K67 ^"]^--^ - I K67 Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L 1 ^^^ This book is DUE on the last date stamped belo^ nil L-9-15m-8,"24 I EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY CHIPS FROM A TEACHER'S WORKSHOP BV L. R. KLEMM, PH.D. FORMERLY SrPERVISOR OF GERMAN DEPARTMENT Hl'IiLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, O. ; PRINCIPAL OF A NORMAL DEPARTMENT, CINCINNATI, O. : AND SUPERINTENDENT OK PL-RLIC SCHOOLS, HAMILTON, O.; INSTITUTE CONDUCTOR, AND AUTHOK OF NUMEROUS SCHOOLBOOKS ROSTO>J LEE AND SIIEPARD PUBLISHERS NEW VORK CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM iSSS c' PREFACE. Many of the articles in this book appeared in the lead- ing educational journals. They are here collected because they are thought of sufficient practical value to be thus preserved. In offering this book to the public, the author desires to have it understood that he does not undertake to present a complete system of education, but, beside sonie essays and historical dissertations, chips from his own educational workshop. Chips are useful for kindling fires. If these chips should help a little to kindle tlie fire of enthusiasm in the hearts of some teachers, they will be doing what they were intended for. Should the patient reader find a harsh word now and then in these \ii articles, he may consider that they were written for Uie ' ^ educational press; that is, for a purpose. To tone them j,.^ down, would seriously change their character. Character is what a man is; his reputation, what people say of him. ^ It is so with books. Whatever reputation this liook may get, the author does not propose to let that interfere with its character. lie gives himself in the pagi's of this book, his mode of thinking and discussing, his manner of teaching; and he sincerely Ii()|H's, that, though his manner may be found faulty, his sincerity of puriv>se, his g(x>d 5 6 J' II K FACE. intention to benefit his young colleagues, will not be doubted. At present, the author is engaged in studying the schools in England, France, Holland, Germany, and Switzerland. After his return from t^urope, he will offer a second volume, under the title, " Chips from Educational Work- shops in Europe." Hamilton, O., September, 1887. L. R. K. COjSrTEjSTTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE. OPEy^ LETTEnS TO A YGCyG TEACHER. First Lettei:. Method and Manner 13 SpxoNi) Letter. "Similia Similibus Curantur" ... 17 TniRD Letter. Cause and Effect; or, IIow to Keep Young 24 Fourth Letter. The Old, Old Question 30 Fifth Letter. Sketch of a Good School 35 Sixth Letter. Stimulants in Teaching 40 Sevextii Letter. Teachers' Examinations .... 45 Ekjhtii Letter. Rapidity in Recitation 49 Ninth Letter. Continuity of Instruction 54 Tenth Letter. Why Take the Trouble '? ...... 59 CHAPTER IL FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPER VISOR. A Pertinent Question Answered 67 The Medical Practice of a Teacher 75 I. A Weak Speller 75 II. The Rescue of a Dunce 78 III. A " Bad " Boy in Arithmetic •. . 81 IV. A Boy " like Kaspar Hauser " S3 Discipline. — A Reformatory Class 80 Scenes from School-Life 91 Professional Sui'ERVIsion 95 Mkc HANK al Vii:ti'es !)U A Case of Uninte.ntional Crlei.tv 102 7 8 CONTENTS. CHAPTER Iir. PAGE FUNDAMENTAL E/i/iOIiS IN TEACIJINO. PF.n-CENT Systkm of Gradino 107 Competition in School Ill Memorizing the Printed Page 114 Examination Questions 117 From the Frying-Pan into the Fire 121 The Outlook 126 Catch-Words 128 CHAPTER IV. SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. I. Teach in Accordance with Nature's Laws . 133 II. Teach in Accordance with Psychological Laws 135 III. Teach Ob.jectively; Appeal TO the Senses . 137 IV. Teach Intelligibly 1.39 Methods of Teaching 142 Definitions 142 Didactic, Heuristic, and Systematic Methods .... 144 The Essence of Method 145 Analysis and Synthesis 147 Summary of Methods of Teaching 151 CHAPTER V. the art of questioning, and practice of teaching. Hints to Beginners 1.55 The Socratic Method 1.59 Two Examples of Socratic Questioning .... 162 How the Mind Grows • 165 A Review Lesson in Psychology 169 See, Do, and then Tell 172 A Proof Positive 177 CONTENTS. 9 CHArTER VI. PAGE AniTllMETIC. ITow TO Teacit Fraction?? 183 IIo'iV TO Teach PKUCEXTAfiE 189 A Device, not a Method 10:5 PiJicE-LiST ok Commodities in the Schoolroom . . l'.)7 Primauy Arithmetic l!>i> Miss Celeste's Pennies 200 CHAPTER VII. literature and language. The Poet Schiller A Pertinent Qtestion (rekman in the schools The Value of Grammai: . . . , Polyglot English Misused Words , A Practical CoMrosiTioN Lesson Spelling Taught Rationally . A Suggestion in Spelling . . . , Garment and Substance of Thought Miss Lottie's Three Boys ... In Black ox White 20.5 215 22;i 228 220 2:W •im 2;5« n\) 243 245 246 CHAPTER VII L GEOGRAPrfY. A New Departure in Teaching Geography. . History and Geography, the Siamese Twins . L The Boundarios of Ohio ami Indiana, etc. . . II. Tlu' Bomidarit's of Pennsylvania and Delaware in. The XoUh in the Xorthein IJonndary .... IV. The Boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee Parallels and Meridians 251 268 208 272 274 277 2S2 10 CONTENTS. A Poser Life CoNTUADUTixf; the Sciioolmasteu One Way of Getting at the Idea Odd QiESTioNs Oddly Axswehed . . Elementauy Wokk. — The Zones . . PAOE 285 287 290 292 293 CHAPTER IX. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Educatiox IX Pome 297 The Ancient Gekmans 307 An Intekview between Pestalozzi and Dk. Bell . 815 PRUSSIAN Schools Seventy Yeahs Ago 320 PeEOKMEKS and PltOMOTEIIS OF EDUCATION DURING tue Christian Eua 323 CHAPTER X. HISTORY. Why, When, and How to teach History .... 341 Cause and Effect in History 356 A Glance into the Middle Ages 380 Inventions during the Middle Ages 387 Natural Calling, or Not? 391 A Bird's-eye View of Modern History .... 394 What is Nihilism ? 402 A Talk with my Boys 405 Our Country 406 What I Heard from the Stump 407 CHAPTER I. OPEN LETTEES TO A YOUNG TEACHER. >. EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. CHAFfER I. OPEN LETTEES TO A YOUNG TEACHER. FIRST LETTER. METHOD AND MANNER. My dear Young Lady, — Yon seek information upon a commonplace snbject, which, I will admit in the beginning, is not commonplace at all. You ask, " How would you impart knowledge to normally endowed pupils? What method would you prefer for young children? " Did you consider that I might say, my young friend, there is no such thing as imparting knowledge? Reserve your incredulous smile until you have heard ray explanation. 1 mean to say that any one who uses the term impartinij knowledge speaks erroneously, as it is wrong to say the sun rises or sets : he does no such thing. To impart knowledge, evidently means, to convey, to make knowledge part of the learner. Now, this is the very thing which, I cltiiin, is impossible. Compare the psychological process of learning, with the physiological process of digestion, 'i'riie, this is 14 KDUCAriONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. a liomc'ly illnstrntion, and not the most aesthetic ; but it is the most available. Can you impart a beefsteak to another person? You cannot. You can cook it well, serve it daintily, offer it with one of your sweet smiles ; but make that beefsteak a part of his body j'ou cannot. The person will have to do the biting, chew- ing, swallowing, digesting, and assimilating, himself. You may season the beefsteak admirably, you may make it palatable, you may do any thing and every thing to entice him to eat it ; but you cannot per- form the process of digestion and assimilation for him. It is exactly so in teaching. You cannot impart knowledge. All that 3'ou can do, and that, I insist upon it, you must do, is to make knowledge palatable, to serve it well, to select it with reference to the child's mental stomach, to prepare it so that the child will be enticed to partake of it ; Ijut impart it you cannot. The child's intellect grows as a plant does, from inside outwardly, not from without inwardl}-. Therefore, if 3"Ou should hear of any one of whom it is said that he understands the art of imparting knowledge, j'ou may take it for granted that something else is meant ; namely, that he understands the art of cooking and serving facts well. Really, m}^ friend, the teacher is to be a good cook of mental food ; and it depends upon his professional training and his experience, whether he becomes a chef, and can make chefs-cVoeuvre, and deserves a salary such as is paid to a chef de cuisine at Delmouico's or the Hoffman House, or a OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 15 Bridget who tortures the family witli execrable ex[)eri- raents, and is finally degraded to scullery work. Do not feel dowu-hearled or insulted because I com- pare the teacher with a cook, for all similes are more or less lame. Remember that we may compare the teacher's profession with that of the pln'sician, and j-ou will feel consoled. Diseased digestive organs need specially prescribed diet, and so you will be obliged to diet pupils whose mental faculties are either in an acute or a chronic state of disease. Here, you see, we are approaching the domain of the physician. But, forsooth, there is more similarit}' between the cook and the teacher than we are willing to admit. I am very sorry to say that few cJiefs in teaching have ever reached the salary which chefs de cuisine in some large hotels in New York receive ; but it only proves the truth of what a lady of ni}' acquaintance sometimes 'says, with a reproachful look across the table, when I find some dishes not suited to my palate : " Men are all stomach." As a rule, we prize our stomachs higher than our brains. Remember that when a man is obliged to economize, he begins by stopping his journals ; he thinks he can afford to dispense with mental food. AVhen I say the teacher is like unto the cook, I do not mean to exclude the other, a more vital, part of his duty, which consists in training the child. He is to be at all times both a teacher and a trainer. I merely mention this to avoid a misunderstanding which might arise in your mind, as to the importance K; KDVCATIONAL TOPIC fi OF THE DAY. of the tcHclu'i-'s profession ; but I answered your (liii'sUon, " How do you impart knowledge? " And now your second question : " What method do yon prefer for young children?" I seriously think tliat you are not quite aware of what the word method signilies. When Shakspeare said, "Though this be madness, yet there is method in it," did he use the word "method" correctly? Or, when a corn-doctor advertises his method of cutting corns to be far superior to that of any other doctor, does he use the word " method " correctly ? Reflect upon these two cases, and then listen to this definition : Method is a loaij of reaching a given end by a series of acts which tend to secure it. There can be no question as to Shakspeare's correct use of the word. In our days, the word "method" has fallen into disrespect by abuse. The educational journals are full of small, insignificant devices, all termed methods, which are nothing else thau variations of one and the same thing. People confound mere mannerism with method. Let me quote an authority on this subject, — Dr. Soldan of 8t. Louis : — "Perhaps this difference between method and man- ner will appear better, if we use an illustration which is supported by the etymology of the word 'method.' Suppose it is proposed to establish a connection between two cities. For this purpose, a road is made. Tliis road will be used by all that go from one city to the other, and by all kinds of individuals : it is the same road for all, and not liable to be OPKX LETTERS TO A TOUXG TEACHER. 17 cliauged 1)\' iiuUvidiiiil whims or notions. But the manner in which the road is used varies very much : some will walk, others will run, and others still will ride. The road, in onv illustration, ro[)resents the method in pedagogias. It may he used by the most widely dirferent individuals : the way in which people make use of it is the manner. Manner cannut father mine sagely re- marked, I must not be disturbed, lest my growing bones might suffer ; and then went (jut with the coal- bucket. I l)egan to doubt the wisdom of that father of mine. But then it was delicious to lie on the lounge, and do nothing, so I stictchcd myself ready for a nap. I had scarcely fidlen asleep, when I was rudely awakened l)y a wet ice-cold cloth, which father mine had api)lied to ray head, saying I evidently had a headache, and he meant to cure his dear boy. To make a long story short, 1 was not permitted to do any thing, — work was prohibited, arau.sement prevented. Yet I got through the first day without dying of ennui. I even got through the second day : at the end of which my belief in father's wisdom was (irmly re-estal)lislied, for I now saw clearly that he meant to cure laziness by laziness, or like by like. Still, 3'oung as I was, I did not mean to be out- witted, and braved out another day ; but ask me not to describe it. I was not of a phlegmatic temper ; and you may imagine how I felt all thiough that long, weaiy day, which seemed to me to be tlie bigger half of eternity. On the evening of the third day 1 " caved in," and announced that I " guessed " I was again strong enough to attend school on tlie morrow. .My fatlier's face beamed witii happiness, that his dear boy should have been cured so soon ; he had been prepared 22 EDVCATIOSM. TOl'ICS OF THE DAY. to hold the fort afijainst " dciDon diligcnco " a week, Imt. if 1 tlioii.ulit my streiigtli liad ictiinied, I might tiv scliool-wurk next (hu'. And .s<^ I did ; l)Ut I carried a U'tter to my teacher in which the secret of my cure was not nientioiu'cl, for which omissicjii I inwardly (very inwardly, rest assured) thanked my father. I rememl)er well that one of my sisters was treated similarly when she had her spell of indijlcnce. AN'hen she appeared in the kitchen, mother would, with much solicitude for her health, say that steam might hurt her lungs. When she proceeded to sew for her dolls, it was saiat, Hercules observed that the giant lost his strength when lie was lifted up fioni the ground, and that his strength returned when he touched 2C) KDrCATlDNAh TOPICS OF THE DAY. '' Mollicr Kaitli " ;i;j;:iiii. This is ji proper illustration of your ease. To roinaiii young, means to preserve an interest in every thing and everybody surrounding you. This looks like a more formidable task than it reall}' is. Teachers very fre(iuently resemble the man who digs a hole into the ground, and throws the soil up around the edge of the hole. The deeper he digs, the higher becomes the embankment, and the smallei- his horizon of vision. That is to say, being occu[)icd with small tlioughts, little things, weak and childish efforts, in- significant trifles (significant enough for both pu[)ils and teacher in theii- work, but insignificant in regard to otlier things going on in the world), they are apt to lose sight of what goes on in the community, among the people, — in fact, upon the world's stage. To avoid this atrophy of thought, you must be a diligent reader, and read at least one good daily paper, one bright, sparkling weekly educational jouiual, and several literar}- monthlies. The daily will keep you an fait with events in your immediate surroundings ; the educalionnl journal will give ^'on wise advice, new thoughts and suggestions for 3'our professional work, and will preserve j'ou from sinking into that detestable swamp called self-sufficiency and self-satisfaction. A teacher who reads an educational journal, and profits by it. will never consider herself "finished." The excellent monthlies (I am not an agent, and therefore abstain from enumerating them) are so admirably conducted, that they set before you a palatable menu of historical, scientific, and other literarj* essays, thoiight-l)oaring and therefore tlioiight- awakciiiiig. Do not fall into the terrible mistake of reading journals, newspapers, weeklies, niontiilies, etc.. indiseriniinatoly l>y the dozen. It we;ikons your intellect and your memory, as over-eating will weaken the digestion. You need to read good books, (ictitious and otherwise. I trust to your good sense and still better taste, that you will not squander your time in reading trashy novels. So much for the intellect. Now for 3'our emotions. To keep 3'oung, means to preserve the power to love. — love for children, and, for that matter, love for the grown folks too. Love for children necessitates that you should interest youisclf in their homes : their private affairs are your affairs also. A knowledge of then- home surroundings is al)solutely necessary for you to understand their dispositions, their susceptil)ilities, their sensd)ilities, 112 fact, their entire beings. If some thoughtless person should consider you a crank for thus interesting your- self l)e\ond tlie schoolroom m the children's affairs, let me comfort you by saying that the crank /.s one of the moat necessary devices for mechanical motion. There is not a machine without a crank : and woe to a body of teachers, a community, or an^" body of peo[)le, without at least one crank ! Be you the crank, the craidv of never-wearying affection . interest, solicitude, kindness, and charity, to your school ; and the glow of enthusiasm ami the wainitli of iiiaternnl love will keep you young, thougli you iiuiN' be covered with the mimic bnow of age. 28 K1)V(!ATJ0\AL rOI'fCS OF THE DAY. lint, you may say, keeping 3'ouiiii; in mind and in heart is not Ivee|)in<^ young in body. What sliall 1 do to keep young in l)ody':' The everlasting principle of cause and effect holds good in this also. It is said, '■'Mens Sana in corpore nana;" and the opposite is true also. That is to say, happiness, a cheerful dis- position, and a l)right mind, have their inevitable beneficial effects upon the body. They promote bodily health. Again a simile may illustiate a point. A hot-house plant withers when placed in the open air ; and. alas ! most schoolrooms are hot-houses, in the literal sense of the term. They are invariably over-heated. Keep the temperature to 65° F., and have the prudence to hang your thermometer, not tea or twelve feet above the floor, for safe keeping, as I found it some time ago in one of my schools, but only two or three feet above it ; in other words, in that stratum of air in which the children are compelled to abide. Not only the temperature, but also the composition of the air, should be considered. Therefore, ventilate your room. Ventilation is derived from ventns, the wind ; and therefore ventilation implies circulation or agitation of the air. As often as possible, therefore, change the air in your room completely. Yours and your pupils' rosy cheeks, elastic gait, gay spirit, bright looks, and happy disposition will be preserved. And last, but not least, don't worry. '• Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof." Don't talk and think " shop " all the time. Nothing ages so much as or EX LETTERS TO A YOVXG TEACH EU. 29 a burden of worry. Above all, do not worry about the results of exaiuinatioiis. Be social, but do not keep late hours. Engage in some work totally diffeient from the work done in sciiool. Hear a good concert now and then. Be hai)[)y, and seek tlie coni[)anY of happy peoi)le. Seek the chance to laugh heartily as often as i>ossible. I shall not engage in telling j'ou what to do in cases of sickness, but will conclude with a little advice which may seem outlandish, but is eminently sound. As a rule, the Americans have very little imagination ; they pride themselves on being dry, matter-of-fact people. Look at the Germans, and see what happy peoi)le they are, even in old age ' It is one of the postulates of German education, that imagination must be fostered. In Germany, fairy-stories are indulged in in youth to a much greater extent than is done in this country. Goethe's motlier was one of those happy persons who see even on the darkest cloud a rosy border, whose temper is never ruffled, who sing and laugh and dance through life, and who l)eautify the lives of all who associate with them. She invented numerous fal)les and faiiy-stories for her children, and liked to tell them to her boy Wolfgang. When she was well advanced in years, and her son had reached the high- est height of fame and glory, she was asked how it came that Wolfgang resembled her so much in thought and action. "Ah," said she, "Wolfgang and I were yoiuig together." (io thou, my dear young friend, and do likewise. 30 KDUCATIOXAL TOPICS OF T/Ih' />.!)'. I ciiiiiiot close my letter without :i soleiiiii word of ceiisiiie. Ileverence for old iige will not make you old before your time, especially if tiiat revereuce is shown to a superior olllcer such as your superintendent. You ma}' not consider your words, as quotetl above, meant to be irreverent; but they sound like it. Av^oid even the appearance of irreverence. FOURTH LETTER. THE OLD, OLD QUESTIOX. ]\[v DEAR YoiNG L.VDY, — You are in distress again, you say, because you fail utterly in suppressing nois^c in the schoolroom ; particularly is it " demon whisper" that will not down. You write, " Of course it would be foolish to punish the children for communicating ; but, having several grades of ptipils in one room, I am compelled to leave one or two of them to themselves, that is, give them something to do, while my attention is engaged with another grade. Now, I cannot watch them constantly. Shall I appoint monitors to do the watching? If not, why not?" Your letter calls up in my mind a similar experience of my own. ^Vhen I was young in years, — for young in heart and mind i propose to be till my dying day, — I taught a school in the countr}'. My room was joined to another, and in these two rooms two teachers were engaged in teaching two hundied and sixteen i)upils ; I had the *■• bigger half " of that number. Like your- self, I thought I had to suppress whispering and noise ; oi'i:y LKJ Thus TO A yoixt; tjj.k jij:i;. 31 and I cini)loyed even so-called heroic means to stamp it out of my school. Like yonrself, I gave the pupils something to do, it mattered little what. I failed utterly. One day my colleague mildly suggested that I made my life and that of my pui)ils wretched to no purpose. " For," said he, '■'• you try to sMp[)ress all noise, aiming at a (inietude in which a pin may he heard falling. The school ought not to be like a churchyard, l)ut like a workshop, in which work, hard work, and much work, is performed. "Work imi)lics nioti(jn ; moti<^n imi)lies noise. There must I)e always a certain degree of bustle and noise in a school. Where it is suppressed, I pity the children." Of course, this remark was so just and wise, that I concluded to prolit by it ; anil I have never since rued it. But you do not mean that kind of noise which is the inevita!)le companion of earnest work. Vou mean noise which is made unnecessarily, and is the outcome of mischievtnis intention. The old apoeryi)hal wiiter Siracli wrote more than two thousand years ago upon the subject, suggesting to employ children in order to keep them out of mischief. Now, the dilTerence between employment for the hand, and fruit-beai'ing work, is very glaring. In order to make the pupils do the work assigned, with interest, it is essential tliat the assigned task should bi' in stiict harmony willi what you have prepared with them : in other words, you must awaken inten-st. t For instance, if they read a story in ihcir reader i>2 KDnWTiosAL Tories of tiik day. which tlicv likce i)erforme(l, and you will not need to suppress the *• demon whisper." Of course this mode of acting will not permit the teacher to sit on her throne of idleness, — that is, at her desk. She must be constantly moving. She must, even when hearing another class, keep an eye upon those wlio are quietly at work ; must even go through the aisles, and inspect the v»ork going on, helping here a lame duck, suggest- ing there, mildly and quietly, reprove where it is necessary ; iu short, act like the motive power in a machine. Oh, j'es, I see a veil falling over your lustrous blue eyes ; and a reproachful glance strikes me. b}- which you moan to convey, ""How shall I be able to stand such exhaustive work? Will it not wear one out in a short while?" No, m\' dear, it will not: it is not neai- as exhaustive as one good round sally of reproof and scolding. Anger causes loss of vitality much .sooner than those quiet, pleasant, helpful ways, and the quiet, willing work of the children. I am sorry to say that, if it should wear you out, you must lind consolation in the cruel statement, that the schools are not made for the I)etter acconnnodation of teachers. As to monitors, do not appd to draw the outlines of what I consider a good school. The task is very easy. I will take you into the school which I attended from my tenth till my sixteenth year. There is a great cry hcai-d in the laud, that [xipils are obliged to study too many l)rau('lu'S. This is an erroneous statement. The dilliculty li(>s elsewhere. It is not the numln-r of branches, l)ut th*' manner of studying tliem, that causes dissipation, rermit ine to sketch the way we were taught in the school mentioned altove. Wi\ had two Janguages, Latin and French. To-ihiy I rcmcuilier very liltlc of my Latin, but a good deal of mv Fii'iich. Why? The Latin was taught to us vcr\ much in 3('> KDUVATIONAL TOl'ICS OF Till-. DAY. tlic \v:iy of :i [xist-inoitcin examiuatioii. There was IK) I>:itiM eonvcisatioii, no Latin composition; nothing l»nt )iiun(huni traiishitioii and veritable dissecting was done. Our Frencli teacher permitted no translations : all was life in liis k-ssons. lie talked to us in French; wc caught the jironuneiation. made use of our limited vocabulary, and in a short while we boys used French as if it had been our mother-tongue. Wc had mathe- matics, but no text-book. We never saw a text-book of mathematics. All we were required to have was a ruler, a compass, and a number of note-books. The teacher supplied the subject matter. AVe had astro- nomical and physical geograph}', and as text-books nothing more than an atlas, and drawing-materials for drawing maps. Tlie teacher was supi)lied with a tellurian, relief maps, and other appliances. We had geology, zoology, and botany, and a text- book for all three branches no larger than a primer. The school was supplied with a set of illustrative charts, and a well-stocked museum of natural history, which contained a plentiful set of minerals, stuffed animals, an herbarium, and numerous preparations of 2>(ipier-mache. We had anatomy and physiology, but no text-book for these branches. Instead of that we had a comi)lete skeleton, a manikin, colored charts, and numerous preparations of papier-machi^ plaster- of-paris, and rublier. We had history, and a teacher whose cheeks grew red with enthusiasm when he nar- rated to us the glorious deeds of ancient and modern nations. Our text-book contained sixty pages ; it was OPEN LETTERS TO A YOVNC TEACH Ell. 37 a little pamphlet. Oh tlie wonderful moments when we listened to him with li:ited breath ! We weie Greeks with Pericles, (artiiaginians with Ihmnilial. Romans with C;csar, Goths with Theodorie, Fiaiiks with Charlemagne, Swedes with (Justaviis. rrussians with Fredeiick, Knglishmeu with Maill)Oioiigh, Anieii- cans with ^Vashinglou. We had natural {(hilosopliy. and a lal)oratory in the basement. We had history of literature, and a libraiy of several thousands of the best books. We had rhetoric and elocution, without even knowing tluit we were studying these branches : it was done in a practi- cal way, that resulted in efforts not to be despised. We had drawing and singing ; we had gymnastics and excursions. In fact, our course of study was a very complex thing ; but we obtained a goodly stock of knowledge, and a fair degree of skill, because we were made to acquire them by self-activity. Here is an example of a lesson in zoology : The stuffed swan was brought into the class. The })rofessor stated the characteristic features of the swimming birds; then we were caUed upon to find these features in every other species or family of swimming birds, wiiieli latter were exhibited either in nutura or in pictures. Then things were discovered, and accur- ately stilted, which provepetite, these truly virtuous teachers would be horiitied to hear it : yet they do a similar thing in school, and do it with a vengeance. It is reasonable to suppose that a good healthy person needs no stimulants. Food is taken willingly, digested and assimilated readily, without the aid of stimulants ; provided, always, the organs of digestion are in prime order. It is only jaded appetites which crave stimulants. Now, if a teacher claims that without the use of marks and similar paraphernalia, such as rewards (praise, cards, presents) and punishments, she can- not make her pupils work and study, it is also reason- able to suppose that their intellectual appetites are jaded, — in other words, that they have been brought ui) from the earliest primary grade on a diet of stimu- lants ; or, that the intellectual food she offers is so unpalatable, stale, or tasteless, that an aitilicial stimu- lant, such as a AVorcestershire sauce of marks, is needed to make it " go down." Don't talk of ambition needing to be btinuilaled ! 42 EDUCATIONAL TOJ'K'S OF THE DAY. Every hoalthy organism will, at regular Ktatecl inter- vals, demand food, and develop an appetite. And so will a healthy yonngster want intellectual food, without being stiumlated by an appetizer in the form of a reward or punishment. Reward should only be given for any thing done in excess of duty, and punishment for neglect of dut}'. In all our teaching we should look toward the re- quirements of actual life. It is a well-knowMi fact, that in life the simple performance of duty is not rewarded. It is not even fully paid ; and it seems extremely hazardous to accustom our boys and girls to expect a reward for simply doing their duty. Naturally, experienced teachers will sa}', in the foregoing argument, we presuppose our pupils to be normall}' endowed with intellectual appetites : expe- rience, however, teaches that that is a fallacy. To this I answer : Dyspepsia is not an hereditary disease, l)ut iuvarial)l3" the sequence of maltreatment. That treat- ment may date back to infancy, but in some period of the child's life maltreatment has made the organs of digestion weak. It ma}' be granted, even, that there is a tendency to dj'spepsia in the new-born child, just as there may be a tendency to tuberculosis ; but with careful treatment the tendency could be overcome. Now, view ps3'chological organs as we do physiolo- gical ; and we may sa}', maltreatment, at some stage of the child's life, is the cause of this Apparent neces- sity for using stimulants in teaching. No sane person, endowed with five senses, is left without an undving OPEN LETTKliSy TO A YOrxa TFACIIKU. 4o ck'siro to acquire knowkHlne. Now, fi'fd the cliild with iiidigi'stibh' sole-li-athtT, such as learning rules from the printed i)age before they are applied, tested, and exi)eri('nce(l liy the learner, and soo'.i the neces- sity of stimulants will make itself felt. Pupils whol are taught rationally, according to the laws of l)sy-j chology, never need stimulants nor appeals to thei/ ainl)ili()n. Fancy a teacher marking hourly, daih', weekly,; monthly, annually, recording results, linding averages,! and copying them on rei)ort cards to he sent home ! Does she not resemble tlic kornak on the elephant's back, pricking and stabbing the poor beast to make him luiiry up? There is too much disregard for the dignity of the child exhibited in the schools of our country, which cries for redress. I have come to distrust a teacher who practises marking the pupils' exercises; and in all my many years of experience I have discovered, in the end, that this distrust is well founded. He is invariably a l)eison who (iuds it too laborious to ac(piaint himself with, and obey, the laws of psychology ; and who considers the i)osition of a slave-driver more pleasant than that of a gardener of children, who knows that education is a growth. And now you, my dear young lady, will ask, and I should consider you a pooi' logician if you did not ask: "■ I understand you, then, to mean, that, from the very start in the earlii'st primary grades, the marking should be abandoned. IJut what would you 44 KDUCATIONAL TOl'JCS OF THE DAY. do in higher grades, where the marking and grading have become a custom? Would you suddenly abandon it there too? " A simile may answer you. In a sanitarium for inebriates, which I visited last year, I found this practice in vogue : Every inmate owned a bottle, which the phj'sician had in charge. Every morning the bottle was lilled with choice liquor, and whenever the patient desired a drink during the day, he went to the oflicc, asked for his bottle (which was labelled with his name), and took his drink under the eyes of his medical adviser. But before he handed it back a pebble was thrown into the bottle, which decreased the cai)acity of the bottle by just the size of the pebble. I was told that when the bottle is filled with pebbles the patient is usually cared of his immod- erate love for drink. Hand in hand with this slow but sure decrease of the quantity' of liquor goes an increase of strength gained b>' suitable treatment, such as physical exertion, excellent, nutritious food, elevating conversation and occu[)atiou. This should show you the way out of the dilemma, my friend. Slowly, and with true conservative spirit, decrease the use of marks and grades. Let them slowly sink into disregard. Do not be hasty about it. Meanwhile make your teaching as interesting as you can possibly make it. Pay due regard to the individual tastes of your pupils, and your school will inevitably become what it ought to be, — a garden, not a penitentiary. OI'EN LKTIEIIS 7'0 A YOUNG TKACllKR. 