12 356 If M H II .468 M If % IO 577 If K 9 .683 11 f i 8 .784 If if i y* 7 :878 % I 3"5 i 34 7 1.003 i i A THEIR OPERATION, USE, AND CARE 265 CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL TANKS. Dimensions Inches Capacity in Gals. Dimensions Inches Capacity in Gals. 9X20 5 gallons 18X30 32 gallons 10X20 8 " 18X40 40 " 12X20 10 " 18X42 45 12X24 12 " 18X48 50 " 12X30 15 " 20X40 50 " 14X30 20 " 20X48 65 " 14X36 24 " 20X60 80 " 16X30 26 " 22X50 80 " 16X36 32 " 22X60 IOO " TABLE OF CAP-SCREW SIZES. Diam. Threads Per in. Hexagon Head Square Head Philister Head Diam. Round Head Diam. Short Diam. Long Diam. Short Diam. Long Diam. H 20 A 14 A H N ft & 18 H H ^ If A A H 16 & M A fi A N & 14 H M N if H 3^ H 12 N H M ITB ^ if ft 12 if il il iA if if 5 '8 II % i % iM J^ I M 10 i i^ i i^ i J /4 K 9 1^8 iff 1^8 iff \y% i 8 I# i& 1^ iM 266 GASOLENE ENGINES U. S. STANDARD SCREW THREADS (Angle of threads 60. Flat at top and bottom for 1/8 of pitch.) Diam. Screw Threads Per In. Diam at Root of Thread M 20 .185 Nut and bolt head sizes are ft 18 .240 determined by the following y% 16 .294 rules, which apply to both A 14 344 square and hex. nuts. i^ 13 .400 Short diam. of rough nut = ft 12 454 i y*. X diam. of bolt + y% in. ^8 II 507 Short diam. of finished nut = % 10 .620 i /^ X diam. of bolt -4- y% in. % 9 731 Thickness of rough nut = diam. 8 837 of bolt. Thickness of finished y% 7 .940 nut = diam. of bolt 3^8 in. M 7 1.065 Long diam. of hex. nut = short % 6 1.160 diam X I-I55- Long diam. of 1^ 6 1.284 square nut = short diam. X N 5 3^ 1-389 1.414. / 5 1.491 K 5 1.616 2 4 K 1.712 2 M 4 y* i .962 2 H 4 2.176 2 M 4 2.426 3 3 H 2.629 THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE 267 To FIND SURFACE AND VOLUME. Area of Rectangle = length X breadth. Area of Triangle = base X 1/2 height. Diameter of Circle = radius X 2. Circumference of circle = diam. X 3.1416. Area of Circle = square of diameter X .7854. Area of Sector of Circle = area of circle X degrees in arc -r- ^60. Area of Surface of Cylinder = circumference X length, plus area of both ends. Volume of Cylinder = Area of section in sq. inches X length in inches and divide by 1728 to find cubic ft. Diam. of Circle with given Area. Divide area by .7854 and extract square root. Surface of Sphere = square of diam. X 3.1416. Volume of Sphere = cube of diam. X .5236. Side of Inscribed Cube = radius of sphere X 1.1547- Volume of Cone or Pyramid either Round, Square, or Triangular = area of base X % its height. A Gallon of Water = 231 cubic inches and weighs 8M Ibs. (U. S. Standard). INDEX ACCELERATOR, 36 Accessibility, 95 Accessories, 98 Adjustments, 206 Adjusting, 205 Adjusting screw, 136 Air-cooled motors, 75, 82, 107 Air-intake, Automatic, 36 Air Port, 43 Alignment, 187 Amount of Oil, 182 Ampere, 125 Anti-freezing Mixtures, 229, 230 Armature, 126 Asbestos, 204 Automatic air-intake, 36 Automatic Valves, 57 Auxiliary exhausts, 163 B BALANCED MOTORS, 70, 72 Balances, Counter-, 91 Ball and Socket Terminals, 202 Ball Race, 223 Bearings, 92 Bearings, Tightening, 212 Beds, 182 Beds, Concrete, 183, 184 Beds in boats, 186 Bell Crank, 57 Belts, 229 Boats, Beds in, 186 Boats, Intake in, 190, 191 Bolts, Tightening, 219 Brake horse-power, 30 Breech-block Plugs, 86 Brushes, 127 Buffalo lubrication, 120 Buffalo oil-rings, I2O, 123 Bull Dog Connectors, 201 Bypass, 32, 39, 43 CADILLAC MIXING VALVE, 105 "Caille Perfection" Ignition, 141 Cams, 21, 57, 58, 94 Carburetors, 99, 107 Carburetors, Float-feed, 99, 100 Carburetors, Kingston, 104 Carburetors, Krice, 104 Carburetors, Schebler, 100, 102 Cases, Crank, 85, 87 Cells, 126 Cements, 189, 216, 217 Chambers, Expansion, 163, 164 Check- valves, 109 Circulation, Water, 113 Coils, Connecticut-plug, 141 Coils, Jump-spark, 136, 137 Coils, Non-vibrating, 137 Coils, Primary, 126 Coils, Secondary, 126 Comet Magneto, 130 269 270 INDEX Commutators, 127 Compound, Anti-freezing, 229, 230 Compound, Valve-grinding, 220, 222 Compression-plate, 41 Concrete beds, 183, 184 Condenser, 136, 140 Conical plugs, 143 Connecticut coil, 141 Connecticut terminals, 203 Connecting rod, 45, 85 Connections, Hose, 190 Connectors, Bull Dog, 201 Contact Points, 136 Cooling, 75, 107 Core, 136 Counter-balances, 91 Counterweights, 92 Cranks, 49 Cranks, Bell, 57 Cranks, Offset, 69, 70 Crank Cases, 85, 87 Crank Shafts, 19, 90 Cross-heads, 41, 43 Cups, Grease, 122 Cups, Priming, 223, 224 Cylinders, 83 Cylinders, Offset, 69, 70 Cylinders, Temperature of, 179 EDISON PLUGS, 146, 148 Efficiency, Mechanical, 29 Eiseman Magneto, 130 Ejector Mufflers, 170 to 172 Element, Human, 27 Elmore Motor, 45 Enamels, 228 En-bloc Cylinders, 32 Engines, Four-cycle, 21, 25, 54 Engines, Four-stroke, 21, 25, 54 Engines, Horizontal, 70, 74 Engines, Open-base, 41 Engines, Powell, 41 Engines, Smalley, 39 Engines, Three-port, 32, 33 Engines, Two-cycle, 15, 32 Engines, Two-port, 32, 33 Engines, Two-stroke, 15, 32 Engines, Two-three Port, 36 Eureka Magnetos, 130 Exhausts, 164, 167 Exhausts, Auxiliary, 163 Exhaust Pipe, 185 Exhausts, Reid, 166, 167 Exhausts, Underwater, 165, 166 Exhaust valves, 21, 94 Exhaust Valve Governors, 175 Expansion Chambers, 163, 164 Explosive Motors, 15 E-Z Plugs, 146, 147 DELCO SYSTEM, 153 to 155 Delivered Horse-power, 29 Detroit Lubricators, 115 Detroit three-way Valve, 191 Distributors, 47, 48 Distributors, Rotary, 49 Dynamos, 126 FEATHER VIBRATORS, 138 Ferro Lubricating system, 120 Ferro Motors, 70 Ferro Water-circulation, 113 Field, Magnetic, 126 Firing Stroke, 16, 21 Flanges, 182 INDEX 271 Flanged Unions, 182 Flexible Joints, 187 Float-feed Carburetors, 99, 100 Fly- Wheels, 95 Force-feed Oilers, 115 Four-cycle Engines, 21, 25, 54 Four-stroke Engines, 21, 25 Fuels, Heat value of, 263 Fuel, Kerosene, 179 GASKETS, 86, 203, 204 Gasolene pipes, 191, 192 Gasolene tanks, 193 Gas Pump, 47 Gauges, Limit, 83 Gears, 93, 94 Gears, Helical, 56 Gears, Spur, 56 Gear Pumps, in Gear, Valve, 56 Glossary of Terms, 246, 262 Governors, 174, 179 Governors, Exhaust valve, 175 Governors, Hit or Miss, 177 Governors, Inertia, 178 Governors, Throttle, 176 Crasser Motor, 36 Gravity Oilers, 114, 115 Gray Model "T" motor, 32 Grease, 180, 181 Grease cups, 122 Grinding Compounds, 220, 222 Grinding Tools, 221 Grinding Valves, 219, 222 H HAMMER VIBRATORS, 138 Heads, Cross-, 41, 43 Heat values of Fuels, 263 Helical Gears, 56 Henricks Magnetos, 130, 131 High-tension Magnetos, 129 Hit-or-Miss Governors, 177 Holly Magnetos, 130 Hoppers, 82, 108 Horizontal Engines, 70, 74 Horse-power, 30 Horse-power, Brake, 30 Horse-power, Delivered, 29 Horse-power, Indicated, 29 Hose Connections, 190 Human Element, 27 Humoring, 28 Hydrex Silencer, 172, 173 I IDLE STROKE, 26 Igniter, Make and Break, 156, 161 Igniter, Wico, 131, 136 Ignition, 82, 124, 156 Ignition, Caille, 141 Ignition, Jump-spark, 82, 124 Ignition, Make and Break, 82, 124 Ignition, Orswell, 140 Ignition, Perfex, 140 Indicated Horse-power, 29 Inertia Governor, 178 Installation of Motors, 182, 195 Intake in Boats, 190, 191 Intake, Automatic air-, 36 Intake Valves, 22, 23, 57, 58 Introduction, 7 JACKET. WATER, 88, 89 Joints, Flexible, 187 272 INDEX Jump-spark, 82, 124 Jump -spark Coil, 136 137 K KEROSENE FUEL, 179 Kingston Carburetor, 104 Knight Motor, 61, 63 Krice Carburetor, 103 LEAKS, 192, 215, 216 L-Head Motor, 59 Lifter, Valve, 220 Limit Gauges, 83 Lock Nuts, 213 Low-tension Magnetos, 129 Lubrication, 114, 121 Lubrication, Buffalo, 120 Lubrication, Ferro, 120 Lubricators, Detroit, 115 Lubricators, Force-feed, 114 Lubricators, Gravity, 114, 115 Lubricators, Osgood, 116 M MAGNETS, 126, 129 Magnetic Field, 126 Magnetos, 126 Magnetos, Comet, 130 Magnetos, Eiseman, 130 Magnetos, Eureka, 130 Magnetos, Henricks, 130, 131 Magnetos, High-tension, 129 Magnetos, Holly, 130 Magnetos, Low-tension, 129 Magnetos, Remy, 130 Magnetos, Splitdorf, 130 Make and Break Igniters, 156, 161 Make and Break System, 82,124 Mechanical Efficiency, 29 Mechanical Mixers, 99 Mechanically-operated Valves, 57 Mechanism, Valve, 55 Mixers, Mechanical, 99 Mixing- Valves, Cadillac, 105 Mixture, Anti-freezing, 229, 230 Morgan Priming Cup, 223, 224 Motors, Air-cooled, 75, 82, 107 Motors, Balanced, 70, 72 Motors, Elmore, 45 Motors, Explosive, 15 Motors, Ferro, 70 Motors, Four-cycle, 21, 54 Motors, Four-port, 32 Motors, Four-stroke, 21, 25 Motors, Grasser, 36 Motors, Gray, 32 Motors, Installation of, 182-195 Motors, Knight, 61, 63 Motors, L-head, 59 Motors, Open-base, 41 Motors, Opposed-cylinder, 70, 71 Motors, Parts of, 75 Motors, Reynolds, 64-68 Motors, Rotary-valve, 64-70 Motors, Russell, 69 Motors, Silent-valve, 69 Motors, Six-cycle, 15 Motors, Sleeve-valve, 61-63 Motors, T-head, 59 Motors, Two-cycle, 15, 32 Motors, Two-port, 32 Motors, Two-stroke, 15, 32 Motors, Two-three-port, 32, 33 Mufflers, 162 Mufflers, Ejector, 170-172 Mufflers, Yankee, 170-171 INDEX 273 Multiple-feed Oilers, 114, 115 Mushroom valves, 55 N NON-VIBRATING COILS, 137 Nuts, Lock, 213 OFFSET CRANKS, 69, 70 Offset Cylinders, 69, 70 Ohms, 125 Oils, 1 80 Oil, Amount of, 182 Oilers, 114, 115 Oilers, Force-feed, 115 Oilers, Gravity, 114, 115 Oilers, Multiple-feed, 114, 115 Oil Rings, 120, 123 Oil-Rings, Buffalo, 120, 123 Open-base Motors, 41 Opposed-cylinder Motors, 70, 71 Orswell System, 140 Osgood Lubricators, 116 PACKING (PUMP), 205 Packing, Stuffing-box, 205 Parts of Motors, 75 Perfex System, 140 Petticoat Plugs, 143 Pins, Piston, 84 , Pipe, Exhaust, 185 Pipe, Gasolene, 191, 192 Pistons, I5, V 2I, 83 Piston-pins, 84 Piston-rings, 84 Piston-rings, Removing, 224, 225 Plate, Compression, 41 Plates, Side, 87 Plugs, 83, 88 Plugs, Breech-block, 86 Plug-coils, 141 Plugs, Conical, 143 Plugs, Edison, 146, 148 Plugs, E-Z, 146, 147 Plugs, Ignition, 88, 148 Plugs, Magneto, 146, 148 Plugs, Petticoat, 143 Plugs, Rajah, 145, 146 Plugs, Reliance, 143, 144 Plugs, Spark, 142, 148 Plugs, Standard, 143 Plunger Pump, 109 Points, Contact, 136 Poles, 126 Polishes, 227 Poppett Valves, 55 Ports, 1 6 Ports, Air, 43 Ports, Fourth, 36 Ports, Third, 36 Ports, Transfer, 36 Ports, Two, 32, 33 Powell Engine, 41 Power, Horse-, 30 Preface, 5 Primary Coil, 126 Primary Winding, 136 Primary Wire, 198 Priming Cups, 223, 224 Pumps, 109 Pumps, Gas, 47 Pumps, Gear, in Pumps, Packing, 205 Pumps, Plunger, 109 Pumps, Rotary, no Push-rods, 57, 59 274 INDEX RACE, BALL, 223 Radiators, 82, 108 Rajah Plugs, 145, 146 Reid Exhaust, 166, 167 Reliance Plugs, 143, 144 Reliance Terminals, 202 Removing Piston-rings, 224, 225 Remy Magnetos, 130 Reynolds Motors, 64-68 Ribbon Vibrators, 138 Rings, Oil, 120, 123 Rings, Piston, 84 Rods, Connecting, 45, 85 Rods, Push, 57, 59 Rotary Distributor, 49 Rotary Pumps, no Rotary Valves, 48, 49 Rotary- valve Motors, 64-70 Russell Motors, 69 SCHEBLER CARBURETOR, 100, 102 Screw, Adjusting, 136 Secondary Coil, 126 Secondary Winding, 136 Secondary Wire, 198 Shafts, Crank, 19, 90 Shims, 225 Shunt, 126 Side Plates, 87 Silent-valve Motors, 69 Silencers, 162 Silencers, Hydrex, 172, 173 Silencers, Thermex, 173, 174 Six-cycle Motors, 15 Sleeve-valve Motors, 61-63 Smalley Engines, 39 Smoke, 182 Soldering, 198 Solocoil, 141 Spark, Jump, 82, 124 Spark Plugs, 142-148 Sparking Points, 139 Splitdorf Magneto, 130 Spur Gear, 56 Staples, 196 Stem, Valve, 55 Stroke, Firing, 16, 21 Stroke, Four, 21, 25 Stroke, Idle, 26 Stroke, Two, 15, 32 Stuffing-box Packing, 205 TABLES, 263 Table of Troubles, 231-245 Tanks, Gasolene, 193 Temperature of Cylinders, 179 Terminals, 201, 202 Terminals, Ball and Socket, 202 Terminals, Connecticut, 203 Terminals, Reliance, 202 Terms, Glossary of, 246-262 T-head Motors, 59 Thermex Silencers, 173, 174 Third Port, 36 Three-cylinder Motors, 51 Three-port Motors, 32, 33 Three-way Valve, 191 Throttle Governors, 176 Throttle Valves, 43 Tightening Bearings, 212 Tightening bolts, 219 Timers, 136-147 Timers, Simple, 148 Timers, Tuttle, 150-152 Tools, 208-212 INDEX 275 Tools, Grinding, 221 Tools, Valve-lifting, 220 Transfer Ports, 36 Troubles, Table of, 231, 245 Tuttle Timers, 150, 152 Two-cycle Motors, 15, 16, 25, 32 Two-port Motors, 32, 33 Two-stroke Motors, 15, 32 Two-three-port Motors, 36 U UNDERWATER EXHAUST, 165, 1 66 Unions, Flanged, 182 Unions, Flexible, 187 VALVES, 21, 94 Valves, Automatic, 57 Valves, Check, 109 Valves, Detroit, 191 Valve Gear, 56 Valve Grinding, 219, 222 Valve Grinding tools, 221 Valve-in-head Motors, 59 Valves, Intake, 22, 23, 57, 58 Valve Lifters, 220 Valve Mechanism, 55 Valves, Mechanically-operated, 57 Valve, Mixing, 105 Valves, Mushroom, 55 Valves, Poppett, 55 Valves, Rotary, 48, 49, 68, 70 Valves, Silent, 69 Valve Stem v 55 Valves, Three-way, 191 Valves, Throttle, 43 Vaporizers, 36, 99 Vibrators, 136, 138 Vibrators, Feather, 138 Vibrators, Hammer, 138 Vibrators, Ribbon, 138 Volts, 125 Voltage, 124 W WATER CIRCULATION, FERRO, 113 Water Jacket, 88, 89 Weights, Balance, 92 Wheels, Fly-, 95 Wico Igniter, 131-136 Winding, Primary, 136 Winding, Secondary, 136 Wire, 195, 196 Wire, Primary, 198 Wire, Secondary, 198 Wiring, 191-202 YANKEE MUFFLERS, 170, 171 TUTTLE MOTORS For Everything, From a Canoe to a Cruiser Unlimited Guarantee From 2 to 30 H. P. From 70 to 600 pounds \ LTHOUGH competing in quality with J_\. the highest grade and highest priced motors on the market, yet we have placed our selling prices at a point which brings the TUTTLE within reach of all prospective buyers. Let us know size of engine and equipment-desired and we will submit a very attractive price. WRITE FOR CATALOG TUTTLE MOTOR COMPANY 12 HOLDEN STREET, CANASTOTA, N. Y. "The Comet" Of the 20th Century Has No Equal Because of its Simplicity Because of its Durability Because of its Great Electrical Efficiency PRICE $12.00 The Picture Tells the Story A magneto guaranteed for efficiency, reliability, perfect construction and constant service. Weighs only 10 pounds. Size 4 x 5^x9. Henricks Novelty Co. 1237 St. Paul St., Indianapolis Every Body Should Have Our complete Catalogue of Scientific and Practical Books. Describes latest books on all practical subjects. Sent FR EE to any address on request. Write today for it. Address The Norman W. Henley Pub. Co. 132 Nassau Street, New York PRACTICAL SCIENTIFIC TECHNICAL EACH BOOK IN THIS CATALOGUE IS WRITTEN BY AN EXPERT AND IS WRITTEN SO YOU CAN UNDERSTAND IT Publishers of Scientific and Practical Books 132 Nassau Street New York, U. S. A. Any book in this Catalogue sent prepaid on receipt of price. SUBJECT INDEX PAGE Accidents 18 Air Brakes 17, 19 Arithmetics 20 Automobiles 3 Balloons 3 Bevel Gears 14 Boilers 22 Brazing 3 Cams ' 15 Car Charts 4 Change Gear 14 Charts 3, 4, 22 Chemistry 23 Coal Mining 23 Coke 4 Compressed Air 5 Concrete 5 Cyclopedia 4, 20 Dictionaries 7 Dies 7 Drawing 8, 24 Drop Forging 7 Dynamo 9, 10, 11 Electricity . . 9, 10, 11, 12 Engines and Boilers 22 Factory Management 12 Flying Machines 3 Fuel.., 13 Gas Manufacturing 14 Gas Engines 13, 14 Gears 14 Heating, Electric 9 Hot Water Heating 27 Horse-Power Chart 4 Hydraulics 15 Ice Making 15 India Rubber 25 Interchangeable Manufacturing 20 Inventions 15 Knots 15 Lathe Work 16 Lighting (Electric) 9 Link Motion 17 Liquid Air 16 Locomotive Boilers 18 Locomotive Engineering 17, 18, 19 Machinist's Books. . . . . 20, 21, 22 PAGE Manual Training 22 Marine Engines 22 Marine Steam Turbines 29 Mechanical Movements 20, 21 Metal Turning 16 Milling Machines 21 Mining 22, 23 Oil Engines 13 Patents 15 Pattern Making 23 Perfumery 23 Pipes 28 Plumbing 24 Producer Gas 13 Punches 7 Railroad Accidents 18 Receipt Book 23, 25 Refrigeration 15 Rope Work 15 Rubber Stamps 25 Saws 26 Sheet Metal Working 7 Shop Tools 21 Shop Construction 20 Shop Management 20 Sketching Paper 8 Smoke Prevention 13 Soldering 3 Splices 15 Steam Engineering 26, 27 Steam Heating 27 Steam Pipes 28 Steel 28 Superheated Steam 17 Switchboards 9. 11 Tapers 16 Telephone 12 Threads 22 Tools 20, 22 Turbines 29 Ventilation 27 Valve Gear 19 Valve Setting 17 Walschaert Valve Gear 19 Watchmaking 29 Wiring .9, 11, 12 Wireless Telephones and Telegraphy 12 ANY OF THESE BOOKS PROMPTLY SENT PREPAID TO ANY ADDRESS IN THE WORLD ON RECEIPT OP PRICE. to Remit. Vy Postal Money Order, Express Money Order, Bank Draft or Registered Letter. CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS AUTOMOBILE THE MODERN GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE ITS DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. By VICTOR W. PAGE, M. E. The latest and most complete treatise on the Gasoline Automobile ever issued. Written in simple language by a recognized authority, familiar with every branch of the automobile industry. Free from technical terms. Everything is explained so simply that anyone of average intelligence may gain a comprehensive knowledge of the gasoline automobile. The information is up-to-date and includes, in addition to an exposition of principles of construction and description of all types of automobiles and their components, valuable money-saving hints on the care and operation of motor cars propelled by internal combus- tion engines. Among some of the subjects treated might be mentioned: Torpedo and other symmetrical body forms designed to reduce air resistance; sleeve valve, rotary valve and other types of silent motors; increasing tendency to favor worm-gear power- transmission; universal application of magneto ignition; development of automobile electric-lighting systems; block mo tors; underslung chassis; application of practical self-starters; long stroke and offset cylinder motors; latest automatic lubrication systems; silent chains for valvp operation and change-speed gearing; the use of front wheel brakes and many other detail refinements. By a careful study of the pages of this book one can gain practical knowledge of automobile construction that will save time, money and worry. The book tells you just what to do, how and when to do it. Nothing has been omitted, no detail has been slighted. Every part of the automobile, its equipment, accessories, tools, supplies, spare parts necessary, etc., have been discussed comprehensively. If you are or intend to become a motorist, or are in any way interested in the modern Gasoline Automobile, this is a book you cannot afford to be without. Nearly 600 6x9 pages and more than 500 new and specially made detail il- lustrations, as well as many full page and double page plates, showing all parts of the automobile. Including nine large folding plates. Price * $2.50 BALLOONS AND FLYING MACHINES. MODEL BALLOONS AND FLYING MACHINES. WITH A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF AVIATION. By J. H. ALEXANDER. This book has been written with a view to assist those who desire to construct a model airship or flying machine. It contains five folding plates of working drawings, each sheet containing a different sized machine. Much instruction and amusement can be obtained from the making and flying of these models. A short account of the progress of aviation is included, which will render the book of greater interest. Several illustrations of full sized airship and flying machines of the latest types are scattered throughout the text. This practical work gives data, working drawings, and details which will assist materially those interested in the problems of flight. 127 pages, 45 illustra- tions, 5 folding plates. Price $1.50 BRAZING AND SOLDERING BRAZING AND SOLDERING. By JAMES F. HOBART. The only book that shows you just how to handle any job of brazing or soldering that comes ftlong; tells you what mixture to use, how to make a furnace if you need one. Full of valuable kinks. The fifth edition of this book has just been published, and to it much new matter and a large number of tested formulas for all kinds of solders and fluxes have been added. Illustrated 25 cents CHARTS MODERN SUBMARINE CHART WITH 200 PARTS NUMBERED AND NAMED. A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine of the latest type. You get more information from this chart, about the construction and opera- tion of a Submarine, than in any other way. No details omitted everything is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been approved by Naval Engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modern Submarine Boat are shown, and to make the engraving more readily understood all the features are shown in operative form, with Officers and Men in the act of performing the duties assigned to them in service con- ditions. This CHART IS REALLY AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF A SUBMARINE. It is educational and worth many times its cost. Mailed in a Tube for 25 cents CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS BOX CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a box car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list 20 cents GONDOLA CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper reference name given in a reference list 20 cents PASSENGER CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list 20 cents WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE CHARTS. Chart I. Shows (in colors) the most modern Westinghouse High Speed and Signal Equip- ment used on Passenger Engines, Passenger Engine Tenders, and Passenger Cars. Chart II. Shows (in colors) the Standard Westinghouse Equipment for Freight and Switch En- gines, Freight and Switch Engine Tenders, and Freight Cars. Price for the set . 50 cents TRACTIVE POWER CHART. A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar pull of any locomotive, without making a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and steam pressure affect the power. What sized engine you need to exert a given drawbar pull or anything you desire in this line. .- 50 cents HORSE POWER CHART. Shows the horse power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke; the steam pressure or cut-off; the revolutions, or whether con- densing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calcu- lations. Especially useful to engineers and designers 50 cents BOILER ROOM CHART. By GEO. L. FOWLER. A Chart size 14 x 28 inches showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a modern boiler room. Water tube boilers, ordinary grates and mechanical stokers, feed water heaters and pumps comprise the equipment. The various parts are shown broken or removed, so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at the sides. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room the names of more than 200 parts being given. It is educational worth many times its cost 25 cents CIVIL ENGINEERING HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. Edited by JOSEPH G. HORNER, A. M. I. E. M. This set of five volumes contains about 2,500 pages with thousands of illustrations, including diagrammatic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. This work covers the entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The best known experts in all branches of engineering have contributed to these volumes. The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught practical man, as well as the mechanical en- gineer, designer, draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman, and machinist. The work will be found a means of advancement to any progressive man. It is encyclopedic in scope, thorough and practical in its treatment of technical subjects, simple and clear in its descriptive matter, and without unnecessary technicalities or formulae. The articles are as brief as may be and yet give a reasonably clear and explicit statement of the subject, and are written by men who have had ample practical experience in the matters of which they write. It tells you all you want to know about engineering and tells it so simply, so clearly, so concisely, that one cannot help but understand. As a work of reference it is without a peer. $6.00 per single volume. For complete set of five volumes, price $25.00 COKE COKE MODERN COKING PRACTICE; INCLUDING THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS. By T. H. BYROM and J. E. CHRISTOPHER. A handbook for those engaged in Coke manufacture and the recovery 9f By-products. Fully illustrated with folding plates. It has been the aim of the authors, in preparing this book, to produce one which shall be of use and benefit to those who are associated with, or inter- ested in, the modern developments of the industry. Contents: I. Introductory. II. Gen- CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS eral Classification of Fuels. III. Coal Washing. IV. The Sampling and Valuation of Coal, Coke, etc. V. The Calorific Power of Coal and Coke. VI. Coke Ovens. VII. Coke Ovens, continued. VIII. Coke Ovens, continued. IX. Charging and Discharging of Coke Ovens, X. Cooling and Condensing Plant. XI. Gas Exhausters. XII. Composition and Analysis of Ammoniacal Liquor. XIII. Working-up of Ammoniacal Liquor. XIV. Treatment of Waste Gases from Sulphate Plants. XV. Valuation of Ammonium Sulphate. XVI. Direct Recovery of Ammonia from Coke Oven Gases. XVII. Surplus Gas from Coke Oven. Use- ful Tables. Very fully illustrated. Price $3. 50 net COMPRESSED AIR COMPRESSED AIR IN ALL ITS APPLICATIONS. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is the most complete book on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and its thirty- five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. It may be called an encyclopedia of compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 665 pages, has dealt with the subject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. Includes the physical properties of air from a vacuum to its highest pressure, its thermodynamics, com- pression, transmission and uses as a motive power ; in the Operation of Stationary and Port- able Machinery, in Mining, Air Tools, Air Lifts, Pumping of Water, Acids, and Oils; the Air Blast for Cleaning and Painting, the Sand Blast and its Work, and the Numerous Appli- ances in which Compressed Air is a Most Convenient and Economical Transmitter of Power for Mechanical Work, Railway Propulsion, Refrigeration, and the Various Uses to which Compressed Air has been applied. Includes forty-four tables of the physical properties of air, its compression, expansion, and volumes required for various kinds of work, and a list of patents on compressed air from 1875 to date. Over 500 illustrations, 5th Edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth bound, $5.00. Half Morocco, price $6.50 CONCRETE ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE WITHOUT MOLDS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. The process for making ornamental concrete without molds has long been held as a secret, and now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. The book reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical method whereby the concrete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal templates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete any Cornice, Archivolt, Column, Pedestal, Base Cap, Urn or Pier in a monolithic form right upon the job. These may be molded in units or blocks, and then built up to suit the specifications demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Price $2.00 CONCRETE FROM SAND MOLDS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. A Practical Work treating on a process which has heretofore been held as a trade secret by the few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every and any class of ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand molds is of the utmost practical value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds, the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all ornamental designs, density, and increased strength of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention and the easy removal of the molds re- gardless of any undercutting the design may have. 192 pages. Fully illustrated. Price $2.00 CONCRETE WALL FORMS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. A new automatic wall clamp is illustrated with working drawings. Other types of wall forms, clamps, separators, etc., are also illustrated and explained 50 cents CONCRETE FLOORS AND SIDEWALKS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. The molds for molding squares, hexagonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and side- walk blocks are fully illustrated and explained 50 cents PRACTICAL CONCRETE SILO CONSTRUCTION. By A. A. HOUGHTON. Complete working drawings and specifications are given for several styles of concrete silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The tables, data and information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing all forms of concrete silos .... 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE CHIMNEYS, SLATE AND ROOF TILES. By A. A. HOUGHTON. The manufacture of all types of concrete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Valuable data on all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within its pages. The construction of concrete chimneys by block and monolithic systems is fully illustrated and described. A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds are shown in this valu- able treatise - . . .... 50 cents CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS MOLDING AND CURING ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE. By A. A. HOUGHTON. Ihe proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various finishes, also the methods of thoroughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive treatise on this subject that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value 50 cents CONCRETE MONUMENTS, MAUSOLEUMS AND BURIAL VAULTS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. The molding of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is explained in this treatise, with working drawings ot easily built molds. Cutting inscriptions and designs is also fully treated 50 cenis MOLDING CONCRETE BATH TUBS, AQUARIUMS AND NATATORIUMS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. Simple molds and instruction are given for molding many styles of concrete bath tubs, swimming pools, etc. These molds are easily built and permit rapid and successful work ; 50 cents CONCRETE BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND SEWERS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. A number of ornamental concrete bridges with illustrations of molds are given. A collapsible center or core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illustrated with detailed instructions for building 50 cents CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE PORCHES. By A. A. HOUGHTON. A number of designs with working drawings of molds are fully explained so any one can easily construct different styles of ornamental concrete porches without the purchase of expensive molds 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE FLOWER POTS, BOXES, JARDINIERES, ETC. By A. A. HOUGHTON. The molds for producing many original designs of flower pots, urns, flower boxes, jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct and operate same 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE FOUNTAINS AND LAWN ORNAMENTS. By A. A. HOUGHTON. The molding of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun dials and other forms of ornamental concrete for the ornamentation of lawns and gardens, is fully illustrated and described 50 cents CONCRETE FOR THE FARM AND SHOP. By A. A. HOUGHTON. The molding of drain tile, tanks, cisterns, fence posts, stable floors, hog and poultry houses and all the purposes for which concrete is an invaluable aid to the farmer are numbered among the contents of this handy volume 50 cents POPULAR HANDBOOK FOR CEMENT AND CONCRETE USERS. By MYRON H. Lswis, This is a concise treatise of the principles and methods employed in the manufacture and use of cement in all classes of modern works. The author has brought together in this work all the salient matter of interest to the user of concrete and its many diversified products. The matter is presented in logical and systematic order, clearly written, fully illustrated and free from involved mathematics. Everything of value to the concrete user is given including kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete architecture, inspection and testing, water- proofing, coloring and painting, rules, tables, working, and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters, as follows: Introductory. Kinds of Cements and How They are Made. Properties, Testing and Requirements of Hydraulic Cement. Concrete and its Properties. Sand, Broken Stone and Gravel for Concrete. How to Proportion the Materials. How to Mix and Place Concrete. Forms for Concrete Construction. The Architectural and Artistic Possibilities of Concrete. Concrete Residences. Mortars, Plasters and Stucco and How to Use Them. The Artistic Treatment of Concrete Surfaces. Concrete Building Blocks. The Making of Ornamental Concrete. Concrete Pipes, Fences, Posts, Etc. Essential Features and Advantages of Reen- forced Concrete. How to Design Reenforced Concrete Beams, Slabs and Columns. Ex- planations of the Methods and Principles in Designing Reenforced Concrete Beams and Slabs. Systems of Reenforcement Employed. Reenforced Concrete in Factory and General CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS Building Construction. Concrete in Foundation Work. Concrete Retaining Walls, Abut- ments, and Bulkheads. Concrete Arches and Arch Bridges. Concrete Beam and Girder Bridges. Concrete in Sewerage and Drainage Works. Concrete Tanks, Dams and Reser- voirs. Concrete Sidewalks, Curbs and Pavements. Concrete in Railroad Constructions. The Utility of Concrete on the Farm. The Waterproofing of Concrete Structure. Grout or Liquid Concrete and Its Use. Inspection of Concrete Work. Cost of Concrete Work. Some of the special features of the book are: 1. The Attention Paid to the Artistic and Architectural Side of Concrete Work. 2. The Authoritative Treatment of the Problem of Waterproofing Concrete. 