45 S FA' EXT 1 1 LETTER. TE VC 1 1 KllS ' KX A M I X ATI OKS . Mv iNTRRKSTixG YouNG FuiKND, — It is a pleasurc to correspond with 3-ou, and I am very sorry tliat you forbiil uie to quote you because you fear to be de- tected. Fear not. If yours had l)een the onl}- case in which my discretion had been aj)i)ealed to, I niii^ht, perhaps, be found wanting ; but you know 1 a>n in the years of advanc-ed principles, — as was said of the ohl maid, when the poet's [wliteness would not allow him to admit that she was old, — and with age discretion develops wonderfully. I understand, then, that your certificate runs out, and that in order to secure a new one you must subject 3'ourself to an examination. But I understand, also, th:it you do not fear the ordeal, iiuvuiiz; i)rep:ircd your- self thoroughly. Yet you are not without some mis- givings ; I fully understand that. Indeed. I should have them too: I have a vivid reineniltrance of some of the many occasions on which I trembled in my boots, for I am a much-examined man. Nor do 1 blame you for feeling uneasy at the approaching ex- amination, for teachers' examinations in this country are verj' much of a lottery'. They are as diffeivnt from teachers' examinations in (iermany, as a game of keiio is fruni a game of cliess. What is the certillcati' to signify? Certainly, the ability to teach, and a documentary |»i()t)f of the fact 40 KDVCATIOXAL TOI'ICS OF THE DAY. that you [josscss tlio necessar}' amount of knowledge. But ask 3'oiirself, Is tlie certificate which you now liold a documentary proof of your ability to teach? You may say, " Yes, because it distinctly states, iu black on white, that I have the requisite knowledge, and am tlu!i('foic entitled to accept an a[)poiutment. Does not that mean I am able to teach?" No, my young friend, it does not. It merely means that you have the necessaiy amount of knowledge which you would need in case you were called upon to teach ; l)ut it does not convey the idea that you have the ability to teach. Knowing is one thing, and being able to do is another. Knowing the multiplication-table does not carry with it the abilit}' to teach it. Knowing how to analyze a sentence does not carry with it the ability to teach grammar and language. And even if it did, it would not make a disciplinarian of you. See what the law-students have to do. They go through a practical course in a lawyer's office. They go into court, and listen to the arguments and practices of full-Hedged lawyers. They note the decisions of the judges. They copy briefs and other documents, and try their hand at composing them for the inspection of their masters. Then after several years of practical work of that kind, and after having acquired the neces- sary routine and amount of knowledge of the law, they present themselves before the board of examiners, and there are subjected to an oral as well as written ex- amination. AVheu they are admitted to the bar. tin y have acquired not only the desired amount of kuowl- OPEN LETTKUS TO A YOUNO TEACIIEU. 47 etlge, but also a skiil in applying it. Now, when you went before the board of examiners for the first time, you had no sivill in teaching; you came fresh from the seminary, and had to liive proofs of your knowledge, but not of your skill in applying it. At present, after two years' expeiience, you iiave acquired a great deal of skill, and, perhaps, lost some of that vast ( ?) amount of dry knowledge. Now see what the physicians do. The case is simi- lar to that of the lawyers. Students of medicine have to attend the eiinic. Tliey are obliged to accompany- thc attending physician upon his rounds through the hospital. Thev are asked to jirescriiie, and to state what they would do in this or that case ; in fine, are prepared in the only i)ractical and successful way to become good physicians, — uamcly, in accordance with the well-known proverb, '• Practice makes the master." I remember the examination I had to pass in Prussia. It was an ordeal, and there was no sham about it, real or otherwise. For several days we " aspirants " were examined orallv in all the branches the course of study prescribed. This was done very searchingly. Then followed a day of written examinations, on which three dissertations had to be Cnrnishcd. After tiiat followed several days of leaching. Every candidate (aspirant) was assigned a lesson. To my lot fell the geograph}' lesson, one in mental arithmetic, and one in singing. It is true, the lessons were siiort ; but it does not take long for any rational examiner to see whether a person has the ability to handle a class and teach luciiUy. 48 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Let me iickiiowledge tli:it :it tli:it ordeal I (iiinkcd ; but much dcponded upon it, and therefore I conquered myself. As a matter of self-evidence the examiners did not mark us on a scale of cue hundred. Their marks were as follows : very good, good, mediocre, poor, very poor. As a proof of tlie tiioroughness with which the examination was held, I will betray the fact, that one of the young men, whom we considered the best of the students, a walking c\-clopaedia, failed in the lessons which he had to give, and a certificate was denied him. Another who had given excellent lessons, and who was certainly a born teacher, failed in passing, because he could not solve the Pythagorean problem. All this may seem strange to 3-ou ; l)ut when I compare our count}' teachers' examinations here in Ohio with the examinations held in Germany, I cannot help but wish that a revival would take place on this side of the Atlantic. Here only a written examination is required upon ten matter-of-fact questions in each branch, — questions as narrow Jis a i-azor ; such as, " Where was the conven- tion held that nominated Haj'es for the presidency?" This question is not a fictitious one ; yet when a person has been successful in this written examination upon (juestions that are as remote from the j'oung teacher's actual duties in the schoolroom as the moon from the earth, she is awarded a certificate which says in sub- stance that ^liss or Mr. 80-and-so is entitled to teach for one, two, three, or five years, as the case may be, OPEN LETTERS TO A YOl'XC: TEAfllEU. 49 implying thci-ewith that slio oi- lio lias tlio aliility to leach. It is a leniblo outrage, aiul one tiiat lias Ijcen the source of much mischief. A manufacturer does not ask an applii'ant for work whether he knows the names of certain tools and otiier things, but whether he can work with them. When I want a good shoemaker, I do not ask him whether he has knowledg ' of political economy, hut whether he can make a shoe ; and the test to which I would subject him would be a very jjractical one. But strange be- yond compi-ehciision it is, that this practical nation, this nation of common-sense, shoidd be so short-sighted as to test applicants for teaching only in regard to the quantity of knowledge they [)ossess, and not with refer- ence to their skill in ai)plyiug it. El (HIT 1 1 ij:ttt:r. riArioiTv IN ur.( iTAriov. jNIv iiappv Yotxo Fkikni), — Do not iiesitato in giving nttorancc to a question like yom- hist oxw. Jt is of moie weight than it may seem to you. You ask, "Am 1 right in insisting upon the utmost swiftness in. answering to the call for reciting? " I siiould say Yes, if you expect tlic answer to be a recital ; but I should cmphaticall}- say No, if the answer is not to consist of something which has been memorized. You see, as to quickness in answering the teacher's (piestions, or (to use a more technical term) as to rai)idity in conducting recitations, I hold a somewhat 50 KDrCATfONAL TOI'KS OF THE DAY. dilTcreiit opinion from tluit so freqiionlly advocated in .educational periodicals. This is said with due respect for the conviction of others. :uid the arguments they present. Let ns first ask, Wiiat is a recitation? It is, and, in the true sense of the word, can be, nolhinir else than a " verbal i-i'pi'titioii of something learnetl or committed to memory" (Webster). Now, then, I grant willingly, that in a case where something is, or has been, learned l)y heart, this swiftness in answering the call for recital is proper, judicious, and pi-ofitable. It causes not only a skill in making use of these intel- lectual tools in an exact manner, but also assurance and self-reliance in the [jupil. But the next question will be, IIow far is this memorizing by rote to go? Or, wliat is to I)e learned by iieart, so that it be "• I'ecitetl " ? Why, multipli- cation-tables, and a few other things which are of insigniiicance in comparison with the vast amount of conversation l)etween teaciier and pu[)ils which can- not be called, and should never be, a " reciting." A more advanced opinion is, that the results of teaching which wdll last beyond the school years are acquired in a different way : I mean, by comprehending facts, turning them this way and that way, and ny constantly applying them in different ways and forms. All this needs time, needs tliought, or rather the act of think- ing, and in some eases even a moment's investigation by means of the senses on the part of the pupils. Almost every good thought is produced slowly ; it luis to be stripped of all the many fetters that seem to OPEN LETTERS TO A YOU NO TEACHER. 51 koop it tied down ; and, that done, it noods must he dressed in good language, ni'(/!i'ji'' not being adinissiltlc. Will not the tendency to hiilliant, rapid recital lead us liack to the antiquated method of teaching, which had the enviable quality of not being a method at all? Will not this brilliant, rapid recital kill the thorough- ness advocated by pedagogical classics, with which they showed us how to unfold, to unveil, to develop the mind? It may be stixteon (nature does not operate in leaps) ; and nothing in nature's own unhurried manner of growth can pass from one extreme to another, without passing through all the intermediate degrees. Now, what is true of nature's growth must hold good of the mind ; man existing not outside of, but within nature, being part of nature. So, then, all the items of each branch of study should be so pre- sented that they f(jrm a genetic order. Furthermoi'c, all the dirterent branches of study .should have an organic connection with eacli other. And here come in the art and skill of the teacher, which no organi- zation, be it over so wise, no text-l)0()k, be it ever so excellent, can replace. There must be a continuous adaptation, in fact, which mere text-book slaves can- not practice, even though they understand it. 56 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF T/Il'J DAV. Thus, for iiist;iiicc, it would seem wise to choose the exiunplos used iu p,r:iinui:ir fi-oni the material gained in other studies, as geography, history, aritli- inctic, as well as literature. In other w^ords, we should feed our instruction iu language from the material the child has at hand. In spelling, we should use new words which the child meets in all branches of study, and not only from a spelling-book, the con- tents of which are in no organic connection with the child's thought-material. In arithmetic, we should use problems taken from the child's home-experience, or such as afford an organic connection with the child's range of thought. In short, genetic order in each study, and organic connection between the different studies, will cause contiuuity of thought, which is a condition of mental growth, and therefore a condition of success in teaching. There certainl}- can be no doubt as to the desira- bility of connecting, logically and organicall}', all the matter of instruction, so that erratic leaping between distant points be avoided. But, my friend, that is but half the principle. So far, m}- explanations had reference to continuity in the matter of instruction onl}'. The continuity of the child's mind is of even greater importance. If the child is not prepared to take the next step in an otherwise genetic train of thought, you will not be able to lift him up to it, since he must grow up to it. If he is not prepared to com- prehend the next thought, you cannot ingraft it upon his mind, since the mind must develop thought within. OPEN LKTTEHS to a young TKACHEli. ;')7 A thought, 1)0 it iiuligonous or not, cannot spring into life, or enter the child's mind, as a complete, finished thing. It necessitates the acti<;n of thinking not only of this one thought, but of several others which lead lip to it. If I make any one a present of a dollar, which I may have earned hy hard toil and hd)or. it rccjuircs no toil and lal)or on his part to take it, and enjoy its use. But I cannot give him a thought, without making him earn it ; that is, not without re- quiring him to go through the effort of thinking like myself, which will be impossible if the conditions are not the same in both minds. The " natural " method of teaching derives its nnuie fiom the fact that it is in harmony with the laws of natural growth, expansion, development. Conlinuitv of instruction refers to the progressing activity of the learner. lie is to be led in such a manner, that he will not be obliged to make unnatural leaps, but will make steps according to the size of his own legs ; that is, his progress will lie measured accurately by the capacit}' of his comprehension. A train of thought which may seem unbroken to an adult is, perhaps, not so to a child. How often have I heard teachers say, " Can't you see that yet? Haven't I made that clear enough yet?" You may easily see, that, buying an article for ten cents, and intending to niMke a gain of twi-nty per cent, 3'ou woidd have to sell it for twelve cents. Hut a child will, necessarily, walk slowly before he coim-s to the same conclusion. There are many links be- 58 EDUCATION M. TOPIC'S OF Tiff': fJAV. twiHMi tlic first clcMiiciitary icleii of iKM'centage, and the child's ul)ility to sec, as readily as the inerciiaut does, what price must be put on the article to make a gain of twenty per cent. It cannot be urged to(j strongly, that the principle of continuity has to be applied both to the matter of instruction, and to the mind of the learner. Tlie different degrees of coini»rehension among the i)U[)ils necessitate a constant adaptation of the matter to the mind, and in this the teacher's skill is tested. 1 know, my young friend, that this is any thing but an anuising letter ; but the subject it treats of does not admit of humor. A few words on "text- books" may close this letter. — Genetic and logical order is preserved, nay, highly cultivated, in our modern text-books ; but while each offers that order and development within its own range, it rejects, as it were, a connection with other branches of study. I have in mind the many books on grammar, that present the subject cut loose from all other, even kindred, subjects, such as composition and literature. The same holds good in text-books of geograph}', history, arithmetic, etc. Each book illustrates the continuity in the matter of instruction, which, of course, is one of its chief merits, a conditio sine qua non. But the books, of necessity, leave out of consideration the continuity' of the child's mind^ and therefore must be handled by a teacher who understands the child as well as his subject. The text-book must be again degraded to OPEN LETTER H TO A YOUNG TEACH EU. 59 its proper position, to that of a means of instruction. It cannot, and should not, rephice the teacher, who alone can make the proper selection^ with reference to the actual state of mind of his pupils. lie alone can know what questions to ask, what matter to present, and in what manner to present it. The value of text-l)()oks has Ix'cn over-rated. It may be uui)leasant to hear it, but it must l»e said. In the same proportion in which the text-hooks ijrew better, the teachers grew worse. I think I can see a complete chain of cause and effect in this. Others say : In the same proportion in which liood but poorly paid teachers stepped out of the profession, and were replaced by poorly prepared teachers, — in the same proportion the text-books, of necessity, gVQw better. I accept this as a more charitable ex- planation ; l)ut wish to emphasize a^ain, that the best text-book cannot replace the good teacher, because it disregards the continuity of the mind by presuppos- ing all minds alike. It cannot perform the functions of the good teacher, who, by continuous adaptation, fits the matter of instruction to the capacity of the learner's comprehension. TENTH LETTER. ■WIIV TAKK THK TUonU.K? My despondent Yorxr, Fkiend, — Your letter is not as cheerful as your letters usuallv are. You say, you have been disappointed by not being promoted 60 EDUCATIOyAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. as yon had {'xpected, and tliat 3'ou asked yonrsclf wliy you should take the trouble of studying constantly and trying to improve j'oursclf, when that improvement has no market value? It is a serious case indeed, and should be treated with sympathy and encouragement. Knowing that you can approach any question calmly and impartially, I will ask you to look at this one from a higher point of view than your own personal griev- ance will permit. Let me quote a i)assage from a recent writer : — ••' It is an undeniable fact, that upon all domains of practical life, as well as in science, division of labor has become a necessity. And no one will deu}- that to this division of efforts may be traced back many grand performances of our times. But we are also aware, that the mechanic often sinks to the level of the machine, and becomes a mere mechanical w'orker, in consequence of this division of labor. And so there is imminent danger, that in the realm of thought and mental labor those who are chiefly occupied with sub- ordinate specialties will lose their comprehension of the whole, — will not see the great aim of that of which their specialty is a mere trifling part." The whole embraces the particular, and the latter derives its value fiom the former. The judgment of the specialist is easily prejudiced, and becomes warjicd. His line of argument is defective, not uufivcpientlv totally faulty ; and the boundaries of his horizon are often congruent with the narrow boundaries of his native city or village. OPEN LETTEIiS TO A YOVNfi TEACHER. Gl Nothing is more dangerous, in science, than spinnhig one's self into a cocoon of small and smaller circles of thought, and the miserable cry, '• I)u not disturl) my circles!" when one ajjproaches these narrow minds with demands of a loftier nature. Science can he kept young, can be constantly rejuvenated, if its disciples will, by way of inductive reasoning, rise from llic par- ticular to the general, and go back, by way of deduc- tion, from the general to the particular. If any one should be conscious of this, it is the teacher. If he satisfies himself with doing his duty within the four walls of his schoolroom, he will soon degrade his art to a mere handicraft. No science de- serves to l>e called "associating science" more than our professional science " i)edagogy." It is said, that he who thinks about education thinks aliout every thing. And if we consider this in the true sense in which it is meant, there can be no presumption in it. If 3'ou. m}' young friend, are placed in charge of the a-b-c-darians, you should at least know the course of study of the whole range of grades following. But at whatever stage in the curriculum of a school, fate may place you, you shouUl distinctly understand the con- nection between school and life, and the relations be- tween school and home. Vou should, at eveiy step, know the true end and aim of cducalion ; and be con- stantly, aware, that, wliatevi'r .-ippaicnlly trilling thing you are teaching, it must, like ever}' other part of school education, have its bearings upon the future destiny of the child. I say this, because it is a world- C2 EBVCATJOyAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. wide fallacy to think litllo is necessary to teach the youug budding mind. I remind you of tlie Jesuits, whose schools, though built on totally different principles, and aiming at totally different objects, were noted for more than one hun- dred years for their wonderful results. The Jesuits placed 3'oung teachers, beginners in the profession, in middle and high grades of school, and promoted them downward according to their degree of proficiency and excellence. If this proves any thing, it proves that these shrewd, though in more than one regard des- picable, men knew the value of elementary education. It is an erroneous opinion that needs be fought, namely, that ain/ teacher is good enough for the be- ginners. The best one is barely- good enough for the youngest pu[)ils. Thai, however, I trust, you know full well. What I mean to emphasize is, that you should foster an impa- tience with yourself, so that 3'ou will not sink into that self-satisfaction which is the arch-foe of all real prog- ress. Practice in the schoolroom is vevy apt to make you self-satisfied ; and if you do not earnestly strive forward and upward, you will, in the course of a few short years, have a lamentably small horizon of thought and vision. This danger is less innninent where you are called upon to teach a variety of subjects ; it is greatest if you are to be a specialist. Now, you do not and can not foresee where fate may place you, and what duties may fall to your share ; but that much you do or ought to know : that if in a OPEN LETTEIl>! TO A YOUSG TEACllEU. 03 few years your teachers and colleafjues ask, " What has hecoine of her?" the answer comes, '■'■ Lost to the cause, crushed by the machine, swept away into a for- gotten corner, heard of no more." — I say, you know, that, if this be said of you, it is your own fault. Tlie vicissitudes of life may knock you al)out, fate may deal hard with you ; but I iuii)lore you to keep fresh witliin your heart and mind the source of rejuvenation, so that 30U be not dead to the profession, — so that no monu- ment in the heait of your teachers be erected, bearing the inscription, '' Sacred to the memory of one who lost all that was valuable in her, — to wit, herself." Perhaps the hardest struggles, the fiercest battles which 3'ou will have to go through, will have to be fought with yourself. What the poet says is true, " Vor die Tugcud hahen die Gotter den Schweiss r/e- setzf." (Before virtue, the gods have i)laced persi)i- ratiou.) You may have been overlooked unintentionally by j'our authorities, or you may have been retained in your present position because you are best fitted for the pupils now under your charge. However this may be, do not show resentment, not even disap[)ointinent ; and you will disarm any evil will on the |>art of those in authority over you, and arouse a symi)athy which will bear high interest at a future occasion. But liest of all. keep up your studies, never waver in your devotion to duty, and in your hope for better things to come, and higher, nobler aims to attain. Let me express the hope, that when your life's course 64 KDIJCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. runs out, it nia\' be said of yon. that whicli the poet expresses of a great man : "^The warm impulse he gave shall resist the empire of decay. He will live among us, and live when time is over and worlds have passed away. Cold in the dust the perished heart may lie, hut that zvhich ivarmed it once shall never die." CHAPTER 11. FEOM THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. ^r >■ CIIAPrER II. FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. A PERTINENT QUESTION ANSWERED. TuK following correspondiMice will c'x[)laiii itself: — I. INQUIRY. Canton, C, Pcc. 11, 1886. Dkar Sir, — It is a g(Micral complaint, that very few young men graduate from our pul)lie high schools, — very few in comparison with the number of young ladies who graduate. It is believcil that the proportion IS not above cue to four throughout the State of Ohio. Demand for explanation is usually met by a statement that the worldly circumstances of parents require the personal services and earnings of tiieir boys at an early age. But the fact is, that very few of the .sons of i)io- fessional men, merchants, and others in favorable and easy circiunstanccs, remain to gra(Uuite ; while the sons of poor men frecjuentl}' do graduate. Inquny among parents whose boys have left school before grachiation leads to the belief, that in most cases the discontmu- ance has been against the wishes of the parents, and notwithstanding their earnest desire that their sons should ii'mnui nnd finish tiie course of study. The (17 OS EDUCATIONAL TOl'ICS OF Till-: DAY. w(jrl(lly circumstances of the parents cannot l)e relied on as tlie true reason for tliis condition of affairs. Another reason has Ijeen given. It is, tliat boys from ten to fourteen years of age have taken an aver- sion to school and school-work from the sting of ignominy uillieted on them by cruel corporal punish- ments administered by their teachers. It is believed by some, who have given the subject thought, that great harm is being done to our educational system by the excessive corporal puuislnnents on boys in school ; that the custom is an evil one, and has an inherent tendency to abuse ; that by its practice the teachei's become cruel and heartless, and the l)oys sullen and revengeful ; that it breaks down their self- resi)ect, stultifies their budding manhood, and makes the school where it is inflicted distasteful, if not hate- ful, to then, and the}' seek ever}- excuse to be free from its disgraceful thraldom. Has this thougl)t ever occurred to you in connection with your school- work? You are aw£)re that, as men, we consider a blow a deep indignity. One of the marked distinctions, for centuries, between freemen and slaves, has been that a freeman may not l>e beaten as a punishment. The more refined and advanced the state of civilization, the deeper and more humiliating the sense of indignity felt from the infliction of blows. May not our boys have feelings and sentiments akin to our own? Nay. may it not be that many parents, sympalhiziug with tlie developing manhood of then" boys, withdraw them from schouls wLeie cruel corporal THE EXPKRIKyCK OF A SUl'Kin'ISOIt. HO punishments are tolerated ? A desire for education may be ver}' strong in the human mind, but it is not a movinji; instinct like the desire to satisfy hunger. "Willi animals will set*k places where food is abundant; but they will shun, if they starve, places where they know there is personal danger, though food may there be ever so al)nndant and desirable. Are our boys driven from school before graduation by the ignominy, or the dread of the ignominy, of [Xirsonal vi(jlence at the hanared with that of the giils in our city is more than one-third, this does not materially alter the aspect of the case. I agree with you. tli;it the argument conceiiiing the worldly circumstances of parents is not satisfactory, inasmuch :is it is not up- 70 KDJrcATIONAL TOrif'S OF Tlfl-: DAV. lu'ld by f:u-ts in such luiinhcr us to make llicin of sullicient weight. Again, I agree that the abridgment of the conrscs by vohintary "" quituation " is hardly ever in accord with the parents' desire. Certain!}', there must be other reasons for the nndue proportion of female graduates over male graduates. You attiibute the above fact to the toleration, or, ?et me say, to the application, of cruel corporal punish- ment at the hands of the teachers upon the boys fiom ten to fourteen years of age. You reason well ; and I agree that this explains, if not many, certainly some, cases of early withdrawal from school ; but permit me to say, in all candor, that you are playing on a harp with but one string. In the first place, corporal pun- ishment is not prevalent enough, so far as ray extended experience goes, to be so potent a factor in the ease under discussion. ]\Iorcover, boys who manage to get cruelly Ijcaten (I am speaking advisedly, and, as I believe, with the proper choice of terms) are of a type who generally never enter a high school, and certainly never graduate. But, sir, your argument as to the degrading influence of corporal punishment, both upon pupils and teachers, is heartily commended. Personally, and in my official capacity, I regard only two offences properly punishable by corporal punish- ment. According to the just rule, that punishment should be in strict accordance with the offence, I be- lieve corporal punishment in place, (1) where a flagrant case of cruelty, either to animals or human beings, is to be dealt with, because bodily pain is the proper THE EXI'EIUENCK OF A SlJI'EIiVlSOli. 71 rometly in that case; and (2) in the case of open and violent resistance to autiiority, for we must not forjret that the school is not a rei)ul»lic, and that the teacher is to lie (jiu'cn of the hive or goveiMior <^f the class. For every other offence, be it against truth, order, honesty, decency, or whatever else, corpoial punish- ment is in)pro[ier. Moreover, since it acts like opium, if indulged in a few times, causing a craving for more, teachers become accustomed to it, and make its appli- cation a habit. Whether my limitations of corporal punishment, as stated, find approval or not, this will certainly be granted b}' every right-thinking person : namely, that, the less of corporal punishment that is inflicted, the higher will be the type of the school, moralh' and intellectually ; also, that in some cases, as you most convincingl}' state it, boys are drivi-n from school l)efore graduation by the ignominy of personal violence at the hands of the teacher, and even by the dread of such ignominy. Permit me to recapitulate. First, I grant, that, in a few cases, the worldl}' circumstances cause an early withdrawal of the boys from school ; second, that, in a greater number of cases, the apjilication of corporal punishment has the same effect. But tliat d-(jes not ad('(jHately explain the (jroat f(dlin(i-nfl' in the number of boys who tiy to acquire a higher education. The following causes will, in my judgment, explain the fact under discussion, l)etter than the two contained in your letter of inquiry. 72 KDVCAriONAL TOI'K-'S OF THE DAY. I. I ix'iniiid you, dear sir, of tlic fact tliat. in tliis country manifold opportunities are offered to boys at an early age, to earn, if not a livelihood, certainly a considerable amount of pocket-money. This is a temptation which is not held out in many European countries, — a temptation to which many a tolerably good bo}' in this country succumbs. II. I remind you of this other fact, — that the too prevalent worship of the self-made man, in this coun- try, dei)lorable though it be, tempts the boy to despise, as his father possibly may, systematic higher educa- tion, and to try to carve out his own future without it. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, srch a boy fails and speedily sinks to the bottom ; never reaches the fame of the great self-made man who was his ideal, and is tinall}' found on a level with men of whom thirteen do not even make a dozen. But the fact remains, that it is a great temptation. College- bred men are too often quoted below par, in this country. The river cannot rise higher than its source. Why should the boy think higher education necessary, or even desirable, when at the fireside, in the press, from the pulpit or the lecture-rostrum, on the stump, at the bar, — in fact, everywhere, — the fame of the self-made man is proclaimed? III. Permit me to call your attention to a third fact, not alwaj-s known, and where known not infre- quently denied, for reasons too obvious to mention. It is this: that the course of study, the methods of teaching, and the mode of training, in the higher THE EXPEIUESCE OF A SVPEUVlsoi:. 78 grades of the grammar school, as well as in the high schools, are designed for. and shaped according to, the needs and wants of the girls, and not the boys. AVliile I grant, readily and cheerfully, that the girls have the right to the same amount of education that the boys claim, and which it is our soKinn duty to grant to them, I claim, most eni[)hatically that the two sexes from twelve years of age and upward need a different training. I cannot go into details, but 1 should covet an oi)i)ortunity to do so. Sullice it to say, that we measure tlic steps in our instruction, and the methods of our i)rocedurc, b}' the peculiar combina- tion of faculties in the girls, just as a father measures his steps l)y those of his child whom he takes out walking. There is a strong desire in the average boy for exertion and application of his powers, which is not comi)lied with, at this age, in the schools as they now are. lie is repressed, and made to progress as the girls do. He sits side by side with them ; they are held n[) to him as examples, whose frailty he, in his physical rol)n.st nature, despises. INIoreovcr, in many cases he has i.ot even a male example in his teacher. If he is a weak character, he becomes effeminate. If he is a strong char.-u-ter. he is soon filled with disgust, and (juits school to lind a better op|)ortunity for the exertion of those powers which Ihid no satisf:ic(iou in a girls' scliool. I know, dear sir, this will be considered rank heresy among many educational leaders in this country ; but it is my i-on- viclion, and I have the courage of mv conviction to 74 EDUCATIONAL TOI'HS OF TIIK DAY. uttor it. Do not 1)p doccivcd liy the tliiiisy ari^nment that llic girls are making nion; rapid piogicss than the Iio^s. Tliey are merely i)a.s.sive recipients of knowl- edge ; while a lK)y can argue himself into knowledge, when he has a male teacher who is ready to indulge him in that. The very presence of girls, however, del)ars him from such a course in a girls' school, for that is what most of our high .schools ai'e. Where boys and girls are separated in different buildings, usually a greater number of boys graduate annuall}'. This confirms the position just taken. IV. As I stated above, the undue proportion of female teachers over male teachers is to be counted in when we look for the eaih' withdrawal from school on the part of the boys. Boys at the critical age of fourteen to eighteen must have examples of manliness, of man's thoughts, of man's waj' of acting, of man's motives, of man's will-power and general conduct; and, instinctively feeling this, they seek it outside of school. But I have sufliciently emphasized this under the last head, and will not dwell u[)on it further. Pardou the length of this repl}' ; but of what the heart is full, the mouth floweth over. Yours very respectfully, L. K. KLE:\nr, Supt. of Public Schools. rilK EXPERIENCE OF A SUl'EfiriSOi;. ..) THE MEDICAL PRACTICE OF A TEACHER. I. A WEAK SPELLEU. A SUPEHINTEXDENT, or, for that matter, every teacher, is more or less a physieian of diseased minds, and on<>;ht to be able to give an account of cures he has effected, or a diagnosis of cases he has treated. In the following scries of short articles, I will endeavor to desciibe a few cases which came under my observation, and which, as I cannot but say with pride, arc in a fau' way to recover even if not entirely cured. Miss A. — "There is a boy among m\" pupils who is an excellent arithmetician, gets up good lessons in geography and history, is alive to the niceties of expression, that is, is careful in the selection of his woids. and construes his sentences well ; but is an inditferent reader, and a most wretched, al)omuiable speller. What do you think, Mr. K.. ought to be done in this case? " What remedies have you tried? Miss A. — •• 1 have pinned him down to his spell- ing-book till his eyes l)egan to wander. I have ai)pealed to his sense of duty, which is very keen ; but I saw that made matters worse, because it over- taxed his limited ability. Then I appealed to his ambition ; which proved to l)e perfect poison, for now the boy would try to master long strings of words, and 76 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. tlioroby weaken his niomoiy more than ever. Can you suggest any thing Ijcttcr?" I suspect, my dear Miss A., that you have not inquired into tiie causes of this disease ; and I am sure, iiad you done so, you would have employed a totally different mode of treatment. Can you imagine the cause ? Miss A. — "No, I haven't the most remote idea, unless it be want of attention or api)lication at a former stage of his school career." No, I think we shall have to look elsewhere for the cause. Let me ask you to show him a rose-leaf or a clover-leaf, and then tell him to sketch it. Write a smgle word, such as "• breakfast," on the board; let him see it, and then observe how correctly or incor- rectly he reproduces it from memory. Try him also in describing some object accurately. Please try these things first, and tell me to-morrow the result of your observations. {Next day.) Miss A. — " Why, he could not sketch the leaf, nor reproduce the word correctly, nor, in fact, could he describe a simple thing witli any degree of accuracy." And what do you infer from these facts? Miss A. — '•! should say, his sense of form is wofully neglected." V^ery good, my dear young lady. Tliat is the whole argument in a nutshell. Now go further: Having no sense of form, he cannot have a memory for forms, just as little as a person who never in his life heard THE KXI'EHIENCE OF A SUPEliVlSOK. (7 fi sound can liave a memory for sounds. He has a nicMnory for numbers and their rehitions, for hislorieal, geographical, and other facts ; but his form-sense is weak. Every word has its physiognomy, and spelling should therefore be learned by means of the sense of sight chiefly. Now for the remedy. Feed him on a diet of one, or, at best, a few words, for a few days : use easy, common words, such as occur in his own vocabulary, and let him see them on the board, on paper, in piint, in writing, etc. Set him to liniling them ten limes in his reader, and to copying them till he is perfectly familiar with them. Make him analyze, that is, split the words orally, write them from dictation, and use them in seHtcnccs of his own. Do this with a very limited number of worils : in short, give him babies' diet, till his form-sense, and memory for word-pictures, are sulRcicntly strong to digest more. At the l)eginiung, it may be painfully wearisome to you and to the boy, but the success which is sine to follow your endeavors will strengthen you both. You will find, also, that he improves in reading. Constant repetition, of course, is necessaiy for some time, until the boy has acquired the habit of " making personal acquamtance " with words. Somewhere in the earlier stages of his school-life his perception of word-forms was neglected, and left without stimulus ; or, perhaps, it was overworked, and thereby weakened. Well, the boy, according to latest reports, is on the 78 EDUCATIONAL TOPIC'S OF TIIK DAY. way to recovery. lie draws well now, and his conti- positions are, if not faultless, certainly fair specimens of orthography for a i)npil of his age. II. THK RESCUE OF A DUNCE. The following sketch may show that the teacher can undo much mischief caused by wrong treatment or want of natural aptitude. Miss C. — '• AVell, Hugo is a dunce, if ever there was one ! He is wretched in every branch of study, sits ther(* like a log, and apparently has no interest in any thing going on in school. His progress is of the slowest kind, and I suspect he was sent to my room because he was too old to stay in Miss W.'s room any longer. I wish you would suggest a remedy in this case, Mr. K." What are his home surroundings? Miss C. — " They are not elevating, to say the least. I know from hearsay, that Hugo is pushed and knocked about, scolded constantly, and even whipped merci- lessly, by parents who do not understand the boy's absolute want of perception." Are you sure. Miss C, that the boy's apathy is the result of defective perceptive facult}- ? Miss C. — "I am, so far as it relates to school work. I can amuse him royally by giving pictures into his hands. I even saw him smile over a simple outline sketch of a humorous scene. Come to my room, and watch him a while, will you?" 1 did. giving instructions to the teacher not to TIIK 1-}.\1'KI:IKS('E OF A SU ['Fm'rsO!!. 79 notico liiin or mo. I seatod myself near Hugo, took II slatt' and pencil, ami i)egaii to draw outline .sketclies of things which might amuse him. Soon I saw him imitating mc, and that with a dexterity and artistic skill which fairly took my breath away. I smiled at him encouragingly, entered into a whispered conversa- tion with him concerning the i)ictures he drew, indueeil him to show me my mistakes in drawing, which he did readily and without assumption. Seeing in me a "hail fellow well met," he warmed and opened up his soul to me as he had perhaps never done in his life. There was a rich and warm-hearted life under a crust of apparent apathy ; and I was determined to awaken it, and reconcile it with its surroundings. We two adjourned to my ofTice ; and for a whole hour he conversed freely with me, showing no reserve, after seeing that I meant well. After reporting to INfiss C. the substance and character of our conversation, she blanched, and cried out from the bottom of her troubled heart, "Have I misjudged the boy? Lord for- give me if I have! " (Rless her impulsive lu-artl) Miss C. and myself agreed upon a plan for action with regard to the dunce, as Hugo had been called by everybody. For a number of weeks, we gave him the privilege of coming to the oflice whenever he felt like doing so. We gave him work to do, ^-es, but made all his work have relation to drawing. All his arith- metic was drawing ami sketcliiiig. till slowly, but by perceptible degrees, his interi'st in other things was awakened. 80 KDUCATIOXAL TOPICS OF TIIK 1>AY. One ei)isode of liis cure is very vividly iini>iinled in my uiemoiv. lingo showed a decid(;d disliiie l.o read- ing. I argned with him, saying that some da}', when he would he a great artist, he would wish to read what people saitl about him ; he would want to read the criticisms made upon his work in the journals. Well, (jueer as it may seem, and questionable as the incen- tive may have been from a moral point of view, it is a fact, that from that day the boy bent all his energy u[)on reading, till after a few months he read as fluently as most of his schoolmates who were con- sidered bright boys wlieu he was •• the dunce." One thing I greatly disliked in him ; namelv, the way he revenged himself frequently. When other bo\-s would use their fists freely, Hugo would rapidly draw a caricature of the person who he thought had intended to wrong him. Some of these caricatures are still in my possession, and I cannot but laugh when I come across them. There was such a fine vein of humor exhibited in these pictures, that 1 became easily reconciled with his mode of revenge. The boys soon feared Hugo's crayon more than they did his fists, and they ■' left him severely alone," or at least treated him gingeri}', " right side up with care." To cut a long story short, the boy is now a very creditable pupil, though by no means a shining light in scholarly attainments ; he is fairly equipped for higher grades; and if in future years Hugo should become a great painter, which is not at al) imi)Ossible, some of his schoolmates may be proud TIIK KXrERIEXCE OF A SC PEliVISOIL 81 of luiviiiii; goiii' to school with him. Hugo has a very soft si)ot in his heart for Miss C. ami myself, and I am ha[jpy over it. HI. A "bad" 1!oy in MUTinncTir. In the follo\vinj>; article, another of tlie \vc:ikn(>sscs frequently found among pupils is treated. Miss I>. — '• I have a good mind to shake you, Fred ! Don't you see that you made one error after another in the solution of this prohlem ? You ought to be ashamed of youi-sclf, to l»e so 'bad' in arithmetic, and good in every thing else." I ha|)pened to hear tliis by no means uncommon speech, and Ix'came i)aiufiilly aware of the fact that Fred, whom I h:id come to praise for his excellent work in map-diawing, needed a little extra attention. I inquiivd of the teacher afterward the i)articulars of the case. Here is her statement : — Miss B. — '• W»ll, Mr. K., I love that boy as the ap|)le of my eye. You need not be astonished ; I repeat. I love liini. But 1 fear he is making use of my preference for him. There is no reason why he should be so slovenly in his work in arithmetic. He is not too stupid to reason out a problem. — no. that isn't it, — but he is negligent in the execution. Don't yon think a dose of ' heroic treatment ' might do him some good? Oidy don't make me give it to him. for I can't." Let us look into the symptoms before we prescrilte the remedy. What makes him so brilliant in history 82 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIK DAY. and gpographv? What, do you think, is tlie reason of his spirited reading, or of his iDeritorious efforts in composition ? Miss B. — "Well, I suspect he has more talent in those directions," Likely ; but that would scarcely account for his slovenliness in figuring, for you say yourself he is not stupid in reasoning out a problem. And then, look at his work in map-drawing ; see with what loving aecu- rac}- he has treated the difficult map of Europe. There is not a slovenly line on that whole map. Don't you think it is in another direction where we'll have to look for his evident carelessness in dealing with uumljers? Miss B. — "• Indeed, you lead me to suspect that it is not so much want of talent as want of interest." Very good ; I believe you are right. Interest, a-ou know, acts upon the learner as sunshine and moisture do upon the germs in the ground. Cannot we agree upon a remedy which will arouse that interest? Sup- pose that you try this : link the intense interest he manifests in geography and other branches, with arith- metic, by giving him problems containing geographical, historical, or statistical dates, or any thing that touches ihose fields of knowledge in which he is interested. Tell him that much depends upon accuracy in cipher- ing. I should be much astonished if he would not be very careful in the execution of his work. At least, let us try his preferences as levers. Miss B. — "I verily believe that that will bring him around sooner than a shakiuo- will." THE EXPEUIEyCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 83 And wliil(; we are alxnit it. iny fiieiid. don't sav a pupil is bail ill tliis or 'eliat study : say he is weak. Ai)ply the word '• badness " to cases of immorality. A disobedient, a cruel, or an uiitrutlit'ul cliilil iiiav be called a bad child ; but a poor reader, a faulty speller. or an inaccurate arithmetician may be a vciv trood child in i)oiut of morals. Miss B. took 111}' words good-naturedly. The boy in question is now one of the most accurate and fault- less arithmeticians in his class, a proof of the wonder- ful influence interest manifests, be that interest in the teacher, or matter of instruction. IV. A BOY "like KASPAU IIALSER." Miss D. — "Oh. 'Sir. K., I have a l)oy in my class who is a veritable Ka.spar Ilauser' when it comes to composition work. He hasn't an idea. Please to look over this pa|)er." I did. This was the production. "A sunrise. The sun rises and sets. I have often seen him set, but only once rise. I guess I must have been too sleepy to get up early enough. Since it is too long ago since I saw the sun rise, I cannot say any thing of how it looked, or whether it looks any ditTerent from the set- ting ^5Ull." Will, the .spelling and i)eninanship arc all right ; that is one redeeming feature. ' \Vc must roqiiesl the roador to consult a hisitory of edncatioti, to learn the |im'|Mii'i of tills exiirt-Msion. It will jiay him wi'll. Or, k-l hiru rc-ail fliitzkowV roinaiK'O, " The Souk of l'i>Uili>/./.i," in which Kanpar HaUf-er plays a loading part. 84 EDUCATIONAL TOI'KS OF THE DAY. Miss I). — " Yes, I have no fault to liiid llicrc ; Imt tliiiik ! this is a hoy of fourteen years of age, and he is not ahle to say any thing of " — Wliat he docs not know. Pardon nie for the inter- ruption ; l)ut, I shouhl tliink, you set him too hard a task. Suppose, Miss D., I shoukl ask you to write a composition on the "Trckshuit^ as a means of trans- portation in Holland," what would you say? Miss D. — "I am sure I should say, 'I can't do it,' never having seen a — what do you call it? — and not knowing whether it is a cart, a boat, or a balloon." Why, yes, that is hitting the nail on the head. You expected the boy to say something of the tranquillity of the early morning, of dawn, of the first faint glim- mer of light on the eastern horizon, of the awakening skylark, of the first brilliant rays shooting up to the zenith, etc., ad nauseam; and forgot that he knew nothing of these phenomena. An old German cook- book contains a curious recipe which begins : "In order to make Ilascnpfeffer (ragout of rabbit), you must first catch your rabbit, then," etc. That's it pre- cisely ! The most necessary ingredient of a composi- tion is a thought to work out. Where that is wanting, no composition can be made ; though sauces and dips of all kinds may be emi)loyed, such a dish will remain without substance. A child who has something to say will say it. A child of experience and thoughts will ' Drag-boat. For explanation of this, see Oliver Optic's Dikes and Ditches, p. 3o3. THE EXPERlEXfE OE A sr ]>EllVIS()l{. ,So givo lit to ranee to tlieiii. tli()ny beyond expression, and readily promised to writi as often as 1 felt like it. Oh, the bliss I enjoyed on that three-weeks' trip is still vividly imprinted upon the tablet of jny memory ! I wrote h(;me aliiKjst daily, giving an accurate account of wliat I had seen, with whom I had fallen in on the way, what they had said, what thoughts had been awakened 86 EDUCATIONAL TOI'K'S OF TIIK DAY. in 1113^ mind ;it the sijilit of this or tliiit phcnointMion oi' scenery. I ilid tliis in the evening, l)erore going to bed. One whole letter I filled with a vivid description of u combat I had with a vicious dog when I ascended to a hayloft which was to be my Ijcdchaniber that night. "• When I returned home, rny father told me, with a touch of pride, ' Edwaixl, I am glad you have im- proved in composition-writing.' — ' Now don't,' said 1, ' you know I hate compositions.' — ' No, no, my boy ; I mean what I say : every one of your letters is a capital composition, and deserves a high mark. I sent your letters to Professor W., and convinced him that 3'ou are an}' thing but a dunce in composition- writing. He acknowledged to me that he had mis- judged you.' " If this story has any moral, it is : First catch the rabbit. DISCIPLINE. — A REFORMATORY CLASS. [From Annual Report to the Board of Education of Hamilton, 0.\ As a general thing, the discipline in the schools of smaller towns and villages is vastly better than in the schools of large cities. I was very pleasantly sur- prised Avhen I came here, and noticftl the well-nian- uered children, the pleasant, genial smile they had for tiieir teachers, and the politeness they showed me wherever they met me. The order in the different schoolrooms and houses varies a little, as a matter of course, but is generally good without being oppres- THE EXPEUIEXCE OE A SUl'KI! \1 soL'. 87 sive. If we inquire into the frequency of corporal punishment, and ol)serve niiniite'ly, we see that very few cases of such puiiishuK'nt are found necessary. When it is resorted to, it is ahnost invariably adminis- tered to the same pn[)ils. Teachers should undi-rstand that a request cheerfully uttered is always hotter than a stern command ; and as a rule you will find, wherever and whenever you enter a schoolroom, that a cheerful teacher has a cheerful set of children husily at work or attentively listening. The exceptions to this are but fl'W. I al)hor the death-like silence that is considered a result of good discipline in many schoun- ish these boys corporally ; but it is always degrading the teacher and his school if corporal punishment is resorted to. and it is at best but a questionable THE EXPEIUEN< E OF A SUPEliVISOIl. 89 remedy. Or, we may, if imiiislnneiit is of iii» avail. expel tliein. However, to expel tliem from seliool. and turn them uixjii the street, would he the worst remedy that eould lie eoneeived of. It would be simply swelling the number of dangerous elements in the community, whose decrease is one of the mission- ary objects of the public schools. Some of these boys, if not all, ought to be in the house of refuge, or on the Heform Fuiiu ; but commitment to these institutions is beyond the jurisdiction of the school authorities. The oidij f'Jf'ectual rpnifd'/ for cleansing our schools of these dangerous elements, and yet keeping them under our charge, is the establishment of an ungraded class, presided over liy a teacher who is a strong disciplina- rian, and who can exert a moral influence over the boys which will last beyond the school hours. To this class the boys might V)e committcil temporarily, until they show such marked improvement that they give assurance of better conduct in future, and ma}' be re-admitted to the ranks of lluir former associates. One of the foremost educators of the country recommended the establishment of such a school in 187o. He then said, '•'■ This (reformatorv) class should l)oar a title as little obnoxious as possible; but it should l)e designed for those whose influence is found to be pernicious to their ass(M'iates, and who are incorrigilile by tliose nu-ans of disi'iplinc wliicli sci'ui to be used in the schools at large. Its prin<-ipal purpose is to guard the masses of children imdn- the 90 EUUdATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. care of the Board, from daily contact, in the class-room and on the ithi\-groiiud, with chihlrcn whose example tends to corrnpt ever}' one about them ; to protect the young and the weak from those whose domineering habits or violent tempers make them unsafe compan- ions." It is often stated, and with just pride too, that the public schools are the crucible within which all the various nationalities of the community are fused into one homogeneous mass, alike in patriotic devotion and civil virtue. It is also stated, that the school is a state in miniature. If so, it is our solemn dut}^ to shield the mass of children of law-abiding, virtuous parents, from contamination with vicious characters, just as the state authorities do, who single out crim- inals for the protection of societ}-. Our rules here keep children out of school who are likely to bring with them, from home, the germs of a contagious disease. Why, then, should we be obliged to admit, among the mass of children, so-called moral lepers? We have reason to think that such an ungraded class here in Hamilton will have about twenty to twenty-five pui)ils. No girl has ever been found to deserve commitment to such a reformatory. Permit me, gentlemen of the Hoard, to submit to your consid- eration the adoption of the following rules, which are in force in the schools of Cleveland : — I. Conditions of Admission. — Whenever, on duo in- quiry and investigation, it shall appear to the principal of a school building, that the attendance of any pupil, THE KAI'Kh'IEXCE OF A Sl'rER]' ISiJli. 91 oitlier 1)V reason of in('orrierintendent may retuiu a pupil thus assigned to the " ungraded school," back to the school from which he came, but not during the tern) in which he was sent. III. /Studies. — The studies in this school shall, so far as the number of classes will permit, be the same as are recpiired by the course of study prescribed for the corresi)onding grades of the internu'diate and j)rimary dei)artments ; provided, that the branches essential to classification be not neglected. In all other particulars this school shall be governed by the rules Sis prescribed for the other schools of this city. SCEXES rnoM .sciwol-life. " I AM the maddest man you ever saw," said a man who came with a l>igcluli in his hand into my ollice one day. — "Oh. no, sir, you are l)v no means the mad- dest," suiil I ; '• I have seen madder men th.-.n \om are. 92 EDVCATIOXAL TOl'ICS OF THE DAY. You (l(jii't look like :i l)nit(', you liavc all tlic airs of a <;(Mitleuian. liut I suppose soinetliiiig very aggravating has lia[)ponecl, and that you seek iny assistauco." — " Then you are the sui)enntentlent, are you ?" — '• Yos, sir: 1)0 seated, and tell me what I can do for you." — ''Well, the thing is this. The p!iu(M[)al of tliis build- ing \vhii)i)od iny boy, and I have pretty good reasons to think my l)oy did not deserve it." I held an in- vestigation instantly ; and very reliable testimou}' was brought out, revealing the fact that the boy had re- ceived his punishment for just cause. I need not reiterate the case here ; suffice it to say, that when I had dismissed the boys to their different moras, and was alone with the father, he jumped up, shook my hand, and again said, " Sir, I am the maddest man you ever saw ; but while first I was mad at the teacher, now I am mad at my bo}'. He will catch it when he gets home." " JrsT look over this note, if you please," said ^Sliss C, the other day. It was a fearfulh' coarse note, both in style and sul)stance, of an equally coarse woman. Her bo}' had been spoken to about his fighting propen- sities, his use of slang, his cursing, and general med- dlesomeness. "How did you dispose of the case?" was my question. ''"NVell, this being the third time jjunishment seemed necessary, I asked the mother to come to your office at this hour. I think you will find lier up-stairs." I did find her thei'e. Her appearance was that of a brutal, coarse nature, who had fire and THE EXPERIESCK OF A SCPEin'I^On. 03 hriiiistone in her cn'os. At my entrance slio an^sc. put hor arms akimltu, and addri's.scd im; as follows: •• I want you to undoistand, Mr. Superintendent, that my hoy is not a bad Ixn' ; he nuvcr tells a lie, and is as gentle as a lauib, and I don't understand why the teaehcf should jiiek at my boy all the time." I (juietiy intenogatefl her concerning the boy's playmates, and then sent for a number of them. N'ery few questions stilliccd to establish the guilt of the boy in question indis[)ulal)ly. The teacher testified again, in piesence of the mother, how hatefully the boy acted when he found that he coukl not have his own wa}'. Then the ire of the mother got the Ijctter of her, and she began to abuse the teacher. I [)ut a stop to tliat at once, asked the teacher kindly to withdraw, and I would set- tle the matter. Now I gave the mother to understand that if the boy should persist in his ugly behavior I would have him airested, and brought before his honor the mayor, and I should move that he be sent to the Keform Farm. This (juictcd the woman wonderfully and quickl}'. She was, like every bully, at heart a coward. She soon l)egan to ciy, admitted the boy's badness, and promised to keep an eye on him in the future. SiiK was a small, not pretty, but highly intelligent young teacher, who, not by a freak of nature, but liy the absolute conlidence of her superi(jrs. had bt'eu as- signed to a C" intermediate school. Among her pupils, was one who proved in every way a black sheep. He 94 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. caine fioin \vli:it wiis known as a highly cnUnrt'd family, which in this case meant a very conceited family. The father was a physician. One day this Dr. X. came to the schoolhonse, at once went to the room of the teacher in question, knocked, and asked to say a word to her in the corridor. She came out, and stood before this tall man with expectation in her face. This is the conversation that took i)laee. " 3Iiss G., I undrr- stand that yon charge my hoy with having prevaiicaled. How can you dare to do that? " — '"I never said he prevaricated. I am sure 1 did not use that word, sii-. " — ^ Do yon mean to say that you did not accuse him of prevarication? " — '' That is exactly what I mean." — '' What did you say, then ? " Aud this small, young, inexperienced woman of strong character looked up with her fearless steel-! due eyes, like a lion-tamer, straight into his enraged countenance, aud said, ''' I did say he lied, and I can prove that he did." Not auother word was said. Dr. X. turned, aud left her aud the house. My observations. — A boy of twelve 3'ears, healthy, strong, fine head, intelligent but defiant looks, regular though dirty face, frequently distorted by disdainful, ugly smiles, dilapidated appearance, clothes torn though of good material. Teacher's report. — Boy played tru- ant thirteen half days and ten whole days ; brings excuses from liis mother which are evidently untrue. — such as, sore foot, when the boy played at the corners all day long ; sprained hand, when no sign of any such Till-: Exi'inirEXCE of a supeiivisor. 95 casualty can be fyiind, nay, when the bo}' himself is unable to state which hand was sprained ; and other like statements. IJoy is not reliable, neither in word nor action ; is disobedient, unwilling to study or i)ay atten- tion. His father sometimes in a lit of indignation lashes him with a cowhide till he (the father) is ex- hausted. Whipping in school is of no use ; boy calls it tickling. He demoralizes my school. 3Ii'. Klennn, what shall I do with him? A nESPECTAiJLF.-LooKiNo but omaciatcd woman with receding chin, tears in her eyes, pushes a boy into my ollice, saying, •' There, mister, I have brought him. He won't mind me. What bli:dl I do? He won't go to school. Can't you whip him, and make a good boy of him?" Bo;i. — '"There, old woman, don't tell a pack o' lies al»out me, or I won't stay." IiKjuiry soon revealed the fact that the boy had been the terror of his school, had demoi'alized it till he had to be expelled. The teachers protested when they saw him. This is the shady side of school-life. PliOFESSlOXA L SUPER VfSlOy. A SLPEUiNTENDENT in the West has a rather charac- teristic way of exercising criticism upon the work of his teachers. He visits a school room, sits down in an unfre(|iienti'd corner, and carefully oliserves what is going on. When he leaves he makes a i)leasant re- 96 EDUCATIONAL TOPIC f^ OF THE DAY. mark to the teacher, find, if the oecnsion seems to call for it, also to the piii)ils. Then he retires to his oflice, and (ills out a blank like the one attached below, keeps this on record, and sends an exact copy to the teacher, — in closed envelope, of course. She there lias it, black on white, what he thinks of her work, of her manner of teaching and muunging. If she takes excc[)li()ii to any of the superintendent's remarks, she meets him at his oOice, and then and there the superin- tendent holds a " teacher's meeting" (a private one) ; that is to say, makes her understand what her mistakes are, by applying the test of principles. I full well understand that this method of criticising can be perverted into the most unpleasant fault-finding, just as every other good method can be misapplied. Tile method is all right ; it is only the manner of apply- ing it which may or may not make the thing successful. If the teachers know that their superior officer means well, that he is kind-hearted, and intends tliis for their own advantage as well as for that of the schools, they will receive this written criticism in the spiiit in which it is offered. Not that he answers every query found below as often as he makes a visit. No : sometimes he finds it desirable to call the teacher's attention to a very weak spot in her management or mode of teach- ing, and therefore dwells on this point, leaving the other questions blank. A teacher gets, in the course of a year, about a dozen of these blanks, partly or entirely filled out by the superintendent, and can mark, prett}' accurately, Till: i:AJ'i:j;ii:.\(h or a .s/:/v;/.'r />'>//. '.