3. An Excellent Summary of the Rules to be Followed in Concrete Construction. 4. The Valuable Cost Data and Useful Tables given. A valuable Addition to the Library of Every Cement and Concrete User. Price $2.50 WATERPROOFING CONCRETE. By MYRON H. LEWIS. Modern Methods of Waterproofing Concrete and Other Structures. A condensed statement of the Principles, Rules, and Precautions to be Observed in Waterproofing and Damp- proofing Structures and Structural Materials. Paper binding. Illustrated. Price. ,50 cents DICTIONARIES STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANB. An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the student and professional. A practical hand-book of reference containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress of this branch of science. Complete, concise and convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustrations. Price .... $3.00 DIES METAL WORK DIES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE FOR THE MODERN WORKING OF SHEET METALS. By J. V. WOODWORTH. A most useful book, and one which should be in the hands of all engaged in the press working of metals; treating on the Designing, Constructing, and Use of Tools, Fixtures and Devices, together with the manner in which they should be used in the Power Press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet metal articles now in use. It is designed as a guide to the production of sheet metal parts at the minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the use of dies in the power press are fully treated. Its 505 illustrations show dies, press fixtures and sheet metal working devices, the descriptions of which are so clear and practical that all metal-working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, construct and use them. Many of the dies and press fixtures treated were either constructed by the author or under his supervision. Others were built by skilful raechauics and are in use in large sheet metal establishments and machine shops. Price $3.00 PUNCHES, DIES AND TOOLS FOR MANUFACTURING IN PRESSES. By J. V. WOODWORTH. This work is a companion volume to the author's elementary work entitled "Dies, Their Construction and Use." It does not go into the details of die making to the extent of the author's previous book, but gives a comprehensive review of the field of operations carried on by presses. A large part of the information given has been drawn from the author's personal experience. It might well be termed an Encyclopedia of Die Making, Punch Making, Die Sinking, Sheet Metal Working, and Making of Special Tools, Sub-presses, Devices and Mechani- cal Combinations for Punching, Cutting, Bending, Forming, Piercing, Drawing, Compressing and Assembling Sheet Metal Parts, and also Articles of other Materials in Machine Tools. 2d Edition. Price $4.00 DROP FORGING, DIE SINKING AND MACHINE FORMING OF STEEL. By J. V. WOODWORTH. This is a practical treatise on Modern Shop Practice, Processes, Methods, Machines, Tools, and Details, treating on the Hot and Cold Machine- Forming of Steel and Iron into Finished shapes; Together with Tools, Dies, and Machinery involved in the manufacture of Duplicate VJUKV ^JUL^A * V -LLJ.^ V/i IMUAAUQi VJL VJJA-/ J. VAJJ-CHtv \JL Ji\J YV t/1 VllCO, DLLV/JU O-i3 C and cold machine forging, swedging and the press working of r making relates to the engraving or raising of the male or upi lower dies for the press-forming and machine-forging of duplic CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS Forgings and Interchangeable Hot and Cold Pressed Parts from Bar and Sheet Metal. This book fills a demand of long standing for information regarding drop forging, die-sinking and machine forming of steel and the shop practice involved, as it actually exists in the modern drop forging shop. The processes of die-sinking and force-making, which are thor- oughly described and illustrated in this admirable work, are rarely to be found explained in such a clear and concise manner as is here set forth. The process of die-sinking relates to the engraving or sinking of the female or lower dies, such as are used for drop forgings, hot and cold machine forging, swedging and the press working of metals. The process of force- )per dies used in producing the icate parts of metal. In addition to the arts above mentioned the book contains explicit information regarding the drop forging and hardening plants, designs, conditions, equipment, drop hammers, forging machines, etc., machine forging, hydraulic forging, autogenous welding and shop practice. The book contains eleven chapters, and the information contained in these chapters is just what will prove most valuable to the forged metalworker. All operations described in the work are thoroughly illustrated by means of perspective half-tones and outline sketches of the machinery employed. 300 detailed illustrations. Price $2.50 DRAWING SKETCHING PAPER LINEAR PERSPECTIVE SELF-TAUGHT. By HERMAN T. C. KRAUS. This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural, engi- neering, and mechanical drawings. Persons taking up the study of the subject by themselves will be able by the use of the instruction given to readily grasp the subject, and by reason- able practice become good perspective draftsmen. The arrangement of the book is good ; the plate is on the left-hand, while the descriptive text follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily referred to. The drawings are on sufficiently large scale to show the work clearly and are plainly figured. The whole work makes a very complete course on perspective draw- ing, and will be found of great value to architects, civil and mechanical engineers, patent attorneys, art designers, engravers, and draftsmen. ." . $2.50 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. By RICHARDS and COLVIN. Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings in the only practical perspective isometric. Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can understand a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing room, and mistakes in the shops. Contains practical examples of various classes of work. 3rd Edition. 50 cents SELF-TAUGHT MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ELEMENTARY MACHINE DESIGN. By F. L. SYLVESTER, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by ERIK OBERG, associate editor of "Machinery." This is a practical treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design, comprising the first principles of geometric and mechanical drawing, workshop mathematics, mechanics, strength of materials and the calculations and design of machine details. The author's aim has been to adapt this treatise to the requirements of the practical mechanic and young draftsman and to present the matter in as clear and concise a manner as possible. To meet the demands of this class of students, practically all the important elements of machine design have been dealt with, and in addition algebraic formulas have been explained, and the elements of trigonometry treated in the manner best suited to the needs of the prac- tical man. The book is divided into 20 chapters, and in arranging the material, mechan- ical drawing, pure and simple, has been taken up first, as a thorough understanding of the principles of representing objects facilitates the further study of mechanical subjects. This is followed by the mathematics necessary for the solution of the problems in machine de- sign which are presented later, and a practical introduction to theoretical mechanics and the strength of materials. The various elements entering into machine design, such as cams, gears, sprocket wheels, cone pulleys, bolts, screws, couplings, clutches, shafting and fly- wheels have been treated in such a way as to make possible the use of the work as a text- book for a continuous course of study. It is easily comprehended and assimilated even by students of limited previous training. 330 pages, 215 engravings. Price. . . . $2.00 A NEW SKETCHING PAPER. A new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in isometric perspectivo without any figuring or fussing. It is being used for shop details as well as for assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no workman can help seeing just what is wanted. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches, 25 cents. Pads of 40 sheets, 9 x 12 inches. 50 cents; 40 sheets, 12x18, Price $1.00 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS ELECTRICITY ARITHMETIC OF ELECTRICITY. By Prof. T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. This book is classed among the most useful works published on the science of electricity covering as it does the mathematics of electricity in a manner that will attract the attention of those who are not familiar with alge- braical formulas. 20th Edition. 160 pages. Price $1.00 COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. By WM. BAXTER, JR. The business end of any dynamo or motor of the direct current type is the commutator. This book goes into the designing, building, and maintenance of commutators, shows how to locate troubles and how to remedy them; everyone who fusses with dynamos needs this. 25 cents DYNAMO BUILDING FOR AMATEURS, OR HOW TO CONSTRUCT A FIFTY-WATT DYNAMO. By ARTHUR J. WEED, Member of N. Y. Electrical Society. A practical treatise showing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or mot9r, the entire machine work of which can be done on a small foot lathe. Dimensioned working drawings are given for each piece of machine work and each operation is clearly described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty watts; when used as a motor it will drive a small drill press or lathe. It can be used to drive a sewing machine on any and all ordinary work. The book is illustrated with more than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction of the different parts. Among the contents are chapters on 1. Fifty Watt Dynamo. 2. Side Bearing Rods. 3. Field Punchings. 4. Bearings. 5. Commu- tator. 6. Pulley. 7. Brush Holders. 8. Connection Board. 9. Armature Shaft. 10. Armature. 11. Armature Winding. 12. Field Winding. 13. Connecting and Starting. Price, paper, 50 cents. Cloth $1.00 ELECTRIC FURNACES AND THEIR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. By J. WRIGHT This is a book which will prove of interest to many classes of people; the manufacturer who desires to know what product can be manufactured successfully in the electric furnace, the chemist who wishes to post himself on the electro-chemistry, and the student of science who merely looks into the subject from curiosity. The book is not so scientific as to be of use only to the technologist, nor so unscientific as to suit only the tyro in electro-chemistry; it is a practical treatise of what has been done, and of what is being done, both experimentally and commercially with the electric furnace. In important processes not only are the chemical equations given, but complete thermal data are set forth and both the efficiency of the furnace and the cost of the product are worked out, thus giving the work a solid commercial value aside from its efficacy as a work of reference. The practical features of furnace building are given the space that the subject deserves. The forms and refractory materials used in the linings, the arrangement of the connections to the electrodes, and other important details are explained. 288 pages. New Revised Edition. Fully illustrated. Price - . . $3.00 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND HEATING POCKET BOOK. By SYDNEY F. WALKER. This book puts in convenient form useful information regarding the apparatus which is likely to be attached to the mains of an electrical company. Tables of units and equivalents are included and useful electrical laws and formulas are stated. One section is devoted to dynamos, motors, transformers and accessory apparatus; another to accumulators, another to switchboards and related equipment, a fourth to a description of various systems of distribution, a fifth section to a discussion of instruments, both for portable use and switchboards; another section deals with electric lamps of various types and accessory appliances, and the concluding section is given up to electric heating apparatus. In each section a large number of commercial types are described, frequent tables of dimen- sions being included. A great deal of detail information of each line of apparatus is given and the illustrations shown give a good idea of the general appearance of the apparatus under discussion. The book also contains much valuable information for the central station engi- neer. 438 pages. 300 engravings. Bound in leather pocket book form. Price . $3.00 ELECTRIC WIRING, DIAGRAMS AND SWITCHBOARDS. By NEWTON HARRISON. A thoroughly practical treatise covering the subject of Electric Wiring in all its branches, including explanations and diagrams which are thoroughly explicit and greatly simplify the subject. Practical every-day problems in wiring are presented and the method of obtaining intelligent results clearly shown. Only arithmetic is used. Ohm's law is given CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS a simple explanation with reference to wiring for direct and alternating currents. The funda- mental principle of drop of potential in circuits is shown with its various applications. The simple circuit is developed with the position of mains, feeders and branches ; their treat- ment as a part of a wiring plan and their employment in house- wiring clearly illustrated. Some simple facts about testing are included in connection with the wiring. Molding and conduit work are given careful consideration; and switchboards are systematically treated, built up and illustrated, showing the purpose they serve, for connection with the circuits, and to shunt and compound wound machines. The simple principles of switchboard construction, the development of the switchboard, the connections of the various instru- ments including the lightning arrester, are also plainly set forth. Alternating current wiring is treated, with explanations of the power factor, conditions calling for various sizes of wire and a simple way of obtaining the sizes for single-phase, two- phase and three-phase circuits. This is the only complete work issued showing and telling you what you should know about direct and alternating current wiring. It is a ready refer- ence. The work is free from advanced technicalities and mathematics, arithmetic being used throughout. It is in every respect a handy, well-written, instructive, comprehensive volume on wiring for the wireman, foreman, contractor, or electrician. 272 pages; 105 illus- trations. Price $1.60 ELECTRIC TOY MAKING, DYNAMO BUILDING, AND ELECTRIC MOTOR CON- STRUCTION. By Prof. T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. The work is especially designed for amateurs and young folks. Thousands of our young people are daily experimenting, and busily engaged in making electrical toys and apparatus of various kinds. The present work is just what is wanted to give the much needed information in a plain, practical manner, with illustrations to make easy the carrying out of the work. 19th Edition. Price $1.00 ELECTRICIAN'S HANDY BOOK. By Prof. T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. This work of 768 pages is intended for the practical electrician who has to make things go. The entire field of electricity is covered within its pages. Among some of the subjects treated are: The Theory of the Electric Current and Circuit, Elect ro-Chemistry, Primary Batteries, Storage Batteries, Generation and Utilization of Electric Powers, Alternating Current, Arma- ture Winding, Dynamos and Motors, Motor Generators, Operation of the Central Station Switchboards, Safety Appliances, Distribution "of Electric Light and Power, Street Mains, Transformers, Arc and Incandescent Lighting, Electric Measurements, Photometry, Electric Railways, Telephony, Bell-Wiring, Electro-Plating, Electric Heating, Wireless Telegraphy, etc. It contains no useless theory; everything is to the point. It teaches you just what you want to know about electricity. It is the standard work published on the subject. Forty-pne chapters, 610 engravings, handsomely bound in red leather with title and edges in gold. Price: $3.50 ELECTRICITY IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS, ITS COST AND CONVENIENCE. By ARTHUR P. HASLAM. A practical book for power producers and power users showing what a convenience the electric motor, in its yarious forms, has become to the modern manufacturer. It also deals with the conditions which determine the cost of electric driving, and compares this with other methods of producing and utilizing power. Among the chapters contained in the book are: The Direct Current Motor; The Alternating Current Motor; The Starting and Speed Regulation of Electric Motors; The Rating and Efficiency of Electric Motors; The Cost of Energy as Affected by Conditions of Working, The Question for the Small Power User; Independent Generating Plants; Oil and Gas Engine Plants; Steam Plants; Power Station Tariffs; The Use of Electric Power in Textile Factories; Electric Power in Printing Works; The Use of Electric Power in Engineering Workshops Miscellaneous Application of Electric Power; The Installation of Electric Motors; The Lighting of Industrial Establishments. 312 pages. Very fully illustrated. Price .... $.3.50 ELECTRICITY SIMPLIFIED. By Prof. T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and to show what the modern conception of electricity is; to show how two plates of different metals immersed in acid can send a message around the globe; to explain how a bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting our streets, to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and what high and low tension mean; and to answer the questions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age of electricity. 172 pages. Illustrated. Price $ 1.00 10 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS HOUSE WIRING. By THOMAS W. POPPE. This work describes and illustrates the actual installation of Electric Light Wiring, the manner in which the work should be done, and the method of doing it. The book can be conveniently carried in the pocket. It is intended for the Electrician, Helper and Apprentice. It solves all Wiring Problems, and contains nothing that conflicts with the rulings of the Nation- al Board of Fire Underwriters. It gives just the information essential to the Successful Wiring of a Building. Among the subjects treated are: Locating the Meter. Panel Boards. Switches. Plug Receptacles. Brackets. Ceiling Fixtures. The Meter Connections. The Feed Wires. The Steel Armored Cable System. The Flexible Steel Conduit System. The Ridig Conduit System. A digest of the National Board of Fire Underwriters' rules relating to metallic wiring systems. Various switching arrangements explained and diagrammed. The easiest method of testing the Three and Four-way circuits explained. The grounding of all metallic wiring systems and the reason for doing so shown and explained. The in- sulation of the metal parts of lamp fixtures and the reason for the same described and illustrated. 125 pages. Fully illustrated. Flexible cloth. Price 60 cents HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL ELECTRICIAN. By Prof. T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. Every young man who wishes to become a successful electrician should read this book. It tells in simple language the surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician. The studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and the requirements of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. Every young engineer will find this an ex- cellent stepping-stone to more advanced works on electricity which he must master before success can be attained. Many young men become discouraged at the very outstart by attempting to read and study books that are far beyond their comprehension. This book serves as the connecting link between the rudiments taught in the public schools and the real study of electricity. It is interesting from cover to cover. Fifteenth edition. 202 pages. Illustrated. Price $1.00 MANAGEMENT OF DYNAMOS. By LUMMIS-PATERSON. A handbook of theory and practice. This work is arranged in three parts. The first part covers the elementary theory of the dynamo. The second part, the construction and action of the different classes of dynamos in common use are described; while the third part relates to such matters as affect the practical management and working of dynamos and motors. The following chapters are contained in the book: Electrical Units; Magnetic Principles; Theory of the Dynamo; Armature; Armature in Practice; Field Magnets; Field Magnets in Practice; Regulating Dynamos; Coupling Dynamos; Installation, Running, and Maintenance of Dynamos; Faults in Dynamos; Faults in Armatures; Motors. 292 pages. 117 illustra- tions. Price $1.50 STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the student and professional. A practical hand-book of reference containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progesss of this branch of science. In its arrangement and typography the book is very convenient. The word or term defined is printed in black-faced type which readily catches the eye, while the body of the page is in smaller but distinct type. The definitions are well worded, and so as to be understood by the non-technical reader. The general plan seems to be to give an exact, concise definition, and then amplify and explain in a more popular way. Synonyms are also given, and refer- ences to other words and phrases are made. A very complete and accurate index of fifty pages is at the end of the volume; and as this index contains all synonyms, and as all phrases are indexed in every reasonable combination of words, reference to the proper place in the body of the book is readily made. It is difficult to decide how far a book of this character is to keep the dictionary form, and to what extent it may assume the encyclopedia form. For some purposes, concise, exactly worded definitions are needed; for other purposes, more extended descriptions are required. This book seeks to satisfy both demands, and does it with considerable success. Complete, concise, and convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustra- tions. Twelfth edition. Price $3.00 SWITCHBOARDS. By WILLIAM BAXTER, JR. This book appeals to every engineer and electrician who wants to know the practical side of things. It takes up all sorts and conditions of dynamos, connections and circuits and shows by diagram and illustration just how the switchboard should be connected. Includes direct and alternating current boards, also those for arc lighting, incandescent, and power circuits. Special treatment on high voltage boards for power transmission. 2d Edition. 190 pages. Illustrated. Price $1.5O II CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLATION, WIRING, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE. By W. H. RADCLIFFE and H. C. GUSHING. This book gives the principles of construction gnd operation of both the Bell and Independent instruments ; approved methods of installing and wiring them ; the means of protecting them from lightning and abnormal currents; their connection together for operation as series or bridging stations ; and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line wiring and the wir- ing and operation of special telephone systems are also treated. Intricate mathematics are avoided, and all apparatus, circuits and systems are thoroughly described. The appendix contains definitions of units and terms used in the text. Selected wiring tables, which are very helpful, are also included. Among the subjects treated are Construction, Operation, and installation of Telephone Instruments, Inspection and Main- tenance of Telephone Instruments; Telephone Line Wiring; Testing Telephone Line Wires and Cables; Wiring and Operation of Special Telephone Systems, etc. 100 pages, 125 illus- trations. $1.00 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY SIMPLY EXPLAINED. BY ALFRED P. MORGAN. This is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehensible treatises on the subject ever published, and a close study of its pages will enable one to master all the details of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has filled a long felt want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. Among the contents are: Introductory; Wireless Transmission and Reception The Aerial System, Earth Connections The Transmitting Apparatus, Spark Coils and Trans- formers, Condensers, Helixes, Spark Gaps, Anchor Gaps, Aerial Switches The Receiving Apparatus, Detectors, etc. Tuning and Coupling, Tuning Coils, Loose Couplers, Variable Condensers, Directive Wave Systems Miscellaneous Apparatus, Telephone Receivers, Range of Stations, Static, Interference Wireless Telephones, Sound and Sound Waves, The Vocal Cords and Ear Wireless Telephones, How Sounds are changed into Electric Waves Wireless Telephones, The Apparatus Summary. 200 pages. 150 engravings. Price $1.00 WIRELESS TELEPHONES AND HOW THEY WORK. By JAMES ERSKINE-MURRA Y. This work is free from elaborate details and aims at giving a clear survey of the way in which Wireless Telephones work. It is intended for amateur workers and for those whose knowledge of electricity is slight. Chapters contained: How We Hear; Historical; The Conversion of Sound into Electric Waves; Wireless Transmission; The Production of Alternating Currents of High Frequency; How the Electric Waves are Radiated and Received; The Receiving Instruments; Detectors; Achievements and Expectations; Glossary of Technical Words, Cloth. Price 851.00 WIRING A HOUSE. By HERBERT PRATT. Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin; what wire to use; how to run it according to Insurance Rules; in fact just the information you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition 25 cents FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC. MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By O. E. PERRIGO, M.E. The only work published that describes the modern machine shop or manufacturing plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. By a careful study of its thirty-two chapters the practical man may economically build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine shop or manufacturing estab- ishment. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the re-building and re-organization of old ones, or the introduction of modern shop methods, time and cost system. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all around book of its kind ever publish/id. It is a practical book for practical men, from the apprentice in the shop to the president in the office. It minutely describes and illustrates the most simple and yet the most efficient time and cost system yet devised. Price $5.00 12 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS FUEL COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By WM. M. BARR. This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the combus- tion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly with the condi- tions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous coals in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. The presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The arrangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended accurate answers, which describe in language, free from technicalities, the several processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods for furnace construction for obtaining the great- est quantity of heat from any given quality of coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price U $1.00 SMOKE PREVENTION AND FUEL ECONOMY. By BOOTH and KERSHAW. A complete treatise for all interested in smoke prevention and combustion, being based on the German work of Ernst Schmatolla, but it is more than a mere translation of the German treatise, much being added. The authors show as briefly as possible the principles of fuel combustion, the methods which have been and are at present .in use, as well as the proper scientific methods for obtaining all the energy in the coal and burning it without smoke. Considerable space is also given to the examination of the waste gases, and several of the representative English and American mechanical stoker and similar appliances are described. The losses carried away in the waste gases are thoroughly analyzed and discussed in the Ap- pendix, and abstracts are also here given of various patents on combustion apparatus. The book is complete and contains much of value to all who have charge of large plants. 194 pages. Illustrated. Price 92.60 GAS ENGINES AND GAS GASOLINE ENGINES : THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE. By A. HYATT VERRILL. The Simplest, Latest and Most Comprehensive popular work published on Gasoline Engines describing what the Gasoline engine is; its construction and operation ; how to install it; how to select it; how to use it and how to remedy troubles encountered. Intended for owners, Operators and Users of Gasoline Motors of all kinds. This work fully describes and illus- trates the various types of Gasoline engines used in Motor Boats, Motor Vehicles and Stationary Work. The parts, accessories and Appliances are described, with chapters on ignition, fuel, lubrication, operation and engine troubles. Special attention is given to the care, operation and repair of motors with useful hints and suggestions on emergency re- pairs and make-shifts. A complete glossary of technical terms and an alphabetically ar- ranged table of troubles and their symptoms form most valuable and unique features of this manual. Nearly every illustration in the book is original, having been made by the author. Every page is full of interest and value. A book which you cannot afford to be without. 320 pages. Nearly 150 specially made engravings. Price $1.50 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. By GARDNER >. Hiscox. Just issued, 20th revised and enlarged edition. Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive, and right up-to-date. The only complete work on the subject. Tells all about the running and management of gas, gasoline and oil engines, as designed and manu- factured in the United States. Explosive motors for stationary, marine and vehicle power are fully treated, together with illustrations of their parts and tabulated sizes, also their care and running are included. Electric ignition by induction coil and jump spark are fully explained and illustrated, including valuable information on the testing for economy and power and the erection of power plants. The rules and regulations of the Board of Fire Underwriters in regard to the installation an1 management of gasoline motors is given in full, suggesting the safe installation of explosive motor power. A list of United States Patents issued on gas, gasoline, and oil engines and their adjuncts from 1875 to date is included. 484 pages. 410 engravings Price . . . $2.50 MODERN GAS ENGINES AND PRODUCER GAS PLANTS. By R. E. MATHOT, M.E. A guide for the gas engine designer, user, and engineer in the construction, selection, purchase installation, operation, and maintenance of gas engines. More than one book on gas engines has been written, but not one has thus far even encroached on the field covered by this book. Above all Mr. Mathot's work is a practical guide. Recognizing the need of a volume that '3 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS would assist the gas engine user in understanding thoroughly the motor upon which he depends for power, the author has discussed his subject without the help of any mathematics and without elaborate theoretical explanations. Every part of the gas engine is described in detail, tersely, clearly, with a thorough understanding of the requirements of the mechanic. Helpful suggestions as to the purchase of an engine, its installation, care, and operation form a most valuable feature of the work. 320 pages. 175 detailed illustrations. Price . . . $2.50 GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, OR HOW TO BUILD A HALF-HORSE-POWER GAS ENGINE. By PARSELL and WEED. A practical treatise of 300 pages describing the thepry and principles of the action of Gas Engines of various types and the design and construction of a half-horse power Gas Engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with the dimensioned working drawings giving clearly the sizes of the various details; for the student, the scientific investigator and the amateur mechanic. Tnis book treats of the subject more from the standpoint of practice than that of theory. The principles of operation of Gas Engines are clearly and simply described and then the actual construction of a half-horse power engine is taken up, step by step, showing in detail the making of the Gas Engine. 3d Edition. 300 pages. Price $2.50 THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: ITS OPERATION, REPAIR AND USES. By XENO W. PUTNAM. This is a practical treatise on the Gasoline and Kerosene engine intended for the man who wants to know just how to manage his engine and how to apply it to all kinds of farm work to the best advantage. The book includes selecting the most suitable engine for farm work, its most convenient and efficient installation, with chapters on troubles, their remedies and how to avoid them. The care and management of the farm tractor in plowing, harrowing, harvesting and road trading are fully covered; also plain directions are given for handling the tractor on the road, pecial attention is given to relieving farm life of its drudgery by applying power to the disagreeable small tasks which must otherwise be done by hand. Many homemade con- trivances for cutting wood, supplying kitchen garden and barn with water, loading, hauling and unloading hay, delivering grain to the bins or the feed trough are included; also lull directions for making the engine milk the cows, churn, wash, sweep the house and clean the windows, etc. Very fully illustrated with drawings of working parts and cuts showing Stationary, Portable and Tractor Engines doing all kinds of farm work. 300 pages. Nearly 150 engravings. 