>7 whether she is gtiiiiiiii;- in skill of teaching and mana- ging, or not. The qnestions attachecl below are not tiie same as last year. He changes them from time to time, introdncing a new feature now and then, drop- ping other points which have fonnd their way into the con)prehension of his coips of teachers, " with the im- pressibility of truth," as Friend Ilailmann says. I offer these questions to my colleagues, because they seem to me in the highest degree suggestive. Though it may readily be guessed who the superintend- ent in question is, it is not desirable to publish his name. He is a modest man, and might feel embar- rassed if he sees his name in piint. COPY OF THE BLANK. ■ Ward, Grade, Teacher. Observations made by the Svperintendent JS8..... QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 1. Did the teacher possess the undivided attention of h pupils '? 2. Was h instruction interesting enough to secure attention ? 8. Was itoiijeetive ? did illustrate it sufTicieiitly ? 4. Were the teacher's st.atenients unquestionahie '? .'). Did they follow each other in logical order? G. Was the instruction clear and conipri'liensilile to all ? 7. Had it practical bearings npon actual coMilitions of life '.' 8. Did it seem to promise lasting nvsults ? 9. Was the pupil's self-activity called into play ? 98 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DA V. QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 10. Was the teacher's manner of questioning correct ? 11. Did show proper regard to the pupil's indi- viduaHty '? 12. Was tlie object of the lesson secured by practical application ? 13. Did the teacher seem to have consulted the course of study ? 14. Did seem to have prepared h self for the lesson ? 15. Did aid the pupils in the development of new ideas ? 16. Did guide the children in discovering their errors ? 17. Did the pupils speak in complete sentences ? IS. Did it seem as if the teacher asked the brighter pupils only ? 19. Was the teacher too talkative ? 20. Were mistakes in pronunciation and emphasis left uncorrected ? 21. Did the teacher always address h questions to the whole class ? 22. Did indulge in repeating the pupil's answer ? 23. Did say or do any thing which the pupils might have said or done themselves ? 24. Was the teacher's writing on the board commend- able ? 25. Did the class seem to make progress in their studies ? 26. In what branch of study did the class seem to be weak ? 27. Was order maintained by harsh treatment ? 28. Did the teacher watch the class steadily '? 29. Did change h position unnecessarily ? 30. Did ignore faults and irregularities ? 31. Was the class quiet '? diligent? THE EXPEUIEyCE OF A Sl'PERVISOn. 99 QUESTIONS. ANSWEBS. 32. How was the order in coming and going, and liandling books and utensils? 33. Was the teacher just in praising ? reprimand- ing ? 34. Was consistent in all actions ? 35. Did practise self-command ? 36. What was ihe condition of the atmosphere ? tem- perature ? Remarks: ~ MECIIA NIC A L VI R TUES. A FATHER wlio had been anno\'ed consklcrahly by notes from the teacher which referred to his child's want of punetnalitN', inaccuracy, carelessness, and similar shortcomiiit>;s, called at my oflice one day, and expressed his desire to have a friendly talk with me. He did not mean to complain, as be said, but desired information. Said he, "• What is the use of insisting upon the chil- dren bcinp; in school punctually at nine? And what is the use of insistin<^ upon a uniform ruling; of (he slates and various other similar requirements? I fail to see their necessity. You know it is dillicuit for the whole household to ada\)t itself to tlie ndes of school : and it is oftentimes attended with mucli heart-burnintiy virtue of his posi- tion, has the decision in his hand. lUit that does not, and can not. remove competition from the schools entirely, since in some classes the teacher does noth- ing but examine all day. The following sarcastic statement is the gist of an aitide upon this subject from the pen of Su[)eriutend('iit Aaron fiove of Den- ver, a most accomplished leader of educational atTairs in the West: "Teachers are not teaching; they are drifting. A pupil is assigned a task. Soon he is exiuniued. When he lias denioiisti-att'd the accom- plishment of his task, he is excused. The recitation is concluded. He is assigned another task. An exam- 112 KDVCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIK DAY. ination detcrmiiies its pcifonnanco. So i.s composed the (hiily routine. He is tested, tried constanll}'. If lie does not know a certain tiling, he is aslced to loolv it u[) in his text-book. At evening the father spends a tired hour in instructing. He wonders what teachers do during the da}'. The pupil learns that recitatioD is examination. He must present results, no matter how he ol)taiued them. Ponies and keys are useful. Xhe home furnishes a little poor help. Tiie world has passed beyond the need of teachers. School is a place in which to sit and tell daily what has been learned from books. All requisites are in the l)ook. Proper application on the part of the pupil will appropriate them. The chief duties of the adult person in the schoolroom are to prevent riot, and to examine pupils." Is this an exaggeration ? God may grant it ! These daily examinations rob the pupil of that tranquillity without which no healthy mental growth is possiI)le ; it defrauds the teacher of the opportunity of applying herself to the weaker pupils, and lend them a helping hand, because she spends her time in marking her pupils' work on a scale of one hundred, and to write examination questions on the board. The per-cent system subjects all the pupils of a class to the treatment of Strasburg geese, which are fed in close confinement — that is, noodled as the tech- nical term has it — till tlieir livers are unnaturally lai'ge ; onlv that it is the memor}' of the children which IS thus noodled. Fl\\DAM7i:\TAL Eimons 7.V rKACIIlXd. ll-T This mode of daily ooini)otitivo examinations acts like inildi'w upon the work of [nipils, and shonld speedily give way to teaching. It it* l»iit jiiwt t(; .say, that many of our teaclici-.s have recognized the evil influence of the per-cenL system and competitive exan)iiiations, aud now si)end their time in occupation for tc/iiih they loere engitged by thi- authorities. Enter- ing a schoolroom, it can at once he seen whether such a teacher, or a mere school-keeper, holds sway. In the schoolroom of the teacher, the pu[)ils arc, as a rule, more eager to learn than in the one where daily exam- inations are held ; and that painful anxiety so often visible upon the [jupils' faces, which l)lights r.ll joys and pleasures of life, will not l>e found. The teacher bears in mind, that no two pupils are gifted alike by iNIother Nature, just as little as she produci>s two leaves exactly alike. The inevitabh" ditTcri'nce in a[)ti- tude, in power of comprehension and application, found among children, is taken into consideration ; and each l)ui)il is permitted and led to go to the limits of his capabilities. The school-keeper, on the other hand, who believes in grading on the scale of one hundred, spurs his pu[)ils, drives and pushes them by means of competitive examinations, considering them :dl alikt; in natural endownuMits and capabilities; and (he ..hort, but impf)rtant, educational law, '•' Individualize," *is unkntMvn to him. 114 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. MEMOniZING THE PRINTED PAGE. Another, though not the last, and by no means the least, of the antediluvian fossils found in sehool-teaeh- ing, is the reliance of teachers and pupils on books ; rote-learning, or unproductive memorizing of text- books. When we see children learn by heart from the printed page such disconnected, though highly flavored, tidbits of information found almost on every j)age of the text-books of geography ; as, for in- stance, " Extensive forests of deciduous trees cover the greater part of this section." "The stone mountain in DeKalb County is a great curiosity." "Indian mounds of an unknown antiquity are found in Georgia." "'•Zenith' and 'nadir' are two Arabic terms imparting their own signification," — we can- not but thank kind Providence for having gifted the human memory with the happy faculty of throw- ing off what has not gone tbrougli the mill of rea- son and understanding. What a frightful waste of energj' is there in schools where such unpalatable and indigestible matter is set before the pupils who are told to " study " their geography' lesson ! Or when we see children try to " figure out," or mechanically solve problems in arithmetic, hy appl3'ing rules committed to memory from the text-book, instead of rules which are the direct result of practice and reasoning, we cannot but aibnit that there is more than one grain of truth in the indignant remark of a great lecturer: "Our coun- try has become great, not because of its public- school system, but despite of it." FVyDAMEMAL KL'HoHS 1.\ TEACIII.Xa. llo Or when we hear children recite grammar rnles, and l)rattle about numeral adjectives, correlative conjunc- tions, or causal adverbial clauses, or inseparable phrases, or subordinate propositions, or co-ordinate forms of conjugation, and the like, byfore they can give an intelligent account of an event, or even give utterance to a simple thought without doing violence to their mother-tongue, we cannot but stand in unite astonishment, and wonder at the incongruities which exist between the requirements of life and those of the schoolmaster. Memorizing the text-book is but a poor substitute for true knowledge. It is a sad mistake to think children of our primal}' and intermediate grades gain much valuable knowledge from text-books. Pupils of riper age and adults may, and unquestionably do, gain knowledge fiom the printed pages : young children do not. There are two kinds of knowledge, — (1) that which has become part of our being, having l)een men- tally assimilated, as it were; and (2) that with which we stuff our [lockcts (our memory). Those who learn for the sake of passing an examination merely stuff their pockets. This is done nnich faster than in the other way. Those who chew tlu'ir mental food, digest and assimilate it. may at times get discouragetl at tin- seemingly small amount they gain ; but since they learn thoroughly, they can never lose it again, and in the end are tlie gainers. True knowledge is logically and naturally linked with previous cognitions. ^uch knowledye is experience, while the pui>il wiio no EDUCATIONAL TOriCS OF TIIK DAT. stuffs liis iiu'inoiy is ever obli' is to store the mind witli knowledge ; but it is also to develop mental power and moral eharacter. The aeqnisition and retention of exat-t. systematie, true, good, and beantifnl kucwledge, ei-eates a clear mind and a pni'c heart. Knowledge and |)owei' are (^ne ; they eoalesee and become wisdom, the prize that is pn-eions above rubies." BAM MINA TION QUESTIONS. IIeke is a set of questions of the old customary type : — Wliat isthmus joins Xorth and South America? What cajtc projects into the Arctic Ocean ? What ishmd east of (irecnland? What great river empties Into the Gulf of Mexico? What river empties into the Arctic Ocean? What country south-oast of Mexico ? What country north of Xcw Eiiglami ? What is the largest river in \e\v England ? Which is the smallest of the Middle States? What seaport in South Carolina? And here is another set of similar questions : — IIow many hones in the hand ? Isame the hones of the skull. State composition of the hones. What is the oiTice of the heart ? What are arteries ? Veins ? Name the digesdve organs. IIow many teeth has man ? Describe the structure of tlic ear. Describe the structure of a muscle. 118 EDUCATIONAL rOPTCS OF THE DAY. These are patent questions suggested, na}', required, by the al)oniinaljle sN'steni of grading l)y per cents. If we do away with this mode of giading papers and pupils, we ean ask questions of wider hearing. — (jues- tions, the answering of which will permit the pupil to show his skill in ajjplying language ; to give a full account of certain branches of knowledge, as far as he has mastered them ; and show be not only ichat he knows, but how he knows it. Acting upon this suggestion, it would be well to change the customary examination (juestions. Instead of such questions as the above, we might submit some like these : — Geofiraphij. — If you were to make a voyairo from Copenhagen to Rome, along the coast of Western Europe, what countries would you pass? Mention all iiiip(jrtaiit rivers, tlie mouths of wliicli you would pass on this voyage. Mention large seaports, also the capitals of the countries you pass. Mention the moun- tain ranges and two important lakes situated in Western Europe. State what people inhabit these different countries, and what language they speak, etc. Suppose a straight line be drawn from Washington to San Francisco, state througli wliat States and Territories this line would go. Mention large cities south and north of this line. Mention the different mountain ranges and large rivers the line will cross, etc. Describe the Ohio Valley; extent, rivers, watersheds, lakes (if any), canals, cities, manufactories, natural products, means of commerce, etc. Wliy is Salt Lake salt, and Lake Erie not ? Why are rivers on the east side of the Appalachian Mountains so much shorter than those on the west ? Why does the Miami River flow south ? What States are drained by the Mississippi ? Why is the climate of Oregon nuich warmer than that of Min- nesota ? Name the principal waters that wash the shores of FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 119 North America. How would you (ravel l)y water from Hamil- ton to New Orleans? Mention the hi,<;hest mountains in iSouth America; the largest river; the largest state; four of the most important cities; two islands; two seajiorts, etc. Describe a journey: select your own point of destination. United States Uistory. — Give a short account of the mound- builders. What led to the re-discovery of America by Colum- bus ? Describe the Spanish explorations in the South-west. State how the several Colonies were governed. Give a short account of William rcnii and his colony. Give a short account of the French and Indian War. What were the causes of tlie Eevolutionary War? Define the terms "revolution" and "re- bellion." State some leading ideas of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. General [listor;/. — What are the sources of our knowledge of Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldtean history ? State what you learned of the culture of the Shemitic races. State the rise and fall of the PhoL'niciau state ; a few dates. Give an account of the early history of the Flebrews ; three dates. State what you learned of the customs and culture of the ancient Egj'p- tians. What did Solon and Pericles do, that they deserve to be classeil among the greatest of men ? Describe the heroic death of Leonidas and his three? hundred Spartans. Give a short account of the life and career of Tiberius Gracchus. State some causes of the downfall of the Roman Republic. Give an account of the Roman conquests in Gaul and Germany. I'hijsiuloi/i/. — Describe the teeth. State how they an; pre- served, and what makes them decay early. State difference between teeth and bones. Give rules of liygiene of the bones. (Examples.) Describe the anatomy of the muscular system. Give a description of the anatomy of the circulatory organs. Give an account of the physiology of the digestive organs. State hygienic rules regarding the respiratory organs. [NoTK. — In making these statenjents, confine yourself to the essentials. Lead-pencil sketches in the margin, illustrating the sul).ie<,'t matU'r, will greatly enhance th- ited Great Britain, or ruled over it. What are the components of the English language now? State King Alfred's literary influence. Give a short biographical sketch of Chaucer. State the plan of the Canterbury Tales. Give leading features of "The Faerie Queene." What is the literary importance of Edmund Spenser? What is said about the early theatres? What is commonly understood by the term "literature"? Give a brief account of John Milton's literary career. Give an account of Bacon's political success and disgrace. Give a brief synopsis of Sliakspeare's " Hamlet." State Shakspeare's influence in the histoiy of the English language. Give the titles of three historical, two semi-liistorical or legendary, and five fictitious plays of Shakspeare. The above questions are inserted merely to show the nature of the examinations that Tvere held under my direction. They are suggestive both to teachers and pui)ils, and, it is to be hoped, may show the way out of the mire of mechanical memorv-cramming, into rational teaching. In tlie high school, it should be FUNDAMEXTAL EHHOIIS I\ TEACIIIXG. Vl\ the custom to give out, at the end of eacli ti'ini. a limited number of themes from each stud}' (except mathematics), and each i)upil should be permitted to choose one of them, and to write as complete a dis- sertation as possible upon that subject. These essays are either satisfactory, or they are not. In the latter case, a second examination may be required. This procedure will make the gauging of ciiildrcn's intel- lectual depth by per cents impossible. It will make the teacher's instruction more rational and thorough. It will teach the pupils to learn well. But, aliove all. it will cause their power of application to grow. It will make a language lesson of every lesson, even in arithmetic, since it obliges them to express Avell what they have learned. Granted, that this is not making the work of the teacher easier; but it need scarcely be asserted, that the schools are not maintained for the better accommodation of teachers. FROM Till-: FRYING-PAN INTO THE FIRE. Di'RiXG the last ten years, school education in this country has received a new im[)ulse ; and one of the most objectionalile features of school work in former 3'ears, namely, the custom of subjecting pupils to the hardship of too n)any written examinations, has been frequently and savagely attaeketl. I ought to add, justly, because the evil etTects of fretjuent written examinations can scarcely be estimated, particularly if their results are marked upon the scale of one hun- dred. There is a complete chain of cause and effect 122 EDUCATIONAL TOI'IfS OF Till': J)AV. ill this matter. Tlw scale used in marking ueressi- tates a peculiar uiode of (jiiestiouiug ; that is to say, little matter-of-fact (luestious must be asked, in order to gauge the answers on a scale of one hmidred, or any other mathematical scale. Teachers, knowing the kind of questions to be asked, fashion their instruction to suit the requirements of the examination. Thus they lay undue weight upon the development of the memory, overloading the mental stomach of their pupils with facts which are very easily forgotten after the examination is over. Pupils, knowing by experience what kind of examinations are given, learn accordingly ; that is, acquire knowledge in such a manner as will assure them good results on examina- tion-day. All rational teaching is thus killed in the bud. It has come to be well understood, that the teacher is to be a teacher, and not a mere school-keeper and task-master ; and the better that fact came to be understood, the greater and more obstinate became the opposition and justifiable wrath against the stultifying examinations, the number of which was reduced at various points at first from ten to five, from live to three, and in some places even to one per year. Promotions were based partly upon the results of examinations, partly upon the recommendations of the teachers, who expressed their judgment by add- ing the word prepared^ or doubtful, or miprepared, after tlie names of the pupils in the class-record. This mode was adopted some years ago in Hamilton, and . Fuyj)AME.\'T.\L Eni:oi:s i\ teach inc. liin it works very well. It ivcounizos the teacher's value, and it shows the pupils that the faithful discharge of their daily duties will count when it coiues to a linal judgment at the dose of the year. Of late, a very oltjectional)le and detrimental step with regard to promotions has been recommended in various places. The fatal result of making promo- tions dependent u[)on written examinations, and the evil inrtueuce it has upon the daily work in the class- room, was at once conceded ; and, therefore, written examinations were abolished. In their stead, was put a system of daihj markiiir/. I need not describe this any further ; the word carries with it its own defini- tion. Teachers, principals, and editors of the daily press, intelligent and otherwise, highly applauded the new measure. The panacea of all educational evils seemed to have been found. Let us see whether the new plan can be recom- mended. Of what does it consist? Any good daily programme of school-work has no less than five lessons. I need not enumerate them. The teacher sits at her desk, pencil in hand, and the class-record before her. Let the fiist lesson be arithmetic. A certain number of problems are given out. They are worked. Now the work is examined, and the results are recorded, — so many lOO's, so many 90's, so many 80's, etc., nd infinitum aeid ad nanse\vtli, — to roiitiiiism and met-hanism. We liaxc to thank our- selves for our want of success. Wo should confess this, and hunil)ly whisper, " Lord, forgive us, for we knew not what we did!" We owe a great deal of our present indecision and hel[)lertsness to the catch-words that seemed coin[)rehensible to every one Ity their popularity. And I dare say this popu- larity gave rise to the fatal belief that witli having the word wc had the thing. There is scarcely a teacher who has not his or her own definite opinion as to the aim and end of popular education ; there are but few who could not, at length and with the air of conviction, interpret to laymen the principles of teaching according to Nature's laws, or piofoundl}' explain the psychological inlluence of certain branches, or certain modes of instruction, upon the formation of character ; not one but seems to know all about moral and aesthetic culture. There is not a graduate of a normal school, not a teacher of one year's exix^rience, but could make use of such catch-words as ^ thci princii)le of objective teaching," "^ analytic and synthetic methods," and others. We have caught the words, and fougiit with them ; and, according to the verdict of immortal Goethe, "words are very convenient weapons." True, the actual results are not up to just <'X|)ecfalions, and certainly not in harmony with the ai)parently profoinid knowledge exhibited in jtrofessional circles. Do not. fair readei-, foi- a moment cnlfrL.-iiii ihc 130 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. idea that this state of affairs prevails in our profes- sion only. It is the case in many other professions of our time. That the catch-words are not as easily detected, for instance, in the science and practice of medicine as they are in our profession, is owing to the fact that medicine is carefully guarded by a high wall of Latin, while we must speak plain English or German, as the case may be. CllAPTErt IV. SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER IV. SOME PRfNCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. (a1-TE1{ LINDNEU's TKKATISi:.) /. TEACH IN ACCORDASCE WITH .\ ATI' HE'S LA \VS. Tins principle nmy 1k> iiiti'iprctcd in two ways. First, viewed ol)jeotiv(.-ly, it nmy mean : In teaching, proceed as Nature does in all her work. She always awaits the pioper time. She prepaics lier matter before she gives it shape. ITer woik is from within outwards. She licgins her fonnatious with general outlines. She never makes a lea|). Imt proceeds step liy step. She develo\)s all her various and manifold forms from the smallest, iniperceptihle beginnings. She proceeds from the easy to the ni<»i-e ilillieult. Sln> never does any thing uselessly. Slie never ai-ls rashly, yet ever moves onward. Slie never isolates any thing, but keeps all in relation and connection. She invigorates herself by continuous motion. lu a sinnlar nianncr the teacher should pioci'etl. Ilis work must begin at the proper time. He uuist prepare and anaum' the matter of iusliiiclion. lie should not try lo plant cognitions with empty words, hut let them 184 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. oiow from the seed of sonsc-pcrooption fnnii within out\v:\i'(ls. OutUiies shouUl precede' Uie thorough tieiUise. All his proeediires ishould be step-l)y-stcp motion, etc. In this way Comctnius interpreted the term "■ teaching according to Nature's Uvws." But a deeper concei>tion of this princii)le is gained if we interpret it snljjectively, to wit : Proceed in teacliing as the nature of the pupil dictates. This is the way Pestalozzi and Diesterweg understood this principle. Not nature in general, but the nature of the particular human being to be tauuht, should guide us. In all our endeavors to assist the development of that human being, his own peculiar combination of natural gifts dictates what to do. Pestalozzi's own words are : " The course of Nature in the development of the human race is immutable. There can be no different good ways in teaching : there is but one o;ood one, and that is the one which is strictly in accordance with Nature's unchangeable laws." The teacher, as is now generally undeistood, even by a " pu[)il teacher" in the backwoods, has the duty to assist the process of development by suitable measures, commonly called teaching ; and to that end he must know the natural laws of mental development, because his work w-ill be fruitless if he violates them. These laws are found in the science of psychology if we refer to the pupil or subject: they are found in the science of logic if we refer to the matter or object of instruction. The principle, '' teach according to Nature's laws," SOME PHINCIPLES AND METHODS. 135 is tlic most importiuit in the science and art of tcncli- ing. All otlier i)iind in Art. Tlius the art of painting is subject to the laws of light and perspective, architecture to the laws of gravity, music to those of sound; and it is literally impossible to devi- ate from them. According to Comenius' interpretation, the teacher is to be Nature's iinilutur; according to Diesterweg, he is Nature's nercunt. II. TEACH IN ACCORDANCE WITH PSVCIIO- LOGICAL LAWS. Teaciiino will be agreeal)le to Nature's laws if it is done psychologically, that is to say, if it has proper regard to the laws of psychological development of the human mind. To this end it is necessary to regard the whole human being, and not merely a certain faculty. The instructor must stimulate all tlie powers of the soul ; not merely develo|) the memor}' for instance, or the imagination, or the intellect, alone, i)ut also the emotions. Another postulate is, he should start from the standpoint of the pui)il, and proceed from tiie known to the unknown. Similar maxims, equally important, 130 EDUCATIOS'AL TOPICS OF TIIK DAY. are : Proceed from the easy to the more (lillieult, from the near to the remote, from the concrete to tlie ab- stract, from the particuhir to the general, from the example to the rule, from the object to its syml)ol, from the idea to its name. Do not nse words that convey no idea as yet. This is the procedure known in methodology as analytic and genetic procedure. The starting-point of the earliest instruction will always remain that range of experience which the child gains before it enters school ; the starting-point in every higher grade is on that level to which the pupil has been raised in the preceding grade. This secures continuity of instruction, one of the requisites of success. If the teacher were to disregard the standpoint of the pupil in any grade of the school curriculum, he would be in danger of either offering him knowledge as new which he has mastered before, or presupposing unknown things as learned, digested, and assimilated. In the former case the teacher would become tedious ;. in the latter, incomprehensible. To give the argument concerning psxchological laws in a nutshell, we will say, the instruction should be in strict accordance with the actual stage of dcvelo[)ment of the learner, at every step and at all times. NoTK 1. — Of the particular rules given for psycliological procedure, only the first, namely, "from the known to the unknown," is applicable In every case. The recent crusade in Xew England against this maxim is too trifling to be considered. The other maxims are subject to limitations. Thus, it may soMK I'lU.ycn'i.Ks a.xd mf/iiiods. V?,' happen, that an easier part of a braneh of study may follow a more difficult one; for instanee, the chapter in geometry which treats of circles follows the Pythaj^orcan problem. In many sciences the elementary ideas and fundamental deliniiions at tlie beginning of the study are the most ditlicult. While the rule says, " Procec.'d from the near to the remote," it is very fre- quently the fact that the more remote, in geography for instance, is treated before objects neanT home. The sun, which is a very remote object, is spoken of and viewed before Australia is treated ; and in history, knowledge of the Orient is frequently offered before home history is treated. But no man of common sense will on that account object to the rule as it stamls. NoTK 2. — The oft-quoted maxin), "from the simple to the complex," cannot be supported, because that which is gained by experience through the senses is not always simple. The more difficult general ideas are simpler than the particular ones gained by observation. ///. TEACH OBJECTIVELY; APPEAL TO THE SENSES. Tfie maxima (.leiivod from tlie second princ'ii)le, :ill more or less [)erem[)torily demand this: *-'lV'aeh ol)- jectivel}'." Sensations and percepts are the l)uilding- material of concepts, cognitions, and ideas. The young child's range of exi)crience, its mental lionzon, is liter- ally (illed with percepts, few of which have been formed into concepts. The yoiU)g child's mind is or.ly capahle of sensation, perception, and conception. That which is perceiva1)le hy the senses is that which is nearest, easiest, simi)lest. Hence the principle, '•Teach ohjec- tively," is correct at least for elementaiy instruction. Hut it holds good :d>o for cvcrv otiici sti'p of in- 138 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. struction : for ideas without percepts are empty and meaningless ; they arc garments without substance. Wlie never new terms come up in instruction, the teacher should at once see to it that they are illustrated aptly, so that they are substantiated, so to speak, and organ- ically linked with previous cognitions. This was doubted by a young teacher, one da}', in my presence ; and I led the doubter ad absnrduyn by asking him whether he thought pumpernickel should be recommended in a case of gout? A blank stare was the answer, until finally his question, " What is pum- pernickel?" broke the spell and his doubt. Such words as "arsenal," "tributary," "elevation," "con- stellation," and other words of Latin and Greek origin, do not convey a meaning unless an appeal to the senses or to ideas previously acquired has been made. The ditliculty and want of success in teaching often results from the fact that the teacher is too abstract, that words are used for which the child cannot find objects of comparison or contrast in his " picture-book of experience," his memory-. The objective teacher illustrates all new terms as far as possible, either by showing the objects in natura^ or by means of models, pictures, drawings, sketches, dia- grams, so that the terms may leave a residue of sense- perception in the memory. All the impressions which we gain from an object by means of the five senses form an idea. Thus, for instance, we have no clear idea of an apple unless we have perceived it through all the five senses. SOME rnryciPLEs axd metikws. 130 "We see its color and form ; fed wlicthcr it is li:uil or soft, smooth or rough ; we taste \i, and thus tiud whetlier it is sour or sweet; we small it. and distinguish, even when blindfolded, from the smell of a pear or plum. We even recognize it by the sense of hearing : an apple that rolls on the floor is recognized even by a blind person. To objective teaching belongs also the example of the teacher, the showing how to work whenever ac- complishments, sucii as penmanship, drawing, singing, etc., are the subject of a lesson. The teacher's copy on the board, his example in reading, drawing, nar- rating, translating, etc., all these may be considered as parts of objective teaching. Pestalozzi formulates the principle of objective teaching as follows: AhscIhih- unrj (pcrcei)tion) is the alisolute foundation of all cog- nitions ; that is to say, all cognitions are derived from perce[)li'jiis, and can be traced back to them. IV. TEACH IXTELLlfUni.Y. Tkacii inteHigil)ly, so that you are easily understood. This principle demands that the acquisition and reten- tion of the matter be made easy to the pupil. The teacher will be the more successful, the easier the pui)il finds the act of learning. Though all principli's of teaching should aim at this, a few maxims may l)e gathered iindei- this head. 1. Teach the elements thoroughly, for in X\\vm most of the difliculties are heaped up. Ki'mcmbt-r, all beginnings are didieult. 140 KhrCATIOXAL TOf'K'S OF TIIK DAY. 2. Proceed slowly ; teach little, hut he precise and exacting in your demands. Do not liurry unduly, and never foi-get to lead the child hack to the elements of knowledge, «o that all cognitions he organically con- nected with previously acquired knowledge. Niemeyer says : " Appear to lose time in order to gain it ; do not ■^ proceed to the next step unless you are confident that I the former has been reached." 3. Ideas should be illustrated by things and allu- sions to things lying within the mental horizon of the children. Comenius says, "A teacher is cruel who demands mental work of his pui)ils without previous explanation or drill resulting in the ability to do said work." 4. Keep within bounds m teaching. This is to be understood to mean, teach as little as possible for future oblivion. There are teachers who honestly stiive to teach all they know. Beginners fall into this error quite frequently. Goethe says, '' In der Beschrdnkuiig zeigt sich der Jfeister." (A master proves himself such under restraint.) 5. Separate the essentials from the non-essentials. Point at the former, and in reviewing lay stress upon them only. G. Arrange systematically — that is, logically and methodically — the matter of instruction in parts and steps, so that the pupil can proceed l)y degrees without making undue leaps or being kept back. 7. Proceed from the object to its symbol, fiom the idea to the word ; never vice versa. Do not speak SOME- rill SCI PLES AM) METHODS. 141 of tliiiius of uliicli tin- iiii[)il.s have no conception as yet. \'ain2lori(Mis talk in school is a ciiiiie. The hln^■lla, in <2:onoral, is the inodo of procediiie which follows certain rules ai)plie(l with the intention of gain- ing a, certain end ; or, " method is the wa^- of reaching a given end by a series of acts which tend to secure it." Ever}' practical performance may be conducted either irregularly, that is, arbitrarily and accidentally' ; or regularly, that is, methodically. In this sense we speak of a method of swimming, riding, painting, eat- ing, etc. Method of teaching is the mode of procedure in teaching which follows given rules. It is the way upon which the teacher leads his pupils in order to make them reach the ultimate aim of instruction. It is the answer to the question, "• How should the matter of instruction be arranged and treated, in order to be comprehended, digested, and assimilated easily and willingly by the pu|)il?" The answer to this question must of necessity differ as we refer to the (1) course, (2) form, (3) manner, or (4) moans of teaching. The course of teaching, frequently called method, is so far objective as it disregards the peculiar manner of the teacher, and may be applied to all teaching, since it has reference only to knowledge and accom- l)lishment, that is, the matter to l>e taught, not to the varying conilitious c^l" the person to be taught. The SOME PUINCII'LES AND METHODS. 143 course of toacliiuii. like the prescribed course of study, is soulless until interpreted and applied by a teacher who, by his form and mode of teaching, can animate it. The form of tedcliiitg has reference to the outer procedure; that is, the mode of conjeet-syn- thcsis. This necessitates the nse of imagination, in order to form the parts to something like a complete thing. Complete maps need to be analyzed ; outline maps reqnire synthesis. A ver}- i)opular method of his- torical instruction is that of object-synthesis, namely, a linking of facts which follow ehronologicall}'. Reading and arithmetic were originally taught by means of synthesis exclusively (by adding sounds to make words, and adding numbers to oljtain others). In reading, the so-called phonic, or sounding-method, proceeds synthetically ; the word-method, analytically. The best mode in this case will always be a combina- tion of the two ; that is, to analyze woids to obtain the material with which new words are made. The first year's work in arithmetic also should be analytic, as well as synthetic. Every new number should be obtained by synthesis, and then analyzed into its component parts and thus measured. (See Grul>e's procedure.) And thus I might go thi'ough the whole range of studies to show that the teacher can apply analysis and synthesis equally well. It will never do to exclude one, or even uudul}' favor the other. SUMMAliV OF METHODS OF TFACIIIXG. IXXEU PliOCEDl'liK, Oil THE MkTIIOI) OF TEACIIINfi WITH REFEnENCE Tl> I. -THE PUPILS. Tlie int'tliod iniiy be Itof/mativ, or comrnuniciUiti^, whoifby is or are taimht Or it may bo Genetic, that is, devcloi>ing, and then it is either the only , — " — > Ilia in priiicip/es. poiiiln. fnigments. ■a = = ^ Jiletnetttnry genetic Sorrntic' method. " = ?= •c - - o ~ V •< V ~ Z ' The Sooralic method is applied in the inner as well as in the outer procedure. See below. WITH REFERENCE TO THE MATTER OF INSTRUCTION. The method may proceed from the whole, Anali/tir Metho. — "Are you not convinced, then, that there must be a state of reward and punishment after death?" A. — "Ah, yes ! surely, I see now plainly, that the goodness and right- eousness of Goil, as governor of the world, necessarily reipiire it." Tlio followiiijj; oxaniple iiiay show that it caiiiiot Imt plcasf a child to lie tauj^iit in tiic way indicateil : — A boy, ten years of ajjje, once appiit-d to me, say- ing, '' I was told the earth was round as :i ball. 1G4 EDUCATIONAL TOI'ICS OF TlIK DAY. I tliiiik I ought to believe it, for it was our teacher who told us ; l^ut she said she was gAV. nursery. The young ehild's horizon is Ixnnided by the garden wall or the neighboring street. That of the child in \\\v primary school is ai)t to be bounded b^- the limits of the t(j\vn or city ; it is only in rare eases that the geographical horizon of a child extends beyond the Fig. 1. native city or town by the aid of imagination. The horizon of a thorough student of geography and astronomy is literally boundless. The course of study affords an illustration of this concentric growth of the mind, inasmuch as it arranges all studies concentrically. (vSee Fig. 1.) Here we notice, that what are object-lessons in the primary THE ART OF QUESTIONING. VM grades become ualural history, physiolog}', physics, ami chemistry iu the upper and hi;2;hest grades. Tlie exer- cises of the cliild in iiumher in the primary grade con- tain all the germs of the higher nuitiiematics, and the child who measures the area of a triangle or trapezium lays a good foundation fur the study of geometry or trigonometry. I need not further enumerate the stud- ies, or show how the mental horizon is widened in ever larger and larger circles. The foregoing illustration explains the matter fully. In justice to myself I will say that the arrangement of the branches of study given in this cut is not to be regarded as final, or even a correct copy of what may be found iu the different courses of stud}'. The latter vary in many instances. It is my object to merely show tiie principle underlying the course of study ; namely, ever}' well-arranged course of study pri-sup- poses mental growth in concentric circles. The yearly rings may differ iu width also. And after the reader has contemi)lated the illustra- tion sufficiently to see what it signifies, let him cast a glance at Fig. 2. This is to represent how erratically Nature executes the wonderful plans of the course of study. See how she causi's piotuberances and indentations. Notic-e iiow the child, in one 3'ear, rushes forward in one branch, and seems to make no headway in others. This cut is not to be interjjreted as representing the results of Nature's work in every case. It is merely a fair sample of Nature's work as it is when it leaves the 168 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE pAV. hands of the teacher after a twelve-years' course of school education. 'JMie liaruionious development of all the inborn faculties of mind, heart, and liody, is a beautiful and touchinu; phrase; but, I am sorry to sa}', nothing but a phrase. rig. 2.— "A" Possible Result. Nature offers man}^ examples of similar procedure. Look at the annual rings of a tree. The first few rings around the heart are almost mathematically correct ; but, as the tree grows thicker, protuberances and inden- tations are seen, often resulting from very insignificant causes. The bite of an insect, the bending of the trunk before the storm, a slight abrasure, and similar causes, may lead to an irregular grow'th. THE AUT OF ({UESTIONING. 109 Similar trifling causes may warp the uuntal cf)urse of a child, and make it irrcunlar. Tlic love or the hatred of a teacher may give lise to an enthusiasm or an indifference in tlie pursuit of a certain l)ranch of study, and at once we will see either great progress or retrogression in the branches be or she teaches. A few mild words of approbation or commendation ma}- prove a strong impetus, while a severe punishment or super- fluous praise ma}' cause the contrary. Lucky or un- lucky unforeseen circumstances may influence the even and harmonious concentric giowth of the child, and a very considerable bump or a hollow may be the result. We are much more children of chance than we are willing to admit. From the illustratif)ns it may also be seen that some branches of study stand in intimate relation to each other. It is common practice to divide the different branches into h'}ig>iisfic (such as pertain to language), mathematical (which, in the earliest stages of school- life are purely arithmetical), scientific branches (which in the earlier stages 'are ol)ject-lessons) , and accoynpli.sh- ments (such as writing, reading, drawing, singing, etc. ) . A REVIEW LESSON IX PSYCHOLOGY. Oru training class had a review lesson one day. of which I will give a summary, and will term it •" The First Eighteen Years of Life." The diagram (Fig. o) may serve as an illustration of the summary given. Intellectual life widens its horizon with cxcry succeeding year. This is indicated by the tliverging 170 EDUCATIONAL TOI'TCS OF TIIK DAY lines. Tlie pnnillel l)ars signify the years. The clonl)le lines in the diagram, which mark the boundaries between the dilTerent grades of school, are not indica- tive of any real marked difference in treatment of either subject or object of instruction, pupil, or matter of instruction, but are given to point out a difference which is one only in name. Eighteenth. Seventeenth. Sixteenth Fifteenth. Fourteenth. Thirteenth. Twelfth. Eleventh High Scliool Second. First year of life Early Childhood and Infancy. Fig. 3. The first period of life is that of infancy and early childhood. The next four years are those of the primary school ; the next four, those of the intermedi- ate, often called grammar school ; and the last four, of the high school or college. The dotted line, begin- ning in tlie first 3'ear, and running up in a curve, is to indicate a division between receptive and creative activit}^ THE Airr OF (jVEsTioyiNa. 171 Thus we find, that in the ciuliest i)eiiod of life the mind is roeei)tive to a greater degree, comparatively, than in an}' other i)eriod. It is the age of sensation. Sensations are caused by the outside world, formed into percepts, and these latter into concepts. Pcr- ci'i)ts and concepts are stored up, and tiius memory is created ; but few, if any, clear ideas are formed. A recent writer terms the two kinds of activity of the mind, sense-action and tliought-action. Well, very little thought-action occurs in this period ; but from the moment that the child enters school, the age of observation begins. Tlie child's senses are trained, and it observes objects systematically, — their color, form, number, size, etc. The mental activity here is both receptive and creative, though not in equal pro- portion. The child learns to analyze and synthesize. All teaching in this period is done by means of objects or illustrations. The next following period is the age of abstraction, in which receptive and creative activity of the mind are about equally divided. Symbols take the place of objects in teaching. The last stage of school life may be termed the age of reflection and generalization. Research in every direction is indulged in, and self-activity is stimulated. Comparatively few new things are learned in this period of life. Cognitions previously ac(piired are verified; knowledge is systematically arranged: gen- eralization ami di'Mnilion follow up the rt'siilts of research and indixidnal work. And if tlie .sludent 172 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. enters a university, lie goes even (lcei)er into tlie mysteries of knowledge ; Ijut it is not neeessaiy to follow him there. The space on the left side of the dotted line, in the cut, is to indicate the amount of recei)tive activity enoaged in (hning these years ; the space on the right, the amount of rellective or creative activity. It is not to be taken for granted that the life of ever}' child that i)asses through our schools resembles this sketch. No two, on the contrary, are alike. The diagram is merely to show, in lough outlines, the principle underlying the manner of teaching in the dif- ferent grades. This being a brief summary, it is not necessary to apologize for its sketchiness. SEE, DO, AND THEN TELL. My friend Principal C, of Cincinnati, and I, met one day in the train on the way home ; and since we always "talk shop" when we meet, we were soon deep in a professional conversation which was highly interesting to me. Principal C. is not given to cant and small-talk ; his conversation is invariably freighted with profound thought, and amusing as well as mstructive bits of experience of school-life. Said he on this occasion, " After reading all this interminable talk (pardon this incongruity) about methods, that now fills, if not the air, at least the spacious columns of our numerous professional jour- nals, I ask myself with wonder and astonishment. Is there any thing else in that, or any thing better, than THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 173 is my mode of procedure, wliieli ciiliiiiiiates in lliis short, pith}', but witlial eompieiieusive, rule : ' First see, then do, and then tell about it ' ? IJoil down all that the advocates of modern teachiui^ say aljout methods, and it will amount to nothing more than this: See, do, and tell." "Yes, friend C," said I, " undoul)tedly you arc right. Your rale is the gist and essence of many a sermon on the new education. As you and 1, and un(iuestioual)ly many others, understand it, it is a condi'nsed code, comprehensive iMiough, and sensilile enough, to satisfy any one who has caught the idea, that ecUication is not a result, but an action, the result of which is culture ; any one who knows that the human being is not outside but within nature, and therefore subject to the laws of natural growth. Ikit, sir, arc you aware that the laconic garment of your rule is the source of great danger? See how eaaily it is misconstrued." '•How so, friend K. ? how can it l)e misconstrued? I'll grant that it may 1)c misunderstood, but I duuljt that it will be purposely misconstrued." '• Well, I have a certain ichthyosaurus of a school- master in my mind (for whom you need not search veiy far), who would reply at once, if you pronounced your rule to him : ' That's exactly what 1 am doing. First, I make my puiiil sne the text in the book, that is, read it; then I make him do, by lenining it ccrbd- tiia et literatim j and lastly I make him /t//, that is, recite it.' See, honey? " 174 EDUCATIONAL TOl'lCS OF Till': DAY. " I dcclaro, you are a vcritaljle (idoocutns iliaboli, brotlici' K." " J tell 3'ou, fiieixl C, 3'ou may pronounce a new- law of i)edagogy, or formulate an old forgotten or disregarded law anew, one which is purposely trodden under foot for the better convenience of school- keepers, and the ichthyosauri and plesiosauri of our profession will prove to you, with an alacrity worthy of a better purpose, that it is ' exactly what they arc doing.' They will denounce you as an impostor, be- cause what you propose is ' nothing new.' " "Come now," said C, "I grant m}' pithy rule is not quite without its weak points. But I trust you do not interpret it wrongl}'. Let me hear how you would make this 'see, do, and then tell,' palatable to your teachers." " My interpretation, briefly stated, would l)e this : — "I. See. — All instruction in the common school should begin objectively ; it should first appeal to the senses, and not to the eye onh\ To use a homely illustration : We do not fully know an apple, until we have not only seen, but tasted, felt, smelled, and even heard it (fall or roll on the floor). Every branch of study has a substratum of sense-percepts, from which will result those nccessar}' primary' concepts and ideas which, in turn, will form the solid founda- tion of sound judguient or reasoning. As the mighty Pike's Peak is formed by the aid of imagination out of a modest elevation near home, viewed by the child thousands of miles away from the peak, so, out of the THE Airr OF QrEsTioxixa. 175 simple ordinances and enactments of a city council, the cliiltl will construe the law-making activity of the United States Congress. All the knowledge offered to the child is elementary. The very iinnie of the schools indicates as mnch : they are elementary schocjls. The school of life will widen the child's knowledge ; experience will bnild, npon the foundation laid in youth, a superstructure which will tower up as high as the foundation will permit. Make the first impres- sions deep, very deep, and they will be lasting ones. The text-book plesiosaurus is like unto the man who intends to make an impression in a wax cake, and who softly strikes it with a [)eacock-feather. He does not succeed with the first stroke; but patiently he repeats the stroke ten thousand times, and at last makes an impression visible to the naked eye. A sensible man a|)|)lies a sledge-hammer, and lo I with one stroke he makes a deep impression. A direct appeal to the senses will make a deep impression. Therefore real objects brought into the schoolroom are more servici-able tlian illustrations; where their presence in school is out of the question, sve may take the pupils out to them. AVhere all that is im- practicable, illustrations or oj:her imitative representa- tions will serve better than mere verbal explanations or definitions. Give the pupils opportunities for seeing, that is, |)erceiving, observing, investigating, handling ; let them not l)e satisfied with mere hear-say evidence as found in books, — and oh the wonderful impetus the child-inind receives ! 170 EDUCATIONAL TOI'ICH OF THE DAY. "II. Do. — Perception leads over to concepts and ideas. The memory, being the receptacle in which tiie mind collects these concepts and ideas, offers material to the mind's creative power, imagination. Elementary or primary ideas gained by actual use of the senses are like seeds which grow and incite to action. A child who lias seen tliat the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, by applying the angles of a pasteboard triangle to a straight line, is not likely to rest content after that. The demonstration has something so overpowering about it, that the pupil will try and demonstrate ocher geometrical problems iiT a similar way. The result of this keen observation will make him do, act, work. Vivid seeing is the root of knowledge; action, its increase and a[)plicalion. By doing such an example as f of 4 [I mean, showing it by means of an illustration like the one in the mar- gin], the child will gain knowledge of fractions, such as is not gained by mere 'figuring.' A pupil who thus learns is not a passive receptacle of book-wisdom. His knowledge is experience ; he is a conqueror, and proud of his possessions. Certaiul}', the seeing alone will not create knowledge, nor will the doing alone do it ; but both together will work miracles. And this leads me to the " III. Tell. — AVhen a child gains knowledge by keen observation and by skilful applicatiou, he is bound to :-■) rriE ART OF QUESTIONING. 177 tell all al)oiit it. Like Pallas from the head of Jupiter, so a tliought fonned in the mind wrestles for expres- sion. It is bound to be formulated. The proverb has it, ' Of what the heart is full, the lips will speak : ' and 30U nia^' as well substitute ' mind ' for ' heart ; ' the proverl) will hold good. However imperfect the child's language may be at first in the attem[)ts at giving expressions to indigenous tlioughts, the language im- proves wonderfuU}'. The mere repetition of something committed to memory from the printed page makes only thoughtless prattlers ; the more thoughtless, the more pretentious the words are that are committed." " I like your explanation," said friend C. ; " and it proves very forcibly how necessar}* is the vast amount of explanation and interpretation in the educational press. These journals are doing a noble work. We are only just beginning to learn the art of leaching. Let us thank our stars that we are i)ermitted to live to see it doue." A PROOF POSIT fVF. . "While doing institute work some time ago, I g.avc a lesson in psychology, showing that the assimilation of thought progressed more favoral)ly if new ideas were linked to previous cognitions, that is, cognitions previously actpiircd ; that there was dose afTinity between eertain items of knowledge and the mcMuory, while the latter showed a decided hostility to otlu-rs, which, in fine, it rejected as the stomach does cherry- stones. Naturally, I spoke less graphically than this, 178 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIK DAY. elaborated upon my theme in philosophic terms, and noticed painfully that ray words had little, if any, effect ; they certainly did not strike fire. I found no resi)onse in the eyes of ray audience, some of whom seemed slightl}' hored. I paused, laid down my note-book, and cast al)out for a remedy. And then I had an inspiration which I quickly resolved to act upon. I dropped my subject '' like a hot poker," as the funny fellow has it, and requested the audience to propose a few conundrums to me. Some moments passed in hesitation, and then, being urged a little by others, a young, sprightly teacher asked with a mischievous smile, '' Wliy is a young lad}- like a door-knob? " I knew the answer ; namely, '•'■ Because she is something to adore." This caused a ripple of laughter. I placed this question on the board. Another of my hearers, a rather wealth}' old lady, owner of several houses, who had been induced to be present at this afternoon's lecture, proposed this: "• What intimate relations exist between a tenant and his landlord? " — '•'' Parental relations." A veueralde gentleman proposed this: '' Why is a bald head like heaven ? " — '' Because there is no dyeing nor parting there." Here 1 closed the list, and now showed that it was a handsome yonvg man who remembered most readily a conundrum about a young lady ; the landlady's memory was least sluggij^h in things which related to her "pay-rental" relations; while the old gentleman THE ART OF QUESTJO.MXa. 1T'.» quickly rectillcMl a Cfjiuindiiiin which rctlcctcd 111)011 iiis billiard-ball skull. Are not these three facts illustra- tive of the psychological niaxiiu 1 hud stated, and which I tlien repeated? (See i)ejiinning of lliis arti- cle.) My audience hiughed heartily: they understood now what I had aimed at. When I took uf) my theme I was listened to with undivided attention, and the sparks of compreiiension visible in every eye were proofs positive of working minds which followed my train of thought. My lesson was a success tiiat day. CHAPTER VI. AEITHMETIO. CHAPTER VI. ARITHMETIC. HOW TO TEACH FRACTIONS. I START with tlic presumption, that the human mind grows in concentric circles, which, I admit, is nothing but a presumption ; for Dame Nature is much too erratic to permit a mathematically cor- rect expansion in every direction. Now, I claim an average of ninety degrees for n u m- bers, alias arithme- tic (this consider- al)le portion of the child's horizon is claimed for argu- ment's sake only: it varies with dilTerent children). And, witliin this one-fourtli of the nientnl horizon, J claim at least ten d(?grt!es for calculations involving fractional numbers. (See cut.) From this rather artificial exemplification we see th;d almost if not every part of arithmetic can, and ought to be, taught in the lowest gr:idc of school. is;; 184 EDUCATIONAL TOPIC fi OF THE DAY. We find that most young children know ono-half and ono-qnai'ter. And this knowledge has been gained cnipirically ; for instance, wiien mothers cut the pie at dinner. Where there are several children in a family, the younger ones learn the fundamental facts of frac- tions fiom the older children. This knowledge is not scientific, the child could not define the term "• fraction " as yet ; but it is clear enough for our purposes, which aim at a harmonious growth in ever}' direction. In the second year we introduce a few more frac- tions, such as ^, 1^, \. In the third year we use actual weights and measures, allow the pupil to handle them, and to " play store." These measures give us oppor- tunities of introducing such fractions as f , f , |, f , etc., and we are not slow in making use of them. And so we go on widening the scope in the succeeding circles. The regular instruction in the fundamental rules of fractions properly begins in the fifth year of school, while in most schools it does not begin till the sixth year (C grammar). In the grades in which fractions are taught, illustra- tions of various kinds should be applied. I know of no better means than colored paper cut in squares of about four inches. It costs but a trifle, if the paper is bought by the quantity and cut into shape by any book- binder or printer. For our purposes the squares would be greatly improved if certain lines dividing them into thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, eighths, etc., were mado hy perforatijig the paper. Thus the process of folding could be done much more rapidly and accurately. ARITHMETIC. 185 (a) KKDUCTIOX. TJoflncinfj to liiolicr and lower liTuis is done tluis : — ^ m/y./'', ; wTw 2 4 6 _8 10 3 — (>' — 9'— 1^'— IS* This illustration is so convincing tlitit it speaks for itself. An}' child will see the " true inwardness " and the mode of procedure in reduction of fractions, excei)t one who cannot sec through a barn-door even when it is wide open. (/>) ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. Adding and subtracting, and the necessary finding of a common denominator, is done in the good old- fashioned vvay, SHi[)plemented by such illustrations as the following : — 1. Example: Add § and ^. l:,.-'^ 2 — 4 . 4 I 5 — 9 — 1 1 3 — 15 ' IJT^C — H— ^2- 2. Example : .Subtract \ from 5. 5 _ 4 _ 1 H — 6* 180 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIK DAY. It is obvious, that I can show here only the bare outlines of mv mode of procedure ; but I covet an opi)ortuiiity to show it as extensively as I do it in the schoolroom. (c) MLLTIPLICATION. Here we have the following cases : — 3. Example : 3 x | = what? 3X^ = 1, or 21. This answer can be made \Qvy obvious by taking two of the three fourths of the third sheet, and completing the first two squares ; one fourth will be left over. 4. Example: 3x2|. This explains itself, being a repetition of 3 x |, plus 3x2. 5. Example : f of 2 is also easily illustrated, namely, thus : Fold the two sheets in halves, which gives four fourths of two, and take three of them. SI ■ ^ Or, fold each whole into four equal parts, wiiich gives eight fourths; then take three fourths of the first sheet, and three fourths of the second. Both give the same result. 6. Example : ^ of f is still easier, as it requires but one leaf. First fold it as it is seen in a, then as it is seen in b. % ''€ 1^ ^nlntinn • 3v4 — 12__£_ — 3. .■501UU0n . jX 5— 2^(7— 1^—5^. ATiVnniKTIC. 187 7. Exrinii)le : \ of 'l^ is pliiinh' seen in the follow- ing figure. Take three whole sheets, cut off one fourth of the thirtl. The arrow across the 2^ indicates l of 2|. '^^ mM«. wA mMmi, Solution 3 X 93 4 A -4 X 33 1 G 9 y. 8. Example : 3| X 2|, is a mere repetition of exer- cises similar to the preceding one, except that it takes more whole sheets to illustrate it. Solution : 3! x '>\ = ¥ X 5 = -W = 10. (d) DIVISION. All examples in division of fractions can be illus- trated by means of our pai)cr scpiares. Take these cases : — (1)1-2; (2) ^--2; (3) 2-i ; (4) 2-^1; (5) 2^ ^i; (6) 2^-J; (7) |-f. 9. Example: A-r-2 = ^. It is easily seen, that it is the same as taking | of |. ^ 10. P^xann)le : |-=-2=j^. What is done witli one-fourth in exami)le 9, is now done with threi'-fourths. 11. Example: 2-i-J[=8. It means how many times is ^ contained in 2 whok' ones? Ans. S times. 12. Example: 2-=-f- = 2|. It means ~^- —^ how many tunes are ^ contained in 2? Solution : 2 oiJ f^f . or 8^-3 = 2|. fT i 188 EDUCATIOXAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. % 13. Exnniplc : 2.V-^] = 10. It means bow man}' times is \ contained in 2^, or J, or Y*-? Ans. 10 times. 11. P^xample : 'l\-^\. It means :•-; how many times are | of 1 cou- j 1 taiued iu 2i, §, or lQ ? Ans. 3^ -J times. 15. Example: f-H|. This means how man}' times is f of a whole contained in | of a whole? (It does cot mean \'>f\-) Solve it thus. Divide each strip, that is, each fourth, into five equal pai-ts, and each fifth of the square into four equal parts ; this gives us |§ and \%. Now it is readily seen, that 4 is con- tained in I as many times as 12 is contained in 15, namely, 1^ times. Solution : 5_^3_3 ^X 15 12 li. The example f of f would he a different thing, as is seen from this ilhisti-ation. Solution • 3 3X4 9 20' The following illustration serves to make the last problem still clearer. Here we have three Ilp- strips across, or | of a '^y^A \ A ~^ H~H~H "^--^-^ — ^j^ whole ; then we have 3 vertical strips, or |. Tlie arrows in the third square crossuig eacli other mdicate \ of 3 = ^%. AEITHMETIC. 189 The render will please consider, that all the intrica- ^ cies of divt>iioii in fractions cannot l)e treated in a short ". .-iirt.icle like this. What I offer are only the elements. r^uils who thus base their knowledge on a lirni "i founckition of sense perception, and who are accus- tomed to solve problems in reality, not merely in ' figures, obtain a clear insight into fractional numbers, I and nevei"'find ditticulty in using fractions. My pu[)ils do not " learn " — that is, commit — any rules first, and ■ operate according to them afterward, but learn to do examples first. AVith them, rules are the results ob- tained from practice, by "seeing, doing, and then telling about it." HOW TO TEACH PERCENTAGE. In ray article on fractions^ I stated that the child's mental horizon grows in concentric circles, and that every department of knowledge and science can be, and virtually is, taught in the earliest childhood. Only, we must well understand that in this the child's action is a purely unconscious action : as, for in- stance, the child v»'ho learns the ideas one-half and one-fourth empirically, l^y seeing a pie cut; the child who learns familiar measures, as pint, quart, pound, ounce, yard, empirically, liy using them at houie, and when sent to the grocery on an errand ; the child who learns a little later tliat one-half is equal to five- tenths; the child who learns that he pays six cents for the loan of one dollar, and similar things, — lays the foundation of all the departments of higher 100 EDUCATIONAL TOPIC'S OF THE DAY. arithmetic quite early, without learning rules such as text-books prescribe. The axiom, that new cognitions should be linked to those previously gained, should be borne in mind when attempting to teach percentage. Decimal fiac- tions are taught by com[)aring them with vulgar or common fractions ; and Ihi; main point to be impressed is. that the denominators of vulgar fractions may be different, while that of decimal fractions is only ten, or a multiple of ten. The same relation which is found between decimals and common fractions exists between expressions couched in the terra " per cents." and others such as, "One is to five as twent3' is to one hundred," one lieing one-fifth of five, and twenty one-fifth of one hundred. In American schools all over the land, even where a more rational idea of grading pupils and their work has found an abiding place, the mode of marking on the scale of one hundred is not entii-ely gone out of vogue. While I denounce and condemn this mode unequivocall}', I would prudently make use of the knowledge which the mode conveys. Despite Super- intendent Marble's onslaught upon the maxim, " From the known to the unknown," I hold that it is better to build upon w-hat the pupils know. They know that when they miss two words out of ten, their work must be marked eight}^ The}' know that when they miss one out of twenty-five, they miss one twenty- fifth, or four-hundredths, and therefore their work is marked ninety-six. AUITIIMETIC. 101 The expression " per centum," of or from one hun- dred, is translated and explained. It is will to intro- duce the formal study of percentage with numerous questions in mental arithmetic : such as, — 1. Example: If you lose one out of five copper cents, what part of your money do you lose ? Answer, one-fifth. P2xpress it on the scale of one hundred, or how many hundredths is that? Answer, twenty. In order to make this still clearer, I would draw a line, divide it in five equal parts, and shade one part. Tlien I would divide the same line in a hundred ecjual parts, thus showing them tliat one-fifth is eipial to twenty hundredths or twenty percent, and that twenty percent is virtually the fractiini one-fifth, expressed in higher terms. "2. Example : One-quarter of a pie is what per cent of the pie? Draw a circle representing the pie. divide it into four equal parts. (Make the pie large enough on the board.) Then divide e;ich fourth into twenty-five ecjual parts, or the wliole pie into one hundred, thereby showing that one-fourth is equal to twenty-five hundredths, or twent3'-five per cent. 3. P^xample : Ask, if fifteen of .sixty sheep are bitten by a vicious dog, and killed, what part of the 192 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. flock is killed? Clearly, one-fourth. Now, what is onc-fourtli of one hundred? Answer, twenty-five. Then the fanner lost twenty-five out of one hundred, or twenty-five per cent. 4. Example : If T buy a v/atch at eighty dollars, and sell it for one hundred, what per cent do I gain? I clearly gain one-fourth of what I paid for it, but one- fourth of one hundred is twenty-five ; therefore, I gain twenty-five of one hundred, or twentj'-five per cent. These mental questions should be cpiite numerous. In order to facilitate this, I have resorted to the follow- ing very plain device, which speaks for itself. (The 100 circle is the stamlarJ of measurement.) A UJTIIMKTir. 193 T draw this fii)ared to assert, that, when children who are thus taught are promoted to higher grades, they will not regard arithmetic as a dnidgery, but as a delightful occupation. From the concrete idea of number, they are unconsciously led to (he abstract idea. And so every brancli of study, even the most 200 EDUCATIONAL TOl'KJS OF Till': DAY. iil)stni(;t liistoiy, has a solid stiatiini of concrete knowl- edge, gained, or to bo gained, by sense perception. But there is a wide difference between knowing a thing and applying it, between knowledge and skill. Knowledge resnlts from experience, and after it is gained it must be made easily availal)le ])y constant repetition, A child learns to comjrrehend the multi- l)lication-table by doiiuj (handling objects) ; but the memory must be charged with the table, so that it is ever ready for use. There can be no question that a child may learn the table by dry routine-repetition ; but how much more pleasant it is so to learn it, that be knows what he is saying and doing ! All the fundamental processes in arithmetic can be illustrated either by objects, or, when the numbers become too large, by sketches drawn on the board. I must not indulge in enumerating the many ways in Avhich this method may be carried out : space and time forbid. MISS CELESTE'S PENNFES. Miss Celeste jMourison, teacher in the Fourtii Ward School, Hamilton, showed us one day how she taught arithmetic to little ones. They could make all combinations possible with numbers up to seven ; that is, add, subtract, multiply, and divide. They could tell how many twos, threes, there are in six. Now she introduced the ntnnber seven. One was added to tlie six, and the combinations possible within the number seven were then treated. The point AUITIIMETW. 201 brought out was, that a reinaiiidcr was oV)tainecl more fie(iiiciitly than with any number below seven. The pupils worked with objects, — buttons strung on a wire, broom-corn stalks, niarl)les, pencils, and other things. IJiit the brightest feature of the lesson was this : She took a little box, in which she had a numltor of one-cent pieces, two-cent pieces, nickel three-cent pieces, nickel five-cent i)ieces ; and then followed a series of questions, the answeis of which had to l»e l^erformed, not only told. For instance : How many one-cent pieces will make seven? The child took seven one-cent pieces out of the box, and then said (always speaking in complete sentences), *•' Seven times one cent are seven cents." Question: "^ How many twos in seven?" The child ijicked up three two-cent pieces and a single cent, saying, "There are three twos in seven, and one over." Then thiee-cent pieces were used with wliich to meosnre seven. Theie being no four-cent i)ieces, two two-cent pieces had to serve in this case. Then u five-cent piece was ap[)lied in measining (dividing) seven. Tliis is but a little, insignificant device ; but to see the children busily engaged in this manner, seeing, doing, and then telling about it, is a i)leasure of no mean character. Much attention is bestowed, in the l)rimary grades of our schools, upon s[)eaking in coni- l)lete, well-rounded sentences ; that is, giving aii^wi'is which embrace the (jUestions. This [)ractice will inevitably terminate iu the habil of correct si)eech ami hxjical si)eech. CHAPTER AIL LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. CHAPTER VII. LITERATUEE AND LANaUAGE. THE POET SCHILLER. Oration delivered at the l'2oth birt/iday of Friedrich Schiller. Ladies and Gkntli:mi:n, — I wus culled upon to deliver the oration of the day in English, and I trust that it is unnecessar}- to excuse myself for speaking English in America. The founders of this beautiful edifice [Music Hall, in Hamilton, O.,] the meml)ers of this association, call themselves '' German-Ameri- cans," using the word " German " merely as an adjec- tive, and laying stress on the fact of their l)eiiig Americans: they do not call themselves " American- (Jermans." This remark, I rest assured, is sutlicient to explain the fact that tiie oration of the day is deliv- ered in the language of the country. Men who love the good and the beautiful, and li('l[) to further it, are worth}- of our respect. Men who are enabled by rare talents to accomplish extraordinary things, be this in the domain of art. or science, or inchistry, and who api)ly these natural gifts for the benefit of liumanity. tlicn-liy l»ecoming I)enofactors of their fellow-b(!ings, — such men have a claim upon our gratitude, and we are intMally obliged to show that we 20G EDUCATIONAL TOi'ICS OF TlIK DAY. csloem them and viilue tlieir merits. IMen, however, who, elevnted and supported hy their godlil\e genius, have, as it were, imprinted upon their people and their era their own signature ; have, with the omnipotence of their words, clianged the time and entire realm of thought of their nation, and have given to their century a nobler idea of life and its purposes ; men who speak from out of their graves with greater eloquence than our contemporaries, — such men are not merely es- teemed, they are admired, loved, worshijiped. We simply refuse to regard them dead. The birthday anniversary of such a man it is that we celebrate to-day. It is Friedrich Schiller, the favorite poet of sixty-five millions of German-speaking people. I must, for obvious reasons, refrain from narrating to you the events of Schiller's life. An^- history of literature will furnish you the desired data. It is my intention to detain you a few minutes by stating the powerful influence of Schiller upon his own and following generations. So-called wiseacres, who are in the habit of looking back into the past, lamenting the fact that the good, dear, old times are gone forever, are apt to assert with a whining tone that our generation is wanting in poetic feeling and comprehension. The very fact that eighty 3'ears after Schiller's death, his dramas are acted upon this stage, four thousand miles away from his l)irth- place, and his poems are studied in the schools of America, proves them to be wrong. The same people poutingly turn back to the traditions of classic LiTEUATrin-: axd LANavAaE. -iUT antiquit}', and find satisfaction in pointing out to us Scliillei's frequent references to niytliology. They forget that Schiller made use of classic forms merely to symbolically represent modern ideas. ^lodern pro- gressive thought has constantly to light with such lovers of the dead past. We ask. What is Hercules to us? Nothing l)ut a symbolic form for strength. What is Apollo to us? Do we see in him the Grecian god? No, nothing but a marvellously perfect and beautiful man. Representations of classic antiquity may be praised for their ideal beauty, and most of them typify thoughts. They have, with us, lost their quality as subjects; they have become attributes. We aie not called upon to believe in Grecian or Konian deities. We are supremely indifferent to them. And is not belief, is not faith, is not conviction, the very essence of every man's life? Shake a person's faith and convictions, and with them falls his whole life's purpose. AVe have every reason to distrust men who have no convictions, but only interests. The (iernuuis owe it among others to Schiller, that they are a nation with lofty ideals, firm convictions, intense faith, and strong belief. We modern people believe in man's eternal rights, in freedom of thought and action, in the harmonious development of the race, in the everlasting and unshak- able laws of nature, in the moral foundation of state and society, in social equality, and pure justice. Give us, ye sculptors, the defenders of ecpial rights in bron/e and marble. Erect monuments for the heroes who 208 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. fought for liheity of thought and action. Paint, yc artists, the statesmen who founded our modern states upon the basis of social equality and im[)artial justice. Exalt llie men who sacrificed tiuMnselves in wi'estling with Nature till she revealed her secrets. Let us praise and exalt the thinkers who found the causal iiexdn between Nature's mar\'ellous laws and man's varied actions. Sing, ye poets, of the spiritual heroes who gave to posterity- ideals of beauty and truth. These are the saints of modern times and the living generation. To these latter-day saints we look up in dark and gloomy times. From tliem we derive our strength to carry on the war against the spirits of dark- ness. And when scul[)tors, painters, poets, and authors glorify our real heroes, Schiller's form will stand among them as one of the greatest of the great. Looking back upon Schiller and his era, I cannot refrain from mentioning a curious fact, which will tell you more than a lecture of two hours' duration. It is this : — Maj- I ask : When did Shakspeare's wonderful genius ilhnninate the English world, of intelligence and poetr}'? It was when the wars between the red and white roses had terminated ; when, after the de- struction of the Spanish Armada, England had beco^me the ruler of the sea ; when, under the gentle but firm swa}^ of Queen Elizabeth, England had reached the summit of greatness and political development, — then it was that this marvellous poetic genius of England bloomed forth, a genius whose greatness it took the LITERATURE AXD LANGUAGE. 209 world almost three luiiidre'l 3-ears to coinprelu'iid. Again : When was it that Coraeille, Moliere, and Kaeine, Voltaire and Ronssean, charmed the world of thought with their classic productions, with [wetry and pliilos()i)hy ? It was when Louis XI\'. and Louis W . reigned over France ; when France was at its highest ; when the I'rench armies had i)een victorious on the Continent, and France had reached the pinnacle of glory. Again : When did the classic epoch of Spanish literature occur, or that of Italy? Again the same answer comes : It alwa\s followed a period of the greatest national glory. And now we ask : When did Schiller live? During the second half of the last centiuy, when the political life of (Jennany was huniljled into the dust, ()artly l)y foreign poweis, partly i)y the sellish individual interests of over three hundred home-sovereigns ; when all national life seemed petrified ; when Napo- leon I. rode lough-shod over all that was dear to the Germans, and ail that had remained of their political independence. Schiller lived and composed during the miduight-hour of German history. Compare these facts, verified by every — even the smallest — text-book of history, and then listen to tlu'SO conclusions. AVIiile in every other nation, the poets basked in the sunshine of the political greatness and splemlor of their nation, and glorided their coun- try's grand deeds, il fi'U to the lot of Sciiillcr to act as a prophet in Israel : to stir up the i)eople to deeds, to arouse the &leei)ing energy, to awaken anew the 210 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. crushed sense of i)atriotism, and spur to efforts npon all dorniiins of activity the kitent powers of tiie nation. This idea must be borne in mind when viewing Schiller, the prophet of the German nation, Goethe, in his funeral oration at Scliiller's tomb, said, "He lived as a man, and as a mature man he departed from us. In tliat form in which one leaves the eaith, he still lives and moves for us in the world of spirits. Achilles is, for us, still present as an ever- striving youth. That Schiller went away early, is for us also a gain. From his tomb there comes to us an impulse, strengthening us as with the breath of his own might, and awakening a most earnest longing to fulfil lovingly, and more and more, the work that he began. So, in all that he willed to do, and in all that he fulfilled, he shall live on forever, for his nation and for mankind." In this Olympic funeral oration, Goethe happily expressed the characteristic features of Schiller's influence, the very essence of Schiller, as we know him. I mean his everlasting 3'outh, which never loses the strength to beget grand deeds. What other effect can it have, than to infuse into the young generation enthusiasm of the purest kind, when they hear his hero say, — " The land is om's. it is our own creation! B3' our own labor, ay, by a thousand claims, The land is ours forever! Shall we bear it. That this the emissary of a foreign lord LITEUATUnE A.\1) LAMiVACE. 211 Shall here insult us on our own free soil ? Is there no help for us ? ^lust we, then, bear it ? No ! there's a limit to the tyrant's power. When men, oppressed, can find no aid on earth To rid them of their burden, then they rise ! The people rise ; they stretch their hands to heaven, And thence fetch down their old eternal rights. There shining in the heavens, unchangeable, Imperishable as the stars themselves. Then Nature's own primeval rule returns; Man stands in battle, ready for the foe. 'Tis our last means; but when others fail. We draw the sword I The best of all life's boons We will defend. In front of this our land, And of our wives and children, we will standi " Tlie poetic creations of \cv\ few select authors, possess this never-aging charm. They stand at the entrance of new ei)oc[is, and formulate with prophetic eyes the highest aims and i>ur[i»)ses fur centuries and centuries. These rare minds are the true heroes of mankind, because they arc its educators. Such a hero was .Schiller. One may assert without presumption, » says a CJerman authority, that never since Homer had arisen another poet who was so much of an educator of his people. To him, who had risen with such nni'xanipled energy from the most uniuly natuiali^ui to the most ideal artistic form, I say, lo him the younger generation in Ciermany, ever since the ap- j)earance of *• Wallensleiii," has looked up as to a being of higlirr. nobler kind. Departing, he left as a valuable iiiherilauce •' Wilhelm Tell," a iliama 212 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. which has proven of more thuii mere literary impor- tance. During the days of doom, when Napoleon's policy was aimed at the annihilation of Germany, and seemed to be destined to be crowned with success ; at a time when a patriot like Stein could not find a square foot of German soil to stand on ; at a time when a poet of great promise, a man of genius and heart, Heiniich von Kleist, preferred suicide to a life of national misery and unutterable humiliation ; at a time when Germans were obliged to fight against Germans like bands of gladiators, and feitilized the soil of all the countries, from the Tajo to the Volga, with their blood, — it was at this time of oppression, misery, and disgrace, that the Germans found consolation in '^Tell." Their patriotic feeling, their energy, their courage, their hatred of tj'ranuy, were kindh'd. and henceforth asserted themselves. For a person who has eyes to see, Schiller's name is found on every page of that proud history of war, which began at the Katzbach, and terminated at Waterloo. Even to-day, Schiller's words as found in "• Tell" are the catch- words in the great drama of life ; and wherever great deeds are done b}' Germans, 3'ou will find the secret motives happily expressed in words of Schiller. For, I repeat it, it is the power of youth, which, never dying, never loses the ability to engender deeds. Great as Schiller was in the dramatic art, he was equally great as a lyric poet. No German poet since Schiller has equalled his magnificent rhythm and rhet- LITER ArU RE AND LANGUAGE. 218 oric. The language lias l)een made sweeter, clearer, more flexible ; it has been forced to rellect tlie manner of many new minds : yet in the qualities I mentioned, rhythm and rhetoric, Schiller is still the climax of performance. The tenderest strains, the most beantiful harmonious verses, ever composed iu German, are Schiller's. A few metric translations may prove this : — " The minds of men, in a porpetnal strife, Kevolve from age to age, ami fiml no rest; While Nature, in unfailing youth and beauty, Obeys one everlasting law of duty. Upon her constant bosom, ever green, Beneath her sky of never-fading blue, Lived all the generations who have bcon, And still her children find her fresh and new. And the same sun, that o'er some Grecian hill Homer beheld, is shining on us still." And now. after having seen how lovingly his eye rests on mother Nature, listen to this description of the heavens. " ELYSIUM. " Gone is the wail and the torture ! Elysium's banquets of rapture Chase every shadow of woe ! Elysium seeing Endless the bliss and endless the being. As musical brooks through the meadows that flow. May is eternal. Over the vernal landscape of youth: The hours i)ring Koldcii dreams in their races, The soul is expanded through infinite spaces. 214 EIJUCATIOXAL TOPICS OF THE DAV. The voil is torn from tlie visage of Truth. Here, never a morrow The heart's full rapture can hlight; Even a name is wanting to sorrow, And pain is only a gentler delight." Can any thing l^e more beautiful than this descrip- tion of the heavens, where " even a name is wanting to sorrow, and pain is only a gentler delight " ? The real value and the innnense circumference of Schiller's genius cannot be fully understood until we approach it with mature mind. The man, who, ripe in mind and judgment, returns to Scliiller's works, will soon admire and love him. All his lofty words, which sound and re-echo in our ears like sweet remem- brances of youth, assume shape and form, and grow in importance. Schiller not only proposed the educa- tion of his people to idealism, but he actually began it by his poetic creations. He gave his nation, he gave to humanity, a loftier ideal of l)eaut3', greatness, truth, and justice. When Goethe said with pride, "He was ours," we* are justified in saying, " He still is ours." Ma}- our German-American youth stud}' Schiller, and may the sublime ideas of this wonderful poet find their way into their imaginations and their hearts, and there create that hmging for purity in thought and action, which alone will lift them to a higher level of existence. It will not make the young generation any less American than it is ; for beauty, truth, and virtue are not national, but belong to mankind and the whole world. And old men, covered with the mimic snow LITERATUUE AND LAXGUAGE. 215 of age, may t\\oy again turn to tlio dusty vohimos of Schiller's works, ami read of his propluries and far- reaching truisms, and they will (ind consolation for the rest of their lives. It is not the dead that speaks to us: it is the immortal spirit of Germany's greatest poet. And as we are here assembled to commemorate the event of his birth, let us resolve to keep his mem- ory alive, and refuse to regard him dead. A PERTINENT QUESTION. AN ADDRESS. Why is it that native Americans, as well as English- men, tiud it so extremely ditficult to acquire another language? I do not mean, learning to handle a few words or phrases, such as, " Je ne le sais pas," "Bon jour," " Ausgespielt," " Wie geht's?" or " Nix kumm 'raus," and the like, iuit n-ally accpiire thorough knowledge of another language, body and soul, idiom and all, and use it conveniently in rapid conversation. Why is it? Some have said, the tendency to "show and glittering results" prevents the American people from employing the necessary hard labor and study which are requisites of linguistic study. But I do not believe this ; for in other direc- tions the mixture of the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman races shows a zeal and perseverance that far out- shine those of other nations. Why is it, on the other hand, that the Russians, in fact all Slavic races, of whom wv know that they 216 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. lack the culture, refinement, and liigh degree of intelligence, which adorn the Germanic and Romanic races, — why is it that they, of all European nations, learn other idioms most easily, nay, with fabulous ease and accuracy? Why is it, that the Germans, second in rank, have such a prominent linguistic talent? There have been scores of answers to this question, one even more absurd than the other. I will not repeat them. The answer I wish to give, I believe, comes nearer the truth than most others that I have heard. It was suggested to me by a gentleman who is in the enviable possession of seven languages, all of which he speaks with ease and accuracy. It is this : — Every one whose mother tongue is difficult to learn and to use, on account of its wealth of forms, that is. of different forms of inflection, and for other reasons, will necessaril}' acquire a linguistic training in earlj' youth, which will enable him to grasp other idioms without great efforts. Let us briefly consider a few points : pronunciation, syntax, and inflection. Slavic languages have sounds, and combinations of sounds, that make Englishmen and native Americans fairly quiver when hearing them pronounced. If the latter be called upon to repeat a Russian, Bohemian, or Magyaric sentence, he simply calls it an outrage to his smooth and well-polished PLnglish tongue. I have particular reference to the consonants of these lau2:uasj;es. LITERATURE AND LANGVACIE. 217 We find it imtuial tluit pi-ople like the Russians find little dinieulty in pi-Diiouneinsj; the eoniparalively eiisy consonants of the English langnuge, — save the slipi)cry tli^ which is too much even for a Kussian. On the other hand, the Russians lind it dillieult to pronounce the English vowels. For English is very rich in vowels. Where other languages have but one a, and only varying it in length, — a/i, and o, — the English language has as many as seveu, and so on with the remainder. How much inHuence this fact has upon an American in learning (Jerraan, you can observe by the pronunciation of a word like '* dcDike." By some mysterious process, it becomes "donkey." As we know of i)eople who are color-blind, I think there must be people who are deaf to certain sounds. Take the eas>' English syntax. Why, you may begin a sentence in English, and hardly know how to construct it to give full expression to your thought; you may be sure you will reach the end conveniently, without being obliged to repeat parts of it. This is chiefly due to the most excellent rule : Place the verb as near the subject as you can, — a rule of which almost the ojjposite is true in German. Here is an exanipK'. .While in English you say, '' ]Mis. Hall would be pleased to see Mr. York at her residence to-morrow afternoon, if possible, immediately after services," this would have to be rendered in (Tcrinan construction: *' Mrs. Hall would be pleased 'Sir. York to-morrow afternoon at her residence, iC i)ossible, after 218 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAW services, to see." And this is not a very complex cxaiii[)le. You will easily see, how much more complicated the arrangement of the members of a sentence must be in consequence of this requirement : In case a compound tense is used, the participle or infinitive must come last in the sentence. It necessitates, that the speaker must think the whole sentence over, before he begins it ; or that, if he begins it before it is completely developed in his mind, he must bear in mind the detached part of his verb, and utter it when its time comes. In Eng- lish 30U may well afford to begin expressing your sentence before you have fully developed it. It is like putting up a frame building : first put up your joists and scantling, then clapboards, siding, sills, etc. First put up subject and predicate, the maiu element of a sentence, and then attach as man^- phrases and clauses for ornament's sake as you like. This makes speaking easy, and this, too, is one rea- son why England and America have so manj' world- renowned orators. Now, it has been alleged, that what is said in such a convenient language could not be so profound as that which had to struggle hard to come to light. We find this to be untrue if we consider the well-known fact, that one of the few creative geniuses of the world, perhaps the greatest of all, Shakspeare, spoke no other language than his exquisite, homespun English. But the convenience the English language affords will unquestionably be the reason of its spreading over LITEUATVRE AXD LAXGUAGE. 219 moi'e and more ground, and in some future time be- coming the language of the glc^be. For, the very qualities which the i)hilologist of to-day may consider defects, will prove to be advantages over all other languages. If English could only be freed of its outragcons ortiiograpliy, almost every thing else in English is easy ; and this very fact proves my argument to be correct. For the German, even if he be a thorough scholar, will find English spelling a stumbling-block. The English- man and native American, on the other hand, will ever find Gei man spelling of trifling difficulty ; for the Ger- mans write, with a few insignificant exceptions, what they pronounce. German is very nearly a phonic language. The most important branch of German grammar, however, is not pronunciation, uor is it orthography, nor even syntax. It is etymology, or, as I will term it here, inflection. This is really the stumbling-block, not onh' of non-Germau-si)eaking students, but even of the Germans themselves. While there are in thou- sands of nouns in German four distinct cases, expressed by a shading of the word in each particular case, there are no cases at all in English nouns, for the posses- sive s is cunningly separated from the word b}- an apostrophe. You say, '• the man, of the man, to the man, and the man," — it remains man^ in whatever case 3'ou may use it ; while in German it is " dcr Munn^ des Mannes, dem Manne^ den Mmm, die Miinner, dtr Manner, den Miiioieni, die Miinner." 220 EBUCATJONAL TOPICS. OF THE DAY. Fiiillicniioic, ill Clennan not oiil\- nouns aro (leolincd, but luljectivc's, every unaginal)le kind of pitMioiiiis, articles, nay even some numerals. In English all these things are more or less omitted. Did you ever think how dilfieult it would be, if in Englisli yon had to var}' the forms of the adjective before the noun? I could easily imagine 3'oui' disgust if you had to do it. Let us tr}" it. You have to drink cohlcH tuater, to bathe in coldem, 7vater, to admire the fresh- ness of colden toaters, and admit tliat coldes ivater is the best beverage. Or, su})posc yon were obliged, in speaking English, to decline all the pronominal adjectives. You would have to have as many forms of the possessive pro- nouns as the Germans, namely, thirty-two, where now you have eight. Or, think for a moment of the class which the chapter of gender affords the observing eye ; a chapter which is the most unruly you can think of. Thank your stars that you have nothing to compare with it ! Or, please, imagine for a moment, j'ou were to follow up the German conjugation to its fullest extent. Sup- pose that 3'ou would have to say, in conjugating " may," for instance, "• I ma}', I might, I have might, I had might, I shall may, I shall have might." And now the subjunctive: '' I maye, I mighte, 1 may have might, I might have might, I shall maye, I shall have might." This, of course, is all conjecture. Don't you think j'ou have every reason to be thankful for not being obliged to do so? German etymology LlTEUATniE ANT) LANGUAO'K. 221 filonc is enough to fiigliteii tlu' adult stutU'iit rioin stiidying it. AVhctlier it is pivfoiTil)](' to liavo so inaiiy differont forms for one word, wlictlier tliis will promote think- ing, I will leave out of consideration here. liiit it is a fact, that a great deal of talent, skill, study, and exercise is needed to master all these ni;iiiy liillicnlties. The child whose inother-tongiie is so diliicult, as I have stated, trains its mental faculties, or rather, its linguis- tic faculties, by trying to master these dilliculties. I ain inclined to think that this struggling with the language is heli)ing the mind in its develoiiment won- deifnll^-. ])ut this assistance is denied the F^nglish- speaking child. It grows u[), stringing its words together like beads, or rather, building its sentences of unhewn stones, which (»]uccr enough) always fit; Avhih' the (icrman-speaking cliild is obliged to hew and fit the blocks before using them. It is unquestionable, that linguistic talent is not developed where it is not exercised. We neeil not go to Darwin to hear that a talent, once strongly exjjressed in a minority of the race, seems to grow, till in the course of several centuries it becomes at last a striking feature of the nation. Nay, in our own families we can remember incidents that bear witness to the truth of this natural law. In short, whoever has a diliicult. finely organizi'd mollu'r-tongnc. and has Ix-eii su<-cessrul in masti'ring il (I mean to ,sa>' this in Il.alics : vJni Ikis hi-rn sncn'ss- f(d ill viasteri)i(j il), will lind, it costs him almost no 222 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. effort to learn another idiom, and even two or three ; and wherever tlie mother-tongue fhitly denies early linguistic training, there the learning of another idi<;m is (especially in later years) a task beyond the strength of the one who undertakes to perform it. Do you know of a grown person who learned a second lan- guage after his twenty-fifth year of age? He may have learned a little of it, but he certainly did not master it. It is not my intention to annoy the reader with many conclusions that may be drawn from these statements, — only one. If children of English-speaking parents (I do not say American parents, for that term covers many more) are to study German, let them begin when young. I might stop here, but it occurred to me, 3'ou might probably ask. If the Germans are reall}' so much of a linguistic people, why is it that so many Germans in this countr}' will, for instance, ask you to take a seat on the fire ; or tell you it is five minutes behind twelve o'clock; or assert that one thing is quite "extinct" from another ; or pronounce the smooth and beautiful sound th as harsh as a tt ? There are two answers to this query: (1) They began too late, after the organs of speech had lost their pliabilit}^ after the mind had developed so many other talents, that the linguistic germ had been stifled ; after their memory had grown strong in retaining other matters, and had become unfit for retaining linguistic matter. (2) They are not successful in learning Eng- LITERATrUE AM) LAXaUAGE. 22o lish, because they never intistcred tljeir own (German) language. I have tried to demonstrate how enormous the number of dilliculties is, that are to be surmounted. They come with no other instruction tlian tlial which a village or country school can afford them, and besides speak their simple and uninttected dialect, instead of the linely organized High German (jf tlie educated classes of society. The German who never mastered his own language fully, of course, must be left out of consideration. GERMAN lY THE SCHOOLS. Ix many places in the West, German is taught in thL' lower schools. Being called upon to express n)y opinion on the question why that s^hould be done, I answered as follows : — I cannot refrain from alluding to an oltjection which is often laised to the introduction of German in the public schools. It is said, that this is America ; that the national language is the P^nglish language, and that it should be the language of the whole people; that the duty of the German people is to learn the English language, etc. These assertions are not men- tioned here that they may be controverted. No one thinks of denying them. Still we cannot say of the people of America as yet, that it is a homogeneous natit)u. One of tlie greatest American writers says, " Tlie American composite character betrays its mixed origin ; every thing American is a fusion of distant and antagonistic elements. The language is mixed ; 224 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. the cnrreiits of thought are as cosraopolitic as are the elements of its people." However, that need not concern ns. We grant that the English langnage shonld be, if it is not as yet,, the national language. But because it is the social and political dut}- that immigrants should learn this lan- guage as soon as possible after their arrival on the shores of America, because it should be taught to the children as the language of their country, seems to be no reason why the attention of our schools should be confined exclusively to it. There is an education, development of mind, and discipline of the intellect, in the study of a foreign language, which we ought to covet for our children, if it can be had by any justifiable means. "Among the modern languages," says Dr. Rickoflf, "there is no other one that can be studied with so great a profit b}^ the English-speaking child. German would be chosen by the philologist as shedding most light on the formation, force, and use of our own, the English. It would be chosen b}' the scientist as con- taining the richest treasures accumulated by the study and research of man. Furthermore, it is immediatelj' available in the business intercourse of large masses of people, in the social intercourse of the German people among themselves, and between German par- ents and their cliildieu. Finall}', inasmuch as the German people are to be found at the great centres of population in vast numbers, and inasmuch as then- number is destined to increase infinitely, and inas- LITEUATVUE AM) J.ANnVACE. 225 much as their chiUhvn will learn the langunue of their mothers besides the English, we have l)ut to peifect their knowledge of German in the i)iil)lie schools, to keep open a broad and deep ciianncl through which the literature, the science, t!)e art, of a people who know no superiors in any line of intellectual develop- ment, mechanical skill, or aesthetic culture, ma}' be turned to account for the benefit of our national pros- perity and culture." Now, we well know that in the crucible it is invari- ably tlie precious metal which takes longest to dissolve. We find on the lists of criminals, and other scum of society, a number of German names. If we inquire into these cases, we find, as I did in the police-courts and jails of Cincinnati and Cleveland, that such per- sons are the children of German parents who gave up their language, regarding it rather as an obstacle, and neglecting to teach it to their children. They have proven base metal in the coniixjsition. These parents, who could barely make themselves understood in Eng- lish, threw away a priceless treasure, were ridieided by theii' wurlhiess children for the poor English they spoke, hence lost hold upon theii' children's budding- characters, and soon found their control gone. And, on the other hand, look upon the astonishing prosper- ity of German families in which tlie (!erman language is kept alive like a holy (ire ; si'e what wi'll-behaved children they raise, and notice the unmistakable inlln- ence of the motiier-tongue as an cdueatioiial factor. If for no other leason, German slionld l)e temporarily 226 EDUCATIONAL TOPIC fi OF Till': DAY. koi)t up for tluit iilono. The English language does not suffer under it. The children breathe it with the air ; moreover, the study of the German assists the children in acquiring a thorough knowledge of the English. Of course there will be u time when German immi- gration ceases, and the present generation vanishes; and then German may be found unnecessary as a medium of culture and education. There can be no doubt, that, in the " battle for existence " between the two languages, English will survive as the " fittest," being the easier of the two. But, however strong or weak other arguments may be in favor of German in the public schools, there is one which should put the question definitely at rest. It is, that, b}' the introduction of German into the public schools, the children of German parentage are drawn into them, and they learn to speak the P^nglish language correctly and purely : and, growing up with the children of English-speaking parentage, they be- come one with them in patriotic devotion to American institutions. This is an argument which I wish to emphasize particularly. Private schools of all descrip- tions, in which the English language, and American history, and patriotism naturall}' take back seats, would flourish if we iiad not wisely drawn the German school population into our public schools, — "'the crucible within which all nationalities are fused into one homo- geneous naliouality, — the American." German in the public schools does not tend so much to Germanize America as it does to Americanize the Germans. LlTKUATinE AM) LASGUAGE. 227 Ilaviug clearly stateil wliiit the ohji^ct i.s. it is an easy matter to answer the ((uery, to what extent the German langnage should be taught. There should be no sham of any kind in the schools. Whatever is done in school should be done well or not at all. Wi- should teach German as thoroughly and comiiletely as any other branch of study. But our schools are, and needs must be, •' elementary schools." The very name of our schools gives au indicatiou of what is done in them. We do not try to make our pupils master any branch of study ; that would be a presumi»tion : but we intend t(^ thonnigiily ae(|uaint them with the ele- ments and rudiments, and to train them in the leady application of these elements. One more point, and then I will close. Figures show that the pupils studying German are not only not retarded in their English studies, but that a larger proportion pass the examination for promotion than of those who study English only. These statistics were compiled by non-German gentlemen, supervisors and superintendents of schools in Ohio and other Western States, and will bt- finnished if desired. The sul)ject of "German in the public scliools " has an interesting feature if viewed from a business stand- point. If Gijrman were abandoned to-day below tin- high school, we should not save a dollar to the com- munity, because our so-called German-English teachers are not superuumerarii, but regular class-teachers, wiio devote, at an axeragc, no more than one-tiiird of iheir time to German in each class. The remaining two- 228 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DA V. thirds are given to the English stiulies. Now, if (iei- inan below the high school costs nothing in money, and only ubont forty-five to sixty or ninety minutes a (hiy in time, there seems to be no reason for objec- tion whatever. THE VALUE OF GRAMMAR. It is perhaps well to worry our pupils as little with grammar as possible, and, instead, give them more instruction in language. It is ray idea, and I am hai)pv to say not mine alone, that a child should first k'arn to think in. a language, before it is obliged to think about the language, that is, about its construc- tion. But dispensing with grammar altogether is pouring out the child together with the bath. For grammar is the logic of the elementary school; that is to say, what logic is to the higher and highest schools, that grammar is to our elementary schools. It offers opportunity for defining, classifying, and distinguishing, which will train the child in correct thought. To make a correct statement, is by no means so easy a thing to the average man or woman as seems desirable ; and a little grammar will assist in learning to do that. But I mean a little, a very little grammar, will suffice. Grammarians are apt to enhance the importance of this branch of study by claiming that the leading object of the stud}- of English grammar is to teach the correct use of the English language. This is wrong. Prof. Whitney of Yale College, the greatest linguist of America to-day, pronounces it *' an LTTEHATri.'I-: A XI) T.AXaUACE. 2-2!t error, one whit-li is uindiially becomiiifi roiii()Vi'j,\\- ing way to the soiiiidL'r opinion that griunnuir is the rertective study of language, for a variety of purposes, of which correctness in writing is only one ani , and scores of other words, offer the same dilliculty. 230 EDUCAriONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Some words like intimidation are more easily learned and understood. This wcjrd " intimidation " is traced baeiv to intimidate, lirst, ;inil that again is traced back to timid. There tlie child has a root to go to, a fountain-head, so to s^jcak. But how few are the words of Latin, Greek, and French origin, that can thus be traced back ! How many, many applications are necessary before the child can comprehend the word humaniti/ or humanitarianifun ! If the word had consistently grown out from the Anglo-Saxon words man and friend, and had been built up somewhat in this shai)e, '•'• men-friendliness " (the very translation of humanit}'), even very young children could understand it instantly. This jumping from one compartment of the language to another retards the progress the child makes, or ought to make ; because the compartments are connected by no apertures, except such through which learned linguists can creep, who will trace back Latin, French. German, and English, to Sanscrit and more ancient Ar3-an languages. The child learns the word dog, and has a very clear idea as to its meaning. However, if it is to express any thing as dog-like, or pertaining to dogs, it must reach into the Latin compartment of the English lan- guage, and there find canine. And so I could go on ad infinitum, all through Webster or Worcester, much to the disgust and enlightenment of teachers ; but I should be obliged to write a book on language alone, and I have done tliat too often not to know the penalty connected therewith. LITER ATI' RE A\J) LANGUAGE. 231 "A little Latin, however, is a fine tiling;" and a little can be learned by any'iody, young or old, suf- ficient to make liini understand the English language bettei-. Tlius, for instance, I should suggest to teach the meaning of Latin prefixes, such as a/j, ad, con, dc, dis, ex, in, inter, pre, ^^ro, re, aub^ trans. They may be treated as is done in our schools and in Cincinnati. The following examples are taken from a pani[)lilet prepared by the teachers of the intermediate scIkjoIs of Cincinnati four years ago. Ah. Signifies /ro/« or nway. AhAnct, to lead /roHJ. Abstain, to keep/i-o»i. ^/>.stract,i to draw /row. divert, to turuy'ry»t. ^6ject, absolve, absorb. Signifies to. '^''^• yl'tract, to draw/com. Dt'Uiiu, to h'j\ni. Df-jected, Jrfer, Jflude, <7enonni"p, Jpoapitate, drcvy. • Abs. —Tile form of a priilix is often changed so that its fiiinl soniid may nnirc i-asily with tin; root. Tbns ah becomi's nhx in f'/i.-ctnift and rtb.-itaiii; ((in r/vnni-c; and nc in <(ccord. 232 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF T/IE DAY. Din. Signifies to take away, from, off, or out ; not ; asunder. D/shonest, not iionest. JJ/.scover, to take tjie cover off. D'lHAvm, to take aioaij arms. iJf.stract,. to draw asunder, jDisconl, d/.spel, (Zf.scouragc, (V/.sloyal. Ex. Signifies out, out of. Ex\iob Ingersolls. They are regarded as despoilers, who teiir down without building up again. They an- elas?,e(l with the nihilists who be- lieve in XiiwiuiM. ]Many a small soul trembles as Ins old-fasliione(.l lieloved spelling is attaiked. In his 240 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. anguish lie peevishly ciies out, '' Noli tarhard circulos meos," without l)eiiig any thing like Archimedes in depth of thijught, in extent of vision, in sincerity of purpose, or fertility of ingenuity. A li'^t of words without meaning to the child, isolated words without connection in thought-bearing sentences, are like pebbles in the stomach. You may sugar-coat pebbles till they are almost too thick to swallow, but that does not make them digestible. They will merely weaken the SN'stem. Do not sa}', fair readers, "■ Here is another specimen of a live nihilist," for I mean to suggest something in place of the spelling lesson of "• 3'e olden time." Hitherto we were in the habit of dictating words from the spelling-book which the pupils had been told "to study." I need not explain how utterly futile this stud^Mug of often incomprehensible, always incongru- ous, and therefore indigestible words, is. The pui)ils may succeed, for the time being, to spell, that is, to split them ; but they cannot correctly build them up again, write, and properly apply them. It may be and it is argued, '• Our fathers learned to write correctly by being thus taught : why should not we?" In the first place, they did not learn to write correctly beaiuse they spelled orally, but rlpspitc their spelling orally all thi'ough the speller from back to back. All who did learn to write correctly did so because they read much, and noticed the phj'siognomy of the words ; and, when writing, used dictionaries and other books of reference. In the second place. LITEIiATUllE AXD LANGUAGE. 241 if only that is right and worthy of imitation wliich our fatliers and forcfatlicis did, then we deny the justice of progress of any kind. So, then, let tiu' forefathers rest i)eacefidly in their graves, and remember the poet's word : "■ Xur das Lebende hut liccht." There is something so ridiculous in the old-fash- ioned spelling exercises, that I cannot refrain from applying a homely simile which will thiow light upou the procedure, and reveal its true inwardness. A simple-minded fellow enters the studio of a portrait- painter, and says, " Sir, I want you to paint my grandmother." — "With pleasure," replies the arti.st. "Bring her here; we must have several sittings to complete the picture." — "• Well, luit she's been dead these eighteen years ; if she were alive I shouliln't need her picture." Is it necessary to state that teachers often require words to be written with which the pujiils arc not familiar? Is that any thing else than asking the artist to paint a dead grandmother? But it is said some artists arc al)le to paint a face they have seen l)nt once. Tru? ; an;l so certain childicn remember the physiognomy of words, and reproduce them afti'r one glance. But cx:cei)tions are not the mil'. 'Words (as well as faces) are better remem- bered if they are leai'ued in proper surroundings. Wlien we are brought faci' to face to a [lerson who claims to have l)een introduced to us before, we ask, '•• Ulicrc was it I saw you?" Now, my suggestion is this: A* reading lesson in the primary grades contains a certain iiiiinber of new 242 EDUCAriONAL TOrKS OF TIIK DAY. woi'ds, with which it is the intcMition to familiarize the pupils. After the lesson is read, the teaclier ina}' single out the sentences in which these words occur, and have these sentences copied verUatira. If the words are strewed all over the reading lesson, so that copying the whole lesson would consume too much time, the teacher may embrace the new words in a few short, neat sentences, write them on the board, and have them copied from there. Now she may call upon the class to underscore the new words on the slates, as she does on the board. When that is done, she may ask the pupils to moisten the tip of the fore- finger, and erase the first word underscored, leaving the remainder of the text intact. It is done. She now asks, '"What word did we erase?" "How was it spelled?" "Insert the word again." This is done with every new word of the lesson. Sometimes it is found desirable to treat a word thus repeatedly. Tliis is teaching orthography in the primary grades; it is not the thoughtless testing in vogue nearly every- where in this countr}'. a procedure which seems to aim at a plentiful crop of mistakes. One of my teachers to whom I had recommended this manner of practising orthography said, "Well, but tliey get a hundred per cent every day." She meant to say, " Well, but now the pupils do not make mistakes any more." God be thanked, they don't: that is exact!}' what we should aim at. Supjiose that we were to grade the pupils dail}' in cleanliness : would we drag them through the gutter first, and LITEllA TUJiE A ND LA NO UA HE 243 then wonder why tho\' arc not clean ? One ounce of prevention is l)etter than a pound <;f cure. Let tiic {)upils only write correct physiognomies of words, and their memory will not retain an\- wrong ones. Do iKjt permit any mistake to Ix; made. Go through the aisles, while the pupils are at work, and correct, that is to sa}', "make right" what is found wrong. By thus vigilantly weeding out error, you will develop in the pupils an orthographical conscience, so sensitive that it will revolt against error as a moral conscience will against crime. Of course this advice is offered to primar}- teachei-s ; in higher grades, other modes of teaching orthogra[)hy may prove more successful. GARMENT AND SUBSTANCE OF TIIOUGHT. Why is it, that the eight years' course of an American common scIkxjI yields far less fiiiit than a course of six or seven years in a (Jerman Volkn-schnlef "Why is it, that pupils in the Cincinnati, Clevelnnd, Columbus, and Hamilton schools, who have daily lessons in German beside their other English studies, are no whit behind their schoolmates who aim at a common English education only? It is no enigma to any one who comprehends the peculiar difTicnlties the English language affords. Heading and spelling Eng- lish are very difficult to learn. After the fust year, there are liteially nc more difficulties in the mechani- cal part of reading for a child in Germany. lint think of the enormous amount of time and energy 244 EDUCATION A L TOPICS OF THE DAY. the English and American child has to expend in trying to master the; mere (jarment of the thoKfjJits nf others. He finds little time and energy left for the substance of thought. The German language offers no obstacles in ortliography, such as are found in English. The latter is full of i)itfalls. Look at any of the numerous courses of study, for primaiy and intermediate grades. There we find reading, spelling, writing, grammar, and composition ; all these have reference to the garment and the forms of thought. Then we find geography, arithmetic, and a small pellet of home history ; these, in a measure, offer substance of, or material for, thought. When any one suggests that natural history, physics, physiology, and general history be inserted in the curriculum (all of which, by the way, are taught in the intermediate grades of German schools, only to a limited extent, of course), wise-acres raise the cry of over-pressure, and justly so perhaps. Are our children and chil- dren's children forever condemned to suffer from the iniquities of English orthography? Must they lose or waste precious years in early 3'outh, in learning to wield the unruly instrument of English spelling? Think of the time and energy which might be saved if we wrote as toe pronounced, no more and no less. The recording angel must shed a silent tear of nn- speakable misery, when he is obliged to record in English , but then it is reasonable to presume that he, at least, writes phonetically, — a presumption which needs no Andover theology to uphold it. LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 245 il//.S\S' LOTTIE'S Til HE E BOYS. Miss Lottik Piiili.ip.s, teacher in the Fifth Ward School, Hamilton, the other d:iy gave a model lesson in reading, Ijefc^re the teachers of Hamilton, and astonished thorn all \)\ her skill in ai)i)lying sonnding, instead of si>elling, in teaching to read. First, she proved that the i)npils had been tanght the rcq.iired nnmber of com})lete words by the word-method ; then she practised analysis of such words as rat, niari, and the like. Tiiis analysis was illustrated by placing three of the brightest little chaps in front of the class, charging one to sa}' m (the sound m, not the letter em) when called upon; the next one, a; and the third, 71. Then b}' placing thoin close to each other, so that their shoulders would touch, she made them sound the word man rapidlj'. The same was done with other words. Now she separated the boys, the middle one re- maining in his place, while the others receded toward the right and left; and every time they made a step, the word was pronounced over again, thus separat- ing the sounds farther and farther. After that was done, synthesis followed, and the two " end men " came back to their old position step by step, the three bo^s pronouncing the sounds as often as a step was made, the sounds being drawn long enough U) make them appear one word. Then other words wore treated in like manner. Now the toaciu'i' chaiigod the boys' positions, and 246 EDUCATIONAL TOI'ICS OF Tl/K DAY. asked each to i)ionouiK'C his sound. Of course, it was at once seen tliat that did not make the word man, or whatever word was before the class. Finally they assumed their former position, and once more the well-known words were pronounced. Then these words were found on the ehait, on the board, in print and script form ; and it was quite obvious that the class enjoyed the lesson hugely. Call this play, if you i)lease. If the children learn more by play than by joyless drudgery, I prefer play every time. I assure my readere it was visible to the naked eye, that there was every condition of success- ful tear;hing exhibited by teacher and pupil. IN BLACK ON WHITE. It is well known what an excellent schoolmaster James A. Garfield was. He possessed a skill in leading the students ud ubsunUtm, rarely surpassed by any living teacher. When he was president of Eiiam College, something was remarked about the slovenliness, carelessness, and general want of exacti- tude, of the students in copying or quoting authorities. He desired to test this, and his genius hit upon a most admirable way of doing it. He copied a ])assage from Virgil on a slip of paper ; out fifty more slips of the same size, and then handed one of the students his copy, and asked him to copy that for him quickly, to oblige him, because he had not time to do it himself. The student went to work, copied it hastily, and Garfield numbered this co[)y 1 in the corner. Then LITERATURE AND LANUUAlJE. 247 he pivo tliis copy, No. 1 , to a second student, and a^^ked him also to copy it. lie did this so unostenta- tiously that student No. 1 was not aware of it. Tlu; second copy was given into the hands of the third, the third into the hands of the fourth, the fourth copy into the hands of the fifth, until finally the forty- ninth copy was i)ut into the hands of the fiftieth student. The last ten or more hoys had a liroad smile on their faces while they eoi)ied the passage. The reason of this was well known to Garfield. When at last the fiftieth copy was handed to him (it may have taken a number of days, so as to accomplish this copying without revealing the intention), it looked more like Russian or Hebrew than Latin. It was literally incomprehensible. P^very one of the copyists had made new mistakes, until finally the last copy proved incontestably, to both students and faculty, the justness of the remark about the boys' shiftless- ness and inaccuracy. This occurrence was an eye- opener for the whole college. Shall we add a moral? Yes, fair reader, it is this: Try it yourself with plain English, and convince your own boys and girls to what inaccuracy leads. CHAPTER VIII. GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER VIII. GEOGRAPHY. A NEW DEPARTURE IN TEACHING GEOGRArUY. [A Paper reail hffore the National Educational Asso9laCion.] Permit me to depart from the customary metliod of procedure, by starting from the general, and going down to tl)e particular subject, by first directing atten- tion to th(! fact that in teaching young pupils we should invariably start from sense-perception ; from that, the next step to conception and idea is easily taken, — ne\er vice veisa. Show the child the partic- ular, the concrete thing; show him several similar facts, and offer an opportunity to abstract from them, to rise from the object to tiie idea. Every subject of instruction in the lower schools has a certain ele- mentary basis of sense-perception. The primary ideas resulting therefrom will be easily undeistood by the child, because by means of his five senses he can take them in, retain and assimilate them. If an}' thing be taught lacking this sound basis, — that is, any thing the elements of which cannot be perceived by the senses, — it has no business to be inchidcd iii the coiMse of study of the elemeulaiy schcM)ls ; it uould, in Fact, 252 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TllK DA V. be like the proverbial bladeless knife that had no handle. In a measure, this rule holds good in every braneli of study, even in the most abstract philosophy. A few simple examples can explain what is meant. (1) You may never see South America, yet you may obtain a tolerably accurate knowledge of the topog- raphy of that continent. And it is sense-perception by means of which you gain this knowledge. You know what is signified by such terms as elevations and depressions, peaks and ridges, valleys and heights, plateaus tnd plains, coasts and banks, capes and in- lets, rivers and lakes, bnys and harbors, islands and peninsulas, llanos and i)ampas ; they are names of things the like of which have come under your own personal observation. And with the aid of illustra- tions your imaginative power may be fed sufficiently to obtain a pretty accurate idea of South America. (2) The artist who modelled the Venus of Milo may not have seen the original in reality ; but his power of im- agination was so great, that, starting from what forms of beauty he had seen, he combined them, and thus created the graceful figure which to this day has re- mained the ideal of beauty. (3) No one ever saw the ideal, that is, the absolutely perfect human being, of whom we all have a more or less definite idea. His eye must have the keenness of an eagle's eye ; his forms must vie in beauty with those of Apollo Belve- dere ; his strength must be superhuman ; he must be accomplished in all the arts, be a Mozart in music, a Rai)hael in painting, a Demosthenes in elocution, etc. ; GEOGRAPUY. 253 ho must be a thinker far boyoiid an}' philosopher of ancient or nxuieru times ; iu point of morals he must be as unblemislied as the vi-ry stais above. Where is he to be found? Yet he exists in our im- agination ; and he is a creation, every part of which has its oiigin in reality. (4) Take history. You were not present at the downfall of the Roman republic ; yet from what is told you, and from what you have experienced yourself, you can form a vivid picture of the state of things at the time of Cj^sar. And your knowledge of the events that happened two thousand years ago in Komc will Ite the more vivid, the clearer your ideas are of the political instititions of your own country. Analoy and comparison are impossible when there is nothing in your mind with which to compare. Not having a standard measure, how will you measure a distance? Every iota of instruction, every idea, every rule, must be l)ased upon, or lead back to, perceptions pieviously gained ; and where these are wanting, they mu>t be supplied. This is a condition of rati(jnnl iiistiuction sine (jna non. In the special subject under discussion in this pajx'r, the question ajises : Have our pui)ils the necessary basis of sense-perception when they take up the study of geography, say in the third school-year? I think not ; and in the way in which geography is taught commonly, we do not even offer facilities for gaining sense-i)erception. Do not say, "Ay, l>ut we do; for we.start from the schoolroom, and gradually widen the 254 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. horizon of observation." Despite this assertion, I repeat : The method in vogue is faulty, inasnincii as it fails to establish, first of all, a sound basis of sense- perception. 'I'he average teacher begins to build before he knows upon what foundation he bniULs. To prove my assertion, I could bring* in evidence enough to convince even a jury composed of proverbial court- house rats. A few facts ma}^ suffice, however. Of ninety pui)ils in a grammar school iu Hamburg, only thirty-eight had seen the sun rise ; only eight had ever noticed the Milky Way. Out of a thousand chil- dren, when entering the public schools of Berlin, only six hundred and tliirty-eight had seen the evening red, only four hundred and sixty-two the setting sun. I am prepared to give man}' more instances of ignorance of common daily occurrences and facts, but my time is limited. Of five hundred and two children that en- tered the schools of Plauen, Saxony, last 3'ear, only ninety-two had seen the sun rise, and a hundred and fourteen had seen the sun set. You may be tempted to saj', " These frightful examples of ignorance were found in German}'. God be thanked, they cannot be found in enlightened America." This is but [)Oor consolation. I ckiim these cases have been systematic- ally enumerated in Germ.an}-, because there teaching is a profession, and people there are accustomed to treat educational questions with scientific thorough- ness ; while in this countr}', as Hon. Henry Barnard of Connecticut says, "The business of education is pursued with an utter lack of system, with complete, GEoauM'iiY. 255 iinsympathizing, independent. sc'lf-d('|)ond('nt isolation of effort." I am eonlident that our Aniciican cliiidri-n. if exauiinefl, would be found to exliil)it the same ile- l)loral>le want of iiifoiniat ion. Di'. Stanley liall has proven this satisfaetorily to all who are not prejudieed. My own experience, during twenty years in the school- rooms of this country, is in substance the same.