12mo. Price $1.5O CHEMISTRY OF GAS MANUFACTURE. By H. M. ROYLES. This book covers points likely to arise in the ordinary course of the duties of the engineer or manager of a gas works not large enough to necessitate the employment of a separate chemical staff. It treats of the testing of the raw materials employed in the manufacture of illuminat- ing coal gas, and of the gas produced. The preparation of standard solutions is given as well as the chemical and physical examination of gas coal including among its contents Prepa- rati9ns of Standard Solutions, Coal, Furnaces, Testing and Regulati9n. Products of Car- bonization. Analysis of Crude Coal Gas. Analysis of Lime. Ammonia. Analysis of Oxide of Iron. Naphthalene. Analysis of Fire-Bricks and Fire-Clay. Weldom and Spent Oxide. Photometry and Gas Testing. Carburetted Water Gas. Metropolis Gas. Miscellaneous Extracts. Useful Tables $4.50 GEARING AND CAMS BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. AG. ENGSTROM. A book that will at once commend itself to mechanics and draftsmen. Does away with all the trigonometry and fancy figuring on bevel gears and makes it easy for anyone to lay them out or make them just right. There are 36 full-page tables that show every necessary dimen- si9n for all sizes or combinations you're apt to need. No puzzling figuring or guessing. Gives placing distance, all the angles (including cutting angles) , and the correct cutter to use. A copy of this prepares you for anything in the bevel gear line. 66 pages. . $1.00 CHANGE GEAR DEVICES. By OSCAR E. PERRIGO. A practical book for every designer, draftsman, and mechanic interested in the invention and development of the devices for feed changes on the different machines requiring such mechan- ism. All the necessary information on this subject is taken up, analyzed, classified, sifted, and concentrated for the use of busy men who have not the time to go through the masses of irrelevant matter with which such a subject is usually encumbered and select such infor- mation as will be useful to them. It shows just what has been done, how it has been done, when it was done, and who did it. It saves time in hunting up patent records and re-inventing old ideas. 88 pages. $1.00 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS DRAFTING OF CAMS. By Louis ROUILLION. problem unless you any kind of cam yc HYDRAULICS he laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right. This puts DU on the right road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run up against. 25 cents HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. A treatise on the properties, power, and resources of water for all purposes. Including the measurement of streams, the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse-power of falling water; turbine and impact water-wheels, wave motors, centrifugal, reciprocating, and air- lift pumps. With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. All who are interested in water-works development will find this book a useful one, because it is an entirely practical treatise upon a subject of present importance, and cannot fail in having a far-reaching influence, and for this reason should have a place in the working library of every engineer. Among the subjects treated are: Historical Hydraulics, Properties of Water; Measurement of the flow of Streams; Flow from Subsurface orifices and nozzles; Flow of water in Pipes; Siphons of various kinds; Dams and Great Storage Reservoirs; City and Town Water Supply; Wells and their reenforcement; Air lift methods of raising water; artesian wells; Irrigation of Arid districts; Water Power, Water Wheels; Pumps and Pumping Machinery; Reciprocating Pumps; Hydraulic Power Transmission; Hydraulic Mining ; Canals ; Ditches ; Conduits and Pipe Lines ; Marine Hydraulics ; Tidal and Sea Wave power, etc. 320 pages. Price $4.00 ICE AND REFRIGERATION POCKET BOOK OF REFRIGERATION AND ICE MAKING. By A. J. WALLIS- TAYLOR. This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the subject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, ice making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required in the installment and operation of a refrigerat- ing plant. Illustrated. (5th Edition, revised.) Price $1.50 INVENTIONS PATENTS INVENTOR'S MANUAL, HOW TO MAKE A PATENT PAY. This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their patents and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a Patent Solicitor's Circular, nor a Patent Broker's Advertisement. No advertisements of any description appear hi the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's experience of a successful inventor, together with notes based upon the experience of many other inventors. Among the subjects treated in this work are: How to Invent. How to Secure a Good Patent. Value of Good Invention. How to exhibit an Invention. How to Interest Capital. How to Estimate the Value of a Patent. Value of Design Patents. Value of Foreign Patents. Value of Small Inventions. Advice on Selling Patents. Advice on the Formation of Stock Companies. Advice on the Formation of Limited Liabih'ty Companies. Advice on Disposing of Old Patents. Advice as to Patent Attorneys. Advice as to Selling ;nts. Forms of Assignments. License and Contracts. State Laws Concerning Patent hts. 1900 Census of the United States by counties of over 10,000 population. Revised -Jon. 120 pages. Price $1.00 KNOTS KNOTS, SPLICES AND ROPE WORK. By A. HYATT VERRILL. This is a practical book giving complete and simple directions for making all the most use- ful and ornamental knots in common use. with chapters on Splicing, Pointing, Seizing, CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS Serving, etc. This book is fully illustrated with one hundred and fifty original engravings, which show how each knot, tie or splice is formed and its appearance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest value to Campers, Yachtsmen, Travelers, Boy Scouts, in fact to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical and is not only a guide but a teacher. It is the standard work on the subject. Among the contents are: 1. Cordage, Kinds of Rope. Construction of Rope, Parts of Rope Cable and Bolt Rope. Strength of Rope, Weight of Rope. 2. Sim- ple knots and Bends. Terms used in Handling Rope. Seizing Rope. 3. Ties and Hitches. 4. Noose, Loops and Mooring Knots. 5. Shortenings, Grommets and Selvages. 6. Lash- ings. Seizings and Splices. 7. Fancy Knots and Rope Work. 128 pages. 150 original engravings. Price 60 cents LATHE WORK MODERN AMERICAN LATHE PRACTICE. By OSCAR E. PERRIGO. This is a new book from cover to cover, and the only complete American work on the subject written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do it, and how to convey this knowledge to others. It is strictly up-to-date in its descriptions and illustrations, which represent the very latest practice in lathe and boring mill operations as well as the construction of and latest developments in the manufacture of these important classes of machine tools. Lathe history and the relations of the Lathe to manufacturing are given ; also a description of the various devices for Feeds and Thread Cutting mechanisms from early efforts in this direction to the present time. Lathe design is thoroughly discussed, including Back Gearing, Driving Cones, Thread Cutting Gears, and all the essential elements of the modern Lathe. The classification of Lathes is taken up, giving the essential differences of the several types of Lathes, including, as is usually understood, Engine Lathes, Bench Lathes, Speed Lathes, Forge Lathes, Gap Lathes, Pulley Lathes, Forming Lathes, Multiple Spindle Lathes, Rapid Reduction Lathes, Precision Lathes, Turret Lathes, Special Lathes, Electrically Driven Lathes, etc. 424 pages. 314 illustrations. Price $2.50 PRACTICAL METAL TURNING. By JOSEPH G. HOBNER. This important and practical subject is treated in a full and exhaustive manner and nothing of importance is omitted. The principles and practice and all the different branches of Turn- ing are considered and well illustrated. All the different kinds of Chucks of usual forms, as well as some unusual kinds, are shown. A feature of the book is the important section de- voted to modern Turret practice; Boring is another subject which is treated fully; and the chapter on Tool Holders illustrates a large number of representative types. Thread Cutting is treated at reasonable length; and the last chapter contains a good deal of information relating to the High-Speed Steels and their work. The numerous tools used by machinists are illustrated, and also the adjuncts of the lathe. In fact, the entire subject is treated in such a thorough manner as to make this book the standard one on the subject. It is indis- pensable to the manager, engineer, and machinist as well as to the student, amateur, and experimental, man who desires to keep up-to-date. 400 pages, fully illustrated. Price $3.50 TURNING AND BORING TAPERS. By FRED H. COLVIN. There are two ways to turn tapers; the right way and one other. This treatise has to do with the right wa,y; it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and one other little things that you should know. Fourth edition. 25 cents LIQUID AIR AND THE LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. This book gives the history of the theory, discovery, and manufacture of Liquid Air, and contains an illustrated description of all the experiments that have excited the wonder of audiences all over the country. It shows how liquid air, like water, is carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from it in the near future. A book that renders simple one of the most perplexing chemical problems of the century. Startling developments illustrated by actual experiments. It is not only a work of scientific interest and authority, but is intended for the general reader, being written in a popular style easily understood by every one. Second edition. 365 pages. Price $2.00 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING AIR-BRAKE CATECHISM. By ROBERT H. BLACKALL. This book is a standard text book. It covers the Westinghouse Air-Brake Equipment, in- cluding the No. 5 and the No. 6 E. T Locomotive Brake Equipment; the K (Quick-Service) Triple Valve for Freight Service; and the Cross-Compound Pump. The operation of all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail, and a practical way of rinding their peculiarities and defects, with a proper remedy, is given. It contains 2,000 questions with their answers, which will enable any railroad man to pass any examination on the subject of Air Brakes. Endorsed and used by air-brake instructors and examiners on nearly every railroad in the United States. 25th Edition. 350 pages, fully illustrated with folding plates and dia- grams $2.00 AMERICAN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. By FRED. H. COLVIN. The only book on compounds for the engineman or shopman that shows in a plain, practical way the various features of compound locomotives in use. Shows how they are made, what to do when they break down or balk. Contains sections as follows: A Bit of History. The- ory of Compounding Steam Cylinders. Baldwin Two-Cylinder Compound. Pittsburg Two- Cylinder Compound. Rhode Island Compound. Richmond Compound. Rogers Compound. Schenectady Two-Cylinder Compound. Vauclain Compound. Tandem Compounds. Bald- win Tandem. The Colvin-Wigntman Tandem. Schenectady Tandem. Balanced Loco- motives. Baldwin Balanced Compound. Plans for Balancing. Locating Blows. Break- downs. Reducing Valves. Drifting. Valve Motion. Disconnecting. Power of Compound Locomotives. Practical Notes. Fully illustrated "and containing ten special "Duotone" inserts on heavy Plate Paper, show- ing different types of Compounds. 142 pages. Price $1.00 APPLICATION OF HIGHLY SUPERHEATED STEAM TO LOCOMOTIVES. By ROBERT GARBE. A practical book. Contains special chapters on Generation of Highly Superheated Steam; Superheated bteam and the Two-Cylinder Simple Engine; Compounding and Superheating; Designs ofj Locomotive Superheaters; Constructive Details of Locomotives using Highly Superheated Steam; Experimental and Working Results. Illustrated with folding plates and tables. Price $2.50 COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By WM. M. BARR. This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the combus- tion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly with the condi- tions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous coal in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. The presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The arrangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended accurate answers, which describe in language, free from technicalities, the several processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods of furnace construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price $1.00 DIARY OF A ROUND HOUSE FOREMAN. By T. S. REILLY . This is the greatest book of railroad experiences ever published. Containing a fund of infor- mation and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc. , that one cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. Price $1.00 LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING. By FRED H. COLVIN, Associate Editor of "American Machinist." A handy book for the engineer or machinist that clears up the mysteries of valve setting. Shows the different valve gears in use, how they work, and why. Piston and slide valves of different types are illustrated and explained. A book that every railroad man in the mo- tive power department ought to have. Contains chapters on Locomotive Link Motion, Valve Movements, Setting Slide Valves, Analysis by Diagrams, Modern Practice, Slip of Block, Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Setting Piston Valves, Joy-Allen Valve Gear, Walschaert Valve Gear, Gooch Valve Gear, Alfree-Hubbell Valve Gear, etc., etc. Fully illustrated. Price . . . , 50 cents CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. By FEANK A. KLEINHANS. The construction of boilers in general is treated, and following this, the locomotive boiler is taken up in the order in which its various parts go through the sh9p. Shows all types of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of riveting, punches and dies ; work done per day, allowance for bending and flanging sheets, and other data. Locomotive boilers present more difficulty in laying out and building than any other type, and for this reason the author uses them as examples. Anyone who can handle them can tackle anything. Contains chapters on Laying Out Work; Flanging and Forging; Punching; Shearing; Plate Planing; General Tables; Finishing Parts; Bending; Machinery Parts; Riveting; Boiler Details; Smoke Box Details; Assembling and Calking; Boiler Shop Machinery, etc., etc. There isn't a man who has anything to do with boiler work, either new or repair work, who doesn't need this book. The manufacturer, superintendent, foreman, and boiler worker all need it. No matter what the type of boiler, you'll find a mint of information that you wouldn't be without. Over 400 pages, five large folding plates. Price $3.00 LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS AND THEIR REMEDIES. By GEO. L. FOWLER. Revised by WM. W. WOOD, Air-Brake Instructor. Just issued. Revised pocket edition. It is out of the question to try and tell you about every subject that is covered in this pocket edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected ones, troubles that could occur, but that you had never thought about, and you will find that they are all treated with the very best methods of repair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. 294 pages. 7th Revised Edition. Fully illustrated $1.0O LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. The revised edition of "Locomotive Catechism," by Robert Grimshaw, is a New Book from Cover to Cover. It contains twice as many pages and double the number of illustrations of previous editions. Includes the greatest amount of practical information ever published on the construction and management of modern locomotives. Specially Prepared Chapters on the Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear, the Air Brake Equipment and the Electric Head Light are given. It commends itself at once to every Engineer and Fireman, and to all who are going in for examination or promotion. In plain language, with full complete answers, not only all the questions asked by the examining engineer are given, but those which the young and less experienced would ask the veteran, and which old hands ask as "stickers." It is a veritable Encyclopedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, easily understood and thoroughly up-to-date. Contains over 4,000 Examination Questions with their Answers. 825 pages, 437 illustrations and three folding plates. 28th Revised Edition. . . $2.5O PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCE BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN AND ENGINEERS. By CHAS. F. LOCKHART. An entirely new book on the Locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it tells him how things are done and the right way to do them. Written by a man who has had years of practical experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and running. The infor- mation given in this book cannot be found in any other similar treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, which will prove specially helpful to those preparing for examination. Practical information on: The Construction and Opera- tion of Locomotives. Breakdowns and their Remedies; Air Brakes and Valve Gears. Rules and Signals are handled in a thorough manner. As a book of reference it cannot be excelled. The book is divided into six parts, as follows: 1. The Fireman's Duties. 2. General description of the Locomotive. 3. Breakdowns and their Remedies. 4. Air Brakes. 5. Extracts from Standard Rules. 6. Questions for examination. The 851 questions have been carefully selected and arranged. These cover the examinations required by the different railroads. 368 pages. 88 illustrations. Price $1.50 PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING. By GEORGE BRADSHAW. This book is a heart-to-heart talk with Railroad Employees, dealing with facts, not theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original photographs and draw- ings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No visionary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and Practical Suggestions are given. Every railroad employee who reads the 18 CATALOGUE OF' GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS book is a better and safer man to have in railroad service. It gives just the information which will be the means of preventing many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should procure a copy, read it, and do your part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket Size. Fully illustrated. Price 50 cents TRAIN RULE EXAMINATIONS MADE EASY. By G. E. COLLINGWOOD. This is the only practical work on train-rules in print. Every detail is covered, and puzzling points are explained in simple, comprehensive language, making it a practical treatise for the Train Dispatcher, Engineman, Trainman, and all others who have to do with the move- ments of trains. Contains complete and reliable information of the Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Shows Signals in Colors, as used on the different roads. Explains fully the practical application of train orders, giving a clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. The meaning and necessity for certain rules are explained in such a manner that the student may know beyond a doubt the rights conferred under any orders he may receive or the action required by certain rules. As nearly all roads require trainmen to pass regular examinations, a complete set of examina- tion questions, with their answers, are included. These will enable the student to pass the required examinations with credit to himself and the road for which he works. 256 pages. Fully illustrated with Train Signals in colors. Price $1.26 TRAIN RULES AND DESPATCHING. By H. A. DALBY. Every railroad man, no matter what department he's in, needs a copy of this book. It gives the standard rules for both single and double track, shows all the signals, with colors wher- ever necessary, and has a list of towns where time changes, with a map showing the whole country. The rules are explained wherever tkere is any doubt about their meaning or where they are modified by different railroads. It's the only practical book on train rules in print. Over 220 pages. Leather cover. Price $1.50 THE WALSCHAERT AND OTHER MODERN RADIAL VALVE GEARS FOR LOCOMOTIVES. By WM. W. WOOD. If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear you should possess a copy of this book, as the author takes the plainest form of a steam engine a stationary engine in the rough, that will only turn its crank in one direction and from it builds up with the reader's help a modern locomotive equipped with the Walschaert Valve Gear, complete. The points discussed are clearly illustrated ; two large folding plates that show the positions of the valves of both inside or outside admission type, as well as the links and other parts of the gear when the crank is at nine different points in its revolution, are especially valuable in making the movement clear. These employ sliding cardboard models which are contained in a pocket in the cover. The book is divided into five general divisions, as follows: I. Analysis of the gear. II. De- signing and erecting the gear. III. Advantages of the gear. IV. Questions and answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. V. Setting valves with the Walschaert Valve Gear; the three primary types of locomotive valve motion ; modern radial valve gears other than the Walschaert ; the Hobart All-free valve and valve gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns; the Baker- Pilliod valve gear; the Improved Baker- Pilliod Valve Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns. The questions with full answers given will be especially valuable to firemen and engineers in preparing for an examination for promotion. 245 pages. Third Revised Edition. Price $1.60 WESTINGHOUSE E T AIR-BRAKE INSTRUCTION POCKET BOOK. By WM. W. WOOD, Air-Brake Instructor. Here is a book for the railroad man, and the man who aims to be one. It is without doubt the only complete work published on the Westinghouse E-T Locomotive Brake Equipment. Written by an Air Brake Instructor who knows just what is needed. It covers the subject thoroughly. Everything about the New Westinghouse Engine and Tender Brake Equip- ment, including the Standard No. 5 and the Perfected No. 6 Style of brake, is treated in de- tail. Written in plain English and profusely illustrated with Colored Plates, which enable one to trace the flow of pressures throughout the entire equipment. The best book ever published on the Air Brake. Equally good for the beginner and the advanced engineer. Will pass any one through any examinatipn. It informs and enlightens you on every point. Indispensable to every engineman and trainman. Contains examination questions and answers on the E-T equipment. Covering what the E-T Brake is. How it should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion on either the No. 5 or the No. 6 E-T equipment that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to thoroughly understand the E-T equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every detail. Makes Air Brake troubles and examinations easy. Price $1.60 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE AMERICAN TOOL MAKING AND INTERCHANGEABLE MANUFACTURING. By J. V. WOODWORTH. A "shoppy" book, containing no theorizing, no problematical or experimental devices, there are no badly proportioned and impossible diagrams, no catalogue cuts, but a valuable collec- tion of drawings and descriptions of devices, the rich fruits of the author's own experience. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices, and special appliances which are in general use in all machine manufacturing and metal working establishments where economy, capacity, and interchangeability in the production of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaustively discussed, and particular attention is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened within the contrivances. All of the tools, fixtures, and devices illustrated and described have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill presses, lathes, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical apparatus, mechan- ical appliances, brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal articles, drop forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. 531 pages. Price $4.00 HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. Edited by JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I., M.E. This set of five volumes contains about 2,500 pages with thousands of illustrations, including diagrammatic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. This work covers the entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The best known expert in all branches of engineering have contributed to these volumes. The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught practical man, as well as the mechanical en- gineer, designer, draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman, and machinist. The work will be found a means of advancement to any progressive man. It is encyclopedic in scope, thorough and practical in its treatment of technical subjects, simple and clear in its descriptive matter, and without unnecessary technicalities or formulae. The articles are as brief as may be and vet give a reasonably clear and explicit statement of the subject, and are written by men who have had ample practical experience in the matters of which they write. It tells you all you want to know about engineering and tells it so simply, so clearly, so concisely, that one cannot help but understand. As a work of reference it is without a peer. $6.00 per volume. For complete set of five volumes, price $25.00 MACHINE SHOP ARITHMETIC. By COLVIN-CHENEY. This is an arithmetic of the things you have to do with daily. It tells you plainly about: how to find areas of figures; how to find surface or volume of balls or spheres; handy ways for calculating; about compound gearing; cutting screw threads on any lathe; drilling for taps; speeds of drills, taps, emery wheels, grindstones, milling cutters, etc.; all about the Metric system with conversion tables; properties of metals; strength of bolts and nuts; decimal equivalent of an inch. All sorts of machine shop figuring and 1,001 other things, any one of which ought to be worth more than the price of this book to you, and it saves you the trouble of bothering the boss. 6th Edition. 131 pages. Price 50 cents MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By OSCAR E. PERRIGO. The only work published that describes the Modern Machine Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the re- building and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern Shop Methods, time and cost systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. 400 large quarto pages. 225 original and specially-made illustrations. Price $5.00 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES, MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS AND NOVELTIES OF CONSTRUCTION. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a supplementary volume to the one upon mechanical mpvements. Unlike the first volume, which is more elementary in character, this volume contains illustrations and descrip- tions of many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices and appliances found in different. lines of machinery. Each device being shown b.v a line drawing with a description 2O CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS showing its working parts and the method of operation. From the multitude of devices de- scribed, and illustrated, might be mentioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers,! various types of boilers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycles, railway block signals, car couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulati9n of others of equal importance. 1,000 specially made engrav- ings. 396 octavo pages. Price $2.50 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS, AND DEVICES. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appliances, accom- panied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all readers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen, sections or chapters in which the subject matter is classified under the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmission of Power; Measurement of Power, Steam Power; Air Power Appliances ; Electric Power and Construction, Navigation and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Controlling Motion; Horological; Mining; Mill and Factory Appliances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices: Miscellaneous Devices, etc. 12th edition, 400 octavo pages. Price $2.50 MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND SHOP PRACTICE. By W. H. VANDERVOORT. A work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting and transmission machinery: useful data and tables. 6th edition. Price . . . $3.00 THE MODERN MACHINIST. By JOHN T. USHER. This is a book showing, by plain description and by profuse engravings, made expressly for the work, all that is best, most advanced, and of the highest efficiency in modern machine shop practice, tools, and implements, showing the way by which and through which, as Mr. Maxim says, "American machinists have become and are the finest mechanics hi the world." Indicating as it does, in every line, the familiarity of the author with every detail of daily experience in the shop, it cannot fail to be of service to any man practically -connected with the shaping or finishing of metals. There is nothing experimental or visionary about the book, all devices being in actual use and giving good results. It might be called a compendium of shop methods, shewing a vari- ety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics, from the superintendent down to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any machinist's library, and should be consulted whenever a new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is boring, milling, turning, or planing, as they are all treated in a practical manner. Fifth Edition. 320 pages. 250 illustrations. Price ... ...... $2.5O MODERN MILLING MACHINES: THEIR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERA- TION. By JOSEPH G. HORNER. This book describes and illustrates the Milling Machine and its work in such a plain, clear, and forceful manner, and illustrates the subject so clearly and completely, that the up-to-date machinist, student, or mechanical engineer cannot afford to do without the valuable infor- mation which it contains. It describes not only the early machines of this class, but notes their gradual development into the splendid machines of the present day, giving the design and construction of the various types, forms, and special features produced by prominent manufacturers, American and foreign. Milling cutters in all their development and modernized forms are illustrated and described, and the operations they are capable of producing upon different classes of work are carefully described in detail, and the speeds and feeds necessary are discussed, and valuable and useful data given for determining these usually perplexing problems. The book is the most compre- hensive work published on the subject. 304 pages. 300 illustrations. Price . . $4.00 " SHOP KINKS." By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. A book of 400 pages and 222 illustrations, being entirely different frcrcn any other book on machine shop practice. Departing frorn conventional style, the author avpids universal or common shop usage and limits his work to showing special ways of doing things better, m9re cheaply and more rapidly than usual. As a result the advanced methods of representative establishments of the world are placed at the disposal of the reader. This book shows the proprietor where large savings are possible, and how products may be improved. To the employee it holds out suggestions that, properly applied, will hasten his advancement. No shop can afford to be without it. It bristles with valuable wrinkles and helpful suggestions. It will benefit all, from apprentice to proprietor. Every machinist, at any age, should study its pages. Fifth Edition. Price $2.50 21 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By COLVIN and STABEL. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread-cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. 