- The greatest error, then, which prevails in the teach- ing of geography, is the lack of preliminary steps. In every other branch of study, even the most inferior teacher proceeds somewhat rationally : liut geography nsually begins, I am sorry to say, with the introduction of the text-book. Ritter. the father of modern geographical science, says, "The most natural method is the one which makes the child familiar with reality first, which lays a sound foundation of geographical knowledge gained through actual observation of that part of natine which suirounds the child. Here he is to letirn to see. Wlu'thor he lives in the city or in the hamlet, on the nioinilain or in the \alley, it is ceitainly not within the four walls, not from maps, and not from the text- book, l)ut in nature alone, that knowledge of nature will be gained l)y him. Nature ever remains the same ; she knows no typographical errors, no blunders in drawing, no want of discretion. Nature's tt-aching is always perfect. This elementary method combines all the rocpiireinents of science: it furnishes the stratum of concrete knowledge, from which abstract ideas arc; dniwn. Annd nature, the child learns to know the 256 EDUCATIONAL rOT'TCS OF THE DAY. country in all its viirioiis conditions, and learns to recognize it even on tiie Hat-sin-faced representation, — the map. If this genuine elementary instruction be given, all difliculties of subsequent iuhtruction in geography are removed." I know I am not saj-iug any thing new. Other peo- ple have spoken of the necessity of laying the founda- tion correctly, but what I desire to do is to show you how this can be done. During the summer, I fre- quently take my children into parks and out into the country. Let me describe one of these excursions. One morning we started out due east, which direction was fixed by the rising sun. We roamed about till we found the source of a brooklet. Here I began my lesson on watersheds, river-systems, etc. Here the children saw the very beginning of a water-course. They noticed the water trickling from beneath the roots of large trees, till it increased enough in bulk and force to run along in the form of a creek. Here they learned by actual observation what a watershed is, seeing one spring descend on the one side of a ridge, another on the opposite side. We then followed the brook, saw it grow deeper and wider b}' the influx of other springs. In following it, we sometimes cut across the fields where certain curves in its course would have prolonged the excursion unnecessarily. Every curve, hill, and valley was carefully sketched on a slate as we proceeded. AVhen we reached the end of the brook, we saw where it emptied into the tribu- tiiry of a larger river. Ascending a hill, we could see GEOGRAPHY. 257 the river meaiuler through the coiintr}', could sec that it was bridged over in the neigiihorhood of the city. And on tiiis excursion we uotieed iiiils, rocks, slopes, plateaus, woods, meadows, fields, plains, valleys, paths, high-roads, railroads, farmhouses, and settle- ments. The observations were all carefully noted down on our slates, and the names were repeated, and tlius fixed in the memory. The children U'arned to distinguisli the different kinds of grain, many knids of trees, certain minerals, Itirds, and insects; and thus we mingled a little natural iiistory witli our geograpiii- cal lesson. At home we had a review lesson, which proved incontrovertibly that this kind of instructiou is the most successful of all. We may call this an ideal lesson in geography. Circumstances, as they i)revail in our schools, make it next to imi)os8ible to follow this example. All tilings considered, h(j\vevei\ I dare say, if a teacher of a Third Reader grade would take her pujiils out of town, and take a position on the top of a iiill if there is any within reach, and then and there point out the different things to be seen, I am sure the children would learn more real geography in one half-hour than they could in a year from tlie printed i)nge. Some cities are fiivorably situalcd for such iiistructi\ c excursions ; and if the scIkkjI aulliorilies were askeil for permission, I believe they would not refuse it. If, however, tiiis ideal instruction in gcogr;i[)iiy be considered inipiactic;il)le, we might snlistitute some- thing in place of nature, something imitative of 258 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF Till-: DAV. nature, l)y which l(j form thiit piimary l»asis of sense- perception, without which instruction in geography will never have lasting results ; something better than the flat-surfaced representation, the map. We can make the hills and the valleys, the capes and the ridges, the plains and plateans, the water-courses and water-sheds, by procuring a large baker's pan of gal- vanized sheet-iron ; and with clay, sand, gravel, a few sticks and twigs, and water, we can mould mountains, hills, and show lakes, rivers, etc., and thus create a fancy representation which offers, in a measure, what nature itself offers. In this way, too, we can lay out a city or village, a whole state or continent, in the rough. In short, by way of imitation, we can establish all the primary ideas desirable for a thorough comprehension of the subsequent instruction in geog- rapiiy. We nnist dismiss from our mind the eironeous idea that we ma}' take for granted the existence of certain elemeutar}' ideas in our pupils. Kather pre- sume too little than too much. Again I state that I am saying nothing new. I only intend to lead up to a point which will be new. A large pan, such as I have described, ought to be furnished by the school authorities, to every Second and Third Reader grade. Then, when the preliminary steps to the study of geography have been taken, we may introduce such relief maps as arc now patented in tliis countrj\ They show elevations and depres- sions and water-courses in sui>orfieial projection. They are made of papier-inache, and are covered with GEOGRAI'IIV. 2.')9 slating or other cleansilile substances, adapted to receive obliterative marks made witii slate or lead pencil or cra\'on, and may be used as slates. These mi>i)s serve to l)ridge over the chasm lietweeu nature and the flat-surfaced representation, — the ordinary map. Let me submit to your earnest consideration these questions : Has not geograpliical knowledge, for ages, been wrested from overstocked maps? Had not the child to search painfully among a bewildering mass of data and facts, for those that were to be committed to memory? AVas not a systematic progress, step by step, impossible? Now, just as little as a teacher would give into the hands of a child a coin' of AVebster's Unabridged when he is to begin the study of reading, just as little can it be rational, in geog- raphy, to place before the child such a mai). We must grade the matter of instruction in geography, just as we grade the matter in reading, in arithmetic, and other branches. Relief maps of this kind would facilitate this grading, as well as present opportunities for the gradual upbuilding of a geograi)hical knowl- edge, as gained item by item by the child. They can be made as cheap as conunon in:ips. and will tiiererore meet tlu; f()ruiidal)le objcL-tiou of cost, raised against relief maps heretofore. I [ion tlu-se maps may l)e entered, as ui)on a slate, the data to be leained. And thus the child is made self-active: it learns l»v doiug. A\ Inn the lesson is completed, the marks :nul names i-nlfn-d ii[ioii it are carefullv 260 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. erased with moist sponge, and we are ready for a new or for a review lesson. And now we ascend to the liigher grades, the Fonrth or Fifth Reader classes. Tims far, 1 understand, few teachers, if any, use a text-book in teaching geogra- phy. From this grade upward, the text-book is used everywhere. I am not in sympathy with this. 1 can- not recommend any text-book that contains more tiian maps and illustrations. It should contain no text ; should, in fact, be no text-book, but an atlas pure and simple. Why? I shall state farther on. And as to the wall-maps, I have my serious doubts as to their usefulness in their present condition. A wall- map to be used in the Fourth or Fifth Reader grade should have recorded upon it nothing but what belongs by right to a picture or representation of nature ; and therefore it should contain no lettering, no names. Permit me to present to your consider- ation a map which I made for my own children. I procured a portable blackboard, drew the map by means of the pentagraph, and colored the water- courses pale blue. In order to make it less destructi- ble, I gave it a waterproof, cleansible surface. Let me show you how the map may be used. It contains, as you will notice, only the outlines of the continent, exhibiting terra finna in black ; oceans, lakes, and water-courses in blue ; and no name whatever. The teacher, pointer and colored crayon in hand, pointing to the sources of two rivers that run in almost opposite directions, draws out by a few leading GEOGltAPIIV. 201 questions, that hore must be a wutor-slicd. CliilWri'U who liavt' Itecn tauulit as I indicated at the beg"iiiiiin<^" of iny discourse are able to thus reason from effect back to cause. Knowing that water seeks its KncI. they will, with great decision and accuracy, lix upon the map all impoitant water-sheds of the country. These are marked with era3'ou by the teacher himself, or by pu|)ils under his direetiou. By degrees, the map is stocked with all the elevations to be learned. This takes very little time, and has the great advan- tage of concentrating the pupils' attention. Every name thus learned, both of mountains and rivers, is written on the board : the name of the main river in the middle ; below it, on the left, its left tril)utaries ; on the I'ight, its right tribntaries. These names are left on the board a few days. They are spelled and copied. The names of elevations thus learned are grouped and treated likewise. The coast-line, islands, capes, inlets, peninsulas, etc., are pointed out, marked with crayon, and named. Thus crayon and pointer are ever kept busy in bringing out new points. The coast line and general conliguration of the continent may I)e taken for one lessen, the rivers for another, and so on. After the lesson is over, all marks are erased ; and now the pupils are called upon to mark points themselves and thus learn ])y doing. Thus we may supi)ose toi)ographical facts of the most vital im|)ortance to have been learned. In a subsequent lesson, a little grecu-ciayon dust, laid on with the nnger-ti[), may indicate fertili' valleys ; white 2()2 EDUCArioxAL TOP res of the day. dots or lines, snow-covered nionntiiin ranges or peaks; various depths of tiie sea, and other tilings, may be marked, and the topography is disposed of. Now political boundaries are mai'ked. So, for instance, a State is " cut out " by white or colored crayon ; canals and trunk-roads are entered upon the map; and I need not say that the location of cities forms a most valuable and entertaining lesson. The fact that whatever geographical data are spread upon the map may be easily and safely removed without the least injur}' to body or surface of the map, gives an opportunity for the pupils to be self- active; and these "practice maps" are therefoi-e a most welcome medium of instruction. The}' are also distinguished from others now in use, by containing uo lettering, and therefore present a more perfect image of the country portrayed. The names on the map used by children are like ponies and keys in arithmetic, and only disfigure the map, and coufuse the mental picture. These " practice maps " do not displace the ordinary printed maps, so long as our teachers are not omniscient. When the pupils have thus learned geograph}- by degrees, it is well to permit them to consult liberally stocked maps. Primer and reading charts naturally i)recede the dictionary and complete works of authors. To give due honor to truth, we all labor more or less under the delusion that a map is good when it contains ?u»c/i; that it js poor when it contains little. In the common sense of the term, the word " good" is GEOGRAPHY. 263 not misapplied. The map of ji military leader must contain ever}' turnpike, path, iianiK-t, brook, ciiH'k, bridge, marsb, grove, hill, ete., if il is to be a good map. A commercial map, if it come up to the mer- chant's iaid small C(jmplimi'nt to you by repeating it. But I do it to l)(>int out the utter ahsurdity of learning geogi;i[)hY from the piinted text. Here are a few tidhits of information as found in some geographies : — " Zenith and Nadir are two Araltic words impart- ing their own signification. " (IIow lucid I) ''Land is either level or diversified by elevations or depres- sions." (IIow wonderfully clear to children this must be!) '^' Commerce consists in the exchange of com- modities " (Is it possible?) " North ^Vmerica, lying- in three zones, and traversed by lofty mountain ranges, is marked by astounding varieties of climate aiid pro- ductions." (Will not this cause mental dyspepsia?) " Extensive forests of deciduous trees cover this sec- lion." "■ Indian mounds of an unknown antiquity are found in Georgia." Verily, we cannot tliaidv kind Piovidence enough for having gifted the hmnan mem- ory with the happy faculty of throwing otf what has not gone through the mill of reason and nndt-rstand- ing. What a frightful waste of eneigy is tliere in schools where such ini[ialatable and indigestilile mat- ter is set Ijcfore the pupils who are told to " studv " their geography lesson ! I cannot refrain I'lom ipioting CJoethe ; the tempta- 26G EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. tion is too great. We find in " Goetz von Berlich- iiigcii " the following- CfJiivcrsatioii. Goetz, Lord of Jaxthausen, retiuiis home, and meets his son Carl. Carl.' " Good-morning, father! " Goetz (kisses him). "Good-morning, boy I IIow have you all spent your time? " Carl. "Well, good father. AuutLe says I was right good." Goetz. "Indeed?" Carl. " I have learned a great deal." Goetz. "Indeed?" Carl. " Shall I tell j^ou the story of the good boy?" Goetz. " After dinner ; not now." Caii. " I know something else." Goetz. " What may that be? " Carl. "Jaxthausen is the name of a village and castle on the river Jast, belonging to the Lords of Ber- lichingeu for the last two hundred years." Goetz. " Do yon know the Lord of Berliehingeu?" (Carl looks at him in mute astonishment.) Goetz (aside). "The boy has become so learned, that he does uot know his owu father." (To the boy.) " To whom does Jaxthausen belong? " Carl (reciting). "Jaxthausen is the name of a village and castle on the river Jaxt " — Goetz. "I did not ask for that." (Aside.) "I knew all the paths, roads, and fords, before I knew the name of river, castle, and village." Now I do not mean to accuse the teachers of to-day GEoauAPiiv. 2G7 of teaching with such rcsiiUs as Goetho hero describes it to have been done in the Middle Ages, lint I nu'an to state, tliat we are constantly sul)jected t south tiicy liad the Ohio River as a boundary, beeause south of tliat the States of \'irginia and Kentueky were situated. On the north Lake Erie was a natural bound- 270 EDUCATIONAL TOI'ICS OF THE DAY. ary. All that i-(Mnaiiic(l to be settled was a western 1X11(1 partly also a northern bonndary. Now. that partial bonndary ^Yas found by drawing a straight line from the most western extremity of Lake Erie to the most southern extremity of Lake Michigan [see the above cut]. The western boundary was found by starting at the Ohio River near the mouth of the Bis: Miami River and going northward on a line with the meridian until the line was struck which was drawn between the two lakes, Erie and ^Michigan. Thus the boundaiy of Oliio was settled, and the people were satisfied. " When, fourteen 3^ears later, in 181G, the Territory of Indiana expressed the desire to be admitted into the Union as a State, Congress complied with the request, suggesting that the surveyed line between the two lakes — namely, between the two extremities of the two lakes — be taken for the northern boundary, and that from the point of the most southern extension of Lake Michigan a line be drawn on a line with the meridian until the Wabash River was reached. [These lines will be found in the above cut as represented by solid black lines.] But the people then residing in the Territory clamored for a more equitable adjustment of the boundary of the new State. 'For,' said they, ' the lines suggested defraud us entirely of lake-front.' This w^as a well-founded objection ; and therefore the northern Ijoundar}' was extended somewhat toward the north, and the western somewhat toward the west. [Indicated in the above cut by dotted lines.] This CEOdllAPJIV. 271 gave llie State of Indiana a siillicu-nt streteh of lake- front ; and the present town, Miehigan City, situated there, proves the wisdom of the step taken by the boundary commission. '• When, some years afterward, the Territory of Illinois was to be admitted into the Union, the old originally surveyed line between the two lakes, it was suggested, should be extended to the Mississipi)i Kivcr, and thus the northern boundary of Illinois settled. This met with the same objection mentioned above. The i)eoi)le of Illinois claimed a portion of lake-front: therefore the northern l)Oundary of Illinois was estab- lished considerably north of the original line." John. — "That sounds reasonable; but wh}' should the so-called Su|)eri()r peninsula [see cut, the shaded portion of land] Itelong to the State of Michigan? It seems as if by rights it should l)elong to Wisconsin." Ansiver. — "Well, my bo}', tlii'rel)y hangs another tale. In the year 183;"), the State of Ohio and the Territory of IMichigan had quite a heated dispute over certain Iwundary questions. A strip of laud was claimed by both. Roth governors called out the militia, and war was declared between the two 'great powers : ' but it did not come to any l)lo\vs. Congress mediated, and settled the dis|)ute by offering Michigan the peninsula south of Lake Superior, and promising the Territory aduiission into the Union as a Slate. The government of the Territory accepted IIk' terms, and relincpiished its elnini upon Ohio. 'Hiis riiliculous S(piabble nunlc a great J'urure at the time, liut is now 272 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. forgotten, as every other sqiial)l)le will be forgotten. The histories do not speak of it, since history is a narration of memoral)le events ; and, no menioraljle event having happened in connection with this occnr- rence, history has had nothing to record. Yet withal Michigan owns that peninsula, my bo}', and don't you forget it." II. John. — "Here is another odd corner, professor. AVhat is the object of this triangle? " (pointing towaid the triangle belonging to the State of Pennsylvania, bordering on Lake Erie, on which the city of Erie is situated.) Ansiver. — "Well, my boy, there is but little of a GEonnAPHY. 273 tale connected with that. "When the original Colonics, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Caro- lina, and so on. settled their honndaries, tliey took certain parallels for honndary-lines. It so happened that the northern l)Oinidary of Pennsylvania reached Lake Erie at the same point where now its western bonndai-y reaches it. This de[irived Peinisylvania entirely of lake-front ; and in order to acqnire some, it was obliged to pnrchase from the Colon}' of New York, afterward State of New York, tliat strip of land known as the Pennsylvania triangle. It was of great importance to the State that it should have lake- front ; for at the time, when there were no railroads, navigation on the lakes, rivers, and canals was of greater importance than it is now, although at present navigation may be greater than it nsed to be. "Wliat Pennsylvania paid for the strip of land, is immaterial." John. — ''But there is another oddity about the boundaries of Pennsylvania. I notice that there is between Delaware and Penns3lvania a perfect arc. Is not tliat rather an arbitrary way of establishing a Ijoundary ? Aityiver. — '.' Yes, I tliink it is, and 'arl)itrary ' is the pr()i)er term in this case ; for, when a dispute arose al)(jut the establishment of that boundary (the survey- ors at that time were not of the highest type of civil engineers, and had very rude instruments), some one api)lie(l a cumi)ass on the )nap, setting one foot of it at a certain i)n)jt'cti()n on the banks of the Delaware Iliver, and described a perfect arc. This arbitrary 274 EnUCAllONAL TOPICS OF THE DylY line happened to be such a happy compromise, which divided all claims equally, that it was immediately adopted by tlie contesting parties. " And now, my boy, look at Alabama. Why should Florida claim so much coast which apparently belongs to Alabama? And why, again, should it deprive Georgia entirely of an approach to the Gulf of Mexico? There is a question for you to settle. You can easily answer it by consulting the history that refers to the acquisition of Florida by the Unitea States. Do it, and report to-morrow." III. John. — "I discovered a curious ' freak of nature,' professor, if so I may be permitted to call it. It is a ' horn ' on the northern boundary of the United States, which seems so out of place, that I cannot account for it. It appears, the boundary crosses one section of GEOGRAPHY. 275 the Lake of llie "Woods, and encloses a triangular peninsula, and tlien goes soutliwaici till it reaches the foity-uinth parallel, along whieh it proceeds till it touches the Pacidc. I ain strongly tempted to ask, ' why is this thusly? ' " Answer. — "Well, my boy, ever}- historical event leaves its traces behind. It is in history very much as it is in nature, and cause and eflPect are ever noticeable. I will deviate a little, and give you an illustration from the Darwinian theory. You know that during the last century the coats of soldiers were worn in a fashion which required two l)uttons in the back of the coat. The front of the skirt was folded back, and fastened by two buttons. You will recollect having seen a picture of Frederick the Great, or of Washington, in their uniforms ; and there you will have noticed the fashion referred to. In our time, that fashion has disappeared, and the skirt of the frock-coat is per- mitted to fall. The buttons still remain, for no prac- tical use that we can see. They are a remnant of a former fashion, just as the small how which we fasten U) our shirt-collar by a hook is the remnant of a cravat which used to be several yards long, and was wound around I he neck ever so often. '* Now, this horn on our northern boundary is also a remnant, or, let me saj'. a witness, of certain historical events of interest to us as Americans. Let me first say, that liic soiuccs of the Mississippi Kivci- wcie not known at tlic time wiien the IMississi|)pi was made tiie l)oundary between the great French [)ossessio:j, called 276 EDUCATIONAL TOI'ICS OF THE DAT. Louisiana, and our original thirteen States: perhaps it was supposed to rise from the Lake of tlie Woods. It was settled l)y the boundary commission, convened in Paris, that the boundary between Louisiana and the United States should be the Mississippi Kiver ; and the line should be followed till it reached a point 49° 40' ; that is, forty-nine degrees and forty minutes north latitude. It is interesting to hear why tlie forty- ninth degree of latitude was chosen ; namely, because it IS the latitude of Paris. Now, if you will please notice, my boy, this horn is exactly forty minutes of a degree in length. That forty minutes has never been called in question. " But another thing greatly agitated the minds of the citizens of the United States during Polk's admin- istration. It was the boundary lietween the laud west of the Rocky Mountains, and British America, The United States had claimed some territory north of this line, as far as Alaska, latitude 54° 40' ; and Great Britain had claimed the territory south of this line to the Columbia River. A large party in the United States preferred war with Great Britain" to giving up the American claim. They demanded ' Fifty-four forty, or fight.' But by a treaty both Great Britain and the United States gave up part of their claims, and took a middle line as the l)oundary." "A verj' alliterative battle-cr}', to be sure," says John. "You know 3'ourself what parallel was finally agreed upon as a compromise. But the curious thing that I GEOGUAPIIY. 211 call 3'our attention to is, that the triangular part out off by the horn rofcrrod to is not a|)i)roachal)h' from the L'niteil States, except hy water. [Con.swlt tiie foregoing cut.] " Now, Johi:, just look back into history. Think of the dark days at the time of the birth of our I'nion. See the sturdy, honest, enthusiastic lien Franklin, in his simi)le Quaker garments, at the sumptuous court of Louis XVI. in the ga}' city of Paris, fighting with the tenacity of a true Yankee for his own country and for as much territory as could be wrested from England Spain, and France. 'IMial little notch in tiie Canadian boundary is a memento of a nol)le time, full of piom- ise ; of great men full of noble virtues. It is a relic of 1783." IV. John. — " Is there a tale connected with the notch in the boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee, professor? It seems odd that the straight line from the coast to the Tennessee River, some seven hundred miles in length, should not have been continued till it reached the Mississippi River." Ansiver. — "Well, my boy, this notch, a? j'ou call it, certainl}' tioubles all common ideiis of the eternal fitness of things. IJut tliere is no exciting talc con- nected with it, unless an example of wise, not to say shrewd, statesmanship may excite our curiosity. Tiie line between Kentucky and Tennessee is not at all a straight line, not even from the ('iiinlxM'lanil .Aloiui- taiiis to tile Tennessee Iviver, init is very iiieguhir, 278 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF Till': DA V. varying between 3G° 31' 25" and 3G° 40' 4o" ; thouoh our school geographies and maps represent tliat line as being so beautifnlly straight, that it might make a mathematician's heart glad. I searched a long time for the cause of the irregularity referred to, until, by GEOaUAl'UY. 270 the rare kindness of a fik'nd in Tennessee, I was i)ut in possession of facts which exi)Uun it. '' Capt. U. C. Garrett of Nashville published a pam- phlet, some years ago, entitled ' The Northern Honnd- ary of Tennessee,' from which I glean the following essential points : — " 'The territory now occupied by the two States — Kentucky and Tennessee — was formerly part of the States of Virginia and Noith Carolina. Kentucky is the daughter of Virginia, Tennessee the daughter of North Carolina. It is not necessary to refer back to the colonial history, and see how the dividing line was shifted repeatedly. Suffice it to say, that it had been finally fixed at thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude, as early as the year 1728. After three hundred and twenty-nine mili's of this boundary (begin- ning at the coast of the Atlantic) had been surveyed from time to time, and marked, no other step was taken in the location of the boundary until after the beginning of the Revolution. I quote Capt. Garrett : — "■'In 1779, urged b}' pressing demands from their Western settlers, the legislatures of the two States (Virginia and North Carolina) found time, in the midst of the Revolutionary struggle, to appoint a commission to extend their boundary. The commis- sioners, Henderson and \V. 15. Smith on the part of North Carolina, and Walker and Daniel Smith on tiie part of Virginia, met in September, 1771). They failed to find the point at which a former commission endetl their line on Steep Rock Creek. ^Memoranda 280 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. of agreement were entered on the books of botli parties to the effect that the pouit of observation was in north latitude 30° ol' 2')", and in west longi- tude 81° 12". They ran due south one mile to a point supposed to be in latitude 3G° 30', " to the satisfaction of all." " ' From this point they ran a line, which they supposed to be due west, about forty-five miles to Carter's Valley. Here a disagreement occurred, and the two surveying parties separated, running parallel lines about two miles apart ; the line of the Carolina commissioners, generally known as Henderson' s Line, being north of the line of the Virginia commissioners, commonly called Walker's Line. The Carolina com- missioners continued their line as far as Cumberland Mountains. At this point, they abandoned the work, after sending a letter of protest against Walker's Line. The Virginia commissioners continued to Tennessee River, and then, although not authorized to extend the line beyond Tennessee River, proceeded to mark its termination on the Mississippi ; but did not survey the intervening distance. " ' Li consequence of the failure to make clue allow- ance for the variation of the needle. Walker's Line de- flected continuously to the north. Either on account of the imperfection of their astronomical instruments, or from a failure to test their work by a sufficient num- ber of astronomical o])servations, the commissioners seemed not to detect, or at least did not correct, this constant northward deflection. Walker's Line first GEOGRAPHY. 281 touched Tennessee near hititiule 3G° 34'. and readied Tennessee River near latitude 3G° 40', more than twelve miles too f(ir vorth in a direct line, or about seventeen milea by ivay of the river. This fact has been established b}' subse(iuent surveys with more accurate instruments. Henderson's Line, running two miles north of "Walker's Line, was still further wrong.' " The line reall}-^ varies from the coast to Tennessee River, between latitude 3G° 29' 54" and 36° 40' 4o", a difference of about eleven minutes. Of course, wlien subsequently the two States (Kentuck}' and Tennessee) were obliged to adjust the annoying disputes arising from these irregularities, it was (uially agreed upon to accept "Walker's Line as far as Tennessee River, and from there to the Mississippi locate the boundary upon the latitude 3G" 30'. This caused the " notch." The agreement was arrived at onlj' after several years of bickering and contention between the two States. The many changes from the true line 30° 30' can be accurately seen on the latest map of the General Land Oflice. But even this map fails to give location to the V-shaped notch marked in the foregoing sketch- map. I am unable to account for it, nor does Capt. Garrett mention it. This little, and perhaps, for all practical purposes of school education, insignilicant trifle, is not the only one found on the map. INIassa- chusetts shows a siuiilai- oddity in its southern line. The mention of this may, perlKi[)s, induce some one 282 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. of the readers of this article to give :i reason for the notch, or ''show cause why the line sIkjuKI not be straijiht. ' ' PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS. This subject needs an introductory lesson. The following suggestions have been found very service- able. Clear the board. Make a large parallelogram. • Then make a dot within the figure, it is ininiateiial where. Ask the class to locate the dot. The answer will come, "It is difficult to tell.*' Some one will venture to say, " It is a little toward the right-hand upper corner," which is too indefinite a statement. Then make a number of i)arallel vertical lines which divide the figure into strips, and number the lines, beginning with 1 . Again make a / jjy Vfe 7 1 0'o> ni>i fiot in one of the strips, and ask to locate it. This time the pu[)il will say, " It is between lines 9 and 10." Then cross the vertical by a number of horizontal lines. Number them also. Now it is easy to locate the dot. It will be found to be between the lines 9 and 10, and between the horizontal lines 3 and 4. Make a number of other dots, squares, stars, rings, and triangles, within the figure thus prepared, and let them GEOGIiAPl/y. 288 all I>e lofntccl. Now iiitt'iriii)t tlu' K'sson to \ve(l;j;c in a little necessary language and spelling. The woids horizontal^ jierponfh'cKhtr^ vertiaiL and parallel should be placed on the board, underneath each other. Then their definitions and de- rivations are given : hor- izontal, from horizon; perpendicular, from j)e>id, to hang (dei)end, to be suspended) ; ver- tical, from vertex, the Itighest point, the top. The best illustration to make the words horizon and horizontal clear, I have found in this : — Picture a plate, say a butter-dish, with a globe over it. Say, suppose a fly to sit in the middle of that dish. His vision will be bounded b^- the line where 'the glol>e touches the edge of the i)late. See geogra[»hy : " The horizon is the line where the sky seenjs to touch the earth." The perpendicular can he illustiatCKl by the pendulum of the clock in the schoolroom. Now erase your figtne, draw a circle, and put a line from pole to \)o\e and the e