3rd Edition. Price 36 cents TOOLS FOR MACHINISTS AND WOOD WORKERS, INCLUDING INSTRUMENTS OF MEASUREMENT. By JOSEPH G. HORNER. The principles upon which cutting tools for wood, metal, and other substances are made are identical, whether used by the machinist, the carpenter, or by any other skilled mechanic in their daily work, and the object of this book is to give a correct and practical description of these tools as they are commonly designed, constructed, and used. 340 pages, fully illustrated. Price $3.50 MANUAL TRAINING ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By Louis ROUILLION. The only book published that gives just the information needed by all interested in Manual Training, regarding Buildings, Equipment, and Supplies. Shows exactly what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and Normal School. Gives item- ized lists of everything used in Manual Training Work and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to buy supplies, etc. Contains 174 pages, and is fully illustrated. 2nd Edition. Price $1.50 MARINE ENGINEERING MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS, THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. By DR. G. BAUER, LESLIE S. ROBERTSON, and S. BRYAN DONKIN. In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a Condensed Treatise, embodying the Theoretical and Practical Rules used in Designing Marine Engines and Boilers. The need for such a work has been felt by most engineers engaged in the con- struction and working of Marine Engines, not only by the younger men, but also by those of greater experience. The fact that the original German work was written by the chief engineer of the famous Vulcan Works, Stettin, is in itself a guarantee that this book is in all respects thoroughly up-to-date, and that it embodies all the information which is necessary for the design and construction of the highest types of marine engines and boilers. It may be said, that the motive power which Dr. Bauer has placed in the fast German liners that have been turned out of late years from the Stettin Works, represent the very best practice in marine engineering of the present day. This work is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while the character of its plans, drawings, tables, and statistics is without reproach. The illustrations are care- ful reproductions from actual working drawings, with some well-executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. 744 pages. 550 illustrations and numerous tables. $9.00 net MODERN SUBMARINE CHART. A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine of the latest type. You get more information from this chart, about the construction and operation of a Submarine, than in any other way. No Details omitted everything is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been approved by Naval Engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modern Submarine Boat are shown and to make the engraving more readily understood all the features are shown in operative form with Officers and Men in the act of performing the duties assigned to them in service conditions. This CHART IS REALLY AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF A SUBMARINE. It is educational and worth many times its cost. Mailed in a Tube for 25 cents MINING ORE DEPOSITS, WITH A CHAPTER ON HINTS TO PROSPECTORS. By J. P. JOHNSON This book gives a condensed account of the ore-deposits at present known in South Africa. It is also intended as a guide to the prospector. Only an elementary knowledge of geology and some mining experience are necessary in order to understand this work. With these qualifications, it will materially assist one in his search for metalliferous mineral occurrences 22 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS and, so far as simple ores are concerned, should enable one to form some idea of the possi- bilities of any he may find. Among the chapters given are: Titaniferous and Chromiferous Iron Oxides Nickel Cop- per Cobalt Tin Molybdenum Tungsten Lead Mercury Antimony Iron Hints to Prospectors $2.00 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF MINING. By T. H. BYEOM. A practical work for the use of all preparing for examinations in mining or qualifying for colliery managers' certificates. The aim of the author in this excellent book is to place clearly before the reader useful and authoritative data which will render him valuable assistance in his studies. The only work of its kind published. The information incprporated in it will prove of the greatest practical utility to students, mining engineers, colliery managers, and all others who are specially interested in the present-day treatment of mining problems. Among its contents are chapters on: The Atmosphere; Laws Relating to the Behavior of Gases; The Diffusion of Gases; Composition of the Atmosphere: Sundry Constituents of the Atmosphere; Water; Carbon; Fire-Damp ; Combustion; Coal Dust and Its Action; Ex- plosives; Composition of Various Coals and Fuels; Methods of Analysis of Coal; Strata Ad- joining the Coal Measures; Magnetism and Electricity; Appendix; Useful Tables, etc ; Miscellaneous Questions. 160 pages. Illustrated $2.00 PRACTICAL COAL MINING. By T. H. COCKIN. An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustrations, complete with practical de- tails, which will intuitively impart to the reader, not only a general knowledge of the princi- ples of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects. This treatise is posi- tively up to date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every colliery engineer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others who are interested in or connected with the industry. 2nd Edition. . $2.50 PATTERN MAKING PRACTICAL PATTERN MAKING. By F. W. BARROWS. This is a very complete and entirely practical treatise on the subject of pattern making, illus- trating pattern work in wood and metal. From its pages you are taught just what you should know about pattern making. It contains a detailed description of the materials used by pattern makers, also the tools, both those for hand use, and the more interesting machine tools ; having complete chapters on the band saw, The Buzz Saw, and the Lathe. Individual patterns of many different kinds are fully illustrated and described, and the mounting of metal patterns on plates for molding machines is included. Rules, Formulas and Tables are included, containing simple and original methods for finding the weight of castings, both from the pattern itself and from the drawings. This section contains some new and practical formulas, which will be found very useful in estimating weights, with the accuracy required for quotations to prospective customers. All of these rules are simple, and can be put to practical use by the ordinary, every-day man, and they have been proved by years of actual use. Plain rules for keeping down the cost of patterns, with a complete system for checking the cost of and marking the patterns, and a card record showing what the pattern is, material used, where located in safe, with its cost and date of production, is included. The book closes with an original and practical method for the inventory and valuation of patterns. Con- taining 326 pages and 150 detailed illustrations. Price $2.00 ' PERFUMERY \ HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PRO- CESSES. Edited by G. D. Hiscox. The most valuable Techno-chemical Receipt Book published. Contains over 10,000 practical receipts, many of which will prove of special value to the perfumer, a mine of information, up- to-date in every respect. Price, Cloth, $3.00; half morocco $4.00 PERFUMES AND THEIR PREPARATION. By G. W. ASKINSON, Perfumer. A comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of value to the Perfumer. Complete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling-salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles: preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cos- metics, hair dyes and other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic substances: their nature, tests of purity, and wholesale manufacture. A book of general, as well as professional interest, meeting the wants not only of the druggist and perfume man- ufacturer, but; also Of the general public. Third edition. 312 pages. Illustrated. . $3.00 23 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS PLUMBING MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS. By R. M. STARBUCK. A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing in its various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so help the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to customers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of greater responsibility. Among the chapters contained are: 1. Value to plumber of knowledge of drawing; tools required and their use; common views needed in mechanical drawing. 2. Perspective versus mechan- ical drawing in showing plumbing construction. 3. Correct and incorrect methods in plumbing drawing; plan and. elevation explained. 3. Floor and cellar plans and elevation; scale drawings; use of triangles. 5. Use of triangles; drawing of fittings, traps, etc. 6. Drawing plumbing elevations and fittings. 7. Instructions in drawing plumbing elevations. 8. The drawing of plumbing fixtures ; scale drawings. 9. Drawing of fixtures and fittings. 10. Inking of drawings. 11. Shading of drawings. 12. Shading of drawings. 13. Sec- tional drawings; drawing of threads. 14. Plumbing elevations from architect's plan. 15. Elevations of separate parts of the plumbing system. 16. Elevations from architect's plans. ' 17. Drawing of detail plumbing connections. 18. Architect's plans and plumbing elevations of residence. 19. Plumbing elevations of residence (continued) ; plumbing plans for cottage. 20. Plumbing elevations; roof connections. 21. Plans and plumbing eleva- tions for six-flat building. 22. Drawing of various parts of the plumbing system; use of scales. 23. Use of architect's scales. 24. Special features in the illustrations of country plumbing. 25. Drawing of wrought iron piping, valves, radiators, coils, etc. 26. Drawing of piping to illustrate heating systems. 150 illustrations. Price $1.50 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. M. STARBUCK. This book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. It has been adopted and used as a reference book by the United States Government, in its sanitary work in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, and by the principal Boards of Health of the United States and Canada. It gives connections, sizes and working data for all fixtures and groups of fixtures. It is helpful to the master plumber in demonstrating to his customers and in figuring work. It fives the mechanic and student quick and easy access to the best modern plumbing practice, uggestions for estimating plumbing construction are contained in its pages. This book represents, in a word, the latest and best up-to-date practice, and should be in the hands of every architect, sanitary engineer and plumber who wishes to keep himself up to the minute on this important feature of construction. Contains following chapters, each illustrated with a full-page plate: Kitchen sink, laundry tubs, vegetable wash sink; lavatories, pantry sinks, contents of marble slabs; bath tub, foot and sitz bath, shower bath; water closets, venting of water closets; low-down water closets, water closets operated by flush valves, water closet range; slop sink, urinals, the bidet; hotel and restaurant sink, grease trap; refrigerators, safe wastes, laundry waste; lines of refrigerators, bar sinks, soda foun- tain sinks; horse stall, frost-proof water closets; connections for S traps, venting; con- nections for drum traps; soil pipe connections; supporting of soil pipe; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor drains and cellar drains, subsoil drainage; water closets and floor connections; local venting; connections for bath rooms ; connections for bath rooms, con- tinued; connections for bath rooms, continued; connections for bath rooms, continued; examples of poor practice; roughing- work ready for test; testing of plumbing system; method of continuous venting; continuous venting for two-floor work ; continuous venting for two lines of fixtures on three or more floors; continuous venting of water closets; plumb- ing for cottage house; construction for cellar piping; plumbing for residence, use of special fittings; plumbing for two-flat house; plumbing for apartment building; plumbing for double apartment building; plumbing for office building; plumbing for public toilet rooms; plumbing for public toilet rooms, continued; plumbing for bath establishment; plumbing for engine house, factory plumbing; automatic flushing for schools, factories, etc.; use of flushing valves; urinals for public toilet rooms; the Durham system, the destruction of pipes by electrolysis; construction of work without use of lead; Automatic sewage lift, automatic sump tank; country plumbing; construction of cesspools; septic tank and auto- matic sewage siphon; country plumbing; water supply for country house; thawing of water mains and service by electricity; double boilers; hot water supply of large build- ings; automatic control of hot water tank; suggestions for estimating plumbing construc- tion. 400 octavo pages, fully illustrated by 55 full-page engravings. Price . $4.00 STANDARD PRACTICAL PLUMBING. By R. M. STARBUCK. A complete practical treatise of 450 pages covering the subject of Modern Plumbing in all its branches, a large amount of space being devoted to a very complete and practical treatment of the subject of Hot Water Supply and Circulation and Range Boiler Work. Its thirty chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of, making it : 2 4 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS an indispensable work to the master plumber, the journeyman plumber, and the apprentice plumber, containing chapters on: the plumber's tools; wiping solder, composition and use; joint wiping; lead woru; traps; siphonage of traps; venting; continuous venting; house sewer and sewer connections; house drain; soil piping, roughing; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor, yard, cellar drains, rain leaders, etc. ; fixture wastes : water closets ; ventilation; improved plumbing connections; residence plumbing; plumbing for hotels, schools, fac- tories, stables, etc.; modern country plumbing; filtration of sewage and water supply; hot and cold supply; range boilers; circulation; circulating pipes; range boiler problems; hot water for large buildings; water lift and its use; multiple connections for hot water boilers; heating of radiation by supply system; theory for the plumber; drawing for the plumber. Fully illustrated by 347 engravings. Price $3.00 RECEIPT BOOK HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PRO- CESSES. Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. The most valuable Techno-chemical Receipt Book published, including over 10,000 selected scientific, chemical, technological, and practical receipts and processes. This is the most complete Book of Receipts ever published, giving thousands of receipts for the manufacturer of valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, Helps, Practical Ideas, and Secret Processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of making money and is just the book everyone should have at his command. Modern in its treatment of every subject that properly falls within its scope, the book may truthfully be said to present the very latest formulas to be found in the arts and industries and to retain those processes which long experience has proven worthy of a permanent record. To present here even a limited number of the subjects which find a place in this valuable work would be difficult. Suffice to say that in its pages will be found matter of intense in- terest and immeasurable practical value to the scientific amateur and to him who wishes to obtain a knowledge of the many processes used in the arts, trades and manufactures, a knowledge which will render his pursuits moro instructive and remunerative. Serving as a reference book to the small and large manufacturer and suppplying intelligent seekers with the information necessary to conduct a process, the work will be found of inestimable worth to the Metallurgist, the Photographer, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements, and Mucilages, the Compounder of Alloys, the Cook, the Physician, the Druggist, the Electrician, the Brewer, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter, the Tanner, the Confectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manicure, the Manufacturer of Chemical Novelties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the Engraver, the Provisioner, the Glass 'A r orker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker, the Jew- eler, the Hat Maker, the Ink Manufacturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairyman, the Paper Maker, the Wood and Metal Worker, the Chandler and Soap Maker, the Veterinary Surgeon, and the Technologist in general. A mine of information, and up-to-date in every respect. A book which will prove of value to EVERYONE, as it covers every branch of the Useful Arts. 800 pages. Price $3.00 WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: " Your Twentieth Century Book of Receipts, Formulas and Processes duly received. I am glad to have a copy of it, and if I could not replace it money couldn't buy it. It is the best thing of the sort I ever saw." (Signed) M. E. TRUX, Sparta, Wis. " There are few persons who would not be able to find in the book some single formula that would repay several times the cost of the book." Merchant's Record and Show Window. RUBBER RUBBER HAND STAMPS AND THE MANIPULATION OF INDIA RUBBER. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. This book gives full details on all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the elements of nearly everything it is necessary to understand for a commencement in any branch of the India Rubber Manufacture. The making of all kinds of Rubber Hand Stamps, Small Articles of India Rubber, U. S. Government Composition, Dating Hand Stamps, the Manipulation of Sheet Rubber, Toy Balloons, India Rubber Solutions, Cements, Blackings, Renovating 2 5 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS Varnish, and Treatment for India Rubber Shoes, etc.; the Hektograph Stamp Inks and Miscellaneous Notes, with a Short Account 9f the Discovery, Collection, and Manufacture of India Rubber are set forth in a manner designed to be readily understood, the explanations being plain and simple. Including a chapter on Rubber Tire Making and Vulcanizing- also a chapter on the uses of rubber in Surgery and Dentistry. Third revised and enlarged edition. 175 pages. Illustrated $1.00 SAWS SAW FILINGS AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. A practical hand book on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazing of band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints and rules for gumming, setting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. New edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Price $1.00 STEAM ENGINEERING AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By W. E. CRANE. This book begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. A plain talk on eyery-day work about engines, boilers, and their accessories. It is not intended to be scien- tific or mathematical. All formulas are in simple form so that any one understanding plain arithmetic can readily understand any of them. The author has made this the most prac- tical book in print; has given the results of his years of experience, and has included about all that has to do with an engine room or a power plant. You are not left to guess at a single point. You are shown clearly what to expect under the various conditions ; how to secure the best results; ways of preventing "shut downs" and repairs; in short, all that goes to make up the requirements of a good engineer, capable of taking charge of a plant. It's plain enough for practical men and yet of value to those high in the profession. A partial list of contents is: The boiler room, cleaning boilers, firing, feeding; pumps; inspection and repair; chimneys, sizes and cost; piping; mason work; foundations; testing cement; pile driving; engines, slow and high speed ; valves; valve setting ; Corliss engines, setting valves, single and double eccentric; air pumps and condensers; different types of condensers; water needed; lining up; pounds; pins not square in crosshead or crank; engineers' tools; pistons and piston rings ; bearing metal ; hardened copper ; drip pipes from cylinder jackets; belts, how made, care of; oils; greases; testing lubricants; rules and tables, including steam tables; areas of segments; squares and square root; cubes and cube root; areas and circumferences of circles. Notes on: Brick work; explosions; pumps; pump valves; heaters, economizers; safety valves ; lap, lead, and clearance. Has a complete examination for a license, etc., etc. Secotfd edition. 285 pages. Illustrated. Price . $2.00 EMINENT ENGINEERS. By DWIGHT GODDAKD. Everyone who appreciates the effect of such great inventions as the Steam Engine, Steamboat, Locomotive, Sewing Machine, Steel Working, and other fundamental discoveries, is interested in knowing a little about the men who made them and their achievements. Mr. Goddard has selected thirty-two of the world's engineers who have contributed most largely to the advancement of our civilization by mechanical means, giving only such facts as are of general interest and in a way which appeals to all, whether mechanics or not. 280 pages. 35 illustrations. Price $1.50 ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECHISM. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. A practical treatise for the stationary engineer, telling how to erect, adjust and run the prin- cipal steam engines in use in the United States. Describing the principal features of various special and well-known makes of engines: Temper Cut-off, Shipping and Receiving Founda- tions, Erecting and Starting, Valve Setting, Care and Use, Emergencies, Erecting and Ad- justing Special Engines. The questions asked throughout the catechism are plain and to the point, and the answers are given in such simple language as to be readily understood by anyone. All the instructions given are complete and up-to-date; and they are written in a popular style, without any technicalities or mathematical formulae. The work is of a handy size for the pocket, clearly and well printed, nicely bound, and profusely illustrated. To young engineers this catechism 26 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS will be of great value, especially to ihose whu may be preparing to go forward to be examined for certifi ates of competency; and to engineers generally it will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more really practical and useful information than is to be found any- where else within a like compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price .... $2.00 ENGINE TESTS AND BOILER EFFICIENCIES. By J. BUCHETTI. This work fully describes and illustrates the method of testing the power of steam engines, turbines and explosive motors. The properties of steam and the evaporative power of fuels. Combustion of fuel and chimney draft; with formulas explained or practically computed 255 pages, 179 illustrations $3.00 HORSEPOWER CHART. Shows the horsepower of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke; the steam pressure or cut off; the revolutions, or whether con- densing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calcu- lations. Especially useful to engineers and designers 60 cents MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a complete and practical work issued for Stationary Engineers and firemen dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other branches with which the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the Examining Board, are included. Among the chapters are: Historical; steam and its properties; appliances for the genera- tion of steam; types of boilers; chimney and its work; heat economy of the feed water; steam pumps and their work; incrustation and its work; steam above atmospheric pressure; flow of steam from nozzles; superheated steam and its work; adiabatic expansion of steam; indicator and its work; steam engine proportions; slide valve engines and valve motion; Corliss engine and its valve gear; compound engine and its theory; triple and multiple expansion engine, steam turbine; refrigeration; elevators and their management; cost of power; steam engine troubles; electric power and electric plants. 487 pages. 405 en- gravings. Price . $3.00 STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. This unique volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer princi- ple; but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the Steam problems that apper- tain to the operation and management of the Steam Engine. Illustrations of various valves and valve gear with their principles of operation are given. Thirty-four Tables that are indispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be progressive and is ambitious to become master of his calling are within its pages. It is a most valuable instructor in the service of Steam Engineering. Leading engineers have recommended it as a valuable educa- tor for the beginner as well as a reference book for the engineer. It is thoroughly indexed for every detail. Every essential question on the Steam Engine with its answer is contained in this valuable work. Sixteenth edition. Price $2.00 STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By COLVIN-CHENEY. A practical pocket book for the steam engineer. Shows how to work the problems of the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power of engines and boilers; area of boilers ; has tables of areas and circumferences ; steam tables ; has a dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you on to all all of the little kinks in figuring whatever there is to figure around a P9wer plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic expansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and 1,001 other things; and everything is plain and simple not the hardest way to figure, but the easiest. 2nd Edition 50 cents STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATION PRACTICAL STEAM, HOT- WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION. By A. G. KING. This book is the standard and latest work published on the subject and has been prepared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot water heating, and ventilation. It is an original and exhaustive work. Tells how to get heating contracts, how to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used, with "Tricks of the Trade" for 27 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, hot water heating, and venti- lation. It describes all the principal systems of steam, hot water, vacuum, vapor, and vacuum- vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of hot water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventilation. Containing chapters on: I. Introduction. II. Heat. III. Evolution of artificial heating apparatus. IV. Boiler surface and settings. V. The chimney flue VI Pipe and fittings. VII. Valves, various kinds. VIII. Forms of radiating surfaces. IX. Locating of radiating surfaces. X. Estimating radiation. XI. Steam-heating apparatus XII. Exhaust-steam heating. XIII. Hot-water heating. XIV. Pressure systems of hot- water work. XV. Hot- water appliances. XVI. Greenhouse heating. XVII. Vacuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating. XVIII. Miscellaneous heating. XIX. Radiator and pipe connections. XX. Ventilation. XXI. Mechanical ventilation and hot-blast heating. XXII. Steam appliances. XXIII. District heating. XXIV. Pipe and boiler covering XXV. Temperature regulation and heat control. XXVI. Business methods. XXVII. Miscellaneous. XXVIII. Rules, tables and useful information. 367 pages. 300 detailed engravings. Price $3.00 STEAM PIPES STEAM PIPES: THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. By WM. H. BOOTH. The work is well illustrated in regard to pipe joints, expansion offsets, flexible joints, and self-contained sliding joints for taking up the expansion of long pipes. In fact, the chapters on the flow of steam and expansion of pipes are most valuable to all steam fitters and users. The pressure strength of pipes and method of hanging them are well treated and illustrated. Valves and by-passes are fully illustrated and described, as are also flange joints and their proper proportions, exhaust heads and separators. One of the most valuable chanters is that on superheated steam and the saving of steam by insulation with the various kinds of felt- ing and other materials with comparison tables of the loss of heat in thermal units from naked and felted steam pipes. Contains 187 pages. Price $2.00 STEEL AMERICAN STEEL WORKER. By E. R. MAKKHAM. This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for everything on earth. It doesn't tell how to temper one class of tools and then leave the treatment of another kind of tool to your imagination and judgment, but it gives careful instructions for every detail of every tool, whether it be a tap, a reamer or just a screw-driver. It tells about the tempering of small watch springs, the hardening of cutlery, and the annealing of dies. In fact there isn't a thing that a steel worker would want to know that isn't included. It is the standard book on selecting, hardening, and tempering all grades of steel. Among the chapter headings might be mentioned the following subjects : Introduction ; the workman ; steel; methods of heating; heating tool steel; forging; annealing; hardening baths; baths for hardening; hardening steel; drawing the temper after hardening; examples of hard- ening; pack hardening; case hardening; spring tempering; making tools of machine steel; special steels; steel for various tools; causes of trouble; high speed steels, etc. 366 pages. Very fully illustrated. 3rd Edition. Price $2.50 HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, AND FORGING OF STEEL. By J. V. WOODWORTH. A new work treating in a clear, concise manner all modern processes for the heating, annealing forging, welding, hardening, and tempering of steel, making it a book of great practical value to the metal-working mechanic in general, with special directions for the successful hardening and tempering of all steel tools used in the arts, including milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery, and metal cutting tools of all description, as well as for all implements of steel both large and small. In this work the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are given. The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are concisely presented, and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, also the special methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. A chapter devoted to the different processes for Case-hardening is also included, and special reference made to the adoption of machinery steel for tools of various kinds. 4th Edition. 288 201 Illustrations. Price $2.50 28 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS TURBINES MARINE STEAM TURBINES. By DR. G. BAUER and O. LASCHE. Assisted by E. Ludwig and H. Vogel. Translated from the German and edited by M. G. S. Swallow. This work forms a supplementary volume to the book entitled "Marine Engines and Boilers." The authors of this book, Dr. G. Bauer and O. Lasche, may be regarded as the leading authorities on turbine construction. The book is essentially practical and discusses turbines in which the full expansion of steam passes through a number of separate turbines arranged for driving two or more shafts, as in the Parsons system, and turbines in which the complete expansion of steam from inlet to exhaust pressure occurs in a turbine on one shaft, as in the case of the Curtis machines. It will enable a designer to carry out all the ordinary calculations necessary for the con- struction of steam turbines, hence it fills a want which is hardly met by larger and more theoretical works. Numerous tables, curves and diagrams will be found, which explain with remarkable lucidity the reason why turbine blades are designed as they are, the course which steam takes through turbines of various types, the thermodynamics of steam turbine calculation, the influence of vacuum on steam consumption of steam turbines, etc. In a word, the very information which a designer and builder of steam turbines most requires. The book is divided into parts as follows: 1. Introduction. 2. General remarks on the design of a turbine installa- tion. 3. The calculation of steam turbines. 4. Turbine design. 5. Shafting and pro- pellers. 6. Condensing plant. 7. Arrangement of turbines. 8. General remarks on the arrangement of steam turbines in steamers. 9. Turbine-driven auxiliaries. 10. Tables. Large octavo. 214 pages. Fully illustrated and containing 18 tables. Including an entropy chart. Price, net $3.50 WATCH MAKING WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. By CLAUDIUS SAUNIER. This famous work has now reached its seventh edition and there is no work issued that can compare to it for clearness and completeness. It contains 498 pages and is intended as a workshop companion for those engaged in Watch-making and allied Mechanical Arts. Nearly 250 engravings and fourteen plates are included. Price ... - .... $3.00 2 9 RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2- month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW JUN 1 9 1996 NOV a 1533 REC,CiRC. 20,000 (4/94) 6O net YB 10738 LKSLEY LIBRARIES 057111321 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY